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CHAMBERS'S 



ENCYCLOPEDIA 



A DICTIONARY 



OF 



UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE 



NEW EDITION 



VOL. IX 



ROUND TO SWANSEA 




WILLIAM & ROBERT CHAMBERS, LIMITED 
LONDON AND EDINBURGH 

J. U. LI1T1NCOTT COMPANY, PHILADELPHIA 
1902 

AU Rv/hts n- nerved 



Tin- following Artic-K-s in this Voluiiu-. rijrinally < '..|iyri^liti-il in l-'.ij. :<- nou r-vi-I 
:ir.- ''opyriirliliMl l>y .1. R LllM-lNCOTT COMPANY, in 1H!7 and Hum. in tin- 



SlIKKlIiAN. I*. II. 
SlIKKM AN 
SlIM'liril.IUNO. 

BILK, 

SlI.VKK 

BLANO. 

SOIIA. 

Soi TII CAIIOI.INA. 

SPAIN. 

Sl'IRITI AI.ISM. 

BCOAE. 

SlMNKIl. 



Ki --i \ 

ST I,M is ( Missouri). 
ST I'M i i M mru-sola). 
>\s FRAXI-ISI-O 

SCANHIN AVIAN M VTIIIH.OtiY. 

SCOTT. Sin \VAI.TKII. 

S Y \\ \'.t. 

SKWARH. \V. II. 

BKWIHO-MACHim 

Sll \KKIl 

SlIAKKSI'KAItK. 

SlIKI.I.KV 



IK(T, 



Among the more important articles in this Volume are the following: 



ROUND TOWERS 

ROUSSEAU v 

ROWING 

RUBENS 

RUGBY 

RUNES 

RUSSIA 

SACRIFICE 

ST ANDREWS 

SAINTE-BEUVE 

ST Louis 

SAINT-SIMON, Due DE- 
SALISBURY 

SALISBURY, LORD. 

SALMON 

SALT; SILVER; SODA.. 

SALVATION ARMY 

SAMOA 

SAND, GEORGE. 

SAN FRANCISCO 

SANSKRIT 

SAVINGS-BANKS 

SCAND. MYTHOLOGY.... 

SCARLATINA 

SCHILLER 

SCHLEIERMACHER 

SCHNITZER (Kmlii Pub*) 

SCHOLASTICISM 

SCHOOL INSPECTORS.... 

SCHOPENHAUER 

SCHUBERT 

SCHUMANN 

SCOTLAND ( History ). . . . 

,i (Language). 

ii (Literature) 

SCOTT, GENERAL 

SCOTT, SIR WALTER 

SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHY. 

SCULPTURE 

SCULPTURED STONES.... 

SEA; SOUNDING 

SEAL; SOLE. 

SEA-SERPENT 

SEAWEEDS. 

SECULARISM 

SEVIGNE, MME. D 

SEWAGE 

SEWARD 

SEWING-MACHINE. 

SEX 

SHAKERS 

SHAKESPEARE 

SHEKP 

SHEFFIELD 

SHELLEY 

SHERIDAN, R. B 

SHERMAN ; SHERIDAN. 
SHIELDS, N. AND s.. 

SHIPBUILDING 

SHORTHAND 

SIAM 

SIBERIA 

SICILY 

SIDDONS, MBS.... 



Dr JOSEPH ANDERSON. 
Rev. B. O. GRAHAM. 

W. R WoODOATK. 

J. M. GRAY. 

HENRY LEE WARNER. 
Canon ISAAC TAYLOR. 
Prince KROPOTKINR. 
Rev. JAMES STRACHAN. 
D. HAY FLEMING. 
P. HUME BROWN, LL.D. 
C. a YOST. 
THOMAS DAVIDSON. 
A. R MALDEN. 
FREDERICK GREENWOOD. 
ARCHIBALD YOUNO. 
A. GALLETLY. 

B RAM WELL BOOTH. 
0. P. LUCAS. 

Professor SAINTSRUBY. 

Dr W. C. BARTLETT. 

Professor BOOELINO. 

URQUHART A. FORBES. 

Professor RASMUS ANDE 

Dr LCNDIE. 

J. T. BEAUT. 

Professor PFLEIDERER. 

Dr R. W. FELKIS. 

P. HUME BROWN, LI.. P. 

JOHN KERR, LI..I)., H.M.I.a 

Professor WILLIAM CALDWEU. 

HARRY WHITEHEAD. 

FRANKLIN PETERSON. 

Professor GEORGE GRUB. 

Iir J. A. 11. HURRAY. 

P. HUME BROWN, LL.D. 

Professor J. P LAMBERTOX. 

ANDREW LANO. 

Professor SETH. 

CHARLES WHIBLEY. 

Dr JOSEPH ANDKRBOH. 

Dr JOHN MURRAY. 

J. T. CUNNINGHAM. 

Dr ANDREW WILSON. 

R, J. HARVEY GIBSOX. 

G. J. HOLYOAKK, 

THOMAS DAVIDSON. 

BALDWIN LATHAM, M.InstO.B. 

Professor W. HAMILTON KIRK. 

Mrs CARRIE B. KILOORE. 

Professor J. ARTHUR THOMSON. 

Mrs CARRIE B. K I LOO RE, 

Professor DOWDEN. 

JAMES MACTJONALD 

Rev. ALFRED GATTY, D.D. 

Professor DOWDEN. 

Mrs OLIPHANT. 

General GRANT WILSON. 

W. W. TOMLINSON. 

DAVID POLLOCK. 

Sir ISAAC PITMAN. 

J. 8. BLACK, H.RM. Legation. 

Prince KROPOTKINE. 

W. DUNDAS WALKER. 

R W. LOWE. 



SIDNEY, SIR PHILIP..... 

SIEGE 

SIGNALLING 

SILK 

SILURIAN SYSTEM 

SIMON MAGUS 

SISTERHOODS 

SKATING 

SKULL 

SLANG 

SLAVS 

SLEEP; SOMNAMBULISM 

SLOYD 

SMITH, ADAM. 

SMOKE 



SNAIL; SLUG 

SNAKES; SPIDERS 

SNOW 

SOAP 

SOCIALISM 

SOCRATES; SOPHISTS... 

SOILS 

SOLICITOR 

SOLON 

SOMERSETSHIRE 

SONNET 

SOPHOCLES 

SOUND; SPECTRUM 

SOUTHAMPTON 

SOUTH AUSTRALIA 

SOUTH CAROLINA 

SOUTH EY 

SPAIN 

ii (Lang, and Lit.). 

SPENCER, HERBERT 

SPENSER, EDMUND 

SPINAL CORD 

SPINNING 

SPINOZA 

SPIRITUALISM 

SQUIRREL 

STAEL, MME. DE 

STANLEY, DEAN 

STANLEY, H. M 

STATE RELIGION 

STATUTES 

STEAM-ENGINE. 

STEAM-HAMMER 

STEEL 

STEELE, SIR RICHARD . 

STERNE, LAURENCE 

STOCK- EXCHANGE. 

STORMS 

STRAFFORD 

STRATFORD DE REDCL. 

STRAWBERRY 

SUGAR 

SUICIDE 

SUMATRA 

SUMNER 

SUN; STARS 

SUNDAY-SCHOOLS. 

SURGERY... 



F. T. PALORAVE. 

Lieut-Col. H. D. R DUNLOP. 

JAMES BOI.AM. 

Sir THOMAS WARDLE, F.0.8. 

Professor JAMES GEIKIE. 

Rev. J. SUTHERLAND BLACK, LL.D. 

MARIA TRENCH. 

T. MAXWELL WITHAM. 

Dr DAVID HEPBURS. 

CHARLES GODFREY LELAND. 

W. R MORFILL. 

Dr A. W. MACFARLANE. 

JOHN STRUTHERS. 

JOHN HILL BURTON. 

ROBERT IRVINE. 

DAVID HERBERT. 

T. D. A. COCKERELL. 

Professor J. ARTHUR THOMSON. 

R T. OMOND. 

JOHN MACARTHUR. 

THOMAS KIRKUP. 

Professor D. G. RiTCHrm. 

JOHN HUNTER, F.C.8. 

FRANCIS WATT. 

ROBERT P. DAVIDSON. 

F. N. WORTH. 

THEODORE WATTS-DUNTOK. 

Professor LEWIS CAMPBELL. 

Professor KNOTT. 

Captain S. C. N. GRANT, R.B. 

JAMES BONWICK. 

Professor N. B. WEBSTER, 

F. HINDES GROOME. 

Rev. WENTWORTH WEBSTER, 

H. BUTLER-CLARKE. 

Professor SORLEY. 

Professor HALES. 

Dr ALEXANDER BRUCE. 

JAMES PATON. 

EMANUEL DEUTSCH. 

ALFRED RUSBEL WALLACE. 

W. E. HOYI.K. 

THOMAS DAVIDSON. 

Professor STORY. 

JOHN S. KELTIE, F.R.G.& 

Canon CCRTEIS. 

Sir PETER BENSON MAXWELL. 

Professor A B. W. KENNEDY, F.R& 

Pmfessor T. H. BEARE. 

W MATTIEU WILLIAMS. 

AUSTIN DORSON. 

H. D. TRAILL, D.C.L. 

R MABBON, of the Statist. 

Dr BUCHAN. 

F. HINDES GROOME. 

STANLEY LANE-POOLK. 

R. D. BLACKMORE. 

THOMAS BAYLEY. 

Dr CLOUSTON. 

H. A WEBSTER, 

JOHN FOSTER KIRK, LL.D. 

Rev. E. B. KIRK. 

ROBERT COCHRANE. 

Dr J. P. STEELE. 



The Publishers beg to tender their thankn, for revising articles, to the Principal of St Bees, the Rector of 
Stonyhurst, the Superiors of the two orders of Christian Brothers in Ireland, the Head-masters of St Paul's, 
Shrewsbury, and Sberborne Schools, and the town-clerks of Scarborough, Southport, Stafford, Stirling, Stockport, 
Swansea, Ac. ; to the Factor of St Kilda ; to the Secretary of the Sunday -school Union ; to Mr RICHARD SAVAGE, 
for revising Stratford-on-Avon ; ' to Mr E. T. COOK, for revising 'Ruskin;' to Mr R. R HALDANE, M.P., for 
revising ' Adam Smith ; ' and to Mr HERBERT SPENCER, for revising the exposition of his philosophy. 




CHAMBERS'S 

ENCYCLOPAEDIA 



A DICTIONARY OF UNIVERSAL KNOWLEDGE 




Hind, in Music, a short vocal 
composition, similar to the 
catch, and like it, peculiar to 
England. It is in tne form of 
an infinite Canon (q.v.) at the 
unison or octave, each part in 
succession taking up the subject 
at a regular rhythmic interval, 
and returning from the conclu- 
sion to the commencement, and so on, ad libitum, 
till an agreed-on pause. The most ancient speci- 
men now extant of vocal composition in polyphony 
is the famous Rota or Round, 'Sinner is icumen 
in,' of the 13th century. Well-known roundelays 
are ' The Great Bells of Osney,' ' Row the Boat, 
Whittington,' Aldrich's ' Hark the Bonny Christ- 
church Bells,' or the well-known 'Three Blind 
Mice. ' See Metcalfe's Round*, Canons, and Catches 
of England, with introduction by Rimbault. 

Round Churches. Bee ROMANESQUE AR- 
CHITECTURE. There are four surviving circular 
churches in England, the Temple Church in Lon- 
don (see TEMPLARS), the church of the Holy 
Sepulchre in Cambridge (q.v.), one of the same 
name in Northampton (q.v.), and one at Little 
Maplentead in Essex. 

Roundhead*, the nickname given by the 
!uilnTt.Mits of Charles I. during the Great Rebellion 
to the Puritans, or friends of the parliament, who, 
with Prynne, denounced the ' unloveliness of love- 
locks,' and were understood to distinguish them- 
selves by having their hair cut close, while the 
Cavaliers wore theirs in long ringlets. According 
to Clarendon and Rush worth the term was first 
publicly used in December 1641 by a Captain 
David Hine, who, drawing his sword, swore he 
would 'cut the throats of those round-headed, 
oro[i]i'd-eared dogs that bawled against the bishops.' 

Round-robin (Fr. rand, 'round,' and ri*in. 
'riblmn'), a name given to a protest or remon- 
strance signed by a number of persons in a circular 
form, so that no one shall be obliged to head the 
417 



list. It is said to have originated in a usage of the 
French officers. The most memorable round-robin 
in literary history is that sent by Burke, Gibbon, 
Sir Joshua Reynolds, Joseph Warton, and others 
to Dr Johnson, requesting him to amend the 
epitaph for Goldsmith's monument, and suggesting 
that it should l>e written in English, not Latin. 
Johnson took it kindly, but told Sir Joshua, who 
carried it to him, that he would ' never consent to 
disgrace the walls of Westminster Abbey with an 
English inscription.' 

Round Table. See ARTHUR, and ROMANCES. 
By the Round Table Conference is meant an in- 
effectual series of meetings begun in January 1887, 
for the purpose of arranging terms for a reunion 
of the Gladstonian or Home Rule section of the 
Liberal party and the Liberal Unionists, the 
members being Lord Herschell, Mr Morley, Mr 
Chamberlain, Sir W. V. Harcourt, and Sir George 
Trevelyan. 

Round Towers. Tall narrow circular towers 
tapering gradually from the base to the summit, 
found abundantly in Ireland, and occasionally in 
Scotland, are among the earliest and most remark- 
able relics of the ecclesiastical architecture of the 
British Islands. They have long been the subject 
of conjecture and speculation, but there can be 
now no doubt that they are the work of Christian 
architects, and built for religious purposes. They 
seem to have been in all cases attached to the 
immediate neighbourhood of a church or monastery, 
and, like other early church-towers, they were 
capable of l*ing used as strongholds, into which, 
in times of danger, the ecclesiastics could retreat 
with their valuables. In the Irish records, for two 
centuries after 950 A.D., they are invariably called 
Cloictheach or bell-towers, and are often mentioned 
as special objects of attack by the Northmen. 
About 118 towers of this description are yet to be 
seen in Ireland, twenty of which are entire or 
nearly so ; and Scotland possesses three similar 
towers at Brechin, Abernethy, and Eglishay in 



ROUND TO\Vl.i;s, 



Orkney. They are usually capped by a conical 
roof, anil divided into stories, sometimes by \ct 
existing floorm of masonry, though oftener the 
floon hve been of wood. Ladders were the means 
of communication from story to story. There is 
generally a small window MM each -i..i\, ami 
(our windows immediately liclow the conical MM if. 
Tin- d.Mii is in nearly iill cases a considerable 
height from the ground. The figure represents 
the tower at Ardinore, County Watcrford, which 
is one of the most remarkable of those remaining 
in Ireland. ICi-ing from a double plinth course at 
the bottom to a total height of 05 feet, it is divided 




Round I ower, Ardmore. 
(From a Photograph by J. Lawrence, Dublin.) 

into three stages by external liands at the offsets, 
corresponding to the levels of three floors within, 
the fourth being also marked by a slight offset. 
Most of these towers, however, have only a slight 
batter externally from top to liottoiii. Some, like 
that of Devenish, are carefully and strongly huilt. of 
tones cut to the round, and laid in courses, with 
little cement ; others, such as those at Caxhel and 
Monasterboiee, have the stones merely hammer- 
dressed and irregularlv counted : others, again, like 
those of Lusk and Clondalkin, are orattnutad of 
gathered stones untouched hy hainmer or chisel, 
roughly coursed, and jointed with coarse gravelly 
mortar ; while in others, as at Hells and Drumlane, 
part of the tower is of ashlar, and the rest of rubble 
masonry. The average . height of these tower* is 
from 100 to 120 feet, the average circumference at 
the bane about 50 feet, and the average thickness 
of the wall at the base from 3 feet 6 inches to 
4 feet; the average internal diameter at the level of 
the doorway is from 7 to 9 feet, and the average 
.f the doorway above the ground-level about 
13 feet These doorways always face the entrance 
of the church to which the towers In-longed. All 
the a|MTtures of (he towers have inclined instead 
of perpendicular jamlm, which in also an architec- 
tural characteristic ( ,f (lie churches of tho same 
period, and the sculptured ornamentation of the 
apertures or walls of the towers is in the ...m.. ;\ V 
a* that of the churches. Dr I'etrie wa- inclined 
to think that a few of these remarkable structures 
may be as old as the 6th century, hut they are now 
assigned to a period ranging from the Mb to the 
12th centuries. The source whence this form of 
tower was derived, and the cause why it was so 
long persisted in by the Irish architects", are point*, 



however, on which there is not the same uimniniitv 
of opinion. Two round towers, similar to the Irisli 
t\pc, are to be seen in the yet extant plan of the 
monastery of St Call in Swit/erland. of ihe fust. 
half of the 9th century : and, in the Latin dc.sciip 
lion attached to the plan, they are said to be ml 
uiiirrrttt till" -m/iii-irnifn. The church ami towers as 
!i at that date are no longer in existence ; but 
Miss Stokes baa pointed out a passage in the life 
Teneiian of Itrittanv which shows that this 
t\pc of round tower detaclied from the church 
in use on the Continent in the 7th century, ' wherein 
to deposit the silver-plate and treasure of the 
church and protect them from 
the sacrilegious hands of the lar- 
li.-uiaiis should the) wish to pillage 
the church.' Lord Dunraven has 
traced the type from Ireland 
through France to Ravenna, 
where there are still six remain 
ing out of eleven recoidcd 
examples. Hulsch considers the 
detached round towers or cam- 
paniles of the Kavenna churches 
to be of the same date as the 
churches themselves, or mostly 
earlier than the close of the 6th 
centurv : but Freeman, on the 
other hand, maintains that they 
are all later than the da 
Charlemagne, as the local writer 
Agnellus, writing soon after his 
time, describes the churches of 
Ravenna much as they are, but 
says nothing of bell-towers. Suf- 
folk and Norfolk contain more 
round-towered churches than does 
all the rest of Kngland, probably 
because the flint there prevalent 
is \\oiked into this form more 
readily than any other stone. A 
modern round tower isO'Comiell's 
monument in Glasnevin Cemetery, which is 160 feet 
in height. 

See Dr G. Petrie's Eceletiattieal Architecture of Ire- 
land (Dublin, lf*45); veil ii. of Lord Dunraven'a ffotet on 
Irirh Ari-httiCturt (land. 1877); Dr J. Anderson's s 
lam! in Knrhi Christian Time* (film. 18X1 ) ; and Miss 
Stokcs's Early Christian Art in Ireland (land. I 

Roniulway Down, a hill about 11 mile N 
of Devi/es. in Wiltshire, the scene of Waller's 
defeat bv the royalists under Lord Wilmot in July 
1643. Waller was l>csieging Devizes when Wilmot 
came up to relieve the town, whereupon he turned 
at once to meet him, but was quickly crushed 
between Wilmot on the one side and a sally of the 
garrison on the other. Waller escaped, but only 
with the loss of his artillery and most of his men. 

Round Worms (.\ViimrWfl), a class of worms 
in which the Ui.lv is elongated and more or less 
cylindrical. Most are par.i-itic. ~iieh u 
hnnliricnide* and Oxyurtt vermieiilaru, common in 
man, and numerous species of Tylencbiis. which 
infest plants. Many genera, however, live in water 
or in moist earth, and many of the parasites are 
free-living during part of their life. They are called 
round worms, in contrast to the Hat worms or 
I'lathelniinthes. such as tapeworms and flukes. 
For classilication, see, THREAD- WOKMS. 

Ronp is one of the most serious diseases which 
the poultry or pheasant kcepci has \,, \\p\\\, because 
in it then' is generally an allection other than the 
mere cold which develops and makes it apparent. 
II is usually found that the system is scrofulous, 
which is the milder form; but sometimes it takes 
a diphtheric development, and this is the most 
severe aud deadly disease known to poultry -keepers. 



ROUP 



ROUSSEAU 



Whether scrofulous or diphtheric, it is highly con- 
tagious, and very seldom is any bird in a yard 
attacked without nearly all the others being also 
affected. The difference between ordinary cold 
and roup is very easy to determine, though the 
symptoms are in some respects the same. But 
when it is merely cold the running at the eyes and 
nostrils is not at all offensive, whereas it is strongly 
so in the case of roup from scrofula, the breath being 
mo-t repulsive. This fact, as well as the swelling 
of the face, may be taken at once to determine 
when it is roup. The cause may generally be 
sought for in bad feeding, housing, or ventilation, 
which have charged the blood with scrofulous 
matter, and the outward symptoms are induced by 
cold. When first noticed the birds affected .should 
at once be isolated, in order to prevent the spreading 
of the disease, which will speedily follow if all are 
kept together. The treatment must be dual, namely 
to cure the cold and to remove the scrofula from the 
blood. For the former any of the roup pills sold 
can be used, or it may be removed by homoeopathic 
tincture of aconite given three or four times a day, 
the birds being kept in a warm and draughtless 
place. The scrofula is not so easily eradicated, and 
will require patience. Ordinary -sized pills made 
of powdered charcoal 10 parts, dried sulphate of j 
iron 1 part, and capsicum 1 part, made up with 
butter, and given twice a day, form an excellent 
medicine, when the roup proper in its more active i 
state is removed. To do this, however, it is desir- ! 
able to clear the mouth, nostrils, and eyes from 
the iimrus which accumulates there and which 
will suffocate the bird if not removed. In milder 
cases it is enough to wash the parts with vinegar 
and water, but in more severe cases it is better to 
use solution of chlorinated soda, as it is much more 
effective. Should the nostrils be very full of mucus, 
a small lient syringe should be filled with the solu- 
tion, which must lie inserted into the slit in the 
bird's mouth, through which the liquid is forced, 
and will effectually clear the passages. It is most 
essential in returning the birds to the house again 
to see that they are entirely recovered. When 
diphtheric roup is present the matter assumes a more 
serious aspect, because of the danger not only to 
other birds, but also to human beings, who have 
been known to contract this fell disease from birds. 
For that reason the greatest care must be taken, 
and, except in the case of very valuable fowls, it is 
much safer to kill those affected and burv tli'-m in 
quicklime. The outward symptoms in diphtheric 
ronp are not nearly so apparent at first sight, 
because less prominent ; still, the bird is noticed to 
be dull and lethargic. Unless checked the disease 
runs its course in a few hours, and the bird dies. 
Very ofti-n it is not known that diphtheric roup is 
present until several deaths hare taken place. Its 
presence is easily distinguished by the skin like 
substance formed over the throat. Treatment is 
doubtful, and Professor Whalley recommends that 
it should take the heroic form of dabbing the 
tliro:it with carbolic acid, which will kill or core. 

Ronp, in Scotland. See AUCTION. 

Rons. ]']: \NCIS, was born at Halton, Cornwall, 
in l.'.T'.i. and educated in Oxford at Broadgate Hall, 
now Pembroke College. He was a meml>cr of the 
Lon;i Parliament, sat in the Westminster Assembly 
of Divine*, and in 1643 was made provost of Eton. 
He died at Acton, 7th January 1859, his writings 
having been collected two years before. Wood 
is abusive even beyond his wont to 'the old 
illiterate Jew of aton ' and his 'enthusiastic 
canting.' His metrical version of the Psalms was 
recommended l>y the House of Commons to the 
Westminster .\--<Mnlilv, and is still substantially 
the Presbyterian Psalter. It is easy to abuse 



his version Sir Walter Scott's verdict was that, 
though homely, it is ' plain, forcible, and intel- 
ligible, and very often possesses a rude sort of 
majesty, which perhaps would be ill exchanged for 
mere elegance.' 

Rousseau, JEAN BAPTISTE, a great lyric poet 
of France, was born at Paris, 6th April 1670, the 
son of a shoemaker who gave him a sound educa- 
tion. At an early age he became acquainted with 
Boileau, and began to produce pieces for the theatre, 
with but little success. Among his earliest patrons 
were Breteuil and Tallard, and the latter carried 
him in his suite to London. His turn for satire 
soon brought him troubles as well as reputation, 
and some lampoons upon the literary frequenters of 
the Cafe Laurent, chief of whom were La Motte 
and Saurin, brought down upon his head a quarrel 
that distressed the remainder of his life. Defeated 
bv La Motte in 1710 in his canvass forT. Corneille's 
chair at the French Academy, he was soon after 
taken bv everyliody for the author of a fresh series 
of scurrilous and indecent couplets. He charged 
Saurin with writing them and attempting to foist 
the paternity upon him, and raised an action against 
him. Failing to make good the charge, he found 
himself in 1712 condemned in absence to perpetual 
banishment par contumace. Henceforth he lived 
abroad under the patronage of the Comte de Luc, 
French aml>assador to Switzerland, and afterwards 
of Prince Eugene and the Due d'Aremberg. At 
Brussels he made the acquaintance of Voltaire, but 
from a friend the latter soon became a bitter enemy. 
Rousseau visited England, and there published in 
1723 a new edition ofhis works. He was never suc- 
cessful in getting his banishment annulled, although 
once at least he visited Paris incognito. He died 
at Brussels, March 17, 1741. Rousseau was not a 
great, only a supremely clever poet His sacred 
odes and "cantates are splendidly elaborate, frigid, 
and artificial ; his epigrams, on the other hand, are 
bright, vigorous, sharp, with stinging satire, and 
unerring in their aim. 

Editions are by Ainar (1820) and A. de Latoor (1869). 
See also his (Eurrts Lyriqutt, by Manuel (1852), and 
Conta infditt, by Lozarche (Brussels, 1881). 

Rousseau, JEAN JACQUES, was born on June 
28, 1712, in Geneva, where his family had been 
settled since 1550, when Didier Rousseau, a French 
Protestant, sought shelter from persecution. His 
mother died immediately after his birth, and he was 
left to the companionship of his father, Isaac Rous- 
seau, a watchmaker and dancing-master, a man 
selfish and sentimental, passionate, dissipated, and 
frivolous. In 1722 his father having involved him- 
self in a brawl fled the city to escape imprisonment, 
and h'ft him to the charitable care of his relations. 
When he was thirteen his uncle apprenticed him to 
a notary, who soon found him utterly incompetent, 
and sent him back as a fool ; and thereafter he was 
apprenticed to an engraver, whose cruelty during 
the three years he lived with him, he says, made 
him stupid by tyranny, cunning from fear, and 
wretched by ill-treatment One evening, having 
rambled beyond the city walls till the gates were 
closed, he was too terrified to face Ins master, 
and resolved never to return, but to seek else- 
where his fortune. Now, in 1728, began his 
adventurous and vagrant career, for the details of 
which his Confessions form our chief authority, 
in which with picturesqueness and charming 
vivacity, with marvellous frankness, if not with 
scrupulous accuracy, he tells the story of his life. 
As he wandered on he was entertained by a 
priest of Savoy, eager for proselytes from heresy, 
and Jean Jacques, pretending to be eager to 
cx|ioiise the Catholic faith, was sent off to Madame 
de \V (irens at Annecy, who should look after the 



KOUSSEAU 



CalvinkUc vagrant By her he wa hospitably 
received and then transmitted to a hospice in Turin 
tillml with Home fellow -catchu men* ; and Boon in- 
in. i-,. ! into tlie faith ainl <lnly lupti--d. he was 
discharged with a few franca in IIIH pocket. He 
in vain sought work as an engraver, till a shop 
keeper'* wire gave him employment, and to her 
he acted in the douhle capacity of servant and 
lover, till on her husband's return he was kicked 
out of doors. He next became footman to a 
Comteme de VercellU, and on her death not Ion;; 
alter he took service again as lackey to Conite de 
Goovon, and as nondescript secretary to the aid,,-, 
his master's son, till he liecame intolerable Iniih 
to his masters and his fellow-servant*, and was 
summarily dismissed. 

Now in 1731 he travelled back to Madame de 
Warenx, who welcomed him and installed him as 
permanent inmate of her house. Madame de 
Warens or, a* her name wax otherwise written and 
pronounced, Vorrani) or Vuarrans, lived apart from 
her husband a very independent life, having a 
pension, which late investigation suggests may have 
been earned by acting as a politicalspy. She was 
twenty-eight years oM. pretty and piquant, kindly 
in disposition, not ligid in morals, but rich in 
sentiment. Slie was clever and Mighty, dahhling 
in chemistry and alchemy, dahblitig also in com- 
mercial speculations which ui:ule her the dupe of 
adventurers, and bldolgiag in religious specula- 
lions which i-oMii'.ii' d Deism in creed with Roman 



Catholicism in worship. To her Jean Jacques, 
now nineteen years old, became pupil and friend, 
factotum, and ultimately lover, through nearly 
nine years. This period was diversified 1>y adven- 
turous interruptions : he at one time set himself up 
in Lausanne as a teacher of music though hardly 
able to play a tune, and as a composer though 
not able to write a score ; became secretary to 
an archimandrite of the Greek Church, collect- 
ing subscriptions to restore the Holy Sepulchre ; 
and then went to Paris as servant to an officer. 
Thereafter he returned to live with Madame de 
Warens at Chambery, and from 1738 at Char- 
mettes, in which lovely retreat his happiest and 
idlest years w_ere spent, in desultory reading with 
his momon, in music, indolence and sentiment. 
This attachment and companionship ceased in- 
glorioii-ly at last when on returning from recruit- 
ing his health at Montpollier he found himself sup- 
planted in the heart of Madame de Warens by one 
Vintzenried, whom he describes as a journeyman 
wig-maker, ugly and a fool, who as a lover was 
tyrannising over his facile mistress, mismanag- 
ing her affairs and dissipating her money. In 
disgust in 1740 Jean Jacques quitted hi.- lieloved 
< 'hannettes, the idyllic memories of which lived in 
his heart, as by his picturesque description they 
live immortal in literature. He liecame now tutor 
in Lyons to the sons of M. de Mably, the brother 
of the famous Condillac and of the once well- 
known Abbe de Mably, where he taught with 
lamentable incapacity. 

In 1741 he set off to seek his fortune in Paris, 
with a littli- money, some letters of introduction to 
Parisian notables, and a system of musical notation 
liy which ho expected to make his reputation. He 
had to live in a dirty, shabby inn, and to earn a 
meagre livelihood by copying music, while his 
musical system was pronounced by the Academy 
of Sciences 'neither useful nor original.' After 
a sojourn of eighteen months at Venice, where 
be acted as cheap secretary to the emliassy till 
be quarrelled with the amlMUwador, he returned 
to his inn, his copying, and a secretaryship 
with M. de Francneil. Meanwhile he had formed 
a companionship with a girl he found acting as 
drudge at the inn, called Therese le Vasseur, 



utteily illiterate, densely stupid, plain-featured, 
mean and vulgar, although he imagined her 
pnssMimd of every grace in lody, mini!, ami soul. 
lly her he had five cliildren, eat-li in turn deserted 
ami con-igncd '>y him to the hospital fur found- 
lings. He had gained acquaintance with men of 
letter*, with !>'. \lemheit am) Diderot, as needy a.- 
himsvlf ; and when they were producing the famous 
lopa-dia he wrote articles, of which the. most 
noialile wen- those on music and political economy. 
Hi- first distinguished appearance in literature was 
in 1749 by a Discourse on Artsitml *< /> ,< .-,, written 
successfully for a prize offered by the Academy of 
Dijon on the problem whether science and the arts 
have corrupted or purified morals. Here with hold 
paradox he denounces fiercely and eloquently 
letters, arts, sciences, and all culture as alike 
proofs of and causes of corruption. The audacious 
independence of hi- thought, the freshness of his 
brilliant style, made him at once celebrated in 
literary and welcome to fashionable circles of 
society. In 1753 he next made himself di.-tin- 
guished as a composer by his opera tin; Devin <ln 
Village, full of novel and sparkling aim (one of 
which, .slightly modified, is the well-known hymn- 
tune called Rousseau's Dream), which was first 
played with success In-fore the court at Fontaine- 
lileaii, and when performed in Paris achieved for 
him a popularity which was not sustained by sub- 
sequent efforts. It was in the .-aim- \>-ar tl.at 
there appeared his Discourse on t/ie Origin of In- 
equality, which, though unsuccessful in winning tin; 
prize from the Academy at Dijon, was successful 
in establishing his position as a writer in France. 
In this discourse he argues that nil eivili-ation 
is a state of social degradation, that all science ami 
literature, all social institutions and refinements 
are forms of degeneration from the primeval savage 
life, which, with all its ignorance and brutishness, 
he audaciously pronounces the state of human sim- 
plicity and perfection. All property is asserted to 
be derived from confiscation, all wealth is a (rime, 
all government is tyranny, all social laws are un- 
just. 

His brilliant denunciation of society made him 
the more attractive in society ; but hating alike 
the company of wits and of courtiers, and despis 
ing fashionable conventions, he lived poorly, 
dressed meanly, and acted churlishly to show his 
independence, with that morose self-consciousness, 
blended with vanity, which was becoming with him 
a disease. Gladly he accepted from Madame 
d'Kpinay the offer of a retired cottage, the Her- 
mitage, on the skirts of the forest of Montmorrncy. 
near her own chateau Chevrette. There he retired 
with Therese, her obnoxious mother, and his 
meagre chattels. Still earning his living liy copy- 
ing music, which produced about 60 a year, he 
employed his 'lays amidst the woods of Montnior- 
ency with conceiving and writing his romance, The 
New Heloise, inspired in the composition of its 
rapturous passages by a passion he had formed 
for Madame d'Houdetxot, the sister of Madame 
d'Kpinay. His suspicious temper fostered mis 
understandings with his patroness, and bitter 
quarrels with her friend Karon Grimm, and with 
his own warm friend Diderot; and he quitted the 
beloved Hermitage with reluctance for a cottage at 
Montlouis not far oil", where he found kind friends 
in the Duke and Duchess of Luxemburg. In 1760 
the New Heloise was published, and was instantly 
received with applause, and Rousseau liccaine the 
idol of the sentimental though artificial society of 
Paris. His work was followed in 1762 by the 
treatise on the Social Contract, published in 
Amsterdam in order to escape French censorship ; 
and there two months later also appeared AV////C. 
By the first work the recluse rose to the first rank 



ROUSSEAU 



as a writer of the romance of sentiment ; by the 
second as a political socialist; by the third as an 
educationist. 

But tlie views in finiile on kings and government 
made him obnoxious to the state, and the parle- 
ment condemned the author to be arrested and his 
book to be burned ; while its deistic teaching in the 
Savoyard vicar's confession made him hateful to 
the cliurch, and called forth a denunciatory pastoral 
from the Archbishop of Paris. Rousseau in terror 
fled from France, and found shelter at Metiers, an 
obscure village in Neuchatel, where he was safe 
under the tolerant rule of Frederick the Great, 
and the friendship of the Earl Marischal, George 
Keith, the governor of the province. Although 
he lived unobtrusively in botanising rambles, in 
making laces, and in writing his aggressive Letters 
from the Mountain, and his powerful reply to the 
Archbishop of Paris, religious rancour followed 
him to the remote and peaceful Val de Travers. 
The ministers stirred up the villagers against the 
heretic, and to escape their open hostility he 
took flight in 1764. A residence of delicious 
quietude in St Pierre on Lake Bienne was ended 
by threat of prosecution from the government of 
Berne ; and he accepted the offer of a home in 
England, given through David Hume. Under the 
charge of the good-natured historian, the irritated 
and sensitive fugitive came to England in January 
1766. During aliout eighteen months he lived at 
Wootton in Staffordshire, solitary and quiet : here 
he busied himself with Imtany and his Botani- 
cal Dictionary, and especially in composing his 
Confessions, in which he determined to write his 
memoirs, to expose his enemies, to reveal himself 
in spite of every fault, which he resolved to own 
as one of the very ' best of men.' His suspicious 
nature, his morbid distrust and fears, had increased 
with his trials and his years. He had quarrelled 
with almost every friend, imagining the worst 
meaning in the best of motives ; he believed that 
bis truest friends, like Hume, acted with the most 
sinister designs, that the English government sought 
his life, and that he was everywhere dogged by 
spies. Suddenly he quitted Wootton, and, cross- 
ing the Channel, got a shelter from the doctrinaire 
Marquis de Mirabean, and then from the Prince de 
Conti at Trye ; and there he lived, under the name 
of ' M. Uemm,' till he fancied that he was insulted 
by the domestics and that he was suspected of 
poisoning a servant. After various shifty change* 
he lived at Monquin, a retired, quiet spot, where 
he composed those later parts of his Confessions, 
in which each incident is coloured by his gather- 
ing delusions as to the motives of every one with 
whom he came in contact. In 1770 he returned to 
.Paris, and remained unmolested, following his old 
life an copyist at ten sous a page, in a fifth story in 
the Kue Platriere, maintaining a surly independ- 
ence, distrusting his friends, rebuffing admirers, 
insulting his customers. During these years, in 
different moods of mind and changing conditions 
of his broken health, he wrote the wild, half-mail 
Uognw, /.'""v^ mi /ni/e de Jean Jacques, in which 
he vindicates his character in a strain which casts 
doubt on his sanity, ami his Jifverif-t r/it Promt- 
neur Solitaire, which, in singular contrast, are 
calm in their tone, idyllic in their lieauty, and 
perfect in their .style. Still the delusion* increased, 
ami his mental misery deepened till he even craved 
for shelter in a. hospital ; everywhere he felt 
watched l>y s|iies, hated by the very children in 
the streets. In 1778 he accepted the last of these 
many offers of shelter, and retired to a cottage given 
him by M. de Girardin on his estate at Ermenon- 
ville, 20 miles from Paris. There he suffered from 
the misconduct of Therese, and from inveterate 
delusions, till, with a suddenness which has given 



much ground for suspicion of suicide, Jean Jacques 
Rousseau died on July 2, 1778. His body now 
rests in the Pantheon. 

If the character of Rousseau can be learned from 
the judgment of his friends and foes, it can be also 
discovered from his own writings, which tell the 
story of his life his Confessions, his Letters, his 
Reveries. We may receive his own version of 
many of his own acts with doubt, and his inter- 
pretation of the acts of others with reserve, while 
details in the Confessions are known to be in many 
cases inaccurate ; but as a picture of the man they 
are strikingly truthful. He is moved by a daring 
determination to conceal nothing, believing that 
every defect will only show the intrinsic beauty of 
his character as patches show off better the com- 
plexion of the face. Therefore he tells his ignoble 
intrigues and his paltry actions, how he deserted 
his companion when he fell in a fit, how he basely 
accused a poor girl, his fellow-servant, of theft 
to conceal nis own dishonesty. He exhibits his 
jealousies and his hates, his lofty sentiments and 
his petty practices, his unl>ounded confidence in 
himself not only as a man of genius, but as a 
man of supreme rectitude. In spite of the worst 
he confesses and the worst charged against him 
by others, he needs commiseration in his faults, 
as arising from a mind disordered, and he deserves 
respect for his sincerity of thought, his independ- 
ence of conduct in spite of its coarseness, his spirit 
of reverence, and his generosity of heart and hand. 
As a writer his influence has been exercised in 
diverse directions. His New Htloise, suggested 
alike in its clumsy form of letters, its didactic 
passages, and its fervid romance by Richardson's 
novels, stirred by its strain of passion a spirit of 
sentiment in the society and literature of France, 
Germany, and Italy ; by its idyllic pictures and 
exquisite descriptions it'awakened a new admira- 
tion for nature in its grand and wild aspects, and 
touched the fashionable world with interest in 
rural life and in its simple ways. Amidst all its 
falsetto passion, it taught an artificial society the 
rights of the poor and the duties of the rich. The 
Social Contract proceeds on the premise that the 
basis of society is an original compact by which 
each nimiU'r surrenders his will to the will of all, 
on the condition that he gets protection or defence ; 
and arguing that the community is the true 
sovereign, that each member of it has equal power 
and right to make its laws, Rousseau arrives at 
the conclusion that kings are usurpers, that no 
laws are binding to which the whole people's assent 
has not been gained. True to his own Genevan 
traditions and tastes, he considers a republic in 
which all the people have personal votes as alone 
valid, and his doctrines of liberty, equality, and 
fraternity were adopted by leaders of the people, 
were carried by demagogues to logical extremes 
he never dreamt of, and became war-cries of the 
Revolution. By mile, in which the man who 
abandoned his own offspring becomes the instructor 
of the age on the nursing of infants, the rearing 
of children, and the education of youth, with keen 
observation of life he pointed out the defects of 
common methods in the nursery and the school- 
room. The work had marked results in discourag- 
ing the faults and neglects in artificial society 
towards children, and in indicating a more natural 
and less pedantic method of training and develop- 
ing the physical, mental, and moral faculties ; and 
his ideas on this head (while many absurdities and 
whimsicalities in the book were avoided ) were 
in large measure carried out by educationists like 
Froebel and Pestalozzi, and affected the educational 
methods of all Europe. By his famous chapter on 
the Savoyard vicars confession he gave a con- 
fession of his own deistic faith, which disgusted 



I 



ROUSSEAU 



KOVICO 



Voltaire, D'Alembert, ami I> Hnlluicli by it.- stiain 
of religious fervour ami conviction, and horrified 
Uir rluiich by it- scornful denial of orthodoxy and 
uprrnaturalim. Meanwhile it kindled in France 
a spirit of severest theism in-te.id "t cynical -o-i'ii 
< i-ni or blank denial, nn.i in-piied Revolutionists 
like Kpbe*pierre with tin- doctrine that belief in 
s\ God U essential for society and the state. 

8a* Xuasvt-Pathay, Hutoirr de la fit cl let Ou rragtt tie 
J. J. /femurau (1K!1); Streckeiaen Moulton, Jh>u,t,.,u: 
Set AmUttr*Knma(\XK,t: St Mare (iiranlin, J. J. 
JtnWMira, M Vie ft ttt Oumujtt (2 volit. ]s7~>i ; John 
Mortey, AMUMa(2vols. Is: .:_..,; 1886); I:, itlmiid. 
JtouMcaii au !"/ </r Tnirrn (1S7U) ; Morau, Jinumtm 
et te Hi'flf PlttlotifHt ( 1KTU) ; IXinoiresU-nea, Koutttau 
tt Voltairt (1874); Hcrnirrtt Annrtt tie Mtvlome 
fKptitay, edited by Perry ami Maugrat ( 1881 ) ; the pres- 
ent writer'* monograph m tin- 'Foreign I'Uuwicx' aerie* 
(1883); Jansen, ituuttrau alt JfMtsr (1MB) | Mahrvn- 
holu, Ronurau*Lrl*n(}>Wf.>i; M,.l.iii, ]tn,,,,,,mt Krank- 
keUqieteJnditc (ltfi<9); Ma<li.<- ./. ll.ir, /,. ,( Jtutittcau, 
by Francui* Mugnier (1MIU); Caiti-rrt, Kiiutftmt jwitpar 
la Frnnraii tfAujuunfkui ( IMKi : Kouraeau's Ltttrei 
Ittailet, edited by H. de Rothschild ( iw.'i ; Clm.iuet'g 
atudy in the 'Grand Ecrivauu' series (1X03); besides 
assays on Roil Mean a* a pedagogue by Quick and others. 

Rousseau. PIKKKK KTIKXXK THEODORE, one 

of the raont distinguished of the modern landscape- 
painters of France, wax born in Paris on the 15th 
April 1812, the son of a well -to -do merchant tailor 
of the city, a native of Salines in the Jura. There 
were several artists union;: his mother'.- kin-nirii ; 
and one of these, Alexandra Pau de saini Martin, 
having seen a landscape, ' The Signal Station on 
Montmartre,' which the boy painted at the age.of 
fourteen, gave him some instruction, and persuaded 
his parents to abandon their intention of entering 
their son at the Ecole Polytechniqne for an 
engineer, and to place him, instead, under Kemond 
the landscape-j>ainter. The classical ideal and 
iiK'lhods of this artist were little to the liking of 
hi- pupil, who next worked under Giiillon- Let Mere, 
and in the Ecole des Ueanx-Art* : hut his l>est 
teachers were the old masters in the Louvre, and 
hi- happiest hours were those spent in sketching 
from nature in th<- i-nviroiiH of Paris. In 1830 he 
wan painting in Auvergne and Normandy, and he 
studied htnd-4-tipi- in nearly every district of France; 
bat by 1833 he had begun dBrteUng in the Forest 
of Kontainehleau, which ever after was his favourite 
painting ground, an<l where he finally settled, in 
the village of It.ulii/.on, in 1848. He first exhibited 
in the Salon of ls:tl, and in 1H.H4 his Border of the 
Forest of Compii-gne' gained a third clans mexlal 
and was IKMI^III liy the Duke d 'Orleans ; but in the 
following \ear lii- 'Descent of Cows in Autumn,' 
painteil in the Jura, afterwards purchased by Ary 
nchelfer, and 'The Alley of Chestnut Trees',' one 
of his finest works, were rejected in excellent 
i-onipany through the influence of Itidaiill 
and Kochette, the president and secretary of the 
Academy. Some twelve years of more or (ess com- 
plete neglect and discouragement followed, and 
left such baneful e'l.-.-i, upon a mind naturally 
proud and melancholic as may account for the 
petulance and acerliily which marked certain pas- 
ages of UouMteau's later life. Hut in IMS the 
painters themselves assumed the management of 
the Salon exhibitions; he was elected one of the 
jury ; and in the following year he resumed exhibit- 
ing, and gained a first-class medal. His works 
were prominently lmn in the K\p.wition t'niver- 
elle of 1855; as also in that of ISU7, when he was 
president of the jury, and the only landscape- 
painter who won a grand medal. Soon afterwards 
ne was appointed an officer of the Legion of 
Honour : hut In-fore he was decorated he had been 
attacked by paralysis, and, after lingering six 
ntli-. he died on the 22d of December 1867. 



Though KOII can was most delilierate in his art 
methods, and would often keep his canvases hm^ 
in hand, altering and retouching them, he was \. t 
an exceedingly prolific, if a somew but unequal, 
painter. At hi- best his works are characterised 
nv true dignity and Originality of style, by 
noble richness of colouring, and are informed by 
deep sentiment and emotion. Hi- productions now 
command immense prices, hi- ' F.arly Summer 
Morning ' having solu in New York, at the Pro- 
bosco sale in 1887, for (21, (KM). See Sensier, 
Xmirriiir* de Theodore /i'<-.>../ i lsT'2); and D. C. 
Thomson, The Hurl,,-,,,,, n,-l,nol ( 1890). 
KoiisM-iucre. See KOULEHS. 

Kotisslllon. fonnerly a province of France, 
surrounded by Languedoc, the Mediterranenn, the 
Pyrenees, ami the county of Foix. It now forms 
the French department of Pyrendes-Orientales. In 
ancient times the capital was Hn-a-iiin. which stood 
in the vicinity of the modern Perpignan. 

Koiith, MARTIN JOSEPH, was born of York- 
shire ancestry at St Margaret's South Elmham, 
Suffolk, on 18th September 1755. His father, a 
clergyman, in 1758 settled as schoolmaster at 
Beccfes, whence Martin in 1770 went up to Queen's 
College, Oxford. In 1771 he was elected a demy, 
in 1775 a fellow, and in 1791 president, of Magdalen. 
He took deacon's orders in 1777, but priest's not 
till 1810, when he was presented to the rectory of 
Tylehurst, near Reading, worth 1000 a year ; ten 
years later he married Lliza Agnes Blagrave ( 1790- 
1869). He died at Magdalen, 22d December 1854, 
in his hundredth year. 

A little shrunken figure, with ' such a wig as one 
only sees in old pictures,' he had grown very deaf, 
but till well after ninety retained nis eyesight and 
marvellous memory, could walk six miles and climb 
a stiftish hill, mount the library step, and study 
till past midnight. Newman and Bancroft were 
among his later friends and acquaintances; the 
earlier had included Dr Parr, Samuel Johnson, and 
Porson. He was a great patristic scholar when 
patristic scholars were few, a Caroline churchman, 
a liberal Tory, a lover of his dogs and canary anil 
joke, a mighty book-buyer to the last his 16,000 
volumes he bequeathed to Durham 1'niversity. 
For just seventy years he was publishing, but bis 
works number only six ; and two of these are edi- 
tions of Unmet ( ' I know the man to be a linr, and 
I am determined to prove him so'). He will be 
remembered by his /.'t/u/ititi- Sacra: (5 vols. 1814-48), 
but still more for his sage advice, ' Always verify 
your references, sir.' And Dr Koulh it was who in 
I'H.'t induced Dr Seabury of New York to apply for 
con.-ceiation as bishop of Connecticut, not to the 
Diini-h Church, but to the Scottish episcopate. 
See liurgon's Lives of Twelve Good Men (1888). 

Rovrrcdo. a town of the Austrian Tyrol, 
stand- close to the left bank of the Adige, 14 miles 
S. of Trent by rail. It has been since (he 15th 
century tin centie of the. Tyrolese silk industry ; it 
has aUo leather and tobacco tactories, and carries 
on an active transit trade. Pop. 8864. Here the 
French defeats! the Austrians, September 3-4, 1796. 
Ito-niini was lx>rn here in 1797. See licit. -in/a, 
M'-I-HI <H Roveredo (1883). 

Rovlffno, a seaport of Austria, stands on the 
we-t side of the peninsula of Istria, opposite the 
mouth of the Po and 40 miles S. by AV. of Trieste. 
The neighbourhood produces olive-oil and the best 
Istrian wine. The tunny and sardine fisheries, 
with oil-pressing and the preparation of pastes and 
tolwceo, are the chief industries. Pop. 97'22. 

RoviffO, a city in Italy, 27 miles by rail S. of 
Padua, has a cathedral (1696), an academy of 
sciences, a library of 80,000 volumes, and a picture 



ROVUMA 



ROWING 



gallery. Pop. 7560. The province has an area of 
643 sq. m. and a pop. ( 1898 ) df 247,626. 

Roviima. a river of East Africa, rises on the 
ast side of Lake Nyassa, flows eastward, and 
enters the Indian Ocean, after a course of more 
than 450 miles, a little north of Cape Delgado. 
During the greater part of its length it forms the 
boundary between the German and the Portuguese 
Kast African possessions. It was first ascended 
by Livingstone and Kirk in 1862. 

Row (pron. Roo ), a village of Dumbartonshire. 
on the east shore of the Gare Loch, 2 miles NW. of 
Helensburgh, which is included within the parish, 
and with which it is connected by railway ( 1894). 
The saintly John M'Leod Campbell (q.v. ) was 
minister of Row from 1825 till his deposition for 
alleged heresies in 1831. 

Row, JOHN, a Scottish Reformer, was born near 
Stirling about 1525, studied at St Andrews, and in 
1550 was sent by the Scottish clergy as their repre- 
sentative to Rome. While in Italy he took the 
degree of Doctor of Laws at Padua. In 1558 he 
returned to Scotland, and next year abandoned 
the Roman faith. In 1560 he aided in compiling 
a Confession of Faith and the First Book of Disci- 
pline, became minister of Perth, and sat in the 
first General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. 
Four times moderator, he helped to prepare the 
Second Book of Discipline, and died in 1580. His 
third surviving son, JOHN Row, was born at Perth 
in 1568, studied at Edinburgh, became minister of 
Carnock in 1592, and died in 1646. He wrote a 
dull and prolix but reliable History of the Kirk of 
Scotland, which was at length printed by the Mail- 
land Club (2 vols. 1842) and the Wodrow Society (ed. 
by David Laing ). It extends from 1558 to 1637, but 
was* continued to 1639 after the author's death by 
his second son, JOHN Row (c. 1600), successively 
rector of Perth grammar-school, minister at Aber- 
deen, moderator of the provincial assiMiibly there 
in 1644, and, by appointment of Monk's commission 
of colonels, principal of King's College in 1651. 
Like his father and grandfather a learned Hebraist, 
he published in 1634 Hebraiae Lingua; Institutiones, 
And in 1644 Chilias Hebraica sen Vocabularium. 

Rowan Tree, MOUNTAIN ASH, or QUICKEN 

TREK i /'/// aucuparia ; Sorbus aucuparia of 




Rowan (Pyrus aucuparia) in flower. 

many botanists), a tree belonging to the natural 
order ROMCOB, abundant in Britain, especially in 
the Highlands of Scotland, and in many parts of 
continental Europe. It does not attain a great 



size, but is one of the most ornamental trees that 
occur in British woodlands. The wood is valued 
for its compactness and fine grain, and is capable 
of taking a high polish. In the superstitions of 
the Scottish Highlands, and also of the Lowlands, 
a peculiar importance was assigned to the rowan 
tree, a mere twig of which was supposed to have 
great efficacy in scaling away evil spirits. The 
fruit (Rowan berries) is sometimes used for pre- 
serves. It has much acidity, and a peculiar bitter- 
ness. In some parts of northern Europe the berries 
are dried and ground into flour as a substitute for 
\vheaten flour in times of scarcity of the latter. 
By fermentation they yield an agreeable liqueur, 
and by distillation a powerful spirit. In Russia a 
tincture is formed of the ripe berries, which is 
greatly esteemed as a stomachic. It is made by 
tilling a cask two-thirds full with berries, which 
have oeen carefully picked and cleaned. The cask 
is then filled up with brandy, gin, or rum, and 
allowed to stand in a cool cellar for twelve months, 
when the liqueur is run off, and is found impreg- 
nated with both the colour and the flavonr of the 
fruit. The fruit of the rowan tree is generally red, 
but there is a variety with yellow fruit, and a very 
nearly allied species, P. americana, a native of 
North America, has purple fruit. 

Rowe, NICHOLAS, dramatist and translator, a 
contemporary and friend of Congreve, Pope, Addi- 
son, and Steele, was the son of a serjeant-at-law, 
and was l>orn at Little Barford, in Bedfordshire, 
June 30, 1674. He was educated at Westminster 
under Busby, and studied law in the Middle 
Temple ; but early inheriting a small competency 
by the death of his father, he devoted himself to 
literature. Between 1700 and 1714 he produced 
eight playg, of which three were long popular, and 
deservedly: Tamerlane (1702), The Fair Penitent 
(1703), and Jane Shore (1714.). The character of 
Lothario in The Fair Penitent was the prototype of 
Lovelace in Richardson's Clarissa Harlotoe, and 
indeed the name is still the proverbial synonym for 
a fashionable rake. Rowe translated Lucan's Phar- 
salia, and his work, says Dr Johnson, 'deserves 
more notice than it obtains, and as it is more read 
will be more esteemed.' His edition of Shake- 
speare (7 vols. 1709-10) at least contributed to the 
popularity of his author. Rowe's comedy, The 
Bi'<fr(1705), lived only to be damned as it deserved. 
Rowe, we are told, had no heart, yet his vivacity 
and engaging manners procured him many friends 
and several lucrative ofhces. The Duke of Queens- 
l>erry made him his Under-secretary of State. In 
1715 he succeeded Tate as poet-laureate ; and the 
same year he was appointed one of the surveyors of 
customs to the port of London ; the Prince of Wales 
made him Clerk of his Council, and the Lord 
Chancellor Parker secretary of Presentations in 
Chancery. He died December 6, 1718, and was 
buried in Westminster Abbey. 

Rowing. The oarsman sits with his face to 
the stern of the Ixrnt, his feet planted flush against 
his 'stretcher' or footboard, and the handle of his 
oar in his hands, the loom of the oar resting in the 
rowlock, the ' button ' being inside the thowl-pin. 
He should sit upright, with a rigid back, and do 
his work mainly with his back and legs, using 
his arms as couplings between his body and the 
oar-handle, and only bending them towards the 
finish of his stroke. To row a stroke, swing 
the body forward from the hips straight towards 
the toes ; extend the arms rigidly, brace the 
shoulders, and keep the head up. The hands 
should be holding the oar-handle about .'{', inches 
apart. The grasp should be with fingers and 
not fist i.e. the lower knuckles of the hand 
.should be very slightly bent, almost straight, the 



ROW I M . 



hold being retained by the np|ier joints of the 
fingers and by the thumb. Thu mode of holding 
the oar give* freer play to the wrist-joint* for the 
feather, of which more anon. The Uxly being 
thus extended, and the legs O|H*II| at the knees to 
allow the Ixxly free s wing forward, and the hands 
than Km*! 1 '"- tin- oar handle, then the -Iroke U 
begun by raising the hands enough to allow the 
blade of the oar to sink into the water tquare. (It 
LH most ini|Nirtant that the blade should ! square 
to the plane of the surface of the watci : otherwise, 
M soon an the stroke commence*, the blade fails to 
preserve it* own plane, and sinks too deep, r 
springs out of water, according an the face of it is 
inclined at an obtuse or acute angle to the water. ) 
When the oar has lieen thus lowered into the 
water, by raising the hands over the stretcher, tho 
stroke should commence sharply, by bracing the 
muscles of back, loins, shoulders, and legs, and 
throwing the body backwards, swinging from the 
hips, the feet firmly pressing against the stretcher, 
the arms rigid ; so that the weight of the body is 
eased as much as posHiMe off the seat, and U trans- 
ferred to the oar-handle and the stretcher. When 
the body has reached the |x>r|>endicular, in the 
swing, bark the arms should begin to come in. The 
action of bringing them in should be from the 
shoulders, the elbow-joints gradually bending, but 
the forearm remaining as near as possible parallel 
to the water. The ' biceps ' should not be exerted, 
else the forearms bend upwards, the hands rise, 
and the blade buries. The body should not ' wait ' 
for the arms and hands to overtake it : it should 
lie still swinging back till the hands overtake it. 

When the hands reach the breast-tame they 
should be sharply dropped about two inches : 
this raises the oar out of the water. After this 
drop of hands they should be turned sharply 
from the wrists till the knuckles touch the Imdy. 
This turn produces the 'feather.' If the turn is 
made too soon, before the hands have reached the 
chest, the action is faulty, and produces what is 
called 'feather under water,' by turning the oar 
edgewise in the water instead of after the oar has 
left the water. So soon as the drop and turn of 
wrist* has ended and ' feather' has been performed, 
the ' recovery ' should commence. The body should 
instantly, and without ' hang ' or delay, commence 
to swing forward again like a pendulum. The 
hands should at the same instant lie shot out and 
the arms extended, reaching their extension l>v the 
time that the hotly has once more attained* the 
perpendicular in it* forward swing. The swing 
should continue forward till full reach has been 
attained for a new stroke ; then once more the 
hands should lie raised, the oar lowered into the 
water, and a new stroke rowed. In rowing liehind 
another oarsman the eyes should catch the back in 
front of the oarsman, who should take time and 
swing from it keeping 'eyes in the boat.' The 
oarsman at first find* it difficult to 'govern' his 
blade i.e. to keep it in the right plane and at 
the correct elevation or depression, according to 
whether he i* rowing the stroke or is 'recovering.' 
In time his wrist* Income more apt, and time their 
action to the ever varying |xmilions of the body. 
The more he attends to a correct grasp of his oar- 
handle the easier will lie the play of his wrists, 
and the greater facility will he find in regulating 
the plane of his blade. It has been said before 
that the blade should lie 'square' to the water 
throughout the stroke. So it appears to the oars- 
man ; but in well constructed lioaU the Mhowl'is 
slightly im-lined in the direction in which the oars- 
man is looking: this inrliiiation gives the oar- 
blade a correspondingly slight inclination forward, 
making it dracrilf a trifle less than a rectangle 
with the water, and so obviates any tendency to 



row 'deep.' It will suffice if the beginner thinks 
of keeping his blade 'square;' and the Kinall devia- 
tion from the square, reducing the angle th.v 
effected bv the slope of the thowl for his lienrlit, 
will then oe produced naturally by the mechanism 
ol his work. If this inclination of the thowl is 
made t<n> great the oar ha a tendency to fly out of 
the water. 

To stop the way of a lioat she should be ' held. ' 
This is uone by laying the blade flat, and thus 
slightly sinking the edge which lies towards the 
diiection in which the boat U travelling. This 
causes the blade to bury at an acute angle to the 
plane of the water. This checks the way until it is 
reduced enough to allow the oarsman to turn the 
Made square, reverse wny, and to ' back ' water. If 
he tries to back water with any pace on, before he 
has first ' held ' the boat, the resistance to his blade 
not only risks fracture, but is likely to lie beyond 
his strength, to lav him flat on his back, and to make 
him catch a crab.' In backing wuter the process 
of the stroke, descrilied aliove, should be reversed, 
so far as circumstances will allow i.e. the oarsman 
has no stretcher to press against, and is ' pushing ' 
with his weight instead of ' pulling.' In most 'tub* 
IH iats, and in all racing boats, straps are laid across 
the stretcher, to hold the feet at t he instep, and so 
to facilitate recovery. The strap should only be 
used as an adjunct to recovery, not as the sole 
means : the loins should plav their part in swing- 
ing the body forwards ; and" the arms, by being 
rapidly shot out, should aid the action of the loins. 
If a tyro is found to rely too much on his strap, a 
mentor may with advantage remove the strap until 
proper use of the loins has been effected. 

Sculling. In sculling each hand holds one scull, 
instead of there being two hands on one oar as in 
'rowing.' The principles of action of body, Tegs, 
and arms are the same as in rowing, except that the 
body, when sculling, may with advantage lie swung 
farther back at each stroke than in rowing. The 
grip of a -cull should lie on the same principle, as 
regards holding in fingers and not in fist. The 
thumb should not clasp under the handle, but 
cap the butt of the scull with the top joint In 
rowing this would be wrong ; but in sculling it is 
found to secure the better hold, and to give frei i 
play to the wrists for feathering. It is import a m 
that both hands should work together, both blades 
entering and quitting the water together, and both 
wii-is feathering simultaneously. If one hand is 
later than the other the course of the boat is 
distorted at each stroke. 

BOAT-RACING. Virgil, in jEneid, v., deserilies a 
boat-race between four Trojan galleys; ami the 
woiil 'regatta' is of Italian origin. But boat- 
racing may lie said to be almost exclusively an 
Anglo-Saxon sport. Germans of late have slightly 
taken it up, but 05 per cent, of the sport is found 
in Britain and her colonies and the United States. 

