Full text of "Chambers's concise gazetteer of the world : topographical, statistical historical, pronouncing"

V*
FRDM-THE

TRINITYC

CHAMBERS'S

CONCISE GAZETTEER

THE WORLD

TOPOGRAPHICAL
STATISTICAL
HISTORICAL
PRONOUNCING

EDITED BY

DAVID PATRICK, LL.D.

EDITIOKT

London: 47 Paternoster Row

W. & R. CHAMBERS, LIMITED

Edinburgh: 339 High Street .
1906

Edinburgh :
Tinted by \V. & B. Chambers, Limited,

&
103

Ota ~ M

PEEFAOE.

THE first question that naturally comes into one's mind when a place is
mentioned is : * Where is it ? ' ' What is to be known about it ? ' is as
naturally the second. One cannot open a newspaper without lighting on some
reference to the railway bridge over the Zambesi, the battle of Tsushima,
difficulties at Koweit, the naval base at Rosy th, or, it may be, to Masampho,
Skagway, Tchernavoda, Tuskegee, Zeebrugge ; or there will be jtn allusion
to the 'prisoner of Chillon,' the 'rector of Lutterworth,' the 'martyr of Erro-
mango,' the 'sage of Chelsea,' the 'Mantuan,' the 'Corsican,' the 'cure
of Meudon,' the 'victor of Barossa,' the 'hero of Khartoum,' the
'Chiltern Hundreds,' the 'monks of Medmenham,' or the 'Little Gidding
community. '

Not even Macaulay's schoolboy could carry the whereabouts of all these
places in his head, or could explain every one of the allusions. The present
work aims to supply the want indicated. It is largely based on the geo-
graphical matter of Chambers's Encyclopaedia, but many of the articles are
new, and there are numerous additions to the list. It is a Gazetteer of the
World, comprehensive yet handy, containing the latest and most reliable
information about nameworthy places at home and abroad : the last census of
civilised countries, and the most authentic official figures, have, it need hardly
be said, been taken advantage of in every available case. The etymology of
the names, where it is significant and interesting, has not been neglected, and
an attempt has been made to do justice, however briefly, to history and literary
associations. This is probably the only Gazetteer of the World that explains
the interest of Craigenputtock and Somersby, Morwenstow and Chalfont St
Giles, Ramsbottom, Wem, and Tong. Yet, full though it is, it does not
profess to be exhaustive ; to give, for instance, every one of (at least) 275 cities,
counties, towns, townships, villages, hamlets, and post-offices of the name of
Washington in the United States, or every one of the 90 NeAvtons on both sides
of the Atlantic. To have attempted this would, by the curtailment of the
longer articles, have involved the sacrifice of much space now put to a better
use. Instead, the aim of the work has been to tell everything that may be
reasonably wanted about every place likely to be looked for, and to tell it with
the utmost conciseness consistent with clearness and readableness. References
to standard books have been added to the articles on the more important and
interesting countries, towns, and even villages.

PREFACE.

1 The pronunciation has been indicated in all cases where doubt could arise
by accent when this suffices, or by re-spelling in full, in the way most likely
to be intelligible to the average reader ; although it must be remembered that
in many cases the pronunciation can only be approximately suggested in
English spelling. The g in the re-spellings is always hard, as in get ; ay or a
is the English a in fate ; i is the sound in mine; ow is always the sound in
how, now ; uh is the obscure sound between eh and ah ; hh here represents the
guttural ch of German arid Scotch words ; and recourse had sometimes to be
had to 6 to represent the German o and the French oeu, and to ii to indicate
the German ii and the ordinary French u. Many readers will be glad to
know that the instinctive English way of accenting Altona, Potomac, Potosi,
and Cordilleras is not that customary in those parts ; that English people do
not pronounce Godmanchester, Belvoir, or Hughenden as the spelling sug-
gests ; that Scotsmen do not defer to Southron expectations in such names as
Culloden and Oban, Kirkcudbright and Milngavie ; that the Welsh do not say
Merioneth, and that Amlwch is easier to utter than it looks at first sight ;
that British sailors who have been on the spot are not safe guides for the true
pronunciation of names like Callao and Iquique, Monte Video and Buenos
Ay res, Setubal and Santander.

In this revised reissue facts, figures, and statistics have as far as possible been
brought down to the early years of the new century ; many articles have been
entirely rewritten, and hundreds have been inserted for the first time. Since
the first issue Rhodesia and Nigeria have changed beyond recognition ; the
Commonwealth of Australia has been constituted ; Canada has made un-
paralleled progress ; British South Africa has gone through more than one crisis ;
Indian provinces have been reconstituted, divided, renamed ; the republic of
the United States has increased vastly in population and wealth at home, and
entered on a significant policy of expansion abroad ; the sister kingdoms of
Norway and Sweden no longer live under the same roof; Spain has lost its
colonies, and Panama become a nation ; Port Arthur and Dalny, Korea and
Manchuria, Russia and Japan, have 'made history;' Vesuvius has been in
disastrous eruption, and San Francisco been destroyed. These are but instances
of thousands of new landmarks of the world's progress and of the changes time
brings with it. In the revision of this work a strenuous effort has been made
to take account of all new developments and to make the Gazetteer a still
more valuable companion to the general reader.

CONCISE

GAZETTEER OF THE WORLD

A (pron. Ah), the name of several Euro-
pean rivers in Westphalia, Switzer-
land, and North France all small.

Aachen (AJi'hen), the German name
of AIX-LA-CHAPELLE.

Aalborg (Awl-borg; 'Eel-town'), a
seaport of Jutland and seat of a bishopric, on the
Limfiord. Pop. (1890) 19,503 ; (1901) 31,462.

Aalen (Ah'leri), a town of Wiirtemberg, on the
Kocher, 46 miles E. of Stuttgart. Pop. 8805.

Aalesund (Awl-e-soond\ a Norwegian town,
with an excellent harbour, built on three small
islands of the province of Romsdal. Pop. 11,700.

Aalst. See ALOST.

Aalten, a Netherlands town, on the Aa, 30 miles
E. of Arnhem. Pop. 7000.

A'an, or AVON, a small Banffshire lake, lying
2250 feet above sea-level among the Cairngorms,
which sends oif the Avon, 29 miles, to the Spey.

Aar (Ahr), next to the Rhine and Rhone the
largest river in Switzerland, rises in the Bernese
Oberland, flows through Lakes Brienz and Thun,
and passing Interlaken, Thun, Berne, Soleure,
and Aarau, joins the Rhine above Waldshut after
a course of nearly 200 miles.

Aarau (ATir'ow). See AARGATT.

Aargau (ATir'gow; Fr. Argovie), the least
mountainous canton of Switzerland, on the lower
course of the Aar, with the Rhine for its north
boundary. Area, 548 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 206,500,
mainly Protestant and German-speaking. The
chief town is Aarau, on -the Aar. Pop. 7500.

Aarhuus (Aivr-hoos), a seaport on the east
coast of Jutland, the second of Danish cities,
with a fine Gothic cathedral of the 13th century.
Pop. (1870) 15,025 ; (1890) 33,306 ; (1901) 51,850.

Ab'aco. See BAHAMAS.

Abakansk, a fortified Siberian town, near the
Abakan's junction with the Yenisei. Pop. 3000.

Ab'ana and Pharpar are identified generally,
the former with the Barada, flowing through
Damascus ; the latter with the Awaj, which rises
on the SE. slopes of Hermon, passes 8 miles from
Damascus, and falls into a lake to the south.

ABER

Abancay (Abariki), chief town of the Peruvian
province of Apurimac, 65 miles WSW. of Cuzco.
Pop. 5000.

Abbazia (Abbatzee'a), a health-resort on the bay
of Fiume, at the head of the Quarnero gulf of the
Adriatic, 5 miles NW. of Fiume by rail. The
'Nice of the Adriatic' has since about 1880
become famous for its fine climate, beautiful
situation, and luxuriant vegetation. Pop. 3000.

Abbeoku'ta, an African city, or rather collec-
tion of small towns or villages, capital of the
territory of Egba, in the Yoruba country, 80
miles N. of Lagos. Pop. 150,000.

Abbeville (Abb-veel'\ a prosperous manufac-
turing town in the French dep. of Somme, on
the river Somme, 12 miles from its mouth, and
49 miles S. of Boulogne. The west front of the
church of St Wolfram, commenced in the reign
of Louis XII., is a splendid example of Flamboy-
ant, with noble portals and rich tracery. The
chief manufactures are woollen cloths, carpets,
linens, sacking, and sugar. Near Abbeville were
found, in 1841, many prehistoric flint imple-
ments. Pop. (1872) 18,108 ; (1901) 21,100.

Abbey Craig, an abrupt eminence (362 feet),
IJ mile ENE. of Stirling. It is crowned by the
Wallace monument (1869), a baronial tower 220
feet high.

Abbeydorney, a Kerry village, 5 miles N,
of Tralee, with a ruined abbey (1154).

Abbeyfeale, a market-town, 37 miles SW. of
Limerick. Pop. 896.

Abbeyleix (Abbey-leece 1 ), a town of Queen's
County, 61 miles SW. of Dublin. Pop. 987.

Abbiate-Grasso (Abbiah'tay), a town of Italy,
14 miles WSW. of Milan. Pop. 7025.

Abbotabad, in the NW. Frontier Province of
India, 180 miles NNW. of Lahore. Pop. 5000.

Abbotsbury, a Dorset village, at the head of
the Fleet tidal inlet, S miles NW. of Weymouth.

Abbotsford, built in 1811-24 by Sir Walter
Scott, on the Tweed's south bank, 2 miles W. of
Melrose.

Aber, a Carnarvonshire coast-village, at the

ABERAVON

ABERDOUR

mouth of a lovely little glen, 4f miles E. of
Bangor.

Aberavon, or PORT TALBOT, a seaport of Gla-
morganshire, on the Avon, near its mouth in
Swansea Bay, 32 miles W. of Cardiff. The valley
of the Avon is shut in by lofty hills, while every
available space is occupied by tinplate, copper,
and iron works. It is one of the 'Swansea
boroughs.' Pop. (1861) 2916 ; (1901) 7560.

Aberayron, a Cardiganshire watering-place, 14
miles SSW. of Aberystwith. Pop. 1340.

Aberbrothock. See ARBROATH.

Abercarn, a coal-mining municipality, pros-
perous and progressive, of Monmouthshire, 8
miles NW. of Newport. Pop. 12,600.

Abercorn, a Linlithgowshire hamlet, near the
Firth of Forth, 3| miles W. of South Queensferry.
From 681 to 685 it was the seat of a bishopric.

Aberdare, a town of Glamorganshire, 4 miles
SW. of Merthyr-Tydvil, and within its parlia-
mentary boundary. Coal and iron are found in
abundance in the vicinity, and Aberdare is a
flourishing centre of iron and tin works. Pop.
(1841) 6471 ; (1861) 32,299 ; (1901) 43,400.

Aberdeen, the chief city and seaport in the
north of Scotland, lies in the SB. angle of Aber-
dsenshire, at the mouth and on the north side
of the Dee, 111 miles N. of Edinburgh. William
the Lion confirmed its privileges in 1179 ; the
English burned it in 1336, but it was soon rebuilt,
and called New Aberdeen. Old Aberdeen, within
the same parliamentary boundary, is a small
town a mile to the N., near the mouth of the
Don, and is the seat of St Machar's Cathedral
(1357-1527), now represented by the granite nave.
King's College and University, founded by Bishop
Elphinstone in Old Aberdeen in 1494, and Maris-
chal College and University, founded by the Earl
Marischal in New Aberdeen in 1593, were in 1860
united into one institution, the University of
Aberdeen. It has 25 professors and from 800 to
900 students in its four faculties of arts, divinity,
law, and medicine ; with Glasgow University it
sends one member to parliament. Marischal
College was rebuilt in 1841, and greatly enlarged
in 1892-95; whilst King's College is a stately
fabric, dating from 1500, its chapel adorned
with exquisite wood carvings. Aberdeen has
a flourishing trade and thriving manufactures ;
and having been largely rebuilt and extended
since the formation of Union Street in 1800,
the 'Granite City* now offers a handsome
and regular aspect. Among the chief public
edifices are the County Buildings (1867-73), the
Post-office (1876), the Market-hall (1842 ; rebuilt
after the fire of 1882), the Trades-hall (1847), the
Royal Infirmary (1740 ; rebuilt 1840), the Lunatic
Asylum (1819), the Grammar-school (1863), the
Art Gallery and Art School (1882-83), and Gor-
don's College (1739-1834). The last has been
much extended as a technical school, the founda-
tioners being no longer resident ; whilst the
Infirmary was reconstructed and modernised to
celebrate the Queen's Jubilee (1887). St Nicholas,
now divided into the East and West churches,
has a fine new spire (1880), 190 feet high. A
carillon of 37 bells was placed here in 1887. One
may also notice the market-cross (1686); the
Wallace, Gordon Pasha, and three other statues ;
and the Duthie Public Park of 47 acres (1883).
Since 1810, when the debt upon the harbour was
29,614, the expenditure on harbour improve-
ments has exceeded 1,000,000, the works having
included the formation of the Victoria Dock

(1848), a breakwater, the southward diversion of
the Dee (1872), and a graving-dock (1886). The
trade of the port has largely increased since
1850 ; and the aggregate tonnage of vessels enter-
ing in good years exceeds 600,000 tons. Railway
communication has also been fully established
since 1848-54. The chief exports are woollens,
linens, cotton-yarns, paper, combs, granite (hewn
and polished), cattle, grain, preserved provisions,
and fish. Aberdeen has the largest comb and
granite-polishing works in the kingdom. There
are several large paper-works within a short dis-
tance of the town ; and soap, chemicals, whisky,
and agricultural implements are amongst the
manufactures. Wooden shipbuilding was for-
merly a prosperous industry, the Aberdeen clip-
pers being celebrated as fast sailers. Connected
with Aberdeen, which has always been a cele-
brated seat of learning, have been the names
of Barbour, Boece, Jameson, Gregory, Reid,
Beattie, Campbell, Byron, Skinner, Hill Burton,
W. Dyce, J. Phillip, and Sir A. Anderson, to
whose provostship (1859-66) belong the intro-
duction of a fine water-supply, and many other
improvements. Pop. of the parliamentary burgh,
which since 1885 has returned two members,
(1801)26,992; (1841)63,288; (1881)105,003; (1891)
121,623 ; (1901) 153,500.

Aberdeenshire, a large maritime county in
the extreme NE. of Scotland. The fifth in size of
the Scottish counties, it has a maximum length
of 85 and breadth of 47 miles, with 62 miles of
sea-coast, and an area of 1971 sq. m. It has
long been popularly divided into five districts
(proceeding from south-west to north-east) Mar,
Strathbogie, Garioch, Formartine, and Buchan.
Aberdeenshire is generally hilly, and in the
south-west (Braemar) entirely mountainous, the
loftiest summits here being Ben Muich-Dhui
(second only to Ben Nevis), 4296 feet ; Cairntoul,
4241 ; Cairngorm, 4084 ; Benabourd, 3924 ; Loch-
nagar, 3786 : whilst northward rise Bennachie,
1698 ; the Buck of Cabrach, 2368 ; and Mormond
Hill, 769. The predominant rocks are granite
and gneiss. The granite is very durable, and is
much used for building and polishing. The chief
rivers are the Dee (87 miles long), Don (82), and
Ythan (35), which run eastward into the North
Sea ; and the Deveron (61 miles), which runs
north-east into the North Sea. The Ythan yields
the pearl-mussel, but rarely pearls of any value.
The most fertile parts lie between the Don and
Ythan, and in the north-east angle of the county.
About 37 per cent, of the area of the county
is cultivated, the chief crops being oats, barley,
and turnips ; whilst nearly 8 per cent, is under
wood. Aberdeenshire is unsurpassed in breeding
and feeding stock. Its principal breed is the
Polled Angus. The fisheries on the coast are
very productive, and Peterhead is the East Coast
centre of this industry. Balmoral (q.v.) is the
principal mansion ; and amongst the antiquities
are the ruins of Kiklrummie Castle and the
Abbey of Deer. The chief towns and villages
are Aberdeen, Peterhead, Fraserburgh, Huntly,
Kintore, Inverurie, Turriff, Ballater, arid Castle-
ton. The county returns two members to par-
liament ; the city of Aberdeen, two ; and the
burghs of Peterhead, Kintore, and Inverurie,
with Elgin, Cullen, and Banff, one. Pop. (1801)
121,065 ; (1841) 192,387 ; (1891) 284,036 ; (1901)
30,440. See the history by A. Smith (1875), the
Spalding Club publications, and Watt's Aberdeen
and Banff (1900).

Aberdour, (1) a Fife village, on the Firth of

ABERDOVEY

ABYSSINIA

Forth, 3 miles W. of Burntisland, with a ruined
castle of the Earls of Morton. Pop. 748. (2) An
Aberdeenshire village, 8 miles W. by S. of Fraser-
burgh. Richard Chancellor was lost in Aberdour
Bay (1556).

Aberdovey, a watering-place of Merioneth-
shire, on the Dovey estuary, 10 miles N of
Aberystwith.

Aberfeldy, a pleasant Perthshire village, near
the Tay's south bank, 32 miles NW. of Perth by
rail. The neighbouring Falls of Moness are cele-
brated in Burns's Blrks of Aberfeldy. A monu-
ment (1887) commemorates the embodiment of
the Black Watch here in 1740. Pop. 1569.

Aberffraw, a seaport of Anglesey, 12 miles SE.
of Holyhead. Pop. 959.

Aberfoyle, a Perthshire hamlet, immortalised
through Scott's Rob Roy, 23 miles W. of Stirling
by rail.

Abergavenny (Abergen'ny; Rom. Gobannium),
a market-town of Monmouthshire, at the Gav-
enny's influx to the Usk, 13 miles W. of Mon-
mouth. It has remains of an old castle and of a
priory, with collieries and ironworks near. Pop.
of municipal borough (1901) 7800.

Abergeldie Castle, the Aberdeenshire seat of
the Prince of Wales, on the Dee's right bank, 6
miles W. of Ballater, and 2 ENE. of Balmoral.

Abergele, a Denbighshire market-town, 34
miles W. of Chester. The burning here in 1868
of the Irish limited mail cost 33 lives. Pop. 1981.

Aberlady, a Haddingtonshire coast village, 3
miles NE. of Longniddry. Pop. 505.

Abernethy, a small police-burgh of Perthshire,
near the Earn's influx to the Tay, 8| miles SE. of
Perth. The ancient capital of the Picts, and
from 865 till 908 the seat of the sole Scottish
bishopric, it retains one of the two Round Towers
in Scotland, 73 feet high. Pop. 852.

Abersychan, an iron and coal mining town of
Monmouthshire, 11 miles N. of Newport. Pop.
(1901) 17,770.

Abertillery, a town of Monmouthshire, 16
miles NNW. of Newport. Pop. 21,945.

Aberystwith, a watering-place and municipal
borough of Cardiganshire, on the Ystwith, at its
mouth in Cardigan Bay, 242 miles NW. of London
by rail. It is the seat of the University College
of Wales (1872). There are remains of a castle
(1109). Till 1885 it was one of the Cardigan
parliamentary boroughs. Pop. (1851) 5231 ; (1891)
6725 ; (1901) 8015.

Abingdon, a municipal borough of Berkshire,
situated at the junction of the Ock and the
Thames, 6 miles S. of Oxford, and 60 WNW. of
London. 'Abbaddun' (Abbot's town) was an
important place in the 8th century, and its
Benedictine abbey, rebuilt in 955, was very rich.
Its school, founded in 1563, was rebuilt in 1870.
A large clothing manufactory employs many
hands. Till 1885 Abingdon returned a member
to parliament. Pop. (1851) 5954 ; (1901) 64SO.

Abington, a Lanarkshire village, on the Clyde,
14 miles SSE. of Lanark.

Abkhasia, or ABASIA, a district of Asiatic
Russia, between the Caucasus and the Black Sea.
The inhabitants, who numbered at the outbreak
of the Turkish war of 1878 about 30,000, are
now, by emigration, less than half as numerous.
Russia gained possession of the fortresses of
Abkhasia in 1824, but finally subdued the people
only in 1864. See CAUCASUS.

Abo (pronounced Obo), the chief town of a
government in Finland, on the river Aurajoki,
near its embouchure in the Gulf of Bothnia, 170
miles WNW. of Helsingfors by rail. It has an
active trade, and exports timber, and bar and
cast iron. Its university was transferred to
Helsingfors after the great fire of 1827. A peace
between Sweden and Russia was signed here in
1743. Pop. (1890) 31,671; (1900) 37,700.

Abomey. See DAHOMEY.

Aboukir', a coast-village of Egypt, 13 miles
NE. of Alexandria. In Aboukir Bay Nelson won
the great ' Battle of the Nile ' over the French
fleet, August 1, 1798. Here Napoleon in 1799
defeated a Turkish army ; and here Sir Ralph
Abercromby's expedition landed in 1801.

Abousambul. See ABU-SIMBEL.

Aboyne', a Deeside village, 32^ miles W. by
S. of Aberdeen. Aboyne Castle is the seat of
the Marquis of Huntly. See his Records of
Aboyne (1894).

Abraham, PLAINS or HEIGHTS OF, close to the
city of Quebec, the scene of Wolfe's victory,
13th September 1759. They were so called from
a pilot, Abraham Martin.

Abrantes (A-brarites), a town of Portugal, on
the Tagus, 84 miles NE. of Lisbon. Pop. 6380.

Abruzzo (Abroot'so), or ABRUZZI, a district of
Central Italy, was formerly the north-east corner
of the Kingdom of Naples, in the loftiest portion
of the Apennines. The jagged mountain groups
reach in the Gran Sasso cl'Italia 9600 feet.

Abu, a mountain (5650 feet) of India, in the
territory of Serohee, Rajputana, a detached
granite mass rising like an island front the plain
of Marwar, near the Aravalli ridge. It is a cele-
brated place of pilgrimage, especially for the
Jains, who have live temples at Delwara, about
the middle of the mountain, two of which are
the most superb of all Jain temples. Both are
built of white marble, finely carved, and date
from 1031 and 1197 A.D. The mountain contains
a beautiful lake 4000 feet above the sea ; and the
region is a summer-resort for Europeans.

Abu Klea, on the route across country between
Korti and Metammeh, both on the great bend of
the Nile below Khartoum. Here, on 17th January
1885, Sir Herbert Stewart defeated the Mahdi.

Abushehr. See BUSHIRE.

Abu-Simbel (also Abousambul or IpsambuT), a
place on the left bank of the Nile, in Lower
Nubia, the site of two very remarkable rock-cut
temples, amongst the most perfect and noble
specimens of Egyptian architecture.

Aby'dos, (1) a town in Asia Minor, situated at
the narrowest part of the Hellespont, opposite
Sestos, was the place whence Xerxes and his
vast army passed into Europe in 480 B.C. ; and
in poetry is famous for the loves of Hero and
Leander. (2) A city of Upper Egypt, on the left
bank of the Nile, once second only to Thebes,
but even in Strabo's time a mere ruin. Here the
remains of the Memnonium and of a temple of
Osiris are still remarkable.

Ab'yla. See CEUTA.

Abyssinia (from the Arabic name Habesh,
'mixture,' given on account of the mixed popu-
lation), is a highland state of Eastern Africa,
jealous in defence of its independence, and lies
between the flats at the south end of the Red
Sea and the Blue Nile on the west, and extends
from Nubia southward to the Galla country.

ABYSSINIA

Divisions are Tigre in the north, Anihara in the
centre, and Shoa in the south, besides outlying
territories in the S. and SE. (Harar, q.v.).
Abyssinia, with an area of 180,000 sq. m., mainly
consists of a huge tableland with a mean eleva-
tion of 7000 feet. The declivity to the bordering
tract on the Red Sea is abrupt ; towards the Nile
basin it is more gradual. The main mass has
been cut into a number of island-like sections by
the streams, which have worn their channels into
ravines of vast depth as much sometimes as 4000
feet. The principal are the head-streams of the
Blue Nile, issuing from the great Lake Tzana,
Tana, or Dembea, and the Atbara, also a tribu-
tary of the Nile ; less important are the Mareb
and the Hawash. Isolated mountains, with
naked perpendicular sides, present the most
singular forms. The Samen Mountains have
summits rising to the height of 15,000 feet.
The climate, notwithstanding its tropical posi-
tion, is on the whole moderate and pleasant
owing to its elevation, though in the river
valleys and swamps the heat and moisture are
suffocating and pestilential. As a whole, the
country is exceedingly fruitful ; and its produc-
tions are of the most varied nature, from the
pines, heaths, and lichens of North Europe to
the choicest tropical plants. Two, and in some
places three, crops can be raised in one year.

The population numbers some four millions,
and consists of various elements, the chief being
the Abyssinians proper a brown, well-formed
people, belonging to the Semitic stock. The
basis of the language is the ancient Ethiopic
(see ETHIOPIA) or Ge'ez, a Semitic tongue which
is now the sacred language. The modern dialect
of Amhara is the prevalent language of the
country. There are Gallas and Somalis in the
south and south-east. The Falashas are of
Jewish origin, and still retain many of their
racial peculiarities. The towns are small
Adis Ababa, capital of Shoa and of Abyssinia;
Gondar, in Amhara ; Adowa, or Adua, in Tigre ;
Axum (q.v.), the old capital not to speak of
Harar (q.v.), lately annexed. Any foreign trade
comes mainly through Massowah. The religion of
the Abyssinians proper is a debased Christianity ;
but the Gallas and other alien tribes are mostly
Mohammedan, and partly also pagan. Abyssinia
is a part of what was anciently called Ethiopia ;
Ityopya is still the Abyssinian name of the
country. The first king, according to the native
tradition, was Menilehek or Menelek, the son of
Solomon and the Queen of Sheba. Christianity
was introduced in the 4th century by Fru-
mentius; the kingdom of Axum, named from
the capital, was the nucleus of the state, and
attained its greatest extent in the 6th century.
From the commencement the church of Abys-
sinia has adhered to the mother-church of Egypt,
and with her adopted the Monophysite doctrine ;
and the metropolitan bishop or abuna continues
to be nominated by the Coptic Patriarch. The
modern history of Abyssinia has been mainly
struggles between the princes of various districts
for supreme power. About 1850 an Amharic
adventurer obtained dominion over successive
provinces, and in 1855 had himself crowned,
under the name of Theodore, as Negus of Abys-
sinia. His maltreatment of European political
agents and missionaries led to the British expedi-
tion under Lord Napier, which stormed Magdala,
Theodore's royal fortress, whereupon Theodore
died by his own hand. Johannes, king of Tigre,
was the next Negus, and on his death in 1889,
Menelek of Shoa succeeded to the 'empire.'

8 ACONCAGUA

Meanwhile Italy had occupied the flats on the
coast, now the Italian dependency of Eritrea
(with Massowah as headquarters). By a con-
vention of 1889 Abyssinia became almost an
Italian protectorate ; but after the battle of
Adowa (1896), disastrous to the Italians, Italy
fully recognised Abyssinian independence.

Acadla (Acadie) was the name given by the
French settlers to Nova Scotia (q.v.), on its first
settlement in 1604.

Aca,jutla,(Acahoot-la), a small seaport on the W.
coast of San Salvador, with considerable trade.

Acapulco (Acapool'co), the best Mexican harbour
on the Pacific, 180 m. SW. of capital. Pop. 5000.

Acarnania, with jEtolia, a north-western pro-
vince of Greece (q.v.).

Accra, since 1875 capital of the (British) Gold
Coast Colony, and after Cape Coast Castle, the
most important town on the coast, lies slightly
to the W. of the long, of Greenwich. It is
a healthy place, and has considerable export
trade in palm-oil, ivory, gold dust, india-rubber,
monkey skins, gum copal, and camwood. There
is telegraphic communication with England, the
Niger, and the French and Portuguese settle-
ments to the south. Pop. 20,000.

Accrington, a manufacturing town of Lanca-
shire, incorporated as a municipal borough in
1878. It lies in a deep valley, surrounded by
hills, 22 miles N. of Manchester, and 5 miles
E. of Blackburn. The town-hall (1857) is a
handsome building, and there is a neat market-
hall. The industries are mainly calico-printing,
Turkey-red dyeing, iron-founding, with coal-
mining in the neighbourhood, and chemical
works. Pop. (1841) 8719 ; (1901) 43,120.

Acerra (A-ser'ra), a city of southern Italy, 9
miles NE. of Naples by rail. Pop. 14,121.

Achaia, a small Greek district lying along the
north coast of the Peloponnesus.

Achalganj, a town of India, in the south part
of Oude, near the Ganges. Pop. 5000.

Acheen. See ATCHEEN.

Achelo'us, now called Aspropot'amo, the largest
river in Northern Greece, rises in Mount Pindus,
flows south and south-west, and falls into the
Ionian Sea opposite Cephalonia.

Achill (Ahh'ilT), 'Eagle' Isle, off the west coast
of Ireland, belonging to County Mayo, is 15 miles
long by 12 miles broad, and has a very irregular
coast-line. It is wild and boggy, not 500 of its
51,521 acres being cultivated. There are three
villages, and a number of hovels scattered over
its barren moors, sometimes in small clusters,
forming hamlets, but so wretched as hardly to
be fit for beasts. Achill rises towards the north
and west coast, where one of the mountains,
Achill Head, composed, like the rest of the
island, wholly of mica-slate, presents towards
the sea a sheer precipice, 2192 feet high. Pop.
now below 4500. '

Aci Reale (A-see Ee-a'le), 'a town of Sicily, 50
miles SW. of Messina by rail. Lying at the
foot of Mount Etna, where the small river Aci
enters the sea, it is famed for its mineral waters,
and for the cave of Polyphemus and the grotto
of Galatea in its vicinity. Pop. 26,431.

Aconcagua, the highest peak of the Andes
(q.v.), rising to a height of 22,867 feet, according
to Gussfeldt's measurements in 1883. The moun-
tain, which is an extinct volcano (though this
has been disputed), is 100 miles ENE. of Val-

ACQUAVIVA

ADELAIDE

paraiso, on the frontier of Chili and the Argen-
tine Republic.

Acquaviva, a town of South Italy, at the foot
of the Apennines, 28 miles SSE. of Bari by rail.

Acqui (Lat. Aquce Statiellce), a town of North-
ern Italy, 21 miles SSW. of Alessandria by rail.
It derives its name from its hot sulphur springs,
and contains an old castle, a Gothic cathedral (12th
century), and remains of a Roman aqueduct.
Pop. 9411.

Acre, ST JEAN D'ACRE, or ACCA, the Biblical
Accho, is a seaport on the coast of Syria, not far
from the base of Mount Carmel, and contains
about 10,000 inhabitants. It is 80 miles NNW.
of Jerusalem, and 27 S. of Tyre. The harbour is
partly choked with sand, yet is one of the best
on this coast. In 1892 a railway was commenced
from Acre to Damascus ; and omnibuses rnn
regularly from Haifa to Acre. Taken by the
Crusaders in 1110, Acre was recovered in 1187
by the Sultan Saladin ; but retaken in 1191 by
Richard I. of England and Philip at a cost of
100,000 men. The town was now given to the
Knights of the Order of St John, who kept it by
constant fighting for a hundred years. In 1517
it was captured by the Turks ; in 1799 besieged
by the French for sixty-one days, but success-
fully defended by the garrison, aided by English
sailors and marines under Sir Sidney Smith.
In 1832 it was stormed by Ibrahim Pasha, son of
the viceroy of Egypt, and held by him till in
1840 it was bombarded and taken by a combined
English, Austrian, and Turkish fleet.