Eton and Westminster schools practised boat- 
racing in the early part of the century ; thence the 
pastime seems to have spread to the universities. 
One of the earliest races of the century was between 
Westminster boys and the 'Temple' crew, in six 
oars, the lioys winning. As early as 1815 college 
bumping" races in eight oars bad "begun at Oxford. 
In those days only three or four colleges manned 
eight. Cambridge adopted a similar sport at 
much the same date, or a year or so later. In 
1H29 the first Oxford and Cambridge match was 
rowed Hamhledon lock to Henley Bridge. The 
next was in 1836, Westminster to Putney ; after 
that at intervals till ls.">ti. since which date these 
matches have been annual. Up to 1808 Oxford 
had won 32 and Cambridge 2-2 of them. There 
was one ' dead heat ' ( 1877 ). Also, five times have 
the U.B.C.'s been drawn together in the same 



ROWING 



heat for the ' Grand Challenge' at Henley, of which 
Oxford won 3 and Cambridge 2 encounters; and 
once Oxford beat Cambridge in an encounter for 
the ' Gold Cup ' at the now extinct Thames regatta 
of the 'forties.' 'Outriggers' were first used by 
the two university crews in 1846. Sliding seats 
were first used by them in 1873. ' Keelless ' eights 
were first used by them in 1857. In 1845 the 
Putney to Mortlake course was first adopted for 
these matches. Outriggers are a contrivance for 
artificially extending the gunwales of a boat, so 
as to give the required leverage for the oar in the 
rowlock, while the rest of the hull is narrowed to 
offer less resistance to the water. The earliest 
application of the principle was with wooden out- 
riggers on the Tyne before 1836. Iron outriggers 
were first used by H. Clasper for a Tyne firm in a 
Thames regatta in 1844. 

Professional Racing. The earliest recorded pro- 
fessional champion sculling race was in 1831, when 
one Campbell, Thames waterman, beat one Williams 
for the championship of the Thames from West- 
minster to Putney. In 1847 the Putney to Mort- 
lake course was first adopted for these watermen's 
matches. In 1859 the title first left the Thames, and 
was won by R. Chambers of the Tyne. It oscillated 
between the representatives of these rivers, aliens 
and colonials now and then competing unsuccess- 
fully, until 1876, when E. Trickett of Australia 
beat J. Sadler of the Thames. Since that date the 
sculling premiership has oscillated between Canada 
and Australia ; E. Hanlan of Toronto, W. Beach 
of Sydney, and W. Searle of Sydney being the 
most noted holders. In 1889 Searle the holder 
died ; and there l>eing no tribunal to decide which 
two of various aspirants had the first claim to 
compete for the vacancy, or how many must com- 
pete before a new premier could be recognised, 
some doubt arose as to which, M'Lean or S tans- 
bury of Australia or O'Connor, United States, had 
the best claim at this moment to the honour. 

The 'Amateur Sculling Championship' is symbol- 
foed by the ' Wingtield Sculls,' established in 1830. 
The trophy now carries with it the amateur cham- 
pionship of England. The holder has to meet the 
best of all challengers once a year, on a date fixed 
by a committee of old champions, about July, or 
to abandon in favour of the best challenger. 

Regattas. Henley regatta was founded 1839. 
In 188B the course was changed as to some 300 
yards of its length, to avoid a corner which gave 
unfair advantages. It is now a three days' meet- 
ing, and comes off early in July each year. The 
prizes are 'Grand Challenge,' for best eight oars ; 
' Stewards' Cup,' for best four oars ; ' Ladies' Plate,' 
for college and school eights; 'Thames Cup,' for 
second-class eights ; ' Wytold Cup,' for second-class 
fours; 'Visitors,' for college and school fours; 
'Silver Goblets," for any pair of oarsmen; and 
' Diamond,' for sculls. By first and second class 
eights and fours are meant the classes which 
usually compete at the races referred to e.g. no 
one who rows for ' Grand Challenge ' may row for 
' Thames Cup ' the same year ; nor if he rows for 
' Stewards' ' lours may he row in a Wyfold crew ; 
and as the ' Grand ' and ' Steward ' are the more 
valuable prizes, the better eights and fours usually 
elect to do battle for them, and the weaker reserve 
themselves for the lesser races. There are other 
regattas of less importance e.g. ' Metropolitan," 
on the Thames tideway, Kingstpn-on-Thames, 
Walton-on-Thames, Moulsey, Reading, &c. ; and 
provincial regattas at Tewkesbury, Bridgnorth, 
Worcester, Tyne, Durham, Burton-on-Trent, Bed- 
ford, &c. 

The best regattas affiliate themselves to the 
'Amateur Rowing Association,' a sort of jockey 
dub of oarsmanship, the object of which is to pro- 



mote rowing, and to put a stop to performances 
inconsistent with amateur status e.g. rowing for 
money prizes, and the introduction of competitions 
against artisans, mechanics, &c. Such classes, by 
making a business of muscular toil, have an advan- 
tage for muscular development over amateurs, whose 
more sedentary vocations give them less opportunity 
for developing muscle. At the same time it is the 
opinion of good judges that at the present day the 
best amateur oarsmen would in rowing defeat the 
best professional oarsmen. In sculling, apparently, 
the test colonial professional scullers are still 
superior to the best British amateur scullers ; but 
the British professionals are probably no tetter 
than, if so good as, the average amateur Winglield 
sculler of the present day. The Amateur Rowing 
Association publishes a code of regatta rules. All 
regattas which are affiliated to the Amateur Row- 
ing Association adopt this code. Oarsmen who 
row at regattas where this code is not in force 
become thereby ineligible to row afterwards at 
regattas where it holds good. 

Professional Regattas and Prizes. A professional 
regatta for watermen was revived in 1890 and pro- 
misee to continue. It is under the patronage of 
the leading amateurs of the day. There were 
similar regattas between 1843 and 1849 inclusive, 
again between 1854 and 1866 inclusive, and again 
between 1868 and 1876 inclusive. In the other 
years not specified no local professional regattas 
were conducted by leading amateurs ; but in 1876- 
77-78 a ' speculative ' regatta for gate-money and 
traffic purposes was got up by the Steamboat 
Company and contingent railways. ' Doggett's 
Coat and Badge ' is an old-established race dating 
from 1719. Mr Doggett, a comedian, provided it. 
It is for watermen's apprentices ; the winner gets 
an ornamental red coat, a silver badge, and ' free- 
dom ' of the Thames i.e. his fees for taking up his 
freedom as a waterman are paid for him. No 
one who is not 'free' of the Thames may ply 
for hire upon it to carry passengers. This regula- 
tion dates from days when the Thames was more 
of a highway for passenger rowing boats than it 
now is. \Vatermen's wherries then plied from 
numerous stairs, and it was important that none 
but competent and certified oarsmen should have 
the charge of passengers. There are other coats 
and badges extant, given at divers times by phil- 
anthropists to encourage watermen's apprentices. 
An apprentice has to serve seven years to a water- 
man before he is qualified to be ' free ' of the river. 

Bumping Races. In 'bumping' races at the 
universities the varions boats start in line, 120 feet 
apart, by signal of cannon. The order of starting 
depends on order of precedence in the last previous 
race, whether the same year or the year before. If 
a boat is touched from behind in the race, both 
boats row into the bank, and the ' bumped ' boat 
loses a place and changes order next time with 
the Iwat that so ' bumped ' it. The head boat of 
the river at Oxford holds a challenge cup given 
in 1862 by the late Mr G. Morrison. 

Time Races. At Oxford and Cambridge, owing 
to the narrowness and curvatures of their respective 
rivers, other races, such as for four oars or sculls, 
are rowed as ' time ' races. The boats start two at a 
time, 80 yards apart, their respective winning-posts 
are the like distance apart, and their respective 
arrivals at their goals are announced by pistol shots. 

Level Racing Rulet, Ac. In regattas and matches 
boats start abreast, and in modern times to ensure 
equal starting the rudder of each competitor is held 
from a starting-boat, one for each racing crew, 
moored in line. ' Fouling ' is not allowed ; each 
boat has to keep its own water ; the umpire i sole 
judge of the course and of fouling, and usually 
follows the race in a fast eight or steam-launch. 



10 



K(.\vi\(; 



ROWLANDSON 



All Iwat* abide by their accident* e.g. of broken 
gear or apcets. 

Sin/I mi Mr-its. -The us* of wilding seat* began 
in 1S7I "in England. A mericans had previously 
ucd I. nt thought little of the novelties. A T\ m- 
crew, ciiptiiined by F. Taylor, matched against 
anottii-r Tyne crew, lined inch seats in a match, 
mW* 1871. and won with tlirm. Next year 
four Henley crew* adopted them with marked 
success, and the Lon<ln BttwiMg Chili used them in 
a winning match r. Atalanta Rowing Club, of New 
York, hi IST.'t they IWINUIIP universally adopted. 
Leading amateur clul>* prohiliit use of slides by 
their beginners, till swing on fixed Beats has been 
lir-t mastered, else there is a tendency in a tyro to 
sacrifice swing to slide. Slide should conclude with 
swing. The slide should' be field till the body is 
nearly or unite per|>endicular in the swing l>ack. 
Then the slide may be released, and the legs should 
be extended gradually, the extension to terminate 
contemporaneously with the oar reaching the 
chest. 

f'n nit* in Rowing. A ' coach ' or tutor of a crew 
endeavours to cure faults by admonition, BO as to 
get his crew into ' form ' and style. Uniformity of 
oars and of action of bodies has much to do with 
pace in a racing boat, though, of course, strength 
is also an important factor. Still a strong oar 
who mars uniformity among his comrades often 
does more harm than good, and is well replaced by 
a lighter and neater oarsman. Among salient 
faults may be specified 'rowing out of time,' by 
letting the oar enter or leave the water too soon or 
too late; 'rowing light' i.e. not covering the 
blade ; ' rowing deep ' i.e. burying the shank as 
well as the blade of the oar; 'feathering under 
water;' 'sliding too soon' or too suddenly. 
Among ' faults of swing ' are ' hanging ' with the 
body oefore recovery, or when forward before 
dropping the oar in ; delay in shooting out the 
hands ; ' bending the arms ' too soon ; bending the 
back in the middle of the stroke instead of swing- 
ing from hips ; hunching the shoulders ; ' screwing ' 
Le. not swinging straight in a line with the keel ; 
'meeting the oar i.e. swinging to meet the oar- 
handle instead of rowing it well home ; ' rowing 
short ' Le. not swinging to full reach forward. 

Stroke and ' No. 7.' A ' stroke ' is selected to set 
a good style to the men who are to copy him. Hence 
-t\le more than rough strength is of importance 
for this post. A stroke should be lively in swing ; 
harp in catching hold of the first part of the 
stroke ; long in reach ; even in swing ; even in 
time, like a |M*ndulum ; a good judge of the pace 
of stroke which he U rowing ; capable of ' spurt- 
ing' i.e. of quickening the pace of stroke when 
extra speed is needed, and this without getting 
short in reach. Thirty strokes a minute is a fair 
practice stroke. In racing for a mile or mile and 
balf course as many as forty-four a minute can be 
rowed long by good crews. Over a four mile course 
thirty-seven a minute, well rowed at full length of 
reach, U about as much as can lie done, excepting a 
final ' spurt' ' No. 7 ' is second to none in import- 
ance in an eight oar. He couples stroke to the 
crew. The best man in the team should if possible 
be plan-d here : a weak No. 7 takes many points of 
merit otfa crew, anil cripples the work of good but 
rough men )>ehind him. 

./. Four oars are now rowed without 
coxswains, except in junior or second-class races. 
One of the oarsmen steers with levers attached to 
bis stretcher and connected with the rudder by 
wirea, In an eight, a coxswain is an important 
factor ; he should have nerve and judgment, and 
be capable of reminding his crew of faults, when, 
as in a race, no ' coach ' or mentor can attend 
them. The main art in steering is to keep the 



boat in a straight rourse by gent le touch and adjust 
meiit of the i mliler lines, not by hard pulls, wl.ieli 
tend to spoil equilibrium, and to bring tin- Unit lound 
too sharply. In going round a curve the lxms 
should not be e\]>ccicd t<> point in the direction 
required. They must of necessity point outwards, 
because the l>oat lies as a tangent to a curve. 

Roving Club*. Among leading amateur rowing 
club*, besides the universities, may In- mentioned 
the I^eander, the London liowing Club, Thames 
Mowing Club, Kingston, Moulsey ; these usually 
supply the competitors at Henley, together ith the 
universities. There are good pnn incial dul at 
])urham, Worcester, Bridgnorth, Bedford, Hunt 
ingdon, Burton, &C. Among schools Eton. 
Had ley, Westminster, Magdalen (Oxford), I 
ford 'Grammar' and Bedford 'Modern' supply 
good oarsmen Eton especially. Of university 
crews nearly one-half are made up on the average 
of old Etonians. 

Training. ' Condition ' promotes endurance in a 
contest, whether of horse or man. Hence train 
ing is an important item in preparation for a lioat- 
i ace. Hard work trains ; regulated diet keeps the 
oarsman up to this hard work, and puts on extra 
muscle to replace fat which hard work has sweated 
off. Five weeks is a minimum time for full train- 
ing where oarsmen have been out of work for 
some time ; n shorter period may suffice if they 
have not lieen inactive for long. Professionals 
n-iially train for three months before a match. 
The usual rules are early rising say 7 A.M. a 
short morning walk, bath, breakfast, morning 
row (if studies or business hours admit of it), 
luncheon or mid-day dinner, afternoon or evening 
row (according to season of year), late dinner or 
supper, a short post-prandial stroll, a cup of gruel 
or chocolate, aim bed for nine hours. After each 
row the body should be well washed and rubUtl 
down. As to diet. For breakfast : beef or mutton, 
cold or broiled ; some fish, if wanted ; an egg ; water- 
cress or lettuce ; and two cups of tea ; stale bread or 
t oast. Luncheon : cold meat and some green food ; 
or broiled meat and vegetables. Dinner : fish ; 
joints of beef or mutton ; vegetables any greens, 
asparagus, spinach, a potato or two, &c. ; now and 
then a modicum of poultry as an extra course; 
Mewed fruit; rice or plain farinaceous pudding. 
1 >rink : at luncheon or dinner, ale, claret and water, 
or champagne. A pint at each meal usually 
suffices; in sultry weather a little more fluid may 
lie allowed, in which case it is best to let the extra 
supply be water only. Oranges or strawberries are 
allowed for dessert, and a glass or two of claret or 
one of port. Pork and veal are tabooed, as l>eing in- 
digestible in the large quantities which hungry men 
consume. Such is modern training. In earlier 
decades less liberality was allowed. Steaks, chops, 
and plain joints formed the staple supplies, and 
the hobby was to have them ' underdone,' almost 
to semi-rawness. This system often produces dis 
order of blood, resulting in boils, the died of too 
much animal food without sufficient green meat. 
Professionals still adhere to old creeds of training 
more tenaciously than do modern amateurs. 

See Routing by Rowe and Pitman (Badminton aerie*, 
1898); Rowing by I/ehmann d-thmi.oi M 
Boating (1888), Roving ajul X. //,,; ( IKS'.) |, and I 
andSculU (2d ed. 1889), by the present writer. 

KowlaildsOIt. THOMAS, caricaturist, wns Ixirn 
in the Old Jewry in .lulv 17"><i. Me was scni to 
Paris at fifteen, and here lie studied art and gained 
a taste for the pleasures of the town. The over- 
indulgence of a wealthy French aunt first taught 
him improvidence, and 'tin- 7000 she left him he 
quickly gambled away, once continuing at the 
gaming-table, we are told, for thirty-six hours 
continuously. Yet he maintained his uprightness 



ROWLEY 



ROY 



11 



of character, hated debt, and when he had played 
the fool turned to his work as his resource. He 
travelled over England and Wales, often visited 
Plymouth, Portsmouth, Southampton, and especi- 
ally Yarmouth, and, being a humorist to the 
marrow, enjoyed life to the full in his tavern, 
with his tankard and his pipe, and the company 
of friends like Moreland, Gillray, and Bunhnrv. 
He died April 22, 1827. Rowlandson took little 
pains over his work, yet his drawings never lack 
the essential elements "of his strength, variety, and 
humour. He possessed rare dexterity of touch, 
fertility of imagination, and knowledge of the 
human figure, and, though he was not seldom 
vulgar, he was never feeble. He was a relentless 
hater of Napoleon to his fall, belittling his great- 
ness by countless travesties ; and though he took 
his part in many of the i>olitical contests of his 
day, he was never a mere party satirist. His 
strength lay in broadly human humour, as seen at 
its richest among the lower orders of the popula- 
tion, as in his famous Vauxhall drawing. Some of 
his best- known works are his Imitations of Modern 
Drawings ( 1784-88), and his caricature illustrations 
to Syntax's Three Tours, the Dance of Death, the 
Military Adventures of Johnny Newcome, Sterne's 
Sentimental Journey, Peter Pindar, the Bath Guide, 
Munchausen's Travels, &c. 

See Joseph f Jrego'a exhaustive Rowlandson the Carica- 
tvrM(2vol*. 1880). 

Rowley, WILLIAM, an actor and playwright 
under James I., of whose life but little is known, 
save that he was honoured by collaborating with 
such illustrious dramatists as Dekker, Middleton, 
Heywood, \VeIt<-r, Massinger, and Ford, most 
probably for his skill in stage situation, not less 
than the amiability of his character. Four plays 
connected with his name are extant : A New Womli'r, 
a Woman never vext ( 1632, in vol. xii. of Dodsley ) ; 
All 's Lost by Lust, a tragedy ( 1633) ; A Match at 
Mi'! night (1633); and A Shoemaker a Gentleman 
(UK). 

Rowley Regis, a town of Staffordshire, 3 
miles SE. of Dudley, within whose parliamentary 
limits it partly lies. The parish church dates from 
the 13th century, but was rebuilt in 1840 (the 
tower in 1858). There are collieries, ironworks, 
stone-quarries, potteries, implement-works, and 
breweries. l>,,p. ( 1851 ) 14,249 ; ( 1891 ) 30,791. 

Rowton Heath, a battle of the Great Re- 
bellion, fouglit under the walls of Chester, Sep- 
tember 24, 1645. After the crushing disaster of 
Naseby the king fled to Wales, and next formed 
the desperate project to march northwards to 
Montrose. The city of Chester was then being 
besieged by Sir William Brereton, but the king 
succeeded in finding an entrance, and charged Sir 
M-muaduke Langdale to raise the siege. The 
parliamentarians had just been reinforced by 
Poynti's Yorkshire horse when Sir Marmaduke 
attacked them. He was utterly defeated, with a 
loss of 300 killed and 1000 prisoners, and the 
disaster, added to Philiphaugh, stripped the un- 
happy king ofliis last hope. 

Roxburghe C'liib. See BOOK-CLI-B. 

Roxburuliinreir, a natural order of mono- 
!'!< .nous plants, perhaps better called Stem- 
onaceit. Tim species are verv few, natives of 
the hotter parts of the East Indies. The stems of 
'mryhia ( Stemona ) mridiflora, a native of Chit- 
tagong, the Malayan Islanps, &c., are sometimes 
100 fathoms long. The thick tuberous roots are 
boiled ami soaked in lime-water, to remove their 
acridity, and are then candied with sugar and 
taken with tea, but are considered rather insipid. 
The name was given by Sir Joseph Banks, in 
honour of the botanist Roxburgh. 



Roxburghshire, a Scotch Border county, 
bounded bv Berwickshire, Northumberland and 
Cumberland, Dumfriesshire, Selkirkshire, and Mid- 
lothian. Its greatest length is 42 miles ; its greatest 
breadth 30 miles ; and its area 670 sq. m., or 428,494 
acres. In the north the Tweed winds 25 miles 
eastward, receiving in this course Gala and Leader 
Waters and the Teviot, which last runs 37 miles 
north-eastward from above Hawick to Kelso, and 
itself receives the Ale, Slitrig, Rule, Jed, <S:c. 
Thus the whole county, often called Teviotdale, 
drains to the German Ocean, with the exception 
only of Liddesdale, or Castleton parish, in the 
extreme south, whose 106 sq. m. belong to the 
western basin of the Solway Firth. The Cheviots 
(q.v. ) extend along the south-eastern Ixmndary, 
their highest point here Auchopecairn (2382 feet) ; 
in the interior rise Ruberslaw ( 1392) and the triple 
Eildons ( 1385). Much of the low ground is of fair 
fertility, and great improvements have been made 
in agriculture ; but rather less than two-thirds of 
the entire area is in cultivation, and the raising of 
crops is of much less importance than the grazing 
of half a million sheep. Rents, however, increased 
two- or threefold, or even fourfold, l>etween 1750 
and 1815, and the county valuation advanced 
steadily from 254,130 in that year to a maximum 
of 439,860 in 1877. since which date it has again 
declined considerably owing to agricultural depres- 
sion. Roxburgh, which gave the county it- name, 
has been quite superseded by Kelso (q.v.); and 
Jedburgh, the county town, is very much smaller 
than Hawick ; other places are Melrose, Den- 
holm, St Boswells, Yetholm, &c. Chief seats are 
Floors Castle, Mount Teviot, Minto House, and 
Abboteford ; and the dukes of Buccleuch and Rox- 
Inirghe are much the largest proprietors. The 
antiquities include hill-forts; long stretches of the 
C'atrail and Watling Street ; the castles or peel- 
towers of Hermitage, Branxliolm, Harden, Fernie- 
hirst, Smailholm, &c. ; and the noble monastic 
ruins of Melrose, Jedburgh, and Kelso. Besides 
many more worthies, four poets James Thomson, 
Jean Elliot, Leyden, and Aird were natives ; but, 
although not his birthplace, Roxburghshire is pre- 
eminently the land of Scott. It witnessed many 
a fray, but no battle greater than Ancrum Moor 
(q.v.). The county returns one member to parlia- 
ment. Pop. (1801) 33,721; (1831) 43,663; (1861) 
54,119; (1891)53,741. 

See Jeffrey's History of Roxburghshire (4 vols. 1857- 
64 ), and other works cited at BORDERS, BALLAD, HAWICK, 
TWEED, MKLHOSE, Ao. 

Roxbury, formerly a separate city of Massa- 
chu-i'tts, annexed in 1867 to Boston (q.v.), of 
which it forms the 13th, 14th, and 15th wards. 
Pop. (1870) 34,772; (1890) 66,791. 

Roy, WILLIAM, the first of British geodesists, 
was born May 4, 1726, at Miltonhead, in Carluke 
parish, Lanarkshire, his father being factor ami 
gardener to the Hamiltons of Hallcraig. He was 
educated at the parish school and Lanark grammar- 
school, and in 1747 is found acting as deputy- 
quartermaster in the Royal Engineers corps, 
engaged on the survey of Scotland. His name 
first Hgnres in the Army List in 1757, and he 
gradually rose to be lieutenant-colonel (1764), 
colonel ("1777 ), and major-general (1781). In 1783 
he undertook as a labour of love to measure a base 
line (see ORDNANCE SURVEY) on Honnslow Heath, 
of 27.404J feet, or about 5t miles, which, though 
the first measurement of the kind in Britain pre- 
tending to accuracy, was executed with such care 
that, on being remeasured after Roy's death, the 
difference between the two results was found to 
be only 2J inches. For this splendid labour Roy 
receive'd the Royal Society's Copley medal. His 



12 



KOYAL ACADEMY 



ROYAL FAMILY 



Ubonra connected with the work extended from 
July 1787 till Sp| iti'iii UT 1788, when he returned 
to London in ill-health, which necessitated his 
removal to the warmer latitude of Lislton in the 
winter of 1789 ; but he returned to London, and 
died there suddenly, 30th June 1790. In 1767 Roy 
wan elected a Fellow of the Koyal Society, to whose 
Transactions he contributed, in 1777, ' Experiment* 
made in Britain to obtain a Rule for Measuring 
Heights with the Barometer. ' He had also during 
survey work in Scotland (1704) paid particular 
attention to the camps and other Roman remains 
in that country, and nis Military Antiquities oftlte 
Romans in Britain was published in 1793 by the 
Society of Antiquaries. Roy wan also surveyor- 
general of the coasts of Great Britain. 

See two article* in the Proc. Sac. Antiquaries Scot. 
(L p. 147, 1855; and U. p. 562, 1873). 

Royal Academy. Previous to the founda- 
tion of the Royal Academy various more or less 
successful attempts had been made in England to 
raise the status of artiste, to consolidate their aims 
and efforts, to provide means for presenting their 
works to the public, and to fumi-h systematic art 
instruction. The succession of art schools from 
Kneller to Shipley is given at ART INSTRUCTION 
(Vol. I. p. 456). In 174."i Hogarth and others, with 
the view of making their works known, presented 
certain of them to the Foundling Hospital. The 
public having been greatly attracted, they, in 
1760, opened a free exhibition in the rooms of 
the Society of Arts ; and, in the following year, a 
series of exhibitions was begun in Spring Gardens, 
and its promoters, styled 'The Incorporated Society 
of Artiste of Great Britain,' received a royal 
charter in 1765. Disputes having arisen, twenty- 
nine members of this society (not according to 
Redgrave twenty-two only, as stated by Sandby ) 
memorialised George III. to establish an academy 
for the encouragement of the arts of design, and 
the plan they submitted having been approved, 
the ' Royal Academy of Arts in London ' was 
founded, 10th December 1768. The ' Instrument ' 
of foundation provided for forty academicians, 
from whom the president and other officials, in- 
cluding professors of fine art in its various branches, 
should be elected ; and annual exhibitions were 
stipulated for, their proceeds to be devoted to the 
aid of indigent artists and to the support of the 
Academy. In 1769 a class of twenty associates 
(to have no share in the government of the body, a 
restriction since modified ) was created, and also a 
class of six associate-engravers, on the same footing, 
excepting that they were ineligible for election as 
academicians, a restriction now withdrawn. In 
1780 George III. assigned rooms to the academy 
in Somerset House, and during twelve years he 
contributed 3116 to its funds from the privy purse. 
As tersely stated by Redgrave, ' the strength of 
the new institution consisted in its- combining, 
under a well-framed code of laws, the most esteemed 
artiste of the day, empowered to manage their own 
allairs.' Thirty-nine artiste are named in the 
instrument of incorporation, including Reynolds, 
Gainsborough, and Richard Wilson, and ten of them 
were foreigners ; Sir Joshua was, by acclamation, 
elected the tirst president. The management and 
result* of the Royal Academy formed the subject of 
parliamentary inquiry In 1H33-36, and in 1863. See 
Sandby ' Ilisturti of the Royal Anulnny ( 1SG2). 

The Royal Hibernian Academy was founded by 
charter in 1823, consisting of fourteen academicians 
and ten associates, and ita first president, Francis 
Johnston, presented ground and erected buildings 
thereon for the use of the body. 

Thi> Scotti-h Aeaili-my, the successor of such 
exhibiting bodies as the society of 'Associated 



Artiste' and the Royal Institution, was founded in 
1826, under the presidentship of George \V; at son, 
consisting of thirty academicians anil sixteen 
associates (the latter increased in 1830 to twenty). 
In 1838 it received 11 charter, entitling it to il.e 
style of 'The Koyiil Srotiisli Academy of Painting, 
Sculpture, and Architecture;' and in 1891 a supple- 
mentary charter was granted, admitting associates 
to a share in the management of the body, and 
removing any limit to their niiinl.ei > ( but providing 
that only twenty shall participate in the pension 
fund), and granting extended powers for dealing 
with nun resident and non-exhibiting members. 
See Sir G. Harvey's Notes of the Early History of 
the Royal Scottish Aratlemy (2*1 ed. 1878). 

Royal Academy of Music, the name first 
given in England to an association for performing 
operas, mainly those of Handel, founded by the 
king and the principal nobility and gentry of the 
country, which survived for but a few years. The 
well-known educational institute now bearing the 
name was founded in 1823 by Lord Btirghersh 
( 1784-1859, afterwards eleventh Earl of Westmor- 
land, and not less distinguished as a musician than 
as soldier and diplomatist ), who saw with regret 
the great disadvantages under which natives of 
Great Britain suffered as compared with those of 
foreign countries in respect of musical education. 
The institution, which received a charter in 1830, 
was designed to give concerts as well as to provide 
musical education ; and it has instructed many of 
the leading instrumentalists and vocalists of both 
sexes. Since its re-constitution in 1866 the most 
distinguished principals have been Sir George 
Macfarren (1876-87) and Dr A. C. Mackenzie 
(appointed 1888). The Royal Academy of Music 
is distinct from the Royal College of Music (see 
CONSERVATOIRE ), though allied with it for pro- 
moting musical education throughout the country 
by means of an Associated Board.' 

Royal Assent. See PARLIAMENT ; and for 
royal prerogative, &c., see SOVEREIGN, WARRANT, 
SUPREMACY, COMMISSIONS, CHARTER, BOUNTY. 
HOUSEHOLD, HUMANE SOCIETY. For the Iloyal 
Arms, see HERALDRY; also CIVIL LIST, SOCIETIES. 

Royal Family. By the law of Englaml nival 
rank is conceded to the wife or husband, children 
or other descendants, and collateral relatives of the 
sovereign. For the position and rights of a Queen- 
consort or Queen-dowager, see the article QUEEN. 
The hiisl>and of a reigning queen does not acquire 
any share in her prerogative rights, but it is usual 
t<i grant him special precedence; King Philip and 
William III. were associated in title and power 
with their wives by act of parliament. Of the 
sovereign's children the eldest son is, of course, 
heir-apparent ; he is born Duke of Cornwall, and 
he is always created Prince of Wales (q.v.). The 
Prince ana Princess of Wales and the Princess 
Royal (the eldest daughter of the sovereign) are 
within the protection ofthe statute of Edward III. 
relating to Treason (q.v.). An heir-presumptive 
to the throne has no special rank or precedence as 
such. The younger children of the sovereign take 
rank after tiie heir-apparent ; by a statute of 1540 
a place is assigned to them at the side of the cloth 
of estate in tire parliament chamber ; it is custom- 
ary to confer peerages on all the younger sons. On 
a reference by George II. to the House of Lords it 
was held that Edward, Duke of York, second son of 
the Prince of Wales, was entitled to a place among 
the king's children. Members of the royal family 
enjoy considerable privileges ; they pay no tolls or 
duties, and they are exempted from succession 
duty and some other taxes. 

In order to protect the succession to the crown 
against the dangers which might arise from unsuit- 



ROYAL FERN 



ROYAL SOCIETY 



13 



able alliances, the following special rules are 
applied to members of the royal family : ( 1 ) By 
the Royal Marriage Act of 1772 it is enacted that 
no descendant of George II. ( other than the issue 
of princesses married into foreign families) may 
marry without the consent of the sovereign ; any 
marnage contracted without such consent is void. 
But any such descendant, if above the age of 
twenty-five, may, after twelve months' notice to 
the Privy-council, contract marriage without such 
consent, unless both Houses of Parliament declare 
their disapproval. All persons who solemnise or 
are present at a marriage contrary to the act are 
liable to the penalties of praemunire. The act was 
passed in consequence of the marriage of the Duke 
of Gloucester with the widow of Lord Waldegrave 
and of the Duke of Cumberland with the widow of 
Colonel Horton. In 1793 the Duke of Sussex was 
married at Rome to Lady Augusta Murray ; the 
marriage was declared void by the Prerogative 
Court, and the claims of Sir Augustus d'Este, eldest 
son of the marriage, were rejected by the House 
of Lords in 1844. (2) The grandchildren of the 
sovereign ( not being the issue of princesses married 
to foreigners and residing abroad) are under the 
control of the sovereign, who may order the place 
of their abode, without regard to the wishes of 
their parents. The law was so laid down by a 
majority of the judges in the case of the children 
of Frederick, Prince of Wales, in 1737. The policy 
of these rules has been much questioned, and the 
conduct of George IV. in regard to his marriage 
with Mrs Fitzherbert ( q. v. ) in 1785 affords a strong 
argument against the existing law. 

The civil list being found inadequate to the 
maintenance of the royal family. Queen Victoria 
was empowered to grant to various members of 
her family, annuities payable out of the Consoli- 
dated Fund ; these aggregated 188,000 per annum 
at the time of her death. Any proposed grant 
to a royal personage is tolerably certain to be 
opposed in the House of Commons ; the arguments 
in favour of such grants were forcibly stated by 
Mr Gladstone in his speech on the proposal to 
make provision for the children of the Prince of 
Wales, delivered during the session of 1890. 

Royal Feril (0wnrfn), the most striking of 
British ferns ; it grows in damp places, and used to 




Royal Fern ( Omunda regalit) : 
*, leaflet of barren frond ; 6, portion of fertile frond. 

be fairly common in the district* of Scotland and 
Ireland of a very moist climate, bnt is disappearing 



before collectors. It has two kinds of leaves, 
sterile and fertile ; the sterile are bipinnate ; the 
fertile, covered with spore-cases, have the appear- 
ance of a pannicled inflorescence, due to the 
absorption of the central tissues hence the name 
Flowering Fern. The genus is allied to another, 
Todea, which has only one kind of leaf, and the 
two are included in the order Osmundacea>. There 
are only a very few species. The order occupies a 
position between the typical ferns and the Marat- 
tiacese. The spores give rise at once to the pro- 
thallium without the intervention of a protonema ; 
and the prothalli tend to be unisexual i.e. to 
have the male and female organs on separate 
plants ; or the male organs appear on the prothallus 
before the female. The bases of the leaves and 
root-stocks are rich in mucilage, which, being 
extracted by boiling water, is sometimes used in 
north Europe instead of starch. 

Royal George. See WRECKS. 

Royal Institution, founded in 1799 by Count 
Rumford, Sir Joseph Banks, and others, received a 
royal charter in 1800, and had for its objects the 
facilitating of mechanical inventions, the promo- 
tion of their use, and the teaching of science and 
its applications by means of lectures and experi- 
ments. It was reconstituted in 1810. Among its 
lecturers have l>een Thomas Young, Davy, Brande, 
Faraday, Tyndall, Frankland, and Rayleigh. It 
maintains professors of natural philosophy, chemis- 
try and physiology, and has laboratories ( including 
since 1896 the Davy-Faraday research laboratory 
presented by Dr Ludwig Mond ). 

Royal Military Asylum, an institution at 
Chelsea for educating the sons generally orphans 
of British soldiers. For these there are a 
model school and an infant school, and the boys 
have a completely military organisation, with 
scarlet uniform. Irnnd, &c. The school was origin- 
ally established in 1803 by the Duke of York, 
whence it is still commonly known as the ' Duke 
of York's School.' There is a similar institution, 
the Royal Hibernian Military School, at the 
Phoenix Park, Dublin. As a result of their train- 
ing a large proportion of the pupils ultimately 
volunteer into the army ; and the military bands 
are largely recruited from these schools. See 
MILITARY SCHOOLS, BAND. 

Royal Society. The origin of this society 
may be traced back to those stirring years of civil 
strife that brought in the Commonwealth. Clubs 
for political, theological, and sectarian purposes 
were then numerous and active ; and in the year 
1645 ' divers worthy persons, inquisitive into 
natural philosophy, and other parts of human 
learning, did, by agreements, meet weekly in Lon- 
don on a certain day, to treat and discourse of such 
affairs.' Among these worthy persons were certain 
medical men, Dr Wilkins, afterwards Bishop of 
Chester ; Foster, professor of astronomy in Gresnam 
College ; Wallis, the mathematician ; and others, 
including Haak, a learned German from the Pala- 
tinate ; and out of their meetings arose the now 
world-famous Royal Society. Wallis records that 
the subjects discoursed of were ' the circulation of 
the blood ; the valves in the veins ; the vense 
lactese ; the lymphatic vessels ; the Copemican 
hypothesis ; the nature of comets and new stars ; 
the satellites of Jupiter ; the oval shape of Saturn ; 
the spots in the sun, and its turning on its own 
axis ; the inequalities and selenography of the 
moon ; the several phases of Venus and Mercury ; 
the improvement of telescopes, and grinding of 
glasses for that purpose ; the weight of air ; the 
possibility or impossibility of vacuities, and nature's 
abhorrence thereof ; the Torricellian experiment in 
quicksilver ; the descent of heavy bodies, and the 



14 



ROYAL SOCIETY 



HOY M.TV 



degree* of acceleration therein ; nnd divers other 
thing* <f like nature.' In 1662 the jientevering 
philosophers' (an students of the mathematical 
ami natural science* were then usually called ) were, 
through the 'gnu* and favour' of Charles 11., 
incorporated by charter, in which they were de- 
scribed a* the l!iyal Society of London for the 
Proiiiotn.il Hi Natural Knowledge. The king gave 
tin-in alo a mace, and subsequently granted two 
other charters conferring additional power* and 
privileges. They are inscribed in a handsome 
volume known as the Charter Book, whieh, con- 
taining, as it doe*, the sign-manual of the founder, 
of other royal personages, and of nearly every 
Fellow elected into the society, presents a collec- 
tion of autographs unequalled in the worlil. 

Through many difficulties the young society pur- 
sue.1 their way. Their meetings were intermpted 
by the plague ami the great nre ; but in March 
1664 6.1 they lutil published the first number of the 
Philosophical Transactions, and thus commenced a 
record of their lalmnrs and researches, and at the 
name time a history of science of the highest value, 
which now comprises upwards of one hundred and 
eighty quarto volumes. Besides this, the society pub- 
lish an octavo serial entitled Proceedings, in which an 
account of the ordinary meetings is set forth. This 
serial was commenced in 1800, and now till- over 
forty-eight volumes. Another publication, in eleven 
quarto volumes, is I lie ' 'ntnlogiie of Scientific Papers, 
containing the titles of scientific papers published in 
all parts of the world from 1HOO downwards. This 
great work, invaluable for purposes of reference, was 
compiled at the cost of the society, and gives in 
methodical form a record of the scientific progress 
of the century. These works are not restricted to 
the Fellows, but are sold to the general public. 
By increase of numbers including scientific men 
on the Continent, who were elected as foreign 
members the society widened their sphere of use- 
fulness. They promoted the publication of New- 
ton's Principia and optical works ; they lent in- 
strument* to Greenwich Observatory in its early 
days, and were appointed visitors of that establish- 
ment by Queen Anne a function which they Mill 
exercise ; they aided travellers and scientific inves- 
tigators ; through force of circumstances, they 
became the advisers of the government on scientific 
subject* ; Cook's celebrated voyage to observe the 
transit of Venus was undertaken at their instance ; 
and from the voyage of the Endeavour down to the 
voyage of the Challenger it would be difficult to 
specify a scientific expedition which had not been 
equipped under the advice of the Royal Society. 
In 1710 the society removed to a house which 
they Imught in Crane Court, Fleet Street. In 1780, 
by order of George III., quarters were assigned to 
them in the then new palatial building, Somerset 
House. There they aliode until 1857, when, at the 
request of the government, they migrated westward 
to Burlington House, a wing of which they now 
occupy. 

Tin: society's session commences on the third 
Thursday in Noveml>er, and ends on the third 
Thursday in June. During this period meetings 
an- In-lit weekly at 4.30 P.M. for the reading and 
discussion of papers, and these papers are for the 
most part afterwards published in the Proceedings 
or the Philosophical Transactions. The anniversary 
meeting is held on November 30. At that meeting 
tin- society elect a council to carry on their work 
through the ensuing year. This council, compris- 
ing president, treasurer, and secretaries, numbers 
twenty-one persons. The numlier of candidates 
for election into the society averages between fifty 
and sixty every year. From these the council elects 
fifti-i-n, whose names are printed and sent to every 
Fellow, and in June the annual meeting takes place 



at which the fifteen are elected ; but any Fellow i 
at lilierty to alter the list of names. There are in 
all aliout'ftOO Fellows, including 50 foreign members. 
The society's income is derived from funded and 
landed property, and the annual contributions of 
the Fellows. Each Fellow contributed 4 yearly, 
or paid a life-composition of 60, with an admi--iim 
fee of 10, till, a few years ago, a fund was raised 
to abolish admission leer, and reduce the annual 
contribution to 3. Each Fellow is entitled to the 
Philosophical Transactions and Proceedings, and In 
the use of the library' of about 45,000 volumes. 
The society formerly undertook the administra- 
tion of the 1000 annually voted by parliament for 
scientific purposes, and also assisted in the admin- 
istration of an additional grant. In 1882 a single 
grant of 4000 was substituted for the fund ami 
grant of past years. The society also assists in the 
naming of the Meteorological Council, which re- 
ceives a government grant. The president is a 
trustee of the British Museum. In fulfilment of 
trusts the society award annually, in recognition 
of scientific work and discoveries, the ( 'opley medal 
and two Royal medals ; the Rumford medal every 
two years for researches in light or heat ; nnd the 
Davy medal for chemical investigations. Some of 
the most illustrious names in the annals of science 
appear on the roll of president* of the Royal Society. 

The ROYAL SOCIKTV <>F EI>INIUI:I;H, which took 
the place of the Philosophical Society of that citv, 
was incorporated by royal charter in 1783. It 
owed it- origin to Principal Robertson the his- 
torian, who successfully laboured to found in 
Edinburgh a society on the model of the Berlin 
Academy, for the investigation and discussion of 
subjects in every branch of science, erudition, and 
taste. In obtaining the royal charter the Principal 
was aided by the influence of Henry, Duke of 
Buccleuch, who zealously co-operated in the found- 
ation of the society. The society was formally 
constituted at a meeting held in the College Library 
on the 23d June 1783, where the subsequent meet- 
ings were held till 1810, when the society purchased 
a nouse in George Street. In 1826 the society 
removed to its present apartments, leased from 
government, in the Royal Institution buildings in 
Princes Street The original list of members included 
the names of most of tin- literati of Scotland such 
as David Hume, Dugald Stewart, Henry Macken/ie, 
Adam Smith, Thomas Reid, Joseph Home, Sir 
James Hall, Joseph Black, James Hutton, and 
James Watt. The first president was Henry, Duke 
of Buccleuch ; and amongst his successors have 
been Sir Walter Scott, the Duke of Argyll, Sir 
David Brewster, and Sir William Thomson. 

The meetings of the society are held on the first 
and third Mondays of every month from DecemU-r 
to July. The funds derived from fees are supple- 
mented by an annual grant of 300 voted by 
parliament. The papers read before this teamed 
body are published in its Transactions, of which 
thirty five volumes have l>een published in quarto. 
Abstracts of the papers also appear in its Proa-fil- 
ings, of which seventeen volumes have ap|ienred in 
octavo. The number of ordinary Fellows is about 
490, of honorary British Fellows 20, and of honorary 
Foreign Fellows 36. The society has the dispo-al 
of some valuable pri/es, which are bestowed on the 
authors of the best communications ,, scientific 
and other subjects. These are the Keith Pri/e, 
founded by Alexander Keith of Dunnottar ; the 
M'Dougall Brisbane Prize, by Sir Thomas M. 
r.risbane; the Neill Prix..-, by'Dr Patrick Neill ; 
and the Gunning Victoria Jubilee Prize, by I'l K. 
II. Cunning. See the history of the society in 
Neill's index to the Triiiisin-lii.iix. 

Royalty, originally the seigniorage paid to the 
crowu for a manor of which the king is lord, or a 



ROYAN 



RUBEFACIENTS 



15 



tax paid to the king for lands or to a superior as re- 
presenting the crown ; but most familiar nowadays 
in two derived senses of modified signification. 
Royalty is the term for the sum paid on minerals 
removed from a mine, not necessarily to the crown, 
but to the landlord, on the theory that the landlord 
owns the soil to the centre of the earth, and accord- 
ingly all the minerals found beneath his land ( see 
MINING). This burden is frequently regarded as 
a grievance, and its abolition, with or without 
compensation, advocated by advanced politicians. 
Another sense of the word is the sum paid to the 
holder of a patent, by percentage for each article 
manufactured under the patent, or for the use of 
patent articles hired out by the patentee (see 
PATENTS). 

Roy ail. a small seaport of France (dept. Char- 
en te-Inferieure), stain Is on the north side of the 
estuary of the Gironde, 60 miles NW. of Bordeaux. 
It is one of the most frequented seaside places on 
the Atlantic coast of France, attracting 20,000 
visitors every year. Its people catch sardines 
(called royans locally). There are beautiful woods, 
a museum, a casino, &c. Pop. 5629. 

Royal, a watering-place in the French depart- 
ment of 1'uy de Dome, occupies a beautiful site 
3 rnili-i SW. of Clermont-Ferrand, and has numer- 
ous chalybeate, alkaline, and arsenical springs, 
(80-95 F.), the waters of which have been used 
since Roman limes. Pop. 1499. 

Roy Bareilly. See RAI BARELI. 

Royer-t'ollard, I'IKHRE PAUL, a French 
statesman, was bom 21st June 1763, at Sompuis 
(dept. Mame). On the outbreak of the Revolution 
he was elected a member of the municipality of 
Paris, and from 1790 to 1792 acted as joint-secre- 
tary. Having incurred the enmity of the Jacobins, 
he lived in hiding at Sompuis during the Reign of 
Terror. Three years afterwards (1797) chosen to 
the Council of the Five Hundred, he took an active 
part in the work of that assembly, until the 18th 
Fructidor. In 1811 he was appointed professor of 
Philosophy in Paris, and exercised an immense 
influence on the philosophy of France. Rejecting 
the purely sensuous system of Condillac, he igave 
special prominence to the principles of the Scot- 
tish school (see SCOTTISH PHILOSOPHY) of Reid 
and Stewart. Strongly ' spiritualist ' as opposed 
to materialism, he originated the ' Doctrinaire ' 
school, of which Jonffroy and Cousin were the chief 
representatives. He was appointed president of 
the Commission of Public Instruction in 1815, but 
resigned that post in 1820 ; in 1815 also he re- 
turned to political life as deputy for the depart- 
ment of Marne. The French Academy opened its 
doors to him in 1827 ; and in 1828 he was named 
president of the Charnlier of Representatives, and 
in that capacity presented the address of the 221 
deputies (March 1830) withdrawing their support 
fniiii the government, which the king refused to 
hear read. Next day the Chamber was prorogued. 
From 1842 Royer-Collard completely withdrew from 
public life; he died, 4th September 1845, at his 
country seat of Chateauvieux, near St Aignan 
(Loir-et-Cher). His salon was latterly the resort 
of such men as Cousin, Guizot, De Broglie, Casimir 
Pcrier, Villemain, De Remusat, and others. He 
never was a writer, and he became a philosopher 
only by accident: his true interest in life was 
politics, his real eminence as a political orator after 
the ancient pattern, rather than that of the modern 
parliamentary debater. His idea of the monarchy 
was Utopian : the famous charte was found imprac- 
ticable as the sheet-anchor of liberty ; even his best 
tpeeche*, triumphs of dialectic as they often were, 
fell short of the effect that seemed secure, whether 
because ever in human things facts overturn the 



conclusions of reason, or because reason does nob 
reach the profound depths in which are generated 
the opinions of men, to wit, their passions and 
their interests. 

See the biographies by Philippe (1857) and Barante 
( new ed. 1878 ), the latter mainly a collection of its 
subject's speeches ; also Scherer's tildes sur la Litt. 
t'ontemp. vol. i., and Fagnet, Politiques et Monarchistes 
<lu XIX' SHcle (1891). 

Kovtoil. a town of Lancashire, 2 miles NNW. 
of Oldham, with large cotton-factories. Pop. 
( 1851 ) 6974 ; ( 1891 ) 13,395. 

RshefT, or RJEV, a town of European Russia, 
on the Volga, 135 miles NW. of Moscow, is a river- 
port with a very extensive transit trade in agri- 
cultural produce, collected from the governments 
of Orel, Kaluga, and Smolensk, and sent to Riga 
and St Petersburg. Hemp is spun and boats are 
built. Pop. 35,810. 

Kuahoil. a town of Denbighshire, 4.'. miles 
SSW. of Wrexham, with collieries and ironworks. 
Pop. of parish ( 1851 ) 11,507; (1891) 17,609. 

Rliatan , or RATTAN, a long, narrow island in 
the Bay of Honduras in the Caribbean Sea, belong- 
ing since 1860 to the republic of Honduras. Area, 
106 sq. in. ; estimated pop. 2000, mostly Negroes. 

Rllbasse, a mineral prized for ornamental uses, 
is rock-crystal, limpid or slightly amethystine, 
filled internally with minute Drown spangles of 
specular iron, which reflect a bright red, equal to 
that of the most brilliant ruby. There is an arti- 
ficial rubasse, made by heating very pure rock- 
crystal red hot, and repeatedly plunging it into a 
coloured liquid. 

Kilhlllc. a common kind of masonry, in which 
the stones are irregular in size and shape. Walls 
faced with ashlar are generally packed with nibble 
at the back. Rubble is of various kinds, accord- 
ing to the amount of dressing given to the stones. 
Common rubble is built with stones left almost as 
they come from the quarry. Hammer-dressed 
rubble is so called when the stones are squared 
with the mason's hammer; coursed rubble, when 
the stones are squared and equal in height, &c. 

RiilM'farients are external agents employed in 
medicine for the purpose of stimulating, and conse- 
quently reddening, the part to which they are applied. 
All agents which, after a certain period, act as 
Blisters (q.v.) may be made to act as rubefacients, 
if their time of action is shortened. The mildest 
rubefacients are hot poultices, cloths soaked in very 
hot water, moderately stimulating liniments as, 
for example, soap-liniment, with various propor- 
tions of liniment of ammonia, or chloroform, &c. 
Spanish fly, in the form of Emplastrum Calefaciens, 
or warm plaster, in which the active ingredient is 
blunted by the free admixture of soap-plaster, 
resin-plaster, &c., is a good form of this class of 
agents. Capsicum or Cayenne pepper, in the form 
of a poultice, is an excellent ruoefacient ; it is 
much used in the West Indies, but is seldom em- 
ployed in this country. Mustard, in the form of 
Cataplasma Sinapis, or mustard poultice, and oil 
of turpentine are perhaps the best of the ordinary 
rubefacients. The former is applied to the soles of 
the feet and the calves of the legs in the low stage 
of typhus fever, in apoplexy and coma, in narcotic 
poisoning, &c. It is also applied to the chest, with 
much advantage, in many cases of pulmonary and 
cardiac disease, and to the surface of the abdomen 
in various affections of the abdominal viscera. The 
best method of employing turpentine is to sprinkle 
it freely on three or four folds of clean flannel, 
wrung out of boiling water. The sprinkled surface 
of this pad is placed upon the skin, and a warm 
dry towel is laid over the flannel. Two or three 
such applications will produce a powerful rube- 



i;i IU:N> 



KUBIACE^E 



fadent effect Turpentine tlnis applied is service- 
able in all the canes mentioned in the remarks on 
Mustard, M well u in sore throat, chronic rheiima 
turn, neuralgia, &c. 
K ii bens. PHTKR PAUL, the mot celebrated 

painter of the l-'lcmi-li school, was Ixirn on the 
29th of June l'<77 at sicken, in Westphalia, where 
his father, John Rubens, an eminent lawyer, was 
living in disgrace, in consequence of his intrigue 
with Anne of Saxony, second wife of William the 
Silent In 1578 his parenU settled in Cologne : 
and iij>iii tin- death of her hii.-lmnd ill tin- year 
1987, liis mother ruturned to her native rit.y of 
Antwerp, w here i lie Ixiy wan educated in the Jesuits' 
college. !!> -cued for a short time as a page in 
the household oi Margaret de Ligiie, widow of the 
Count of I^anaing, and was intended for the pro- 
fession of law ; but he was animated by a strong 
desire to become a painter, and at the age of thir- 
teen he began the study of art, first, for a brief 
period, under Tobias van Haeght, a skilful land- 
cape-painter ; then for four years muler Adam van 
Noort, a painter of religious subjects, distinguished 
for his excellent colouring ; until finally, in his 
nineteenth year, he passed into the studio of Othon 
van Veen, court-painter to the Archduke Albert, 
governor of the Netherlands. 

In 1599 he was admitted a master of the Brother- 
hood of St Luke in Antwerp ; and in the follow- 
ing year he started for Italy, making his way to 
Venice, where he studied the works of Titian and 
Veronese. He next entered the service of Yin- 
cenzo (ionzaga, the magnificent and luxurious 
Duke of Mantua, as gentleman of the chamber and 
court painter ; and in 1005 was despatched on a 
mission i'i Philip III. of Spain, thus beginning the 
career of a diplomatist, for which his keen intellect, 
his polished urbanity, and his linguistic attainments 
so admirably qualified him. While at Madrid be 
executed portraits of many of tin- Spanish nobility, 
as well as several historical subjects. On his 
return from Spain he travelled in Italy, copying 
celebrated works for the Duke of Mantua ; and to 
this period is referable the sketch, now in the 
National Gallery, London, from one of the sub- 
jects of Mantegna's ' Triumph of .Itilius Cffisar.' In 
1608, while in Cenoa, he received news of his 
mother's illness, and returned home, but too late 
to see her alive. Settling in Antwerp, he was 
appointed in 1609 court-painter to the Archduke 
Albert and his wife Isabella, and soon afterwards 
married his first wife, Isabella Brant, whom his 
pencil has often portrayed, and who appears, seated 
hand in hand with himself, in the famous full 
length group at Munich. 

The painter was now rapidly approaching his full 
artUtic maturity, and his ' Descent from the Cross ' 
in the cathedral of Antwerp, begun in 1611 and 
completed in 1614, and usually regarded as his 
masterpiece, is a work in which both his earlier 
and later manner may be traced. It is a triptych, 
showing on the interior of its wings The Visitation 
and The Presentation in the Temple, and on their 
exterior subjects of 8t Christopher and a Hermit 
bearing a lantern. 

In 1030 Rubens was invited to France by Marie 
de' Medici, the i|ueen- mother, who was then en- 
gaged in decorating the palace of the Luxembourg 
in Paris; and he undertook for her twenty -one 
large subjects commemorating her marriage to 
Henry IV., works, completed with the aid of 
assuUuiU in 1625, which are now in the Louvre, 
most of the sketches by the master's own hand 
being at Munich. In 1628 he was despatched by 
the Infanta Isabella upon a diplomatic mission to 
Philip IV. of Spain. He remained for nine months 
in Madrid, ami tin-re he made the acquaintance of 
VeUsquex, and executed some forty works, includ- 



ing five portrait* of the Spanish monarch. In 1629 
he was apiiointed envoy to Charles 1. of England, 
to treat for |eace ; and, while be conducted a 
delicate negotiation with pet feet tact and success, 
his brush was not idle, for he painted the I 
i and War,' now in the National Gallery. London, 
and the jHiitrait of the kiii^' and hi* queen as St 
m and Cleolinde, n work now at Windsor, 
and also made sketches for the Apotheosis of J.-i 
1 for the Banqneting-hall at Whitehall, toBpM 
ing the pictures on his return to Antwerp. In 
acknowledgment of his services he wax knighted 
by Charles I. ; and he received a similar honour 
from Philip IV. 

In 1630 Rnbens married his second wife, Helena 
l-'oiirineiii, a beautiful girl of sixteen : in Hi.'i5 he 
designed the decorations which celebrated tin- 
entry of the Cardinal Infant Ferdinand into Ant 



that saint in Cologne, he died at Antwerp on the 
30th of May 1640, and was interred with great 
pomp in the church of St Jacques, bis IM!V ling 
deposited, two years afterwards, in a chapel speci- 
ally built there for its reception. 

Not only was Rubens great as a subject -painter, 
but he was equally distinguished as a pen traitist, 
an animal-painter, and a landscapist. The main 
characteristics of his productions ore their power, 
spirit, and vivacity, their sense of energy, of ex- 
uberant life. As Reynolds has t inly said, ' Rubens 
was perhaps the greatest master in" the mechanical 
part of the art; the best workman with his tools 
that ever used a pencil ; ' and he was great alike 
in handling and as a colourisfc. It is, however, 
mainly on technical grounds that he claims suprem- 
acy, for his works are wanting in the iMgnity, 
quietude, refinement, and in the profound imagina- 
tion which distinguish the greatest Italian painters. 
He was a most prolific artist; his works number 
in all several thousands, of which Smith in his 
Catalogue has descril>ed over thirteen hundred ; 
and about twelve hundred prints have been 
executed after his paintings and designs, frequent ly 
under his personal supervision by such of the best 
contemporary engravers as Pontius, Yostcrman, 
Soutman, and the Itolswerts. Many of his finest 
works are still at Antwerp ; but his ait may p rob- 
ably be most adequately studied in the Pinakothek 
at Munich, whicn contains nearly a hundred < \ 
ample, of his brush, several of them ranking with 
his noblest efforts. Among the most distinguished 
of his many pupils were Van Dyck, Van Diepen- 
beck, Jordaens, and Snyders. 

See LeUre* Infdita de P. P. Bubtnt, publi.Se par 
Kmile Cachet (Brussels, 1840); De Wugen's Life of 
Rubens, published in Raumer's Hutoritehet TaKhen- 
bvck (Berlin, 1833; trans, by R. K, Noel, Loud. 1840) ; 
Onrinal Unpubliihrd Papcri JUiutratirt of the Life 
of .Sir P. P. Kubrni, <u an Artitt and a Dipiomatitt, by 
W. Noel Sainsbnry (Lond. 1869); Kubtns el r I 
cFAnvert, par A. Michiels (Paris, 1877); the volume in 
the 'Great Artists' series by C. W. Kett (1880) ; and 
the posthumous work of M. Charles Kuulens, of the 
Brussels Library. 

Rnbe'ola. See MEASLES. 

Rllbezahl. See RIERENOEBIROE. 

Rllltiacea-. a natural order of dicotyledonous 
plants, in whicn, according to many botanists, the 
Cinclionacea- are included as a sub-order ; but 
which, as restricted by others (Stellate of Ray, 
(Jaliacea- of Lindley), consists entirely of her- 
luiceous plants, with whorled leaves, angular stems, 
and numerous very small flowers ; the calyx 
superior, with four, five, or six lobes, or almost 
wanting; the corolla wheel-shaped, or tubular, 
regular, inserted into the calyx, and with the 



RUBICON 



RUBUS 



17 



same number of divisions as the calyx ; the sta- 
mens equal in number with the lobes of the 
corolla ; two styles ; the fruit a dry pericarp with 
two cells, and one seed in each cell. There are 
between 300 and 400 known species, chiefly abound- 
ing in the northern parts of the northern hemi- 
sphere, and on the mountains of tropical regions. 
The most important plant of the order is Madder 
(q.v. ). To this order belong also Bedstraw ( q. v. ) 
and Woodruff ( q. v. ). 

Rubicon, a stream of Central Italy, falling 
into the Adriatic a little north of Ariminum, has 
obtained a proverbial celebrity from the well-known 
story of its passage by Cit-sar, in the middle of 
January, 49 B.C. It formed the southern boundary 
of his province, so that by crossing it he virtually 
declare*! war against the Republic. Ctesar him- 
self makes no mention of its passage ; Suetonius, 
Plutarch, and Lucan tell how lie hesitated awhile 
on the bank and then crossed with the words, Jacta 
tst alea. A papal bull of 1756 identified the Rubi- 
con with the modern Luso, but a comparison of 
distances shows that it must rather have been the 
Fiamicino or Kujone. 

Rubidium (sym. Rb; atom. wt. 85) is one of 
the alkali metals. Its salts exist in very minute 
quantities in numerous mineral waters, and in 
these rubidium salts, along with ctesiuni salts, 
were detected by Bunsen and KirchofT by means 
of spectrum analysis. The mineral lepidolite is 
the best material from which to prepare rubidium 
compounds. The metal is, like Cfesium, silver- 
wliite. It melts at 38'5 <'., but is still soft at 
-10 C. It sp. gr. is 1-52. Like cesium, it takes 
(ire spontaneously in the air, and it decomposes 
water at the ordinary temperature, in the latter 
respect resembling all the other alkali metals. 
The salts of rubidium resemble generally those of 
potassium. The name rubidium is denved from 
niiiiiliiM, 'dark red,' in allusion to the colour 
imparted to a flame by the salts of the metal. 

Rubinstein. ANTON, pianist and musical 
com|>oser, was born, the son of a Polish Jew and a 
German Jewess, near Jassy in Moldavia, on 28th 
November 1829, and was trained to music in 
Moscow by his mother and a master. Liszt heard 
him, ' an infant prodigy,' play in Paris in 1841, 
recognised his genius, and encouraged him to go 
on and play in other cities. After some further 
' touring,' he gave himself to serious study in 
Berlin and Vienna, and in 1848 settled in St 
Petersburg as teacher of music. In 1854 he set off 
on another musical tour, with the reputation of 
being a second Liszt, and ' the coming ' composer. 
On his return to St Petersburg he succeeded in 
getting a musical conservatoire founded (1862) 
there, and became its director. But his concert 
tours engrossed a good deal of his time, and in 
1867 he resigned the directorship of the conserva- 
toire. In 1872 he went to the United States and 
had an enthusiastic reception. He wound up his 
concert tours in 1886, his last having had for its 
object a series of seven pianoforte recitals illus- 
trating the great masters of music historically. 
He was induced in the following year to resume 
tin; directorship of the conservatoire at St Peters- 
burg. Rubinstein was lx>th composer and player. 
Amongst his liest musical productions are the 
operas, The Maccabees, The Demon, Feramors ( the 
libretto from Moore's Lalla Rookh), and Kalcuch- 
ni/.-f/ff"; the two symphonies, Ocean and Dram- 
atic ; and the sacred operas, Paradise Lout, The 
Toirr.r of Babel, and Sit/amith. His numerous 
wings and pieces of chamber music arc highly 
esU-emwl and more widely known. His style, 
while of course embracing "fuller modern develop- 
ments, presents several points of likeness to 
418 



Schubert's ; there is the same predominance of 
the lyric, rhythmic, and formal elements over the 
dramatic ; an exuberant melodiousness, frequently 
charming, but sometimes falling below the mark ; 
an absence of meretricious effects, and a tendency 
to protracted length, not to say occasional prolixity; 
while in feeling he is more akin to Mendelssohn. 
He was a strongly pronounced opponent of the 
principles of Wagner. As a pianist he held the 
highest rank, l>eing usually reckoned the greatest 
since Liszt. His mastery of technique was supreme; 
opinions differed about" his fidelity to a composer's 
intentions, but the depth of feeling and significance 
he could impart to even the simplest piece evinced 
a rare musical susceptibility at once intense and 
widely sympathetic. He retired from the platform 
some years before his death, 20th November 1894. 
See his Autobiography, trans, from the Russian 
by Aline Delano (1891), a Study by M'Arthur 
( 1889), and the Life by Zabel (Leip. 1892). 