Acri, a town of South Italy, 13 miles NE. of
Cosenza. Pop. 3944.

Acroceraunia. See ALBANIA.

Acton, a town of Middlesex, 4 miles W. of
Hyde Park. Pop. (1901) 37,744.

Acton Burnell, a Shropshire parish, 8 miles
SSE. of Shrewsbury, at whose mined castle was
passed in 1283 the 'Statute of Merchants.'

Ada, a town of Northern Hungary, on the
river Theiss, an important station for steamers.
Pop. 9993.

Ada! is the name of the flat and barren coun-
try lying between the Abyssinian plateaux and
the Red Sea, from Massowa to the Bay of
Tajurra, its greatest width being 300 miles.

Adalia (anc. Attalia), a seaport on the S. coast
of Asia Minor, on the Gulf of Adalia. Pop. 30,000.

Adamawa, an African state or territory be-
tween the Cameroons and Lake Chad, most of
which (excluding Yola) by Anglo-German agree-
ment lies within the German sphere Yola being
in Nigeria. In the S. are mountains, amid which
rise numerous streams, the most important
being the Benue (q.v.), which waters the entire
province. The people, who profess Mohammed-
anism, are active, industrious, and intelligent.
The chief town is Yola (15,000 inhabitants).

Adams, a township of Massachusetts, adjoining
North Adams, with busy manufactories, and em-
bracing Mount Greylock (3505 feet), the highest
point in the state. Pop. 12,000.

Adam's Bridge, a chain of sand shoals 30
miles long, extending from a small island off the
Indian coast to one just off Ceylon. It greatly
obstructs the navigation of the channel.

Adam's Peak, the name given by Moham-
medans, and after them by Europeans, to a
mountain summit in the south of Ceylon, 7420

feet high (not, however, the highest of the
group). The native name is Samanella. The
cone forming the summit is a naked mass of
granite, terminating in a narrow platform, in
the middle of which is a hollow, five feet long,
having a resemblance (increased by human
agency) to a human footstep. Mohammedan
tradition makes this the scene of Adam's peni-
tence, after his expulsion from Paradise ; he
stood 1000 years on one foot, and hence the
mark. To the Buddhists, the impression is the
Sri-pada, or sacred footmark, left by Buddha on
his departure from Ceylon ; and the Hindus
recognise Buddha r. 13 an avatar of Vishnu. Multi-
tudes of devotees visit the mountain.

Adana (A'dana), a province in the SE. of Asia
Minor, is named from its chief city Adana, con-
taining 50,000 inhabitants. The city, on the
Sihun, 30 miles from the sea, commands the pass
of the Taurus Mountains.

Adare, a market-town on the Maig, in the
county, and 11 miles SW. of the town, of
Limerick. Pop. 516.

Adda, a river of Lombardy, rising in the Alps,
flowing through Lake Como, and falling into the
Po after a course of 180 miles.

Addiewell, a mineral village of Midlothian,
1 mile WSW. of West Calder. Pop. 2000.

Addis Abeba (Adis Ababa), capital of Abys-
sinia, lies in the south of the province of Shoa,
8000 feet above the sea. Pop. 50,000.

Addiscombe, a place in Surrey, near Croydon.
A mansion here was, in 1812, converted by the
East India Company into a college for their
cadets, but sold in 1861.

Adelaide, the capital of South Australia, on the
Torrens, 7 miles by rail SE. of Port Adelaide, on
St Vincent Gulf. It stands on a large plain, and
is walled in on the eastern and southern sides by
the Mount Lofty range ; the town proper is en-
closed by a wide belt of garden and shrubbery.
The first settlement was made in 1836, and named
after the queen of William IV. The Torrens
divides the town into North and South Adelaide,
the former being occupied chiefly with residences,
and the latter forming the business portion of
the town. Four substantial iron bridges span
the Torrens, which has been formed by a dam
into a lake l mile long. The streets are broad
and regularly laid out, especially in Adelaide
proper, to the south of the river, where they
cross each other at right angles, and are planted
with trees. Among the public buildings are the
new parliament houses, erected at a cost of about
100,000; government offices, post-office, and
town-hall ; South Australian Institute, with
museum, library, and art-galleries ; and hospital.
The botanical garden, with the botanical garden
park, covers more than 120 acres of ground. The
chief manufactures are woollen, leather, iron, and
earthenware goods ; but the chief importance of
Adelaide depends on its being the great emporium
for South Australia. Wool, wine, wheat, flour,
and copper ore are the staple articles of export.
Among educational institutions the most im-
portant are the Adelaide University ; St Peter's
(Episcopal) College; St Barnabas Theological
College, opened in 1881 ; and Prince Alfred
(Wesleyan) College. It is the seat of an Anglican
and of a Roman Catholic bishop. Glenelg on the
sea, 5 miles away, is a favourite watering-place.
Pop. (1871) 27,208; (1881) 38,479; (1901) 39,250,
or, with suburbs, 163,450. PORT ADELAIDE, its
haven, dates from 1840, is situated on an estuary

ADELSBERG

ADRAR

of the Gulf of St Vincent, has a safe and com-
modious harbour, and an ocean dock capable of
admitting ships of the largest size. It is a prin-
cipal port of call for vessels arriving from Europe
either round the Cape or by the Suez Canal ; and
since 1887 railway communication has been estab-
lished between Adelaide, Melbourne, Sydney, and
Brisbane. Two forts have been erected for the
defence of the port. Tramways were introduced
in 1878. Municipal pop. 6000.

Adelsberg, a market-town in Carniola, 22 miles
NE. of Trieste, with a pop. of 1800. Near it are
numerous caves, the most famous being a large
stalactite cavern, the Adelsberg Grotto. This
cavern, the largest in Europe, between 2 and 3
miles long, is divided into the old and the new
grotto, the latter discovered in 1816 ; a third
very fine one came to light in 1889. The various
chambers, called by names such as the Dome,
the Dancing-hall, the Belvedere, contain stalac-
tites and stalagmites of great size and grotesque
forms. The river Poik runs through a part of
the grotto, and then disappears below the ground.

Aden, a peninsula and town belonging to
Britain, on the SW. coast of Arabia, 105 miles E.
of the strait of Bab-el-Mandeb, the entrance to
the Red Sea. The peninsula is a mass of volcanic
rocks, 5 miles long from E. to W., and rising to
1776 feet. It is joined to the mainland by a
narrow, level, and sandy isthmus. The town is
on the eastern shore of the peninsula, stands in
the crater of an extinct volcano, and is sur-
rounded by indescribably barren, cinder-like
rocks. The main crater is known as the Devil's
Punch-bowl. Frequently the heat is intense ;
but the very dry hot climate, though depressing,
is unusually healthy for the tropics. The Romans
occupied it in the 1st century A.D. Till the dis-
covery of the Cape route to India (1498), it was
the chief mart of Asiatic produce for the Western
nations ; but in 1838 it had sunk to be a village
of 600 inhabitants. The increasing importance
of the Red Sea route gave Aden great value as a
station for England to hold ; and in 1839, after a
few hours' contest, Aden fell into the hands of
the British. It is of high importance both in a
mercantile and naval point of view, especially as
a great coaling station ; it has a garrison and
strong fortifications. The population and re-
sources of the place have rapidly increased since
1838, and the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869
gave it a great impetus. The annual value of its
imports sometimes exceeds two millions, while
that of its exports (coffee, gums, spices) amounts
to a million and a half. It is a telegraphic sta-
tion on the cable between Suez and Bombay, and
on the line to Zanzibar and the Cape. To provide
for its growing population, a considerable terri-
tory on the mainland has been acquired and
added to the peninsula, the total area (including
the island of Perim, q.v.) being 75 sq. m. ; and
the settlement, which is politically connected
with Bombay (seven days' sailing distant), had in
1901 a population of 41,250. The bulk of the
natives are Arabs and Somalis from Africa, all
speaking Arabic. In the settlement there are,
besides Aden proper, called the Camp, or the
Crater, two other centres of population Steamer
Point, which is cooler than the Crater ; and the
outlying town of Shaikh Othman, with a Presby-
terian mission, 10 miles towards the interior.

Aderbijan. See AZERBIJAN.

Aderno (anc. Adranum), a town of Sicily, at
the base of Mount Etna, 17 miles NW. of Catania.
Pop. 19,180.

Adiabe'ne, a district of Assyria, E. of the
Upper Tigris, between the greater and the lesser
Zab rivers.

AdigQ(Ad'ijay; Ger. Etsch; anc. Athesis), a river
of Italy, rising in the Rhsetian Alps, and formed
by various streamlets which descend from these
mountains and unite at Glarus. Thence it flows
east into Tyrol, then, after a slight south-east-
ward detour, due south past Trent and Rove-
redo into Lombardy, and, passing Verona, takes
a south-eastern sweep, and enters the Adriatic
not far north of the Po. It is 250 miles long,
650 feet broad in the plain of Lombardy, and
10 to 16 feet deep.

Adirondack Mountains, the chief range in
New York State, lie between Lakes Champlain
and Ontario. Rising from an elevated plateau
about 2000 feet above sea-level, they are remark-
able for grand and picturesque scenery ; the
highest summit, Mount Marcy, is 5402 feet high.
Small lakes are numerous ; the head-streams of
the Hudson are here ; and there is much fine
timber in the region. The whole northern wilder-
ness of New York State is popularly known as
the Adirondacks, and is a very favourite resort
of sportsmen and pleasure-seekers.

Adjygurh. See AJAIGARH.

Adlington, a Lancashire township, 3 miles
SE. of Chorley. Pop. 4590.

Admiralty Island lies off the coast of Southern
Alaska, in 57 30' N. lat., and 134 15' W. long.
It is about 90 miles long, well wooded and
watered ; and contains coal and copper. It is
inhabited, and belongs to the United States.

Admiralty Islands, a group of 40 islands, to
the NE. of New Guinea, about 2 S. lat., and
147 E. long. They were discovered by the Dutch
in 1616. The largest is above 50 miles long, and
is mountainous but fruitful ; their total area is
878 sq. m. Some are volcanic, others are coral
islands. They abound in cocoa-nut trees, and are
inhabited by a race of tawny frizzle-headed
savages, of the Papuan stock, about 800 in
number. Together with New Britain and some
adjoining groups, they were annexed by Germany
in 1885, and now form part of the Bismarck
Archipelago.

Adoni, a town of Madras, 64 miles NE. of
Bellary. Pop. 32,441.

Adour, a French river, rising in the dep. of
Hautes Pyrenees, and flowing 180 miles through
Gers and Landes, till it enters the Atlantic below
Bayonne. It is navigable for 80 miles.

Adowa, a town of Abyssinia, the capital of
Tigre, stands 6270 feet above sea-level, and 145
miles NE. of Gondar. Adowa is the chief entre-
pot of trade between the interior of Tigre and
the coast. Hera on 1st March 1896 an Italian
army was routed by the Abyssinians. Pop. 4000.

Adpar, a town of Cardigan and Carmarthen
shires, on the Teifl, opposite Newcastle-Emlyn.
Till 1885 it was one of the Cardigan boroughs.

Adra (anc. Abdera), a Mediterranean seaport
of Spain, 49 miles SE. of Granada, near great
lead-mines. Pop. 9039.

Adramyti (anc. Adramyttium ; Turkish Edre-
mid), a town on the west coast of Asia Minor,
opposite Mitylene. Pop. 6000.

Adrar, a region of 30,000 sq. m. in the west of
the Sahara, bordering on the Spanish territory of
Rio de Oro, but now recognised as wholly or
mostl y Fren ch .

ADR1A 11

Adria, a town of Northern Italy, between the
Po and Adige, is one of the oldest cities in
Europe, having been founded by the Etruscans.
So late as the 12th century A.D., it was a flourish-
ing harbour on the Adriatic Sea, to which it gave
name ; but it has been gradually separated from
the sea, from which it is now 14 miles distant.
It still retains several interesting remains of
Etruscan and Roman antiquity, with a fine
cathedral. Pop. 11,320.

Adrian, a city of Michigan, U.S., situated on
the Raisin River. It is well furnished with
water-power, commands the trade of a large
grain-growing region, has several factories, and
a Methodist college founded in 1859. Pop. (1870)
8438 ; (1890) 8756 ; (1900) 9654.

Adrianople (Turkish Edirne; Bulgarian Odrin),
the third city of European Turkey, stands on the
navigable Maritza (the ancient Hebrits), 198 miles
WNW. of Constantinople Vy rail. The splendid
mosque of Selim II., the palace, and the immense
bazaar of Ali Pasha, may be named as its prin-
cipal features. Founded or greatly improved by
the Emperor Hadrian, Adrianople was the seat
of the Ottoman sultanate from 1366 to 1453.
The Russo-Turkish war was here concluded,
September 14, 1829, by the Peace of Adrianople.
After the capture of the Turkish army defending
the Shipka Pass in January 1878, the Russians
entered Adrianople unopposed ; and an armistice
was concluded here on the 81st. Pop. 80,886.

Adrian's Wall. See HADRIAN'S WALL.

Adriatic Sea, a large arm of the Mediterranean
Sea, extending 450 miles north-westward between
Italy and the Balkan Peninsula, and terminated to
the south by the strait of Otranto, 45 miles wide.
The west coast is comparatively low and has few
inlets, and the north is marshy and edged with
lagoons. On the other side, the coasts of Illyria,
Croatia, Dalmatia, and Albania are steep, rocky,
and barren, with many inlets, and begirt with a
chain of almost innumerable small rocky islands.
The total area of the sea, including islands, is
calculated at 52,220 sq. in. the area of the
islands being 1290 ; the mean depth is 110 fathoms,
the greatest depth 565 fathoms. The chief rivers
flowing into it are the Adige and the Po, which
are continually depositing soil on the coast, so
that places once on the shore are now inland.
The extreme saltness of the Adriatic is probably
owing to the comparatively small quantity of
fresh water poured into it by rivers. Venice,
Trieste, Fiume, Ancona, Bari, and Brindisi are
the chief ports. The fisheries are rich, and in-
dustriously worked.

Adur, a Sussex river, flowing 20 miles south-
ward to the English Channel at Shoreham.

jffigean Sea, the old name of the gulf between
Asia Minor and Greece, now usually called Archi-
pelago (q.v.).

.ffigi'na, a mountainous Greek island, 33 sq. m.
in area, in the Gulf of JBgina (the ancient Sara-
nicus Sinus). The town of ^Egina stands at the
NW. end of the island. There are considerable
remains still left of the ancient city, and the
ruins of solidly built walls and harbour moles
still attest its size and importance. The island
contains about 9000 inhabitants.

.ffiolian Islands. See LIPARI.

JEtna. See ETNA.