Ruble. See ROUBLE. 

Rubrics (Lat. rubrica, from ruber, 'red'), in 
classic use, meant the titles or headings of chapters 
in law-books, and is derived from the red colour of 
the ink in which these titles were written, in order 
to distinguish them from the text. In mediaeval 
and modern use the name is restricted to the direc- 
tions in the service-books of the church as to the 
ordering of the prayers and the performance of the 
ceremonies that accompany them. The first printed 
missals have few rubrics, and the printing of both 
the words and ceremonies of the mass in full dates 
only from 1485. The same name, together with the 
usage iteelf, is retained in the Book of Common 
Prayer ; and in all cases, even where the direction 
has ceased to be printed in red ink, the name 
rubric is still retained. Where red ink is not 
employed the rubric is distinguished from the text 
by italics or some other variety of print. 

Rllbriiquis, WILLIAM DE, a medieval trav- 
eller, was Imm, it is pretty certain, at Rubrouck 
(8 miles NE. of St Omer, in northern France), and 
not at Ruysbroeck, near Brussels, early in the 
13th century. He entered the Franciscan order, 
and was sent by Louis IX. of France into central 
j Asia for the purpose of opening up communications 
! with Sartak, the son of the Mongol prince, Batu 
Khan, a supposed Christian. Friar William trav- 
elled (1253) by way of Constantinople across the 
Black Sea and the Crimea to the Volga. Sartak 
referred him to his father, Batu, and that prince 
sent him forward to the Mongol emperor, Mangu 
Khan, whom he found on 27th December, about 10 
days' journey south of Karakorum in Mongolia. 
With that sovereign he remained until July 1254, 
then returned to the Volga, penetrated the defiles 
j of the Caucasus, proceeded through Armenia, 
I Persia, and Asia Minor, to Syria, and arrived at 
I Ti i| n ili in August 1255. King Louis had meanwhile 
returned to France, and Fnar William wrote him 
the account of his journey which has come down to 
us. The best edition is that of D'Avezac in vol. iv. 
of jRecueil de Voyages (1839) of the Paris Geo- 
graphical Society. Of the later history of Rubru- 
quis the only fact known is that he was living in 
1293, when Marco Polo was returning from the 
East. 

Rllbus ( Blackberry or Bramble, &c.), a genus 
of plants of the natural order Rosacere, sub-order 
Itiiliete, distinguished by a 5-lobed calyx without 
bracts, and the fruit formed by an aggregation of 
small dnipes adhering to each other upon a long 
torus. The fruit is eatable in all, or almost all, 
the species. The genus is a large one, comprising, 
according to Bentham and Hooker, about 100 
species, widely distributed over nearly every part 
of the globe. Among the most important species 



18 



RUBY 



RtlCKERT 



are R. Ckamtrmorut, the Cloudberry (q.v. ); K. 
Jtirrtu, the Raspberry ; R. ar-n'iu, the I>ewberry ; 
K. articus, characterised by I. inn. i us RH the prince 
of wild berries ; R. frvtttottu, the 1'oiiiiiinii Bramble 
(q.r. ); and R. taxatilu, the Stone Bramble. Of 
I lie Common Bramble a number of varieties having 
very large Inaciouii fruit have been introduced into 
Britain from North America within tlio last few 
yearn with the view of cultivating them for tln-ir 
fruit The opinion of gardener* as to their merits 
for profitable culture in Britain is varied, but they 
are much appreciated in Canada and in the I'nitcd 
States of America. The varieties which are most 
approved are the Lawton, Wilson Junior, Early 
Harvest, and Mammoth. The ornamental species 
frequently planted in British gardens are R. odor- 
attu, the Virginian Raspberry ; R. laeiniatiu, with 
large flowers and elegant leaves ; and /.'. kifloriu, 
whom snow-white liark contrasts strikingly with 
the dark-green leaves. 

It iihy, a gem much prized, is apure transparent, 
red-coloured Corundum (M.V.), just as Sapphiie. 
(q.v.) is a blue variety of tne same mineral. It is 
inferior in hardness to the diamond only among 
gem*. Although usually red, yet violet, pink, and 
purple rubies are met with, luit the most liighly 
eeteemed are those which have the colour of pigeon s 
blood. The finest true oriental rubies are more 
highly prized than diamonds of similar size and 
quality; those over a carat in weight are worth 
from 20 to 100 j>er carat, and no stone increase* 
so much in value in proportion to increase in size. 
But perfect specimens, as regards colour, transpar- 
ency, and freedom from Haws, are niucb less com- 
mon than good diamonds. Gems of this character 
seldom exceed 8 or 10 carats ; but (instnvus III. of 
Swedenpresented one, now in the Russian regalia, 
to the Empress Catharine, which was of the size of 
a pigeon's egg. The throne of the Great Mogul, 
according to Tavernier, was adorneil with 108 
rallies of from 100 to 200 carats each. One pos- 
sessed by the king of Ceylon was, according to 
Marco Polo, a span in length, as thick as a man's 
arm, ami without a flaw ; Kublai Khan offered for 
it the value of a city, but the king would not part 
with it. The Burmese government sent two rubies 
to London in 1875, one of which, reduced by re- 
cutting to 32f f carats, was sold for 10,000 ; the 
other, of 38,*, carats, was sold for 20,000. The 
specific gravity of the ruby (3-900 to 4-2833) ex- 
ceeds that of all other p-m-. Wlien rubbed it 
becomes electrical, and remains so for some time. 
The finest rubies those having the colour of 
pigeon's blood come from Upper Burma, neur 
Mogok, north of Mandalay (nee Hi KM A, Vol. II. 
p. 563). Dark-red rubies, sometime* with a brown- 
ish tint, are found in Siam, ami purplish rubies in 
Ceylon. Rubies are also met with in the moun- 
tain region of Yunnan in China, in Afghani 
and in the basin of the Oxus. The true or oriental 
ruby, as above described, occurs in crystalline lime- 
stone in Burma, ami in alluvial <le|>osit.s liich have 
been derive.) from the denudation of granitoid igne- 
ous and schistose rocks. Ruby-bearing gravels and 
and* occur sparingly in Europe, as in Auvergne, 
Bohemia, the Urals, \-c. Small rubies have also 
been detected in such rocks as basalt, as in Victoria 
and New South Wales; and fine rubies have been 
reported to lie found in New Guinea. Many of the 
so-called rubies of jewellers are not true or oriental 
rubies, but varieties of Spinel (q.v.), a mineral 
coni|MMod chiefly of alumina and magnesia, inferior 
in hardness and of less s|,,.,.j|j,. gravity than the 
oriental ruby, and crystallising in the cnhieal 
system. Oriental rnliii-s In-long to t he hexagonal 
system, and, unlike the spinel, are always dicimiic. 
Spinel rubies are found in tin' form of crystals 
or rounded pebbles in alluvial deposits and 



in the beds of rivers in Ceylon, Siam, Pegu, 
Badakshan, and other eastern countries, having 
been derived like the true rub) 1 from crystalline- 
igneous and scliistose rocks. They occur also in 
crystalline limestone and in serpentine. Small 
rounded spinel-rubies occur in the sands of moun- 
tain-streams in Wicklow ; and large crystals have- 
been found in various parts of North America, hut 
rarely, if ever, fit for the purposes of the jeweller. 
Spinels are also found in Australia. Sjnnrl-ritby 
is the name given by jewellers to a stone of a 
deep carmine-red; a rose-red stone is ili-tin 
Blushed as Bolus-ruby; red with a decided tinge 
of orange is Vermetl or Vermeille ; yellow or 
orange-red is Rubictlle ; violet is Alrmaulm, niliy. 
There are also transparent spinels, which when Urge 
and fine are treated as jewels. All these, however, 
are merely variously-tinted varieties of one and 
the same mineral spinel which is allied to 
Corundum (q.v.), being composed mainly of 
alumina, with a smaller proportion of magnesia. 

As early as 1837 small rubies were produced 
chemically by fusion of alumina ; but it was not 
till 1878 that Fremy ami Yemenil produced rubies 
on a scale of commercial importance, though less 
brilliant than oriental rubies. In 1890 they suc- 
ceeded in making larger and finer stones, which 
for the purposes of the watchmaker quite equalled 
natural rubies. 

Kllckert, FRIEDRICH, German poet, was born 
at Schweinfurt, 16th Mav 1788, and educated 
there and at Wfinborg, For some years he led 
a wandering life, studying philology 'and poetry, 
and cultivating the muses. During this period of 
his life he helped Arndt and Thcodor Korner to 
fan the flame of German patriotism by his lifiit,->ir 
Gedichte (1814), especially by the Gelt<iniixi-l,t<: 
Sonette included in this volume. From 1826 to 
1841 he filled the chair of Oriental Languages .-it 
Erlangen ; but the greater part of his sunin 
were passed at the country seat of his wife's 
parents, Reuses near Coburg. After learning 
Persian, Arabic, and Turkish, incited thereto by 
Hammer- Purgstall at Vienna (1818), Riickert re- 
cast in German verse, with great skill, several of t lie. 
famous books of the East, as Die Vertcandlungett 
des Abu Seid of Hariri ( 1826), Nal nnd Dtnnnjiinti 
from the Mahdbhdrata (1828), Rostem untl Suhrab 
from Firdausl's Shah-NamtJi (1838), Amrill;<iix 
(1843), Hamdsa (1846), a collection of Arabic folk- 
songs, and others. His most popular book- are the 
collection of lyrics entitled Liebufrii /i/in;/ (1H44; 
Mtli ed. 1888) and the reflective poems pitheicd 
together as Die Weisheit des Brnluiiinirii ( Is.'iii :>!l ; 
12th ed. 1886). In 1841 Frederick-William IV. 
invited him to Berlin, making him professor of 
Oriental Languages; but the poet preferred hN 
idyllic life at Neuses, and went back then' in ISIS. 
There he died on 31st January IM'.I;. llii.'kert 
wrote with fatal ease; he tried nearly all foims of 
poetical composition, and produced too much. 
Nevertheless he penned ' several charming little 
lyrics, which maybe read in the selected Cnlu'lilr 
(is 1 1 ; 22d ed. 1886). Two qualities distinguish 
his work in general a marvellous command of 
language and rhyme, and the gift of giving poetic 
expression to philosophic thought. The former 
has sometimes led linn into mannerisms of form 
and unpleosing tmir* de force ; the latter often 
betrays him into throwing a poetic glamour over 
dull, ]iedaniic. and unimportant ideas. His post- 
humoiislv published work includes tinman adapta- 
tions of Theocritus, Aristophanes, Knlidasa's 
X,,l.>n<t<it<i (18(17), Sadi's Jlo*l,in (1882), and a 
good deal of original poetry. 

See biographical work* by Beyer (3 vo). 1868-77), 
Boxberger ( 1*7* ), Konnul Fischer ( 1889), and F. neuter's 
BUctert in Erlanyen und Joteph Kopp ( 1891 ). 






KUDD 

R udd. See RED-EYE. 

Rudder. See STEERING. 

Rudder-fish, a name loosely applied to at 
least three different kinds of fish, of which the 
Pilot-fish (q.v.) is one. 

Rnddimail. THOMAS, Latin grammarian, was 
born near Banff in 1674, and in 1690 gained a 
bursary at King's College, Aberdeen, taking his 
M.A. four years later. In 1695 he became parish 
schoolmaster of Laurencekirk, and here in 1699 
accidentally made the acquaintance of the cele- 
brated physician and Latinist, Dr Archibald 
Pitcairne, who was so impressed with his learn- 
ing and sagacity that he got him appointed 
assistant-keeper of the Advocates' Library, Edin- 
burgh. His new office gave him ample oppor- 
tunity for prosecuting his favourite studies, out 
the remuneration was so small (i'8, 6s. 8d. per 
uiiHinii) that, in 1707, he started business as a 
book auctioneer. In that year he edited Florence 
Wilson's Latin Dialogue OH the Tranquillity of 
the Mind, to which he prefixed a life of the author ; 
in 1709 Arthur Johnston's Poetical Paraphrase of 
the -Song of Solomon and Cantica both also in 
Latin. In 1714 appeared his well-known Rudiments 
of the Latin Tongue ; in 1715 his great edition of 
Buchanan's works. He now exchanged the calling 
of a book auctioneer for the more congenial one of 
printer : and in 1728 he was appointed printer to 
the university, in 1730 principal keeper of the 
Advocates' Library. In 1725-32 he published his 
great Grammatical Latino; Institutiones, on which 
bis philological reputation mainly rests; in 1739 
he completed Anderson's magnificent Diplomata et 
inata Scotia;, writing the learned Latin 
introduction and appendices. Controversy as to 
the respective merit of the Latin verse of Johnston 
and Buchanan, and as to the hereditary ri<;lit of 
the kings of Scotland to the crown, consumed a 
great part of his time, but did not so preoccupy his 
thoughts as to prevent him from publishing inl7.">l 
an edition of I, ivy, still known as the ' immaculate,' 
from its entire exemption from errors of the press. 
Ruddiman died in Edinburgh, January 19, 1757. 
He was in politics, like his friend Pitcairne, an 
ardent Jacoliite, and in private life a most 
upright and estimable man. Besides the pnblica- 
ilready noted, and a multitude of minor 
tract*, he edited Gawin Douglas' translation of 
the .F.neid, and appended a very valuable glossary 
(folio, 1710). He also founded the Caledonian 
See his Life by George 

a town of Prussia, on the right 

bank of the Rhine, opposite Bingen, at the foot of 
the Niederwald (q.v.), and 16 miles W. of Mainz. 
Bound Riidesheim is grown one of the most 
esteemed of the Rhine- wines, the Rudesheiiner 
Pop. 4040. 

Rudolf, or RUDOLPH, German king and founder 
of the present imperial dvnasty of Austria, was 
Wn in Liinhnrg castle in the Breisgau, on 1st 
May 1218. He liecame a wartn partisan of 
;'-k II., distinguished himself in arms, and 
spent much of the early years of his manhood in 
quarrels with the bishops of Basel and Strasburg. 
Cessions were greatly increased by inherit- 
ed by his marriage, until he was the most 
powerful prince in Swabia. In 1273 the electors 
chose him to be German king; as never having 
been crowned by the pope, he was not entitled to 
be called kaiser or emperor. His accession wag 
1 by none; the pope's consent was secured 
at tin- price of certain rights already parted with 
lolf's predecessors. Ottocar of Bohemia, 
however, refused to tender his allegiance. He was 
put under the ban of the empire in 1276, but, snb- 



RUE 



19 



newspaper. 
Chalmers (1794). 



mitting on Rudolf's approach with an army, was 
invested with Bohemia. Having soon afterwards 
taken the field against his suzerain, he was 
defeated and slain in 1278 at Marchfeld beside the 
Danube. Rudolf spent the greater part of his life 
that remained in suppressing the castles of the 
robber knights and putting an end to their lawless 
practices. He died at Spires, 15th July 1291, 
and was buried in the cathedral there. His son 
Albert, to whom (and his brother Rudolf) Austria, 
Styria, and Carniola had been given in 1278, 
succeeded him as German king. Rudolf was a 
pattern knight, tall in person, upright, pious, 
valiant, and energetic. See Lives by Schonhuth 
(1844), Kopp (1845), and Him (1874); Lorenz, 
Deutsche Geschichte in IS. und 14. Jahrhundert 
( 1863-67 ) ; and a work by Kaltenbrunner ( Prague, 
1890). 

Rudolf II., eldest son of the Emperor Maxi- 
milian II., was born at Vienna on 18th July 1552, 
and educated at the Spanish court by the Jesuits. 
He was made king of Hungary in 1572, king of 
Bohemia, with the title King of the Romans, in 
1575, and on the death of his father in 1576 suc- 
ceeded to the imperial crown. Gloomy, taciturn, 
bigoted, indolent both in body and" mind, he 
put himself in the hands of the Jesuits and low 
favourites, and left the empire to govern itself. 
His attention was given to his curiosities, his 
stable, his alchemical and magical studies; never- 
theless his taste for astrology and the occult 
sciences, and his desire to discover the philosopher's 
stone, made him extend his patronage to Kepler 
and Tycho Brahe. The astronomical calculations 
l*giin by Tycho, and continued by Kepler, known 
as The Kudol/ihine Tables, derive their name from 
this emperor. Meanwhile the Protestants were 
bitterly persecuted by the Jesuits throughout the 
empire; the Turks invaded Hungary and defeated 
the archduke Maximilian (1596); Transylvania 
and Hungary rose in revolt ; and at last Rudolfs 
brother Matthias wrested from him the crowns of 
Hungary and Bohemia, and the states of Austria 
and Moravia. Less than a year after losing the 
crown of Bohemia he died, unmarried, on 20th 
January 1612, and was succeeded by Matthias. See 
works by Gindely ( 1865) and Von Bezold ( 1885). 

Rudolf, LAKE, an equatorial sea in British East 
Africa, near the edge of the Kaffa or South Ethio- 
pian highlands, is long and narrow, stretching 160 
miles IS E. and SW. by 20 broad, with an area of 
3000 s<|. m., at a height of 1300 feet above the sea. 
It is crossed by 4 NT }at. and 35 E. long. It has 
no visible outlet, and its waters are very brackish. 
It was discovered by Count Teleki in 1888. See 
his Discovery of Lakes Rudolf aud Stephanie ( Enc. 
trans. 1894). 

Rlldolxtadt, the chief town of the German 
principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, lies in a 
lill-girt valley, on the left Iwnk of the Saale, 18 
miles 8. of Weimar. There are two royal castles, 



a library, picture-gallery, &c., and factories for 
porcelain, chemicals, and wool. Pop. (1890) 12,247. 
Rlldra is, in Vedic mythology, a collective 
name of the gods of the tempest, or Maruts. In 
later and Puranic mythology Riidra ( 'the terrible ') 
is a name of Siva, and the Rudras are his off- 
pring. 

Rue (Ruta), a genus of plants of the natural 
order Rutacese. The species are half-shrubby plants, 
natives of the south of Europe, the north of Africa, 
the Canary Isles, and the temperate parts of Asia. 
Common Rue, or Garden Rue (R. graveolens), 
jfrows in sunny stony places in the countries 
near the Mediterranean. It has greenish-yellow 
Howers, the first of which that open have ten 
stamens, the others eight only ( they are of unequal 



20 



RUFF 



RUFIJI 



length, and each one in bent inwards in turn to 
touch the pUtil, and when the |x>llen in shed it 
bends back again ), and glaucous evergreen leaves 
with small oblong leaflet*, the terminal leaflet* 
obovate. It is not a native of Britain, bnt is 
frequently cultivated in gardens. It wan formerly 
called Herb of Grace (see HamJet, act iv. scene 5), 
it was used for sprinkling the people with 




Common Rue ( Ruta yrareoleni). 

holy water. It was in great repute among the 
ancients, having been hunt; almut the neck as an 
amulet against witchcraft in the time of Aristotle. 
It is the Piganon of Hippocrates. Rue is still 
employed in medicine as a powerful stimulant, but 
the leaves must lie used fresh, as they lose their 
virtues by drying. The smell of rue, when fresh, 
i very strong, and to many very disagreeable ; yet 
the Iranians used it much for flavouring food, and 
it is still so used in some parts of Europe. The 
leaves chopped small are also eaten with bread 
and butter as a stomachic, but they must lie used 
sparingly, as they are acrid enough to blister the 
skin if much handled, and in large doses act as a 
narcotic poison. All their properties depend on an 
acrid volatile oil, which is itself used for making 
Syrup of Rue, eight or ten drops of oil to a pint of 
syrup ; and this, in doses of a teasponnful or two, 
is found a useful medicine in flatulent colic of 
children. The expressed juice of rue, mixed with 
water, and employed as a wash, is believed to 
promote the growth of the hair. 

KllIT ( M'f -lot' v /iiiffH'i.1-). a bird, the sole repre- 
sentative of the genus, belonging to the Sandpiper 
(i|.v.i sub-family of the Snipe family (Scolopa- 
cidir). In tin- Itriti-h l-.li-.-, it is now little more 
than a visitor in it* spring ami autumn migrations, 
owing to the draining of its marshy breeding-places 
ami tin? practice of capturing it in spring whi'ii 
game is out of season. It is more common on the 
east than on the west coast of England. The same 
is true of the east coast of Scotland, where it is 
found from Berwick to the Orkneys and Shi-t lands, 
bat it ha* been recorded from the* Outer II-lnidi->. 
As a straggler it is found on the Faroes and Ice- 
land, in Canada, in some of the eastern United 
States, and it lias been found once in Barbadoes 
mod once on the Upper Orinoco. It breeds over 
the greater part of northern Europe ; it is found as 
a migrant cm-r tin- rest of Europe, the southern 
shores of the Mediterranean, and the east and west 
coast* of Africa as far as the Cape ; in Asia it 
extends from Siberia to Japan, Burma, and India. 



The male bird, the Ruff, is about a foot long. In 
spring it sheds the feathers of the face ; curled 
tufts of f fin hers appear on the sides of the head ; 
and an erectile run is develoj>ed which lasts for a 
couple of month-. This ruff, as well as the feaihi-i- 
on the back, shows even- variation of colour in 
different birds ; but each bird annually regains its 
own peculiar colour. After moulting the neck 
and upper breast are of a bull colour . the under 
parts dull white ; the feathers of the upper parts 
are dark brown with buff margins ; and the primary 
wing-feathers are dusky brown. The female, the 
Reeve, is about one-fourth smaller in size, and 
shows very much the same colours as the moulted 
male. In habit these birds are polygamous; the 
males fight for possession of the females, and in 
battle the mil' serves for defence. The nest is 
made among the coarse grass of a dry tussock in a 
moist swampy place. The eggs, four in number, 




Ruff ( ifockltet pugntuc ). 

are grayish green marked with reddish brown. The 
food consists of insects ami their larva-, worms, 
seeds, rice, and other vegetable substances. When 
captured and being fattened for the table, the birds 
are fed on boiled wheat, bread and milk, and 
bruised hemp-seed. 

1C II Mr. or POPE (Aceritia cernua), a small fresh- 
water fish of the Perch family (Percida?), abundant 
in the lakes, slow rivers, and ditches of many parts 
of the middle of Europe and of England. It is five 




Ruffe, or Pope (Acerina cernua). 

or six inches in length, of an olive-green colour 
mottled with brown, and has only one dorsal fin. 
The flesh of the ruffe is highly esteemed for the 
table. 

K ll till, or LUFIJI, the chief river of German 
East Africa, which rising far in the interior enters 
the sea through a delta opposite the island of 
Mafia. Shoals and bars at the month prevent the 
access of large ships ; but the river is navigable by 
smaller boats throughout great part of its course. 
The valley is extremely fertile. 



RUGBY 



RUGEN 



21 



Rllgby, a town giving name to the south-east 
division of Warwickshire, of which it stands at 
the northern corner, is situated at the junction of 
several railways in the middle of country such as 
George Eliot describes in Felix Holt. By rail it is 
83 miles NW. of London and 30 ESE. of Birming- 
ham. At the foot of the hill on which it stands 
the Swift gave John Wyclif 's ashes to the Avon ; 
close by at Ashby and at Diinclmrch the Gun- 
powder Plot was hatched ; the battlefield of Naseby 
was visited by Carlyle from its schoolhonse in 1842 
a few days before" Arnold's death ; it is within 
a drive of Stratford-on-Avon, Coventry, Kenil- 
, worth. It is at once the centre of a great hunting 
district and the seat of a public school. This prob- 
, ably accounts for the large number of residential 
houses there. John Moultrie (q.v.) was long rector 
of the parish. Pop. ( 1851 ) 6317 ; ( 1891 ) 1 1,262. 

The school was founded in 1567 by Lawrence 
Sheriff, a grocer and a staunch supporter of Queen 
Elizabeth, by a gift of property in Manchester 
Square, London. After maintaining its position 
for some time as a good school for the Warwick- 
shire gentry and a few others, specially under Dr 
James and Dr Wool, it became of national reputa- 
tion under Dr Arnold, who in raising his school 
raised at the same time the dignity of his whole 
profession. Since his time the school has never 
lacked able teachers, remarkable for independence 
of mind. When Arnold died in 1842, Archbishop 
Tail succeeded him, having as coadjutors Lord 
Lingen, Dean Bradley, Principal Shairp, Thomas 
KVIUH. Theodore Walrond, Bishop Cotton. Dean 
Goulburn ( 1850-58 ) had as an assistant the 
future Archbishop Benson. The next heads were 
Dr Temple (1857-69), afterwards Archbishop of 
Canterbury ; Dr Hayman ( 1869-74) ; Dr Jex-Blake 
(1874-87); Dr Percival (1887-95), afterwards 
iishop of Hereford ; and Dr H. A. James (since 
1895). The Public Schools Commission reported 
of Rugby in Dr Temple's days that the general 
teaching of classics was absolutely unsurpassed ; 
that Rugby School was the only public school in 
which physical science was a regular part of the 
curriculum ; that only Harrow had done as much 
as Rugby in awakening interest in history. Having 
secured this tribute for his teaching and having 
collected enough money to rebuild the chapel, to 
erect a gymnasium, and to build new schools, Dr 
Temple was succeeded by Dr Hayman. To him 
succeeded Dr Jex-Blake, who inaugurated a still 
greater building era. When he resigned in 1887 
he left behind him a school simply unrivalled 
in its appointments. He was succeeded by Dr 
Percival. Of illustrious Rugbeians may be named 
the poete Landor, Clough, and Matthew Arnold ; 
Dean Stanley, who had the rare privilege of 
recording the work of his great head master in 
biography; Judge Hughes, who did the same 
equally felicitously in Tom Brown's School-days 
Dean Vaugjian, Lord Derby, Lord Crow, Mr 
Goschen, Sir R. Temple, Franck Bright and York 
1 owell the historians, Justice Bowen, Sir W. 
Pslliser, ProfeMor Si.lgwirk, Robinson Ellis and 
Arthur Sidgwick, C. Stuart- Wortley, and Arthur 
Acland. From Rugby went the first head-master 
to Mmj-lboroogh, Wellington, Clifton, Haileybury, 
Fettes foil-.'.-, and Newcastle HighSchool. Mi-i,',,, 
work found its Rugby worker in Fox, in whose 
ni.-m.iry the school still keeps up a missionary at 
Mosulipatam. The learned author of Gothic Archi- 
<'>>; Matthew H. Bloxam, was taught and lived 

Rugbv, when h>: di<-d in 1888, leaving his valu- 

B collection of antiquities and books to the 
school. The school possesses an olervatory, given 
by Archdeacon Wilson, and the Natural 'History 
oporto, written by members of the school, have 
often been of exceptional value. 



See. besides Stanley's Life of A rnold and Tom Broicn's 
School-days, The Book of 'Rugby School, edited by Dean 
Goulburn (1856) ; M. H. Bloxam and Rev. W. H. Payne 
Smith, Rugby: lit School and Neighbourhood 1889); 
Rugby School Registers, 1567-188? ( 1881-91 ) ; A. Rimmer, 
Rambles round Rugby ( 1892 ) ; W. H. D. Rouse, A History 
of Rugby School (Public Schools series, 1898). 

Rugby, TENNESSEE. See HUGHES (THOMAS). 

Rllge, ARNOLD, German writer, was born at 
Bergen on the island of Riigen, on 13th September 
1802, studied philosophy at Jena and Halle, and 
took such a warm interest in the Burschenschaft 
(q.v.) agitations of 1821-24 as to bring down upon 
himself a sentence of six years' imprisonment in a 
fortress. After his release he taught at Halle, 
from 1832 as a privat-docent at the university. 
Along with Echtermeyer he founded in 1837 the 
critical journal Hallescne Jahrbitcher ( later Deutsche 
Jahrbucher), which as the organ of Young Ger- 
many and the Young Hegelian School filled an in- 
fluential place in the world of letters. Its liberal 
political tendencies drew upon it the condemnation 
of the Prussian censor, and after an attempt to 
transplant it to Dresden, thwarted by the censor- 
ship, Ruge withdrew to Paris. After spending 
some years there and in Switzerland, he started a 
bookseller's business in Leipzig, until the stormy 
revolutionary movement of 1848 drew him into it's 
vortex. He published the democratic journal Die 
Reform, took his seat in the Frankfort parliament 
for Breslan, attended the Democratic Congress in 
Berlin, and took part in the disturbances at Leipzig 
in May 1849. In the following year he found it 
expedient to repair to England. In London he 
organised along with Mazzini and Ledru-Rollin the 
Central European Democratic Committee, but in 
1850 withdrew to Brighton, where he lived by 
teaching and writing. For the services he rendered 
the Prussian government, by supporting it against 
Austria in 1866 and against France in 1870, he was 
rewarded with a yearly pension of 150. He died 
at Brighton on 31st December 1880. A thorough 
doctrinaire, Ruge advocated a universal democratic 
state, of which the several nations should be pro- 
vinces, and put cosmopolitan dreams above national 
ideals. I'nst.-ilile by nature, he readily changed 
his |H>litical opinions ; and he was intemperate in 
language, and brimful of the shallow humours 
and: prejudices of a little nature. Rnge wrote 
numerous books, plays, novels, &c., including the 
outlines of a GescAichte unserer Zeit (1881), Mani- 
fest an die Deutsche Nation (1866), his autobio- 
graphy in Ausfruherer Zeit (4 vols. 1863-67), and 
translations into German of Buckle's History of 
Civilisation, the Letters of Junius, Bnlwer's Lord 
Palmerston, &c. See Ruge's Brieftcechsel, &c., 
ed. by Nerrlich (2 vols. 1885-86). 

Rllgeley, a market-town of Staffordshire, on 
the Trent, 10 miles ESE. of Stafford. It has good 
public buildings (1879), a grammar-school, iron- 
works, and neighbouring collieries. Pop. ( 1851 ) 
3054; (1881)4249; (1891)4181. 

Rflgen. an Island of Prussia, lies in the Baltic, 
off the coast of Hither Pomerania. Greatest length, 
33 miles ; greatest breadth, 25 miles ; area, 374 
H|. ni. Pop. (1895) 46,732. It is separated from 
the mainland by a strait about a mile in width. 
The island, which is deeply indented by the sea, 
terminates at the north-eastern extremity in the 
precipitous cliff called the Stubbenkammer ( 400 feet ). 
Erratic boulders are common all over the island. 
Numerous barrows exist. Hertlia Lake is believed 
to be the place where, according to Tacitus, the 
ancient Germanic goddess Hertha ( Earth ) was wor- 
shipped. The soil is productive, and yields good 
wheat ; cattle are reared ; and fishing is carried on. 
The scenery, everywhere pleasing, is frequently 
romantic, and, together with the facilities for 



RUHMKOUFF 



Kl'M 



aa-bathing, attract* numerous visitors. Chn>f 
town. Bergen (pop. 3761), in the mi. 1. lit- of the 
island. Kugen WM occupied originally by Ger- 
manic tribes, then by Slavs, was conquered by the 
Danes in 1 168, threw off their supremacy in 1209, 
and formed an independent prinri|uility until 1478, 
when it WM incorporated with Ponierania (q.v.). 

KiilimkorflT, HKISRICII DAMKL, electrician, 
born at Hanover in 1803, in LMPMttM in Paris, 
and died there -'Kt December 1877. Hi- Induction 
Coil, exhibited in 1833, U described and figured in 
Vol. VI. p. 129. 

Knllllken, DAVID, classical philologist, was 
bora '-'.I January 1723 at Stolpe, in Pomerania, 
received hi- education at Konigsberg, at \Vittcn 
berg University, and at Leyden under Hemsterhuis, 
who taught him Greek. Ruhnken's first works 
were to prepare a new edition of Plato, to collect 
the scholia on that author, and publish an edition 
of Timasus' Lexirvti I'orum Platoiiirarum ( Leydrn, 
17.V1 : i miu-li improved edition. ITS'.t). In 1755 he 
went to Paris, anil spent a whole year there examin- 
ing the MSS. of llif Royal Library iui.l of the Library 
M Germain. Heiiisterhuis then got him ap- 
pointed assistant to himself (1757) at Leyden. In 
1761 he succeeded Oudendorp in the chair of 
Eloquence and History. In 1774 he succeeded 
Gronovius as librarian to the university, which 
he enriched with a multitude of valuable books 
and M>s Me died Uth May 1798. One of the 
best scholars and critics of the 18th century, 
Knhnken possessed fine taste and sagacity, vast 
learning, ami a remarkabjv lucid and graceful 
Latin style. His principal literary works embraced 
J-.'/iistolie Critica( 1749-51), an edition of Kutilius 
Lupus (1768), of Velleius Paterculus (1779), of 
Miiretus (1789), &c. His pupil VVyttenbach wrote 
his Life (Leyden, 1799). 

Ruhr, a ri'Jit hand affluent of the Rhine, rises 
in Westphalia, near the south-west frontier of 
Waldeck, Hows generally west, and, after a course 
of 144 miles, joins the Rhine at Kuhrort. 

ICiilirort, a town of Rhenish Prussia, situated 
at the inlliix of the Ruhr into tin; Rhine, 26 miles 
by rail X. of Piisseldorf, is one of the busiest river- 
ports on the Rhine, carrying on a large trade in 
corn, timber, iron, &c. In the vicinity there are 
large ironworks and coal-mines. Pop. (1890) 11,099. 

Ruisdael. See RUYSDAEL. 

Rule, ST. See REGULUS. 

Rule Nisi. See DIVORCE. 

Rule of Faith, not the sum of the Christian 
faith as laid down in Creeds (q.v.) and Confessions 
(q.v.); but, in polemical theology, the sources 
whence the doctrines of the faith are to be authori- 
tatively derived the Scriptures, the tradition of 
the Cliurch, the teaching of the fathers, &c. See 

R'iMXN I'vni'H.lc- I'll! KCH, REFORMATION, CHIL- 

MM;WI>UTH, XKWMAN, &c. 

Rule of the Road. This phrase includes 

the regulation- to I K-erved in the movements of 

conveyance- either on land or at wo. On Land: 
In England drivers, riders, and cyclists keep the 
side f the road next their left hand when meeting, 
and that next their right when overtaking anil 
pMfting other horses or conveyances. The person 
ding this rule is liable for any damage that 
may happen through such neglect. A man riding 
against a horse, or a conveyance driving against 
another that is standing still, in answerable for any 
damage that may ensue. On the Continent and in 
America drivers and riders keep to the right. 
At .SV" If two steamers are meeting end on or 
nearly end on, both alter their courses to star- 
boanl i.e. In.th turn to their right hand. If two 
teamen are crossing each other, the one which 



has the other on the starboard (right hand) side 
keeps out of the way. A steamer must keep out 
ot the way of a sailing ship. A steamer shall 
slacken speed or stop and reverse if necessary. 
If two sailing ship- are approaching each other, 
whether meeting or cm ing, one tunning free kee| 
out of the way of one close-hauled ; one close- 
hauled on the port tack keeps out of the way of 
one close-hauled on the starboard tack ; one with 
the wind tree on the port side keeps out of tin- 
way of one with the wind free on the starboard side : 
where Iwth have the wind free on the same side 
the one to windward keeps out of the way of tin- 
one to leeward; and a ship with the wind aft 
keeps out of the way of the other tOiii>. Xotwith- 
standing the above rules, a -hip, w hcther a sailing 
ship or steamship, overtaking any other must keep 
out of the way of the overturn ship. Where one 
ship is to keep out of the way, the other must keep 
her course. Regard, however, is to be j>aid to all 
dangers of navigation, and to any special circum- 
stances which may render a departure from the 
rules necessary to avoid immediate danger. See 
Marsden on Collisions. 

Rullion Green. See PENTLAXD HILLS. 

Rum, a mountainous i-land of Argyllshire, be- 
longing to the group of the Inner llelnides, 15 
miles X. by AV. of Ardnainurchan Point. It is 8J 
miles long, 8 miles broad, and 42 sq. in. in area, 
only 300 acres being arable, and the rest deer-forest 
and moorland. The surface presents a mass of high 
sharp-peaked mountains, rising in Halival and 
Haiskeval to the height of 2368 and 2859 feet. In 
1826 the crofters, numbering fully 400, were, all 
but one family, cleared off to America, and Rum 
was converted into a single sheep-farm ; but in 
1845 it was sold (as again in 1888) for a deer-forest. 
Top. (1851) Iti-J; (1SH1)89; (1891)53. 

Rum, a kind of spirit made by fermenting and 
distilling the ' sweets ' that accrue in making sugar 
from cane-juice. The sciiminings from the sugar- 
pans give the lies! mm that any particular planta- 
tion can produce; scuinmings and molasses the 
next quality ; and molasses the lowest Before fer- 
mentation water is added, till the 'sett ' or wort is 
of the strength of about 12 per cent. <>i sugar ; and 
every ten gallons yields one gallon of rum, or rather 
more. The flavour of rum depends mainly on soil 
and climate, and is not good where canes grow 
rankly. Pine-apples and gnavas are at times 
thrown into the still, but on the great scale no 
attempt is made to influence flavour artificially. 
The finest-flavoured nuns are produced by the old- 
fashioned small stills. The modern stills, which 
produce a strong spirit at one operation, are 
unfavourable to flavour. The colour of rum is 
imparted after distillation by adding a certain 
proportion (varying with the varying taste of the 
market ) of caramel, < sugar melted without water, 
and thus slightly charred. Hum is usually distilled 
at about 40 per cent, ovcrproof : and it is eaten) 
that from nine to ten acres of land will produce two 
hogsheads of sugar as well as alxmt a puncheon of 
rum. Hum is greatly improved by age, and old 
rum is very often highly prized ; at a sale in Car 
lisle in 1866 rum known to lie 140 years old sold 
for three guineas per bottle. It forms a viy 
important part of colonial produce : the quan- 
tity imported into liritain in 1848 was 6.858.HSI 
gallons; in 1875, 8,815,681 gallons; in issl, 
4,816,887 gallons (value 485,685); in 1889, 
4,087,109 gallons (value .040.026). In tin- pro- 
duction of rum .l.imaica claims the first place 
and Demerara the second. It is produced also 
in some of tin- l-'irm-h possessions. 

RUM SlUtm, a liqueur in which the alcoholic 
base is rum, and the other materials are sugar. 



RUMANIA 



RUNEBERG 



23 



lime or lemon juice, and the rind of these fruits 
added to give flavour. Almost every maker has 
his own receipt, and much credit is assumed by 
each for his own especial mixture. 

Rumania. See ROUMANIA. 

Rlllllford, COUNT. Benjamin Thompson, a 
man of many talents, was born of an old colonial 
stock at Wobnrn, in Massachusetts, on 26th March 
1753. His youth was spent as an assistant in a 
goods store at Salem and at Boston, and as a school 
teacher. But having married a lady of standing, 
he was made major in a New Hampshire regiment, 
and, through his royalist opinions, incurred the 
hostility of the colonists to such an extent that he 
found it liest to cross the ocean to England (1775). 
In London he gave valuable information to the 
government as to the state of the colony, and was 
rewarded with an appointment in the Colonial 
Office. From his boyhood he had had a passion for 
physical investigations ; in England he experi- 
mented largely with gunpowder, and was elected a 
Fellow of the Royal Society (1779). In 1782 he 
was back in America, with a lieutenant-colonel's 
commission in the king's army. After peace was 
concluded he was knighted, and entered the service 
of the Elector of Bavaria. In this new sphere he 
showed great reforming energy : he thoroughly 
reformed the army, drained the marshes round 
Mannheim, i-stnblished in Munich a cannon-foundry 
and a military academy, cleared the country of the 
swarms of beggars and planned a poor-law system, 
spread widely the cultivation of the potato, dis- 
seminated a knowledge of cheap and good dishes 
(especially the Rumford soup) and foods, devised 
an economical fireplace, kitchen, and oven (the 
Rumford roaster), improved the breeds of horses 
and cattle in Bavaria, and laid out the English 
Garden in Munich. For these services he was 
rewarded by election to membership of the Acade- 
mies of Science in Munich, Mannheim, and Berlin, 
by lieing put at the head of the War Department 
of Bavaria, and by being made a count of the Holy 
Roman Empire he chose the title of Rumford, the 
former name of the town of Concord in Massachu- 
setts. During the course of a visit to England in 
1796 he endowed the two Rumford medals of the 
Royal Society of London, and he also endowed two 
similar medals of the American Academy of Science 
and Art, all four for researches in light and heat. 
Three years later was founded on his initiative the 
Royal Institution ( q. v. ) for diffusing the knowledge 
of mechanical inventions. Going back to Munich 
in the same year, he found it threatened by the 
opposing French and Austrian armies. The Elector 
fled, leaving Count Rumford president of the Council 
of Kegency, generalissimo of the forces, and head of 
the police. In 1799 he retired from the service of 
the Elector. His remaining years were principally 
occupied with physical investigations, es|>ecially in 
heat, which he clearly recognised to be some form 
of motion, besides showing that a definite quantity 
nf heat could )>e produced by a definite amount of 
mechanical work. In 1804 he married the widow 
of Lavoisier, the celebrated chemist, and soon after 
settled at Autenil, near Paris, where he died on 
21st August 1814. See the Memoir prefixed to his 
Sc-irntitir \V filings (."> vols. London, 1876), and the 
biography by Bauernfeind (Munich, 1889). 

Ruminants, a name applied to those even-toed 
or ArtiixlaiMyl 1'n^iiliites which 'chew the cud.' 
These are (a) the Tragtilidie, often called musk- 
deer ; ( b ) the Cotylophora, including antelopes, 
sheep, goats, oxen, giraffes, deer ; (e) the Camelidii-, 
or camels and llamas. Their characteristics and the 
process of rumination are descrilied in the article 
ARTIODACTYLA, with which those on DIGESTION 
and on CATTLE should be compared. 



Rump Parliament. See LONG PARLIA- 
MENT, CROMWELL. 

Runcorn, a thriving market and manufactur- 
ing town and river-port of Cheshire, on the left 
bank of the tidal Mersey, 12 miles ESE. of Liver- 
pool and 28 WSW. of Manchester. The river is 
crossed here by a railway viaduct, which, erected 
in 1864-69 at a cost of over 300,000, is 1500 feet 
long and 95 feet above high-water mark. An 
ancient place, where a castle was founded by the 
Princess Ethelfreda in 916, and a priory in 1133, it 
yet dates all its prosperity from the construction 
of the Bridgewater Canal (1762-72), which at 
Runcorn descends to the Mersey by a succession 
of locks. More canal-lwats plied to and from 
Runcom than from anywhere else in the kingdom 
even before the opening of the Manchester Ship- 
canal ( 1887-94 ; see MANCHESTER, and CANAL, Vol. 
II. p. 700); and there are besides spacious docks 
with considerable shipping, Runcorn having been 
made a head-port in 1847. The industries include 
shipbuilding, iron - founding, rope - making, the 
manufacture of chemicals, quarrying, &c. Pop. 
( 1851 ) 8049 ; ( 1871 ) 12,443 ; ( 1891 ) 20,050. 

Runeberg. JOHAN LUDVIG, the greatest poet 
who has written in Swedish, and the national poet 
of Finland, was born in that country, at Jacobs tad 
on the Gulf of Bothnia, on 5th February 1804. 
His father, a retired sea-captain, gave him a good 
education ; though from the time he entered (1822) 
the university of Alx> he supported himself. In 
1830, after three years of private 'coaching,' Rune- 
berg was given a secretaryship in the university 
(removed to Helsingfors in 1827) and was named 
reader in Eloquence (Latin literature), and in the 
following year added to these offices that of 
teacher in the lyceum. In these years he pub- 
lish. <! his first liooks in 1830 a volume of Lyric 
Poems and in 1831 a narrative poem, The Grave 
in Perrho, for which the Swedish Academy 
gave him its minor gold medal. Other books fol- 
lowed in quick succession, as a beautiful epic idyll, 
The Elk-hunters (1832), one of his finest pieces of 
work; a second volume of Poems (1833), contain- 
ing amongst other things a second epic idyll, 
Christmas Eve; and a third epic idyll, Hanna, 
which is almost equal to The Elk-hunters in beauty 
and finish of stvle. All three are written in hex- 
ameters, which Runeberg manages with admirable 
effect ; like other poems of the same class, they 
deal with the rural life of the interior of Finland, 
Hanna with the joys and sorrows of the quiet 
parsonage, The Elk-hunters with the peasantry 
and country-folk, and Christmas Eve with the 
manor-house and its dependents. Runeberg de- 
scribes the fresh, unconventional manners and the 
old world, patriarchal style of living of these people 
with great wealth of picturesque detail, with 
excellent taste, with tender sympathy, with grace 
and simplicity and beauty of form. The atmo- 
sphere that envelops his poetry was the immediate 
creation of his own wholesome, healthy, manly 
temperament and genius ; one sterling ingredient 
is a quaint natural humour, deep-seated and pure 
in quality. Runeberg's poetry is moreover the 
written embodiment of the deepest feelings and 
sentiments of the dual people of Finland, of the 
Finns no less than of the descendants of the 
Swedish immigrants, and with his name all Fin- 
landers associate their passionate devotion to their 
country. 

From 1832 Runeberg added to his already numer- 
ous duties those of editor of the bi-weekly Helsiny- 
fors Morning News. But, with all these irons in 
the fire, he had too much work and too little pay, 
and there was little prosed of a good permanent 
position in the university ; so in 1837 he applied 



24 



RUNKBEHO 



KUNES 



for, and obtained, the post of reader of Roman 
Literature in the college of Borga, where he spent 
the rect of hi* life, and died 6th May IS77- IMir 
ing these last yearn lie wrote an eptc of Kiist-ian 
life, Nadetchdii (1841); a third volume of 1'ocnu 
(1843); an epic of old Nome time*, King Fjalar 
(1844); Entign Stal't Storiet (2 vols. 1848 and 
1800); a alight hat merry little comedy. Can't 
(1882); a fine tragedy in the old Greek spirit, 
The King* in SaJamu (1863); and some short 
Prote Writing* (1854). King Fjiilar is, artisti- 
cally, bu greatest achievement, if not the greatest 
achievement in Swedish literature ; but its fame 
has been eclipsed by Ensign S til's glowing stories 
of Finland's heroic struggle against the giant 
Russia in 1809. The opening poem of the series, 
'Our land, our land,' has been fittingly chosen as 
the national song of Finland. The very heart of 
the people throlw in these stirring song's. In 1857, 
after four years' laliour, Ituneliurg edited for the 
Lutheran Church of Finland a Psalm-book, in 
which were included above sixty pieces from his 
own pen. He also excelled as a translator of folk- 
songs from Servian, German, and other languages. 
There is only one single poem in all his longer 
works that lacks the finished simplicity, beauty, 
and classic restraint which are so characteristic 
of him ; that is a cycle entitled Nights uf Jealousy, 
written in early youth. 

The best biography (but only reaching down to 1837) 
is J. E. StrumboV* (3 parts, Hclsingfors, 1880-89). 
Thu mut be supplemented by Nyblom's preface to 
Kuni'berg's Samladr Slcrifter (6 vols. Stockholm, 1873 
74) and monographs (in Swedish) by Dietrichson and 
lUncken (Stockholm, 1864), Cygniiui ( HeUingf ore, 1873), 
and Vanenius ( HeUingf ors, 1890), a Life (in German) by 
Peochier (Stuttgart, 1881), and the preface to Eigen- 
brodt'i excellent German translation of Knneberg's epic 
poenu ( 2 vol. Halle, 1891 ). English readers will find a 
awful account of Kuncberg'n life, with specimens of his 
poems translated, in E. W. Uosse's Northern Studies 
(1879); a fairly faithful translation of his lyric poems, 
with a biographical notice, in Magnusson and Palmer's 
Runcberg'i Lyrical Songi ( 1878 ) ; and an indifferent 
translation of ffadaekda by Mrs Shipley (1891). 

It ii lies. In the Scandinavian lands, Sweden, 
Denmark, and Norway, thousands of inscriptions 
have been fouml written in the ancient alphabet of 
the heathen Northmen. Similar records are scat- 
tered sparsely and sporadically over the region* 
which were overrun or settled by the Baltic tribes 
between the 2d century and the 10th. A few are 
found in Kent, which was conquered by the Jutes, 
others in Cumberland, Dumfries-bin-. Orkney, and 
the Isle of Man, which were occupied by the 
Norwegians, and in Yorkshire, which was settled 
by the Angles. One or two have lieen found in the 
valley of the Danube, which was the earliest hull- 
ing place of the Goths in their migration south- 
wards ; and there is reason to believe that a similar 
alphabet was used by the Visigoths and Bur- 
gimdiaiiN in Spain anil France, while it is null- 
worthy that there is no trace of this writing 
having Ix-en used in Germany, or by the Saxons 
and Pranks. 

The writing is called Rnnic, the individual letters 
are called nine-staves, or less correctly runes, and 
the runic alphaU-t is called the Futhorc, from 
the lir-t siv letters/, ii, th, o, r, e. The Old Norse 
won! run originally meant something ' secret ' or 
magical. The oldest extant runic records may 
date from the 1st century A. p., the latest from 
the 15th or 16th, the greater number Ix-ing older 
than the llth century, when after the conversion 
of tin- Scandinavians the futhorc was superseded 
by thi! Ijitin alphalH-t. The form, number, and 
value of the ninic letters changed considerably 
during the many centuries they were in use, the 
runes of diileri-nt |>eriods and countries exhibiting 



considerable differences. They may. however, be 
arranged in three main divisions: (1) tin- <...thi.- 
or old Scandinavian runes, which are chielly found 
in inscriptions curlier than the (itli century ; (2) 
the Anglian runes, used in Northumhria from the 
7th to the 9th century ; (3) the later Scandinavian 
nines, used in Sweden and Norway in the 7th and 
following centuries. These futhorcs are shown in 



Name*. 
fech, feb, fe 
nr 

thorn 



rad, rat 

oen 

gifu 

wen 

hegl, hagal 

nyd, nod 

is 

ger, yr, ar 

ili. eoh 

peorth, perc 

ilix, calc 

sigil 

tir 

berc 

ech, eh 

man 

I"-'" 

ing 

dag 

othil 



Values. 

f 

u 

th 
, a, o 

r 



h 
n 
i 

g, J, 
yo, eo 

P 
a,i,k,x 

8 
t 
b 

6 

m 
1 

ng 
d 

0, 03 



Goth. AngL Scan. 



r* 


V 


V 


AH 


h 


h 


fe 


> 


t> 


r" 


r* 


* 


ft 


R 


R 


< 


K 


y 


X 


X 




P 


F 




H 


M 


* 


j 


i 


t 


i 


i 


1 


5 


> 


kA 


\ 


s 




&UI 


K 


K 


Y 


Y 




* 


h 


H 


t 


t 


T1 


1 





B 


M 


M 




H 


n 


Y 


r 


r 


r 


<> 


* 




M 


H 




* 


A 





the table. The oldest is the Gothic futhorc of 
twenty-four runes, divided into three families, 
each of eight nines. This is used in about 200 
inscriptions, several of which can be approxim- 
ately dated from the 3d century to the 5th, while 
others, from the more archaic forms of the runes, 
must, talong to an earlier period. The oldest 
to which a date can ! assigned is on a golden 
torque from a temple of the heathen Goths in 
\Vallachia, which must be earlier than the con- 
version of the Goths in the 3d century. In the 
Anglian futhorc, which was derived from the 
Col hie, many new nines were obtained by differen- 
tiation, and the phonetic values underwent consiilei 
aide changes. The Anglian runes are from 25 to 40 
in number. The later Scandinavian futhorc, in 
which the greater number of runic inscriptions 
were written, consists of a definite alphabet of 16 
runes. 

The origin of the ninic writing has lx-en a nciiter 
of prolonged controversy. The runes were formerly 
supposed to have originated out of the I'lio-nieian 
or the Latin letters, but it is now generally agreed 
that they must have been derived about the 6th 
century B.C., from an early form of the Greek 
alphabet which was employed by the Milesian 
traders and colonists of Olhia and other towns mi 
the northern shores of the Black Sea. These 
traders, as we know from Herodotus, penetrated 
to the north by the trade-route of the Dnie|>er, as 
far probably as the territory occupied by the Goths 
on the head-waters of the Vistula. This conjecture 
is confirmed by the fact that Greek coins struck in 



RUNJEET-SINGH 



RUPERT 



25 



the 5th century B.C. have been found in the region 
of the Baltic. The oldest runic inscriptions being 
retrograde, the Goths must have obtained the art 
of writing from the Greeks at a time when Greek 
was still written in the retrograde direction from 
right to left, which gives us a date earlier than 
the 5th century, but after the new letters tmega 
and chi had been evolved, and while H retained 
the value both of h, which it has in the Latin 
alphabet, and of e, which it has in the Greek, and 
also before koppa, which became Q in Latin, fell 
into disuse among the Greeks. From these and 
similar data it appears that the runic writing must 
have been obtained from the Greeks after the 7th 
and earlier than the 5th century B.c. That the runic 
alphabet was developed from the Greek is proved 
among other things by the facte that it contains a 
symbol for 6 which was developed from omega, a 
letter peculiar to the Greeks, ana that it contains a 
symbol for ng, which proves to be a ligature of two 
gammas, Greek being the only language in which 
gg has the phonetic value of ng. The value of the 
runes must have changed to some extent after the 
symbols were obtained from the Greeks, owing to 
the sound changes tabulated in Grimm's Law (q.v.) 
not having been completed at the time when the 
runic writing was obtained. Thus, according to 
Grimm's Law, a Greek '// answers to a Gothic d, 
and a Greek ch to a Gothic g, and we find, as we 
should expect, that the d rune was derived from 
theta, and the g rune from chi. The forms of the 
runes were considerably modilied by the fact that 
they were cut with a knife on wooden slabs ; con- 
sequently horizontal strokes, which would follow 
the grain of the wood, are necessarily avoided, and 
all the strokes are either vertical or slanting. 

There are several interesting runic inscriptions 
in England, among which may be mentioned that 
on the Ruthwell (q.v.) cross 
in Dumfriesshire, and that 
on the Bewcastle (q.v.) cross 
in Cumberland, a lac-simile 
of which is jnven here. It 
is a memorial of Alcfrid, 
son of Oswin, king of North- 
nmbria, and dates from the 
~ th centur y- Several crosses 



nfHMTTFN 

munmn 



_. K . , 
D D fr $ 



i> is. K 

F KK F F 



ornament, and are in the form 

f th f old , Iri8h '.""? As 
they have also runic inscnp- 

' tions ' tliis 8t >' le of Iri * h a ~ 

ment has wronglv acquired 
W M 'X 1 F M U M the name f runic knot-work, 
1 and the Irish form of cross is 
P^ll^PIU FPTfN M "ft* 11 called the ninic cross. 
nil I l|[) These names originated at 
a time when archaeological 
knowledge was less advanced than it is now, and 
should be rejected. 

Fac-similes of the chief runic inscriptions have been 
conveniently collected by Dr G. Stephens of Copenhagen 
in his Handbook of Runic Monument* ( 1884 ), which is an 
abridgment of his larger work on the Old Northtrn Runic 
MMWaVHf*(8Tgh.lM6-fl8-M). The origin of the rnnes 
is diocnawd by the present author in his book on The 
Alphafxt (1883), and at greater length in a monograph 
entitled Greek* and Optht : a Study on the Kuwt (1879). 
The works of Dr Wimmer, l>r Bngge, Mr Haigh, and 
Dr Kirchhoff may also be consulted. 

Riuijret-Sineh. See RANJIT. 

Rnnn of Catch. See CUTCH. 

Runner, in Botany, is a long, slender branch 
proceeding from a lateral bud of a herbaceous 
plant with very short axis, or, in popular language, 
without stem. It extends along the ground, and 
produces l>u>U a- it proceeds, which often take 



root and form new plants. Strawberries afford a. 
familiar example. Another is found in Potentilla 
anserina. Runners are common in the genus Ran- 
unculus. 

Runners. See BEAN. 

Rnnnimede, a long stretch of green meadow, 
lying alonj* the right bank of the Thames, 1 mile 
above Staines and 36 miles by river WSW. of 
London. Here, or on Charta Island, a little way 
off the shore, Magna Charta ( q. v. ) was signed by 
King John, June 15, 1215. It bears to have been 
signed 'per manum nostrum in prato quod vocatur 
Runnimede.' 

Running. See ATHLETIC SPORTS. 

Ruiirig Lands are a species of ownership, 
still existing in different parts of Scotland and 
Ireland, under which the alternate ridges of a 
field belong to separate proprietors. The right of 
the several parties to the alternate ridges is 
absolute, and thus this kind of possession differs 
from common property. These runrig, runridge, 
or rundale lands, as they are variously called, are 
survivals of the simple form of open-field hus- 
bandry, under the tribal system once univer- 
sally prevalent in the western districts of Britain, 
and well suited to the precarious and shifting- 
agriculture of those times. The form of rural 
economy which gave rise to this mode of tenure 
has lately been carefully and successfully investi- 
gated bv several student*, prominent among whom 
is Mr Frederic Seebohm, who has published the 
results of his researches in his well-known work on 
the English Village Community. The obstruction 
to agricultural improvement resulting from the 
land being thus dispersed in small pieces inter- 
mixed with each other led, in the end of the 17th 
century, to the introduction of a mode of com- 
pulsory division or allotment of such lands. By 
statute 1695, chap. 23, it was provided that, 
' wherever lands of different heritors be runrig,' 
application may be made to the judge ordinary 
or justices of the peace ' to the effect that these 
lands may lie divided according to their respec- 
tive interests.' This remedy, however, does not 
apply to burgh acres or to patches of land less than 
four acres in extent. 

Rupee', a silver coin current in India, of the 
value of 2s. English (see INDIA, Vol. VI. p. 114). 
Owing to the depreciation of silver, the present 
average value of the rupee is Is. -'.'I. A lac (or 
lakh ) of rupees is 100,000 ( at the old value of 2s. 
= 10,000), and a crore is 10,000,000. Coins are 
struck in silver of the value of 1, 2, 4, i, and J 
rupee. The first rupee was struck by Slier Shah, 
the Afghan emperor of Delhi (1540-45), and was 
adopted by Akbar and his successors ; but in the 
decline of the Mohammedan empire every petty 
chief coined his own rupee, varying in weight and 
value, though usually bearing the name and titles 
of the reigning emperor. The rupee is the official 
money of account in the island of Mauritius. 

Rupert, PRINCE, third son of the Elector 
Palatine Frederick V. and Elizabeth, daughter 
of James I. of England, was born at Prague on 
18th December 1619, his parents having the month 
before l>een crowned king and queen of Bohemia. 
He studied at Leyden, and became well grounded 
in mathematics and religion ( ' indeed, made Jesuit- 
proof), as well as in French, Spanish, and Italian, 
and above all the art of war. After a year and a 
half at the English court, where it was proposed to 
make a bishop of him or viceroy of Madagascar, 
he served in 1637-38, during the Thirty Years' 
War, against the Imperialists, until at Lemgo he 
was taken prisoner, and confined for nearly three 
years at Lmz. In 1642 he returned to England, 



RUl'KUT'S LAND 



RUSH 



in time to be present at the raising of the king's 
standard at Nottingham ; and for the next three 
yean the ' Mad Cavalier ' wan the life and smil of 
the royalist cause, winning many a battle by his 
resistless charges, to lose it as often by a too head- 
long pursuit. He hail fought at Worcester, Edge- 
hill, Brentford, Chalgrove, Newburv, Bolton, Mar- 
ton Moor, Newbury again, and N'osehy, when in 
August 1645 his surrender of Bristol after a three 
weeks' siege HO irritated Charles, who tin- year 
before had created him Duke of Cuml>erland and 
generalissimo, that he curtly dismissed him, and 
sent him his passport to quit the kingdom. A 
court-martial, however, completely cleared him, 
and he resumed his duties, only to Mirrender at 
Oxford to Fairfax in the following June. He now 
took service with France, but in 1648 accepted tin; 
command of that |>ortion of the English fleet ; which 
ha<l espoused the Uinx < cause. As admiral or 
corsair. Prince Rupert acquitted himself with all 
his olil daring and somewhat more caution ; and 
for three vears he kept his ships afloat, escaping at 
last the blockade in which for nearly a twelve- 
month he was held at Kinsale on the Irish coast 
by Blake. But in 1651 the latter attacked his 
squadron, and burned or sunk most of his vessels. 
\\ ith the remnant the prince escaped to the West 
Indies, where, along with his brother Maurice, 
till the loss of the latter in a hurricane ( 1652), he 
led a buccaneering life, maintaining himself as 
before by the seizure of English,and other merchant- 
men. In 1653 he was back in France, where and 
in Germany he chiefly resided till the Restoration. 
Thereafter he served with distinction under the 
Duke of York, and, in concert with the Duke of 
Albemarle, in naval operations against the Dutch ; 
and he died at his house in Spnng Gardens, 29th 
November 1682, in the enjoyment of various offices 
and dignities, being a privy-councillor, governor 
of Windsor, an F.R.S., &c. He left a natural 
daughter, Ruperta, born to him in 1673 by Margaret 
Hughes, actress. His last ten years hud been spent 
in retirement in the pursuit of chemical, physical, 
and mechanical researches, for which he viand 
considerable aptitude. Though he was not the 
inventor of mezzotint (see ENGRAVING, Vol. IV. 
p. 381 ), Prince Rupert no doubt improved the 
processes of the art, which he descril>ed to the 
Royal Society in 1662, after executing several 
interesting engravings on the new principle. 
Among Ins discoveries were an improved ^1111- 
pmviler, the composition known as ' Prince's metal, ' 
and perhaps the ' Prince Rupert's Drops,' or curious 
glass bubbles described under Annealing (q.v.). 

See Eliot Warlmrton's Memoiri of Prince Rupert and 
the Cavalier* (3 vok. 1849); Lord Ronald Gower's 
Rupert of the Rhine (1890) ; and other works cited at 
ELIZABETH (of Bohemia), CHARLES I., and CHARLES II. 