Afghanistan' is the country lying to the north-
west of India. Its boundaries are, on the north,
the Oxus or Amu Daria, from its source to Khoja

AFGHANISTAN

Saleh, and thence (since 1885-87) a line drawn
across the Turkoman desert (Russian territory)
south-westward to the Murghab, passing south
of Penjdeh, and touching the Hari-Rud at Zul-
fikar. On the east, the frontier runs along the
eastern foot of the Suliman Mountains ; but here
again some of the tribes are almost independent,
and the Indian government controls the more
important passes. On the south, a line passing
north of Quetta in about the 30th parallel of N.
lat., divides Afghanistan from the territory of
the khan of Kelat and Beluchistan ; while on
the west, the meridian of 61 E. long, approxi-
mately defines the boundary with Persia. Within
these limits, Afghanistan extends 400 miles from
north to south, and 600 miles from east to west,
and contains an area which may be roughly
estimated at 240,000 sq. m., or about twice the
size of Great Britain and Ireland. This includes
Badakhshan and Wakhan in the north-east, and
Afghan Turkestan in the north, comprising the
Uzbeg States of Balkh, Kunduz, Maimana, Shi-
barghan, Khulm, Akcha, and Andkhoi, owning
allegiance and paying tribute to the Ameer.
Afghanistan may be divided into the three great
river-basins of the Oxus, the Indus, and the Hel-
mand. Afghanistan is for the most part an arid,
mountainous country, and cultivation is only
met with in some of its valleys. The principal
mountain systems are the Hindu Rush, with its
westerly continuations, the Koh-i-Baba, Pagh-
man, Safed-Koh, and Siah-Koh. The climate is
as diversified as the physical configuration. At
Ghazni (7279 feet) the winter is extremely
rigorous ; the climate of Seistan, in the south-
west, is hot and trying ; while other parts are
temperate.

The population of Afghanistan is composed of
a variety of nationalities, and is estimated at
about 4,900,000. The Afghans proper, or Pathans,
number about 3,000,000, and are divided into
tribes or clans Duranis, Ghilzais, Yiisufzais, and
others. The Duranis are the dominant tribe;
the Ghilzais, the strongest and most warlike ;
the Yiisufzais, the most turbulent. Of the non-
Afghans, the Tajiks are the agricultural and
industrious portion of the population ; the Hind-
kis and Jats chiefly live in the towns, and are
traders ; the Kizilbashes are Turko-Persians, and
form the more educated and superior class ;
while the Hazaras, a race of Mongol origin, are
nomads. The language of the Afghans the
Pakhtu or Pushtu belongs to the Aryan family.
In religion they are Suuni-Mohammedans. In
character they are proud, vain, cruel, perfidious,
extremely avaricious, revengeful, selfish, merci-
less, and idle. 'Nothing is finer than their
physique, or worse than their morale.' The
Afghans do not as a rule inhabit towns, except
in the. case of those attached to the court and
heads of tribes. The townsmen are mostly
Hindkis and other non- Afghan races, who prac-
tise various trades and handicrafts considered
derogatory by men of rank. The principal towns
are Kabul (population 140,000), the seat of govern-
ment and centre of a fertile district ; Ghazni, a
strong fortress ; Kandahar, the chief city of
Southern Afghanistan, with 50,000 inhabitants ;
and Herat, formerly considered the key of India.
Among the natural productions of Afghanistan
is the plant yielding the asafretida. The castor-
oil plant is everywhere common, and good tobacco
is grown in the district of Kandahar. The culti-
vated area round Herat produces magnificent
crops of wheat, barley, cotton, grapes, melons,
and the mulberry-tree. In special localities are

AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR

AFRICA

forests of pistachio. The general appearance of
the country during winter is barren and arid in
the extreme, owing to the absence of trees and
woody shrubs ; but in spring a mass of vegeta-
tion springs up, giving a grand colouring to the
landscape. The industrial products are silk,
chiefly for domestic use, and carpets, those of
Herat being of admirable quality. The manu-
facture of postins, or sheepskins, is one of the
most important occupations. Merchandise is all
transported on camel or pony back. Commerce
suffers much from frequent wars and bad govern-
ment.

The history of Afghanistan as an independent
state only dates from the middle of the 18th
century. For two centuries before, Herat and
Kandahar had been in the possession of Persia ;
while Kabul was included in the Mogul empire
of Delhi. Upon the death of Nadir Shah in 1747,
Ahmed Shah Durani subjugated the different
provinces, and when he died in 1773, left an
empire to his son, Timur Shah. For English-
men, the chief events in the history of Afghan-
istan are the expedition in 1839 which estab-
lished Shah Soojah on the throne ; the rebellion
of 1841, in which the residents Burnes and Mac-
naghten were killed, and the Anglo-Indian troops
perished in the retreat ; the punitive expedition
in 1842 ; the defeat of Dost Mohammed in 1849 ;
the war with Shere Ali in 1878-79, and instal-
ment of Yakub Khan ; the rising at Kabul and
murder of Cavagnari the English resident ; the
punitive expedition under Roberts ; the establish-
ment in 1881 by British assistance of Abdur-
rahman, succeeded in 1901 by his son Habib-
xillah ; and alarms as to Russian encroachments.

See Elphinstone's Cabul (1815) ; Kaye's History
of the War in Afghanistan (1851, 4th ed. 1878) ;
Bellew, Afghanistan and the Afghans (1879);
Reports by Lumsden and Macgregor.

Afium-Kara-Hissar ('Opium Black Castle'),
a city of Asia Minor, 170 miles ENE. of Smyrna.
The chief trade is in opium, and there are manu-
factures of felts, carpets, arms, and saddlery.
Pop. 20,000.

Africa, a continent of the eastern hemisphere,
forming a south-western extension of Asia, to
which it is attached by the narrow isthmus of
Suez, now pierced by a canal 90 miles long.
Africa is thus constituted an insular mass of
irregular triangular shape, with base on the
Mediterranean, and apex at the junction of the
Indian and Atlantic Oceans, which bathe its
eastern and western shores respectively. From
Cape Blanco in Tunis, to Cape Agulhas in Cape
Colony, it stretches southward across about 5000
miles, disposed almost equally on both sides of the
equator. The extreme eastern and western points
are Capes Guardafui on the Indian Ocean, and
Verd on the Atlantic, a distance of about 4500
miles. But owing to the sudden contraction of
the land at the Gulf of Guinea, whence, like both
Americas, India, and other peninsular masses,
it tapers continuously southwards, the total
area is considerably less than would seem to be
indicated by these extreme distances. Including
Madagascar and all adjacent insular groups, it
cannot be estimated at much more than 11,500,000
sq. m., or some 5,000,000 less than either Asia or
America. Of all the continents except Australia,
Africa is the most uniform and monotonous in
its general outlines, unrelieved by broad estu-
aries, bights, or inlets of any kind penetrating
far inland. Hence, although about three times
larger than Europe, its coast-line scarcely exceeds

15,000 miles, as compared with the 19,000 of that
more highly favoured continent.

Geologically, Africa is nearly destitute of in-
sular groups, almost the only islands that belong
physically to the mainland being lerba and one
or two islets in the Mediterranean, and a few on
the east side, such as Socotra, and farther south,
Pemba, Zanzibar, and Mafia, almost forming
parts of the adjacent coast. Perim, Dahlak, and
a few others in the Red Sea, are mere coral reefs,
dominated here and there by volcanic crests.
The Comoro group between Madagascar and
Mozambique is also volcanic ; while Madagascar
itself and the outlying Mascarenhas (Mauritius,
Reunion, and Rodriguez) appear to be surviving
fragments of a Miocene continent, now flooded
by the waters of the Indian Ocean. On the west
side, the little Bissagos group alone forms a geo-
logical dependency of the mainland. Annabon,
St Thomas, Prince, and Fernando Po, in the Gulf
of Guinea, as well as Madeira, the Canary, and
Cape Verd archipelagoes, are all of volcanic
origin, the latter being separated by profound
abysses of over 3000 feet from the continent.
Lastly, St Helena and Ascension are mere rocks
lost amid the Atlantic waters.

Corresponding with the uniform continental
contour, is the generally monotonous character
of the interior, which is relieved by no great
central highlands or conspicuous water-partings
at all comparable to those of the other great
continental regions. The somewhat premature
generalisation, which compared it to ' an inverted
basin,' gives a misleading idea of its true con-
formation. The outer rim of mountain-ranges is
not nearly so continuous and uniform as this
comparison would imply; while the interior is
disposed, not in one vast elevated plain, but
in two well-marked physical regions a great
southern tableland with a mean altitude of over
3500 feet, falling northwards to a much lower
but still elevated plain with a mean altitude of
about 1300 feet. Owing to this generally high
altitude, and to the almost total absence of
extensive low-lying plains, Africa, notwithstand-
ing the lack of vast alpine regions like the Euro-
pean Alps and Pyrenees, has nevertheless a
greater mean elevation (1900 to 2000 feet) than
Europe (1000).

The southern plateau is intersected by several
mountain-ranges, very little or not at all ex-
plored. The chief mountain systems of the
north are the Atlas and the Abyssinian high-
lands. The culminating points of the continent
are near the equator : Ruwenzori (19,000), Kenia
(19,000), and Kilimanjaro (19,680 feet).

Hydrographically, the two great southern
basins of the Congo and Zambesi balance those
of the Nile and Niger of the northern plain,
while the secondary Orange and Limpopo in
the extreme south find their counterparts in the
Senegal and Draa of the NW. The Zambesi
and Limpopo, together with the Rovuma, Juba,
and a few other coast streams, flow to the Indian
Ocean ; all the others, together with the Cunene,
Koanza, Ogoway, Volta, Gambia, Tensift, Muluya,
and Mejerdah, to the Atlantic, either directly or
through the Mediterranean. The Makua-Welle
is a tributary of the Congo ; the Shari flows into
Lake Tsad or Chad.

Africa possesses a magnificent equatorial lake
system, elsewhere unrivalled except by the great
North American lacustrine basins. They are
grouped towards the east side of the continent
between 15 S. and 4 N. lat., and all stand on
the southern tableland, draining seaward through

AFRICA

the Zambesi (Nyassa, with outflow Shire), the
Congo (Tanganyika, with intermittent outflow
Lukuga), and the Nile (Alexandra Nyanza, Vic-
toria Nyanza, Albert-Edward Nyanza, and Albert
Nyanza, with outflow Somerset Nile). The
Alexandra (Akanyaru) drains north-eastwards
through the Alexandra Nile (Kagera) to the
Victoria, queen of African lakes, and, next to
Superior (31,200 sq. in.), the largest fresh-water
basin (over 30,000 sq. in.) on the globe. Lakes
Tsad (Chad) and Ngami have no seaward out-
flow ; the Abyssinian Lake Tana, Tzana, or Dem-
bea, 6100 feet, is a true alpine lake.

Above all the great divisions of the globe,
Africa is distinguished by the general uniformity
of its climatic phenomena, a circumstance due
to its massive form and intertropical position.
In the region approaching nearest to the northern
or southern equinoctial lines, rain falls through-
out the year, thanks to the opposing trade-winds.
In the northern hemisphere a zone of two wet
seasons stretches from the equator to the 15 lat.
In summer, copious showers are caused by the
moisture-bearing SW. winds ; in winter, the NW.
currents become in their turn the bearers of
heavy rain-charged clouds to the southern
plateau. But on both sides of the torrid zone,
comprising about seven-tenths of the whole con-
tinent, the difference in the disposition of the
winds causes a corresponding contrast in the
rainfall. Here the trade-winds maintain their
normal direction constantly, or with but slight
temporary deviations. Blowing from the NE. in
the northern, from the SE. in the southern hemi-
sphere, they divert to the equator most of the
vapours crossing their path, leaving elsewhere
clear skies and arid lands. Thus it happens that
Africa has two almost completely barren zones
of rocks, gravels, marls, clay, and sand the
Sahara and Libyan desert in the north, Kalahari
and other wastes in the south. This regular
disposition of the climates is completed by the
regular alternation of winds and rains in the
zones of Mauritania and the Cape, both belong-
ing to the region of subtropical rains, which
fall in the respective winters of each hemisphere.
Africa is thus disposed from north to south in
successive gray and more or less intensely green
belts, whose limits coincide in several places
with the isothermals, or lines of equal tempera-
ture. The lines indicating mean annual tempera-
tures of 68 and 75 F., traverse, in the north,
the Mediterranean seaboard and the Sahara
respectively ; in the south, the Orange basin
and a zone stretching obliquely from Mozam-
bique to the Cameroons ; while the area of
greatest mean heat (82 P.) is comprised within
an irregular curve enclosing the Upper Nile
basin between Khartoum and the Albert Nyanza
north and south, Lake Tsad and Massowah
(Massawah) west and east. The climate, except
on the Mediterranean, Saharan, Red Sea, and
extreme south coasts, is nearly everywhere mal-
arious on the low-lying and generally marshy
coast-lands between the outer rim and the sea.
It is the same in the Chambeze, Malagarazi
(Unyamwesi), Shari, and other inland districts,
which are either constantly or periodically under
water. But elsewhere, with due precautions, i/ue
continent cannot be regarded as insalubrious ;
and the Sahara,, for instance, is distinctly a
healthy region, although, owing to rapid radia-
tion, the hot days are here succeeded by cool
and occasionally even frosty nights.

About 41 per cent, of the surface is said to be
either desert, or under scrub, or otherwise

absolutely waste, and 35 per cent, steppe, or
nearly treeless grass-grown savannah, leaving
only 24 per cent, for forest and arable lands.
The continuous forest growths are confined
mainly to the vast equatorial region between
the Upper Zambesi and Soudan, and to some
isolated tracts about the Abyssinian plateau, in
the Moroccan Atlas, all along the Guinea coast,
about the Middle Limpopo and Zambesi, and in
parts of Masai Land and the Upper Nile basin.

Fauna. Africa is the peculiar home of the
large fauna such as the lion, the panther and
leopard, the hyena, fox, and jackal. The great
herbivora are represented by the elephant, the
rhinoceros, the buffalo, the giraffe, the hippo-
potamus, and the crocodile. Africa is also the
special home of the gnu, and several other species
of antelopes. The monkey family is also spread
over the whole continent. Peculiar also are such
equidse as the zebra and quagga. Of land mam-
mals there are altogether enumerated about 480
species peculiar to this continent, amongst which
are 95 of the simian and 50 of the antelope family.
The avi-fauna includes the ostrich, the secretary,
ibis, guinea-fowl, weaver-bird, roller-bird, love-
bird, waxbill, whydah, sun-bird, parrots, quail,
and several other indigenous species. Reptiles
and insects also abound the tsetse fly being one
of the great impediments to the progress of
culture.

Recent authorities roughly estimate the popu-
lation of Africa at about 210,000,000, or 18 to
the square mile, a density five times less than
that of Europe. According to the nature of soil
and climate, the population is distributed very
unevenly over the surface, being massed some-
what densely in the Nile delta, in the Upper
Nile Valley, and generally throughout Soudan,
less thickly over the southern plateau, and very
thinly in Mauritania and Tripolitana ; while large
tracts, especially in the Western Sahara, the
Libyan and Kalahari wastes, are absolutely un-
inhabited. Of the whole number, probably less
than 1,000,000 are recent immigrants from Europe,
settled chiefly in the extreme north (Egypt
and Algeria) and in the extreme south (Cape
Colony, Natal, and the former Boer States).
About 34,000,000, all of Semitic stock, are in-
truders from Asia, some in remote or prehistoric
times (3,000,000 Himyarites in Abyssinia and
Harar from South Arabia), some since the spread
of Islam (over 30,000,000 nomad and other Arabs,
chiefly along the Mediterranean seaboard, in West
Sahara, and Central and East Soudan). All the
rest, numbering about 175,000,000 altogether,
may be regarded as the true aboriginal element,
and may be regarded as falling into two main
groups the Negro and Negroid peoples, and the
Hamitic. The Negroes proper, including the
Fanti, Ashanti, Mandingo, Haussa, Bari, and
Monbuttu stocks, are mainly in Upper Guinea,
Senegambia, and the Soudan. The Bantus to
the south of them include Kaffirs, Zulus, Bechu-
anas, Matabele, Wagandas ; and the other Negroids
are the Hottentots and the Bushmen, Batwas,
and Akkas. To the Hamitic stock are referred
the Berbers, Gallas, and Somalis, as also the
Fans, Fulahs, and the Egyptian Fellahs. Speak-
ing generally, the northern Hamites and Semites
are Mohammedans and stock-breeders, the
southern Bantus nature-worshippers and agri-
culturists ; all these factors intermingling in the
intervening zone of Soudan. The chief exceptions
to this broad statement are the Christian Abys-
sinians (Monophysite sect) ; the Hottentots, who
are mainly cattle-breeders ; and the Algerian

AFTON 14

Berbers, who prefer tillage to pasturage. Nearly
the whole of Africa is under the direct or indirect
control of seven European states Great Britain,
France, Germany, Portugal, Spain, Italy, and
Turkey or within their recognised spheres of
influence. The only independent states re-
maining are Morocco, Abyssinia, and Liberia.