Rupert's Land. See HUDSON BAY COM- 
PANY. 

Kupia is a somewhat severe form of skin 
disease. It is characterised by Ibmi-h. distinct 
hnllir or blebs, < untaiiiin^' a serous, purulent, or 
aanions fluid, which become changed into thick 
cabs. Several varieties of lliis disease have been 
established by dermatologists. In its simplest 
form the blebs are not preceded by any inflamma- 
tory symptom-, iin- alnint an inch in diameter, nnd 
contain a fluid which is originally thin ami traii- 
parent, but soon thickens, Wcomes purulent, and 
dries into brown, ragged scalw, which are elevated 
in the centre. The seal* are easily separated, ami 
leave ulcerated nurfaces, on which several successive 
scabs usually form before healing ensues. In a 
more severe form, known as /.'/// jtromintnn, the 
scab projects so much in the centre as to resemble 
a limpet-shell in form. 



Rupia is a chronic disease, and is usually limited 
to the limbs, the loins, and the nates, 'it is not 
contagious, and generally attacks persons debili- 
tated by old age, intemperance, lui<! living, or 
previous diseases, especially small]K>x, scarlatina, 
and syphilis. The general treatment consists 
mainly in the administration of tonics (e.g. 
quinia), the mineral acids, ale, wine, animal food. 
&C. Some writers strongly recommend the tincture 
of gerpentaria ; and there is no doubt that certain 
cases which will not yield to tonics rapidly imp 
when treated with iodide of potassium. The local 
treatment consists in puncturing the blebs as soon 
as they arise, in removing the scabs by poulticing, 
and in applying a slightly stimulating application 
such as a solution of nitrate of silver to the 
subjacent ulcers. The disease is frequently tedious 
and obstinate, but the patient almost always 
ultimately recovers. 

Ruppin, NEU, a town of Prussia, on a small 
lake of the same name, which communicates with 
the Ellie, 48 miles by rail NW. of lierlin. It was 
built by Frederick William II. after a lire in 1787, 
and is a handsome town with (18!).")) l.'i.rnJl inhab- 
itants, who manufacture cloth, picture-books, 
machinery, starch, brushes, &c. 

Rupture. See HERNIA. 

Rural Dean. See DEAN. 

Rlirik, the founder of the Russian monarchy. 
See NOKTHMEN, and RUSSIA. 

ItlirKi. a town in the North-west Provinces of 
India, 22 miles E. of Saharanpiir, with the Thomason 
Engineering College, a station for British troops, 
mission school, and meteorological observatory. 
Pop. 15,953. 

Rush. BENJAMIN, an American physician, was 
born in what is now the twenty-third ward of 
Philadelphia, December 24, 1745, graduated at 
Princeton in 1760, studied medicine in Phila- 
delphia, Edinburgh, London, and Paris, ami in 
1769 was made professor of Chemist rv in the 
Philadelphia Medical College. Elected a member 
of the Continental Congress, he signed the Declara- 
tion of Independence (1776). In April 1777 he 
was appointed Surgeon-general, and in July 
Physician-general, of the Continental army. His 
duties did not prevent him from writing a series 
of letters against the articles of confederation of 
1776. In 1778 he resigned his post in the army. 
l>ecause be could not prevent frauds upon soldiers 
in the hospital stores, and returned to his professor- 
ship. He was a founder of the Philadelphia ilis 
pensary, the first in the I'nited States, and of the 
College of Physicians, was active in the establish 
ment of public schools, was a memlx-r of the state 
conventions which ratified the Federal constitu- 
tion and formed the state constitution. He next 
became professor of the Theory and Practice of 
Medicine at Philadelphia, to which chair he added 
those of the Institutes and Practice of Medicine 
and Clinical Practice ( 1791 ), and of the Practice of 
Physic (1797) ; and during the epidemic of 1793 he 
was as successful as devoted in the. treatment of 
yellow fever. Virulently attacked, owing to his 
methods of practice, by William Cobbett, who 
published a newspaper in Philadelphia, he )>i 
cuted him for libel, and recovered JSOOO dam:. 
In 17011 Rush woe, appointed treasurer of tin- 
United States Mint, which post he held till his 
death, 19th April 1813. He was called 'the 
Sydenham of America,' and his medical works 
brought him honours from several European 
sovereigns. The chief of them were Medical In- 
quiries and Observation* (5 vols. 1789-93), Essays 
(1798), and Diseases of the Mind (1821 ; 5th ed. 
1835). HU son, RICHARD (1780-1859), a lawyer 



RUSH 



RUSKIN 



27 



and statesman, was minister to England in 1817-25, 
where he negotiated the important Fisheries and 
North-eastern Boundary Treaties, and was Secre- 
tary of the Treasury from 1825 to 1829. In 1828 
he was an unsuccessful candidate for the vice- 
presidency of the United States ; and in 1836-38 
he secured for his country the whole of the legacy 
which James Smithson had left to found the 
Smithsonian Institution. 

Rush, a seaport of Ireland, 16 miles by rail NE. 
of Dublin. Pop. 1071. 

Rush (Jtincus), a genus of plants of the natural 
order Juncese, having a glume-like (not coloured) 
perianth, smooth filaments, and a many-seeded, 
generally three-celled capsule. The species are 
numerous, mostly natives of wet or marshy places 
in the colder parts of the world ; some are found 
in tropical regions. Some are absolutely destitute 
of leaves, but have barren scapes ( flower-stems ) re- 
sembling leaves ; some have leafy stems, the leaves 
rounded or somewhat compressed, and usually 
jointed internally ; some have plane or grooved 
leaves on the stems ; some have very narrow 
leaves, all from the root. The name Rush perhaps 
properly belongs to those species which have no 
proper leaves ; the round stems of which, bearing 
or not hearing small lateral heads of flowers, are 
popularly known as Rushes. 
The Soft Rush (/. effumts) is 
a native of Japan as well as 
of Britain, and is cultivated 
in Japan for making mats. 
The Common Rush (J. con- 
glotneratus) and the Sufi 
fUMb are largely used for the 
bottoms of chairs and for 
mats, and in ruder times, 
when carpets were little 
known, they were much used 
for covering the floors of 
rooms ; to this many allusions 
will be found in early English 
writers. The stems of the 
true rushes contain a large 
pith or soft central substance, 
which is sometimes used for 
wicks to small candles, called 
rushlights. There are twenty 
or twenty-two British species 
of rush, some of which are 
very rare, some found only 
on the highest mountains, but 
Common Rwh(J uncut some are among the most 
conglomeratut). common of plants. They are 
often very troublesome weeds 

to the farmer. Thorough drainage is the best 
means of getting rid of them. Lime, dry ashes, 
road scrapings, &c. are also useful. Tufts of rushes 
in pasture are a sure sign of insufficient drainage. 
Many marshy and boggy places alxmnd in some of 
the species having leafy stems and the leaves jointed 
internally, popularly called Sprats or Sprits, as ./. 
unit,/!,,,-,'*, ./. /// ni/ ,// -a i / 1 ii v, and J. ootitsifloms. 
They afford very little nourishment to cattle ; bat 
are useful for making coarse ropes for ricks, iV<-., 
which are stronger than those made of hay. Rush- 
lights or candles with rush-wicks were anciently 
much in use, and Gilbert White tells us how, by 
carefully dipping the rush in grease with a little wax 
added, the poor man might enjoy five and a half 
hours of comfortable light for a farthing. Rushes, 
with a few sweet herbs, were used to strew the 
floors before carpets came into use, and, as they 
were seldom entirely renewed, the insanitary con- 
sequences may be imagined. The stage was also 
strewed with rushes in Shakespeare's time, as well 
as the churches with rushes or straw according to 




the season of the year a custom still honoured at 
the Hull Trinity House and anciently rushes were 
scattered in the way where processions were to pass. 
To order fresh rushes was a sincere mark of honour 
to a guest. The strewing of the churches grew 
into a religious festival conducted with much pomp 
and circumstance. This ceremonious rush-bearing 
lingered long in the northern counties, and has 
been occasionally revived in modern times, as at 
Grasmere in 1884, &c. 

Rush-nut ( Cyperus esculentus ). See CYPERUS. 

Rlishworth, JOHN, whose Historical Collec- 
tions of Private Passages of State, Weighty Matters 
of Law, Remarkable Proceedings in Five Parlia- 
ments, is an important contribution to our know- 
ledge of the Civil War, and the events that led to 
it, belonged to an ancient family in Northumber- 
land, and was lx>rn there about 1607. He studied 
at Oxford, and settled in London as a barrister. 
He appears to have spent a great deal of his time 
for many years in attending the Star Chamber, the 
Court of Honour, the Exchequer Chamber, Parlia- 
ment, \r., and in taking down shorthand notes of 
the proceedings. When the Long Parliament met 
in 1640 he was appointed assistant to Henry 
Elsyngne, clerk of the House of Commons. He 
sat in parliament as memlier for Berwick ; was in 
1645 secretary to Sir Thomas Fairfax, and in 1677 
to the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal. In 1684 he 
was flung into the King's Bench for debt, and here 
he died, 12th May 1690. Rush worth's Historical Col- 
lections cover the period 1618-48, and were published 
in four instalments in 1659, 1680, 1692, and 1701. 
The whole was republished in 1721 in 7 vols. Rush- 
worth had the instinct of perpetuity, for lie seta 
forth as the motive for his labour ' the impossibility 
for any man in after ages to ground a true History, 
by relying on the printed pamphlets of our days, 
which passed the press while it was without con- 
trol.' The work has been blamed by royalist 
authors as unfair, and Carlyle often rails on ite 
worthy author as a Dryasdust. 

Ruskin. JOHN, the most eloquent and original 
of all writers upon art, and a strenuous preacher of 
righteousness, was born in London, 8th February 
1819. He was an only child ; his father ( 1785- 
1864 ), a wealthy wine-merchant, was an Edinburgh 
man settled in London. He was educated in his 
father's house, first in London and afterwards at 
Denmark-hill, till he went, as a gentleman commoner 
of Christ Church, to Oxford. There he gained the 
Newdigate prize for English poetry by a poem on 
Salsette and Elcjiliantit in 1839, and took his 
degree in 1842. He studied painting under Copley 
Fielding and Harding ; but his masters in the art 
were, he says, Rubens and Rembrandt. The story 
of the earlier years of his life has been told by 
Ruskin himself very fully in his Prceterita, one of 
the most charming autobiographies in the lan- 
guage. In 1843 appeared the first volume of liis 
Modern Painters, the primary design of which ( in 
reply to a criticism of Turner in Blackwooifs 
Magazine) was to prove the superiority of modern 
lanilscape-painters, and more especially of Turner, 
to the Old Masters ; but in the later volumes (the 
fifth and last was published in 1860) the work 
expanded into a vast discursive treatise on the 
principles of art, interspersed with artistic and 
symbolical descriptions of nature, more elaborate 
and imaginative than any writer, prose or poetic, 
had ever tefore attempted. Modern Painters was 
essentially revolutionary in its spirit and aim, 
many of the most distinguished landscape-painters, 
both of old and new schools, being summarily dealt 
with and condemned; and the work naturally 
excited the aversion and hostility of the conserva- 
tives in art. But the unequalled splendour of ita 



RUSK IN 



tyl* gave it a place in literature ; the originality 
of iU view*, the lofty conception of the painter s 
art displayed in it, and the evident justness of 
much of tlie criticism, secured recognition. Dis- 
cipleii anon appeared ; and the view* of art enunci- 
ated by Kuskin gradually made way, and have 
largely determined the course and charncUT of 
later English art. The lir-t volume wait published 
in a much altered form in 1846. The Ml three 
volumes contained illustrations by the author. A 
n-M-e.1 and altered edition appeared in 1860-67 ; 
another in 1873; nnd an edition in -i\ volumes, 
with some additional plates, an epilogue, and new 
index, in 1889. In 1849 appeared J'hr Seven Lamps 
of Architecture ; and in 1851-53 The Stonet of 
Venice, both being efforts to introduce a new and 
loftier conception of the significance of domestic 
architecture. They were exqui.sitely illustrated 
by tlie author himself. About this time Pre- 
Raphaelitism (q.v.) l>egan to develop itself as a 
di-tinctivc phase of modern art, and Ruskin 
warmly espoused its cause in letters, pamphlets, 
and .\'<>ta on the Academy Exhibition (1855-60). 
He was the earliest literary advocate of this school, 
whose leading principle he defined as the resolve 
'to paint things as they proliably did look and' 
happen, not as, by rules of art developed under 
Raphael, they might be supposed gracefully, de- 
lii-inii.-ly. or sublimely to have happened.' 

In 1854 he published four admirable and sug- 
gestive Lectures on Architecture ami Painting ; and 
in 1858 two Lecture* on the Political Economy of 
Art. The Note* on the Construction of Sheepfolds 
(1851), dealing with the discipline of the church, 
illustrate his ingenuity in devising picturesque 
titles that suggest no notion of the subject treated. 
The King of the Golden Hirer, a fairy story, was 
published in 1851 ; and in 1854 The Two Paths, 
lectures on art and its application to decoration 
and manufacture. The Element* of Drawing and 
the Element* of Perspective appeared in 1857 and 
L1859. The Crown of Wild Olive is a series of four 
' essays on work, traffic, war, and the future of Eng- 
land ; Sesame and Lilies, lectures on good litera- 
ture. The Queen of the Air is a study of the Greek 
myths of cloud and storm ; Ethics of the Dust, 
lectures on crystallisation ; Ariadne Florentina, 
on wood and metal engraving; Aratra Pentelici, 
on the principles of sculpture. The Laws of Fesole 
are the elements of painting and drawing ; Fronde* 
Atfrestes are readings from 'Modern Painters;' 
Gtotto and Hi* Works, Love's Meinie (on Birds), 
and Deucalion ( on Geology ) are other publications. 
Afunera Pulverit contains the elements of political 
economy according to Kuskin ; while Unto this Last 
in Kuskin's opinion, the best of his works 
attacks the current doctrines of the ' dismal 
science.' Val d'Arno contains lectures on the art 
of the 13th century in Pisa and Florence ; later 
courses dealt with the modern art of England and 
English history ( Pleasures of England). Mornings 
in Florence are studies of Christian art for Eng- 
lish travellers; and St Mark's lieit is on the history 
of Venice. The Eagle's Nett discusses the relation 
of natural science to art ; Time and Tide are letters 
to a working-man of Sunderland. Arrows of the 
Chare is a selection of his letters ; On the Old Road 
is tlie title of a repnblication of his miscellaneous 
pamphlets, articles, and ess:n contributed to 
various reviews and magazines, containing famous 
utterances on Samuel Prout, the History of Chris- 
tian Art, the Lord's Prayer, the 'Coitus of 
Aglaia,' &c. An early volume of poems, issued 
for private circulation, became a ranch sought after 
bibliographical treasure; in 1891 it was reprinted 
(in 2 vols.) with many additional pieces and illustra- 
tion- from tlif author'* drawings. For* Clavigera 
appeared as a sort of periodical at irregular inter- 



vals for several years, in the fonn of letters to the 
workmen and laltourere of Great Britain, on a 
great variety of topics (vols. i.-viii. with full 
index, 1887). I'rotcrjtina, published in the same 
way, gives studies of wayside flowers, llorliit 
Iiiclusut ( 1887 ) is a series of letters ' to the ladies 
of the Thwaite,' Second-hand copies of the early 
works are still eagerly bought up at high prices; 
thus, the old edition of Minimi I'uintirx, worth 6, 
ln>. at its publication in 1860-67, has repeatedly 
lieen sold since 1880 for 30 or 35. All Mi 
Hiiskin'a books were for a time published privately 
at Orpington in Kent ; but eventually he published 
them through an agent of his own in the usual way, 
except that the author insisted on their Ix-ing mid 
at net prices. From 1869 till 1879 Ruskin was 
Slade professor of Art at Oxford ; in 1871 he gave 
5000 for the endowment of a master of drawing 
there ; in 1883 he was re-elected professor, but 
resigned in the following year. HewasaD.C.L. of 
Oxford, and an honorary student of Christ Church. 
In 1871 the degree of LL.D. was bestowed upon 
him by the university of Cambridge. Subsequently 
he founded a museum at VValkley, near Sheffield 
(in 1890 transferred to Sheffield itself), where 
he bestowed part of his own priceless library and 
art treasures. In his later years he established 
himself at Brantwood, on Coniston Lake, in the 
Lake Country. He died 20th January 1900. 

Ruskin is or was primarily a critic of art ; but, as 
the titles of his works indicate, his teaching has 
extended over a wide area. Art for him is closely 
and inseparably bound up with truth, w ith morals, 
with religion ; and in most department* of political 
philosophy, in social and political economy, Ruskin 
lias been constant, in season and out of season, in 
lifting up his testimony against what he conceives 
to be low views, perverted ideals, coarse and vulgar 
complacencies. Like Carlyle, whose pupil he pro- 
fesses to be, he holds the world in these later days 
to have gone on a wrong tack ; in hi- views of 
nature and life he is, he says, ' alone in the midst 
of a modern crowd, which rejects them all,' and 
has to ' maintain himself against the contradiction 
of every one of his best friends.' Within the 
sphere of art criticism he declares that an important 
part of his life-work has been to teach ' tlie su- 
premacy of five great painters, despised lill lie .-[Mike 
of them Turner, Tintoret. I.uini, Bottieelli, and 
Carpaccio.' His life-long contention with political 
economy is based on the Belief t hut the science has 
been used to inculcate the unchecked 'and competi- 
tive pursuit of merely material wealth. He affirms 
broadly that his Munera Pulverit contains the lii-i 
accurate analysis of the laws of political economy 
which has liecn pubjished in England. AVhat is 
usually called political economy is in reality 
nothing more than the investigation of some acci 
dental phenomena of modern commercial opera- 
tions, and has no connection with political ecom>m\ 
as treated by the great thinkers of the past MOO 
as Plato, Xenophou, Cicero, Bacon. True political 
economy regulates the acts and hahits of a society 
or state, with reference to its maintenance, as 
domestic economy doe- those of a household. It i- 
neiiher an art nor a science, but a system of con 
duct and legislation, founded on the science-. 
directing the arts, and impossible except nndi r 
certain conditions of moral culture. By tlie main- 
tenance of the state, w hich is the ohject of political 
economy, is to be understood the sup|K>rt of its 
jiopulatlon in healthy and happy life, and the 
increase of their numbers, so far as is consistent 
with their happiness. It i- tin' multiplication of 
human life at the highest standard,' cherishing and 
developing the noblest type of manhood, alike in 
beantv, in intelligence, and in character. The 
wealth of which Kuskin takes cognisance is not 



RUSKIN 



RUSSELL 



29 



mere exchangeable value, but intrinsic and effectual 
wealth, consisting of things contributing to the 
support of life in its fullest sense as land, houses, 
furniture, instruments, food, medicine, clothing, 
books, works of art. The subject of political 
economy, therefore, embraces a large part of the 
sphere of private and public morals, and of political 
philosophy. It deals with the relation ot master 
to servant, employer to workman, of the state to 
its subjects, with the province of sanitary and com- 
mercial legislation, and with the duty of the state 
in promoting education, suppressing luxury, regu- 
lating the hours and wages of labour, fie is as 
confident as the most revolutionary reformer that 
the conditions of modem society must be com- 
pletely changed and reconstructed ; his ideals 
coincide in many points with those of some 
Socialists, though many of his aims would l>e 
"Hoarded as distinctly reactionary. A ' violent 
illiberal ' rather than a conservative, Ruskin 
regards reverence for natural beauty, truth, and 
godliness as the highest elements in life, and 
would give properly constituted authority extensive 
powers ; usury of any kind is as indefensible as 
avarice or dishonesty. Till of late he was seldom 
treated as a serious political economist ; but it has 
recently been admitted that he has actually pointed 
out some real weaknesses of the old abstract 
political economy as a scientific theory. He de- 
voted a great part of his originally large fortune 
to founding the St George's Guild, which was in- 
tended to be a kind of primitive agricultural com- 
munity, where the old-world virtues should be 
strenuously inculcated on young and old, and 
where ancient and homely methods might be cher- 
ished in defiance of all modern mechanical and 
manufacturing processes. He also strove to pro- 
mote home industries in various places. Not more 
remarkable than the eloquence, power, and rich- 
ii'-" of his English style are the confidence and 
dogmatism of his assertions, the audacity of his 
paradoxes, the fearlessness of his denunciations ; 
while his earnestness, conviction, and self-denying 
honesty of purpose are undisputed. His influence 
in creating a new interest in the beauty of nature 
and of art in England has been profound ; and 
although the world rejects his theories of social 
economy as perverse, paradoxical, and impractic- 
able, he has done much to vivify ideals of life, and 
ennoble our standards of conduct. 

See E. T. Cook, Studies on Ruskin ( 1890) ; Shepherd's 
BibluxjrapAv (5th ed. 1882); J. P. Smart, Junr., A 
Statin Bibliography (1890-91); W. G. Collingwood, 
The Life and Work of John Suitin (2 Tola. 1893); 
and various collection* of Ruskin's papers, unpublished 
lectures (1894), and letters to a college friend (1R94). 
A new edition of the works was appearing in 1894. 
The Ruskin Society was founded in 1881 ; the Ruskin 
Reading Guild, iu 1887. 

Russell, a great Whig house, whose origin has 
IM-I-JI traced back to Thor, through ' Olaf thesharp- 
j'.vivl, king of Rerik,' Drogo, brother of Rollo, the 
first Iluke of Normandy, and Hugh Bertrand, lord 
of Le Rozel, a follower of the Conqueror's. Any- 
how, a John Russell was constable of Corfe Castle 
in Dorsetshire in 1221 ; and from him have sprung 
twenty-two generations of Russells, whose seats 
have been Kingston Russell, near Dorchester; 
Cheneys, in Bucks, near Amersham ; and Wnburn 
Abbey, in Bedfordshire. Among them, besides 
William Lord Russell and Earl Russell (both 
noticed separately below), the following may lie 
mentioned : Sir. John Russell, Speaker of the House 
of Commons in 1424 and 1432 ; John, created in 
1 .130 Huron Russell of Cheneys, and in 1550 Earl 
of Bedforrl, who got the abl>py lands of Tavistock 
ami \Voburn ; Sir William Russell, who in 1594 
became Lord Deputy of Ireland, and in 1603 was 



created Baron Russell of Thornhaugh ; Francis, 
fourth Earl (died 1641), the drainer of the Bedford 
Level ; William, fifth Earl, created in 1694 Mar- 
quis of Tavistock and Duke of Bedford ; Admiral 
Edward Russell (1651-1727), who, semi-Jacobite 
though he was, beat the French at La Hogue in 
1692, and for his victory was made Earl of Orford ; 
John, fourth Duke (1710-71), Lord-lieutenant of 
Ireland ; his grandson, Lord William Russell 
(1767-1840), who was murdered by his valet 
Courvoisier; Francis, ninth Duke (1819-91); and 
his brother Odo (1829-84), who from 1871 was 
ambassador to the German court, and in 1881 was 
made Baron Ampthill. 

See J. H. Wiffen's Historical Memoirs of the House of 
Buitell ( 1833 ) and Froude's Short Studiei ( 4th ser. 1884 ). 

WILLIAM RUSSELL, LORD RUSSELL, was bom 
29th September 1639, third son of the fifth Earl 
of Bedford by Lady Anne Carr, daughter of the 
poisoner Countess of Somerset ; by the death of his 
brothers (one in infancy, the other in manhood) he 
succeeded ( 1678) to the courtesy title of Lord Rus- 
sell. He was educated at Cambridge, and trav- 
elled on the Continent. At the Restoration he was 
elected M.P. for Tavistock, and was 'drawn by the 
court into some disorders' (debts and duelling), 
from which lie was rescued by his marriage in 1669 
with Lady Rachel Wriothesley (1636-1723), second 
daughter and co-heiress of the Earl of Southampton 
and widow of Lord Vaughan. He was a silent 
member till 1674, when he spoke against the doings 
of the Cabal, and thenceforth we find him an active 
adherent of the Country party. He dallied unwisely 
with France, but took no bribe; he shared honestly 
in the delusion of the Popish Plot ; he presented 
the Duke of York as a recusant ; and he carried the 
Exclusion Bill up to the House of Lords. The 
king and his brother resolved to be revenged on 
him and the other leaders of the Whig party ; and 
he, Essex, and Sidney were arrested as participators 
in the Rve-house Plot. On 13th July 1683 he was 
arraigned of high-treason at the Old Bailey, and, 
infamous witnesses easily satisfying a packed jury, 
was found guilty. His father's proffer, through 
the Duchess of Portsmouth, of 100,000 for his life 
availed nothing, nor his own solemn disavowal of 
any idea against the king's life or any contrivance 
of altering the government ; and on the 21st he was 
beheaded in Lincoln's Inn Fields. The pity of his 
judicial murder, the pathos of Bumet's story of his 
end, ami the exquisite letters of his noble wife, who 
at his trial appeared in court as his secretary, have 
secured him a place in history that else he had 
never attained to, for he was a man of virtues, not 
genius, a Christian hero rather than a statesman. 

See his life by Lord John Russell ( 1819 ; 4th ed. 1853) ; 
the Letters of Lady Russell (1773; 14th ed. 1853 ); and 
the Lives of her by Miss Berry (1819), Lord John Russell 
( 1820), and Guizot ( Eng. trans. 1855). 

JOHN KVS.SKI.L, EARL RUSSELL, K.G. , was lx>rn 
on 18th August 1792, in Hertford Street, Mayfair, 
London, the third son of the sixth Duke of Bedford. 
A sickly child, he was educated at Sunbury, at 
Westminster (1803-4), and then at Woodnes- 
borough vicarage, near Sandwich, until, in 1809, 
after a nine months' visit with Lord and Lady 
Holland to Spain and Portugal, he entered the 
university of Edinburgh. He lived there three 
years with Professor Playfair, studying under 
Dugald Stewart and Dr Thomas Brown, first 
exercising IUH powers of debate at the meetings of 
the Speculative Society, and paying two more 
visits to the Peninsula. In July 1813, while still a 
minor, he was returned for the family borough of 
Tavistock, but, though he spoke in 1815 against 
the renewal of war with France, foreign travel and 
literature for some years engrossed him rather than 



30 



RUSSELL 



politic*. He made his first motion in favour of 
parliamentary reform in 1819, anil continued to 
tiring the subject almost annually liefore the 
Home. He was also the strenuous advocate of 
the repeal of the Test and Corporation Acts, of 
Catholic Emancipation, and of other measures of 
civil and religious liberty. At the general <!<<( ion 
of 1830, caused by the death of George IV., the 
rallying cry of reform won many fresh seat* for the 
Lil>eral.s; the 'Great Duke' was driven from office, 
and Earl Grey proceeded to form a ministry. Lord 
John Iwcanie Paymaster of the Forces, without a 
eat in the cabinet ; bat he was one of the four 
members of the government entrusted with the 
task of framing the first Reform Bill, and on him 
devolved the great and memorable honour of pro- 
posing it. The fortunes of the measure belong to 
the history of the day ; enough that on 4th June 
1832 it received the royal assent, and the country 
was saved from the throes of revolution that at 
one time seemed imminent. In November 1834 
Lord John left office with the Melbourne govern- 
ment, which had succeeded Grey's; in March 1835 
he brought forward a motion in favour of applying 
the surplus revenues of the Irish Church to educa- 
tional purposes ; and the success of his motion 
caused the downfall of Peel and the return of 
Melbourne to power. 

As Home Secretary and leader of the Lower 
House Lord John now attained the zenith of 
his career, four measures with which his name 
is associated being the Municipal Reform Act 
(1835), and the Tithes Commutation, Registration, 
and Marriage Acts (1836). In 1839 he exchanged 
the seals of the Home for those of the Colonial 
Office ; in 1841 he proposed a fixed duty of 8s. per 
quarter on foreign corn and a reduction of the 
duties on sugar and timber. Defeated by the 
opposition, the Melbourne government appealed to 
the country without success, so once more made 
way for Peel. In this general election Lord John, 
who meanwhile had sat for Hunts, Bandon Bridge, 
Devon, and Stroud, boldly challenged the verdict 
of London on free trade oy standing for the City. 
He was returned by the narrow majority of 9, and 
continued to represent the City until his elevation 
to the Upper House. 

In November 1845 he wrote a letter from Edin- 
burgh to his London constituents, announcing his 
conversion to the total and immediate repeal of the 
Corn Laws. This letter led to Peel's resignation ; 
and Lord John on llth December was commis- 
sioned by the Queen to form an administration. 
He failed, however, owing to Lord Grey's anti- 
pathy to Palmeretnn, so Peel was forced back to 
office, and carried the repeal. On the very day on 
which the bill passed the Lords the Peel ministry 
was defeated in the Commons on a question of 
Irish coercion by a coalition of Whigs and Protec- 
tionists, whereupon a Whij,' ministry succeeded, 
with Lord John for prime-minister ( 1846). It suc- 
ceeded tr> a difficult position. |n Ireland there was 
the famine, followed l>\ a foolish rebellion, whilst 
at home there was Chartism and the so-called 
' Papal aggression,' which evoked from Lord John 
an indignant protest, first in the form of a letter to 
the Bishop of Durham, and next in the Ecclesiasti- 
cal Titles Bill of 1851. In the winter of that year 
Lord Palmers ton'- approval of the French mini 
d'etat without the Queen's or Lord John Hussell s 
knowledge procured him his dismissal from the 
office of Foreign Secretary ; within two months he 
'gave Kusscll his tit-for- tat,' defeating him over a 
militia hill (February 1852). After a short-live.! 
Derby government, Lord Aberdeen in December 
formed a coalition ministry of Whigs and Peelites, 
with Russell for Foreign Secretary and leader in 
the Commons. 



Hi- inopportune Reform Bill (1854), the Crimean 
mismanagement, his resignation {January 1855), 
and his bungling that -ame year at the Vienna 
Conference, all combined to render him thoroughly 
unpopular ; and for four years he remained out of 
office. But in June 1859, in the second 1 'aimer 
ston administration, he became Foreign Secretary, 
which office he held six years, having meanwhile 
in 1861 l>een created Earl Kus-cll. He iliil much 
for the cause of Italian unity ; still, nun inter- 
vention was his leading principle e.g. dining the 
American civil war and the Slexu ick Holstein 
difficulty. On Palmerston's death in 1865 Earl 
Russell for the second time became prime minister, 
but the defeat in the following June of his n>-\\ 
Reform Bill left no alternative hut tcsigmuion. 
He continued, however, busy with tongue and pen 
till his death, which took place at his residence. 
Pembroke Lodge, Richmond Park, on 28th May 
1878. He is buried at Cheneys. Kail Ku-sell \\a- 
twice married, and by his second wife, a daughter 
of the Earl of Minto, was the father of John 
Viscount Amberley (1842-76), who was author of 
the posthumous Analysis of Religious Belief, and 
whose son succeeded as second earl. 

The ' Lveurgus of the Lower House,' as Sydney 
Smith dUMMa him, this 'little great man"' was 
honest in all his convictions, in none more so than 
in his belief in himself, 'fie knew he was right' 
gives the key to both his career and his character. 
Of his voluminous works, a score in numl>cr, and 
including a tale and two tragedies, need only be 
mentioned his Life of William Lord Russell ( 1819 ), 
Memoirs of the Affairs of Europe ( 1824), The Corre- 
spondence of Joint, fourth Duke of Stafford (3 vols. 
1842-46), and the Memoirs of Fox and Moore. 

See his Selections from Spteehet and Drt/tatchr ( 1870), 
his Recollections and Stiggrttiont (1875), and Spencer 
AValpole's Lift of Lord Jokn Ruuell (2 vok 1889). 

Russell, WILLIAM CLARK, a popular nautical 
novelist, was born in New York, 24th February 
1844, son of the vocalist Henry Russell (liorn c. 
1810), the composer of 'Cheer, Hoys. Cheer,' 
'There's a Good Time Coming,' 'A Life on the 
Ocean Wave,' &c. He had his schooling at 
Winchester and in France, and went to sea at 
thirteen. After about eight years' service he left 
the sea to devote himself to the life of letters. 
He was employed writing for the Newcastle Jini/i/ 
Chronicle and the London Daily Ttlryriij'h, hut 
from 1887 reserved his energies mainly for fiction, in 
which he had already scored a remarkable success 
with John Jfoldswort/i, ('/,,',/ M,,tr (1874), The 
Wreck of the Grosvenor ( 1877 ), A n Ocean free Lance 
(1880), The Lady Maud (1882), Jack's Courtship 
( 1884 ), and A Stranqe Voyage ( 1885 ). Later novels 
were The Death ship (1888), Marooned (1889), My 
Shiiniint'- I anise ( 1890), An Ocean Traijedy ( 1890), 
ami MIJ hunish Sweetheart (1891). Other works 
are his collections of papers : Round the Galley 
Fire (1883), In the Middle Watch ( 1885), and On tile 
Fok'ste Hem! ( 1 H84 ) : a short Life of Nelson ( 1890 ), 
and another of Collins-wood (1891). 

Kusscll. WILLIAM HOWAKP, the first nnd the 
most famous of 'special correspondents.' was horn 
at Lilyvale in County Dublin, '28th Maich IK21, 
had his education at Trinity College. Dublin, joined 
the staff of the Timm in 1S4:1. and was called to 
tin' liar in 1850. He went out to the ( Yiniea at the 
beginning of the war, and there remained till the 
close, writing home those famous letters which 
opened the eves of Englishmen to the shameful 
sufferings of the soldiers during the winter siege of 
1854-55, and ijuickly brought about the fall of the 
Aberdeen ministry. He next witnessed the events 
of the Indian Mutiny, ret inning to England in 
1858. He established the Army and Navy Gazette 



RUSSELL 



RUSSIA 



31 



in 1860, and next year the opening of the civil 
war drew him to America, which he soon made too 
hot for him by a too truthful account of the Federal 
defeat at Bull Run. He at once returned to Eng- 
land ; accompanied the Austrians during the war 
with Prussia (1866), and the Prussians during the 
war with France (1870-71) ; visited Egypt and the 
East (1874) and India (1877), as private secretary 
to the Prince of Wales ; and went with Wolseley 
in Smith Africa in 1879. He contested Chelsea 
withont success in the Conservative interest in 
1. sti'.i. Most of his letters were collected into 
volumes, which had great success in their day ; 
three books that may le named are The Admitting 
of Doctor Brady (1868); a novel, Hesperothen. or 
Notes from the West (1882); and A Visit to Chile 
nuil !hf .\iti-'it, //./,/.< ,,/' Turiijnini I IHflO). Besides 
holding many medals and decorations, he is a 
Knight of the Iron Cross, and a Commander of the 
Legion of Honour. 
Russia, except the British empire the largest 
government on the globe, extendingover eastern En- 
rope and northern and central ctrwt i. >i, ** 
Asia. It is bounded on the N. by woo ID u> u. s. by j. B. 
tin- Arctic Ocean ; on the E. by """"" O.-P-J. 
the North Pacific Ocean and Chinese empire ; on the 
\V. by Sweden, the Baltic Sea, Prussia, Austria, 
and Rournania ; and on the S. by the Black Sea, 
Asiatic Turkey, Persia, Afghanistan, East Turke- 
stan, and the Chinese empire. Its extreme limits 
are 38 30' and 78' N. lat. and 17 Iff and 190 E. 
long. This territory, which covers an area more 
tliiin twice as large as the entire area of Europe, 
and embraces one sixth of the land-surface of the 
glolie, has a population estimated at more than 
115,000,000, the annual increase of which usually 
exceeds 1,500,000. The Russian empire consists of 
several well-defined parts viz. European Russia, 
which embraces a little less than one-fourth of the 
whole, but includes nearly three-fourths of its 
population; Finland; Poland ; Caucasia ; Siberia; 
Turkestan ; and the Transcaspian region. Two 
central Asian states, Khiva and Bokhara (112,000 
si|. in., 3,200,000 inhabitants), are vassal states of 
Ku-isia, The Russian dominions in America 
( Alaska) were sold to the United States in 1867 for 
$7,200,000. 
The territory of the empire, however different its 
separate parts as regards latitude and climate, is 
more homogeneous than it appears at the first 
sight. It belongs to the great orographical 
divUion of Eurasia, which embodies both the 
plains of Kiiropfitn fiusxia and the lowlands and 
plains that extend in the north of the two great 
plateaus of Asia the high plateau of east Asia 
and the western plateau of Persia and Armenia 
(see ASIA, Vol. I. p. 486). However, the Russians 
are rapidly passing the limits of the lowlands. 
They crossed the narrow northern extremity of 
tin- plateau, and established tlii'iii^i-lvi's on the 




GoTernmenta nd 
Territorial. 


Are* ID 
sq. mtlei. 


Population. 


Density 
of pop. 
per 
q. m. 


EUROPEAN RUSSIA 


831,505 
91,827 
17,619 
10,585 
61,886 
26,148 
7,818 
14,931 
11,942 
24,601 
19,691 
32,702 
15,692 
17,937 
21,041 
27,523 
18,158 
85,293 
18,551 
12,859 
19,797 
47,236 

sr,4M 

18,042 
78,816 
14,907 
128,211 
16,224 
19,960 
17,069 
16,255 
W,70 
88,321 
82,624 
19,110 

n,m 

25,710 
MjMt 
20,233 
11,954 
Sft,SH 
47,112 
16,421 
17,440 
18,864 
27,743 
1M.4M 
25,443 
69,117 
18,751 
14,478 


840,251 
932,539 
1,588,329 
676,582 
1,896,113 
1,874,162 
892,738 
1,354,425 
1,199,882 
2,140,702 
2,917,997 
1,354,162 
1,532,747 
2,666,573 
2,322,039 
2,026,863 
1,229,468 
1,680,615 
1,294,116 
2,210,791 
1,513,318 
1,213,058 
841,568 
2,021,239 
1,289,358 
1,622,537 
2,713,987 
2,423,755 
2,794,789 
965,855 
1,848,345 
1,680,278 
2,614,405 
2,311,220 
1,579,847 
1,839,444 
2,780,145 
1,096.670 
2,109,988 
1,445,600 
1,781,861 
2,018,866 
1,304,788 
1,275,954 
.1,403,172 
2,264,867 
1,239,764 
2,588,933 
2,914,344 
1,126,891 


1 
10 
90 
64 
80 
71 
50 
90 
100 
87 
148 
41 
97 
148 
110 
78 
67 
47 
69 
171 , 
7 
26 
5 
112 
17 
101 
21 
149 
146 
66 
113 
80 
48 
70 
82 
61 
106 
44 
104 
120 
70 
41 
79 
78 
74 
81 
7 
101 
40 
81 








Don, Region of 


Esthonia . 




Kaluga 


K*"l 


Kk-tr 














Minsk . . 


Moghilev 




Nijni-Novgorod 




Or.-I . .... 




Penza 


Perm. 


Pod. .Ma 


Poltava. 


Pskov 


Ryazan 


8t Petersburg. 




Haratoft*. 


Simbirsk . 










Tula 


Tver.. . 


Ufa 


Vilna 


Vitebsk 


Vladimir 


Volhynia. . 


Vologda 


Voronej 


Vyatka 


Yaroslar 


Sea of Azov 


POLAXV 

Ksliaz 


1, './.:. ""J 


86,464,140 


46 


4,392 
8,897 
4,67 
6,499 
4,729 
4,209 
4,769 
6,635 
4,846 
6,628 


837,317 

('.'_'. :rj- 

nt u 

979,700 
1,091,282 
600,662 
716,164 
671,598 
M4M) 
1,466,181 


190 
177 
180 
160 
230 
143 
160 
121 
185 
260 


Kielee 




Lublin. 


Plotrkow 


Plock 




Siedlc* 


Huwalki 


Warsaw 


forum 
Abo-Bjorneborg 


49,157 


8,319,797 


169 


9,385 
I,4M 

4,596 
8,819 
8,834 
68,971 
16,627 
16,084 


880,601 
277,635 
227,388 
175,110 
245,690 
234,015 
1*0,838 
899,750 


40 
16 
49 
19 
29 
3 
19 
24 


Nyland 


Ht Michel .. 


spread over the Pacific slope of the plateau, down 
the Amur and up the Usuri. The high steppes 
of Mongolia fell under their influence ; in Turkestan 
their military outposts are now stationed in the 
Pamirs; Armenia lias been partly absorbed ; and 
in 1898 Manchuria (q.v.) became practically Rus- 
sian, and was being connected with the great 
Silx'rian railway. The extent of Russian Asia (not 
in' linlinj,' -Manchuria) as compared with Chinese 
and British territory is shown on the map of Asia, 
V..1. 1. p. 494. 
A ri-n-us of the empire was attempted in 1897, 
and gave a grand total of 128,931,827, of whom 
94,-21">,41"> WITH in European Russia, 9,455,943 in 
Poland, !),24S,6!I.-| in Caucasus, 5,727,090 in Siberia, 
7,7'JI,liH4 in (Vntral AM;I. The following are the 
figures calculated for 1890-95 : 




Uleaborg 


Vibora . 


vasa.T.:;;;:::;::::: 


CAUCASUS 
Northern Cauccuia 
Kuban 


144,265 


2,Z70,912 


16 


86,439 
23,397 
26,822 

18,177 
11,492 
17,041 
10,745 
7,200 
14,084 
17,228 


1,286,622 
997,611 

719,468 

744,930 

597,356 

ras,tM 

677,491 
' 237,114 
(66,000 
819,264 


35 
28 
26 

49 
51 
44 
68 
82 
67 
18 






Transcaucasia 
Baku.. 


Daghestan 


Elizabethpol. . 




Kan 


Kutais. 


Tiais 




182,467 


7,468,161 


40 



32 



RUSSIA 



TOTtMfta. 


Aratli 


HMHIIM. 


MM* 


* 

.. m 


KiMoHti ttrrr 








Akarallaik 





S00.180 


1 


ItantmliMnitk 


1*4,011 


670,878 


| 


TarSF 


17(1,119 


M4,om 


1 


Urauk 


IM 1W 


65,i5S 


| 


Lake AiI 


M,1M 
















Nt,m 


2,000,970 


t 


TrUBTAM 


.: 


, -., i. 


25 


FwxhuM 
8ntrt<cheiuk. 


Si.RM 

162,280 


77 ,000 


22 

4 


Syr-Darta. 


;;-' 


1,114,300 















MM 


M41.91S 


s 


nujncAiriAV Tnu 
ChnUnBea. 


214,237 
100,381 


801,476 














I^U 


Ml ,478 


1 


8lIIA 

ITafer* SiteHa 
Tobolsk 


::.< 


1,375,455 


- 


Toinnk 


331,159 


1,200,728 


7 


Autani Stterla 
IrkuUk 




421,187 


1 


TransbilkaUt 
Y>kuUk. . 


. m 

- 


566,477 
25S,71 


2 
0-1 


TenlnUk 


..; !-,. 


458,572 


0-4 


Amur Region 


172,860 


W.TM 


0-6 


Maritime province 
tWh-Hn 


r, ;i '.:-" 


120,000 
14,545 


0-2 
0-5 












t^MM 


4,598,441 





Total- 

Aiimtlr Dominion* . . 
BoMla In Europe . . . 


,s4,m 

2,096,504 


17,700,951 
90,047,849 


3 

M 


Grand Total- 
Banian Empire 


8,000,18* 


113,748,800 


IS 



Seaboard, Itlandt. Until the end of the 17th 
century Russia's seaboard was limited to the Arctic 
< i.--iin, and she had to wage a long series of ware 
before -he secured a linn footing on the Baltic and 
the Black Sea. The latter, however, still remains 
an inland sea, the entrance to which is 'in the 
hands of a foreign power. The Arctic Ocean, which 
offers excellent tUning grounds in its western part, 
makes a deep indentation on the north coast of 
Knssia viz. the White Sea (q.v.); but its gulfs, 
Kandalaksha, Onega, and Dwina, are ice-bound 
lor nine months every year. The only port of any 
moment, Archangel, has now lost its former im- 
iHirtance. Farther east, Tchesskaya and Petchora 
1>,iy are surrounded by frozen deserts. The 
Kara Sea, between the crcscent-shaiied island 
of Novaya Zemlya (Nova Xembla) ana the coast 
of Siberia, is navigable for a few weeks only every 
year (see SIBERIA). The islands of Kolguetf, Vai- 
gatch, Novaya Zemlya, and tl' islands of Sil>eria 
New Siberia, Mcdvyc/hii. and others are un- 
inhabited. As to the Behring Sea and the Sea 
of Okhotsk, which contain good fishing and hunt- 
ing grounds, their roasts are most inhospitable. 
The same is true of that part of the Japanese Sea 
which l>elongs to Russia. Its only great gulf, 
Peter the Great's, has in Vladivostok one of the 
finest roadsteads in the world ; but this gulf is 
separated from the interior by wide tract- of unin- 
hanited marshes and forests. The Baltic Sea. with 
theGulfxof Bothnia, Finland, and Riga, is the chief 
ea of Russia ; but it nowhere touches purely 
Russian territory, its coasts being peopled by Finns, 
Lett*, KxtlioniaiiM. and Germans. Nevertheless, 
four out of the five chief port* of Russia St 
Petersburg, Reval, Lilian, and Kiga are situate*! 
on the Baltic Sea. Three of them are frozen for 
from four to five months every year ; and Libau 



is the only one which has its roadsteads o]x>n 
nearly all the vear round. The chief islands of 
the Baltic are the Aland archipelago, l>elonging to 
Finland; Dago, Oesel, Mohn, ana Worms at the 
entrance of the Gulf of Kiga; Hochland and 
Kotlin (with the fortress of Cronstadt) in the 
Gulf of Finland. 

The Black Sea acquires more and more im- 
portance every year. The fertile stcp|H?s of its 
littoral are being rapidly settled, and t lit- centre of 
gravity of Russia's population is gradually shift 
ing south. The Black Sea suffers, however, from 
a lack of good ports. Its great gulf, the Sea 
of Azov (ports Taganrog and Rostotl'), is very 
shallow ; the fine ports of the Crimea are too 
remote from the mainland ; and the seaboard 
of Northern Caucasia is separated from the in- 
terior by a high chain of mountains. Odessa 
is the chief port of this sea ; and it has no 
rival in Russia except St Petersburg. Nikolaieff 
is the |>rini'i|>a! naval arsenal ; an<t Seba-topol 
remains a naval station. Batoum, tin- chief port 
of Transcaucasia, is of great importance for the 
export of petroleum. The Caspian Sea, which 
receives the chief river of Euro|>ean Russia the 
Volga is an excellent medium of communication 
between the central Asian dominions of the empire 
and the Caucasus, as also for trade with Persia 
(to which the south coast belongs); hut it has no 
outlet to the ocean, nor is there any probability of 
connecting it advantageously by canal with the 
Black Sea, because its level is tO feet Mow the 
level of the ocean. The fisheries in the Caspian 
supply Russia with considerable quantities of lish. 

Colonies. Russia has no colonies properly so 
called. Its possessions in Asia are mere reserve- 
grounds for surplus population. Russian immi- 
grants are already the- prevailing element in the 
population of Siberia and Northern Caucasia, num- 
bering about 4,500,000 against less than 700,000 
natives in Siberia, and about 2,000,000 in Caucasia. 

Orography. The geographical features of Kin- 
land, Poland, Caucasus, Siberia, and Turkestan 
being dealt Witt under those respective headings, the 
following remarks relate only to European Russia. 
The leading feature in its physical structure is 
a broad, flat swelling aliout <00 miles wide, with 
an average height of S(K) feet, which crosses it 
from south-west to north-east and connects the 
elevated plains of middle Kuropewith the I'rals. 
A belt of lowlands M retching Irom Kast Prussia 
to the White Sea fringes this central plateau on 
the north-west, separating it from the hilly tracts 
of Finland : while the plains of llessarahia. Kherson, 
tin 1 Sea of Azov, ami the lower Volga limit it on 
the south-east. The highest parts of the central 
plateau, hardly attaining 1000 to 1100 feet above 
the sea, lie along its north-western iMirder- \i/. 
the Kiclce mountains of Poland, the plateaus of 
Grodno and Minsk, the Valdai Hills, and the hilly 
tracts of the Sukhona and Vytchcgda (nmier 
Dwina). In middle Russia the same altitude is 
attained by the Hat rmincnccs ,,f the plateau about 
Kursk, in the hills on the right bank of the Volga, 
and in the spurs of the Carpathians. In all these 
places the country assumes a hilly aspect on account 
of the deep ravines which intersect it. The central 
plateau is, however,diversilicil by three depressions. 
One of these stretches south-east to north-west up 
the broad valley of the Dneiper and thence to the 
Vistula; another follows the Don and joins the 
valley of the Oka; and the third extends from the 
north shoieof the Caspian along the left bank of 
the Volga to the l>einl it makes at Samara. During 
the Postglacial |x-riod an elongated gulf of the 
Caspian Sea extended in that direction up the 
valleys of the Volga and the Kama as far as 55 N. 
lat. A fourth depression, about Nijni-Novgorod. 



X 

T. 

m 

3 
r 

z 




n 

B 

o 




RUSSIA 



33 



bears traces of a great lake which was filled up 
during the same epoch. 

The Urals, which separate the lowlands of Euro- 
pean Russia from those of Siberia, are not the narrow 
chain of mountains running north and south which 
they appear to be on many maps. In the south 
they consist of a series of parallel ridges running 
south-west to north-east, their chief summits 
reaching 4680 feet in Iremel, and 3260 in TaganaL 
Farther north, up to the latitude of 61", they must 
be considered as a continuation of the central 
plateau, bordered by several low ridges (north- 
west to south-east ) which become more distinctly 
apparent between the Denejkin-kamen (4950 feet) 
and the Toll-poss (5115 feet). They connect with 
a ridge that runs north-east into the Yalmal penin- 
sula. And finally, in the extreme north, a low 
ridge, the Pai-kho, crosses over into the island of 
Vaigatch and the southern part of Novaya Zemlya. 
Thus the (."nils exhibit the same great lines of 
upheaval in a south-western and a north-eastern 
direction which are characteristic features in the 
orographical structure of the great continent of 
Europe and Asia. 

Rivers. The chief rivers of Russia take their 
origins along the north-western border of the 
plateau, and some of them flow, broadly speaking, 
north-westwards, while the others, though describ- 
ing great curves over the surface of the plateau, 
take a general direction towards the south-east. 
The Niemen, the Dwina, the Lovat (continued by 
the Volkhoff and the Neva), and the two chief 
streams that reach the White Sea, the Onega and 
the North Dwina, are in the first case ; while the 
Dnieper, the Don, and the Volga belong to the 
second category. The Dniester and the Pruth on 
the Roumanian frontier are the only rivers of 
Russia that rise on foreign territory ; tbe Vistula 
has its mouth in Prussia. The tributaries of dis- 
tant seas thus rising amidst the same marshes, 
on the same level of the plateau, and flowing in 
opposite directions, boats that have been brought 
up one river can easily be carried across a flat and 
marshy water-parting (volok) into the basin of 
another river and be floated towards another sea. 
The advantages that can be derived from such a 
disposition of the rivers are evident at a glance. 
At an early epoch of history it favoured the pro- 
gress of the Russians from their cradle in Novgorod 
inn! Kieff towards the east; and later on it 
facilitated intercourse l>etween distant parts of the 
territory upon which they had settled, and so main- 
tained the unity of the separate parts. The whole 
making of Russia was closely dependent upon the 
niii-i's of its rivers. At the present time vast 
ijimntities of corn, timber, and other heavy or 
bulky goods are snipped up and down the rivers 
the total length of the navigable river-net reach- 
ing 33,500 miles. Several of them have been im- 
proved for navigation and connected by canals 
(total length, 4.">3 miles), and many more could 
lie, and certainly will be, improved. By means 
of three lines of canals and canalised rivers, which 
mieet the upper tributaries of the Volga with the 
streams that now into lakes Onega and Ladoga, 
the real mouth of the chief artery of Russia, the 
Volga, has lieen transferred from the Caspian to 
tin- litilf of Finland St Petersburg leing the chief 
]H>rt of the Volga basin. The upper Volga and 
the upper Kama are also connected by canals with 
the North Dwina, and the Dnieper with the Diina, 
tin- Nieman, and the Vistula. Yet navigable rivers 
;u" iiiieiMially distributed over the territory; and the 
rivers of Russia, though exceeding in length those of 
western Europe, discharge a comparatively smaller 
volume of water. The rainfall all over Russia is 
small, and as part of it falls in the shape of snow, 
which is rapidly thawed in the spring, the rivers 
AI Q 



are flooded at that season and in early summer, 
and they grow shallow by the autumn. It has 
been estimated that one-third of the total volume 
of water discharged during the whole year by the 
rivers is carried during the spring and early summer 
floods. The amount of water discharged by the 
rivers also varies very much from year to year 
a river which is navigable one year being often 
reduced next year to a small streamlet. During 
the winter navigation of course ceases. 

Climate. All over European Russia, with the 
exception of the Baltic Provinces, the south of the 
Crimea, and a narrow strip of land on the Black 
Sea, the climate is decidedly continental. A very 
cold winter, followed by a spring which sets in 
rapidly, and has therefore a charm hardly known 
to western Europe; a hot summer, the duration 
of which varies with the latitude ; an autumn that 
is cooler than the corresponding months of advanced 
spring; early frosts; and a small rainfall, chiefly 
during the summer and the autumn such are the 
characteristics of the climate of Russia. The winter 
is cold everywhere. All over Russia the average 
temperature of January is below the freezing-point, 
and it only varies between 22 F. in the west and 
5 to T in the east. To find in Russia a winter as 
mild as at Konigsberg ( 28 being the average of the 
three winter months) it is necessary to go as far 
south as Odessa. As for the southern Urals, they 
have a winter as cold as it is at Archangel. Even 
in south-west Russia the average temperature of 
March is a couple of degrees below the freezing- 
point, while in the south-east it falls as low as 16 
and 20. All the rivers are frozen over in the first 
part of December, and they remain under ice for an 
average of from 100 days in the south to 150, and 
even 167, days in the north. At Astrakhan ice 
remains on the Volga for 90 days every year, while 
on the Vistula at Warsaw it lasts only 77 days. 
On the other hand, in summer the temperature is 
so high all over Russia that it is only beyond the 
60th degree of latitude that the average tempera- 
ture of July is less than 62. In middle Russia it 
rises to between 64 and 70, and it reaches 78 at 
Astrakhan. The yearly temperature averages only 
54 in the south and 32 in the north. The annual 
rainfall is very low as a rule. It averages from 14 
incites in the east to 22 inches and occasionally 28 
inches in the west. The moderating influence of 
the western winds is felt to some- extent all over 
the country. But their tempering influence de- 
creases very rapidly as they make their way across 
the cold, dry plains. The strength of the wind, 
especially in winter, is greater, as a rule, than 
in western Europe ; by the end of winter blizzards 
often bury the railways under snow, and are very 
destructive to cattle. 

Flora and Fauna. With regard to its flora 
Russia may be subdivided into four regions: (a) 
The tundras of the Arctic littoral, which are devoid 
of tree vegetation. They are chiefly covered with 
mosses, lichens, and shrubs the drawf birch, the 
dwarf willow, and so forth, with the addition of 
a few herbaceous plants in the dryer and more 
sheltered places, wherever sufficient humus has 
accumulated ; the whole flora of the tundras does 
not embrace more than 280 flowering plants. (6) 
The forest-region, which covers the whole of 
northern and middle Russia, from the tundras to 
the Steppes, and must be subdivided into two parts, 
the forest-region proper and the intermediate region 
of prairies dotted with forests. The forest-region 
has again two distinct parts that of the coniferous 
forests, which cover nearly the whole of northern 
Russia beyond the upper and middle Volga, and 
the oak region. The forests of the latter class con- 
sist of various deciduous trees (birch, aspen, oak, 
&c., as well as the ash and the hornbeam farther 



34 



IM'SSTA 



south), and appear tut islands in the niiilst of corn- 
fields and rich meadows, adorned with a great 
variety of flowers. The numbers of s|>ecies of 
iln 1'rin^ plant-, all belonging to the middle Euro- 
pean flora, varies from 800 in the north to 1600 
in the south-west. The lieech, so characteristic of ; 
the wi-.--t.Tii European flora, does not in Kussia 
extend farther than the frontiers of Poland (it 
reappears in the south-west ami in the Crimea); 
and in the north -e;t.-t tin- liotanist finds an admix- 
ture of species of Siberian extraction. A line drawn 
from Kietf to the sources of the Ural would 
separate roughly the forest- region from an inter- 
mediate region the Ante-Steppe in which the 
forests and the Steppes struggle with alternating 
success for every square mile of land ; and anotln-r 
line, almost parallel to the above, drawn from 
Ekaterinoslav to Uralsk, may be taken as the 
limit of (c) the Steppe*. Tnese are immense 
plains covered with grass, but devoid of forests, 
very much like the prairies of America and the 
pushtas of Hungary. A great variety of plants 
characteristic of the Steppes are found in this belt 
in addition to the species that occur in middle 
Kussia ; while towards the Caspian a great number 
of species characteristic of the Aral-Caspian 
deserts penetrate into European Russia. Finally, 
(i/) the flora of the Mediterranean region occupies a 
narrow strip along the southern coast of the Crimea. 
No less than 1650 species of flowering plants, many 
of them quite unknown in the continental part of 
Kussia, have been described from that narrow strip 
of land. The fauna of European Russia is very 
much like that of middle Europe, the chief differ- 
ence being the occurrence of a few species, now 
extinct in Europe but still inhabiting Asia, and in 
the south-east there are several species character- 
istic of central Asia. Wolves ana bears are com- 
mon in the north. The reindeer is still met with 
in one or two governments ; the wild boar and the 
bison are each limited to one district; the elk, the 
lynx, the glutton, the beaver, once common, are 
now very scarce. 

Baltic Provinces. The chief physical features of 
Russia, briefly indicated under the preceding head- 
ings, give a general idea of the country ; out its 
different parts differ so widely from one another 
that they must be dealt with separately. Accord- 
ingly we review, first, the territory north-west of the 
central plateau, then the plateau itself, and finally 
the lowlands to the south of it, proceeding in each 
case from west to east. 

The Baltic region, comprising Courland, Livonia, 
West Kovno, and part of Esthonia, is an undulating 
plain 300 to 800 feet above the sea, cut up by 
ravines and taking a decidedly hilly aspect in what 
is known as 'Wendish Switzerland.' A few flat 
summits attain more than 1000 feet above sea- 
level. Owing to the influence of the sea, this 
region enjoys a milder climate than the rest of 
Russia, and has maintained its excellent forests, 
chiefly of oak. The soil is of moderate fertility, 
and is well cultivated on the estates of the German 
lanillonU ; but the peasants, who belong to con- 
quered races (Esthonians, Letts, and Count, akin 
to the Finns), and have no land of their own, live 
in a condition of deplorable poverty. This region 
is watered by the Dwina, and has the important 
ports of Riga, Lilian, and Reval. 

The La&e-reyion. A depression, the surface of 
which is less than 300 feet above sea-level, 
stretches between the central plateau and the hills 
of Finland and Olonctz, from the Gulf of Kiga to 
Lake Onega, and is continued over a low water- 
shed towards the lowlands of Archangel. It has 
but recently emerged from the Postglacial sea, and 
is dotted with marshes and numberless lakes, of 
which Peipus, Ilmen, Ladoga, Onega, and Yodlo 



are the largest. Low, flat ridges, partly carved out 
of the rocks by the ice-sheet, and partly of morainic 
origin, intersect the country ; the soil is unfertile, 
and mostly too wet for the successful prosecution 
of either agriculture or cattle-breeding. The 
marshy forests are mostly thickets of thin firs, 
birches, aspens, &c., of poor aspect. Numberless 
liver-, connect the lakes with one another, or with 
the Gulf of Finland. It is in the lake-region, at 
the head of the Gulf of Finland, that Russia has 
its capital, St Petersburg, surrounded by nearly 
uninhabitable marshy plains. 

The plains of the lower Dwina and M<-/eii, which 
fringe the White Sea and the Arctic Ocean, bear 
the same character, the vegetation being, of course, 
even poorer than in the lake-region ; while the 
coasts of the ocean are fringed by a belt of treeless 
tuntlras. To the north-west of the lake-region lies, 
the peninsula of Kola, a marshy tableland, in- 
habited by only a few Lapps. And in the far 
north-east, between the Timansky ridge and the 
Urals, there is an immense territory the Petchora 
region covered with tundras in "the north, and 
with impenetrable forests in the south ; it is thinly 
inhabited by some 10,000 Russians settled along 
the courses of the rivers, and by Samoyedes and 
Zyrian hunters in the forests. 

The central plateau contains the most populous 
agricultural and industrial parts of European 
Russia. Its physical aspects vary, however, a good 
deal in the different parts. 

The Lithuanian provinces of Kovno, Vilna, and 
part of Grodno and Vitebsk, which occupy the 
north-west, are drained by the Niemen and the 
upper Dwina, and embrace the eastern continua- 
tion of the broad swelling, 600 to 700 feet high, 
which separates Poland from Enst Prussia, ana is 
known as the 'Baltic Lake-region.' It is dotted 
with numberless small lakes and ponds, and has 
immense forests, which, however, are being rapidly 
cleared. One, the Byelovyezh rorwt (.s.'iiisq. in.), 
still preserves its primitive aspect, and shelters a 
herd of bison, formerly common throughout Europe, 
but now only fomm in Lithuania and the Cau- 
casus. The population consists chiefly of Lithu- 
anians and Letts, mixed with White Russians in 
the east, and with Jews and Tartars. The Poles 
are the principal owners of land ; they also con- 
stitute the bulk of the artisan population in the 
towns. On the whole, the region is very poor, and 
the condition of thepeasantry is deplorable. 