Of African soil, Great Britain holds (1) in
South Africa, the Cape Colony, Natal, Transvaal,
Orange River Colony, Basutoland, Bechuana-
land (as a protectorate), Rhodesia, British Cen-
tral Africa Protectorate; (2) in East Africa,
Zanzibar (as a protectorate) and dependencies,
British East Africa Protectorate, Uganda, British
Somaliland ; (3) in West Africa, Gambia, Sierra
Leone, Gold Coast, Lagos, and Northern and
Southern Nigeria ; (4) Mauritius, Ascension, St
Helena, &c. ; (5) Egypt (temporarily occupied) ;
(6) Anglo-Egyptian Soudan, held by Britain and
Egypt jointly. France holds Algeria, Tunis,
Senegal, French Guinea, the Ivory Coast,
Dahomey, the Western Soudan, the Sahara,
French Congo, Obok or French Somaliland,
Madagascar, Reunion, and the Mayottes and
the Comoros.

German Africa includes Togoland, the Camer-
oons, German South-west Africa (Damaraland,
Namaqualand), and German East Africa. Portu-
guese Africa : Angola, Portuguese East Africa,
Madeira, Cape Verde Islands. Spanish Africa :
Ceuta, Spanish Sahara (Rio de Oro and Adran) ;
the Canaries, Fernando Po, and other Islands.
Italian Africa : Eritrea, Italian Somaliland.
Belgian Africa is the Congo Free State.

According to estimates based on the latest
available data, British Africa in all (without
Egypt, but including the Egyptian Soudan) in-
cludes about 3,510,000 sq. m., with about
84,000,000 inhabitants ; French Africa, 2,970,000
sq. m., 27,500,000 inhabitants ; German Africa,
742,000 sq. m., 6,750,000 inhabitants ; Portuguese
Africa, 804,000 sq. m., 7,750,000 inhabitants;
Spanish Africa, 250,000 sq. m., population not
known ; Italian Africa, 136,000 sq. m., 1,000,000
inhabitants ; Belgian Africa (Congo Free State),
900,000 sq. m., pop. 30,000,000 ; Turkish Africa
(Egypt and Tripoli), 8,000,000 sq. m., pop.
11,300,000; Abyssinia, 150,000 sq. m,, pop.
3,500,000 ; Morocco, 219,000 sq. m., pop. 5,000,000 ;
Liberia, 14,000 sq. m., pop. 1,000,000.

See works on Africa by Keith Johnston, Reclus,
Hartmann, and others ; the works and the lives
of Bruce, Mungo Park, Livingstone, Baker,
Burton, Speke and Grant, Earth, Schweinfurth,
Cameron, Stanley, Johnston, Thomson, and other
travellers ; Jones's History of African Exploration
(New York, 1875) ; books on the partition of Africa
by Silva White (1892) and Scott Keltie (1893) ; and
Sir H. H. Johnston's Colonization of Africa (1899).

Afton, an Ayrshire stream, joining the Nith at
New Cumnock.

' Agades (A-gd-des), once a very important city of
Africa, and still a great meeting-place of trading
caravans, is the capital of the state Air or Asben,
south of the Sahara, and is built upon the eastern
edge of a great tableland, at an elevation of not
less than 2500 feet. In the 16th century it prob-
ably contained 60,000 inhabitants; now it has
some 7000.

Agadir, the southernmost seaport town in
Morocco, at the mouth of the Sfls, 23 miles SE.
of Cape Ghir. It was once a place of importance ;
but a revolt in 1773, and the consequent rise of
Mogador, have lessened its value, and its pop.
now does not exceed 1500.

AGRA

Agar, a town of India, in the state of Gwalior,
41 miles NE. of Ujain. It stands in an open plain,
1598 feet above the sea. Pop. 30,000.

Agde (anc. Agatha Narbonensis), a town in the
French dep. of Herault, 3 miles from the Mediter-
ranean Sea, on the left bank of a navigable
stream, the mouth of which forms a harbour.
Pop. 7705.

Agen (A'-zhon"), chief town of the French dep.
of Lot-et-Garonne, on the right bank of the
Garonne, 84 miles SE. of Bordeaux. It carries
on an active trade in woollen and linen fabrics,
leather, coloured paper, colours, cordage, and
sailcloth ; and is an important railway centre.
Joseph Scaliger and the barber-poet Jasmin were
natives. Pop. 18,500.

Aghrim, or AUQHRIM (Auhh'rim), a hill in
Galvvay, Ireland, 30 miles SW. of Athlone. Here,
on 12th July 1691, Ginckell defeated the French
and Irish adherents of James II. under St Ruth.

Agincourt (A'zhan a lcoor\ now AZINCOURT, a
small village in the centre of the French dep.
of Pas-de-Calais, celebrated for Henry V.'s great
victory over the French, October 25, 1415.

Agnano, till 1870 a small lake 3 miles west of
Naples, about 60 feet in depth, and without visible
outlet. As it caused malaria, it has been drained.
On the right lies the Grotta del Cane (q.v.), and
on the left are the sulphurous vapour-baths of
San Germano.

Agno'ne, a town of South Italy, 22 miles NW.
of Campobasso, noted for its copper and steel
manufactures. Pop. 6179.

Agra, a city in the United Provinces of
Agra and Oudh, on the Jumna, 139 miles
SE. of Delhi by rail, and 841 NW. of Calcutta.
The ancient walls embraced an area of 11 sq.
m., of which about one-half is now occupied.
The houses are mostly built of red sandstone,
and, on the whole, Agra is the handsomest city
in Upper India. Some of the public buildings,
monuments of the house of Timur, are on a scale
of striking magnificence. Among these are the
fortress built by Akbar, within the walls of which
are the palace and audience-hall of Shah Jehan,
the Moti Masjid or Pearl Mosque, and the Jama
Masjid or Great Mosque. Still more celebrated
is the white marble Taj Mahal, situated without
the city, about a mile to the east of the fort.
This extraordinary and beautiful maxisoleum was
built by the Emperor Shah Jehan for himself and
his favourite wife, who died in 1629 ; and is
remarkable alike for the complexity and grace of
the general design, and the elaborate perfection
of the workmanship. In the centre, on a raised
platform, is the mausoleum, surmounted by a
beautiful dome, with smaller domes at each
corner, and four graceful minarets (133 feet high).
Of British edifices the principal are the Govern-
ment House, the Government College, three
missionary colleges, the English church, and the
barracks. The climate, during the hot and rainy
seasons (April to September), is very injurious
to Europeans ; but the average health of the city
is equal to that of any other station in the
North-western Provinces. The principal articles
of trade are cotton, tobacco, salt, grain, and
sugar. There are manufactures of shoes, pipe
stems, and gold lace, and of inlaid mosaic work,
for which Agra is famous. It is a very important
railway centre, and has many claims to be re-
garded as the commercial capital of the North-
west. Pop. (1901) 188,022. Agra first rose to
importance in the beginning of the 16th century,

AGRAM

AIRDS MOSS

and was the capital of the Mogul sovereigns till
1658, when Aurungzebe removed ~to Delhi. It
was taken in 1784 by Sindhia, and surrendered in
1803 to Lord Lake. From 1835 till 1862, it was
the seat of government for the North-west Pro-
vinces. During the mutiny the Europeans had,
in June 1857, to retire to the Fort or Residency.
Heroic sallies were occasionally made ; and Agra
was relieved early in October by the rapid and
brilliant march of Colonel Greathed.

Agram (Croatian Zagreb), capital of the Aus-
trian province of Croatia and Slavonia, lies at
the foot of a richly wooded range of mountains,
2 miles from the Save, and 142 NE. of Fiume by
rail. The cathedral, dating partly from the llth
century, with new towers and an ornate western
facade added in 1890-93, is one of the finest
Gothic buildings in Austria. The manufactures
include tobacco, leather, and linen. An earth-
quake in November 1880 destroyed most of the
public buildings, and overthrew 200 houses.
Agram possesses a university founded in 1874,
with 40 lecturers and 400 students. Pop. (1890)
87,529 ; (1900) 57,800.

Agrigentum. See GIBGENTI.

Agtelek, a Hungarian village to the NE. of
Pesth, near one of the largest and most remark-
able series of stalactitic caverns in Europe, some
of them nearly 100 feet high.

Aguas Calientes, a town of Mexico, capital of
a central state, with an area of 2900 sq. m., stands
on a plain 6000 feet above sea-level, 270 miles NW.
of the city of Mexico by rail. The environs
abound in hot springs, hence the name. Pop.
32,500.

Aguilar de la Fronte'ra, a Spanish town of
Andalusia, 26 miles SSE. of Cordova. Pop. 12,398.

Aguilas, a fortified port in the Spanish province
of Murcia, with large smelting-houses, and an
export trade in lead, iron ore, sulphur, esparto,
and figs. Pop. 12,500.

Agul'has, CAPE, the most southern point of
Africa, lies about 100 miles ESE. of the Cape of
Good Hope, in lat. 34 49' S., long. 20 0' 40" E.
In 1849, a lighthouse was erected on the point,
which is very dangerous for ships. The Agulhas
Bank, about 40 miles broad, extends along the
whole southern coast of Africa, from near Natal
to Saldanha Bay.

Ahmedabad', chief town of a district in Guzerat,
second amongst the cities of the province of
Bombay, is 50 miles NE. of the head of the Gulf
of Cambay. It was built in 1412 by Ahmed
Shah, and finally came to the British in 1818.
In the 18th century it was one of the largest and
most magnificent cities in the East, with a
population of 900,000. Its architectural relics
are gorgeous, even in the midst of decay, and
illustrate the combination of Saracenic with
Hindu forms mainly of the Jain type. The Jama
Masjid, or Great Mosque, rises from the centre
of the city, and is adorned by two superb
minarets. There are some twelve other mosques
(one lined with ivory) and six famous tombs.
The modem Jain temple is of singular beauty.
The prosperity of the place was almost wholly
destroyed by the rapacity of the Mahrattas, but
it has largely recovered, and is still famous for
its rich fabrics of silk and cotton, brocades,
pottery, paper made of jute, and articles of gold,
silver, steel, and enamel. Pop. 185,900.

Ahmednagar (Ahmadnagar), a town of the
province of Bombay, 122 miles E. of Bombay, is
the third city of the Deccan. It was HOunded in.

1494 by Ahmed Nizam Shah. In 1797 it fell into
the hands of the Mahrattas, and in 1817 became
British. It became a municipality in 1855 ; and
possesses a good supply of water by means of
aqueducts. Strong carpets, cotton and silk
cloths, and copper and brass pots, are manufac-
tured here. Pop. 42,492.

Ahmedpur', a town of India, 25 miles SW. of
Bahawalpur ; pop. 30,000.

Afrwas, a small village of Persia, in the pro-
vince of Khuzistan, 70 miles NE. of Bassora.
The neighbourhood is covered with the ruins of
the capital of Artabanus, the last of the Parthian
kings.

Aidin (Guzel-Hissar), a town of western Asia
Minor, on the Meander, 60 miles SE. of Smyrna
by rail, is the capital of a province, and was
built out of the ruins of the ancient Tralles.
The trade is important in morocco leather,
cotton, and fruit. Pop. 37,000.

Aigues-Mortes (Aig Mort), a town (pop. 4787)
in the French dep. of Gard, in an extensive salt-
marsh, 3 miles from the Mediterranean by a
canal. In the middle ages, when the sea came
much nearer the town, it was a very important
Mediterranean harbour.

Ailsa Craig, a rocky islet of Ayrshire, 10 miles
W. by N. of Girvan. Rising abruptly out of the
sea to a height of 1114 feet, it is about 2 miles
in circumference, and is accessible only at one
point. The rock is a mass of trap, assuming in
some places a distinctly columnar form. On the
NW., perpendicular cliffs rise to a height of from
200 to 300 feet; on the other sides, the Craig
descends to the sea with a steep slope. Till the
erection of a lighthouse (1883-86), the only in-
habitants were goats, rabbits, and wild-fowl;
solan geese, in particular, breeding in the cliffs
in countless numbers. About 200 feet from the
summit are some springs, and on the ledge of
a crag on the eastern front, are the remains of
an ancient stronghold. In 1831, the Earl of
Cassillis, the proprietor of Ailsa Craig, was raised
to the dignity of Marquis of Ailsa. Pop. about
30 in all.

Ain, a French river flowing 118 miles south-
westward, through the deps. of Jura and Ain, to
the Rhone, 18 miles above Lyons.

Ain, an eastern dep. of France, separated from
Savoy by the Rhone. The eastern part is moun-
tainous, with summits 5000 to 6500 feet high.
Bourg is the capital. Area, 2239 sq. m. ; pop.
(1891) 356,907 ; (1901) 350,416.

Ain-Tab, a town of Syria, on an affluent of
the Euphrates, 64 miles NNE. of Aleppo ; pop.
40,000.

Air, or ASBEN, an oasis-kingdom in the north
of the Soudan. Agades (q.v.) is the capital.

Aira Force, a waterfall, 80 feet high, near the
west shore of Ullswater.

Airdrie, a flourishing municipal burgh in NE.
Lanarkshire, 2 miles E. by N. of Coat bridge, and
11 E. of Glasgow. Standing on the high-road
between Edinburgh and Glasgow, near the Monk-
land Canal and the North British Railway, it
owes its prosperity to the abundance of coal and
ironstone in the vicinity. The weaving of cotton
goods is carried on, as are also iron-founding,
silk-weaving, and paper-making. ' Since 1832 it
has united with Falkirk, &c. to send a member
to parliament. Pop. (1831) 6594 ; (1861) 12,918 ;
(1891) 15,133, or, with suburbs, 19,135.

Airds MOSS, a moorish tract in Ayrsliire to

AIRE

AJMERE

the NE. of Auchinleck, the scene of a Covenant-
ing skirmish (1680).

Aire, a river in the West Riding of Yorkshire,
flowing 70 miles to the Ouse.

Aire (anc. Vicus Julii), a French town in the
dep. of Landes, on the Adour, 112 miles S. of
Bordeaux, with an ancient cathedral ; pop. 3892.

Aire-sur-Lys, a fortified town in the French
dep. of Pas-de-Calais, on the Lys, 37 miles W. of
Lille by rail ; pop. 8165.

Airlie, in Forfarshire, 8 miles WSW. of Forfar,
the seat of the Earl of Airlie, famous in song.

Airolo, an Italian-Swiss village, in the upper
valley of the Ticino, and 150 yards from the
southern mouth of the great St Gothard Tunnel ;
pop. 2000.

Airthrey, a place with mineral springs near
Bridge of Allan.

Aisne (Airi), a French river, flowing 150 miles
north-westward and westward through the deps.
of Marne, Ardennes, Aisne, and Oise, till it falls
into the river Oise, above Compiegne.

Aisne, a dep. in the north of France, com-
prising parts of Picardy, Brie, and the Isle of
France. Hilly in the south, level in the north,
it belongs to the basin of the Seine, and is
watered by the rivers Aisne, Marne, and Oise.
Laon is the capital. Area, 2839 sq. m. ; pop.
(1891) 545,493 ; (1901) 535,583.