White Russia. Trie territory watered by the 
upper Dnieper and its right-hand tributaries, com- 
prising the governments of MoghilefT, Minsk, and 
southern Vitebsk, as well as parts of Grodno, Vilna, 
and Smolensk, is one of the poorest regions of Russia. 
About one-tenth of the total area is covered with 
marshes ; and the soil that is not under water con- 
sists chiefly of peat-bogs, hard l>oulder-clay, and 
sands. The depression bet ween the Pripet and the 
Berezina called Polyesie ('the woods'), also spoken 
of as the Rokitno swamp, is for hundreds of miles 
an almost uninterrupted mar-liy forest, flooded 
with water in the spring. \Vhite' 1,'ussiims me tin- 
predominant element in the population of tin- 
country; lining to live on a most unproducthi 
soil, and ruined as they were by Polish and Russian 
landowners, they are in extreme poverty, and prcat 
numbers of them wander over Russia in search 
of labour, especially in navvy's work. 

Little Kussia, or Ukraine. Little Russia, com- 
prising the governments of Tchernigoff, Kieff, Pol- 
la via, and part of Kharkoff, as well as Voihynia 
and Podolia on the spurs of the Carpathians, 
belongs to the richest and most populous partial 
Russia. The soil is mostly a rich black earth, 
and assumes farther aoutli tin- aspect of fine 
grassy steppes, or prairies, yielding rich crops 



RUSSIA 



35 



of wheat. The climate of this region is re- 
latively mild, especially in Volhynia, and gar- 
dening is extensively carried on. Cattle-breeding 
and especially sheep-breeding are prosecuted on a 
grand scale on the prairies. In the north of the 
territory beet is much cultivated for sugar. Kieff 
is one of the chief industrial centres of Russia, and 
woollen cloth mills are rapidly spreading in Podolia. 
The population is chiefly Little Russian, with a 
considerable number of Moldavians in Podolia. 

Middle Russia. The provinces of Tver, Moscow, 
, Vladimir, Smolensk, Orel, Tula, Kaluga, Kursk, 
i Ryazan, Tarnboft', Penza, part of Voronezh, southern 
i Varoslav, and Simbirsk are comprised under the 
general name of Middle Russia. They contain a 
population of more than 25,000,000 Great Russians, 
the average density being over 100 inhabitants per 
square mile. Except on its outskirts, this region 
presents everywhere the same aspects, wide undu- 
lating plains covered with cornfields anil dotted 
with small deciduous forests. The soil in of very 
modi-rate fertility in the north, where it chiefly 
consists of boulder-clay ; but towards the south 
it becomes very fertile in the black earth belt. 
The population is thoroughly Great Russian, with 
but a small admixture of White Russians and 
Little Russians in the west, and of Tartars and 
Finnish stocks, mostly Russianised, towards the 
east. They live in large villages, pursue agricul- 
ture in summer, and carry on a great variety of 
domestic trades in the winter. Moscow and the 
surrounding governments are the busiest industrial 

T >n of Russia. 
jtper Volga and Kama. Farther north-east 
the country is more elevated, but less effectively 
drained ; and vast forests stretch from the upper 
Volga to the Urals. The governments of Kostroma, 
Vologda, and Vyatka, together with those parts of 
Xijni- Novgorod and Kazan which lie on the left 
bank of the Volga, belong to this domain. Its 
population i* thin 5 to 50 inhabitants per square 
mile. The villages and towns are separated 
by wide uninhabited tracts, and intercommunica- 
tion is difficult, the Kama and its tributaries being 
the principal highways to middle Russia. The 
governments of Perm (which includes the mining 
districts on the Asiatic slope of the Urals) and 
North Ufa are the chief centres for the iron 
industry, and supply both middle Russia and 
Siberia with iron and iron goods. 

The Middle Volga Governments of Simbirsk, Sara- 
toff, and Samara, and the South Ural governments 
of South Ufaand Orenburg, belong to a great extent 
to the steppe-region of South Russia. The forests, 
which are still extensive in Kazan and in the hilly 
tract* of the Urals, gradually thin away, till 
towards the south the territory becomes a wide 
prairie, which often suffers from want of rain. 
The dry, hot winds of central Asia make their 
influence felt. The population, mostly Great 
Russian, contains a large percentage of Turkish 
.mil Finnish race. Its density is 70 to 82 in- 
habitants per square mile on the right hand of the 
Volga ; and a stream of Russian emigration is 
irapidly extending eastwards into the fertile lands 
of tin- Hanhkirs. 

Tin Xteppe-rtgion occupies a lielt more than 200 
milt-* wide along the littoral of the Black Sea and 
tln-Si-aof Azov, anil extends eastwards through 
the region of the lower Volga and Ural till it 
meets the steppes of central Asia. As far as the 
eye can reach tnere are gently undulating plains, 
clothed with rich grass, and entirely destitute of 
i P-I- ; yet in the liottoms of the deep ravines, con- 
i-i-al'-d by tin; undulations of tin- surface of the 
steppes, there grow a variety of trees and shrubs, 
as willows, wild cherries, wild apricots, and so 
forth. The whole is coated with a thick layer 



of fertile ' black earth. ' For many centuries the 
Russians coveted these fertile grounds, but it was 
not until the 18th century that they actually took 
possession of them ; they nave since rapidly covered 
them with their villages. But in order to people 
Bessarabia without depriving the Russian land- 
owners of their serfs, several races of foreigners, 
as Moldavians, Wallachians (Vlachs), Servians, 
Greeks, Germans, and even Scotsmen, were freely 
invited to settle there. The population of the 
steppe-region exceeds 13,000,000, and its density, 
from 90 to 71 per square mile in the west and 30 
in the east, is rapidly increasing. 

The same steppe-land extends into the peninsula 
of the Crimea, but there the soil is no longer black 
earth, but a clay impregnated with salt. Its 
extreme dryness prevents it from being utilised for 
agriculture. A narrow ridge of mountains, the 
Yaila, reaching 4000 to 5100 feet in their highest 
summits, rises on the south-east coast of the 
Crimea. Its southern slope is the most beautiful 
corner of Russia, owing to its Mediterranean cli- 
mate and Mediterranean flora. Farther east the 
Caspian Steppes, in respect both of their physical 
features ana of their population, form an inter- 
mediate link between Europe and Asia. They 
only emerged from the sea in quite recent geo- 
logical times, and their surface, perfectly flat, 
stul lies below sea-level for a distance of more 
than 150 miles from the shores of the Caspian. 
The small streams which cross them mostly dry up 
through evaporation, and seldom reach the sea. The 
Volga and tne Ural divide into numerous branches 
before entering the Caspian Sea, and afford the 
richest fishing grounds in the world. Numerous 
salt lakes, whence Russia gets her supply of salt, 
are scattered over the steppes. The population 
consists to a great extent of Tartars, Kirghizes, 
and Kalmucks. Cattle-breeding is the industry 
mostly followed ; and fishing is a valuable source 
of income. 

Ethnography. The population of the empire em- 
braces a great variety of nationalities ; but the Rus- 
sians, comprising the VelikorussesorGreat Russians, 
the Malorusses or Little Russians, and the Byelo- 
russes or White Russians, are by a long way 
the predominant race. They number no less than 
77,000,000, of whom 70,000,000 inhabit European 
Russia. None of the three is, of course, a pure race. 
The Great Russians, who invaded a territory 
occupied by Finnish tribes, ended by assimilating 
them. The Little Russians underwent a mixture 
with Turkish tribes, and the White Russians with 
Lithuanians. However, the Russians gave origin 
to no half-breed races ; they mostly ' Russianised ' 
the natives whom they came in contact with. The 
Great Russians inhabit middle Russia in a compact 
mass of over 35,000,000, and even in east and 
north Russia they constitute from two-thirds 
to three-fourths of the population. The Little 
Russians, nearly 15,000,000 in all, are settled in 
a solid body in Little Russia, which contains but 
a slight admixture of other races chiefly in the 
borderlands besides about 12 per cent, of Jews, 
and from 3 to 6 per cent, of Poles. The White 
Russians, who number about 5,000,000, also dwell 
in a compact mass in the west, but they are 
more mixed with Poles, Jews, and Little Russians. 
The Poles number about 5,000,000 in Poland (q.v.), 
and about 1,000,000 in the western governments 
of Russia. Some 120,000 other Slavs Servians, 
Bulgarians, and Bohemians exist in small colonies 
in l>i-ssarabia and Kherson. The Letts and the 
Lithuanians number about 2,600,000 in Russia and 
400,000 in Poland, but the latter are rapidly losing 
their national characteristics. Armenians, Kurds, 
and Persians and other Iranians number nearly 
1,300,000, and live chiefly in Caucasia. The Cau- 



RUSSIA 



CMUS (q.v.), inhabited by a great variety of races 
and tribes, has a population estimated at 7,500,000. 
Jews are very numerous in the towns of west 
Russia (about 2,500,000) and Poland (1,000,000). 
(ontrary to the current opinion that all Jews 
are merchants or money-lenders, it is the fact 
that nearly three-fourths of the Russian Jews 
are artisans or factory-workers, while the 30,000 
Jews settled on the land in Bessarabia and Kher- 
son have provi-d themselves good agriculturists, j 
The Finnish stems include the Finns and the 
Hans (1,850,000 in Finland ami ,'C^i.ooO in 
European Russia); the Esthmiians, the people of j 
Livonia, and other Western Finns in the Baltic I 
Provinces (about 1,000,000); the Lapps and the 
Samoyedes in the far north; and the Volga Finns 
and the Ujfrians (1,750,000 in European Russia 
and 50,000 in Siberia). The Eastern Finns are 
being rapidly absorlwd by the Russians; but the 
Western Finns still maintain and warmly foster 
their nationality. The Turko-Tartars i. e. Tar- 
tars, Bashkirs, Kirghi/es, \c. are mere feeble 
remnants of the tribes who once conquered Russia. 
They number, however, no less than ;<..">00,000 
in European Russia, 4,500,000 in central Asia, 
1,500,000 in the Caucasus, and 350,000 (Tartars 
and Yakuts) in Siberia, The Mongol race is 
represented by some 480,000 Kalmucks in Russia 
and central Asia, as well as by 250,000 Buriate 
in Siberia; while the Manchurian tribes of the 
Tunguses, Golds, &c., and the Hyperboreans num- 
lier respectively about 50,000 and 12,000 in 8il>eria 
(q.v.). Of west Europeans the Germans (about 
1,000,000, out of whom 500,000 in Poland) are the I 
most numerous. They have prosperous colonies | 
in south Russia ; and in the chief towns there are ; 
numbers of Germans, artisans and merchants. The 
Swedes number about 300,000 in Finland. There i 
are, besides, nearly 900,000 Roumanians in south- j 
west Russia, and about 1,000,000 Europeans of 
various nationalities scattered throughout the 
empire. 

Density and Increase of Population. By the 
census of 1897 it appears that the average density 
of population in European Russia, exclusive of \ 
Poland, is only 51 per square mile ; Podolia having 
as many as 187 and Kieff 181, while Vologda has 
but 9, Olonetz 7, and Archangel province (as in 
Siberia) 1 per mile. The average in Poland is 193, 
rising to 286 in Warsaw province, and 297 in Piotr- 
kow. In Europe, owing to the prevalence of early 
marriages among the peasants, the birth-rate is 
very high from 35 to 63 in the thousand, the i 
average having been of late about 47. But the j 
death-rate is also very high viz. about 33. It 
is only in the Baltic and western provinces, which 
have also a lower birth-rate, that it falls to 20 and 
18 in the thousand ; in the east, however, it goes 
up to 45, and occasionally is even more. Die 
mortality is terrible among the children of the 
peasantry; on an average more than two lifth- die 
before reaching live years of age. In s|>itcof this 
the surplus of births over deaths varies between 
1,600,000 and 2,000.000 throughout tin- empire, 
and JM-tweeu ]. .(00,000 and 1,660,000 in European 
Kn--i:i. The jiopnlaiion is thus rapidly increas- 
ing; and while it was 74,000,000 in 1859, it 
exceeded 115,000,000 in 1891. The Russians proper 
emigrate but little from the empire ; but great 
numbers of European Russians emigrate every 
year to the Asiatic dominions. 

Religion. The great bulk of the Russians 
excepting a few White Russians professing the' 
I'liion belong to the Grwco-Russian Church, 
olliei.-illy styled the Orthodox-Catholic Church, or 
to one of its numberless sects of dissenters ( raskol ). 
The Poles and most of the Lithuanians are Roman 
Catholics (8,500,000); while the Finns, the 



Esthonians, and other Western Finns, the Swedes, 
and the Germans are Protestants (about 4,000,000). 
Nearly all the Jews obey the injucntions of the 
Talmud, with the exception of a few Karaites in 
the Crimea and west Russia. Islam has a large 
numlwr of followers all the Turco-Tartars, 
Bashkirs, and Kirghizes. Buddhism has ite 
followers in the Kalmucks ami the Buriats. 
shamanism is the religion of most of the natives 
of Siberia, as well as of the nominally Christian 
Mordvins. Votyaks, Tchuvashes, and the nominally 
Mo-li-m Me.-cheiyaks, and (partly) the Kirghizes. 
The Voguls, the Samoyedes, ami other inhabitants 
of the far north are fetich worshippers. For thfr 
relations of the Russian Church with the rest of 
the Orthodox Eastern Church, see GUI I.H Ciifitni. 

All these religions are recognised by the govern- 
ment, and the Grspco-Russian, Roman Catholic, 
Lutheran, Moslem, Jewish, and Buddhist clergy are 
maintained or protected by the state. As a rule 
religious intolerance is not a part of the national 
character. The government, however, from time 
to time proceeds to ' Russianise' this or the other 
part of the empire, and, without openly persecuting 
this or that religion, imposes all sorts of vexatious 
measures upon its followers. One or two noncon- 
formist sects are the only ones who are openly 
persecuted. The making of proselytes from among 
the adherents of the Greek Church is severely 
punished. 

The Dissenters. A most important part is played 
in the popular life of Russia by the numerous secte 
of dissenters, or rcukolnilu, to which nearly one- 
third, or more, of the so-called Orthodox Russians 
l>elong. New sects arise every year, anil even 
among the Little Russians, who used so piously to 
preserve their traditional religion in the face of 
the Catholic propaganda, a nonconformist move- 
ment has sprung up of late and spread with 
wonderful rapidity under the name of the 'Stunda.' 

The Russian dissenters may be classed under 
three divisions, all equally numerous : the ' Popov tsy* 
(who have priests), the 'Bezpojiovtey' (who have 
none), and the 'DukhovnyieKhristiane' (spiritualist 
Christians). The first named object to the revision 
of the sacred books which was accomplished under 
the patriarch Nikon (see History, below), as well 
as to the hierarchy of the Russian Church. They 
are hostile to all kinds of 'novelties,' maintain 
the patriarchal style of family arrangement, and get 
their priests either from Austria or from priests 
who have left the Orthodox Gripco-Russian Church. 
A branch of the Poppvtsy, the ' Yedinovyert -\ .' 
recognise Russian priests on condition of their 
keeping to the unrevised liooks. 

The Bezpopovtsy repudiate the Orthodox ritual 
and the sacraments, and have no priests. Any 
man or woman may conduct divine service if 
recognised by the community. The state is con- 
sidered by them as an entire invention of the 
Antichrist, and the tsar is Antichrist himself. 
Yet very few amongst them really break off nil 
connection with the state, and lead a life of out 
casts, as the ' Stranniki ' (the Errante) do. 

The 'Spiritualists' comprise very many sects, 
all more or less imbued with either Protestant or 
rationalist teachings, as well as with communist 
tendencies more or less carried into practice. The 
chief of them are the 'Dnkhobortsy' (warriors of 
the spirit), the 'Molokany' (Milk-eaters), both a 
kind of Baptists the former have a strong leaven 
of practical communism and the 'Stundists,' who 
are much under Protestant influence. The 
' Khlysty,' or Flagellants, and the ' Skakuny," or 
Shakers, lielong to the same division. The 
Skoptsy (Castrati) have isolated adherents every- 
where, even among the Lutheran Finns. 

The Popovtsy draw their adherents chiefly from 



RUSSIA 



37 



the merchant class and the wealthier trading 
peasants ; while the Bezpopovtsy and the Spirit- 
ualists reckon their adherents by the million 
among the masses of the peasants. Mutual aid is 
the rule among all dissenters, and the peasants 
who belong to some dissenting sect are, as a rule, 
wealthier than those who belong to the Orthodox 
Church. Several sects practise partial comm unism ; 
and in all of them, especially among the Bez- 
popovtsy and Spiritualists, women occupy a higher 
position. The 'seeking of truth ' being limited to 
the interpretation of the Bible, many absurd prac- 
tices prevail ('love-feasts,' flagellation, and so 
forth), but free-thought also finds its way among 
them. Besides, most of the niskolniks are imbued 
with a Mennonite spirit of opposition to the 
authority of the state, its military service, taxa- 
tion, and similar institutions. In the colonisation 
of the wildernesses of the Urals and, later on, of 
Siberia, the dissenters were the most numerous 
and most successful pioneers. 

Government. The political organisation of Russia 
is a very heterogeneous structure. It has at bottom 
a very great deal of self-government, based upon 
quite democratic principles. But above this stands 
the imperial authority, represented by an army of 
officials, whose powers, down to those of the very 
humblest rural policeman, are extremely vague 
and very extensive; and these officials are con- 
stantly Interfering with the local self-government, 
and paralysing it, without, however, being able 
either to destroy it or to reduce it entirely into 
submission to the central authority. The entire 
legislation has this double character. The empire 
is an absolute and hereditary monarchy. The final 
decision in all legislative, executive, and judicial 
questions rests with the emperor, whose will is law. 
He nominates the ministers, and they practically 
enjoy wide latitude in interpreting trie laws. A 
state council, composed of about sixty members, 
nominated by the emperor, discusses the legislative 
measures elaborated and proposed by the separate 
ministries, but the final decision is always given by 
the head of the state. The senate promulgates the 
laws ; and the Holy Synod, composed of bishops 
nominated by the emperor, has the superintendence 
in religions affairs. 

For administrative purposes the empire is divided 
into governments and territories, the names of 
which are given in the table on pp. 31-32. Each is 
ruled by a governor, whose rights are very exten- 
sive and ill defined, and who has direct control of 
the police in the eight to twelve districts into which 
each government is divided. Poland, Finland, Mos- 
cow, Kieff, and Vilna in Russia in Europe, and 
iisia, Turkestan, the Kirghiz Steppes, East 
Siberia, and the Amur region in Asia have 
governors-general, who are at the same time the 
<-'>iriiiiaiiders of the local troops. For military 
purposes the empire is divided into districts ; so 
al-o for judicial and educational purposes. 

Finland (q. v. ) is a separate state, having its own 
money, finance, and representative institutions; 
but its autonomy has been much curtailed, 
especially since the summer of 1890. 

f.ix-'it. Government. The population of Russia 
still remains divided into social orders or classes, 
each of which enjoys separate and distinctive 
rights. The bulk of the population (over four- 
fiftliM) Ix'lnii^ to the 'peasants.' Next come the 
bnrgfaen and the 'merchants' (9 per cent, in 
European Russia), the clergy (less than 1 per 
cent.), the nobility (1-3 per cent.), the military 
(6'1), foreigners (0'3), and lastly, the 'various.' 
Tin-, peasants, including those who are settled upon 
the state domains and the liberated serfs, have 
from time immemorial had institutions of their 
own, recently recognised by law. They are grouped 



in village communes (107,943 in European Russia 
and Poland) ; and the assembly of all the house- 
holders of the commune, the mir, enjoys a certain 
degree of self-government. The land being held 
in common throughout Great Russia and Siberia, 
it is the mir that periodically distributes the land 
into allotments and then assigns them to the 
several households according to their respective 
working capacities. The mir can also open schools, 
support a midwife or a doctor, and undertake 
all kinds of works of public utility. It always 
elects its own executive, the starosta (elder), the 
tax-collector, and so on. This institution of 
the mir forms the basis of village life among all 
Great Russians, and traces of it are found among 
the Little Russians as well. All investigators of 
the mir are unanimous in recognising that, though 
the growing difference of fortune tends to under- 
mine the institution, nevertheless it shows a won- 
derful elasticity in accommodating itself to new 
conditions. Some village communities buy in 
common modern agricultural machinery, others (in 
the industrial regions) form productive associa- 
tions, while others again cultivate part of the land 
in common to supply the village stores, or under- 
take the boring of Artesian wells, and similar 
matters. The mir, they conclude, is not a super- 
annuated institution ; it can adapt itself to further 
economical progress. Several communes make a 
canton ; and the cantonal assembly, composed of 
one delegate for every ten households, enjoys 
similar prerogatives. It also elects an elder, and 
a peasants' tribunal, composed of ten to twelve 
judges, who settle disputes amongst the peasants 
in accordance with the local common law. Special 
boards ' for peasants' affairs ' are maintained in each 
province by the ministry of the Interior. Minor 
criminal charges, as well as civil causes up to the 
value of 30, are adjudicated upon by the justices 
of peace, in central Russia elected and elsewhere 
nominated. Appeal against their decisions can be 
made to the session of all the judges of the district, 
and from them to the senate. The justices of the 
peace, who materially contributed to the eradica- 
tion of the old practices in vogue in the days of 
serfdom, are a most popular institution. But they 
were abolished in 1889 nearly all over Russia, and 
in their place were substituted ' chiefs of the dis- 
trict,' who combine in their hands judicial and 
administrative powers and are nominated by the 
governor from among candidates selected by the 
nobility, who have their own institutions viz. 
district and provincial assemblies, each presided 
over by a marshal of the nobility. 

The Zemstvos. The administration of the eco- 
nomic affairs of the district and the province 
was in 1866 committed to the district and pro- 
vincial assemblies, or zemstvos. Their members 
are elected by the peasantry, the householders in 
the towns, the clergy, and the landed proprietors 
the census being so adjusted as to always give to 
the nobles and the householders the same number 
of representatives, or even more than the number 
sent by the peasantry. The zemstvos, both in the 
district and the province, elect their own executive. 
Although very much hampered by their limited 
powers of taxation, and still more by the heavy 
drain upon them for imperial purposes (justice, 
police, prisons, barracks, conscription expenses, 
roads, &c. ), the zemstvos, which have been intro- 
duced in thirty-four governments of European 
Russia, have rendered great services to the country. 
They have opened numbers of schools, general 
and special, elementary and technical, created 
hospitals, and organised sanitary stations regu- 
larly visited once a week by a doctor ; they 
have introduced mutual insurance against fire, and 
created the village postal institutions. Certain of 



38 



Rt'SSIA 



the ttmttvot have devoted their attention to the ; 
opening of new channels for national prosperity, j 
by supplying the villages with agricultural machin- 
ery, agricultural inspectors, ana so on, or by sup- 
porting the domestic trades, and the productive 
associations. Many zemstvot have gathered really 
valuable statistical information by means of de- 
tailed house-to-house inquiries. Unhappily their 
rights were much curtailed in 1890. 

A similar form of self-government, similarly 
hampered in ite actions, has been introduced in 
the cities and towns ; the dtimas are composed in 
like manner of representatives of the population, 
and they elect their own executive officers. But, 
except in the greater cities, the municipal institu- 
tions have shown much less vitality than the 
zeinstvos. 

Jiidicial System. This was entirely reformed in 
1864. Trial 1>y jury was introduced, proceedings 
in the law-courts were to be public, and corporal 
punishment by law was abolished. The preliminary 
inquiry was, however, maintained secret, as in 
France, and the benefits of the new law have not 
been extended over all Russia. Political affairs 
and political offences are still in the hands of the 
department of State Police in the ministry of the j 
Interior. Certain political cases are brought from 
time to time before a special department of the 
senate, and heard with closed doors, but the greater 
number are disposed of by the department men- 
tioned, suspect persons being transported to 
Siberia without bringing them to trial before a 
court. The prisons of Russia are extremely over- 
crowded, and on the whole in a very deplorable 
condition. Every year from 15,000 to 20,000 
offenders against the common law are transported 
to Siberia, one-half in consequence of decisions of 
the courts, and the remainder by order of the 
administration (see SIBERIA). Capital punishment 
for common-law offences was abolished about 1770 ; 
murder is punished by hard labour in Siberia. But 
death is still inflicted for political offences. 

Army and Navy. Since 1874 military service 
has been rendered obligatory upon all able citizens 
between twenty-one and forty-three, though the 
duration of service is shortened in proportion to 
the education of the conscript. But of the actual \ 
total (860,000) liable for conscription every year j 
little more than one-third (260,000) are selected for j 
an effective four years' service with the colours ; the 
remainder are inscribed either in the reserve troops 
(Landwehr) or the militia. In time of peace the 
army numbers nearly 814,000 men scattered all 
over the empire; the war-footing is reckoned at 
2,221,000, with 550,000 horses and 5100 guns. In 
reality these last figures ought to be very greatly 
reduced. Kussia might drag on a war for a long 
time by levying new armies in succession ; but, 
with the present organization, she could hardly 
have a sufficiently numerous force to oppose success- 
fully the shock of a rapid invasion. The navy, I 
much improved of late, consists of 327 ships and 
torpedo boats, manned by 27,100 sailors; of the 
former 44 are ironclads. 

Education. When the serfs were liberated in 
1861, and all the institutions of old Kussia were 
being remodelled, a great movement for spreading 
education among the illiterate peasants was started 
by the richer and educated classes. Schools, Sun- 
day-schools, and evening classes were opened in 
great numbers ; methods of teaching were elabo- 
rated ; and a rich literature of class-books and 
books for popular reading was brought into exist- 
ence. The universities were thrown open to 
students, male and female. But the government 
soon put a stop to the movement, and placed all 
matters appertaining to education under the jealous 
control of the ministry of Public Instruction. Later 



on, when the iem.it/ivj* were introduced, they sought 
to promote education into the country districts by 
opening various kinds of schools. All these efforts 
were bitterly opposed by tin 1 ministry, which 
directed its attention chiefly to spreading' classical 
education among the privileged classes, whilst 
elementary, scientific, and technical education \vi-n- 
totally neglected. During the present reign the 
ministry has begun to show special favour to the 
parish schools, which are conducted by the clergy. 
Schoolmasters of these schools are not required to 
pass the regulation examinations, since they are 
nominated by the bishops, as the clerical school- 
masters were in France before the school reform of 
1880. Some progress has undoubtedly been made 
during the last thirty years in the education of 
the masses ; but in 1888 only one-fifth of the army 
recruits could read and write. At the present time 
there are in the empire about 50,000 elementary 
schools with 2 million pupils; nearly 1000 middle 
schools (classical gymnasiums, Realschitlen, &c.) 
with 140,000 boys and 80,000 girls ; and 31 higher 
institutions, of which eight are universities, with 
'20,000 male and 600 female students. 

The education of women stands better than in 
many European countries, owing to the jiersistent 
efforts of the Russian women themselves. They 
managed to get by 1886 four university colleges 
for ladies with 1442 students, one medical academy 
with 500 students, and numerous intermediate 
schools between the gymnasium and the university. 
All these high schools, though maintained by 
private subscription, were closed by Alexander 
III. in 1886 ; but two colleges were reopened again 
in 1890, and they now have about 500 lady 
students. There are on the lists of the medical 
department no less than 695 ladv doctors, of 
whom nearly one-half are employed in the civil 
service, chiefly by the zenulmx. 

Finance. The finances of Russia are in a pre- 
carious state. Though the state revenue increased 
from 58,700,000 in 1877 to 94,800,000 in 1890, 
the interest and annuities on the public debt 
increased during the same period from 11,400,000 
to 26,600,000. The total of the public debt 
amounted on January 1, 1890, to the sum of 
552,524,000, or nearly 5 per inhabitant. The 
peasantry are taxed so heavily that arrears accumu- 
late every year, and attain formidable proportions 
after every failure of the crops. 

Land-tenure. European Russia, exclusive of 
Finland, covers nearly 1237 million acres ; 1019 
millions of these have been registered, and it 
appears that nearly one-fifth of that surface is unpro- 
ductive and two-fifths are under forests. The re- 
mainder is partly meadow or pasture-ground and 
partly arable land, in. the proportion of two to 
three. Two-fifths of the registered area lielongs to 
the crown, one-third (317} million acres) is held by 
the peasants' communes, representing an aggregate 
of nearly 25,000,000 men, and one-fourth part (252 
million acres) is held by 481, 400 private proprietors. 
Most of the land that is private pro|>erty belongs 
to the nobility (197 million acres, 115,000 land- 
lords) and to 'merchants' (31} million acres, 
70,630 owners), who in recent years have bought 
large estates, especially in the steppe-region, chiefly 
in order to rent land to the peasants. The estates 
of the nobles are well cultivated only in west Russia. 

Agriculture. Agriculture is the chief occupation 
of the people of Russia ; only in central Russia 
(Moscow, Vladimir, Xijni ) dors industry take the 
lead. The conditions of agriculture are obviously 
very different in different parts of the country. A 
line drawn across European Russia, from KirtT 
to Nijni-Novgorod and Vyatka, will divide the 
country into two parts, of which the south-eastern 
has a surplus of wheat and rye and exports tlinii, 



RUSSIA 



39 



while the other has to import hoth. More than 
one-half of European Russia thus produces less 
wheat and rye than is needed for home con- 
sumption. If all the wheat and lye produced by 
Russia in an average year were consumed within 
the country itself, the annual consumption of wheat, 
which is now very low (85 Ib. per inhabitant), 
would only be increased by 40 Ib. per inhabitant ; 
and that of rye, which is now 330 Ib. per inhabitant, 
would be increased by 36 Ib. only. The total 
annual consumption of wheat and rye per inhabit- 
ant would then be 491 Ib. instead of 415 Ib., which 
it is now i. e. if no corn at all were exported from 
Russia the consumption of bread throughout the 
country altogether would be about the same as 
what is habitual in France (505 Ib.). These facts, 
the result of recent and careful investigation, dis- 
pose at once of the theory that Russia may be 
regarded as the granary of Europe. Moreover, the 
crops of Russia are subject to great fluctuations, 
ana bad years recur, as in India, at intervals of 
from ten to twelve years. The year 1891 was a 
time of extreme famine in many provinces. 

During the average years 1883-87, 161,930,000 
acres were under the various corn crops in 
European Russia (excluding Poland and Finland), 
and 3,712,000 acres under potatoes. The total 
yield reached on an average 81,100,000 quar- 
ters of rye, 27,014,400 of wheat, 64,255,000 of 
oate, 16,269,000 of barley, 12,150,000 of various 
other cereals, and 33,935,000 of potatoes ; in 1889, 
however, all the crops were fully 25 per cent, 
below these figures. Flax and hemp are exten- 
sively cultivated in the west, the sugar-beet is 
grown in the south and south-west, and tobacco is 
produced in the south. The vine is widely culti- 
vated on the Black Sea littoral and in Caucasia, 
but less than 360,000 acres are under proper cul- 
ture, and the wine-production is still in its infancy. 
Cotton is beginning to be widely planted in Turke- 
stan. 

Mining. The empire is very rich in all kinds of 
minerals ; and its mining industry, which gives 
employment to nearly 400,000 hands, has of late 
years begun to advance with rapid strides. Gold 
is obtained in Siberia and the L ral Mountains, in 
quantities varying between 871,000 and 1,702,800 
ounces every year. Silver (264,000 to 396,000 oz. ) 
and lead are obtained in Siberia, the Kirghiz 
Steppes, the Caucasus, and Finland ; platinum 
(4840 to 9460 Ib. ) in the Urals. Iron ores are found 
in profusion both in the Asiatic dominions and in 
European Russia (Olonetz, central Russia, south 
Russia), and the raising of iron has increased 
from 448,000 tons in 1880 to 1,022,000 tons in 1895 
(steel, 565.000 tons). Zinc is mined in Poland, 
tin in Finland, and cobalt and manganese ore in 
Caucasia. Salt is obtained from the salt-lakes of 
Asia and south Russia. Russia has excellent coal- 
basins, especially in the Don region, but, owing to 
the immense forests and the facilities for shipping 
firewood on the rivers, the raising of coal, not- 
withstanding high protective tariffs, develops 
rather slowly ; the total output in both Poland 
(which has good coal-mines in Kielce) and Russia 
reaches only 3J to 4J million tons. The exceed- 
ingly rich oil-wells of Baku supply Russia with 
both petroleum and fuel ; the latter is largely used 
on the steamers of the Volga, on some railways, 
and in various manufactures. The total output of 
crude petroleum averages about 3,300,000 tons. 

Manufactures and Petty Trades. The manufac- 
turing industry of Russia has grown up since the 
abolition of serfdom. Although handicapped by 
the protective duties upon foreign imports (e.g. 
machinery) it nevertheless has attained an average 
yearly production of 142 for each workman em- 
ployed ; in 1887 the aggregate production of the 



23,500 manufacturing establishments of the empire, 
which gave employment to 1,450,000 workers, was 
valued at 125,000,000. The mining industry and 
the industries which pay excise duties (tobacco, 
sugar, spirits, beer, petroleum, and matches) are 
not included in the above. The chief industrial 
centres are Moscow and the surrounding govern- 
ments, St Petersburg and Poland. The woollen 
trade is taking firm root in the south, chiefly 
through English capital and enterprise. The pro- 
duction of alcohol (chiefly vodka, the national 
spirit) averages 80 to 95 million gallons of pure 
alcohol every year. There are over 200 sugar- 
mills and nearly 400 tallow-factories in Russia. 

The domestic industries, which are carried on by 
the peasants of central Russia contemporaneously 
with agriculture, are of much greater import- 
ance in Russia comparatively than they are in 
western Europe. It is estimated that no less than 
7,500,000 peasants are engaged in these domestic 
trades, and that their yearly produce (180,000,000) 
exceeds in value that of the aggregate produce 
of the manufactures. The greatest conceivable 
variety of products are thus manufactured in the 
villages, from the roughest article used by the 
millions of peasants to the finest articles of 
luxury. Co-operation , which enters into the essence 
of Russian peasant life the artel, or co-operative 
productive or consuming association being consti- 
tuted by Russian peasants and factory-workers for 
every possible purpose finds a wide field for 
application among the domestic trades, and would 
spread much more rapidly were it not for the 
extreme poverty of the producers, who are entirely 
in the hands of the ' sweaters. ' 

Commerce. The exports of Russia to foreign 
countries consist principally of corn and flour 
(55 per cent, of the total exports), various 
articles of food (butter, eggs, .&c.), flax, timber, 
oleaginous grain (chiefly linseed), raw wool, naphtha, 
andilluminatingoils. These commodities and others 
not named reach an annual value of 54,000,000 
to 79,000,000; but the total depends entirely 
upon the yield of the crops. The imports (about 
40,000,000 every year) consist chiefly of raw 
cotton (7,000,000 to 10,000,000), tea, raw metals, 
machinery, raw wool, colours, iron and steel goods, 
and coal. Tea and coffee, wines, and fruits are 
also considerable items ; but the aggregate value 
of the imported manufactured goods hardly reaches 
4,500,000. The character of the imports into 
Russia has totally changed during recent years, 
partly in consequence o? the nearly prohibitive 
tariffs, but especially on account of the development 
of industries in Russia. The cotton, sugar, and 
iron goods all formerly imported from abroad, but 
now made and prepared! at home are not dearer in 
Russia than they are in western Europe. The 
inland trade of Russia is characterised by many 
interesting peculiarities, chiefly connected with its 
great fairs (at Nijni-Novgorod, Kharkoff, Irbit, 
&c. ), which are still of immense importance. 

Navigation. The ports of Russia are entered 
every year by about 12,500 vessels of 7J million 
tons, of which only 1100 to 1200 (chiefly belonging 
to Finns or Greeks) sail under the Russian flag. 
Many vessels come in ballast to take cargoes of 
grain. In the coasting trade the ports were entered 
by 37,500 vessels of 8,500,000 tons in 1895. 

Communications. The importance of the Russian 
rivers for traffic has already been mentioned. It 
may be added that over 1500 steamers ply on the 
rivers of European Russia, and that every year 
some 67,000 boats and barges and 90,000 rafts are 
unloaded at the river ports, the total amount of 
goods shipped exceeding 9 million tons, as against 
55 million tons carried by rail. About 1860 Russia 
had less than 1000 miles of railways ; but in 1891 



40 



KTSSIA 



the had a network measuring 20,115 miles, ">it 
of which 1166 miles are in Finland and 890 in 
the Transcaspian region. Thi-. extensive system 
(exclusive of tin- Finnisli and Transcaspian rail 
ways) has cost more than 300,000,000, nine tent li- 
of which has been supplied by the state by mean* 
of loans. Besides paying a high interest for these 
loans, the state has also bound itself to guarantee 
to moat railway companies a revenue of five per 
cent, upon the capital employed, which capital, as 
a rule, very greatly exceeded the real expenses. 
Thus the state pays every year to the railway com- 
panies sums vary in- from 700,000 to 6,500,000. 
Several lines of railway have recently IKMMI l>ouglit 
by the state, which now owns, in Russia proper 
and Poland, 5426 miles. A little over 40 million 
passengers are transported every year by rail. Corn 
is the chief item in the nearly 55 million tons of 
goods carried every year. A long series of railwax - 
now being laid is to reach right across Siberia (q. v. ), 
from the Urals to the Pacific, 

Pott and Telegraph. An extensive organisation 
of nearly 4220 stations and 38,400 post-horses 
is maintained by the state between all the towns 
of the empire not yet connected by rail, for 
the conveyance of the post and passengers. The 
total length of this ]H>st system is over 100,000 
miles. The 5881 post-offices of the empire trans- 
mitted in 1892 no less than 260,000,000 letters and 
post-cards ; and in the same year 4200 telegraph- 
offices transmitted 12,785,000 telegrams. Tim 
length of the state telegraph lines attained at the 
same time 88,280 miles. 

Architecture. Russian architecture is direct ly 
descended from the Byzantine (q.v.), but modilicil 
by native and Asiatic influences. The lirst church- 
building tsars, such as Vladimir (981-1015), em- 
ployed Greek architects ; but their churches were 
mainly of wood and have disappeared. The usual 
Russian church has a central dome, surrounded by 
four (or more) smaller cupolas, whose form has 
been, under Tartar influence, changed to the onion- 
shape that appears in Mongol-Indian mosques on 
the Ganges. In the famous cathedral of St Basil, 
of which an illustration is given at Musrcixv, the 
central tower is surrounded ay eight smaller ones, 
crowned by various bizarre cupolas, and painted 
with the most brilliant colours. This church was 
built by Ivan the Terrible about 1554. After the 
time of Peter the Great the native type gave way 
to reproductions -often bad of various classical 
models; the architecture of St Petersburg is char- 
acterised at RENAISSANCE, Vol. VIII. p. 644. 

ilixt'iry. The Slays were not the primitive in- 
habitants of the plains of eastern Europe; in the 
first centuries of our era their abodes were on the 
Danube, the Kll>e, and the south shore of the 
Baltic Sea, and they entered what is now Ku--ia 
from the west. 'the southern Slavonians took 
poKsesHion of the upper Bug, Dniester, and Dnieper, 
while the northern Slavs occupied the lake-region 
of Pskov and Novgorod. The date of that immi- 
gration is not known, lint it is certain that in the 
9th century their small tribes occupied besides 
part of what ix now Poland a territory stretchi n^ 
north and south from lakes I'eipus and 1 1 men to the 
mouth of the Dniester. Various Finnish tribes 
were then living in Finland, and the basins of the 
hwina, Pi-tchora. ami upper Volga; the space 
between the Diina and the Vistula was inhabited 
by the Lithuanian*; while several Finno-Turki-h 
tribes, mostly nomads, had taken possession of the 
southern slo|w of the central plateau : the Bulgars 
were at Kazan; the Monlvins. the Mc-chcryaks, 
the Tchuvashes, and the Tcheremisses on the 
middle Volga; and the K bazars in the south'-in 
Steppes. Finally, the Turkish stems of the 
Polortey, the Petcbenegs, and the Turks camped 



in the Caspian Steppes to the east of the Volga. 
Already at that time the Sla\- were agriculturi-t-. 
and their country was dotted with mi ..... runs small 
forts. Like all primitive inhabitants of I'.ui. .).., 
they were organised in '-cute- the family mice 
having been matriarchal. The land wa- held in 
I inmoii b\ rach clan anil trilic, ami the common 
affairs were decided at folkmotes, or assemblies of 
the clan, the tribe, or the -land. < and 

Tacitus found the same organisation among the 
ancient Germans. 

The territory of the eastern Slav- was the great 
highway from Scandinavia to Greece; mid cara- 
vans of Scandinavian merchant- followed the route 
from Novgorod to Kiel! on their frequent jouii 
to Constantinople. Tin- -ame mute nrai followed 
by the Norman warriors ( Varingiiir. Vary agues, 
\arangians), who, reinforced by Slav adventi.' 
used to engage in the service of the Creek cmpe> 
The Greeks used to call them KO--C- or Itusses, but 
it remains uncertain whether the name was lior- 
rowed from some locality in Scandinavia ( Ros, 
Roslagen ; Ruotei Swedes), or, what seems more 
probable if Arab ic-timon\ is taken into account, 
from a territory on the Uniejier. It is more' than 
probable that from a remote antiquity the Slavs 
used to apply to leaders of such military bands for 
protection, and the oldest Russian chronicle, known 
a- Nestor's (it was probably compiled from older 
chronicles and epic traditions about 1115, by the 
Kietl' monk Sylvester), says that the folkmotes of 
the northern Slavs, after having sent away in 859 
the Varangians to whom they paid a tribute, sum- 
moned again the Varangian rulers in 862 ' from 
beyond tne sea,' 'to command and jud^e them 
according to law.' The first historians of llu ia, 
who used to interpret facts of a remote past accord- 
ing to modern conceptions, were disposed to regard 
the Varangian dukes as a sort of modern kings, and 
spared no effort in tracing a ' Rurik dynasty ' down 
to our own times. But it has now been proved 
by careful research (by Professors Kostomaroff, 
Solovieff, Sergueeviteh, Byelyaeff, Bestuzhef- 



Riumin, and many others) that the supposed kin-- 
were simply military chiefs, to whom tne military 
defence of the cities was entrusted, like the podesta 
of the Italian cities in the 15th century. 

Three brothers, Rurik, Sineus, and Truvor, were 
thus invited, according to tradi. , and they 
settled respectively in Ladoga, i.jvlozersk, and 
Izborsk i.e. on the l>ord<'rs of a ti rritory which 
had to be defended against the I inn- and the 
Lithuanians. They and their successors built new 
forte, and took part in wars, the description of 
which in Nestor's chronicle has all the characters 
of an epic poem. Hurik's brother, Oleg, is said 
to have imposed his authority upon Kiel!' and 
Smolensk; he, as well as RuriVs son Igor, made 
campaigns against Constantinople ; and Oleg's 
widow, Olga, who ruled after his death, was 
baptised in the Greek capital. Vars were waged, 
under Svyatoslav's leadership, i linst the Khazars 
and the Greeks. Thelln ian-. liquored Bulgaria, 
took possession of all its fortresses, and nearly 
captured Constantinople. The campaign (fully de- 
sciibcd by liy/aiitine historians! ended, however, 
in a disaster. The times of the Sunny Vladimir' 
(980-1015) are the heroic ' epoch of early lln ian 
history, and the feats and feasts of Vladimir and 
his i/rujina ('war companions') have Ix-en handed 
down through ages in legend and song ; while his 
conversion to Christianity made him the hero of 
the annals written by monks. Hi- ami his t/rujina 
were baptised at Kieff in 988, and the people of 
KiefTsoon followed him. The first half of the llth 
century, during which Varoslav the Wise was grand 
prince at Kieff, while hi- brothers and nephews 
ruled at Novgorod, Polotsk, Murom, Vladimir in 













. 




RUSSIA 



41 



Volhynia, and even Tmutorakan in north Caucasia, 
was the most brilliant time for Kieff. The ' mother 
of the Russian towns ' grew to be a populous city, 
visited by numerous caravans of merchants, and 
Adam of Bremen described it as 'a rival to the 
supremacy of Constantinople. ' The great cathedral 
of St Sophia was built at that time ; as also many 
other churches. Schools were opened, and the first 
written Russian law the 'Russkaya Pravda,' or, 
at least, its essential parts was compiled. It cor- 



responds to the leges barbarorum of the ancient 
Germans and Scandinavians. By the end of his 
life Yaroslav was ruling over most of the Russian 
towns, and his daughters were married, one to the 
king of Poland, another to Harold in Norway, a 
third to Henry I. in France, and a fourth to the 
king of Hungary. He died in 1054. 

The next two centuries of Russian history cor- 
respond to the feudal period of western Europe. 
In the annals they appear as an uninterrupted 







l. 

t 

3, 4. 

6, e. 

7. 
8. 



Principality of Moscow under Daniel, 1303. 

Acquisitions of Yuriy, Ivan KaliU, and Dmitri Donskol, 

life 

the two Taiwill, 1469. 

Ivan III. and Vassili Ivanovltch, 15S3. 

Ivan IV. the Terrible, 1584. 

Mikhail Romanoff, 1645. 

Alexei Mikhailovitch, 1676. 



Historical Map of Russia : 



11, 12. 
13. 
14. 
16. 
18. 
17. 
18. 



10. Acquisitions of Peter I., 1725. 



Anna and Elizabeth, 1762. 
Catharine II., 1796. 
Paul I., 1801. 
Alexander I., 1825. 
Nicholas I., 1855. 
Alexander II., 1881. 
the period 1730-1845. 



succession of petty wars between the descendants 
of Yaroslav for the right of ruling in this or that 
city, or for the supremacy at Kien. But modern 
h liiis disclosed the real characters of the 
epoch. The Russians at that time were steadily 



extending their territory towards the east; they 
colonised the Oka, the Don, and the Finnish terri- 
tories in the north-east. Between the numerous 
clans and territories into which they were divided 
there were no exterior bonds of unity save the 



42 



it r ssi A 



unity of language and religion, and the common 
idea that no princes must be taken by any Knsiian 
territory except from among the descendant* of 
Yaroslav. The natural cent res <>f t lio territory were 
its fortified towns, which offered a refuge to the 
population in ease of need. In each town the folk- 
mote remained supreme ; it decided upon war and 
peace ; it invited a prince to defend the territory, 
and the prince, before being recognised as such, 
bad to sign a covenant (ryad), and to take the 
engagement to rule according to law. He was 
bound to keep a band of warriors (drujina) to pro- 
tect the territory, and was entitled to levy for that 
purpose a tribute as well as the usual judicial fines : 
the disputes among the citizens being settled by 
twelve jurors (six for the defendant and six for the 
plaintiff), the prince or his deputy had to pronounce 
the sentence and to levy the fine when the parties 
applied before the prince's court instead of the 
I oik mote. The cities usually were divided into 
sections and 'streets,' corresponding to the trade 
and artisans' guilds, and each of them had its 
own self-government; it elected its priests and 
functionaries, while the folkmote of the whole 
city elected the posadnik or mayor, the tysiatskiy 
(miUenarium) or commander of the militia, and the 
bishop. The fortifications of the cities were mostly 
built out of the wealth accumulated by the cathe- 
dral church, which was the exchequer of the city. 
The guilds of the merchants in larger trading cities, 
like Novgorod and Pskov, used to carry on trade in 
the name, and, at the outset, for the benefit of 
the whole city. The city not the individual sent 
out its caravans and boats, and it also used to send 
out parties of young men into the lands of the 
Finnish tribes to carry on trade, to levy tribute, 
and to colonise them. In this way Novgorod con- 
quered the north-east of Russia, and founded 
there ite daughter-republics of Vyatka, Dwina, and 
Vologda ; and later on its men crossed the Urals to 
trade with Siberia. Kieff was recognised as the 
eldest of the cities, and the eldest of the kin of the 
princes had to rule at Kieff. But this unwritten 
agreement was not always obeyed, and consequently 
numberless petty wars took place between the 
princes. The country, however, took no part in 
these wars, with the exception of a few isolated cases 
always specified in the annals. In each territory 
there was the chief city (gorod), and the subordinate 
ones (prigorod), but no traces of submission of the 
latter to the former can be discovered in the docu- 
ments of the times, the annals simply mentioning 
that the prigorods take the same decisions as the 
gorod. The soil belonged to the freemen who 
cultivated it; but slavery existed, and there was 
some trade in slaves, chiefly prisoners of war. 
A free man who entered into any one's service 
without agreement and remained in a servant's 
position for more than one year was also considered 
kholop or slave, as well as he who sold himself into 
slavery under the pressure of necessity. Trade 
prospered at that time, especially at Kieff, which 
was the great storehouse for trade with Greece and 
\-ia, and Novgorod (which later on joined the 
Iliinseatic League) for the trade with Germany 
and Sejuidinavia. Pskov, Smolensk, and Polotek 
alo were important centres of commerce. 

During the 10th, llth, and 12th centurie-. liui.-. 
wan thus covered with a number of free democrat ie 
republics. But the (Jreek Church already worked 
hard nt introducing into Russian life the conception 
of the state and the authority of the monarch. 
liiHtead of the common-law view of justice as 
amend* made by the offender for the wrongs he has 
done to the individual or the community, the 
church introduced the Roman conception of justice 
as established by the state, and with it the idea of 
crnel corporal and capital punishments. At the 



same time it spread education and developed the 
taste for reading, and ite monasteries were centres 
of further colonisation. But it also introduced the 
Byzantine ideas of asceticism and submission, and 
subsequently it* influence, reinforced by that of the 
Mongols and the Tartars, contributed to give to 
woman a suWdiimte position quite contrary to the 
spirit of the Slav laws. And finally a new power 
grew up during the same centuries viz. that of tin- 
ooyarsoTbolar.t. Formerly thev simply wi'rc the chief 
warriors and counsellors of the drujina ; but later 
on, as some of them grew wealthier through trade 
and war, they acquired more and more imix>rtance 
in the cities as well as in the country. Thitlier they 
attracted peasants to settle on the free lands, ami 
gradually reduced them to the condition of tenants. 
Such was the state of Russian society during tli>i 
udyelnyi or feudal period before the Mongol inva- 
sion. Of all the princes who ruled at Kieff during 
that period Vladimir Monomachus (1113-25) de- 
serves special mention as a ruler whose paternal 
authority was recognised by most Russian princes, 
whom he succeeded in bringing together for the 
defence of the territory against the 1'olovtsy. 
With him really ended the supremacy of Kieff, 
south-west Russia becoming more and more the 
prey of its nomad neighbours, as well as of its 
western neighbours, the princes of Volhynia and 
Galicia. 

Owing to the gradual colonisation of the basin of 
the Oka and the upper Volga, a new Russian terri- 
tory had grown in importance in the meantime. 
Suzdal and Rostov were its chief centres. It differed 
from south-west Russia in many respects : its in- 
habitants were Great Russians a hard-working 
race, less poetical and less gifted, but more active 
than their southern brethren. Besides, a good 
many of its inhabitants were peasants settled on 
the lands of the boyars country -people, not accus- 
tomed to the folkmotes of old ; and the cities 
themselves, being of recent creation like Vladi- 
mir and, later on, Moscow had not those tradi- 
tions of independence which characterised Kieff or 
Novgorod. It was therefore easier for the authority 
of the prince to develop in the north-east, under 
the guidance of the church and the boyars, with- 
out being interfered with by the vetrhe. The Suz- 
dal prince, Andrei Bogolubskiy (1157-74), was the 
first representative of that policy. He and his 
ehurchlv advisers founded a new town, Vladimir, 
on the Klazma, a tributary of the Oka, and sancti- 
fied it by transporting thither from Kieff an icon 
of the Virgin, which had come from Constantinople, 
and was reputed to have been painted by St Luke. 
He invited many Kieff boyars to settle in the land 
of Suzdal, and finally he undertook to strike the 
last blow at the supremacy of Kieff. He induced 
the land of Suzdal to levy an army, which took 
Kieff in 1169, plundered and burned it, massacred 
numbers of its inhabitants, and carried others away 
into slavery. The supremacy of Kieff was thus 
ile-troyed, and the land of Suzdal became the Ile- 
de-France of Russia the nucleus of the future 
Ku-sian state. Andrei was killed by his own' 
boyars ; but the Suzdal land continued to grow 
anil to enjoy prosperity during the next fifty years ; 
economical, educational, and literary progress were 
marked, and the Russian territory extended farther 
eastwards. A rival was given to Novgorod in 
Nijni-Novgorod, at the junction of the Oka with 
the Volga. But in the 13th century a great 
calamity visited Russia; a Mongol invasion sud- 
denly put a stop to the development of the country 
ami threw it into a totally new direction. 

For several centuries past the rapid desiccation 
of central Asia (see ASIA) had been compelling tlie. 
inhabitants of the high plateau to migrate into the 
lowlands, and thence westwards towards Europe. 



RUSSIA 



43 






Under this pressure of Asia upon Europe the 
Ugrians, who inhabited the Urals, moved over the 
south Russian steppes to Hungary; and the 
Polovtsy, the Petchenegs, and other tribes were 
making in succession their raids upon south-west 
Russia. Now it was the turn of the nomads, who 
inhabited the very heart of Asia, and whom 
Genghis Khan (q.v.) had united into a great con- 
federation, to enter Europe. They already had 
conquered Manchuria, part of north China, Turk- 
estan, and Bokhara, and devastated the encamp- 
ments of the Polovtsy. The Polovtsy applied for 
aid to the Russians, and their united forces met 
the invaders on the Kalka River (a tributary of the 
Don) in 1224. The Mongols and Tartars were 
completely victorious, but retreated and did not 
return to Russia till after thirteen years. In 1238 
the hordes of Batu-khan invaded the whole of east 
and central Russia. Ryazan, Rostov, Yaroslav, ; 
Tver, and Torjok were burned ; only the marshes \ 
of Novgorod protected the north-western republic 
from the same fate. In 1239-40 they ravaged the 
south-west, destroying Tchernigov, Galicia, and 
Kieff, and entered Poland and Hungary. But, 
being checked in Moravia, and receiving at the 
same time the news of the Khan's death, Batu- 
khan returned to Asia, and built his palace at 
Sarai on the lower Volga. Thither the Russian 
princes had to go to pay tribute and receive their 
investiture by kissing the stirrup of the khan. 

After having ravaged Russia the Mongols did not 
interfere much with her internal organisation. 
They respected the church ; they left the peasants 
in possession of their lands, and the princes in 
possession of their authority ; but every prince had 
to receive his investiture from the khan, and it 
was at the khan's court, sometimes on the banks 
of a tributary of the Amur, that intrigues for 
supremacy between the Russian princes were settled 
sometimes through the assassination of the 
prince who was not rich enough to buy the support 
of the advisers of the khan. It was especially with : 
Mongol aid, and often with Mongol armies, that 
the wealthy princes of Moscow succeeded in destroy- 
ing the autonomy of the surrounding principalities, 
and imposed upon them their own yoke. 

The taxes of Russia were originally farmed out 
by the khan to oriental merchants ; but, to avoid 
popular revolts, the princes undertook to collect 
them with the aid of the Tartars. The courts of 
the Russian princes, who surrounded themselves 
with Tartar and Mongol advisers, took an oriental 
character. The industrial, artistic, and literary 
development of Russia was totally arrested. On 
the whole, Mongol rule threw the country 
more than 200 years behind the other states of 
Europe. The principalities of Kieff and Tchernigov 
never recovered afterwards. Their decline, how- 
ever, made room for the rise of Galitch to pre- 
eminence in western Russia, and, amidst wars 
against Hungary and the Tartars, it preserved 
greater independence than anv of the Russian prin- 
cipalities till, in the later half of the 13th century, 
it was taken possession of by Casimir III. of 
Poland. About the same time Volhynia was 
joined to Lithuania. The rise of this latter state 
was much favoured by the prostration into 
which Russia had fallen ; and after an existence of 
several centuries, during which it extended its 
power so as to include Livonia proper, the Russian 
provinces of White Russia, Volhynia, Podolia, and 
the Ukraine, it was joined in 1569 to Poland (q.v.). 
On the north of Lithuania arose in the beginning 
of the 13th century another power, the Livonian 
Knights Sword-bearers, who took possession of 
Livonia, Courland, and Esthonia, as well as some 
portions of the territory of Novgorod and Pskov ; 
while the Scandinavians, blessed by Pope Gregory 



IX., undertook a crusade against Novgorod. 
They were, however, defeated by Alexander 
Nevski (q.v.; 1252-63). 

In the beginning of the 14th century eastern 
Russia consisted of the principalities of Suzdal, 
Nijni-Novgorod, Ryazan, Tver, and Moscow, and 
long contests took place between them, especially 
between the latter two. At last Moscow a small 
village fortified by Yuriy Dolgorouki (1147) took 
the upper hand. It was entirely free of municipal 
traditions, and the powers of the prince could 
freely develop there, unchecked by the ve.tche. It 
occupied an advantageous position at the junction 
of several main routes, and on a then navigable 
river, amidst a territory thickly peopled by boyars' 
peasants, who enriched the prince and the boyars. 
The church, always prosecuting its aim of creating 
a monarchy in Russia, soon perceived the import- 
ance of Moscow as a centre of a future state, and 
its head, the metropolitan, removed thither from 
Vladimir in 1325. The church, the boyars, and 
the princes thus created at Moscow the power 
which was necessary at that moment to oppose 
the encroachments of Catholic Lithuania, Poland, 
and Livonia. Ivan Kalita (1328-40), Simeon 
the Proud (1340-53), and the regency of boyars 
which administered the affairs under his weak- 
minded son Ivan II. (1353-59), as also during 
the minority of Ivan's son Dmitri Donskoi (1359- 
89), all pursued the same policy of increasing the 
powers of Moscow by weakening the neighbouring 
principalities Nijni-Novgorod, Tver, and Ryazan. 
Taking advantage of the weakness of the Mongol 
khanate, now divided into the hordes of Nogai, 
Crimea, Kazan, and Astrakhan, the east Russians 
made in 1380 the first attempt at throwing off the 
yoke; their armies federated under Dmitri, and 
they ventured for the first time to meet the Mongol 
armies in a battle on the field of Kulikovo, on the 
banks of the Don. The battle was not decisive, 
but the church ascribed the victory to the holy 
icons of the Moscow monasteries and to Dmitri. 
True, next year the Khan Tpkhtamysh advanced 
suddenly on Moscow, burned it, killed no less than 
24,000 people, and exacted a heavy tribute. But 
this was the last time that Moscow fell into the 
hands of the Tartars. Its Kreml (citadel), which 
had resisted in 1368 and 1371 the assaults of the 
Lithuanians under Olgerd, was more strongly forti- 
fied, and when Khan Edighei besieged it in 1408 
he could only ravage the suburbs. 

The gradual increase of the Moscow principality 
continued under Vassili I. (1389^1425) who 
bought from the khan the right of ruling at Nijni- 
Novgorod, and conquered Rostov and Murom and 
Vassili II. the Blind (1425-62). Still the prince, 
though assuming the title of Great Prince, was 
merely recognised as the eldest by other princes, 
and the cities maintained their independence, 
simply paying to his delegates a tribute in ex- 
change for military protection, while Moscow was 
ruled in reality by the duma (council) of the boyars, 
especially after Vassili II. became blind. It was 
under Ivan III. (1462-1505), named 'the Great' by 
some historians, that the prince of Moscow, after 
having for forty years seized every opportunity for 
abolishing the autonomy of other principalities, 
and having married Sophia, a niece of Constantino 
Paloeologus (who came to Moscow with a numerous 
following of Greeks imbued with ideas of Roman 
autocracy), assumed the title of ' Ruler of all 
Russia ' (Hospodar Vseya Rossii), and adopted 
the arms of the Byzantine empire. He took ad- 
vantage of the divisions at Novgorod between 
the oligarchy of merchants, who were appealing 
for assistance to the Poles, and the people, and, 
supported by Tartar cavalry, marched against the 
republic (1471). Novgorod was defeated and sub- 



44 



KfSSIA 



milled ; but new difficulties arose, and, after having 
preached a national war 'against tlie pope ami his 
allies the Novgorodians,' Ivan took possession of 



eity (1481), decapitated numbers of boyars and 
rich people, and trang]iorte<l 8000 Novgorodians 
int<i tin- cities of eastern Russia. The colonies of 
Novgorod (Vyatka, Dvina) were conquered next, 
and in I4!"> the H unseat ic market of Novgorod was 
pillaged by Ivan 's men, and all the goods taken to 
Moscow. Novgorod thus lost both its independ- 
ence and its trade. 

The Tartar-Mongols being divided at this time, 
the Russians took advantage of the fact to refuse 
tribute ; and when thereupon the khan of the 
< ...I. Irn Horde, stimulated by I'asimir's promises of 
support, marched against Moscow, an army of 
150,000 men was sent to meet him on the Oka, 
Both armies stood therefor months inactive, till, 
finally, the Tartars, seeing no support from 
Lithuania, and probably learning that Sarai 
had been plundered by a straggling band of 
Russians, suddenly retreated to ravage Lithuanian 
territory. This retreat is considered as the libera- 
tion of KU-MU from the Tartar-Mongol yoke 
(1480). 

Kussia's chief enemy, however, was Lithuania, 
united at that time with Poland. It stood at the 
very gates of Moscow, keeping garrisons in towns 
150 mill's distant from the Russian capital, and 
always ready to employ the Tartars against the 
Russians. A protracted war ensued, with the 
result that several princes on the upper Oka and 
Desna (tributary to the Dnieper) surrendered to 
Ivan. Smolensk, however, remained under the 
Lithuanians. Vassili III. (1505-33) followed his 
father's policy. He continued the war with 
Lithuania, and retook Smolensk. He annexed 
Kya/an and Novgorod-Syeversk, and conquered, 
by taking advantage of its internal dissensions, 
the last north-western republic, Pskov. The 
vetcJie was abolished, its bell taken to Moscow, and i 
300 wealthy families transported to east Russia. 

Vassili's son, Ivan IV. (1533-84), was pro- 
claimed Great Prince when he was only three I 
years old. His reign is still the subject of the , 
most contradictory estimates by historians. The \ 
fact is that by that time the boyars of Moscow. 
reinforced by all the dethroned princes and their 
descendants,' had grown all-powerful. Not only 
the laws were issued by the boyar iluma (council) 
in the name of 'the Great Prince and the boyars,' ; 
but their authority within the palace overshadowed 
that of the prince. In his childhood Ivan IV.. 
though surrounded with adulation at official 
reception-, was kept in neglect and almost hunger. 
Hu-sia was like to become another Poland ruled 
by the rival parties of nobles. During the first 
years of his reign Ivan ruled with their support 
and under the influence of the priest Sylvester and 
the minor noble Adashc\. The Mates general were ; 
convoked twice (1549 and 1550), the code (<SWe6ni) 
of his grandfather was revised, and church mailers 
were settled in 'The Hundred Articles' i.s'/oy/i/ri 



by a council. Kazan was conquered in I .">.">_'. 
and Astrakhan two years later. But within the 
palace affairs stood at their worst. Ivan's two 
iid \i-ers, grown very powerful, were gained over 
to a party hostile to Ivan and favourable to his 
cousin, and when Ivan fell ill (1553) he \\itm--scd 
during his sufferings the intrigues of his adu-ci-. 
Once recovered, he exiled them. At the same 
time a mighty feudal prince, Andrei Knrli-ki. 
openlv went over to t lie sen ice of Lithuania, while 
other' Uiyars maintained a secret understanding 
with Poland to place on the throne a ruler who 
might l>e their tool. Ivan IV. liegan most cruelly 
to jHTseeiite the boyars, and his cruelty soon 
attained the pitch of real madness. No less than 



3470 victims, out of whom 986 are mentioned by 
name, were inscribed by Ivan IV. himself in Ins 
prayer-book, and among them are whole families 
' with sons and daughters. 'as well as 1505 No\ goro 
dians. 'whose name-. Almighty, Thou knowi-i.' 
Ivan's historical |M.-ition appeals very much like 
that of Louis M. ; it was the myal power struggling 
against the feudal oligarchy; hut the struggle took 
a truly Asiatic character of refined cruelty, mingle, I 
with orgies ami acts of monastic devotion. In 
order U> carry on the struggle more successfully 
Ivan gave lif>erties to the towns and later on 
divided all Russia into two parts the country as 
a whole and, on the other hand, what he claimed as 
hisown partof the country (o/jnVcA /<(( -the latter 
having the right of oppressing the former, peasants 
and lioyars alike. Ivan IV. was the first autocrat 
in Russia, and he assumed the title of tstir (errone- 
ously spelt <':ur, <|.v.i, which is the name given 
in the Russian translations of the ISihle to the 
kings of .Imlea and the Roman emperors. Con- 
trary to the advice of his hoyars, hut with the 
approval of the states-general, tie carried on a long 
and protracted war against Livonia, successful at 
the beginning. Imt most disastrous when Livonia 
was supported by th" new ly- elected king of Poland, 
Stephen Itathory. At the. same time the khan 
Devlet ( ihirei, crossing the ( Ika w it li 1 'JO, 000 men, 
appeared liefore Moscow, and burned it suburbs. 
The Kreml only resisted, and the khan retreated 
ravaging the country and carrying away count- 
less prisoners. By the end of Ivan's reign Silieria 
(<j.v.) was conquered by hands of Cossacks under 
Wimak, and (he Knglish opened the trade by sea 
with Archangel. 

Ivan IV., who had himself killed his elde-t son 
in a (it of rage, left but a feeble-minded son, Feodor 
(1584-98), during whose reign the lioyars re- 
covered their former power. Feodor's brother-in- 
law, Boris Goilunotr. was nominated regent, and 
the old struggles between rival parties began 
afresh. Godunoh". though an able administrator, 
was generally hated by lioth the boyars and the 
people of Moscow, and he endeavoured to gain 
popularity among the minor nobility, in the in- 
terests of whom he promulgated (l.~>97) a law 
which ultimately, especially after the' law of 1648, 
developed into serfdom. I mil that time the 
peasants remained free nominally, at least. They 
were free to settle wherever they were offered the 
most advantageous conditions, and once a year (on 

St I. ge's day) they were entitled to abandon their 

farms and to' remove elsewhere if they had suc- 
ceeded in finding better terms, and had contracted 
no debts with the landowner. Boris Godunoff 
abolished that right of free removal, thus attach 
ing the peasants to the land, and the institution, 
developing into full serfdom, became the curse of 
Russia for tlie next 270 years. To secure the 
throne for himself and his dynasty. Codunolf lirst 
exiled Feoilor and his mother to Ugliteh, and later 
on sent as-as-ins t<> murder the seven years' old 

child Dmitri in 1591. After F lor's death the 

iluniii of Uiyars proclaimed Moris (iodunoff (1598- 
1605) tsar of Kn-sia. but he reigned six years only. 

The most extraordinary thing then happened in 
Russia. A young man, supposed to lie Grigoriy 
Otrepieff a runaway monk from a Moscow monas- 
tery who had afterwards spent seseial yeats among 
theXaporogiaii Cossacks appeared in Poland under 
the name of the assassinated Dmitri. The Jesuit* 
and some of the Polish nobilitv at once sup- 
ported him; also King Sigismund ; and when he 
appeared, with an army of Polish volunteers, under 
the walls of a Hussian frontier fortress, he was 
received as the very son of Ivan IV. All over 
Kussia the |M'oplc rose to support the pretender. 
The mother of the murdered Dmitri recognised 



RUSSIA 



45 






him as her son, and when Boris Godunoff 
suddenly died at this juncture, Dmitri was pro- 
claimed tsar; he was received as such at Mos- 
cow, and crowned (1605). He returned to the 
peasants the freedom they had lost under God- 
unoff; but the people of Russia did not find in him 
the Russian tsar they expected to find. He was a 
mere instrument in the hands of the Poles, he 
married a Pole, and his Polish garrison exasperated 
the people of Moscow. A revolt headed by Prince 
Vassili Shouisky (1606-10) broke out. The impos- 
tor was murdered, and Shouisky proclaimed tsar by 
the boyars. But Russia did not recognise him. 
New impostors appeared and were supported by 
the revolted peasants, while bands of runaway 
peasants who had gathered during the preceding 
decades on the banks of the Don and Dnieper 
under the name of Cossacks ( 'free men '), in- 
vaded Russia, devastating the provinces, and 
robbing the nobles, the towns, and the wealthier 
peasants. Sigismund of Poland, taking advantage 
of the confusion, invaded Russia, and with the 
consent of the Moscow boyars proclaimed his son 
Vladislav tsar ; but he preferred to have Russia for 
himself, and took possession of Moscow (1610). 
Shouisky was taken to Poland, where he died in a 
prison. 

All this would appear difficult to explain, unless 
the following lie taken into account. Russia by 
that time was receiving western civilisation from 
Poland, and the boyars were the first to accept it 
in appearance, imitating the extravagant lire of 
the Polish nobles, ruining the peasantry, and aim- 
ing at an oligarchy of nobles such as they saw in 
Poland. The great rising of the people of Russia, 
which began in 1601 under the banner of the false 
Dmitri, and continued during the next eleven 
years, was a rising of the toiling masses and small 
traders against the boyars. But this rising had, at 
the same time, opened Russia to Polish invasion, 
and left the whole territory landlords and peasants 
alike at the mercy of predatory gangs of Cossack 
and Polish robbers. A reaction was inevitable, 
and it came from the cities supported by the church. 
A cattle-trader of Nijni-N'ovgorod, Minin, aroused 
his fellow-citizens to march for the delivery of 
Moscow, which was held by the Poles and besieged 
by the Cossacks. The same movement took place 
in all Russian cities, and their folkmotes (vetrhe) 
entered into agreements to levy militias and unite 
them into one army, and convoked a 'General 
Council of the Land,' composed of representatives 
of all classes, at Yaroslavl. Under the leadership 
of Prince Pojarskiy and Lapnnoff they retook 
Moscow, drove the Poles out of Russia, and the 
council (Sobor), now moving to Moscow, was urged 
to elect a tsar. The boyars were inclined to elect 
a Swedish or Polish prince, but the lower orders 
anil the clergy opposed this, and the Sobor elected 
Mikhael Romanoff ( 1612-45). The boyars finally 
acquiesced in the hope of maintaining the power 
under a sixteen years' old tsar ; but the Sobor re- 
mained quasi-permanent at Moscow during the 
fir*t ten years of Mikhael's reign, and all decisions 
were issued conjointly in the name of the tsar and 
of the Sobor, Mikhael Romanoff belonged to a 
family (the ancestors of which had emigrated in 
olden times from Prussia) which was very popular 
now in Itussia. His father, the Rostoff metro- 
politan Philarete, who had been sent as an envoy 
to Poland, was kept imprisoned by the Poles; his 
uncles had died in prisons under Boris Godunoff; 
and his grandmother, who was the first wife of 
Ivan IV., had left a very good memory behind 
her. 

The first years of the reign of Mikhael Romanoff 
were characterised by a general movement on the 
part of the Russian towns to crush the peasants' 



insurrection and to extirpate the bands of robbers. 
Peace was obtained from Gustavus Adolphus of 
Sweden by abandoning Schliisselburg ; but the war 
against Poland continued, notwithstanding a short 
armistice. The states-general convoked again 
(1632 and 1642), freely voted fresh subsidies, but 
no success was obtained, and the very existence 
of Russia was menaced when the revolts of the 
Cossacks of the Dnieper against the Polish nobles 
changed the face of affairs in favour of Russia. 

Under Mikhael's son Alexei (1645-76) the work 
of modelling Russia into a state continued, and 
the local administration was entirely reformed. 
But the revolts of the people began anew, especially 
since serfdom was enforced by the law elaborated 
by the states-general of 1648, and the first half of 
Alexei's reign was marked by a series of popular 
revolts at Moscow, Nijni, Pskov, and finally in 
south-east Russia, under Stenko-Razin, when the 
runaway serfs and the free Cossacks of the Volga 
rose fiercely against Russia, hanging the landlords, 
and aiming at 'settling their accounts with the 
boyars in the Kreml itself.' At the same time 
canie the great disruption (raskol) in the church. 
The patriarch Nikon was striving to acquire in the 
East the same supremacy as the pope had in the 
West. Being himself one of the richest serf-owners 
in Russia, he made a display of extravagant luxury 
in his life ; he surrounded himself with a kind of 
ecclesiastical court which plundered the lower 
clergjy ; he built under Moscow a ' New Jerusalem,' 
and in processions went preceded by a ' Latin cross' 
(with one cross-bar only) like the pope. In short, 
he was considered 'Latin' (i.e. Polish) in all his 
arrogant behaviour. His attempt at completing 
the already undertaken revision of the sacred 
books, into which many errors had crept through 
illiterate copyists, became the signal of a revolt of 
the bulk of the nation against' the state's 'Latin' 
Church. A popular church, having priests elected 
by the parishioners, and taking the 'old faith' for 
its watchword, was opposed by the people to 
' Nikon's Church,' although its followers were piti- 
lessly tortured and exterminated by the state. All 
great subsequent risings of the peasants ( Razin's, 
Pougatchev s, and many smaller ones) were there- 
fore made under the cross with eight ends (three 
cross-bars) of the 'old faith.' 

Nikon's attempts at subduing the tsar to his 
arrogant supremacy ended in his deposition and 
exile, and later on Peter I. abolished even the 
dignity of patriarch, substituting for it the Holy 
Synod. Alexei frequently convoked the states- 
general, first to confirm his accession to the throne 
( 1645), then to revise the existing laws and to com- 
pile (1648) a new code (Sobornoie Ulojenie), and 
next ( 1651 and 1653 ) to pronounce upon the annexa- 
tion of Little Russia. Under Alexei Russia finally 
gained the mastery over Poland, and reconquered 
Smolensk ; but her success was chiefly due to the 
revolt, under Bogdan Hmelnitsky, of the Orthodox 
Cossacks of Little Russia, who were terribly 
oppressed by their Catholic landlords. After see- 
ing the impossibility of resisting Poland single- 
handed, the Cossacks appealed for protection to 
Russia, and recognised her supremacy. This 
event decidedly turned the scales in favour of 
Russia in the long struggle between the two 
chief Slav powers. But in order to maintain her 
rights on the Dnieper Russia had now to sustain 
a war with Turkey, which continued till after 
the accession of Feodor (1676-82), when it was 
terminated (1681) by the treaty of Bakhtchisarai, 
by which Turkey gave up all claims upon Little 
Russia. After Feodor's death the states-general 
chose his half-brother Peter as tsar, but his half- 
sister Sophia, an able and ambitious princess (see 
PETER THE GREAT), succeeded in obtaining the 



KTSSIA 



reina of power us princess-regent She concluded 
peace with Poland in 1686, made two unsuccessful 
campaigns against the Tartars of the Crimea ; anil 
after an attempt to deprive Peter of his right to 
the throne, and, this failing, to assassinate him and 
his mother, she was forced to resign all power and 
retire to a convent. Nearly a thousand of her 
accomplices were executed ; and Peter (1689-1725) 
ascended the throne as sole ruler, his half-brother 
Ivan being allowed to retain the title of tsar con- 
jointly, and to appear as such at public ceremonies, 
but without any real authority. 

The history of Peter L's reign is almost entirely 
his own biography, and it is given under his name, 
the following remarks being only intended to give 
a general view of the importance of his reforms. 

The powers of the tear, the duma of l>oyars, and 
the church have already been mentioned alKive ; 
but since Ivan IV. 's time, and especially since 
the 'troubled times' of 1601-12, a new power 
had come into existence viz. the Sobor, or states- 
general. The Sobors consisted of representa- 
tives of either ' the whole land ' or special classes 
merchants or military or the inhabitants of 
Moscow only, and they exercised a decided in- 
fluence upon legislation. But even in Alexei's 
reign steps were taken towards centralising all 
powers in the hands of various boards (prikazy) 
corresponding to modern ministries, under the 
guidance of the tsar, and the Sobors were convoked 
less and less frequently. Peter I. totally destroyed 
the powers of the boyars and the churcn, and con- 
voked the states-general but once, to condemn his 
sister Sophia. He proclaimed himself emperor, 
abolished the rank of patriarch, and introduced, 
instead of the duma and the Sobor, a senate, whose 
members he nominated himself. By transporting 
his capital to St Petersburg, a city of his own 
creation, he entirely freed himself from the inter- 
ference of the boyars, the church, and the people 
of Moscow, which often made its voice heard by 
means of rebellions. He ruled with absolute 
power, supported by men of his own choice. 
All Russians l>ecame in an equal degree his own 
subjects, though class-distinctions continued to 
prevail in their mutual relations, and serfdom 
grew worse and worse, taking all the characters of 
slavery. Of a standing army under Peter's pre- 
decessors only the Stryeltsy (military settlements 
in the suburbs of the cities) and the Cossacks 
deserved the name. The former were abolished 
after their revolts in favour of Sophia, and the 
privileges of the latter were curtailed. A stand- 
ing army, completed by recruiting, was intro- 
duced. The whole administration was reorganised 
upon German models, or on strongly hierarchical 
and centralised principles. A secret state police, 
endowed with extensive powers of imprisonment, 
torture, and exile, was introduced, and among i t - 
victims was Peter's only son, Alexei, convicted oi 
having plotted with the old party against his 
father. He died under torture. The old taxes by 
household were superseded by capitation taxes, and 
formidably increased. Written procedure was in- 
troduced in the justice courts, stamp-duties were 
imposed. Faith was made a state affair, and at- 
tendance at church on Sundays and communion 
once a year was rendered obligatory. 

Agriculture and industry were at a low ebb in 
the teardom of Moscow. Civilisation and learning, 
which had been introduced during the federative 
period, had never recovered the shock they had 
received from the Mongol invasion. The educa- 
tion even of the higher classes was confined to 
reading and writing, and the first school for 
classics and theology only made its appearance 
during Feodor's reign. Fine arts were limited to 
architecture and painting (of sacred subjects) after 



the Byzantine school The first newspaper ap- 
peared (in Moscow), and the first theatre was 
established, during the reign of Alexei. The in- 
fluence of the Mongols left deep traces on the 
domestic manners and habits of the Russians, 
among which was the low position of women in 
domestic life ; those of higher rank were completely 
excluded from social intercourse with the other sex, 
and were condemned to pass a dull and dreary 
existence in their 'terems. Peter I. did his best 
to improve the state of affairs in all these direc- 
tions. He organised the army, created mining and 
manufactures, chiefly for state purposes, imported 
improved races of cattle, traced and caused to be 
dug the canals which now are so important for 
Russia, created schools, chiefly technical, and intro- 
duced more social intercourse between the differ- 
ent classes of society, in which women were 
allotted a share. It must, however, be noted, 
that in the . carrying out of his well-meant 
schemes he forgot the people for the state, and 
imposed upon the former the most terrible burdens. 
Thousands and thousands of his subjects perished 
in erecting St Petersburg and its fortress and in 
digging canals, not to say a word of the wars they 
had to maintain, and the revolts crushed with 
Asiatic cruelty. 

In accordance with the terms of his will, his 
second wife, Catharine I. (1725-27) succeeded 
him ; but the old or anti-reform party of the 
nobility supported the claims of the only son of 
the unfortunate Alexei, Peter II. (1727-30), who 
soon after obtained the imperial throne. The 
reigns of both of these sovereigns were occupied 
with court quarrels and intrigues, Menschikoff 
(q.v.) during the former, and Dolgorouki during 
the latter, beinjj the real rulers. On the death of 
Peter II. the pnvy-council, setting aside the other 
descendants of Peter I., conferred the crown on 
Anna, Duchess of Courland, the daughter of Ivan. 
Her reign (1730-40) was marked by the predomin- 
ance of the German party at court, who, unchecked 
by the weak sovereign, treated Russia as a great 
emporium of plunder (see BIRON). Under their 
influence Russia restored to Persia her lost Caspian 
provinces, and was led into a most ruinous war 
with Turkey. Anna's successor was Ivan (1740- 
41), the son of her niece, the Duchess of Bruns- 
wick, Anna Carlovna ; but he was speedily de- 
throned by Elizabeth (1741-62), the daughter of 
Peter I., who deprived the German party of the 
influence it had so shamefully abused, restored the 
senate to the power with which it had been 
entrusted by Peter the Great, established a regular 
system of recruiting, abolished tolls, and increased 
the duties on imports. Russia gained by the treaty 
of Mm (1743) a portion of Finland, and took part 
in the Seven Years' War (q.v.). 

ElizalMjth's nephew and successor, Peter III. 
(q.v. ; 1762), was a devoted admirer of Frederick 
the Great of Prussia. His first act on his accession 
to the throne was to order the Russian army whirh 
supported the Austrians against Prussia to join 
Frederick against the Austrians. Prussia, redurril 
to the last extremity, was thus saved from dis- 
memberment. At home he abolished the pre- 
scriptions of Peter I. which imposed upon each 
noble the duty of entering the state's service ; he 
aln>lished the secret state police, gave full liberty to 
the rankolnihtt proclaimed an amnesty to the serfs 
who had revolted against their owners, and pro- 
posed to seize the estates of the convents a measure 
which Peter I. did not dare to take, and which was 
partially accompli-On-d siilwequently under Cath- 
arine II. But he was disliked at the court, and his 
wifp, Catharine II. (1762-96), easily dethroned him. 
He \yas arrested and murdered by Catharine's 
associates. 



RUSSIA 



47 






Under Catharine II. ( q. v. ) successful wars were 
carried on against Turkey, Persia, Sweden, and 
Poland, which largely extended the limits of the 
empire. The acquisition of the Crimea, which gave 
Russia a firm footing on the Black Sea, and the 
first partition of Poland, were two most important 
steps towards the consolidation of the empire. In 
home affairs the work of further centralisation 
was prosecuted. But, notwithstanding Catharine's 
friendship with the ' Encyclopaedists ' of France and 
the excellent ideas expressed both in her corre- 
spondence and in various ' Instructions' (nakazy), her 
reign was exceedingly oppressive for the peasants. 
The rights of the landlords over their serfs were 
extended ; no less than 800,000 free peasants 
were distributed as serfs among Catharine's 
favourites ; serfdom, abolished in Little Russia by 
Bogdan Hmelnitsky, was reintrodnced there as well 
as among the Don Cossacks ; and once again the 
whole state was shaken by the impostor Pugatchev, 
who, supported by the raskolnik Ural Cossacks, 
pitilessly nanged the landlords and officials in east 
Russia, ravaging the country under the assumed 
name of Pet* jfl. 

Catharine's son and successor, Paul I. (1796-1801), 
at first, through apprehension of the revolution in 
France, joined the Austrians and British against 
France, but soon after capriciously withdrew, and 
was about to commence war with Britain when his 
assassination took place. He gave freedom of wor- 
ship to the ' Old Ritualists,' but recklessly turned 
free crown peasants into serfs for his favourites. 
He established a severe censorship of the press, 
prohibited the introduction of foreign publications, 
reorganised the secret police, and altogether treated 
his subjects in the most contemptuous way. A 
palace conspiracy put an end to his reign ana life. 
His eldest son, Alexander I. (1801-25), was at the 
outset desirous of peace, hut was soon drawn into 
the vortex of the great struggle with France, in 
which he played a prominent part. The character 
of his rule is sketched under his name, and 
an outline of the warlike operations the great 
French invasion of 1812, the burning of Moscow, 
and the disastrous retreat i given in the article 
NAPOLEON. The Holy Alliance (q.v.) and the 
example of conservative policy set by Austria 
exercised a pernicious influence on the later 
part of his reign ; and the higher classes, who 
had looked for the introduction of at least a 
portion of the liberal institutions they had seen 
and admired in western Europe, became so dis- 
satisfied that, when hi* youngest brother, Nicholas 
I. (1825-55), from whom they had nothing to hope, 
succeeded, they broke out into open rebellion, 
which was speedily crushed. A full stop was now 
put to the intellectual development of Russia. 
Wars were declared with Persia and Turkey ; and 
a long and deadly struggle commenced with the 
Caucasian mountaineers. The cession of Erivan 
and N"ahithevan by Persia, of the plain of the 
Kuban, of the protectorate of the Danubian princi- 
talities, and of the free right of navigation of the 
Ulack Sea, the Dardanelles, and the Danube by 
Turkey only induced him to further prosecute his 
aim of conquering for Russia a free issue from the 
Black Sea in the Dardanelles. In 1830 he converted 
Poland (q.v.) into a Russian province: in 1849 he 
aided Austria in quelling the insurrection of the 
Magyars ; and in 1853 he began a war with Turkey 
which became the Crimean War (q.v.), and in 
which, though the allies, Britain, France, and 
Sardinia, did not obtain any decided success, Russia 
suffered immense loss. 

The accession of Nicholas's son, Alexander II. 
(1865-81) one of whose first acts was the cnnrlu- 
Kion of the peace of Pad* (I860), by which Russia 
lost the right of navigation on the Danube, a 



\ 



strip of territory to the north of that river, and 
the right of keeping a navy in the Black Sea was 
the signal for a general revival of intellectual life in 
Russia. Public opinion broke the bonds of censor- 
ship and constrained the well-meaning but weak 
emperor to carry through the long-expected aboli- 
tion of serfdom. It was abolished in 1861 after 
many hesitations. Corporal punishment was 
abolished and the judicial organisation was com- 
pletely revised (1864). Unhappily the insurrection 
of Poland (1863-64) put an end to the reform 
period. The old serf-owners' party took again 
upper hand, and the last great reform, by 
which self-government (zemstvo) was granted to 
the provinces (1866), did not receive the import- 
ance which it formerly was proposed to give to 
it, as a preparatory step to constitutional govern- 
ment. Obligatory military service for all Russians 
was introduced in 1874. 

The insurrection in Poland was suppressed with 
extreme severity; and in 1868 the last relics of 
Polish independence disappeared in the thorough 
incorporation of the kingdom with the Russian 
empire. The subjugation of the Caucasus was 
completed in 1859. Russian supremacy was 
established over all the states of Turkestan. 
In 1876 the administration of the Baltic Pro- 
vinces was merged in that of the central 
government; but the autonomy of Finland was 
respected and even extended. In 1870, during the 
Franco-German war, Russia declared that she 
considered herself bound no more to the obligation 
of keeping no navy in the Black Sea, and in a 
conference at London in 1871 her claims were 
recognised. The misgovernment of her Christian 
subjects by Turkey, and her cruel suppression of 
incipient rebellion in 1876, led to a conference of 
the European Powers at Constantinople. Turkey 
rejected the proposals made by the conference with 
a view to the better administration of the subject 
provinces ; and Russia, to enforce these concessions 
on Turkey, declared war in April 1877. At first 
the Russian progress was rapid ; but the energy 
displayed by the Turks during the summer, and 
the resolute defence of Plevna by Osman Pasha 
from July till December, checked the progress of 
the Russian army. During the winter, however, 
she crossed the Balkans, and her vanguard reaching 
the Sea of Marmora, stood in view of Constant- 
inople. The armistice signed in January 1878 was 
followed in March by the treaty of San Stefano; 
and after diplomatic difficuties that seemed for a 
time not unlikely to issue in war between Russia 
and England, a Congress of the Great Powers met 
at Berlin in June 1878, sanctioned the re-arrange- 
ment of the Ottoman empire explained under the 
article TURKEY, and the cession to Russia of the 
part of Bessarabia given to Moldavia in 1856, as 
also of the port of Batoum, of Kara, and of Ardahan. 
The growth of revolutionary discontent (see 
NIHILISM), leading to severe repressive measures, 
has been marked by several murders of high 
officials; anil on March 13, 1881, Alexander II. 
was killed by the revolutionists. Panslavism (q. v. ) 
has influenced Russian thought and policy to some 
extent. 

The reign of Alexander III. (1881-94) was in the 
main characterised, in contrast to the liberal reforms 
of the last reign, by reactionary steps ; though 
strenuous efforts were made to put an end to 
the colossal plundering of state money and appro- 
priation of state lands common in the last half of 
the reign of Alexander II. The self-government 
of the zemstvo has been limited and put under the 
authority of the nobility : the justices of peace 
were abolished, and an attempt at reintroducing 
manorial rights has been made. The redemption 
taxes imposed upon the liberated serfs were slightly 



48 



RUSSIA 



reduced. Oppressive measures led to wholesale and 
compulsory emigration of .lews, and the autonomy 
of Finland was curtailed. 1'nder Nicholas ll'. 
who succeeded in 1894, the administration lias In-en 
somewhat more liberal. The French alliance has 
been cherished, the Concert of Europe adhered t<> 
not without hesitation, and effective intervention 
brought to bear on China ; and in 1868 Manchuria 
(q.v.) became mainly a Russian province, inter- 
Bected by a branch of the great SiiH-rian railway, 
and Tahenwan and Port Arthur Russian ports. 
The Emperor summoned a conference of the powers , 
in 1899, with the view of checking the increase of j 
armaments. 

See works on Russia, the land and people, by Sir D. 
M. Wallace (1877; new ed. 1888), Sutherland Kdwards 
(1879), Geddie (1881), Morflll (1882). A. J. C. Hare 
(1888), Stepniak (Nihilist, 1885-88), Tikhomirov ( 1887 ), 
and Leroy-Beaulieu (trans. 1893-4 ). For history, sec the 
articles on the principal Russian sovereigns, notably those 
on Peter I., Catharine I. and II., I'aul. Alexander I. and 
II., and Nicholas ; also the articles on Bagration, Barclay 
de Tolly, Oortschakoff, Kutusoff, Orloff, Potemkin, 
Suvarpf, &c.; on Charles XII. of Sweden; and those 
on Nihilism, Panslavism, and Poland. And consult 
besides the Russian historians Karamzin, Soloviev, 
Kostomarov, Bestuzhef-Kiumin, &c. ; Rambaud. History 
of Rutria (1878; Kng. trans. 1879; 2d ed. 1887); the 
shorter history by Morflll (1890); Sutherland Edwards, 
The Romano ft (1890); and Howorth's Hittorg of the 
MonjoU ( 1876-88). 

Language and Literature. The Russian lan- 
guage belongs to the eastern branch of the Sla- 
vonic family. It is extremely copious, and 
resembles ancient Greek in being both synthetical 
and analytical ; thus it has seven cases, and yet 
in no language are the prepositions used with more 
delicate precision. It has lost the imperfect and 
aorist, which are to be found in old Slavonic, but 
has preserved the great Slavonic feature of the 
aspects of the verbs. Although Russia was under 
Mongolian rule for upwards of two centuries, yet 
the Tartar words are few, and are employed only 
for articles of dress and some other things of every- 
day use. A few Latin and French words have 
been incorporated, but the tendency at the present 
time is to eject foreignisms as much as possible. 
The language has great capabilities for forming 
compounds and derivatives. There are many 
dialects, but the predominant literary language 
is that of Moscow. The first Russian grammar 
was published at Oxford in lt>96 by Henrv Ludolf ; 
in Russian may be mentioned tliose of Vostokov 
(10th ed. 1859) and Buslaev, Historical tlruimiuir 
of the Russian Language (1875). For understand- 
ing the principles of Russian philology we must 
betake ourselves to the great work of Miklosich, 
Vergleichende trrumiitnfil; <l?r .v/<-/.v7/- Sprachen 
(4 vols. 1879). The best dictionaries are those of 
the Russian Academy ( Russe- Francais, Makarov, 
1^74 ; new ed. 1892 ; Russian-English, Alexamlrov, 
1879). In English there are Russian grammars by 
Mortill (1889) and Riola (new ed. 1890). 

The earliest Russian literature consists of the 
liilini, or legendary |x>ems, which were orally com- 
municated till they were committed to writing in 
modern time*. Tliesc are divided into c\ <],., 
e.g. those of Vladimir, the princeof Kieff, of Nov- 
gorod, and of Moscow. There are large collections 
of them, and also of the xkn:ki. or |M>pular tales. 
The earliest manuscript which has l>een preserved 
of anything which can be said to lie distinctly 
Russian is the codex of the Ostromir Gospels, 
written at Novgorod in the years 1056-57 by the 
deacon Gregory, for Ostromir the posadnik of Nov- 
gorod. After this we get sbornixi, or collections 
of miscellaneous works, such as those compiled for 
the Grand-duke Sviatoslav, and some sermons by 
Luke, bishop of Novgorod, and others. With the 



so-called chronicle of Nestor begins the series of 
Russian annalists. Nestor is supposed to have 
died about 1114. \Ve have also chronicles of 
separate parte of Russia, such as Novgorod, Kieff, 
Pskov, and \ olhyiiia. There is also the 1'uuchenie, 
or book of instruction, of Vladimir Monomakb. and 
the prose-poem called ' The Story of tlie Kxpedition 
of Igor" (Hlovo o Polku fgorevf). The original 
manuscript, of this production was burned in the tire 
at Moscow in 1812. Important are the Russian 
legal codes, the Russknii:i J'rnnta of Yaroslav in 
the I'Jth century, and the sudebnil:* of Ivan III. 
and IV. In 1504 the first Russian book was 
printed at Moscow. . To the reign of Ivan IV. (the 
Terrible) belongs the ' Book of Household Manage- 
ment,' assignee to the priest Sylve-ter. \Ve also 
have the tstoglav, or book of church regulations, 
issued by Ivan in 1551. At the beginning of the 
17th century we have the chronicle of Sergius 
Kubasov, and towards the close of the same cen- 
tury the interesting work of Kotisliikhin on Russia, 
which was discovered in manuscript in 1840. To 
the same period belong the writings of Ivan 
Krizhanich, who is generally reputea to be the 
father of Panslavism, and the poems and plays of 
Simeon Polotski (1628-80), who was the tutor to 
the children of the Emperor Alexei. In the reign 
of the latter monarch the Russians got back Kiel!", 
which hail long Iteen in the hands of the Pole*, and 
thus the culture of the West became accessible to 
them. With Polotski may be said to terminate 
the first period of Russian literature with its 
Byzantine influence. 

The second period was to l>e commenced by 
the reforming measures of Peter the Great j and 
Russia now began to look to the West for her 
models. He established schools, and founded 
the celebrated Academy of St Petersburg. The 
first Russian poet of the new era was Antiokh 
Kantemir (1708-44), who wrote -..me good satires 
in the style of Pope and Boileau. But the writer 
that exercised the greatest influence on Russian 
literature was Michael Lomonosov, who established 
the supremacy of the dialect of Great Russia, He 
was an indefatigable worker in many branches of 
learning, and earned his chief laurels in natural 
science. Trediakovski (1683-1769) did something 
for Russian versification, but was hardly more 
than a poetaster. Basil Tatistchev (1686-1750) 
laid the foundations of historical writing, as 
opposed to the mere chronicler, and Snmarokov 
(171S-77) those of the drama. A real national 
comedy was created by Denis Von Visin (174."' '.'-< 
and Kniazhnin also wrote plays with ability. 
Michael Kheraskov (1733-1801) composed two 
large epics, the Rossiadn in twelve Ixxiks, and 
Vlnilimir in eighteen, but they have now almost 
sunk into oblivion. The Iitmhrnkii of Bogdnnovieh 
(174.'i 1H<)3) was at one time very popular. With 
Kheninitser begins the series of Russian fabulisi-. 
Gabriel Derzhavin (q.v. ; 1743-1816) w. -is ihe great 
poet of the age of Catharine. He celebrated her 
glories in many spirited ode>. Piose literature 
was more slow in developing itself. An elegant 
style can hardly be said to have existed Iwforc (he 
time of Nicholas Karam/in (q.v. ; 1766-1826), 
renowned for his history of Russia. On the 
accession of Alexander "I. literature advanced 
rapidly. Tin- founder of the romantic school of 
poetry was IJa-il /hukovski. who, although lie 
wrote hut few original pieces, was beneficial to his 
countrymen by his translations ficun F.nglisb and 
Herman. Other poets of the period were Ihnitricv 
and liatinshkov. The most brilliant author, how- 
ever, of the new school was Alexander Pushkin 
(i|.v.), the greatest poet whom Russia has yet 
produced, wno has leu some charming narratives 
in verse, and other works. The fables of Ivan 



RUSSIA LEATHER 



RUST 



49 



Krilof (1768-1844) have always enjoyed considerable 
reputation among the Russians. A clever writer of 
comedy was Griboyedov, killed at Teheran in 1829. 
Since the death of Pushkin the Russians have had 
Michael Lermontoff (q.v. ; 1814-41), author of the 
Demon and some graceful lyrics, and Nicholas 
Nekrasov, who died in 1877. There are many 
minor poets; thus Koltsov (1809-42) wrote some 
of the most national lyrics which have appeared 
in Russia. Among novelists, the Russians have 
produced Zagoskin and Lazheclmikov, who imi- 
tated Scott ; but the foundation of the realistic 
school among them was begun by Nicholas Gogol 
(q.v.), one of the most powerful writers of his 
country. Dostoieffsky (q.v.) and Pisemski, who 
died in 1881, were also celebrated as novelists; 
but the first to gain a European fame was Ivan 
Turgenief (q.v.), who died in 1883. Count Leo 
Tolstoi (q.v.), though two monfhs older than 
Turgfiiief, survived him ; he is the author of 
'War and Peace" (Voina i Mir) and other well- 
known works. It is in romantic fiction that the 
Russians have gained their greatest laurels. A cele- 
brated political writer was Alexander Herzen (q.v.), 
who died at Paris in 1870. Great attention has 
been paid in Russia to the collection of the national 
songs (bilini), tales, folklore, and proverbs ; and 
among them the works of Sakharov, Ribnikov, and 
Afanasiev are especially to l>e mentioned. In 
history the Russians have produced some eminent 
names: Karamzin was followed by Ustrialov and 
Pogodin; and later we have the great work on 
Russian history in upwards of 28 volumes by 
iSer^'ins Solovieff, whicn he did not live to com- 
plete, and the still unfinished production of Pro- 
f''--<>r ISestuzhef-Riumin. The Russians have pro- 
duced few writers on philosophy. In philology 
we have the names of Vostokov, Sreznevski, and 
Buslaev. 

See Reinhold, Oetehiehte der Rustifchen Literatur 
<1886); P. Polevoi, Iitnrin Sunki,i Literaturi i' 
Hfhrrknth biographiakh ('History of Russian Litera- 
ture in Sketches and Biographies,' 1872) ; Talvi, View of 
Lit' future of the .SY/ironwT Nationt (1850); Courriere, 
tie la L/itternture Contemporaine en Jtuttie 
( I'ari*. 1S7.-.I: ami Morfill, Jtuttin (1890). 

Russia Leather. See LEATHER, p. 551. 
Kussiiiaks. See RUTHENIANS. 

Rust. Neither malleable iron, nor steel, nor 
oast iron can be exposed to a moist atmosphere 
for more than a brief time without becoming 
rusted. But malleable or wrought iron, being 
nearly pure iron, rusts rather more readily than 
either of the others, which essentially contain a 
certain proportion of carbon (see IRON and STEEL). 
In a paper read before the Iron and Steel Institute 
in 1888 Professor Crum Brown explains the chemi- 
cal processes involved in the rusting of iron. He 
says that, when a drop of rain falls on a clean 
bnght surface of iron, for a short time the drop 
remains clear, showing the bright surface of the 
iron through it. But soon a greenish precipitate 
forms in the drop, and this rapidly becomes reddish 
brown. The brown precipitate (peroxide of iron 
or rust) does not adnere to the iron, but is sus- 
jH'inli'd in the water, and becomes a loosely ad- 
herent coating only when the water has evapor- 
ated. He further states that iron remains quite 
free from rust in an atmosphere containing oxygen, 
carbonic acid, and water vapour (all present in a 
normal atmosphere except water vapour, which is 
rarely absent) as long as the water vapour does 
not conden-w as liquid water on the surface of the 
iron. Owing to the hygroscopic character of rust, 
when it once forms on iron the rusting process w ill 
nut inne in an atmosphere not saturated with water 
vapour. In other words, the iron in this case will 
continue rusting in an atmosphere in which a piece 
420 



of clean iron will not rust, because liquid water 
will condense on rust when it will not on bright 
iron. The fact that under ordinary atmospheric 
conditions the rusting process, when once begun, 
continues, has been long known. It follows that 
it is much easier to prevent the first formation of 
rust than to stop the process. 

It is customary to coat with oil paint all kinds of 
ironwork which are to lie exposed to the weather, 
and this is usually a sufficient protection. But 
paint is liable to scale oft', so that it is necessary to 
recoat the iron at longer or shorter intervals. A 
light iron fence, for example, would not long escape 
destruction by rusting if it were not frequently 
painted. It is, however, usual to ' galvanise ' wire- 
work and thin sheets of iron, as the zinc coating 
retards oxidation. A coating of tin also protects 
the surface of iron from rusting, but it would 
appear that for this purpose it cannot be so much 
relied upon as zinc. Japanning (q.v.) is another 
way of preserving iron. The iron and steel plates 
forming the sides of ships receive four or five coats 
of a paint composed of red lead and boiled linseed- 
oil to protect them from the corrosive action of sea- 
water, and the sides of these ships are generally 
repainted after a long voyage. Some of our light- 
houses have water-tanks constructed of iron which 
is not only galvanised, but is also painted with 
three coats of this red lead paint above the zinc 
coating. The patent paints depend for their 
efficiency on the red lead and boiled oil in them. 
Unlike the peroxide, the magnetic oxide of iron 
forms an adherent coating to the metal, and only 
when it is detached can water gain access to the 
iron beneath it. In 1878 a patent (No. 1280) was 
taken out by G. & A. Bower for a process of 
producing a thin film of magnetic oxide on iron 
articles to protect them from rusting, but the 
colour of this oxide, which som'ewhat resembles 
that of the metal itself, is not attractive. In the 
comparatively dry atmosphere of occupied rooms 
the bright surface of iron or steel objects will often 
keep many years without rusting. Where such 
objects are care should be taken to keep away 
from them all volatile corrosive acids, such as 
nitric, hydrochloric, or acetic acid, or bleaching 
powder (chloride of lime). Polished surfaces of 
iron are often coated with tallow mixed with a 
little white lead for their temporary protection 
while they are being conveyed from place to place, 
but this sometimes fails to keep away rust. A 
more recent and better plan is to coat the bright 
iron with some varnish soluble in naphtha or 
paraffin-oil Brunswick black, for example. A mix- 
ture of common rosin with a little pure olive-oil and 
spirits of turpentine has also been found to be a 
good preservative in such cases. Iron immersed in 
an alkaline solution does not rust unless it is very 
dilute. Very delicate steel instruments are often 
protected from the action of moist air by placing 
them in drawers or cases along with chloride of 
calcium or lime hydrate, but as these substances 
absorb moisture and swell they require to be occa- 
sionally looked at. When bright iron or steel 
objects are already partially rusted, the rust, if 
not very deep into the metal, may be rubbed off 
with paraffin-oil, which contains no oxygen. 
Should this fail, a rub with fine emery will be 
necessary. Iron rust stains on linen or cotton are 
usually removed either with oxalic acid or binoxa- 
late of potash (salt of sorrel). The fabric should 
be well washed after treatment with any of these 
substances. 

Rust, the common name of Trichobasis rubigo 
vera, a parasitic fungus of the natural order 
Puccinitei, which preys upon the leaves, glumes, 
and stalks of cereals and other grasses. It lias 
been supposed to be a mere condition. or stage of 



RUTH 



PtKcinia praminu, but this U not fully iMirne oat 
by closer inquiry. Runt does not ap|>ear to be very 
injurious so long as ite attack is routined to the 
leaves only, but it becomes a formidable |-t when 
it attacks the inflorescence or ear ; the more so 
because no effectual remedy can lie suggested for 
it. Ever}- protospore is shed before tlie grain is 
ripe, therefore steeping the seed is of no avail. 
The application of any dressing to the noil appears 
to be equally useless. White wheat is more subject 
to be attacked by it than red, and some varieties 
are hardly ever entirely free from it. The use of 
rank manures is said to induce or aggravate the 
disease. 

Kustam. See FIRDAUSL 

Kiistcliuk. a town of Bulgaria, stands on the 
south hank of the Danube, opposite Giurgevo, 140 
miles by rail NW. of Varna (on the Black Sea) 
and 40 S. by W. of Bucharest. It has numerous 
churches and mosques, and manufactures cloth, 
shoes, pottery, gold and silver ornaments, and 
furniture. Owing to its situation it possessed, 
until ite fortifications were dismantled after 1877, 
considerable strategic importance. It was cap- 
tured by the Russians in 1810 and 1877, and 
played a prominent part in the Itusso- Turkish 
wars of 1773-90 and 1853-54. Pop. (1893) 28,121. 

Rustic Work is the name of that kind of 
masonry in which the various stones or courses are 
marked at the joints by splays or recesses. The 
surface of the stone is sometimes left rough, and 
sometimes polished or otherwise dressed. llu-tica- 
tion is chiefly used in classical or Italian architec- 
ture, although rustic Quoins (q.v.) are often used 
in rough Gothic work. In the figure a and b show 




Rustication. 

forms of rustication usually applied to surfaces, c 
and d show rustic quoins with mouldings on the 
angles. 

Rlltacen% a natural order of exogenous plants, 
consisting mostly of perennial or suffruticose species 
rarely herbaceous. They are all found in the tem- 
perate regions of the northern hemisphere, and are 
abundant along the shores of the Mediterranean. 
A bitter taste and powerful odour are general 
characteristics. Rue (q.v. ) is a familiar example 
of the order. 

Riitebeuf, or RUSTEBEUF, a great 13th-century 
trouvere, of whose life we know but little, the dates 
of his birth and death being both unknown. His 
earliest extant poems are anterior to the final 
crusade of St Louis ; his latest belong to the close 
of the reign of Philippe le Hardi. He lived a 
Bohemian life in Pan-, amid poverty, debt, and 
constant distress, his miseries the fruit of an easy 
temper, lavish habits, a passion for gambling, and 
an unhappy marriage. His poems include chansons, 
satiric and religious, but not amatory ; nuii/i/nniti x 
of death, in the name of contemporary great men ; 
animal anil moral allegories : dramatic monologues, 
among them the Miracle de Thtophile, a clever 



drama of a compact concluded with the devil, from 
the consequences of which the victim is saved by 
the Virgin ; metrical lives of St Mar)' of Mgv pt 
and St Elizabeth of Hungary ; and fabliaux, hill 
of honi'-t gaiety. Hntelicuf was inspired by tin- 
crusading fever, and took part in the gMt 
quarrel between the Dominicans and the regular 
clergy in the university of Pali-, some of his best 
work Ix-ing his satires against the icligious ordeis, 
the mendicant friars, Dominicans ami Minorites, 
and indeed all clerics, students alone excepted. 
His most striking qualities are strength, spirit, 
and colour, and some of his satires reveal a touch- 
ing note of peisnnality that reminds the reader of 
Villon. 

Hia poems were edited by A. Kreswier ( Wolfenbiittel, 
1885). See the study by Leon Cledat (1891) in Let 
Urandi Ecrivaitu f'ranfau. 

Rlltfll. a Palestinian people, Arama-an or at 
least Semitic, with whom the Kg\ptians waged 
war under the 18th and 19th dynasties. See 
EGYPT, Vol. IV. p. 240. 

Ruth, BOOK OF. The four chapters of this 
canonical book tell how Huth, a young Moabitess, 
after the early death of her Hebrew husband 
Mahlon, for the sake of her mother-in-law Naomi 
came to settle in Bethlehem, and there became tin- 
wife of a 'near kinsman' (gufl), Boaz, and the 
mother of Obed, grandfather of king David. The 
story is placed 'in the days when the judges 

iudged ' (i. 1), al>ont a century before the time of 
avid ; but on its own showing it was not written 
till long after the events it describes (iv. 7). How 
long afterwards is a question on which critics are 
not agreed ; most of them consider it to lie exilic 
(Ewald) or post-exilic ( Bertheau, Wellhausen, 
Kuenen), mainly on the linguistic and genealogical 
eMilfiice : but Driver (hilnxl. to Ola Testament, 
1891 ) thinks that the general lieauty and purity of 
the style, which stand on a level with the best 
pan- ot Samuel, point rather to a date, which he 
does not seek to fix more definitely, before the exile. 
That the book was not received into the canon till 
a very long time after the captivity is shown by ite 
place in the original Hebrew, where it occurs as 
one of the Hagiographa or 'writings' (see KIIII.K), 
standing second among the live Megilloth or Festal 
Rolls, between Canticles and Lamentations, a posi- 
tion which proves that it did not become canonical 
till after the series of ' former prophets,' extending 
from Joshua to 2 Kings, had lx?en finally closed. 
In the Septnagint, however, which gives it the 
place it claims in the historical order, it come* 
between Judges and Samuel, and the same order 
is observed in the Vulgate and in the English 
Authorised Version. That Josephus also must 
have reckoned it as an appendix to Judges is 
shown by his enumeration of the books of the Old 
Testament as numbering only twenty-two. The 
purpose of the book has been variously explained. 
Some think that it was intended to inculcate the 
duty of Levirate marriage ( Deut. xxv. 6-10, and >>< 
M.MIRIAGE); to I his theory it is perhaps enough to 
reply that Boaz was not Mahlon K brother, and that 
David was never reckoned as the descendant of 
Mahlon. But the story undoubtedly has a liearing 
on the right*, duties, and privileges of ;/r ;.'//; or ' near 
kinsmen,' if these be taken in a somewhat wider 
sense. Others will have it that with the framers of 
the canon the interest of the liook was chiefly genea- 
logical. It certainly supplements the genealogy of 
David as given in the older books; in 1 Samuel, 
though relations with Moab are alluded to (xxii. 
3), Ins ancestry is not traced l>eyond Jesse, and 
that the tendency of later ages was to greater 
amplification is shown incidentally by Matt. i. 5. 
But perhaps this little idyll of upright happy life 



RUTHENIANS 



RUTHERGLEN 



51 



in the fjood old God-fearing times, set forth with a 
simplicity arid directness the charm of which no 
one can fail to feel, does not need any special 
vindication of its claim to rank with the narratives 
of Genesis, Judges, or Kings. 

See the Old Testament introductions, especially those 
of Reuss, De Wette-Schrader, Bleek-Wellhausen, and 
Driver ; also the commentaries on Judges and Ruth by 
Bertheau and by Keil, that in the Speakers Commentary, 
and others. 

Klllhciliaiis, a branch of the Little Russian 
division of the Slav race, dwell on both sides of 
the Carpathians, in Galicia and north-eastern 
Hungary, about 2,800,000 in the former and some 
360,000 in the latter region. They are of medium 
stature, but somewhat slim in build. Nevertheless 
they make hardy farmers, herdsmen, wood-cutters, 
and charcoal-burners their favourite occupations. 
For various reasons great subdivision of the soil, 
years of subjection to the Polish nobles, the ex- 
tortion of the Jews, addiction to drink, and the 
lack of industries, though the house industries 
flourish they are gunk in great poverty. The 
clergy of the Greek United Church, to which they 
are greatly devoted, are their intellectual and 
political leaders. The people cling to traditional 
usages and customs, and have a leaning to fatalism 
and melancholy. Since 1848 the native language 
has begun to take vigorous root again, and to 
blossom out into a literature. See the article 
SLAVS ; Szuski, Die Pblen und Rvthenen in 
Galicien ( 1882) ; and Kupczanko, Die Schicksale tier 
n (1887). 



Ruthenium (sym. Rn ; atom. wt. 103'5 ; sp. gr. 
12'3) IB a metal discovered in 1843 by Clans in the 
ore of platinum. It forms no fewer than four 
different oxides. Of these the tetroxide, KuO 4 , 
is remarkable for ite volatility, boiling at a little 
above 100 C. For details regarding the metal, 
which is of no practical importance, the reader 
may consult Deville and De bray's Memoir on 
Platinum and its Ores. 

Rutherford, SAMUEL, Scottish preacher and 
divine, was born at the hamlet of msliet, near 
.Ixlliurgh, about 1300. He attended school at Jed- 
trargh, and entered Edinburgh College in 1617, 
obtained a town hursarv in 1618, and took his 
M.A. degree in 1621. Two years afterwards bis 
extraordinary talent led to his appointment as 
recent or professor of Humanity, out an ante- 
nuptial irregularity with his wife caused his resig- 
nation in 1026, when he turned his attention to 
theological study. Through the influence of Gordon 
of Kenmure, afterwards Viscount Kenmure, he 
settled as minister of Anwoth in 1627. Here it 
,was his habit to rise at three A.M. for study and 
prayer, and of his ministry it has been said that 
lie was always praying, always preaching, always 
visiting the sick, always catechising, and always 
writing and studying." Though he had a kind 
of slcrfiifh in his voice, Wodrow says he was 'one 
of the most moving and affectionate preachers in 
lii" time, or perhaps in any age of the church.' 
Here he began that correspondence with his 
godly friends, cliidly in Galloway and Ayrshire, 
which made him l>loved, useful, and famous, and 
which earned the title when published of being 
'the most seraphic book in our literature." 'Hold 
off the Bible,' said Baxter, 'such a book the world 
never saw the like;' while Mr Spurgeon lias pro- 
nounced it 'the nearest thing to inspiration which 
can be found in all the writings of mere man.' 
In 1636 his Exercitationes de Gratia came out at 
Amsterdam, a book directed against the Arminians ; 
ft second edition appeared in the same year, and 
he was invited to fill a Divinity chair in Holland. 
Because of this work and non-compliance with 



Episcopal ceremonies, he was summoned before 
the High Commission Court at Wigtown on July 
27, 1636, deprived of his ministerial office, and 
banished to Aberdeen. Here he remained from 
September 1636 to February 1638, writing letters, 
disputing with Episcopalians, and bewailing his 
'dumb Sabbaths.' He was restored to Anwoth, 
but was appointed by the Assembly professor of 
Divinity at St Andrews in 1639, became colleague to 
Robert Blair in the church of St Andrews, and after- 
wards principal of the New College (1647). Here 
he was as industrious as ever, performing the duties 
of both preacher and professor. In 1643 he was sent 
to the Westminster Assembly as a commissioner 
from the Church of Scotland, and there is a draft 
of a Shorter Catechism in his handwriting in Edin- 
burgh University Library. During his four years' 
attendance he seems to have been prominent enough 
to be singled out for mention by Milton. His 
Due Right of Presbyteries (1644), Lex Rex (1644), 
Trial and Triumph of Faith (1645), Christ 
Dying and Drawing Sinners to Himself ( 1647 ) 
belong to this period. Rutherford's Lex Rex was 
conceived in too l>old a spirit of freedom for the 
government of Charles II. ; it was burned by the 
hangman in Edinburgh and by Sharpe at St 
Andrews in 1661. Its author was deposed from 
all his offices, and summoned to answer a charge 
of high-treason at next parliament. Rutherford 
received the citation on his death-bed, and sent 
answer, ' I behove to obey my first summons,' and 
went to a higher tribunal on 29th March 1661 (not 
20th March, as his tombstone states ) ; he was buried 
at St Andrews. There is a monument to his memory 
at Anwoth. No portrait of Rutherford exists, but 
he has been described as a ' little fair man ' with 
' two quick eyes ;' when he walked he held his face 
upward. He was extremely charitable in private, 
and was much looked up to and consulted in matters 
of personal religion. Livingston, who knew him 
weft, said ' he nad most sharp piercing wit and 
fruitful invention and solid judgment.' He was 
twice married, and of seven children by his second 
wife, one daughter alone survived him. No divine 
in the first half of the 17th century has left 
a greater reputation for sanctity. He was twice 
offered a professor's chair in Holland. Freedom 
and breadth theologically, along with hardness and 
narrowness ecclesiastically, meet in Rutherford's 
published works. 

Rutherford's religious genius is seen at its highest in 
his Letters, which, to the number of 284, were collected 
and published under the title of Joshua Rcdivirus by his 
secretary M'VVard ( Rotterdam, 16G4). A third ediiion 
in 1675 had 68 additional letters. Over twenty-five 
different editions have since appeared, the best being 
that by Andrew A. Bonar, U.D., with biographical sketch 
of his life and notes regarding his correspondents (Edin. 
1891 ). Sixteen works, controversial or theological, were 
issued in his lifetime ; hi.- Lex Rex, dealing with the pre- 
rogative of king and people, is as keenly logical and con- 
troversial as his letters are unworldly and full of sweet- 
ness, fancy, and spiritual life. Among his posthumous 
works are Twelve Communion Sermons ( 1876 ), and Quaint 
Sermons, edited by Bpnar (1885). 

See Taylor limes in the Evangelical Succession Lec- 
tures; M 'A' hi in Mm i in the St Giles' Lectures; Dr 
Whyte's Leetum ( 1894 ) ; Livingston's Characteristic* ; 
and Lives by Murray (1828) and Thomson (1884). For 
the scandal of his youth, see the Edinburgh Town Council 
Records of date 3d February 1626. 

Rlltherglen (popularly Ruglen), a town in 
Lanarkshire, on the Clyde, 3 miles SE. of Glasgow, 
with whose eastern extremity it is connected by a 
bridge, built in 1890-91 at a cost of 29,000. It 
consists of one long wide street, with several 
narrow streets branching off at right angles ; and 
its principal building is a handsome town-hall 
(1862). In ancient times Rutherglen was a place 



RUTHIN 



RUYSBROEK 



of ranch importance, carrying on a large traffic <>n 
the river, and embracing great part of Glasgow 
within its municipal boundaries. It was the seat 
of a royal castle, which was captured by Edward 
Bruce about 1313, burned by Moray in 1568, and 
finally demolished in the 18th century. At Ruth- 
erglen, on 29tli May 179, the Covenanters pub- 
lished a ' Declaration and Testimony of the true 
Presbyterian Party in Scotland 'the prelude to 
Drnmclog and Bothwell Bridge. The trade is now 
mainly dependent upon that of Glasgow, uml it- 
inhabitants are employed in the mills, print, chem- 
ical, and dye-works, "and collieries of the burgh 
ami vicinity. A royal burgh since 1126, it unites 
with Kilmarnock, On. to return one member to 
parliament. Pop- (1831 ) 4741 ;( 1861) 8062 ;( 1891 ) 
13,061. See Ure's History of Rutherglen ( 1793 ). 

Kllthin, a town of Denbighshire, North Wales, 
on the Clwyd, 8 miles SSE. of Denbigh by mil. 
The 13th-century castle which gave it name (Cym. 
rhyd-din, 'red fortress') surrendered in 1646 to 
the Roundheads, and was afterwards dismantled, 
part of its site lieing now occupied by a castellated 
mansion. A grammar-school, founded by _Dean 
Goodman of Westminster in 1594, was reconstituted 
in 1881 ; and there are also an interesting collegiate 
church, a county hall, a corn exchange, &c. Char- 
tered by Henry VII. in 1507, Kuthin unites with 
Denbigh, &c. to return one member. Pop. ( 1851 ) 
3373; (1891) 2760. See Newcome's Castle and 
Town o/Ruthin (2d ed. 1836). 

Itllthven. RAID OF, a Scottish conspiracy con- 
trived and executed in 1582 by William, first Earl 
of Gowrie, father of the chief actor in the Cowrie 
Conspiracy (q.v.), in conjunction with Lord Lynd- 
say of the Byres, the Earl of Mar, and the Master 
of GlammU. The boy-king James VI., then under 
the influence of Lennox and Arran, was invited to 
Cowrie's seat, Castle Rnthven ( pron. Jiirmi) or 
Huntingtower, 3 miles WNW. of Perth, to hunt ; 
but the next morning (23d August) he found him- 
self a prisoner in the midst of a thousand armed 
men. He tried to get out, but the Master of 
Glammia detained him, and said when lie wept, 
' Better bairns greet than bearded men.' Arran 
was thrown into prison, and Lennox retired to 
France, where he died broken-hearted. The Pres- 
I. \terian clergy warmly espoused the cause of the 
liuthven lords, who received the thnnks of the 
General Assembly, and full indemnity from a Con- 
vention of Estates. Nearly a year elapsed before 
the king regained his freedom. His feigned acqni- 
escence in TiU position led the confederates so to 
relax their vigilance that, on 20th May 1583, he 
was enabled to escape from Falkland to the castle 
of St Andrews. Gowrie and the other lords made 
their submission, and were pardoned ; but soon 
afterwards a royal proclamation branded their 
enterprise as treason. Gowrie was commanded to 
leave Scotland; but in April 1584, while waiting 
for a vessel at Dundee, he was drawn into a con- 
spiracy to surprise Stirling Castle, for which he 
was tried and executed. 

Rllthwell, a Dumfriesshire coast parish, 9 
miles ESE. of Dumfries. Its famous sandstone 
cross, 17J feet high, bears carvings in front and 
behind of the Crucifixion, Annunciation. \c., with 
corresponding Latin inscriptions in tlie Roman 
character, and on the sides of scroll-work, with 
runic verses from 'The Dream of the Holy Rood' 
(see CDMOX). Dating possibly from almiit HO 
A.D., the cross was cast down and broken in 1642 
as a monument of idolatry ; but in 1802 was re- 
erected in the manse garden by the Rev. Henry 
Duncan (q.v.), and in 1887 removed to an apse 
adjoining the church. See Dr J. Anderson's Scot- 
l<i,xl in E'irh/ Christian Ti,iir.s (2d series, 1881). 



Itlltilc (Lat. riitiltis, 'reddish'), a mineral, 
which is essentially Oxide of Titanium or Titanic 
Ai-iil, although generally containing a little per 
oxide of iron. It crystallises in tetragonal (orate, 
generally as slender four sided or six sided prisms 
and needles. Now and again it occurs massive. 
It varies in colour from yellow to brown and red. 
Sometimes it presents a curious interlaced char- 
acter, known as Sageuite. It not infrequently 
occurs as an endomorph in rock-crystal. A 
rock-forming mineral it is not of much import 
ance, but occurs generally as minute granules and 
aggregates or prismatic crystals in schistose rocks, 
gabbro, and other rocks. Massive rutile is used 
to give a yellow colour to porcelain. 

Rlltlam. a small Indian native state in the 
Western Malwa agency (see CI:MI:AI. INDIA), 
with a pop. of 100,000. The capital, Rutlam, is a 
great opium mart, and has a college ; pop. 31,000. 

Rutland, the smallest county in England, 
bounded by Leicester, Lincoln, and Northampton 
shires. It measures 18 by 15 miles, and has an 
area of 150 sq. m. or 95.805 acres. The Gnash or 
Wash, flowing to the Welland (which traces the 
south-east lx>nndary ), divides it into two portions 
the northern a somewhat elevated tableland, 
while the southern consists of a number of valleys 
running east and west, and separated by low bills. 
Limestone is plentiful ; and the soil is mostly a 
deep clay. Half the whole area is permanent 
pasture, and woods occupy some 3000 acres. Towns 
ire Oakham and Uppingham, and there are fifty- 
one parishes. Rutland gives the title of duke to 
the family of Manners (q.v.). Its representation 
was reduced to one in 1885. Pop. (1801) 16,380; 
(1801) 21,861; (1891) 20,659. See Murray's 

oi-t/iitiii/i/unshire and Jliit/nnit ( 1878). 

Rutland, capital of Rutland county, Ver- 
mont, is on Otter Creek, close to the Green Moun- 
tains, and 67 miles by rail SSE. of Burlington. 
The chief industry is the quarrying and working 
of marble ; the place has also several foundries 
and railroad shops, and contains the state work- 
house. From 17S4 to Ism Itutland was one of the 
capitals of Vermont. Pop. I IsSIM T.Mi-J ; i 1S!K)) 
8239; of township (1880) 12,149; (1890) 11. TIKI. 

RUtli, or GRCTLI, a meadow on the west side of 
the southern arm of Lake Lucerne, the traditional 
cradle of Swiss independence : here the represen- 
tatives of the three cantons, I'ri. Schwy/, and 
Untenvalden, took the oath (1307) to drive out 
the Austrians. It is national properly, having 
l>een purchased with the pence of Swiss school- 
children, and is adorned with a monument (1860) 
to Schiller, the author of Wilhelm Tell, and with 
another ( IHSt ) in commemoration of the oath. 

Ruvo in Apulia, a cathedral city of Southern 
Italy, --' miles \V. of Ban. Here, on the site of 
the Roman Itubi, numerous ancient vases and 
sepulchral treasures have been dug up. Pop. 
17,728. 