Aiwalyk, a seaport in the north-west of Asia
Minor, on the Gulf of Edremid (Adramyti). Pop.
35,000.

Aix (Aiks), a French town, formerly capital
of Provence, in the dep. of Bouches-du-Rhone,
20 miles N. of Marseilles. It is believed to
have been founded by the Roman consul, C.
Sextius (120 B.C.), on account of the mineral
springs in the neighbourhood, and thence to have
got the name Aquce Sextice. Aix is the seat of
an archbishop ; and possesses a college with a
public library of 150,000 volumes and 1100 MSS.
The baptistery of the cathedral is believed to
have been originally a temple of Apollo. There
is also an old clock-tower with a quaint mechan-
ical clock. The industry consists chiefly in
cotton-spinning, leather-dressing, and trade in
olive-oil, wine, almonds, &c. The warm springs
are slightly sulphurous, with a temperature from
90 to 100 F. The field on which Marius defeated
the Teutones lies in the plain between Aix and
Aries. Pop. 25,000.

Aix-la-Chapelle (Aiks-la-s7iapel' ; Ger. Aachen),
a town of Rhenish Prussia, is situated in a
fertile hollow, surrounded by heights, and
watered by the Wurm, 39 miles W. by S. of
Cologne. Pop. (1867) 67,923 ; (1900) 135,245, of
whom not 7 per cent, are Protestants. Aix is
the centre of a valuable coal district, and of
numerous thriving manufactories, especially for
spinning and weaving woollen fabrics, for needle
and pin making, and for machinery, bells, glass
buttons, chemicals, and cigars. Charlemagne
founded its world-wide celebrity; in 814 it
became his grave, the spot being marked with
a stone. In 796 he had rebuilt the imperial
palace, on whose site the present town-house was
built in 1353, as well as the chapel which forms
the nucleus of the cathedral. This ancient
cathedral is in the form of an octagon, which,
with various additions round it, forms on the
outside a sixteen-sided figure. The so-called
'great relics,' shown once in seven years, attract
thousands of strangers. Much has of late years

been done to restore this venerable pile. The
columns brought by Charlemagne from the palace
of the Exarch at Ravenna, had been carried off
by the French ; but most of them were restored
at the Peace of Paris. The town-house, on the
market-place, is flanked by two towers older than
itself. In its coronation-hall, thirty-five German
emperors and eleven empresses have celebrated
their coronation banquet, and the walls have
been decorated with frescoes of scenes from the
life of Charlemagne. Before the town-house
stands a beautiful fountain, with a bronze statue
of Charlemagne. Aix-la-Chapelle now possesses
broad streets, many fine public buildings, taste-
ful churches, and luxurious hotels ; and from
being a quiet old city of historical interest, has
become a busy centre of manufacturing industry.

The mineral springs, of which six are hot and
two cold, were known in the time of Charle-
magne. The temperature of the hot springs
varies from 111 to 136 F. ; they are efficacious
in cases of gout, rheumatism, cutaneous diseases,
&c. The cold springs are chalybeate.

The name of the place is derived from the
springs, for which it has been always famous.
Charlemagne granted extraordinary privileges to
this city, which in the middle ages contained
more than 100,000 inhabitants. Seventeen im-
perial diets and eleven provincial councils were
held within its walls. The removal of the corona-
tions to Frankfort (1531), the religious contests
of the 16th and 17th centuries, a great fire which
in 1656 consumed 4000 houses, combined with
other causes to bring into decay this once flour-
ishing community. In 1793 and 1794, Aix-la-
Chapelle was occupied by the French ; and by
the treaties concluded at Campo Formio and
Luneville it was formally ceded to France, until
in 1815 it fell to Prussia.

Aix-les-Bains (AiTcs-le-Ban e ), a small town in
the French dep. of Savoy, in a delightful valley
near Lake Bourget, 8 miles N. of Chambery. It
was a much-frequented bathing-place in the time
of the Roman empire (Aquce Gratiance), and
among its many ancient remains are the arch
of Campanus, the ruins of a temple, and of a
vapour-bath. The two sulphurous hot springs
are used both for drinking and as baths, and
attract annually 5000 visitors. Pop. 4799.

Ajaccio (Ayat'cho), capital of Corsica, on the
west side of the island, at the head of the
Gulf of Ajaccio. It has a fine cathedral, com-
pleted in 1585, and a spacious harbour, protected
by a citadel ; and was the birthplace of Napoleon.
There is a statue of him as First Consul (1850),
and an equestrian monument of him as emperor
surrounded by his four brothers (1865). The
house of the Bonapartes, the 'Casa Bonaparte, '
is now national property. The chief employ-
ments are the anchovy and pearl fisheries, and
the trade in wine and olive-oil. Ajaccio has
become a winter-resort for consumptive patients.
Pop. 21,200.

Ajaigarh, a hill-fort of India, in the United
Provinces, about 130 miles WSW. of Allahabad.
Within its walls are two great masses of ruined
Jain temples.

Ajalpn, the modern Ydlo, a town of the Levites
belonging to the tribe of Dan in ancient Pales-
tine. In a valley near it Joshua defeated five
Canaanitish kings, the sun and moon standing
still in order to make his victory more complete.

Ajmere (Ajmir), an ancient city of Rajputana,
the capital of a district, 228 miles W. by S. of
Agra by rail. It is situated in a picturesque and

AJODHYA

ALASKA

rocky valley, and is surrounded by a stone wall
with five gateways. The Dargah or tomb of the
Mussulman saint, Kwaja, within the town, is
held in great veneration. Trade has revived
since the opening of the railway (1875), the prin-
cipal export being cotton. Pop. 75,500.

Ajodhya, an ancient city of Oudh, on the right
bank of the Gogra, adjacent to Fyzabad (q.v.).
Its site is marked by heaps of ruins, overgrown
with jungle ; there is also a modern town of the
same name with 7500 inhabitants, nearly 100
temples, 36 mosques, and a fair which yearly
attracts half a million of pilgrims.

Ak'abah (the Biblical Elath), a haven at the
head of the Gulf of Akabah, the north-eastern
horn of the Red Sea.

Akerman. See AKJERMAN.

Akhalzikh, a town of Russian Transcaucasia,
110 miles W. of Tittis, on an affluent of the Kur ;
pop. 13,757.

Ak-Hissar (anc. Thyatird), a town of Asia
Minor, 52 miles NE. of Smyrna ; pop. 12,000.

Akhlat, or ARDISH, a town of Asiatic Turkey,
on the NW. shore of Lake Van ; pop. 4000.

Akhtyrka, a town of Russia, 58 miles NW. of
Kharkotf, on a small affluent of the Dnieper;
pop. 23,400.

Akita, a town in Hondo Island, Japan ; pop.
29,500.

Akjerman (Ak-yer-man), or AKERMAN, a town
of Russia, in Bessarabia, on the Black Sea, at
the mouth of the Dniester ; pop. 28,300.

Akmolllnsk, capital of a province of Western
Siberia, 300 miles SW. of Omsk ; pop. 5700.

Akola, a town of Berar, India, 60 miles SW.
of Ellichpur; pop. 29,300.

Akot, a town of Berar, 35 miles SW. of
Ellichpur; pop. 16,000.

Akron, in Summit county, Ohio, U.S., is 36
miles south of Cleveland. It has woollen fac-
tories, flour-mills, a steam-engine factory, a stove
factory, a mineral-paint mill, &c. Pop. (1870)
10,006; (1890) 21,601 ; (1900) 42,730.

Ak-shehr (' White City '), a city of Asia Minor,
near the salt lake of Ak-shehr, and 60 miles SE.
of Konieh ; pop. 6000.

Ak-su, a town of Chinese Turkestan, 260 miles
NE. from Yarkand, on an affluent of the Tarim,
and at the southern base of the Thian-shan
Mountains. It was formerly the capital of a
separate khanate ; in 1867 it became a part of
the state of Eastern Turkestan, under Yakoob
Beg, but was reconquered by China in 1877. It
is celebrated for its manufactures of cotton cloth
and saddlery, and is an entrepot of commerce
between Russia, Tartary, and China. Pop. 20,000,
besides a large Chinese garrison.

Akyab, a town of Burma, the chief seaport of
Arakan, is situated on the eastern side of the
island of Akyab, at the mouth of the Kuladan
River, 190 miles SE. of Calcutta. In 1826, be'ng
then a mere fishing-village, it was chosen for the
chief station of the province, and now is a great
rice port ; pop. 43,989.

Alabama, one of the United States, touching
the Gulf of Mexico, and lying between Georgia
and Mississippi. In the south are the Piny
Woods ; next the fertile Cane-brake or Black
Belt ; next the mineral region ; to the north,
part of the fertile valley of the Tennessee. The
Alabama and Tombigbee are navigable rivers.
B

Cotton, maize, oats, wheat, and sweet potatoes
are produced ; the minerals, including coal and
iron, are important; and manufactures are de-
veloping. The climate is warm but equable, and
save in the Black Belt and near the swamps,
healthful. Montgomery is the capital, Mobile
the chief port of the state. Area, 51,5*0 sq. in.
more than England without Wales ; pop. (1840)
590,756; (1890) 1,513,017; (1900) 1,828,697, of
whom 827,000 were coloured.

Ala Dagh, a range (11,000 feet) in the great
tableland of Erzeruin, in Turkish Armenia, to
the north of Lake Van.

Alago'as, a maritime province of Brazil',
bounded on the N. and W. by Pernambuco. Pop.
about 520,000. The town of Alagoas, once the
capital, has 5000 inhabitants. The present capital
is the port of Maceio.

Alais, a town of the French dep. of Gard, on
a plain at the base of the Cevennes Mountains,
31 miles NW. of Nimes by rail. It embraced the
Protestant cause in the religious wars of France,
and was besieged and taken in 1629. Alais owes
its prosperity chiefly to the mineral wealth of the
surrounding district, which produces coal, iron,
lead, zinc, and asphalt; there are large iron-
foundries here, and manufactures of silk and
ribbons. Pop. 18,500.

Alajuela (A-la-hoo-ay'la), a city of Costa Rica,
Central America, 23 miles WN\V. of Cartago,
with which it is connected by rail ; pop. 10,000.

Alameda (A-la-mai'da), a watering-place of Cali-
fornia, on the Bay, 3 miles by steam-ferry E. of
San Francisco. Pop. 17,500.

Al'amos, Los ('the poplars'), a town of
Mexico, in the state of Sonora, 45 miles E. of
the Gulf of California, is famous for its copper
and silver mines ; pop. 10,000.

Aland Islands (O'land), a group of 300 small
islands and rocks at the entrance of the Gulf
of Bothnia, opposite Abo, the largest being
situated about 25 miles from the Swedish coast.
Only 80 of them are inhabited. The inhabitants
are of Swedish origin, skilful sailors and fisher-
men. Pop. 24,000, of whom two-thirds inhabit
the largest island, called Aland, which is 18 miles
in length, and contains Bomarsund. These
islands, formerly Swedish, were taken possession
of by Russia in 1809.

Ala-shehr ('the exalted city,' anc. Philadel-
phia), a city of Asia Minor, 75 miles E. of
Smyrna. It was founded about 200 B.C., and is
famous as the seat of one of the Seven Churches
of Asia. It is still a place of considerable im-
portance, and carries on a thriving trade with
Smyrna, to which it is now joined by a railway.
There are many interesting remains of antiquity.
Pop. 15,000, including 3000 Greeks.

Alaska, a territory of the United States, occu-
pying the NW. portion of the North American
continent, together with a great number of
islands, mostly in the Pacific Ocean. It is
bounded N. by the Arctic Ocean, E. by the
North-west Territories of Canada and by British
Columbia ; SW. by the Pacific Ocean, and W. by
Behring Sea and the Arctic Ocean. Its land area
is estimated at 581,400 sq. m., or about as large
as Great Britain, Ireland, France, and Spain
combined. The northern portion of Alaska,
containing five-sixths of its area, consists essen-
tially of a vast expanse of moor or tundra, broken
here and there by mountain-spurs (an especially
marked feature in the south), and varied by count-
less lakes, water-courses, and swamps. About

ALA-TAU

ALBANIA

one-third of this region lies within the Arctic
Circle. The winter climate is here terribly severe,
and the short summers are rendered almost un-
endurable by clouds of mosquitoes or gnats.
This region is traversed by the great river Yukon,
about 2000 miles long, the Kuskoquim, and other
large streams. Its population is Innuit or
Eskimo, in the north and on the coast, but
Athabascan or Tinneh (Red Indian) elsewhere.
The fisheries and the fur-trade afford subsistence
to the scanty population. A second section com-
prises the Aleutian Islands (q.v.), and a great
part of the peninsula of Aliaska. This division
is mountainous, and actively volcanic. It is
very thinly peopled by the Aleuts. The Pribylof
Islands, in Behring Sea, are the main seat of the
capture of the fur-seal. South-eastern Alaska
consists of a narrow strip of continental land,
together with the Alexander Archipelago, lying
near the mainland. This region is extremely
mountainous, and has many great glaciers nearly
reaching the sea. The climate on the tide-level
is singularly mild for the latitude, but almost
incessant rains prevail. The country is well
timbered, and the waters abound in valuable
fish. The natives are Indians of the Haida and
Thlinket races. Alaska has a very small English-
speaking white population, and a few semi-
Russian natives. Gold is mined in the Yukon
valley, at Cape Nome, and elsewhere. Coal,
mostly of poor quality, is common.

A few cattle are kept near the settlements, but
th climate is so wet that sheep cannot do well.
Some potatoes and a few garden vegetables are
grown. The native animals include the reindeer,
the moose, the Rocky Mountain sheep, bears,
wolves, and foxes ; the muskrat, ermine, mink,
sable, lynx, beaver, wolverene, squirrel, hare,
porcupine, and marmot ; the sea and river otter ;
fur, hair, and other seals, and the walrus. The
fisheries are very important. Among the valu-
able food fishes are the cod, herring, halibut, and
salmon of several species. The principal towns
of the territory are all small, and most of them
are on the coast. Among them are Sitka, the
capital ; Fort Wrangel ; and Belkofsky, the chief
dep6t of the trade in seal-otter furs ; Juneau is a
gold-mining town ; and Skagway is the port for
the access to Klondike by the White Pass.
Illoolook is on Oonalashka Island. Alaska, for-
merly called Russian America, was first visited
by the Russians under Vitus Behring in 1741.
In 1799 the whole country passed under control
of the Russian American Company. In 1867 the
United States purchased the entire territory
from Russia for $7,200,000 in gold. Pop. (1900)
80,600 whites, and 30,000 Eskimos and Indians.

See Wardman, A Trip to Alaska (1885); Elliott,
Our Arctic Province (1886) ; H. W. Seton Karr,
The Shores and Alps of Alaska (1887); Halleck,
Our New Alaska (1886); The Alaska Coast Pilot;
Woolman, Picturesque Alaska (1890); Emmons,
Alaska and its Mineral Resources (1898) ; reports
of the geological survey (1900, &c.) and of the
Harriman Expedition (1901-4).

Ala-tau ('mottled'), a range of lofty moun-
tains forming the boundary between Turkestan
and Mongolia, and the northern limit of the great
tableland of Central Asia. It is made up of five
sierra-like sub-ranges, all grouped round Lake
Issik-Kul, which range in elevation from 10,000
to 15,000 feet. The loftiest peak, Khan Tengri,
is 24,000 feet above the sea.

Alatyr, a Russian town, on the Sura, 103 miles
NW. of Simbirsk ; pop. 15,000,

Alausi, a town of Ecuador, 70 miles E. of
Guayaquil, 7980 feet above the sea ; pop. 6000.