Rliwenzori, a mountain in the centre of 
Africa, just north of the Equator, between Lakes 
Albert Nyanza and Albert Edward Nyanza. It 
was seen \>y Baker in 1871 and passed by Stanley 
in 1888, and reaches 19,000 feet in altitude. Its 
summit is covered with |>eri>etual snow. Stanley 
identifies this |>eak and some neighbouring ones 
(Mount Cordon Bennett, Mackinnon Peak) with 
the Mountains of the Moon of ancient geographers. 
Rnysbroek, JOHANNKS, Flemish mystic, born 
at Ruvsbroek near Brussels in 1293, was vicar of 
s Cu.'lnle's in Brussels, but in l.V>3 withdrew to 
the Augustinian monastery of Groenendael near 
Waterloo, and died its prior in Ktsl. His 
mysticism, mainly derived from Eckhart (q v.), 



RUYSDAEL 



RYDE 



53 



but directed in the channels of practical charity, 
gained for him the title of Doctor ecstaticus 
Gerhard Groot (q.v. ) was his friend. Ruysbroek 
wrote in Latin and in Flemish ; his works were 
published in Latin in 1552, and in German in 1701. 
See Lives by Engelhardt (Erlangen, 1838). Ch. 
Schmidt (Strasburg, 1859), Otterloo (Amsterdam, 
1874), and Maeterlinck (trans. 1894). 

Rliysdael. or RUISDAEL, JAKOB, the greatest 
landscape-painter of the Dutch school, was born 
at Haarjem about 1628. In 1648 he was enrolled 
a member of the guild of St Luke at Haarlem, 
and in 1659 was granted the freedom of the city oi 
Amsterdam. He died in the almshouse of Haarlem 
on 14th March 1682. He loved to paint forest 
glades with oak-trees ; sleeping pools beneath 
clusters of trees, with an old picturesque building, 
a mill or a ruined temple, or a glimpse of a distant 
town ; a waterfall with rugged rocks, and coast 
scenes, where sea and earth meet. The scenes 
were mainly taken from the neighbourhood of 
Haarlem, partly from the districts of Germany 
that border on Holland. His work shows that he 
had a fine feeling for the poetic spirit of nature, 
which he embodies with great skill. His pictures 
e\-ist in Dresden, Berlin (probably the two best col- 
lections ), the Louvre, the London National Gallery, 
Amsterdam, and the Hague. See E. Michel, 
li'uixdael et lea Puysogistes (f Harlem ( Paris, 1890). 
Rliysselede, a town in the Belgian province 
of West Flanders, 14 miles SE. of Bruges, has a 
large reformatory for boys ( 1849). Pop. 6793. 

Rnyter, MICHAEL ADRIANSZOON (afterwards 
De Kuyter), Dutch admiral, was born at Flushing 
on 24th March 1607 of poor parents, who sent him 
to sea as a cabin-boy when only eleven. He changed 
into the navy, and by 16.35 had risen to the rank of 
captain. From 1B43 to 1652 he was again in the 
merchant service, and fought against the pirates 
of Barbary. When war l>roke ont between England 
and Holland in 1632, a fleet was given to Ruyt< i : 
with it he beat off an attack made upon him (26th 
August) by Sir G. Ayscue off the Lizard, but in 
conjunction with De Witt was compelled to retire 
after vainly attacking Blake off the mouth of the 
Thames ( 28th September). They had their revenge, 
however, two months later, when they defeated 
Blake off I WIT. In the following year Rnyter took 
part in the running fight in the English Channel of 
18th-20th February against Blake ; in that of Sole- 
nay or SouthwoliI (2d-3d June) against Monk and 
Deane and Blake ; in the indecisive battle off 
Katwyk ; and in that off the Texel (29th July), in 
which his superior, Tromp, was killed and the 
Dutch fleet defeated. After this Rnyter was made 
vice-admiral of Holland. In 1654 peace was con- 
cluded between the two countries. In the years 
immediately following Ruyter was sent to block- 
ade the coasts of Portugal, and then those of 
Sweden (on behalf of Denmark); he compelled the 
Swede* to surrender Nyborg in Fiinen in 1659. 
On tlii- conclusion of the Dano-Swedish war (1660) 
the kinj,' of Denmark ennobled him. The years 
1WI i;:i were principally occupied with checking in 
the M'-<literranean the piracy of the Turkish states 
of North Africa. In 1664 war broke out again 
between England and Holland, and De Ruyter 
steered his fleet to the west coast of Africa, 'and 
took from the English Goree and some forts 
on the Guinea coast; in 1665 he preyed upon 
English merchant-vessels in the West Indies, ni;idi; 
his way home round Scotland, and was chosen 
admiral in-chief of the Dutch fleet; in 1666 he 
fought for four days (June 1-4) against Monk and 
Prince Rupert olf Dunkirk, neither side gaining the 
victory, though the English were the first to retire; 
nevertheless in July he was beaten by Monk, and 



driven back to Holland. In 1667 he caused great 
consternation in London by sailing up the Medway 
as far as Rochester, and burning some of the 
English ships, and entering the Thames a second 
time as high as Gravesend, besides attacking 
Harwich. Then came peace again; and in 1672 
war once more, this time against England and 
France combined. De Ruyter's principal achieve- 
ments in this war were to attack the English and 
French fleets under the Duke of York, the Earl of 
Sandwich, and Count d'Estrees in Solebay (28th 
May 1672), after which he retired to Holland; to 
defeat Prince Rupert and D'Estrees off Schooneveldt 
in June 1673, and again off Kijkduin and Helder 
in August. Peace -was then made with England ; 
but the war with France still went on. In the end 
of 1675 De Ruyter set sail for the. Mediterranean, 
to go and help the Spaniards against the French. 
He encountered the French Heet under Duqnesne 
near the Lipari Islands a few days before the New 
Year, and again in April in the Bay of Catania, on 
the east of Sicily. After the first encounter the 
Dutch-Spanish fleet drew off towards Palermo ; in 
the second they were routed, and De Ruyter was 
seriously wounded in the right leg, the first serious 
wound in his life of battles. He died exactly a 
week later, on 29th April, in Syracuse. His body 
was buried in the New Church at Amsterdam. 
De Ruyter was a man of unaffected piety, simple 
in his manners, and of unflinching courage ; as a 
seaman he deserves to take rank along with Blake 
and Nelson. 

See Life (anon. Amsterdam, 1677), by Brandt (Ainst 
1698), and by Richer (1783), all in French. 

Ryan, LOCH, an arm of the sea, extending in a 
south-easterly direction into Wigtownshire from the 
southern entrance of the Firth of Clyde, fully 8 
miles in length, with a breadth of from 1A to 
almost 3 miles. From about tlie middle of its 
western side a broad sandbank called the Scar 
projects diagonally across it for about 2J miles ; 
opposite is Cairn Point with a lighthouse (1847). 
At its south-western corner stands the port of 
Stninraer, with daily steamers plying to and from 
Lame ; two miles west of its northern extremity 
is Corsewall Point, a bold headland with a fine 
lighthouse (1816). Locli Ryan affords safe and 
commodious anchorage, being very deep close to 
its eastern shores, which are sheltered by the high 
hills of Finnart and Crait'oaftie, as its western are 
by the beautifully wooded heights of Kirkcolm and 
Leswalt. The Kerigonitis Sinus of Ptolemy, Loch 
Ryan has l>een rendered classic, in name at least, 
by the pathetic traditional ballad, ' Fair Annie of 
Lochryan ' the question of its localisation is quite 
another ^matter. Hew Ainslie's spirited song, ' The 
Rover o' Lochryan,' deserves mention also. 

Rybinsk, a town of Russia, stands on the 
right bank of the Volga, at the termination of a 
branch-line (174 miles) of the Moscow and St 
Petersburg Railway, and 48 miles NW. of Yaroslav. 
It has a very large trade in transhipping and for- 
warding to the capital by canal the goods brought 
lither by large vessels up the Volga. Those goods 
are corn, flour, tallow, spirits, metals, timber, pot- 
ish, salt, &c. Boat-building, rope-making, brew- 
ng, and distilling are the chief industries. Pop. 
19,571, increased to 100,000 in the busy summer 
season. 

Rydal Monnt. See LAKE DISTRICT. 
Ryde, a flourishing and fashionable watering- 
)lace on the north-east coast of the Isle of Wight, 
4J miles SSW. of Portsmouth, from which it is 
separated by the roadstead of Spithead. It con- 
lists of Upper and Lower Ryde, the former occupy - 
ng the site of an ancient village, La Rye or La 
Kiche, destroyed by the French in 1377, and the 



RYE 



RYE-ORAB8 



Utter of quite modern construction. Fielding in 
1753 described Ryde as ' a pleasant village, separ- 
ated at low-wateV from the sea by an impassable 
gulf of mud ; ' but now there are excellent sands, 
and the appearance of the town with its streets 
and villas mtersiMsrsed with trees is plea-sing and 
picturesque. The longer of the two piers (768 
feet) was constructed in 1813-61 ; uf the buildings 
may be noticed the town-hall ( 1831 ) ; All Saints' 
Church (1870), by Scott, with a spire 173 feet 
high; St Mary's Roman Catholic Church (1840), 
by Hansom ; and the Royal Victoria Yacht Club- 
house ( 1847 ). Ryde was made a municipal borough 
in 1868. Pop. (1811) 1601; (1851)7147; (1881) 
11,461 ; (1891) 10,952. 

Kvr. a decayed seaport of Sussex, 11 miles NE. 
of Hastings, and 2 miles inland now owing to the 
retirement of the sea. It stands on an eminence 
bounded east by the Rother, south and west by 
the Tillingliam, and presents a quaint, old-world 
aspect. On a rock overlooking the confluence of 
the streams is the 12th-century Ypres Tower (now 
a police station), built in Stephen's reign by 
William <le Ypres; the church, mainly Norman 
and Early Bagluh in style, and one of the largest 
in the Icingdmn, was restored in 1883. Then 
there are the old Land Gate, a former Carmelite 
cha]>el, and a grammar-school (1638). The Norus 
Portia of Ptolemy, Rye was granted by the Con- 
fessor to Fecamp Abbey, and by Henry III. was 
made a Cinque Port (q. v.). It became a Huguenot 
asylum after 1562 and 1685 (Thackeray's Deni* 
Duval is laid here) ; and it returned two members 
till 1832, and then one till 1885. Fletcher the 
dramatist was a native. Pop. (1841) 4071; (1881) 
4224 ; ( 1891 ) 3871. See Holloway's History of Rye 
(1847). 

Rye (Secale), a genus of grasses, allied to Wheat 
and Barley, and having spikes which generally 
consist of two-flowered, rarely of three-flowered, 
spikelets ; the florets furnished with terminal 
awns, only the upper floret stalked. One species 
(S. cereale) is a well-known grain. It has, when 
in fruit, a roundish-quadrangular spike, with a 
touch rachis. Its native country, as in the case 
of the other most important cereals, is somewhat 
doubtful ; but it is said to be found wild in the 
desert regions near the Caspian Sea, and on the 
highest mountains of the Crimea. It has long 
been cultivated as a cereal plant ; although the 
supposed mention of it in Exodus, ix. 32, is doubt- 
ful, spelt being perhaps intended. It is much 
cultivated in the north of Europe and in some 
parts of Asia. Its cultivation does not extend so 
far north as that of barley ; but it grows in regions 
too cold for wheat, and on soils too poor and sandy 
for any other grain. Its ripening can also be more 
confidently reckoned upon in cold regions than 
that of any other grain. But rye succeeds best, 
and is most productive, in a climate where wheat 
Mill ripens. It delights in sandy soils. The 
varieties of rye are numerous, although much less 
BO than those of other important cereals. Some 
are best lilted for sowing in autumn, others for 
sowing in spring. The former kinds (Winter 
Rye) are most extensivejy cultivated, being 
generally the most productive. In some places 
on the continent of Europe rye is sown at mid- 
summer, mowed for green fodder in autumn, and 
left to shoot in spring, which it does at the same 
time with autumn-sown rye, producing a good 
crop of small l'iit very mealy grain. In Britain 
rye is not a common grain-crop, and is cultivated 
to a smaller extent than it formerly was; the 
tandy soils, to which it is best adapted, l>eing 
XDpraved anil lilted for other kinds of com. It 
i-. however, sometimes sown to be tmed a a green 



crop, for feeding sheep and oxen in winter, and 
is found particularly good for milch cows. It is 
sometimes also mown tor horses and other animals. 
Bread made of rye is much used in the north of 
Europe; it is the familiar ' black -bread ' of < 
many, and the main sustenance of the Russian 
peasant throughout large regions. It is of a dark 
colour, more laxative than that made of wheat- 
flour, and, i"-ih;ips. rather less nutritions. Rye 
is much used for fermentation and distillation, 
particularly for the making of Holland*. The 
Russian beer called krass is made from rye- 
meal. Rye affected with Ergot (q.v.) is a vl-i\ 
dangerous article of food. The straw of rye i- 
tougher than that of any other corn-plant, and 
is much valued for straw-plait. Perennial Hye 
(S. ferenne) differs from common rye in having 
a very bud, red-like culm ; ears, 3 to 5 inches 
long, flatly compressed, with a brittle rachis, and 
fifty to sixty clo-dy imbricated spikelets. It en- 
dures for many years, but is not much cultivated, 
as its grain is slender, and does not yield an easily 
separable flour. 

Rye-jfTUSS (Lolium), a genus of grasses, hav- 
ing a two-rowed, flatly -compressed spike, the 
spikelete appressed edgewise to the racliis. Per- 
ennial Rye (L. perenne), the Ray-grass of the older 
English authors, is frequent on waysides, and in 
meadows and pastures, in Britain and on the 
continent of Europe. The leaf is highly glazed. 
naiTow tipped, has an obtuse ligule, surrounded 
by an auricle or collar-like portion of blade ; whilst 




Fig. 1. Perennial Rye-grass ( IMium pcrenne) in flower, 

showing united root tufts : 

a, a iplkelet In flower. 

the younger leaves are folded throughout their 
length on the midrib when emerging from the 
purple sheath. The spikelete are much longer 
than their solitary external glume, six to eight 
flowered; the florets awnless or nearly so: the 
culm flattened, from 1 foot to 2 feet high ; the root 
producing leafy barren shoots, which add niueh to 
the agricultural value of the grass. This grass is 
highly valued for forage and hay, and is more 
extensively sown for these uses than any other 
grass, not only in Britain, but also on the con- 
tiin'iit of Europe and in North America. It grows 
well even on very poor soils. The Perennial Kye 
is the kind most generally cultivated. Between 
1882 and 1890 there was much discussion in 
England as to whether or not rye-grass is really 



RYE-HOUSE PLOT 



RYTINA 



55 




Fig. 2. Italian Rye-grass (Lolium 
italicum) in flower: 
a, spikelet in flower. 



perennial. It is admitted to be of short duration 
on poor, dry soils, or in soils soaked with stagnant 
water, but its claim to be ranked as a lasting 
plant where the circumstances are even moderately 
favourable has been incontestibly established. A 
kind called Common or Annual Rye (L. vulgare, 
L. annum), iiot really an annual plant, although 

useful only for 
one year, is some- 
times cultivated, 
but is, in almost 
every respect, in- 
ferior. Italian 
Rye (L. italicvm, 
or L. multiftorum, 
or L, bouchi- 
anum), a native 
of the south of 
Europe, is much 
esteemed as a for- 
age and hay grass. 
and is preferred 
by cattle to the 
perennial rye- 
grass. In many 
apils and situa- 
tions in Britain 
it succeeds ex- 
tremely well, and 
is remarkable for 
its verdure and 
luxuriance in 
early spring. 
There are many 
varieties of rye- 
grass. It is no- 
where so much 

valued or cultivated as in Britain, and was grown 
as a crop in England before the end of the 17th 
century. Rye, along with other grass seeds and 
the seeds of clovers, is generally sown along with 
some kind of corn, and, vegetating for the first 
year amongst the corn, appears in the second year 
with the other grasses and clovers as the proper 
crop of the field. See Stebler and Schroter, The 
Best Forage Plants (Eng. trans, by M'Alpine, 
1889), from which our illustrations are copied. 

Rye-house Plot. In 1682-83, whilst a scheme 
was formed among the leading Whigs to raise the 
nation in arms against Charles II., a subordinate 
scheme was planned by a few fiercer spirits of the 
party including Colonel Rumsey and Lieut. - 
colonel Walcot, two military adventurers : Go<xl- 
nough, nnder-sheritf of London ; Ferguson, ' the 
Plotter;' and several attorneys, merchants, and 
tradesmen of London the object of which was to 
waylay and assassinate the king on his return from 
Newmarket The deed was to be perpetrated at a 
farm near Hertford, belonging to Rum bold, one of 
i In- conspirators, called Rye-house, whence the plot 
>;ot it name. The Rye-house Plot is supposed to 
have been kept concealed from Monmouth, Russell, 
Shaftfsbiiry, and the rest of those who took the 
I'-iwl in the greater conspiracy. It owed its defeat 
to the circumstance that the house which the king 
o.'1-upied at Newmarket took fire accidentally, ami 
Charles was tlnis obliged to leave that place eight 
days sooner than 22d March. Both the greater and 
leaner conspiracy were discovered before long, and 
from the connection subsisting between the two it 
was difficult altogether to dissever them. The 
indignation excited by the Rye-house Plot was 
extended to the whole Whig party ; Russell, 
Algernon Sidney, and Walcot were brought to the 
lil'ck for treason ; John Hampden, grandson of 
the patriot, was fined 40,000 ; and scarcely one 



escaped who had been concerned in either plot. 
See Ferguson the Plotter, by J. Ferguson ( 1887 ). 

Ryle, JOHN CHAKLES, Bishop of Liverpool, was 
born at Macclesfield, May 10, 1816, studied at Christ 
Church, Oxford, carried oft' the Craven Scholarship, 
and graduated with a classical first-class in 1837. 
He took orders, and was successively curate at Ex- 
bury, Hants ; rector of St Thomas', Winchester 
(1843), of Helmingham, Suffolk (1844); vicar of 
Stradbroke, Suffolk (1861); rural dean (1870), 
honorary canon of Norwich (1872) ; select preacher 
at Cambridge (1873-74), and at Oxford! (1874- 
76). In 1880 he was nominated by Beaconsfield 
Dean of Salisbury, and before he had taken pos- 
session was raised to the newly-formed see of 
Liverpool. A prominent member of the Evangeli- 
cal party, Bishop Ryle has written countless tracts 
of vast popularity, and the following books : 
Coming Events and Present Duties ( 1867) ; Bishops 
and Clergy of Other Days ( 1868 ) ; The Christian 
Leaders of the Last Century (1869); and Exposi- 
tory Thoughts on the Gospels (7 vols. 1856-69). 

1C) IIKT. THOMAS, compiler of the Fcedera, was 
born at Northallerton in 1639, studied at Sidney 
Sussex College, Cambridge, and entered at Gray s 
Inn in 1666. He published translations, critical 
discussions on poetry, dramas of his own, and 
works on history, and was appointed historio- 
grapher royal ; but he died in poverty, 14th Decem- 
ber 1714. Pope considered him 'one of the best 
critics we ever had;' Macaulay 'the worst critic 
that ever lived ' both rather overstating the case. 
His principal critical work is The Tragedies of the 
Last Aye Considered ( 1678) ; but he is chiefly re- 
membered as the compiler of the invaluable collec- 
tion of historical materials called Fcedera, Conven- 
tiones, Literte et cujusmmque generis Ada Pvblica 
inter Reges Anglite et alias quosms Jmperatores, 
Iteges, Pontifices, Principes vel Communitates, ex- 
tending from the llth century to his own time. 
Vols. i.-xv. were published before Rymer's death ; 
vols. xvi.-xx. by his assistant, Sanderson, in 1715- 
35 ; Tonson's reprint of the first 17 vols. in 1727- 
29 ; the Hague edition in 1737-45 ; that ( incom- 
plete, 4 vols.) of the Record Commission in 1816- 
69 ; and Sir Thomas Hardy's Syllabus of the whole, 
in 2 vols., in 1869-73. 

Rymonr. See THOMAS THE RHYMER. 

Ryot. See INDIA, Vol. VI. p. 115. 

Rysbrach, MICHAEL, sculptor, born at Ant- 
werp on 24th June 1693, settled in London in 1720, 
and executed numerous works, in particular the 
monument to Sir Isaac Newton in Westminster 
Abbey (1731), that to the Duke and Duchess of 
Marlborough at Blenheim, a bronze equestrian 
statue of William III. for Bristol ( 1733), a colossal 
statue of George II. for the parade at Greenwich 
Hospital ( 1735), a Hercules at Stourhead, a statue 
of Queen Anne at Blenheim, one of Locke in 
Christ Church, Oxford ( 1757), and busts of Admiral 
Vernon, Earl Stanhope, Kneller, Gay, Rowe, Milton. 
Ben Jonson, Palladio, Inigo Jones, the Dnkes of 
Somerset, Beaufort, and Argyll, Sir Hans Sloane, 
Pope, Sir R. Walpole, Bolingbroke, &c. He died 
8th January 1770. 

Ryswlck, PEACE OF, was signed at Ryswick, a 
Dutch village, 2 miles S. of the Hague, by France, 
England, the Netherlands, and Spain, on Septem- 
ber 20, and by Germany on October 30, 1697. It 
wound up the sanguinary contest in which England 
and her allies had been engaged with France, by 
putting an effectual check upon the power and 
overweening ambition of France. 

It vt ina. See RHYTINA. 



s 




the nineteenth letter in our 
own and most western alpha- 
bets, ia descended through the 
Greek sigma from shin, the 
twenty-first Semitic letter. The 
Phoenician symbol, w. arose 
out of the hieratic form of the 
hieroglyphic picture of plants 
growing in an inundated garden 
(see ALPHABET). The Semites called the letter 
shin, the ' teeth,' a name explained by the hieratic 
form, which resembles a row of teeth in the lower 
jaw. Though the form of the Greek letter sigma 
was derived from that of thin, the name was ob- 
tained from that of the Semitic sibilant samech. 
This must be attributed to the fact that, while the 
Semitic languages require four sibilants, Greek 
needs only three. One of the four was conse- 
quently disused, but, the usage differing in different 
dialects, a confusion arose, so that in the final or 
classical Greek alphabet it came to pass that the 
name used in one dialect was applied to thesynil>ol 
adopted in another. The form of the Phrenician 
letter resembled our W. This, in the early Greek 
alphabets, became S or *. In the Latin alpha- 
bet this was rounded, giving S. Our long s was 
derived from the old Roman cursive, the tick on 
the left of f being a surviving vestige of the lower 
curve of *. The sound of s is that of the hard open 
sibilant a hiss formed by bringing the blade of 
the tongue near the front of the palate the sound 
of z being the corresponding soft open sibilant. In 
Latin the sound of 2 did not exist, consequently 
the letter disappeared, and its place in the alpha- 
bet was taken by the new letter a. In the time of 
Cicero it was reintroduced for the transliteration 
of Greek words. Anglo-Saxon, also, had no z, the 
letter licing introduced for the representation of 
Greek or t rench words, such as zone, zest, or zeal. 
But, although we now possess the letter, we are 
chary of its use, and its sound is constantly repre- 
sented by *, as in reason, rose, rise. We use s 
both in /'. and his, in hearse and hers, in curse 
and curs, in loose and lose, though in one case the 
sound is that of and in the other of z. Few 
genuine English words have z, though in some cases, 
mich an freeze and ilizzi/, owing to Norman influence, 
a z has replaced an OJd English s. Sometimes, 
as in sugar and sure, s has the sound of sh or zh, 
a sound which usually arises from the softening of 
the Anglo-Saxon sc, as in 'shall ' from sceal, 'shame ' 
from scumu, 'fish 1 from ./be, 'shade' from sfiiilu, or 
'sheep' from scenji. This change is characteristic 
of the southern dialects, the northern X/.-ijittm 
(sheep-tun) answering to the southern S/n/i/mi. 
So s/.i/i/u-r and nhimter are doublets, obtained from 
northern and southern foi-nm of the same word. 
Occasionally the Anglo-Saxon form is preserved, as 
in scar and score, or is replaced by sk, as in st./n. 
Owing to French influence c acquired a sibilant 
sound liefore e and f, and hence in a few words an 
Anglo-Saxon .. has been replaced by c, as in ' mice,' 
from A.S. in if >,, or 'once' from ones. A final s 
sometimes disappears owing to its having been 
iiiHtaken for the sign of the plural, as in 'pea,' 
from the O.F. jtcis f l.ui. pisum), 'peas ' or 'pease' 



being regarded at a plural, of which 'pea' was 
erroneously supposed to be the singular. In the 
same way the French cerise and relais have given 
us 'cherry' and 'relay,' the final s in 'cherries* 
and 'relays' being regarded as the plural sign. 

Occasionally * is intrusive, as in 'island,' from 
A.S. eu-land, an error due to the false analogy 
of 'isle' which comes from insula ; or in 'aisle,* 
from the French aile, or in 'splash' for plash, 
where the s seems to be an intensitive. In Greek 
and Welsh s weakens to It, as is seen by comparing 
the Greek hepta with the Latin srfifeui, or the 
Welsh hen with the Irish sen. A German * may 
represent an English t, as in wasser for 'water,' or 
heiss for ' hot.' In Latin an s changed a preceding 
b to p and m to n, as in scripsi from scribo, and 
i-niixiil from eomtnl ; and it assimilated a preceding 
t or (/, as in cessnm for cedsum, and mons for inontx. 
Before in, n, il, I, r a medial s disappears, as in 
judex, for jusdex, or idem for isi/eni. A final * 
sometimes disappears, as in ipse for </i.i//\ : and be- 
tween two vowels it becomes r, as in avrvm for 
avsum, or aurora for ausosa. 

SS, COLLAR OF, a collar composed of a series of 
the letter S in gold, either linked together or set 
in close order. Such collars have been much worn 
in England by persons holding great offices in the 
state. 

Saadi. See SUM. 

Saalr. a river of Germany, distinguished from 
smaller rivers of the same name as the Saxon or 
Thuringian Saale, rises on the western slope of the 
Ficlitelgebirge (Bavaria), and, flowing northward 
through several minor states, finally across Prus- 
sian Saxony, past the towns of Hof, Kudolstadt, 
Jena, Naumburg, \Veisscnfcls, Mfi-si-lmrg. and 
Halle, falls into the Ellie, alxmt IS miles above 
Magdeburg, after a course of '2'2(> miles. It is navi- 
gable from Nanmburg to its confluence with the 
Elbe, a distance of 99 miles, for vessels up to 200 
tons. 

SaaUVIil. a town of Saxe-Meiiiingen, on the 
Saale, 31 miles by rail SSW. of Jena, has ruins 
of a castle built by Charlemagne against the Sorbs, 
and possesses graphite, machinery, and other works. 
Pop. (1890) 9801. 

Saarhrttck, a town of Khenish Prussia, on the 
Saar, 40 miles SK. of Tie\es. is the centre of a 
large coalfield, and of iron and gloss works, with 
manufactures of tobacco, chemicals, metal utensils, 
&c. Pop. (1890) 13,812. Here, on 2d August 1x7(1, 
the first engagement took place Ix-twwii tin- French 
and Germans, the latter retreating. 

Saardam. See ZAANDAM. 

SaarKCinund (Fr. Sarregnemines), a town in 
the German province of Alsace-Lorraine, 41 miles 
K. of Metz. It is famous for its pottery ; silk 
plush and velvet are also made. Pop. (1890) 13,076. 

Sasirloiiis. a fortified town of Rhenish Prussia, 
.'il mile's S. of TrevcR, on the left bank of the Saar. 
Fortified (1681-85) by Vauban, it, was in the pos- 
session of France until 1816, when the ( 'undress of 
Vienna gave it to Prussia. Here Marshal Ney 
was bom. Pop. 6788. 



SAAZ 



SABBATH 



57 



Siia/.. a town of Bohemia, on the Eger, 66 miles 
by rail NW. of Prague. Pop. 10,425, principally 
engaged in growing and trading in hops, and in 
manufacturing sugar, leather, &c. 

Sahil. a Dutch West Indian island, in the Lee- 
ward group, 40 miles NW. of St Kitts. A volcanic 
cone, 1500 feet high, it is known from its shape as 
' Napoleon's cocked hat. ' Area, 5 sq. m. ; pop. 
2421. 

Sabadell, a town of Spain, 14 miles by railway 
NW. of Barcelona. It has risen into importance 
only within recent years, and is the Manchester of 
Catalonia. Woollen and cotton fabrics are the 
staple manufactures. Pop. 18,121. 

Sabadilla, CEBADILLA, or CEVADILLA (Schce- 
iin'-iialon officinale), a Mexican plant of the natural 
order Melanthacese, the seeds of which are employed 
in medicine. In the British Pharmacopoeia the 
dried ripe seeds receive the name of Sabadilla. 
They contain an alkaloid, veratrine, which is offic- 
inal, and probably other closely allied substances. 
When applied externally the powdered sabadilla or 
veratrine is first irritant and then anaesthetic; both 
forms are used in rheumatic and neuralgic pains. 
Snuffed into the nostrils they cause violent sneezing 
and irritation. Taken by the month they are also 
irritant, if in too large a dose, and induce pain, 
vomiting, and diarrhoea. After alworption into the 
blood in medicinal doses they act chiefly on the 
muscles, and depress the heart and circulation and 
the body temperature. They are employed chiefly 
in acute febrile diseases in strong, healthy persons, 
but must be used with great caution on account of 
their marked depressant effects. The dose of vera- 
trine is jv to }, grain. 

Sah.'i-aiis, or SABA , were the ancient inhabit- 
ants of Yemen in southern Arabia. They are the 
people called Sheha in Gen. x. 28, xxv. 3 ; Job, vi. 
19 ; and other passages in the prophets ; and it was 
probably the sovereign of this people who paid the 
celebrated visit to Solomon. The Sab;eans were a 
powerful and wealthy people, who from long before 
the davs of Solomon down to the beginning of the 
Christian era controlled the sea and caravan traffic 
in gold, sweet spices, ivory, ebony, and valuable 
ii-.ii'--. that came from India and Africa, and were 
dfspatched northwards to Syria. To protect and 
watch over this trade they had stations or colonies 
in northern Arabia and in Ethiopia. The capital 
of their country was Mariaha ( Marib), the ruins of 
which, including vast dams, lie north-east of Sanaa 
(q.v. ). Their religion included the worship of the 
sun and moon, and a number of other deities. 
Their language is intermediate between Arabic and 
Ethiopian, but nearer akin to the former. In the 
8th century B.C. the people of Saba' paid tribute to 
the kings of Assyria (Tiglath-Pileser and Sargon). 
The Roman governor of Egypt in 24 B.C., tempted 
by the fame of the great wealth of the Sabseans, 
-'nt, an expedition under command of j'Elius Gallus 
to invade their country ; but it met with little suc- 
-. Not lone after tliis event, however, the trade 
upon which the Sah;i-ans relied began to take a 
sea-ronte and go up the Ked Sea, and from that 
cause their prosperity ami power seem to have 
declined. Soon afterwards they appear to have 
been subject to the sovereignty of the king of the 
Himyarites. Then, in the 2d century, and again 
in the 4th, and yet again in the 6th, we read that 
kings of Ethiopia were lords over the Salueans. 
Sci- MAND.KASS, XABISM; and various works, pub- 
lished since 1877, by D. H. Miiller. 

Sahall. a name for British North Borneo. See 
BORNEO, and SANDAKAN. 

Sabhatai Zevl (also spelt Sabbathau Zevi 
and Snlitui Ztfi), a false messiah, the founder of 
a wide-spread sect of semi-Christians and semi- 



Jews throughout Europe, Asia, and Africa, was 
born at Smyrna in 1641. By his personal mag- 
netism, his character, his extraordinary learning, 
and his brilliant abilities, he led thousands of 
followers, mainly in Smyrna, Salonica, Alexandria, 
and Jerusalem, where he successively laboured, to 
believe in him as the Messiah (see MAHDI). In 
1664 no fewer than about 80,000 people belonged to 
the new empire ; and in the following year the 
beginning of the Messianic reign within a few 
months and the rebuilding of the Temple in the 
next year were proclaimed aloud in the streets of 
Alexandria by Sabbatai and six disciples, all clad 
in white raiments, with garlands on their heads. 
Somewhat later he returned to Jerusalem ; and the 
general resurrection, to take place within six years, 
and the deposition of the sultan, whose crown would 
be placed upon Sabbatai's head, were proclaimed far 
and near. But three years later, having provoked 
serious alarm at Constantinople, he was apprehended 
at Smyrna, and terrified into something like a recan- 
tation of his mission. He was said to have declared 
that his sole object had been all along to embrace 
Islam, and to carry over all the Jews with him. 
The sultan declared himself satisfied, and honoured 
him with the title of an eflendi, giving him an 
honorary post at the same time. But the move- 
ment was far from having reached its end. A 
fictitious man was supposed by some to have em- 
braced Islam, while the real Messiah had ascended 
heavenwards. Finally the grand vizier was per- 
suaded to imprison Sabbatai once more, and to send 
him to Albania or Servia, where he died in prison 
according to some, in consequence of poison, 
while according to others he was executed in 1677, 
ten years after his conversion. 

Sabbath (Heb. shabbath, from shabath, 'to 
rest, cease, or leave off ; ' Gr. sabbaton ), the seventh 
day of the week, set aside, in the Old Testament, 
as a period of cessation from work. When it was 
instituted is not known. Many have contended 
that from its moral and religious importance it must 
have been instituted at the Creation, and made 
binding on Adam in paradise and all his posterity. 
There is certainly no evidence in the Pentateuch of 
its having been kept in patriarchal times. The cele- 
bration of the seventh day is first mentioned after 
the Exodus from Egypt ; though the circumstances 
connected with the" gathering of quails recorded 
in Ex. xvi. 23 is sometimes held to presuppose the 
solemnisation of the Sabbath before the Sinaitic 
legislation (Ex. xx.); and the formula ' Remember' 
with which the commandment begins has been 
interpreted as implying that it was known before, 
and only required to t>e emphatically recalled to 
memory" The reason given for the observance in 
Ex. xx. 11 cannot be taken as deciding the point; 
for the reason appended to the fourth command- 
ment in Deut. v. 15 is wholly different. 

The weekly division of time was of course in no 
way peculiar to the Jews, nor was the religious 
solemnisation of the seventh day. As we learn 
from Sayce (Ancient Empires of the East), 'in 
Babylonia and Assyria the week of seven days was 
an Accadian or Babylonian invention, the days of 
the week being dedicated to the moon, sun, and 
five planets. The 7th, 14th, 21st, and 28th days 
of the lunar month were kept like the Jewish 
Sabbath, and were actually so named in Assyrian. 
They were termed dies nefasti in Accadian, ren- 
dered "days of completion ( of labour)'' in Assyrian ; 
the Assyrian Sabattu or "Sabbath 1 ' itself being 
further defined as meaning "completion of work 
and "a day of rest for the soul." In those days it 
was forbidden, at all events in the Accadian period, 
to cook food, to change one's dress or wear white 
robes, to offer sacrifice, to ride in a chariot, to legis- 
late, to practise augury, or even to use medicine. ' 



58 



SABBATH 



But it was the Jewish Sabbath that left its mark 
on the religious history of the world. Even on 
the traditional view of the date and origin of the 
several parts of the Pentateuch and the Old Testa- 
ment, it seems obvious that, whatever may have 
been the date of its institution, the laws and 
customs regulating its observance grew greatly 
in detail and in strictness. Hut if the Deuteronomic 
and priestly legislation (see BIBLE, PENTATEUCH) 
lie regarded as much later than the Jehovist docu- 
ments, the gradual development in stringency of 
the Sabbath ordinances becomes still more patent. 
\\ ellhausen and his school hold that new moon 
-and Sabbaths were originally lunar festivals, regu- 
lated by the phases of the moon ; and that, although 
there is little about the new moon in the Pentateuch, 
it originally stood on a somewhat similar footing 
with the Sabbaths, and was celebrated in the 
same manner (see Amos, viii. 5; 2 Kings, iv. _'_'. 23) 
viz. with such rest from labour as was the natural 
accompaniment of a festival, a festival, tun. origin- 
ally marked even by mirth (Hosea, ii. 13). The 
new-moon feast was probably allowed to fall into 
desuetude as being so constantly associated with 
idolatrous and unholy rites by the heathen. The 
Jehovist and the Deuterononiist in dealing with the 
Sabbath have chiefly agricultural lalKmr in their 
eye : the masters who can rest when they will are 
not commanded to rest themselves, but to let their 
servants and cattle rest. But in the priestly legis- 
lation the Sabbath is less of a festival and more 
of an ascetic observance, rest being inculcated in 
and for itself, not as relief and refreshment from 
toil, but as a kind of offering to God ; a pious duty 
of self-restraint and self -repression as incumbent 
on master as on man. To go out of the camp to 
gather manna or wood is a transgression : it is 
Sabbath-breaking to kindle a fire or cook food ( Ex. 
xxxv. 2, 3; xvi. 23). Jeremiah is the earliest of 
the prophets to insist on stricter Sabbath-keeping, 
followed by Ezekiel and the Deutero- Isaiah. Dur- 
ing the Captivity the Sabbath was wholly separated 
from the sacrificial service of the festival, and in- 
creased in significance as a holy rest-day, becoming 
along with circumcision the mark of the Jew as 
distinguished from the Gentile. The builders of 
the second temple had a severe struggle to secure 
the strict sanctification of the seventh day ; but as 
the pharisaical party increased in power the day 
became more and more burdensome the rest of 
the week was but a preparation for the Sabbath, 
so that man seemed to be made for the Sabbath. 
When Jerusalem was stormed by Ptolemy I. the 
inhabitants would not stir in self-defence ; those 
who had fled to escape the persecution of Antiocluis 
Epiphanes allowed themselves to be butchered whole- 
sale rather than resist on the holy day. Both 
Pompey and Titus seem to have made arrange- 
ments 'for attacking Jerusalem, relying on tne 
strict observance of the day by the Jews. There 
are, however, eases during the Maccabee period of 
Jewish armies not merely defending themselves, 
but making fierce attacks. The Mishna enumerates 
thirty-nine principal works which are forbidden on 
Sabbath ; and to each of them are attached several 
minor ones which might lead to Sabbath breaking. 
The ' Sabliath-day's journey ' the prohibition of 
walking more than the 2000 yards rappoaad to 
represent the distance between the ark and the end 
of the camp seems t Ix-long to Konian times. 
The Essenes were specially strict in their Sabbath- 
keeping. 

On Sabbath the faithful assembled in the syna- 
gogue in every town and hamlet within and with- 
out Palestine! especially after the exile. Parts of 
the Pentateuch and of the Prophets were read, 
translated into the vernacular, and expounded. 
Special prayers were said and sung, and the rest 



of the day was devoted to pious meditation, study 
of the law, and serene joyfulness. For even in the 
later Jewish period the Sabbath was still distinctly 
a festival, 'a day of joy and delight.' Certait 
bodily indulgences were inculcated : fasting, mourn 
ing, and self -mortification were expressly prohibited. 
The day was to be honoured by wearing of liner 
garments, by taking of three meals of the beat 
cheer available (though not of warm viands), accom- 
panied with wine. The Karaites alone abstained 
from all fire and light for twenty-four hours. It 
should be added that by the .lews the Sabl>ath 
is reckoned from Friday evening to Saturday 
evening. 

The analogy of the weekly Sabbath helped 
doubtless to mould the observance of a Kabtnitical 
Year, which was apparently kept with strictness 
after the exile, though unknown to the early legis- 
lation. It was indeed enjoined that Hebrew slaves 
should be set free in the seventh year ( Ex. xxi. 
2-6), and that the seventh-year's crop should be 
left for the poor (Ex. xxiii. 10). But there is no 
hint that the seventh years coincided for any two 
persons or places : still less, that one Sabbath-year 
was held by the whole nation at the same time 
once in seven years. But after the Exile a periodic 
time was fairly established, the fields were left 
absolutely fallow, and no crops sown or harvested, 
to the severe suffering of many in evil times. 

Christ and the apostles nowhere enjoin the 
observance of the Sabbath, but did themselves 
observe it, though acting on the principle that the 
' Sabbath was made for man, and not man for the 
Sabbath,' and that 'the Son of man was lord also 
of the Sabbath.' Christ came into collision with 
the Pharisaic worshippers of the letter, ami was 
more than once in danger of His life as a Sabbath- 
breaker. Even after the death of Christ t litre is 
no formal abrogation of the Sahliath : the apostles 
seem still themselves to have kept it in the Jewish 
manner. But its observance was not merely not 
enjoined on Christian proselytes : 1'aul most ener- 
getically insists that Gentile Christians should 
hold themselves alwolutely free to observe it or not 
as seemed best. There were, however, Judaisers in 
the Christian church, whom Paul resisted ; and 
the Kbit miles (q.v.) insisted on the keeping of the 
Sabbath. 

Nor is there anywhere in the New Testament 
any express statement that the first day of the 
week was to l>e kept in place of the seventh, or 
that the Lord's day represented or was in any way 
the Sabbath ; though at a very early date Christ ians 
met for worship on the day on which Christ rose 
from the dead. The only mention of a Christian 
Sabbath in the New Testament is Heb. iv. 9 : 
' There remaineth therefore a Sabbath rest for the 
people of God ' (New Translation), where obviously 
the reference is not to any one day of seven. A 
large body of Christians maintain that with the 
death of Christ the seventh-day Sabbath ceased for 
Christians, and that (apart from what Jewish 
Christians might have felt it their duty to do in the 
way of keeping the seventh day) the first day or 
Christian Sabbath naturally and inevitably took 
its place. Without citing any explicit authority 
for the substitution, they insist that the fourth 
commandment was a perpetual obligation as 
regards keeping holy one day in seven, and that 
the early Christian church could have no difficulty 
or hesitation in accepting at once the guidance of 
Providence in transferring the religious significance 
of the Sabbath of the law to the Sabbath of the 
new covenant; and that the Christian Sabbath has 
ever since continued, and to the end of the world 
will continue, obligatory on all Christians, all that 
was essentially moral and religious in the Jewish 
observances being applicable to the first day. 



SABBATH 



59 



It must certainly be admitted that the earliest 
Christian writers do not identify the Sabbath and 
the Lord's day ; none of the Fathers before the 4th 
century ground the duty of observing Sunday on 
the fourth commandment, or on the precept or 
example of Jesus or the apostles, or on an ante- 
Mosaic law promulgated at the Creation. Justin 
Martyr speaks of the regular assemblies of Chris- 
tians on Sunday, 'because it is the first day in 
which God changed darkness and matter and made 
the world. On the same day also Jesus Christ pur 
Saviour rose from the dead.' He makes no mention 
of abstinence from labour as part of the observance 
of the day. But whatever may have been the 
opinion and practice of these early Christians in 
regard to cessation from labour on the Sunday, 
unquestionably the first law, either ecclesiastical 
or civil, by which the sabbatical observance of 
that day is known to have been ordained, is the 
edict of Constantine, 321 A.D., of which the follow- 
ing is a translation : ' Let all judges, inhabitants 
of the cities, and artificers rest on the venerable 
day of the sun. But in the country husband- 
men may freely and lawfully apply to the busi- 
neas of agriculture ; since it often happens that 
the sowing of corn ami planting of vines can- 
not be so advantageously performed on any other 
day ; lest, by neglecting the opportunity, they 
should lose the benefits which the divine bounty 
bestows on us.' Before this time, such of the 
Christian writers as had endeavoured, by a 
mystical style of interpretation, to turn the Mosaic 
ceremonies to account as sources of moral and 
religious instruction had, probably in imitation of 
Phifo, spiritualised the law of the Sabbath to the 
effect or representing it as a mystical prohibition to 
the Christian of evil works during all the days of 
his life, and a prefiguration of the spiritual repose 
and enjoyment which is his portion both in this 
world and in the next. But, in addition to this 
significance, there now began to be discovered in 
the Old Testament foreshadowings of the new 
Sunday-Sabbath ; and the decrees of synods liecame 
more stringent. The Emperor Theodosius forbade 
business and public spectacles; Leo III. forbade 
legal processes and all labour. The Frank kings 
enforced Sunday observance by severe statutes. In 
England Ina of Essex forbade all servile work, and 
Alfred all liilnmr. traffic, and legal processes. 
Canute was a supporter of Sunday observance ; 
and some of the Norman kings were more strenu- 
ous, statutes of Edward III., Richard II., and 
Edward IV. specially dealing with the subject. 

In Scotland the first record of effort by the 
anthorities for the sanctification of the Lord s day 
is in the life of St Margaret. That saintly and 
most influential promoter of the stricter Roman 
usages had in Scotland to contend with great 
regard lessness of the Sunday, the Culdees (whom 
strangely enough Presbyterians were wont to 
claim as their spiritual ancestors) championing a 
lax Sunday keeping. ' It was another custom of 
theirs to neglect the reverence due to the Lord's 
day, by devoting themselves to every kind of 
hii-iw*t upon it just as they do on other days. 
That this was contrary to the law she proved to 
them by reason as well as by authority. Let us 
venerate the Lord's day because of the resurrection 
of the Lord, which happened that day, and let us 
no longer do servile works upon it.' She further 
quoted St Gregory's arguments in favour of keep- 
ing holy the day, and proved so unanswerable that 
thenceforward no one ventured to carry burdens or 
compel another to do so. How long the influence 
of St Margaret continued we do not know. Her 
descendant, James IV., seems to have paid more 
attention t<> tin' fourth commandment than to some 
of the others : 1'eilrode Ayala records of him that he 



'fears God and observes all the precepts of the 
church. He does not eat meat on Wednesdays or 
Fridays. He would not ride on Sundays for any 
consideration, not even to mass.' But in Scotland, 
as a rule, the pre-reformation Sunday was in no 
sense strict ; markets and fairs were commonly 
held on that day. Courts of law sat ; archery was 
practised even in the kirk-yard ; and Robin Hood 
and Little John plays were special Sunday 
spectacles. 

The continental Reformers, while insisting on the 
value of the Sunday as a day of rest and worship, 
favoured the ' Dominical ' as distinguished from the 
' Puritan ' view of the Sunday. Luther denied 
that Sunday should be kept tecause Moses com- 
manded it ; Zwingli is even more explicit ; the 
[ second Helvetic Confession ( 1566) denies that keep- 
I ing one day in seven is a moral duty, or that the 
j observance of Sunday is founded on the fourth 
commandment, or that the Christian people might 
not choose any other day than the h'rst ; Calvin 
'. supports the freer view ; and Beza expressly says 
that 'a Judaical rest from all kinds of work is not 
to be observed.' Nowhere except in English- 
speaking countries is the name Sabbath connected 
with the Sunday ; when the word is regularly used 
for the n.ame of a dny of the week, as in Italian 
(Subato), it simply means Saturday ; the word for 
Sunday being with the Romance-speaking peoples 
derived from the Latin dies dominica ('Lord's 
day ')Domenica, Dimanche, &c. Orthodox Ger- 
man pastors take their households to miscellaneous 
concerts on Sunday evenings, and would consider 
hesitation to do so as a remnant of mere Jewish 
prejudice. 

The English reformers Cranmer, Hooper, Frith, 
Tyndale it may generally be said, took a view 
distinctly unlike that of the Puritans. In Scot- 
land also the less strict opinion at first prevailed. 
Knox's Confession and tne Geneva Catechism, in 
use till the Westminster Confession was adopted, 
do not insist even on Sunday observances, and the 
word Sabbath is not used. Knox wrote letters and 
entertained guests to dinner on Sunday ; plays ( re- 
ligious subjects ) were performed on Sundays with 
the sanction of kirk-sessions as late as 1574. Church 
acts were immediately passed against holding mar- 
kets on Sunday (a custom which obtained, in some 
places at least, as late as 1581 ), or producing the 
play of Robin Hood, and drinking in taverns in 
time of sermon. The Sunday is called Saboth-day 
soon after the Reformation ; and the national 
legislation against all working or trading on Sun- 
day dates from the Act of 1579. But it is con 
tended, on good grounds, that the stricter view of 
Sabbath observance is of Puritan origin, and was 
introduced into Scotland from England. Some 
Puritans called the Lord's day 'the Sabbath ' long 
before the end of the 16th century; but the first 
full statement of the ' high ' doctrine of the Chris- 
tian Sabbath was the Sabbathum Veteris et Novi 
Testamenti: or the True Doctrine of the Sabbath, 
by Dr Nicolas Bownde or Bound ( 1st ed. 1593 ; 
enlarged ed. 1606). The observance of the Sunday 
now became a keenly debated point between Puri- 
tans and High Churchmen the first question of 
doctrine on which they directly differed. The 
Book of Sports ( see SPORTS, BOOK OF ) was long 
an apple of discord between Puritans and the other 
party ; in the Long Parliament the Puritans 
triumphed, and the Westminster Assembly incor- 
porated the Puritan view. It is certainly after 
the date of Bownde that the kirk-session records of 
Scotland are filled with proceedings against Sab- 
bath-breakers for all manner of work, indoor and 
outdoor (shaving being especially noted ), walking 
or ' vaging ' in the streets and fields, being absent 
from public worship, &c. , as well as for drinking 



60 



SABBATH 



SABELLIANISM 



or really disorderly and disquieting conduct. Sab- 
bath bic.ikinx was one of tlie charges on which the 
bishops were deposed by the Covenanting General 
Assembly of 1638. Scotland has since then been 
specially the classical land of Sabbath observance, 
though the early legislation of Massachusetts and 
Connecticut (where it was ordained that Sunday 
should be counted from sunset on Saturday) was 
even more puritanically rigorous. But in Scot- 
land, an in England and America, the tendency 
is towards giving greater freedom to the indi- 
vidual conscience. Still, great numbers of devout 
( 'In JM inns regret this tendency, and press for greater 
strictness of olwervance, and' seek legislative sup- 
port. In Scotland public-houses have been strictly 
kept closed since 1853; in Ireland, with exception 
of the great towns, since 1878 ; and in Wales since 
1881 ; but English Sunday Closing Acts have 
always been negatived. In Scotland especially 
there is frequent agitation against Sunday trains, 
Sunday postal deliveries, the opening of museums, 
libraries, or botanic gardens, and Sunday cycling : 
and disasters such as that of the Tay Bridge ( 1879 ) 
have by some been treated publiclv'as God's judg- 
ment on Sabbath breaking. The Sabbath Alliance 
was founded in 1847 for promoting the stricter 
observance of Sunday. On the other hand, the 
Sunday Society was founded in 1875, under the 
auspices of Dean Stanley and others, to secure the 
opening of museums and galleries on Sunday. The 
Grosvenor Gallery was opened on Sunday in 1878 ; 
the same year the Manchester and some others 
were openea on Sunday for the first time. The 
question as to Sunday trains, long fiercely debated 
in America, was compromised by allowing the run- 
ning of the through mails, while, as in England, 
local trains do not usually run. 

The law of England on Sunday observance l>egins 
with acts of Charles I. (1625 and 1627), but is mainly 
based on the Act 29 Car. II. chap. 7, dating from 
1676, which forbids all labour, business, or work 
done in the course of a man's calling on the Lord's 
day, works of necessity and mercy being excepted. 
It does not apply to coach-hirers, or drivers, or 
farmers. A baker baking bread transgresses the 
statute, but not one who bakes his customers' 
Sunday dinners. Contracts entered into on Sunday 
are not void if they are not within the regular 
business of the contracting parties ; a tradesman 
may draw or accept a bill of exchange on Sunday, 
and a professional man may sell his horse. By an 
act of Geo. III. any house of amusement to wliich 
persons are admitted on a Sunday on paying 
money, or by tickets already paid for, is a dis- 
orderly house the test being wnether the thing is 
done for gain. In some respects English Sunday 
laws are more explicit than those of Scotland. 
Special licensing laws regulate hotels and public- 
houses. There are also laws against killing game, 
using dogs or nets for sporting purposes, or fishing 
for salmon otherwise than with rod or line ; the 
Factory Acts and Pawnbroking Acta exclude Sun- 
day labour (Jews being excepted). Local regula- 
tions deal with theatres, museums, galleries, &c. 

In Scotland a law of 1579 prohibits hand-labour- 
ing, working, gaming ami playing; there was 
another act in 1661. And CaM statutes, often 
continued, have recently been held to be still valid. 
In some resiwets the law of Scotland is stricter ; 
all salmon-fishing is forbidden. But in the main 
the legislation is the same. Diligence cannot be 
executed on Sunday, save in case of persons in 
meditatione ftirftr. ; contracts signed on that day are 
not necessarily void. 

In America the law generally follows that of 
England, though some states have special regula- 
tions almut Sunday travelling. There are rules in 
force for preserving order and quiet on that day; 



by munici|>al regulations or general statute place* 
of amusement and houses for the sale of intoxicants 
are usually kept shut. 

In sharp opposition to the bulk of Puritan testi- 
mony is the contention of the devout people for- 
merly known as 'Sabbatarians,' still represented 
by the Seventh-day Baptists in America, and a 
Hi of the Tunkers there. The Kngli.-h Sab- 
batarians of the 17th century (represented by 
Theophilus Brabourne) strenuously contended that 
the Sabbath was divinely instituted at the close nf 
the work of creation, and remains binding on all 
mankind till the end of the world; the seventh 
day of the week alone is the Scriptural Sabbath : 
as there is alwolutely no warrant in Scripture for 
changing from the seventh day of the week to the 
first, this change is mere will-worship, and a most 
unjustifiable encroachment of man's imagination 
on God's law. From the time of the Apostles, they 
hold, there never wanted down to the Reforma- 
tion sincere Christians who, in the face of obloquy 
and persecution, continued to observe the fourth 
ruiimiamlinent. In the Abyssinian Church the 
Sabbath has not been supplanted by the Sunday, 
both days being kept; Mip]>ort is al-o claimed 
from the practice of the Armenians and Nestorians. 
Immediately after the Protestant Reformation 
were founded small societies testifying to the truth. 
In the later part of the 16th century and earlier 
part of the 17th there were at least eleven churches 
of Seventh-day Baptists in England, now dwindled 
to one or two. In America there are some flourish- 
ing churches of Seventh-day Baptists in sixteen 
states of the I'nion, with a membership of 10,000, 
two colleges, and an extensive literary propaganda. 

The literature of the Nihhath controversy is exceed- 
ingly voluminous, as may best be seen by consulting 
Kobert Cox, The Literature of the Satbath Question (2 
vols. 1865). See also, on the Puritan side, Hol.l. n's 
Christian Sabbath (IS'.T.i; Gilfillan's Sabbath (1861)* 
Four Prize Essays (Sabbath Alliance, 1886) ; and on the 
Dominical side, Hengstenberg's The Lord'* Day ( Kng. 
trans. 1853); Hesscy's Sundin/ (Hampton Lectures for 
1800 ) ; Zahn, Oeschithtedet Sabbath( 1878 ) ; Gaintner and 
Spedding, SI ml ins in k'nyliih History ( 1881 ) ; Crafts, TKe 
Sabbath for Man ( New York, 1885 ). For the Seventhly 
Baptists, see Lewis, Sabbath anil Sunday ( new ed. 1886); 
Andrews, History of the Sabbath ( 1873 ) ; and Bailey's 
History of the Seventh-Day Baptist Oeneral Conference. 

Sabbaliil (named from Sabbati, an Italian 
botanist), a genus of plants, of the natural order 
Gentianocea?, natives of North America. They 
are small herbaceous plants, some with simple, and 
some with branched stems. They all contain, like 
many others of the same order, a pure bitter 
principle, useful in fevers and as a tonic. 

SalH'lliailislll. a heresy about the distinction 
of Persons in God, the name of which is due to 
Sabellius, of whom but little is known, save that 
he was most probably a native of Libya, came to 
Home under Zephyrinus, and was banished by 
Callistns, whereupon he took refuge in the Libyan 
Pentapolis. The Adoptianists ami Modalists up 
to this time were the chief divisions of the Mon- 
archians, the former making Christ the chosen of 
(Sod, His divinity the effect of a complete oneness 
of will with Him", the latter making Him merely a 
manifestation of God. Modalism prevailed in 
Rome under the patronage of Calixtus, hut was 
denounced by Hippolytus, who was himself accused 
of ditheism. Sabel'lius led the more extreme 
Modalists, and ottered strong opposition to Calix- 
tus, but his influence was far more important in 
the East than in the West, where the phrase of 
Athanasius that the Son and the Father are one 
and the same in substance ( o^oowioi ) was at once 
accepted, though rejected at Antioch in 268. 

The earlier form of Sabellianism was almost 



SABIANS 



SABLE 



61 






identical with Patripassianism, the chief teachers 
of which were Praxeas, Noetus, Epigonus, and 
Cleomenes. But it developed into a complete 
resolution of the Trinity into a mere threefold 
manifestation of God to man. Father, Son, and 
Holy Spirit are not distinct subsistences (hypos- 
taxes), but merely one and the same person in 
different aspects, just as the sun is at once a spheri- 
cal body, a fountain of light, and a source of heat. 
The single absolute Divine Essence the monas or 
pure Deity unfolds itself in creation and the 
history of man as a Trinity. The energy by which 
God called into being and sustains the universe is 
the Logos, after whose image men were created ; 
but when they had fallen from perfection it became 
necessary for the Logos, or Divine Energy, to 
hypi>statUe itself in a human body, in order to 
raise and redeem them ; hence in the man Christ 
Jesus dwelt the fullness of the Godhead bodily ; 
while the same Divine Energy, operating spirit- 
ually and impersonally in the hearts of believers, 
is the Holy Ghost. Sabellius held further that 
these Divine manifestations are merely tempor- 
ary, and that after the Logos and the Holy Ghost 
haa done their work they would be reabsorlied in 
the absolute Deity the trios would again resolve 
itself into the monas ; or, in the language of St 
Paul, that 'God would be all in all.' Epiphanius 
alleges that Sabellius derived his system from an 
apocryphal Gospel to the Egyptians ; and there are, 
as Neander points out, so many points of resem- 
blance in Sabellianism to the Alexandrian Jewish 
theology in general that the statement may be 
regarded as at least indicating the direction from 
which proceeded the influences that determined 
the theosophy of the unknown Pentapolitan. The 
4th-century heresy associated with the name of 
Marcellus of Ancyra was closely allied to Sabellian- 
isrn, which indeed Itecornes a term employed some- 
what loosely. The followers of Sabellius were 
formally suppressed by the Catholic Church in the 
4th century ; but his doctrine, which, divested of 
its Gnostic and Neoplatonic phraseology about 
enviiintion and re-absorption, &c. , is substantially 
Unitarian, lias seldom wanted eminent advocates 
in any subsequent age of Christianity. 

See the Church History of Neander ; discussions l>y 
Schleiermacher and Langc ; Dollinger's Hippo/ytus n. 
KaUittiu (1853; Eng. trans, by Flununer, 1876); and 
Zahn's Marcell. v. Aneyra (1867). 

Nubians. See SAB.*ANS, M.\ M> v. \ \>. ZABISH. 

Sahine. a river of Texas, rises near the 
northern boundary of Texas, and flows south-east 
to the border of Louisiana, and then south, forming 
the boundary lietween the two states. It empties 
through Sabine Lake ( 18 miles long by 9 miles 
wide ) into the Gulf of Mexico. The Sabine is 500 
mil. - long, and though shallow is mostly navigable 
for -mall steamboats. 

Sabine. See SWIM;. 

Sahine, SIR EDWARD, physicist, was born 
in Dublin, oij the 14th October 1788. He 
obtained a commission in the artillery in his 
sixteenth year, and accompanied Ross and Parry 
as astronomer in the expeditions of 1818-20 in 
search of a north-west passage. Between 1821 
and 1827 he undertook a series of voyages to 
places between the equator and the north pole, 
making at each point pendulum and magnetic 
experiments of great value. Elected a Fellow of the 
Royal Society in 1818, he was from 1861 to 1879 
its president. He was for many years secretary 
of the British Association, and filled the office 
of president in 1853. In 1856 he was raised to 
the rank of major-general, in 1869 he was created 
K.I '. M., retiring as general in 1877 ; and in 1875 he 
was elected a corresponding member of the French 



Academy. He died at Richmond, June 26, 1883, 
aged ninety-five. His scientific reputation rests 
chiefly upon his labours in terrestrial magnetism, 
his various memoirs in the Philosophical Transac- 
tions and Reports to the British Association being 
to this clay invaluable collections of magnetic facts. 
By his personal influence he did more than any 
other single man in inducing the government to 
establish magnetic observatories in different parts 
of the world, and in initiating the valuable mag- 
netic work now carried out by the Admiralty. 

Sabines. an ancient Italian people whose 
original headquarters were amongst tne central 
Apennines, but ultimately occupying an area 
which extended down into the western plains, 
even to Rome itself. They had for neighbours 
Umhrians, Etruscans and Latins, and Samnites 
(see map of Italia Antiqua). They and their 
near kinsmen, the Samnites, constituted a group 
sometimes called Sabeliian ; and the two or more 
Sabellian peoples, together with the (less nearly) 
related Umbrians, spoke Aryan Italic dialects, 
to which the name of Umbro-Sabellian has been 
given. According to the legend, a colony of 
Sabines occupied the Quirinal Hill in Rome, but 
were ultimately incorporated with the Latin 
followers of Romulus upon the Palatine, and 
so helped to constitute the Roman people (see 
ROMK). The Rape of the Sabines belongs to this 
period of legendary history. Romulus, having 
diflioultv in finding wives for his followers ( credited 
with a dubious reputation as runaways and male- 
factors), invited the Sabines to a feast and games ; 
and while the games were going on the garrison of 
the Palatine seized the unsuspecting and unpro- 
tected Sabine women, whom they carried off' to be 
their wives. After several wars the Sabines out- 
side of Rome were ultimately subjected (241 B.C.). 