Al'ava, the southern and largest, but most
sparsely populated, of the three Basque provinces
of Spain. Mountains are scattered through the
whole province, and yield various minerals, stone,
and timber in abundance. Area, 1205 sq. in. The
inhabitants, who are chiefly Basques, number a
little over 96,000. The soil is generally fertile,
and along the Ebro fruits and wine are produced.
The capital is Vittoria.

Alba (anc. Alba Pompeia), a very ancient city
of North Italy, on the Tanaro, 41 miles SW. of
Alessandria by rail. Its cathedral was founded
in 1486. Pop. 6961.

Albacete (Al-ba-thay'teh), capital of a Spanish
province, 140 miles SE. of Madrid by rail, in a fer-
tile but treeless plain. It has great cattle-fairs.
Pop. 20,671. The province is partly formed from
ia, and p

the former kingdom of Murcia,

partly from

New Castile. It is generally hilly, in some parts
attaining 5000 feet. The mineral wealth is con-
siderable. Area, 5972 sq. m. ; pop. 233,000.

Albania forms the south-western portion of
the remaining immediate possessions of European
Turkey, and extends along the western shore of
the Balkan Peninsula, from the river Bojana to
the Gulf of Arta. To the north it is bounded,
since 1878-80, by the newly-won Montenegrin
territory, and by Bosnia; on the south it is
separated, since 1881, from Greece by the river
Arta. The eastern boundary is a mountain-range,
which to the north attains an altitude of 7990
feet'. Westward of this range lie parallel chains,
enclosing long elevated valleys, sinking to level
strips along the coast, which mostly consist of
unhealthy swamps and lagoons. The highlands
advance to the sea, forming steep rocky coasts.
One promontory, the Acroceraunian, projecting
in Cape Linguetta far into the sea, reaches a
height of 6642 feet.

A fine climate and a favourable soil would seem
to invite the inhabitants to agriculture, but for
the most part in vain. In the north, little is
cultivated but maize, with some rice and barley,
in the valleys ; whilst the mountain terraces are
used as pastures for numerous herds of cattle and
sheep. In the south the slopes of the lower
valleys are covered with olives, fruit, and mul-
berry trees, intermixed with patches of vines and
maize, while the densely wooded mountain-ridges
furnish valuable supplies of timber. The plateau
of Janina yields abundance of grain ; and in the
valleys opening to the south, the finer fruits are
produced, along with maize, rice, and wheat.

Upper or Northern Albania formed part of the
Illyria of the Romans ; Lower or Southern Al-
bania corresponds to ancient Epirus. The in-
habitants form a peculiar people, the Albanians,
called by the Turks Arnauts, and by themselves
Skipetars. According to Lord Strangford, 'the
true Albanian part of their language, after pre-
cipitation of the foreign elements, is distinctly
Indo-European, and is more closely connected
wiih Greek than with any other Indo-European
language existing or recorded (Letters on Philo-
logical Subjects, 1878). The Albanians are half-
civilised mountaineers, frank to a friend, vin-
dictive to an enemy. They are constantly under
arms, and are more devoted to robbery than to
cattle-rearing and agriculture. They live in per-
petual anarchy, every village being at war with
its neighbour. Many of them serve as mercen-
aries in other countries, and they form the best
soldiers of the Turkish army. At one time the

ALBANO

Albanians were all Christians; but after the
death of their last chief, the hero Scanderbeg,
in 1467, and their subjugation by the Turks, a
large part became Mohammedans. The Al-
banians are by most writers divided tribally
into Gheghs, Tosks, Ljaps, &c. ; but again, to

r)te Lord Strangford, ' the true and intelligible
ision is that of religious denomination. The
typical region of the Mussulmans is in the
centre ; that of the Latins is in the northern
district ; and that of the Albanians in com-
munion with the Greek Church, corresponding
fairly to Epirus, is in the south, with Janina
for its capital.' Of the 1,400,000 Albanians of
the Ottoman empire, it is estimated that
1,000,000 are Mohammedans, 280,000 members
of the Greek Church, and 120,000 Roman Cath-
olics. There are, besides, some 250,000 Albanians
in Greece ; and 100,000 in Italy (Sicily mostly),
whither they emigrated towards the close of the
15th century. By the treaty concluded then, in
1478, between the Turks and the Venetians,
Albania became a Turkish province, which al-
most gained independence under Ali Pasha, but
which, during the insurrection of Greece (1821-8),
returned to at least nominal allegiance to the
Porte. Ten rebellions have since broken out
one in 1883.

See Von Hahn's Albanesische Studien (1854),
and his Reise im Jahr 1863 (1870); Herguard's
Haute Albanie (1858) ; Knight's Travel in Albania
(1880) ; and other works cited in the full biblio-
graphy of Meyer's Albanisclie Studien (1883).

Alba'no, a town of Italy, 13 miles SSE. of
Rome, on the declivity of the lava-walls which
encompass Lake Albano, and opposite the site
of Alba Longa. It is the seat of a bishop, and is
surrounded by the mansions of wealthy Romans.
There are numerous remains of ancient buildings.
Good wine is made here. Pop. 8560.

The ALBAN LAKE, or Lago di Castello, is formed
in the basin of an extinct volcano, and has a cir-
cumference of 6 miles, with a depth of 530 feet.
Its surface is 961 feet above the sea-level. While
the Romans were at war with Veii (390 B.C.), they
opened a tunnel through the lava-wall which
bounds it. The tunnel, which still fulfils its
ancient office, is a mile in length, with a height
of 7 feet, and a width of 4 feet.

Albany is a division of the eastern province of
Cape Colony, in which Grahamstown (q.v.) stands.

Albany, capital of the state of New York, and
seat of justice of Albany county, stands on the
west bank of Hudson River, 142 miles N. of the
city of New York. The river is an important
channel of commerce, which is further facilitated
by the Erie and Champlain canals ; and six im-
portant railway lines centre here. The city has
a copious water-supply, and excellent drainage
and sewerage systems, and is lighted by elec-
tricity and gas. Albany has a fine city hall, a
high school, one large and several small public
parks, a theatre, an opera-house and a music-hall,
a celebrated county prison ; Roman Catholic and
Episcopalian cathedrals ; a noted state normal
school, a law school, a medical college ; an
observatory, a large United States government
building, and a very costly and splendid state
capitol, considered the finest building of its class
in the whole republic. Three bridges and several
ferries cross the river to the suburban towns of
East Albany, Greenbush, and Bath. Albany has
a large trade in timber, grain (especially barley),
and cattle. Leading articles of manufacture are
cast-iron stoves and heating apparatus, fanning

ALBERT NYANZA

implements, boots and shoes, bricks, wagons,
clothing, flour, stoves, castings and hollow-ware,
furniture, ales and beer, malt, tobacco, cigars,
musical instruments, and stationers' goods. The
winter climate of Albany is severe for its latitude.
The extensive cattle-markets are situated at West
Albany. Near the site of Albany tlie Dutch
founded a fur-trading station in 1614. The Dutch
colony was ceded to Great Britain in 1664, and
the town took its present name in honour of the
Duke of York and Albany, afterwards James II.
of England, who received a grant of the colony.
In 1686 a city charter was granted to Albany,
which is thus the oldest chartered city in the
United States. In 1807 Albany became the
capital of the state. Till the 19th-century period
the city had many of the quaint characteristics
of a Dutch town. Pop. (1800) 5349 ; (1830) 24,209
(1860) 62,367 ; (1890) 94,923; (1900) 94,151.

Albany, in Western Australia, is on King
George's Sound, 256 miles SSE. of Perth, by a
line of railway projected in 1885. It is a place
of call for P. & 0. steamers. Pop. 3665.

Albay, a town in the south end of the Philip-
pine island of Luzon, 2 miles from the Bay of
Albay ; pop. 13,000.

Albemarle Sound, a shallowish inlet in the
north coast of North Carolina, U.S., running 60
miles inland, with a breadth of 4 to 15 miles.

Alberta, from 1882 one of the four provisional
districts of the North-west Territory of Canada,
made a province of the Dominion in February
1905. It includes, besides the former district,
about one-half of the former district of Atha-
basca and small parts of Saskatchewan and
Assiniboia. The area is 275,000 sq. in. The SW.
portion of the province contains the great cattle-
ranches of Canada, and has good grass and water.
Fort MacLeod and Calgary, both thriving towns,
are the two great centres for the ranchmen.
The latter stands in a valley between the Bow
and Elbow rivers, and is the trading centre for a
large district. Coal is abundant on the Bow and
Belly rivers ; timber is plentiful ; there are also
petroleum deposits, and the Rocky Mountains
and their foot-hills are rich in minerals. The
capital is Edmonton. Pop. estimated at 250,000.

Albert Lea, a post-village in Freeborn county,
Minnesota, on a lake of the same name, 100 miles
S. of St Paul. It contains flour-mills, grain ele-
vators, and machine-shops. Three railways centre
here. Pop. 1966.

Albert-Edward Nyanza (Muta Nzige, South-
ern Luta Nzige), a lake of Equatorial Africa, dis-
covered by Stanley in 1876, and again visited by
him in 1889. It occupies the southern end of a
vast natural depression, of which the Albert
Nyanza fills the northern extremity; is due
south of the mountain mass of Ruwenzori ; and is
surrounded by wide grassy plains, over which it
once seems to have extended. It is 3307 feet
above sea-level ; and beyond the depression in
which it lies is a tableland from 5500 to 6500 feet
high. The water of the lake flows into the Albert
Nyanza by the Semliki River.

Albert Nyanza (Mwutan Nzige, Luta Nzige),
a large lake of East Central Africa, is situated
in a deep rock-basin, 80 miles NW. of the
Victoria Nyanza. It is of an oblong shape, 100
miles long from N. to S., and 25 broad. On
the E. it is fringed by precipitous cliffs, with
isolated peaks rising 5000 feet above it. The
lake itself lies 2720 feet above the sea, and 1470
feet below the general level of the country ; its

ALBERT RIVER

ALDERNEY

water is fresh and sweet, and it is of great depth
towards the centre. The N. and W. shores of
the lake are bordered by the Blue Mountains,
nearly 10,000 feet in height. The existence of
this vast lake first became known to Europeans
through Speke and Grant in 1862 ; in 1864 Sir
Samuel Baker was the first European to visit
it, and named it after the Prince Consort. In
1887 Emin Pasha recorded his conviction that the
western part of the lake was filling up. It is a
great reservoir or backwater of the Nile. The
Somerset-Nile runs into its north-east corner, and
the Nile issues out of its north-west corner.

Albert River, North Queensland, traverses
a grassy plain, and flows 200 miles to the Gulf of
Carpentaria, below Burketown. It is connected
by a cross branch with another nearly parallel
stream, the Gregory.

Albi, capital of the French dep. of Tarn, is
built on a height near the Tarn, a tributary of
the Garonne, 42 miles by rail NE. of Toulouse.
It is very old, and suffered greatly during the
persecutions of the Albigenses, who took their
name from it. The chief buildings are the cathe-
dral (1282-1512), the old fortress, and the arch-
bishop's palace. Pop. 15,300.

Albion, a town of Michigan, U.S., on the Kala-
mazoo River, 96 miles W. of Detroit. It is the
seat of a Methodist college, with over 300
students. Pop. 4716.

Albuera (Albooai'ra), in the Spanish province
of Estremadura, a hamlet, famous for Beresford's
defeat of the French, May 16, 1811.

Albufera (Alboofai'ra), a Spanish lake 10 miles
long, close to the sea and connected by canal
(7 miles) with Valencia.

Al'bula, a pass (7595 feet ; f mile long) and a
mountain-stream in the Swiss canton of Grisons.

Albuiiol, a small town of Spain, 40 miles SE.
of Granada. Pop. 8945.

Albuquerque (Albookerkay\ a town of Spain,
24 miles N. of Badajoz, near the Portuguese
frontier. Pop. 7400.

Al'bury (or ' Federal City '), on the New South
Wales bank of the Murray River, at the head of
its navigation, and 190 miles NE. of Melbourne
by rail. Pop. 5850.

Alcala' de Guadaira, a town of Spain, 9 miles
E. by S. from Seville by rail, celebrated for pro-
ducing the finest bread in Spain. Pop. 8991.

Alcala' de Henares, a town in Spain, Cer-
vantes's birthplace, on the Henares, 21 miles E.
of Madrid by rail. Its university, founded by
Cardinal Ximenes in 1510, enjoyed a European
fame, but was removed to Madrid in 1836, and
the town is now not a shadow of its former self.
Here was printed in 1517 the great Complutensian
Bible, a monument of the piety and learning of
the great cardinal. The chief buildings are the
Colegio de San Ildefonso, the seat of the ancient
university; its chapel containing the founder's
tomb ; the archbishop's palace ; the cathedral ;
and the church of Santa Maria, in which, in 1547,
Cervantes was baptised. Pop. 14,974. The Com-
flutum of the Romans, the town owes its modern
name to the Moors, under whom it was Al-Kalat,
'the castle.'

Alcala' la Re'al ('the royal castle'), a city of
Andalusia, Spain, in the province of Jaen, 26
miles NW. of Granada. Its strong fortress was
taken in 1340 from the Moors by Alfonso XI. in
person, whence the name Real. Pop. 15,977.

Al'camo, a quaint old town of Sicily, 52 miles
SW. of Palermo by rail. Originally founded by

the Saracens on Monte Bonifato (2713 feet), it
long retained a Moslem population, who were
driven out by the Emperor Frederick II. in 1233,
when the new town was built at the foot of the
hill. Pop. 51,697.

Alcafiiz', a town of Aragon, Spain, in the pro-
vince of Teruel, 63 miles SE. of Saragossa, on
the Guadalope, with a magnificent collegiate
church ; pop. 7673.

Alcan'tara (Arabic, ' the bridge '), an old Span-
ish town in Estremadura, on a rocky height above
the Tagus, near the Portuguese frontier. The
six-arched bridge, 670 feet long and 210 high,
from which it takes its name, was built under
Trajan, 105 A.D. It has twice been partially
blown up, but the larger part is still intact.
Pop. 3414.

Alcan'tara, a seaport of Brazil,in the province
of Maranhao, on the Bay of St Marcos ; pop. 10,000.

Alcaraz, a town of La Mancha, Spain, 36 miles
WSW. of Albacete ; pop. 4672.

Alcaude'te, a town of Spain, 22 miles SW. of
Jaen. Pop. 9191.

Alcazar al-kebir, a city of Morocco, 80 miles
NW. of Fez. Here, in 1578, Sebastian, king of
Portugal, was defeated and slain by the Moors.
Pop. 9000.

Alcazar de San Juan, a town of Spain, in the
province of Ciudad Real, 92 miles SSE. of Madrid
by rail. Pop. 9512.

Alcester, a Warwickshire market-town, at the
confluence of the Alne and Arrow, 15 miles WSW.
of Warwick. Pop. 2406.

Alci'ra, a town of Spain, 22 miles SSW. of
Valencia by rail, on an island in the river Xucar ;
pop. 18,469.

Alcoy, a town of Spain, on the river Alcoy, 15
miles N. of Alicante, manufacturing paper, especi-
ally cigarette-paper, sugar-plums, and coarse
woollen cloths ; pop. 32,520.

Aldborough, a decayed town, now a mere
village, of the West Riding of Yorkshire, on the
river Ure and on Watling Street, 7 miles SE. of
Ripon. Till 1832 it sent two members to parlia-
ment. Extensive remains of the Roman town of
Isurium have been found here. Pop. of town-
ship, 507.

Aldeburgh, a small seaport and watering-place
of Suffolk, 29 miles NE. of Ipswich by rail. It
was disfranchised in 1832 ; but in 1885 it received
a new municipal charter. It has a quaint, half-
timbered Moot Hall ; and in the church is a bust
of the poet Crabbe, who was a native. Pop. 2159.