Sable (Maries zibellina), a species of Marten 
(DJ.V.), so nearly allied to the Common Marten and 
Pine Marten that it is difficult to state satis- 
factory specific distinctions. The feet are covered 
with fur, even on the soles, and the tail is perhaps 
more bushy than in the British martens. The 




Sable (Marta zil/ellina). 

length, exclusive of the tail, is about 18 inches. 
The fur is brown, grayish yellow on the throat, 
and small grayish-yellow spots are scattered on the 
sides of tne neck. The whole fur is extremely 
lustrous, and hence of the very highest value, an 
ordinary sable skin being worth 2 to 4, 10s., 
and one of the finest quality 28. The fur attains 
its highest perfection in the beginning of winter, 
and the pursuit of the sable at that season is 
one of the most difficult and adventurous of enter- 
prises ( see FURS ). The sable is a native of Siberia, 
widely distributed over that country, and found in 
its coldest regions, at least wherever forests extend. 
The progress of geographical discovery in the 



62 



SABLE ISLAND 



>At HKYKKKLL 



eastern parte of Siberia has been much indebted 
to the expeditions of the hardy and daring sable- 
hunters, exploring new regions at the worst seasons 
of the year, and upending dreary immtlis at a great 
distance from all human abodes. The sable is 
taken by traps, which are a kind of pitfall, it being 
necessary to avoid injury to the fur; or by tracking 
it through the snow to ii - hole, and placing a net 
over the mouth of the hole. It is a very wary 
animal, and not easily captured. It makes its 
neat in a hollow tree, or sometimes, it is said, by 
burrowing in the ground, and lines it with moss, 
leaves, and grass. From this it issues to prey on 
hares and smaller animals of almost any kind, its 
agilitv enabling it even to catch birds among the 
branches of trees. It is ready, when food is scarce, 
to eat the remains of an animal on which a larger 
beast of prey has feasted, and is said even to satisfy 
its hunger with berries in winter, when animal food 
is not to be had. The sable, although it inhabits 
lii^li northern latitudes, does not, as so many arctic 
itiiinmls do, change to white in the winter. This 
is accounted for by its habit of hunting among the 
branches of trees, against the dark colour of which 
white would be conspicuous, and therefore dis- 
advantageous. 

Saldf Island, a low-lying island in the At- 
lantic, in 44 N. lat. and 60"' \V. long., 110 miles K. 
of the central part of Nova Scotia (and not near 
Cape Sable, at the south-east corner of Nova Scotia, 
where there is also a Sable Island). It consists of 
two parallel sand ridges, with a lagoon between 
them. Scrubby gross, cranberries, &c. grow on the 
island, which is so dangerous to navigation, and 
has so frequently lieen the scene of wrecks, as to 
be called 'the sailor's grave. ' The Canadian gov- 
ernment has since 1873 built three lighthouses on 
it, with an establishment of some 30 persons, of 
which two have been swept away and the third 
undermined, as the island is gradually sinking. 
Early in the 19th century it was 40 miles long ; in 
1890 it was reduced to 20 miles : it is to be hoped 
it may soon utterly vanish. Near it there are 
sandbanks. 

Sables D'OIonne, LES, a seaport of France 
(dent. Vendee), on the Atlantic coast, 50 miles S. 
by W. of Nantes, owes its early im|x>rtance to Louis 
XL, who excavated (1472) the port and erected 
the fortifications. There is a trade in grain, wine, 
salt, cattle, timber, and tar. Salt-making, ship- 
building, and fishing (sardines and oysters) are the 
chief occupations. The town is visited for its sea- 
bathing. Pop. (1891) 11,169. 

Sabots, a species of wooden shoes mode out of 
one block, and largely used by the French and 
Itelgian peasantry, especially by those who inhabit 
moist and marshy districts. They are made of tir, 
birch, beech, alder, walnut, and other wood, and 
are manufactured principally in the Cevennes dis- 
tricts of France, the more ornamental varieties 
especially at Mende, Villefort, and Marvejols, all 
in t In- department of Lozere. For greater comfort 
and convenience, straw is stuffed between the foot 
and the wooden sides, or, with the most luxurious, 
a low woollen sock, mode to fit the hollow of the 
shoe. The name is sometimes extended to a kind 
of Clogs (q.v.), with wooden soles and leather 
uppers. 

Sabre. See SWORD. 

Sabretache ( Fr. ), the leather case for carrying 
letters, &c. which is attached to the sword-belt of 
huHsars and of most mounted officers. In the latter 
case it is often highly ornamented. 

Sabrlna Land, a stretch of coast-land dis- 
covered in the Antarctic Ocean (1839) by Balleny ; 
it is crossed by 120 E. long, and the Antarctic 
Circle. Sabrina is the Latin form of SEVERN. 



Saccharic Acid. HjC.H.O,, i a product of 
the action of nitric acid, under certain conditions, 
on grape and cane sugar, or on starch, gum, and 
lignine. It occurs as a colourless, inodorous, 

deliquescent, gummy, uncrystallisable mass, which 
is freely solulile in alcohol. It is Milliciently 
powerful to dissolve iron and /.inc. with extrication 
of hydrogen. It has a tendency to form double 
salts. It is ililiasic, and forms an ucid and a 
normal salt with [>otassiuiu. 

Sarcliariinctcr, or SACCHAROMETER, an in- 
strument for determining the quantity of sugar in 
liquids, especially brewers' and distillers' worts. 
In principle it resembles the hydrometer (see 
Si'icinc DENSITY ), used for ascertaining the 
strength of alcoholic liquids. It consists of a 
hollow sphere or oval of thin brass, with a 
graduated stem and a hook so placed opposite 
each other that when placed in water it floats, 
and the graduated stem stands uiiright on the 
top, and the hook is below, for the purpose of 
appending weights. The degree to which the stem 
sinks gives the means of calculating, by tables 
prepared on purpose, the proportion of saccharine 
matter present in the liquid. 

Saccharin, or GLTJCIDE, C,H 4 COSO 2 NH, is a 
sweet substance prepared by complex processes 
from coal-tar. It is a wh'ite, semi -crystalline 
powder, with a faint odour and intensely sweet 
taste. So sweet is it that it requires to be very 
much diluted before its sweetness can be appreci- 
ated, from J to 1 grain sutlicing for a cupful of tea. 
It is not a pure substance as found in commerce, 
but contains a variable proportion ( 40 to 60 per 
cent. ) of a less sweet compound. On this account 
opinions diller ;ts to its sweetening power com- 
pared with that of sugar, it being estimated to be 
from 200 to 300 times stronger than the natural 
product. It was at first thought likely that it 
would prove a serious rival to sugar, but its price 
offers no great inducement, and conflicting opi&iooi 
as to its safety have rather militated against it- 
use. At present it is employed for sweetening the 
food of diabetic patients, and for disguising (lie 
taste of drugs. Some aerated- water makers also 
employ it as a substitute for sugar, and it may be 
used to give an extra sweetness to glucose in the 
manufacture of artificial jams, &c. Saccharin is 
but slightly soluble in water, but dissolves readily 
if mixed With baking-soda, carbonic acid gas being 
liberated during solution. 

Saccharissa. See WALLER. 

Saccharum. See ( under Sugar ) Suo AR-CANE. 

SaccllHti, FRANCO (c. 1330-99), an Italian 
novelist, a follower of Boccaccio, was a native of 
Florence, who held several diplomatic offices. Of 
his 258 Novelle, first printed in 1724, ten are trans- 
lated in Thomas Hoscoe's Italian Novelists (1825). 

Saccopharynx. See PELICAN-FISH. 

Sa-li'V'r'll. HKNRY, D.D., was born in 1672 
at Mai I borough, the son of the High Church rector 
of St Peter's, and from the grammar school there 
was sent by charity in 1689 to Magdalen College, 
Oxford. He shared rooms with Addison, who 
dedicated to his 'dearest Henry 'An Account of 
the Greatett En/jlish. Poets (1694): and, gaining 
successively a demynhip and a fellowship, he took 
the degrees of KA. I 1093), M.A. (1696), H.I). 
(1707), and D.D. (1708). He hod held the small 
St .ilVordshire vicarage of Cannock, when in 1705 he 
Wame preacher of St Saviour's. Southwark, and 
soon made his mark as a pulpit orntor. In 1709 he 
delivered the two sermons one at Derby assizes, 
the other on the 5th of November at St Paul's 
which have given him a place in history. The 
rancour with which he assailed the principles of 



SACHS 



SACKVILLE 



63 



the Revolution Settlement and the Act of Tolera- 
tion, whilst glancing at Godolphin as ' Volpone,' 
and asserting the doctrine of non-resistance, roused 
the wrath of the Whig government of the hour, 
and led to his impeachment before the House of 
Lords of high crimes and misdemeanours (1710). 
Ardent crowds, shouting ' High Church and Sache- 
verell!' and now and then wrecking a meeting- 
house, attended him to Westminster ; he defended 
himself ably ( Bumet ascribes the defence to Atter- 
bury ), but \>y a majority of seventeen he was found 
guilty, and suspended for three years from preaching, 
his two sermons also being burned by the common 
hangman. The ministry fell that same summer, 
and in 1713, on the expiry of his suspension, 
Sacheverell was selected by the House of Commons 
to preach the Restoration sermon before them, and 
specially thanked on the occasion. A more sub- 
stantial token of favour was his presentation to 
the rectory of St Andrew's, Holborn, after whicli 
little more is heard of him save that he squabbled 
with his parishioners, and was suspected of com- 
plicity in a Jacobite plot. He died at the Grove, 
Highgate, 5th June 1724, and was buried in St 
Andrew's, Holborn, whence his lead coffin was 
stolen in 1747. 

See voL ii of Hill Burton's Hillary of the Reiqn of 
Queen AnneCEAm. 1880); and F. Madan's 'Bibliography 
of Dr Sacheverell ' in the Bibliographer for 1883-84. 

Sachs, HANS, the most prolific and at the same 
time the most important German poet of his time, 
was born on 5th November 1494, at Nuremberg, 
where his father was a tailor. While at school he 
learned the rudiments of Latin, but waa never a 
scholar in the academic sense of the term, although 
he was a very well- and widely-informed man. 
About the age of fifteen he began to le;irn the craft 
of shoemaking; his love of verse also led him to learn 
the art, almost mechanical, of verse-making from 
Leonhard Nunnenbeck, a weaver and meistersinger 
in his native town. On finishing his apprentice- 
ship, Sachs, as waa the custom of craftsmen in 
those days, made a tour through Germany, practis- 
ing his calling in various cities, and frequenting 
assiduously the schools or corporations organised 
by the meister finger, who, since the disappearance 
of the older minnesinger, or minstrels of chivalry, 
had become the chief representatives of German 
poetry. On his return to Nuremberg Sachs com- 
menced business as a shoemaker, and prospered 
in his calling ; and, after a long, cheerful, and 
happy life, died on 19th (or 25th) January 1576, 
and was buried in St John's churchyard, Nurem- 
berg. 

Sachs's career as an author is divided into 
two periods. In the first he shows an interest 
mainly in the occurrences that were then agi- 
tating Germany. It was the epoch of the Re- 
formation of Luther, whose praises he cele- 
brated (1523) in an allegorical tale entitled Die 
Wittenbergisck Nachtigal, while his poetical fly- 
sheets (of which about 200 are known ) furthered in 
no small measure the Protestant cause. In the 
second period his poetical activity was turned more 
to the delineation of common life and manners. 
His poetry is distinguished by its heartiness, good 
sense, homely morality, and fresh humour. It is, 
however, deficient in high imagination and brilliant 
fancy, and contains much prosaic and insipid verse. 
It was his chief pride to be an honourable citizen 
of Nuremberg, and his mind and his interest 
seldom travel beyond the narrow limits of its 
encircling walls. There is not one of his produc- 
tions but what was meant to serve some didactic 
purpose. His best works are Schwanlce, or Merry 
Tales, the humour of which is sometimes unsur- 
passable, serious tales, allegorical and spiritual 
songs, and Lenten dramas. His meistergesange, the 



pieces he wrote according to the precepts of the 
verse-makers' guild, are now of little or no value, 
though in his own day they raised him to the first 
place amongst all his contemporaries. By the 52d 
year of his career ( 1567 ) as a poet he had written 
34 vols., containing upwards of 6300 pieces, among 
which were more than 4000 meistergesdnge, 200 
comedies and tragedies, about 1700 merry tales, 
secular and religious dialogues, proverbs, and 
fables, 7 prose dialogues, and 70 songs, secular and 
devotional The first edition of his works was 
published at Augsburg in 1558-61, but that of 
Wilier (5 vols. 1570-/9) is better. After the 
middle of the 17th century Hans Sachs fell into 
neglect and was forgotten ; and he remained so 
until his memory was revived by Goethe in 1776. 
His Complete Works were published by Giitze and 
Von Keller (Stuttg. 15 vols. 1886). The selections 
of Merry Tales and Proverbs in Verse by Goedeke 
and Tittmann (3 vols. 1883-85) and by Engelbrecht 
(1879) can be recommended, as well as Tittmann's 
edition of the Lenten Dramas. 

Besides Drescher's Studien zu Hans Sachs ( Marburg, 
1891), there are biographies hy Ranisch (1765), Genee 
(1887), Stein (Halle, 1889), Kawerau (Halle, 1889), and 
Schweitzer (in French; Nancy, 1889). English readers 
may consult MacCallum, Studio in German Literature 
(1884). 

Sachs, JULIUS, botanist, born at Breslau 2d 
October 1832, studied at Prague and began to teach 
botany there. After lecturing at the agricultural 
colleges of Tharandt in Saxony and Poppelsdorf 
near Bonn from 1859 to 1867, he was in the last 
year appointed professor of Botany at Freiburg, 
but removed to vViirzburg in the following year. 
There he carried on, in a laboratory built under 
his own direction, important experiments in plant 
physiology, especially in determining the influence 
of light and heat upon plants, ami in investigating 
the movements and other organic activities of 
vegetable growth. His Lehrbucli der Botanik (4th 
ed. 1874; Eng. trans. 1875) and Handbuch der 
Experimentalphysiolpgie der Pflanzen (1866) are 
useful and instructive text-books. Besides these 
he wrote Geschichte der Botanik vom 16 Jahrhundert 
bit 1860 ( 1875 ; trans. 1890), Grundzuge, der Pflan- 
zenphysiologie (1873), and Vorlesungen uber Pflan- 
zenphysiologie (trans. 1887). Died in 1897. 

Sack, a name in common use in the time of 
Shakespeare, and occurring down to the middle of 
the 18tn century as denoting a kind of wine. The 
exact nature of this famous wine, the favourite 
beverage of FalstafF, and the origin of the name 
have bi'i'ii much discussed. Sack or seek seems to 
be simply an English disguise of the Spanish seeo 
(Fr. sec), applied to wines of the sherry genus, as 
distinguished from the sweet wines ; a term which 
we now translate by 'dry.' Canary was often 
the wine meant by sack. In old churchwardens' 
accounts sack is frequently mentioned as a com- 
munion-wine. It seems to have been mixed with 
port ; and this mixture of white and red wines sur- 
vived at Douglas in the Isle of Man till at least 
1887 (Notes and Queries, 1887-88). 

Sack hilt (Fr. saquebute), a name used for two 
totally different instruments the one a kind of 
trumpet, the predecessor of the Trombone (q. v. ); 
the other, the sackbut of Scripture, a stringed 
instrument somewhat of the nature of a guitar. 

Sacketts Harhor, a village of New York, 
on a bay of Lake Ontario, at the mouth of Black 
River, 12 miles by rail W. of Watertown. In the 
war of 1812 it was an important naval station ; but 
it has now only some 800 inhabitants, although it 
is becoming a popular summer-resort. 

Sack villc. THOMAS, Earl of Dorset, poet and 
statesman, was born about 1536 at Buckhurst in 



SAl'O 



SACItAMKNT 



Sussex, the only nn of Sir Richard Sackville, 
Chancellor of the Exchequer. He in supposed to 
have -tiiilied at Hart Hall, Oxford, and St John's 
College, Oxford, and then to have entered the 
Inner Temple; in 1554 he married, ami in 1558 
was returned to parliament. With Thomas Norton 
he produced the blank-verse tragedy of Ferrex and 
Porrejc (afterwards called liurboduc), which in Jan- 
uary 1562 was acted liofore Queen Elizabeth (who 
was Sackville's second cousin) at Whitehall hy the 
gentlemen of the Inner Temple. This work, whose 
plot i- founded on a British legend, and which is 
after the style of Seneca, the incidents being moral- 
ised at intervals by a chorus, claims particular notice 
as the earliest tragedy in the English language. 
Dramatic energy it has none, but the style is pure 
and stately, evincing eloquence and power of 
thought (see DKAMA, Vol. IV. p. 85). Sack- 
ville's other chief production was the Induction 
to a Myrrovr for Mnifi.itnites (15U3), a noble 
poem, ' uniting,' as Hallam savs, ' the school 
of Chaucer and Lydgate to the faery Queen,' and 
almost rivalling the latter in the magnificence 
and dignity of its allegoric personifications. The 
influence of Dante is very perceptible. His prodi- 
gality brought Sackville into disgrace with the 
queen, and he travelled awhile in France and 
Italy, but on his father's death in 1566 returned to 
England, and next vear was knighted and created 
Lord Bucklmrst. lie was now employed much as 
a diplomatist in France and the Low Countries ; 
in 1586 announced her death-sentence to Mary 
Queen of Scots ; in 1589 was installed a Knight of 
the Garter ; in 1599 succeeded Burghley as lord 
high treasurer; and in 1604 was created Earl of 
Dorset. He died suddenly at Whitehall at the 
council table, 19th April 1608. 

See the Life prefixed to the edition of his Works by 
the Hon. and Rev. W. Sackville-West (1859), and a long 
article in voL it of Cooper's A thence Cantab. ( 1861 ). 

CHARLES SACKVILLE, sixth Earl of Dorset, was 
born January 24, 1637, and succeeded to the title 
in 1677- He travelled in Italy, was returned by 
East Grinstead to the first parliament of Charles 
II., and soon became an especial favourite of the 
king, and notorious, like too many of the courtiers, 
for his boisterous and indecorous frolics. He served 
under the Duke of York at sea, was employed on 
various missions, but could not endure the tyranny 
of James II., and was one of the most ardent in 
the cause of the Prince of Orange. His later years 
were honoured by a generous patronage of men of 
letters like Prior, Wycherley, and Dryden. He 
died at Bath, January 19, 1706. He was himself 
the author of a few occasional lyrical and satirical 
pieces, but is only remembered for one short poem, 
the bright and delightful song, 'To all you Ladies 
now on Land. ' 

Saco, a city and port of entry of Maine, on the 
left bank of the Saco River, here crossed l.v a 
bridge to Biddeford, and with falls of 50 feet 
supplying water-power, 16 miles hy rail WSW. of 
Portland. It contains cotton and shoe factories, 
sawmills, machine-shops, &c. Pop. (1880) 6389; 
(1890)6075. The Saco River rises in the White 
Mountains of New Hampshire, and runs south- 
east through Maine to the Atlantic. It is 170 
miles long. 

SiirritllM'll t ( Lat. sacramentum, mysterium, 
Gr. mystirion), the name given by theological 
writers to certain religions rites, the number as 
well a* effects of which are the subject of much 
controversy lietween various bodies of Christians. 
The word tarrniiifiifiiiii, in primitive classical 
usage, meant either the oath taken by soldiers on 
their Hint enrolment, or the sum of money deposited 
l>\ suitors on entering upon a cause, and forfeited 



' to sacred uses ' by the unsuccessful party ; and 
the corresponding classical Greek word mystirion 
meant not merely the secret religious ceremonies 
practised in the worship of certain gods, but also 
any revealed secret. It is certain, nevertheless, 
that at a very early period of the Christian church 
lpili the Latin word and it Greek equivalent 
came to be applied specially to certain rites of the 
Christian ceremonial, and chielly (or n- i- nun 
inonly held by Protestant*, exclusively I to those 
of Baptism and the Kueluirist. Of the .'-.-it. -clieiieal 
lectures of St Cyril of Jerusalem the leei . 
devoted to the subject of Baptism and the 
Kueluirist are called ' mystagogic lectures.' Here 
it will l>e enough to state concisely what are tlie 
views of the several religious communities on this 
much controverted subject, which formed one of 
the main grounds of division between the Roman 
< 'liurch and the Reformers of the 16th century. 

In the Roman Church it is held that there are 
seven sacraments viz. Baptism, Continuation, 
the Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Holy 
Orders, and Matrimony. The special teaching <if 
Catholics on each of these rites will lie found under 
the several heads; but there are certain general 
principles regarding them all on which the Roman 
Catholic doctrine differs widely from that of the 
Reformed communities. Catholics define a sacra- 
ment to be a visible or sensible sign permanently 
instituted by God, and conveying real interior 
grace to the recipient, and they teach that all 
sacraments contain within themselves, as instru- 
ments, and, when they are received with proper 
dispositions, produce, such grace by the virtue 
Imparted to them by God, and not merely through 
the faith of the recipient ; although they hold that 
proper dispositions on the part of the recipient, 
as sorrow for in. love of God. pious resolves, A.-C., 
are conditions indispensable for the efficacy of the 
sacramental rite (see OPUS OPEKATCM). They 
divide the sacraments into two classes, ' sacra- 
ments of the living 'and 'sacrament-s of the dead.' 
The first class comprises the Eucharist, Confirma- 
tion, Holy Orders, and Matrimony all which 
sacraments can only be received fruit fully by 
persons in a state of grace or justification. The 
second includes Baptism, Penance, and Extreme 
Unction, the special purpose of which is to remit 
sin, and which therefore can be received by persons 
in a state of sin, but penitent for that sin, and 
resolved to amend their lives. Of three of the 
sacraments viz. Baptism, Continuation, and Holy 
Orders it is held that they imprint a ' character,' 
and therefore that they can only be received once. 
The others may be repeatedly received, but under 
conditions which will be learned under each separ- 
ate head. Two things are held to enter into the 
cun-titiition of the sacrament viz. the 'matter' 
ami the 'form.' By the former is meant the 
material element or the physical action whereby 
that element is applied to* the recipient of the 
sacrament ; as water in baptism, oil in extreme 
unction, ami in both the act of washing or of 
anointing. By the latter is understood the form 
of words employed 1,\ the minister in communi- 
cating to the recipient the external rite in which 
the sacramental act consists. The minister of a 
sacrament is the person who is supposed to be 
divinely authorised to impart it. The Council of 
Trent anathematises those who teach that there 
are more or less than seven sacraments. The 
Greek Church also recognises the seven sacra- 
menta. 

The Reformed Churches have for the most part 
rejected these views. By the majority of them 
the sacraments are held to be merely ceremonial 
observances, partly designed as a solemn act, by 
which each individual is admitted to BMnbenhiih 



SACRAMENTARIANS 



SACRIFICE 



65 



or desires to make solemn profession thereof ; 
partly intended to stimulate the faith and excite 
the fervour and the pious dispositions of the 
recipient, to which dispositions alone all the 
interior effects are to be ascribed. As to the 
number of rites called by the name, almost all 
Protestants agree in restricting it to two viz. 
Baptism and the Lord's Supper; although some 
of the rites which Catholics regard as sacramental 
are retained by some of the Protestant communi- 
ties as religious observances. Calvin defends the 
ceremony of ordination by imposition of hands, 
once even calling it a sacrament, though evidently 
not in the strictest sense of the word. In the 
English Church, however, there has always been 
a school in which opinion tending towards the 
Catholic view has prevailed. Not only have English 
Churchmen ascribed to the two rites of Baptism and 
the Eucharist or Lord's Supper (q.v. ) the power of 
producing an interior grace (which in the former is 
called Regeneration, q.v.), but since the Tractarian 
movement many of them have been willing to call 
the other rites, especially Confirmation, Penance, 
and Holy Orders, by the name of sacrament, 
although of a secondary character, and not ' gener- 
ally necessary to salvation.' 

See the separate articles on the sacraments, especially 
BAPTISM, and LORD'S SUPPER, and works there cited ; 
also ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH ; and for the sacraments 
as recognised by the Orthodox Eastern Communion, see 
GREEK CHURCH, Vol. V. p. 396. 

Sacrameiltarians. a term used in more senses 
than one. ( 1 ) Ordinarily in England it means one 
who holds a ' high ' or extreme doctrine of the effi- 
cacy of the sacraments, especially of the Eucharist 
(see LORD'S SUPPER). (2) Technically, however, the 
word Is used in church history in an almost diametri- 
cally opposite sense for persons holding a 'low' doc- 
trim- on the subject of the sacraments for the party 
among the Reformers who separated from Luther 
on the doctrine of the Eucharist. Luther taught 
the doctrine of the real presence of the body and 
blood of Christ along with the bread and wine (nee 
LORD'S SUPPER). Carlstadt, Capito, and Bucer 
were the leaders of those who called this doctrine 
in question. This sacramentarian party became 
so considerable that in the diet of Augsburg they 
claimed to present a sjiecial confession known in 
history by the name of the Tetrapolitan Confession 
-eo called from the four cities, Strasburg, Con- 
stance, Lindau, and Menimingen. The Tetra- 
politan Confession rejects the doctrine of a cor- 
poreal presence, and although it admits a spiritual 
presence of Christ which the devout soul can feel 
and enjoy, it excludes all idea of a physical pres- 
ence of Christ's body. Simultaneously with this 
German movement, yet independent of it, was that 
of the Swiss reformer Zwingli, whose doctrine on 
the Eucharist, was identical with that of Carlstadt, 
and who himself presented a private confession of 
faitli to the Augsburg diet in which this doctrine 
is embodied. The four cities named aliove con- 
tinned for many years to adhere to this confession 
presented to the diet of Augsburg in their name ; 
imt. eventually they accepted the so-called Con- 
fe^ioii of Augsburg, and were merged in the 
general body of Lutherans. On the contrary, the 
article of /wingli upon the Eucharist was in sub- 
stance embodied in the confession of the Helvetic 
Church. 

S.-irrnilH'llto, the largest river of California, 
rises in the north-eastern part of the state, its 
head-stream, Pitt River, draining Goose Lake, and 
Hows south-west through the Sierra Nevada to 
Shasta, south to Sacramento, and thence south- 
nouth-west into Suisun Bay, through which its 
waters pass into San Pablo Bay and so to the 
Pacific Ocean. Itn length is about 500 miles, and 
Ml 



it is navigable for small vessels to Red Bluff, nearly 
250 miles. A few miles above its mouth it receives 
the San Joaquin ; and with this and other tribu- 
taries it drains the great central valley of the 
state. 

Sacramento, the capital of California, is on 
the east bank of the Sacramento River, at the 
mouth of the American River, 120 miles by water 
and 90 by rail NE. of San Francisco. The streets 
are laid down at right angles on a level plain. The 
business portion is built of brick, the dwellings of 
wood, with shade-trees and gardens. The principal 
public buildings are the state capital ( which cost 
about $2,000,000), the county court-house (formerly 
the capital ) and hospital, the post-office, a Roman 
Catholic cathedral, the Crocker Art Gallery, and 
the Masonic and Oddfellows' halls. The manu- 
factories include a number of flour and planing 
mills, carriage, box, and broom factories, foundries, 
potteries, spice-mills, and a cannery ; and here are 
the shops of the Southern Pacific Railroad, cover- 
ing 25 acres. Sacramento was settled in 1839 by a 
Swiss named Sutter, who built a fort here in 1841 ; 
but it was not till 1848, after the discovery of gold, 
that the city at first as a canvas town was laid 
out ; it became the state capital in 1854. Inunda- 
tions led to the building of a levee in 1862. Pop. 
( 1880) 21,420 ; ( 1890) 26,386 ; ( 1900) 29,282, 

Sacrarinui ( Lat., ' a place where sacred objects 
are deposited'), the part of a church where the 
altar is. 

Sacred Heart of Jesus. FEAST OF, a 
modern festival of the Roman Catholic Church. 
Its origin is traced to a vision which is recorded of 
a French Visitation nun named Marguerite Marie 
Alacoque (1647-90), who lived at Paray-le-Monial 
(q.v.). This devotion was gradually propagated in 
France, approved by Clement XIII. in 1765, and 
extended to the whole church in 1856, Sister Mar- 
guerite Marie being beatified in 1864. The festi- 
val is held on the Friday (in England on the 
Sunday) after the octave of Corpus Christi. Of 
many churches dedicated to the Sacred Heart by 
far the most splendid is that erected on Mont- 
martre, the highest point of Paris, in 1874-91, 
at a cost of nearly a million sterling. The 
faithful worship the heart of Jesus, considered 
' not as mere flesh, but as united to the divin- 
ity ; ' and the heart is chosen because it is a 
symbol of charity and of the inner life. The 
heart of the Blessed Virgin, on the same prin- 
ciple, is venerated by the Roman Church. There 
is a cloistered order of nuns of the Sacre Cceur, 
which was founded at Paris in 1800 by Fr. Varin 
and Mme. Barat, approved in 1826, and has 
very numerous houses in Europe, America, and 
Australasia. The chief of these in England is at 
Roehampton, in Ireland at Roscrea. Its members 
teach the higher branches of girls' education. 

See Bongaud, HMoire de la hienheurevse Marguerite 
Marie (5th ed. 1880); and Nilles, De Rationibus Fe- 
turum Sacratistimi Cordii (1875). 

Sacred Music. See Music, ANTHEM, CHANT, 
CHOIR, CHORALE, HYMN, INTONING, MASS (Music 
OF), ORATORIO, PLAIN-SONG, SERVICE (MUSICAL). 

Sacred Wars. See AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, 
PiiiLii- OK MACEDON. 

Sacrifice has liecn the fundamental institution 
of all natural religions. It is found at one time or 
another with the same general features in nearly 
all parts of the world. The same human wants 
have everywhere found the same embodiment. As 
a general rule its historical development among 
different peoples keeps pace with the progress of 
their thoughts regarding the nature of the divinities 
they worship. Sacrifice is primarily a sacramental 
meal at which the communicants are a deity and 



66 



SACRIFICE 



his worshippers, and the element* the flesh and 
blood of a sacred victim. Primitive tribes every- 
where seem to regard themselves as related to 
their gods by the bond of kinship, and every tribe 
has certain sacred animals which it regards as 
related to the tribal gixl by precisely the same bond. 
These sacred animals are probably a survival of the 
totem-stage through which all civilised races seem 
to have passed. In any case they play a mo-i 
important part in primitive religion. They are 
regarded with reverence as sources or media of 
supernatural influences. Their lives are protected 
like those of kinsmen. To slaughter one of 
them for private use is an act of sacrilege or 
murder. Sacrifice is a rare and solemn public 
function. The significant part of it is not tin' 
slaving of the victim, but the sacrificial meal which 
follows. During this meal the life of the sacrosanct 
animal with its mysterious virtues is supposed to 
pass physically into the communicants, whereby 
the natural bond of union between the god and his 
clients is sacramentallv continued and sealed. 

While this sacrificial meal occurs with the same 
general features in all natural religions, there is 
infinite diversity in detail. ( 1 ) There are differ- 
ences as to the portions assigned to the divine 
and human communicants. As a rule one or 
more parts which are regarded as either peculiarly 
sacred or peculiarly choice the blood, the fat, the 
head, the shoulders, the viscera are given to the 
deity, and the rest is eaten by the worshippers. 
Sometimes a whole victim is given to the deity, 
while another is eaten by his commensals. Some- 
times the portion of the god, sometimes that of the 
worshippers, is eaten by priests but that is a late 
refinement. (2) There are differences as to the 
minor offerings which usually accompany the great 
sacrifice and help to furnish forth the feast. Fruit, 
cakes, honey, wine, milk, butter, and oil are the 
most common of the secondary oblations. What 
is prescribed in one country is forbidden in 
another. Each people naturally offers the choicest 
produce of its own land. (3) There are differences 
as to the times and seasons of sacrifice. Among 
pastoral tribes the great sacrifices occur at the time 
of yeaning, among agricultural peoples during 
vintage and harvest. (4) Finally there are im- 
portant differences as to the way in which the 
portion of the deity is conveyed to him. At first 
men believe that he actually eats the flesh of sacri- 
fice. He is supposed to dwell in certain hallowed 
spots in his dominions in stones, trees, fountains, 
caves. At these natural shrines his worshippers 
meet and sacrifice, and there they lay out his 
portion and leave it. At this stage sacrifice is 
literally the food of the gods. After a time men 
rise above this crude conception. The deity comes 
to be regarded as an ethereal being whose home is 
the unper air, and he can no longer be supposed to 
partake of solid food. The difficulty that now- 
arises is overcome partly by the use of fire, which 
etherealises the sacrifice and sends it up to the 
deity in savoury clouds of smoke and vapour, 
partly by the multiplication of liquid offerings, 
especially blood and wine, which sink into the 
ground and may readily be supposed to be drunk 
up by the cod. 

These are the details and non-essentials of primi- 
tive sacrifice. The essentials are the public assem- 
bly, the shrine, the sacred victim, the banquet, 
and the supposed presence of the god as a guest- 
friend. The object is always to renew and 
strengthen the ties of kinship and friendship be- 
tween the god and his worshippers, and so to 
secure the continuance of material prosperity. 
This primitive sacrificial system is not without 
religious value. If it is not lofty, it is genuine. 
It u no mere imposing or touching ceremony. 



The ideas which it embodies are to every wor- 
shipper realities. Religion and ritual are si ill 
one. The system has also cou-i.i.-iuMe ethical 
value. It binds the woishippers not im-i.-l\ to 
their god but to one another. The goods it seeks 
are material, but they are always imblic and social. 
never Hellish goods. It gives the individual no 
place except as a member of the commune or 
tribe. 

A new and radically different conception of 
sacrifice in formed when the trilwl system begins 
tu break up. Primitive ideas of the consanguinity 
of gods, men, and beasts become otisolete. Sacred 
animals become private pruperty. their flesh begins 

to be used as con n food, and they lose their 

sanctity. llei'ore a sacrifice can now take place an 
animal has first to be surrendered hy its owner anil 
consecrated. Indication takes the place of natural 
sanctity. It is this new and ini]>oitant element 
that changes the character of sacrifice. The act 
of surrender, which is at first a mere preliminary, 
comes to be regarded as the e-.rnti.al feature. A 
sacrifice begins to be spoken of as a gift or tribute 
from the worshipper to the deity, and the original 
sacramental idea is gradually lost sight of. Is this 
a forward or a backward movement of thought? 
It may be the one or the other, according to the 
meaning attached to the gift. Two interpretations 
are possible. Gifts have either a symlmiical or an 
intrinsic value. If the sacrificial gift is simply an 
expression of the truth that all private property is 
a trust from God and ought to be devoted to Hia 
service, the new conception is an advance and can 
do nothing but good. But if it be supposed that 
God stands in need of gifts, and that the more 
numerous and costly the oblations the greater their 
efficacy, the tribute-idea is a backward movement. 
Sacrifice then l>ecomes nothing but a method of 
conjuring. Unfortunately the latter view is the 
common one. The historical outcome of the gift 
or tribute theory is holocausts, hecatomlw, and 
human sacrifices. These last are a strange in- 
stance of reversion to barbaric practice. Human 
sacrifice is natural among cannibals : the food that 
is most grateful to man is always presented to the 
gods. Its revival among civilised peoples is the 
result of a very different train of thought. Those 
who begin to measure the atoning power of a sacri- 
fice by its magnitude, splendour, or cost cannot 
forget that they have posses-ions more precious 
than flocks and herds. Hence in times of great 
distress they begin to conjure the displeasure of 
their gods with offerings of their own flesh and 
blood. 

As the breaking up of the tribal system leads to 
a radically new conception of the nature of sacri- 
fice, so the downfall of a nation may always be 
expected to produce great changes in the sacri- 
ficial system. Adversity always puts a great 
strain on a nation's faith in the efficacy of sacri- 
ficial gifts. Repeated calamity shatters it faith. 
How can it escape from religious negation? Not 
by any new sacrificial theory. Sacrifice is either . 
sacramental rite or a tribute. No other conception 
is possible. The history of Israel, however, prove- 
that two courses are still open to a people whose 
minds have lieen purged of the superstition that 
mere gifts can secure the divine favour. Some few- 
great minds rise above the sacrificial idea to a 
purely spiritual religion. The majority return to 
the sacramental idea. Of the latter some revive 
the sacramental rite in its most primitive form, 
using as the sacramental element- the llesh and 
blood of various animals still tabooed or sacred. 
A greater number adopt the most complex and re- 
fined sacramental ritual. Taking it up at the stage 
where ito historical development has been arrested, 
elaborating it at certain points and recasting it 



SACRILEGE 



SACY 



67 



at others so as to make it more fitly express the 
religious wants of the new time, they oegin to 
practise the whole with a fresh zeal. 

In primitive Israel the central feature of sacrifice 
(shelem, zebah) is always the common meal, pro- 
vided for by the slaughter of the sacred animal 
and by various kinds of cereal oblation (minha). 
Time gradually robs the meal of its sacred char- 
acter, and then the holocaust ('6/a) becomes 
common. After the Exile the great sacrifice is 
th- -in-offering (asham), which culminates in the 
solemn ritual of the day of atonement. It is gener- 
ally supposed that the central idea of the sin-offering 
is that of sulwtitntion Jehovah accepting the life 
of the victim for that of the sinner. That is prob- 
ably a mistake. Just as in the earlier sacrificial 
meal, so here, the significant part of the rite is 
not the shedding, but the application of the life- 
blood, followed by the burning of certain portions 
of the flesh and eating of others. Some of the 
etails may readily lend themselves to a new inter- 
pretation, but the origin and primary significance 
of the ritual can be understood only when its dis- 
tinrtive features are compared with those of the 
sacrificial feast. 

The thinkers of Greece and the prophets of 
Israel wage a constant polemic against the |>opular 
superstitions connected with the sacrificial system 
borne of the latter seem to break away entirely 
from ritual, others do much to give it an ethical 
and spiritual meaning. Christianity embraces 
whatever is true both in the sacramental and in 
the dedicatory idea of sacrifice. The former 
idea receives its perfect expression in the first 
Christian rite, the latter in the first rule of Chris- 
tian ethics, which transfigures sacrifice into self- 
sacrifice. But the followers of Christ are slow to 
nse to the height of His teaching. Material sacri- 
fice is always easier than spiritual. Many of the 
errors connected with the old sacrificial systems 
lurvive as well in crude unethical conceptions of 
the Christian atonement as in the maw of th- 
Church of Korne. 



the astronomical writings of the Arabians. His 
treatise, De Sphcera Mundi, a paraphrase of a 
portion of Ptolemy's Almagest, enjoyed great re- 
nown as a manual among the scholastics. First 
published in 1472, it passed by 1647 through forty 
editions, besides translations and commentaries 
bee an article by C. L. Kingsford in vol. xxvii. of 
the Diet. A'at. Biog. ( 1891 ). 

Sacrum, or Os SACRUM, is a triangular bone 
situated at the lower part of the vertebral column 
(of which it is a natural continuation), and wedged 
between the two innominate Itones so as to form 
the keystone to the pelvic arch. It is readily seen 
to consist of five vertebrae with their bodies and 
processes, all consolidated into a single bone. It* 
anterior surface (see illustrations at PELVIS ) is con- 
cave, not only from above downwards, but also from 
side to side. The posterior surface is convex, and 
presents in the middle vertical line a crest, formed by 
the fusion of the spines of the vertebra-, of which 
the bone is composed. The last sacral vertebra 
has, however, no spine, and the termination of 
the vertebral canal is here very slightly protected. 
The sacrum of man differs from that o'f the lower 
animals by its greater breadth in comparison with 
its length. This proportion is expressed in the 



following way : 



= sacral inde *. I n 



IN 



- n 7~*T~.~* - *- Mvrijfv-T* \ft ui. 

; yors rimitive Culture (2 voU. 1871); J. G 
Frier's Totemum( 1887) ; Wellh.ien'i Jfejfe arrtuchen 
Beidtnthumet ( 1887) ; and epeoilly Kobertnon Smith's 
Belvjwa of Hit Semitet (1889). 

Sacrilege i not now a legal, but is a popular 

i used to denote the breaking into a place of 

orship and stealing therefrom. In England who 

iver breaks and enters any church, chapel, meeting- 

onse, or other place of divine worship and commit* 

any felony therein, or whoever, being in such 

places, shall commit any felony therein, and break 

t of the same, is guilty of felony and liable to 

!>enal servitude for life, or for not less than three 

years, or to imprisonment for a term not exceeding 

two years, with hard labour. The legal offence of 

reaking and entering a place of worship with in 

; to steal comes under the head of burglary or 

kOOMbreaking. In Scotland there is no increase of 

iventy in the punishment by reason of the sacred 

character of the things stolen. 

Sacristan, an official attached to a church who 

charged with the care of it, and in particular of 

the sacred vestments and utensils. These are kept 

B tacruty, or vestry, which in continental 

hurches is often a spacious building. The Eng- 

ame sexton is an early corruption of this word. 

Sarrobosco, JOANNES DE (or JOHN HOLY- 

tn English mathematician of whom little 

known except that he seems to have been a 

'e of Halifax, to have studied at Oxford, and 

it at Pans as praiaMr of Mathematics, where 

". .li|-l in 1244 or liV.. He was one of the 

' doctors of the middle ages who made use of 



the male European the average sacral index is 
U2, in the negro 106, in the Australian aboriginal 
99, in the orang 87, in the gorilla 72. In the 
female the sacrum is broader than in the male 
the sacral index of the European female being 
about 116 (Turner, Challenger Reports, Zoology 
xvi.) The sacrum and its connections are illus- 
trated at PELVIS. 

Various reasons have been assigned for the 
name given from of old to this Iwne ; Littre accepts 
the view that it was liecause it was a part that 
had special significance with the ancients in sacri- 
fices. Another reason is based on the view main- 
tamed by the Jewish rabbins, who held that this 
part of the skeleton, which they called 'Inz,' re- 
sisted decay, and became the germ from which the 
body would be raised. 

Sar.v. AJJTOINE ISAAC, BARON SILVESTRE DE, 
the founder of the modern school of scientific 
Arabists, was born at Paris on 21st September 
He was trained for the civil service, and 
whilst labouring in the Mint he made himself 
master of the chief Semitic languages, as well as 
Persian, and to some extent of Turkish. He had 
already gained the reputation of a sound Oriental 
scholar through papers contributed to Eichhorn's 
tonum and other learned journals, when the 
excesses of the republicans caused him to retire 
from government service, and devote himself 
wholly to his favourite pureu'ite. He published 

1/93 his first ambitious work, a translation of 
the Persian Annales de Mirkkond along with 
Memoires sur Diverse* Antiquitet de la Perse. 
Two years later he was called to fill the chair of 
Arabic in the newly-founded Institute of Oriental 
Languages; and to this he added in 1806 the 
duties appertaining to the professorship of Per- 
sian. He held besides several public appoint- 
ments, nearly all simultaneously with his pro- 
fessorships, such as that of a member of the 
Corps Legislatif (1808), rector of the university of 
15), perpetual secretary of the Academy 

Inscriptions, founder and member of the Asiatic 
Society, and member of the Chamber of Peers. As 
a teacher he was held in the very highest esteem 
he wrote valuable text-bookB-Sramma.Ve Arabe 
t vols. 1810), the fruits of fifteen years' labour; 
Chrettomathie Arabe (3 vols. 1806), and its sup- 
plement, Anthologie Grammaticale (1829) which 



68 



SAl'DI.KHACK 



SADI 



helped to train many of the best Arabic scholars of 
the 19th century ; and he himself had for his pupils 
several of the best teachers of thai language who 
laboured in both Prance and Germany in succeed- 
ing years. He died in Paris on 21st February 
1838. Besides the works quoted and alluded to he 
also published Abd-Allatif's Relation de I'Sgifpte 
(1810), an edition of the tales of Bidpai (Calila et 
IHmiiti, 1816), Fartd ed-Din Attar's Pendnameli 
(1819), Hariri's Ifakamat (1822), Erpoti tie la 
Religion det Dnuet (1838), &c. See Keinaud, 
Notux . . . de Baron Silvettre de Sacy (1838). 

His son, SAMUEL USTAZADE SII.VESTRE DE 
SACV (1801-79), a journalist, was long one of 
the leading writers on the staff of the Journal 
de* Dfbats, and in 1864 was appointed a mem- 
ber of the Council of Public Instruction. In 
1855 he was elected a member of the Academy, 
and in 1867 of the senate. In 1858 lie published 
a collection of his literary articles as \'ariete* 
Litttrairet, Morale*, et Historiquex (2 vols.); and 
he edited in 1861-64 the Letters of Madame de 
Sevignt in 1 1 volumes. 

Saddleback, or BLENCATHARA, aCuml>erland 
mountain (2847 feet) of the Skiddaw group, 4J 
miles NE. of Keswick. 

Saddurees, a Jewish school or party in New 
Testament times, the name most probably derived 
from one Zadok, founder of an aristocratic party, 
or from the race of the Zadokites, a family of 
priesto at Jerusalem since the time of Solomon. 
The chief characteristics of the Sadducees were 
that they were an aristocratic party, and further 
that they acknowledged only the written ToraA 
as binding, rejecting the entire traditionary inter- 
pretation and further development of the law dur- 
ing the course of centuries hy the scribes. They 
thus rejected the whole body of Pharisaic tradi- 
tion, representing at once an older legal, and an 
older religious, standpoint. Accordingly they re- 
fused to believe in a resurrection of the body, or 
any personal continuity of the individual, or 
retribution in a future fife a survival of original 
Old Testament theology ; they denied angels and 
spirits ; and they held' that man enjoys freedom 
of will to do good or evil, and that hi- happiness 
or unhappiness i- the work of his own hands alone. 
They obviously lacked the religious energy of the 
Pharisees, whose interests were centred in another 
world, and, partly also from their superior social 
position, became marked by superior culture, by 
wnrldliness, and by merely political aims. Thus 
Sadilnceeisni is denounced by Jesus as ' the leaven 
of Herod,' while he only inveighs, as does the Tal- 
mud, against the hypocrites amongst the Phiu i 
The Sadducees disappear with the fall of the Jew- 
ish state. We still tind mention of them in the 
Minima, but the notices in the Talmud are far 
from lieing clear. 

See Schilrer' HMory oftheJemth People in the Time 
ofJaiu CkrM ( En*, trans, dir. ii. vol. li 1890); Well- 
hmtuen, Die Pkarit&er und die Saddueatr (1874); 
Montct, Ku-ii tar lei originet det partit Sadurtm et 
Pha'uien ( 1884) ; nd the articles JEWS and PHARISEES. 

Sade, DONATIEX ALPHONSE FRANCOIS. M \n 
QUIS DE, a notorious French romancer, was liorn at 
Paris, June 2, 1740, fought in the Seven Years' 
War, and was in 1772 condemned to death at Aix 
for his nameless vices. He mode his escape. Inn 
was afterwards imprisoned at Vincennes ami in the 
Bastille, where lie wrote his fanta-tically scandalous 
romances, Justine (1791), IM 1'hilotophir ilmm Ir 
AW/oir (1793), Juliette ( 1798 i, ami /..% I'mnr* de 
I'Amour ( 1800). Afterwards he went mad, and 
died at Charenton, il December 1814. Ill- name 
has supplieil to his hm^'ia^e the useful term 
Saditme. See the study by Janin. 



Kadi (also spelt Sa'di, Saatti, and Sa'adi), the 
assumed name of the SHKIKII MUSLIM ADMS. 
one of the most celebrated of Persian poet*, whc 
was liorn at Shim/ about the year 1184. Little 
is known of the circumstances of his life. His 
father's name was Ahdallah, and he was a de- 
scendant of Ali, Mohammed'- son-in-law; not- 
withstanding his noble lineage, however, he held 
lint an insignificant position. Siidi was early 
left fatherless. He received his education in 
science and theology at Bagdad, and from here he 
undertook, together with his master, his first pil- 
grimage to Afecca, a pilgrimage which he sulwe- 
quently repeated no less than fourteen times. He 
travelled for a great numlier of years, and is said 
to have visited parts of Europe, Barlwry, Abys- 
sinia, Egypt, S\ii:i. Palestine, Armenia, Asia 
Minor, Arabia, Persia, Tartary, Afghanistan, and 
India. Near Jerusalem he was taken prisoner 
by the Crusaders, not while righting against them, 
but while practising religious austerities in the 
desert. He was ransomed for ten dinars by a 
merchant of Aleppo, who recognised him, and gii\e 
him his daughter in marriage; this union, how- 
ever, did not prove happy. He married a second 
time, but loct his only son. The later part of 
his life Sadi spent in "retirement near his native 
town, and he died at a very old age in 690 A.H., or 
1263 A.D. ; according to others, however, he did 
not die until 1291 or 1292 A.D. In person he is 
described as having been of rather insignificant 
appearance, short, slim, and spare. His was a 
contemplative, pious, and philosophical disposition. 
The years of his retirement he occupied in compos- 
ing those numerous works which have made him 
justly famous through East and West Although 
European critics would hardly be inclined to endorse 
to the full the judgment passed upon him by his 
countrymen, that he was 'the most eloquent of 
writers, the wittiest author of either modern or 
ancient times, and one of the four monarchs of 
eloquence and style,' yet there is no doubt that 
this ' nightingale of thousand songs ' fully merited 
the honours showered upon him by prince- and 
nobles, both during his lifetime and after his 
death. A maiiM>leinii. with a mosque and college 
attached to it, was erected in his honour at the 
foot of the hills almut 2 miles to the north- 
east of Shiraz, and the people, who soon wound a 
halo of legend around his life, flocked thither in 
pilgrimage. 

The catalogue of his works comprises twenty-two 
dim-rent kinds of writings in prose and verse, in 
Arabic and in Persian, of which ghazel* and 
kussida* ('odes,' 'dirges') form the predominant 
part. The most celebrated and finished of his 
works, however, is the (lulittan, or Flower-garden, 
a kind of moral work in prose and verse, consisting 
of eight chapters on Kings, Dervishes, Content- 
ment, Taciturnity. I. me and Youth, Decrepitude 
and Old Age, Education, and the Duties of Society, 
the whole intermixed with a numlier of stories, 
maxims, philosophical sentences, puns, and the 
like. Next to this stands the liostan, or Tree- 
garden, a work somewhat similar to the Gulittnn, 
but in verse, and of a more religions natme. 
Third in rank stands the Pend-Nameh, or Book of 
Instructions. Elegance and simplicity of style and 
diction form the chief charm of Sadi's writings. 
For wit he IIOK Ix-en likened to Horace, with whose 
writing- he may not have been unacquainted, since 
he is said to have known Latin. 

The firrt complete printed edition of his works, called 
the s,ili- frllnr of Poet*, by Harrington, was pnblithcd in 
Calcutta (1791-95), and hu been reprinted ainoe by 
native premes in India. The ilulinbiu, first edited with 



a Latin truncation by Centra* (Amsterdam, 1051 ). has 
been reprinted very frequently, and hu been traimUted 



SADLER 



SAFES 



69 



into a number of European tongues, into English by 
Gladwin, Rons, Eastwick, and Platts ; and see Robinson's 
Fenian Poetry for Englith Readers ( 1883). The Bostan 
was first published complete in Calcutta in 1828 ( Vienna, 
1858), and has likewise been translated into other 
languages; With Sa'di in the Garden, by Sir Edwin 
Arnold (1889), is a translation of part of the Boston. 
Many manuscript copies of Sadi's works exist. A care- 
fully collated M& of the B&ttdn of Shaikh ifutlMu-d- 
l>in &i'nJl, prepared by Platts, was photographed and 
published in London, with annotations by Rogers, in 1891. 

Sadler. SIR RALPH, was born in 1507, and was 
employed by Cromwell, Henry, and Elizabeth in 
diplomacy with Scotland. He was left one of the 
twelve councillors of Edward VI. 's minority, fought 
at Pinkie, sat in the commission on Qneen Mary 
at York, and was her gaolor at Tutbury. He was 
sent to carry the news of her execution to her son, 
ami died himself soon after in 1587. 

His Paperi, of great value for Border and Scottish 
history generally, were edited by Sir Walter Scott, with 
a Memoir ( 1809). 

Sadoleto, JACOPO, was born at Modena in 
1577. His father, a distinguished jurist in Ferrara, 
was in a |>osition to give his son every advantage of 
a liberal education. Sent by his father to Rome in 
1502, he there found a patron in Olivero Caraffa 
(under whose roof he lived for some years ), and even- 
tually entered the church. On the accession of Leo X. 
the polished Latin style of Sadoleto gained him the 
position of apostolical secretary, an appointment he 
held under two other popes, Clement VII. and 
Paul III. By Leo he was also made bishop of 
Carpentras in 1517, though he did not leave Rome 
till four years later. Settled in hi charge, he 
performed it- duties with a devotion that com- 
manded the respect even of those who hud broken 
with the Church of Rome. Both by Clement VII. 
ami Paul III. he was successively summoned to 
Rome to give his aid in the councils of the 
church. By the latter of these popes he was in 
1536 made cardinal, greatly, he affirms, against his 
own will, as his chief desire was the pursuit of his 
favourite studies and the faithful performance of 
the duties of his charge. In 1544 he acted as legate 
to Francis I. on a fruitless mission to effect peace 
with Charles V. He died at Rome in 1547. 

By his high character and his literary gifts 
and accomplishments Sadoleto ranks as one of the 
most distinguished churchmen of his age. While 
he cultivated classical studies with all the enthusi- 
asm of the dissolute Bembo, he still preserved his 
Christian feeling and the sense of the responsi- 
bilities of his profession. He had sincerely at heart 
th- reform at least of the discipline of the church, 
and had his counsels and example been followed 
Home would have played a worthier part in the 
ii-ligioofi revolution of the 16th century. He corre- 
sponded with many of the Protestant leaders, and 
<li'l his utmost to find a common basis on which 
I'-iinion might be possible. His works mainly con- 
'>f his personal and official letters, and of ODIN 
mentaries on the Psalms and on the Epistles of St. 
Paul. On these last Erasmus passes the curious 
criticism 'that their very polish of expression will 

itli -.line take off the edge of their pious suggest- 
ion.' s.n lull-til'- complete works were published at 
MM in 1759, with an annotated life prefi 



, 

See Joly'g Etude tur Sadoleto ( Caen, 1856). 
Sadowa. See KONIOORATZ. 
Safe-conduct. See PASSPORT. 



prefixed. 



d, one of the four holy cities of the modern 
Jews in Palestine, spreads in horseshoe shape 
round a hill 2700 feet almve the Mediterranean, 6 
mill's N \V. of the Sen of Galilee. Here dwell gome 
2,000 Jews, 5000 Moslems, and 200 Christians. 
The town was overthrown by earthquakes in 1759 
and 1*37. A castle of the Christians, built 



during the Crusades, was destroyed by the sultan 
of Damascus in 1220, and, having been rebuilt by 
the Templars, was again taken and destroyed by 
Beybars of Egypt in 1266. The Jewish colony 
has been settled here since the 16th century, and 
embraces many immigrants from Poland. 

Safes. The manufacture of iron safes for the 
preservation of money and valuable papers has 
become one of great importance. The founda- 
tion of the plan on winch fireproof safes are 
still constructed was laid by a Mr Richard Scott 
in 1801. Mr Thomas Milner in 1840 patented a 
fireproof safe embodying the same principle, but 
with some improvements. In 1843 letters-patent 
were granted to Messrs Tann for the use of a mix- 
ture of pounded alum and gypsum, previously 
heated and cooled, us a fire-resisting medium placed 
between two plates of iron, from 3 to 6 inches 
apart, which together form the wall of the safe. 
Milner's plan was to fill the jacket formed by the 
double-plated sides with sawdust, in which were 
packed a number of small tubes filled with an 
alkaline salt. These tubes burst when exposed 
to heat, and the sawdust becomes pervaded with 
moisture. When alum or sulphate of alumina 
is used there can be no charring till the large 
quantity of water these salts contain is expelled ; 
and this is a slow process, as the heat causes a 
protecting crust of the anhydrous salt to form on 
the inside of the outer plate. Fireproof safes are 
still made on the same principle. 

Safes are made to resist the efforte of burglars by 
making tin 1 outer wall of three plates, the centre 
one being of very hard and the other two of mild 
steel. All three are screwed together from the 
inside. By this arrangement the wall is made very 
ditlicult to drill. To prevent the door being 
wrenched off by wedges or other means, Messrs 
Chubb make the liolts of the lock, which emerge 
from the four edges of the rectangular door, to 
shoot diagonally, and so dovetail the door at the 
top, bottom, and sides to the frame of the safe (see 
LOCK). 

Public safe-deposits for the safe-keeping of 
important documents, cash, gold and silver plate, 
and other valuables, have been constructed in 
recent years in many American cities, as well as in 
London and other large towns in Great Britain. 
Some of these contain a large numl>er of safes, the 
building of the National Safe Deposit Company, 
Queen Victoria Street, London, having room for as 
many as 20,000. The brick walls of this company's 
great safe-vault are 3 feet thick, faced externally 
with firebrick and lined internally with cast-iron 
plates, 4J inches thick, strengthened by imbedded 
wrought-iron bars. The separate compartments of 
the vault have doors, 12 inches thick, formed of 
metal plates of different degrees of hardness. These 
weigh 4 tons each, and are raised and lowered, port- 
cullis-like, by hydraulic power. Chancery Lane 
Safe Deposit was 'opened in 1885. Its chief portion 
consists of four strong rooms 'armour-plated ' and 
built on iron columns in vaults, but completely 
isolated from the external walls, so that armed 
patrols (armed watchmen guard the above safe- 
vault also) can, during the night, walk round, over, 
and under them. These rooms contain about 5000 
separate safes and have doors weighing 2 tons each, 
which by a clockwork arrangement can only be 
opened at certain hours. The lock of a single safe 
cannot be opened unless both renter and custodian 
are present as each has a different key for the same 
safe. In the case of the Safe Deposit, opened in 
1891, in St James Street, London, the walls, roof, 
and floor are formed of a triple thickness of 
Siemens-Martin steel together having a minimum 
thickness of H inch. The middle plate is of hard 
and the two outer plates are of soft steel, and 



70 



SAFETY-FUZE 



SAFETY-LAMP 



these three plates were riveted together by 
hydraulic pressure in such a way that the rivete 
well out into tin- \viilt>r holes of the centre plate 
ami therefore cannot be punched. As the nveta 
are made with a strand of hard steel, neither can 
they he drilled. See Protection from Fire and 
Tkieeet, by G. H. Chubb ( 1875). Various kinds of 
fireproof chambers are built with vaulted roofs 
And sides of strong masonry. 

Safety-fuze. See BLASTING, and FUZE. 

Safety-lamp. It has been long known that 
when methane, marsh-gas, or light carburetted 
hydrogen, which is frequently disengaged in large 
quantities from coal-seams, is mixed with ten times 
its volume of atmospheric air, it liecomes highly ex- 
plosive. Moreover, this gas the./? re -i/n/nii of miners 
in exploding renders ten times it bulk of atmo- 
spheric air unfit for respiration, iiiul the choke-damp 
thus produced is often as fatal to miners as the prim- 
ary explosion. With the view of discovering some 
means of preventing these dangerous results, Davy 
instituted those important observations on flame 
which led him to the invention of the safety-lamp. 
lie found that when two vessels tilled with a gas- 
eous explosive mixture are connected by a narrow 
tube, and the contents of one fired, the flame is 
not communicated to the other, provided the 
diameter of the tube, its length, and the conduct- 
ing power for heat of its material bear certain 
proportions to each other; the flame being extin- 
guished by cooling, and its transmission rendered 
impossible. In this experiment high conducting 
power and diminished diameter compensate for 
diminution in length; and to such an extent may 
this shortening of length he carried that metallic 
gauze, which may be looked uiion as a series of 
very short square tubes arranged side by side, com- 
pletely arrests the passage of flame in explosive 
mixtures. The following are Davv's directions 
regarding the structure of his lamp : ' The a|>erture8 
in the gauze should not be more than 5 'jd of an 
inch square. As the (ire-damp is not influenced by 
ignited wire, the thickness of the wire is not of 
importance ; but wire from ,Vt|' to Vth of an inch 
in diameter is the most convenient. Iron-wire and 
brass-wire gauze of the required degree of fineness 
are made for sieves by all wire workers, but iron- 
wire gauze is to be preferred : when 
of the proper degree of thickness, it j 
can neither melt nor burn ; and the 
coat of black rust which soon forms 
upon it superficially defends the in- 
terior from the action of the air. The 
cage or cylinder should be made of 
double joinings, the gauze IM-JUX 
folded over so as to leave no aper- 
tures. When it is cylindrical, it 
should not be more than two inches 
in diameter ; for in larger cylinders 

tli miliiistion of the fire -dump 

renders the top inconveniently hot, 
and a double top is always a proper 

Iirecaution, fixed at the distance of 
talf or three-quarters of an inch above 
the first top. The gauze cylinder 
I -lionld be fastened to the lamp by a 
C<ritijfcJ screw of four or five turns, and fitted 
"^ to the screw by a tight ring. All 
Fig. 1. joinings should be made with hard 
Davy Lamp, wilder ; and the security depends upon 
the circumstance that no a|>erture 
exist* in the apparatus larger than in the wire 
gauze.' The oil is supplied to the interior by the 
pipe projecting from the right side of the figure, 
and the wick i- trimmed by a wire bent at the 
upper end, and pawed through the liottom of the 
wrap, so that the gauze need not be removed for 




this process. (The wire is here shown in the 
figure.) When a lighted lamp of this kind is intro- 
duced into an explosive mixture of air and fire- 
damp the flame is seen gradually to enlarge as the 
proportion of firv-diiuip increjiscs, until at length 
it fills the entire gaii/e cylinder. Whenever tliis 
pale enlarged flame is seen the miner* should 
depart to a place of safety, for although no explo- 
sion can occur while the gauze is sound, yet at 
that high temperature the metal becomes rapidly 
oxidised, and might easily break ; and a single 
aperture of sufficient size would then occasion a 
destructive explosion. In a strong current of air 
the heated gas may lie blown through t lie apertures 
of the gauze before its temperature is sufficiently 
reduced to prevent an explosion ; but such a con- 
tingency may lie guarded against by placing a 
screen between the draught and the lamp. 

The first lamp which would safely burn in an 
explosive mixture of gas and air was contrived in 
1813 by Dr W. Reid Clauny of Sunderland. Into 
i hit- lamp fresh air was blown th