Alderney (Fr. Aurigny), a British island in the
English Channel, 55 miles S. by E. of Portland
Bill, 15 NE. of Guernsey, 31 N. of Jersey, and
10 W. of Cape la Hogue. The Race of Alderney,
or strait that separates it from the coast of Nor-
mandy, is very dangerous in stormy weather.
The island is 4J miles by l mile ; area, 3 sq. m.
The highest point is 281 feet above sea-level. To
the S. the coast is bold and lofty ; to the N. it
descends, forming numerous small bays, one of
which has been formed into a fine, though un-
completed, harbour, with a granite breakwater,
at a cost, including strong fortifications, of more
than 1,250,000. The Caskets are a small cluster
of dangerous rocks, 6| miles to the W., on which
are three lighthouses. The soil in the centre of
the island is highly productive ; the Alderney
cattle are a small but handsome breed. Half
the inhabitants, originally French, now speak
English, and all understand it. Protestantism

ALDERSHOT CAMP

has prevailed here since the Reformation. Alder
ney is a dependency of Guernsey, and subject to
the British crown. The 'town' of St Anne is
situated in a picturesque valley near the centre
of the island. It has an Albert memorial in the
shape of a Gothic arch, and a cruciform church
(1850) in the Early English style, with a tower
104 feet high. Pop. of island (1841) 1038 ; (1861)
4932 ; (1881) 2048 ; (1891) 1857 ; (1901) 2062. See
CHANNEL ISLANDS.

Aldershot Camp, a permanent camp of exer-
cise on the confines of Hampshire, Surrey, and
Berkshire, 35 miles SW. of London, and ISj- S. of
Windsor. It was established in 1854-55 during the
Crimean war, to provide for practical instruction
in tactics, outpost duties, and other exercises
requiring a wide tract of country and large bodies
of troops, &c. From its situation on the Bagshot
Sands it is extremely healthy ; the old wooden huts
have been superseded by brick huts and barracks.
The Basingstoke Canal, running directly across
the Heath, has occasioned a division into North
Camp and South Camp. There are usually from
10,000 to 15,000 troops of all arms at the camp ;
and a considerable town has sprung up near it,
with a population of over 31,000, as against 875
in Aldershot parish in 1851.

Aldwinkle All Saints, a Northamptonshire
parish, on the Nen, 3 miles NNE. of Thrapston.
Dryden was a native, as was Fuller of the adjoin-
ing parish of Aldwinkle St Peter.

Aldworth. See HASLEMERE.

Ale, a Roxburghshire stream, flowing 24 miles
to the Teviot.

Alemtejo (Alen 9 tai'zUo), the largest (9381 sq.
m.) but most sparsely peopled of the provinces
of Portugal. The chief towns are Evora (the
capital), Elvas, and Portalegre. Pop. 410,150.

Alengon (Alon ff son g ), chief town of the dep. of
Orne, on the Sarthe, 68 miles SSE. of Caen.
The cathedral of Notre Dame (1553-1617) is a
Gothic edifice, with good stained glass. Woollens
and linens, embroidered fabrics, straw-hats, lace-
work, artificial flowers, hosiery, &c. are made ;
the manufacture of the famous Alencon point-
lace (point d'Alencon) employs barely a tenth
part of the 20,000 hands that once engaged in it.
The cutting of the so-called Alencon diamonds
(quartz-crystals) is an industry which has also
greatly declined. Pop. (1872) 15,080; (1891)
17,141; (1901)14,500.

Aleppo (Italianised form of HaleV), a town in
the north of Syria, capital of a Turkish province
between the Orontes and the Euphrates, in a
fruitful valley watered by the Kuweik. It stands
in a large hollow, surrounded by rocky hills of
limestone, and beyond is mere desert. The fruit-
ful gardens, celebrated for their excellent plan-
tations of pistachios, are the sole contrast to
the desolation which environs the city, whose
numberless cupolas and minarets, clean, well-
paved streets, and stately houses, make it even
yet one of the most beautiful in the East. Till
the discovery of the sea-route to India, it was a
principal emporium of trade between Europe and
Asia. It supplied a great part of the East with
fabrics of silk, cotton, and wool, and gold and
silver stuffs ; but in 1S22 an earthquake swallowed
up two-thirds of the houses. The plague of 1827,
the cholera of 1832, and the oppression of the
Egyptian government, all but completed its de-
struction. It has only partiaUy recovered from
its misfortunes, but is still the principal em-
porium of the inland commerce of Northern Syria.

ALEXANDRIA

Its port is Scanderoon. Aleppo has a large trade
in cotton and silk goods, skins, tobacco, wine,
and oil ; and manufactures much-admired cloth
(of silk, cotton, and wool), carpets, cloaks, and
soap. English goods are largely imported. The
trade is mainly in the hands of the native Chris-
tians (Greeks and Armenians), who may number
20,000, and have superseded the European houses
formerly here. The Jews, 5000 in number, are a
very wealthy community. Aleppo is a telegraph
station on the Indo-European line. Pop. 120,000.

Aleshki, a Russian town in the government of
Taurida, on the Dnieper ; pop. 8915.

Alessandria, the capital of a province of North-
ern Italy, in a marshy country near the con-
fluence of the Bormida and Tanaro, 58 miles ESE.
of Turin, It was built in 1168 by the inhabitants
of Cremona, Milan, and Placentia, as a bulwark
against the Emperor Frederick I., and was after-
wards called Alessandria in honour of Pope Alex-
ander III. In 1800, Bonaparte here concluded
an armistice. It was the principal stronghold of
the Piedmontese during the insurrection of 1848-
49. The citadel is still one of the strongest
fortresses in Italy, and in war the whole sur-
rounding country can be inundated. The richly
decorated cathedral was rebuilt in 1823. Pop.
70,761, who carry on a trade in linens, woollens,
silk fabrics, stockings, and wax-candles. Two
great fairs are held here annually.

Aletsch, the largest glacier (12 miles long) in
Europe, sweeps round the southern side of the
Jungfrau. To the NW. lies the Aletschhorn
(13,773 feet).

Aleutian Islands, a chain of about 150 islands,
in several groups, extending westward, from the
American peninsula of Aliaska, and forming an
insular continuation of that peninsula towards
the Asiatic peninsula of Kamchatka. These
islands are chiefly included in the United States
territory of Alaska, and fall into five groups
the Fox, Andreanov, Rat (Kreesi), Blizhni, and
Komandorski Islands. The chain is apparently a
continuation of the main Alaskan range of moun-
tains, and contains volcanic peaks from 4000 to
8000 feet high. The islands abound in springs,
and are overrun with foxes, dogs, and reindeer,
while the coasts swarm with fish, seals, and
otters. The 2000 inhabitants, of mixed descent,
from the aboriginal Eskimos and Russian settlers,
are hunters and fishers, and trade in furs and fish.
See works cited at ALASKA.

Alexandra Park, a place of public recreation
for northern London, 6 miles N. of Charing Cross.
It was opened in 1863, and its present 'palace'
dates from 1873, its predecessor having been
burnt two years before.

Alexandretta. See SCANDEROON.

Alexandria was founded by Alexander the
Great in 332 B.C. It was situated originally on
the low tract of land which separates the lake
Mareotis from the Mediterranean, 14 miles w r est
of the Canopic mouth of the Nile. In the Medi-
terranean, off the city, lay an island, on whose
NE. point stood the famous lighthouse, the
Pharos, built in the 3d century B.C., and said
to have been 400 feet high. The island was con-
nected with the mainland by a mole, thus form-
ing the two harbours. Alexandria had reached
its greatest splendour when, on the death of
Cleopatra, the last of the Ptolemies, in 30 B.C.
it came into the possession of the Romans. Its
population may have numbered 300,000 free
citizens, and a larger number of slaves. Its

ALEXANDRIA

ALGERIA

glory was long unaffected, and it was the em-
porium of the world's commerce, especially for
corn. In the reign of Caracalla, however, it
suffered severely ; and the rise of Constantinople
prompted the decay of Alexandria. Christianity
was introduced, according to tradition, by St
Mark. The strife between Christianity and
heathenism powerfully described in Kingsley's
Hypatitt gave rise to bloody contests in Alex-
andria. The Serapeum, the last seat of heathen
theology and learning, was stormed by the
Christians in 389 A.D., and converted into a
Christian church. Alexandria was a chief seat
of Christian theology till it was taken by the
Arabs in 641. The choice of Cairo as capital of
the Egyptian califs hastened the now rapid decay
of the city ; the discovery of America, and of the
passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, very
much diminished its trade ; and when, in 1517,
the Turks took the place, the remains of its
former splendour wholly vanished. In 1778
Alexandria contained no more than 6000 inhab-
itants. Under Mehemet Ali, however, the tide
turned, and the city recovered rapidly. It is
now again one of the most important commercial
places on the Mediterranean. The Suez Canal
diverted part of its trade ; but this was more
than compensated by the general impetus given
to Egyptian prosperity. In 1882, during the
rising of Arabi Pasha, an English fleet, in the
interests of the khedive, bombarded the forts of
Alexandria for over ten hours, July 11. On the
two following days the town was sacked and
plundered by the soldiery and populace, and
great part of it destroyed by fire.

The present city (called Skanderi'eh by the
Arabs) is chiefly built on the mole, which has
been increased by alluvial deposits till it has
become a broad neck of land between the two
harbours. The city is a strange mixture of East
and West, old and new. The unpaved native
town contains poor houses and wretched huts.
The ever-increasing Frankish quarters have quite
a well-lit European appearance, and swarm with
cafes, shops, theatres, and the like. The castle
stands near the old Pharos, and the handsome
new lighthouse has a revolving light, visible at
a distance of 20 miles. Recent improvements,
undertaken at a cost of 2,000,000, were to con-
vert the old harbour the western one into one
of the best and most spacious on the Mediter-
ranean. There is railway communication with
Cairo and Suez ; the Mahmoudieh Canal connects
Alexandria with the Nile. The recent growth
of the city has been extraordinary- Pop. (1825)
16,000; (1840) 60,000; (1882) 227,064; (1900)
320,000, of whom 50,000 were foreigners, many
Greeks, Italians, and French. The value of ex-
ports (cotton, cotton seed, lentils, wheat, oil seed,
hemp, drugs) varied in 1891-1901 from 10,000,000
to 15,000,000 (two-thirds going to Britain); of
imports, from 5,000,000 to 13,000,000 (half from
Britain). Of the few remaining objects of an-
tiquity the most prominent is Pompey's Pillar, as
it is erroneoxisly called. Of the so-called Cleo-
patra's Needles two obelisks of the 16th century
B.C. which long stood here one was brought to
England and erected on the Thames Embank-
ment, 1878; and the other, presented by the
khedive to the United States, was set up at New
York in 1881.

Alexandria, a town of Dumbartonshire, on
the west bank of the Leven, opposite Bonhill,
3 miles N. of Dumbarton. It has grown from a
mere ' clachan ' to a thriving town, such growth
being due to the neighbouring cotton-printing,

bleaching, and Turkey-red dye-works, established
since 1768. Pop. (1841) 3039 ; (1891) 7796.

Alexandria, a port of entry on the right or
Virginian bank of the Potomac, U.S., 7 miles
below Washington (on the opposite side of the
river), and 100 from the entrance of the Poto-
mac into Chesapeake Bay, whence the largest
vessels may reach the port. There are cotton
manufactures here. Pop. (1870) 13,570; (1890)
14,339; (1900)14,528.

Alexandropol (formerly Gumri), the largest
town in the Erivan district of Russian Armenia,
with a stronghold commanding the head-waters
of the Euphrates. The silk trade is actively
carried on. Pop. 30,477.

Alexandrov, a town in the Russian govern-
ment of Vladimir, 58 miles NE. of Moscow.
Pop. 7200.

Alexandrovsk, a Russian town in the govern-
ment of Ekaterinoslav, on the Dnieper. Pop.
16,500. (2) A port in East Siberia, opposite
Saghalien. (3) A town in the province of the Don,
15 miles NNE. of Novo-Tcherkask. Pop. 16,250.

Alexinatz, a town of Servia, on the Moravitza,
134 miles SSE. of Belgrade by rail. Pop. 5108.

Alford, (1) a market- town of Lincolnshire, 23
miles NNE. of Boston ; pop. of parish, 2843.
(2) A village of Aberdeenshire, 30 miles NW. of
Aberdeen. Here Montrose defeated the Cove-
nanters under Baillie, 2d July 1645. Pop. 635.

Alfoxton Park, in Somerset, 12 miles WNW.
of Bridgwater, was Wordsworth's home in 1797-98.

Alfreton, a market-town of Derbyshire, 14
miles NNE. of Derby by rail. It has manufac-
tures of hats, stockings, and brown earthenware,
with neighbouring collieries and ironworks.
Pop. of parish, 17,355.

Algarve, the smallest and most southerly of
the provinces of Portugal. The name is Arabic,
and means 'a land lying to the west.' It was a
Moorish province till 1253. Area, 1873 sq. m. ;
pop. 254,037. The northern part of the province
is occupied by a range of barren mountains of
4000 feet high, terminating in Cape St Vincent.
The chief town is Faro.

Algeci'ras, or ALOEZIRAS, a town of Spain, on
the Bay of Gibraltar, 5 miles by water (9 by road)
W. of Gibraltar. Its harbour is bad, but it
possesses a good dock ; and its oranges are
famous, as well as its bull-tights. It was the
first town in Spain taken by the Moors (711) ;
in 1344 it was retaken by Alfonso XI. of Castile,
after a twenty months' siege. He destroyed the
old Moorish town ; the modern one was built by
Charles III. in 1760. Pop. 12,924.

Algeria (Fr. Algerie], a country on the north
coast of Africa, which has since 1830 been a
French possession, and is now regarded as an
outlying part of France rather than as a colony.
It lies between Morocco and Tunis, and is usually
denned as extending from the Mediterranean to
about the 30th parallel of N. lat. on the south. But
the southern boundary, separating the Algerian
Sahara from the rest of French Sahara (which
now extends southwards to a line drawn west
from Lake Chad to the Niger), is very arbitrary.
The total area, with the northern or Algerian
Sahara, is about 255,000 sq. m., or more than
twice the size of Great Britain and Ireland.
From the coast inwards Algeria is marked off
into three distinct regions : in the north, the
Tell mountainous, cultivated land, with fruit-
ful valleys ; in the middle, the region of Steppea

ALGERIA

ALHAMA

mountainous tableland, producing much grass
and other fodder for cattle after the rains, and
traversed from west to east by a string of brack-
ish lakes or marshes, called Shotts; while farther
south is the Algerian Sahara, with oases. In the
northern part of the Tell is a series of mountain-
chains, called by the French the Lesser Atlas or
Coast Mountains ; while the south limit is a
parallel chain, the Middle Atlas. The Tell, the
most fertile and much the most populous section
of Algeria, occupies an area altogether of about
54,000 sq. m. The Algerian Sahara consists partly
of sandy dunes, partly of country covered after
rain with herbage; and there are oases round
the wells.

The more considerable streams of Algeria rise
in the middle region, and have therefore to seek
their outlet in the Mediterranean, through passes
in the middle and coast ranges. Though swollen
in the winter, they shrink in the summer to a
thread, or even quite out of sight. Not one of
them is navigable, but they are used for purposes
of irrigation. The Sheli'f is the longest and
largest.

The climate of Algeria is distinguished into
only three seasons : winter, from November to
February; spring, from March to June ; summer,
from July to October. The planting of forests,
drainage, and irrigation, by the French, have
effected great improvements. In the Sahara, by
the sinking of artesian wells, desert tracts have
been converted into cultivated land, and in ten
years the inhabitants of the oases of the northern
Sahara increased from 6600 to 13,000, while about
517,000 palms and 90,000 fruit-trees are now
counted. Algeria is coming to the front as a
wheat-growing country. Fruits and vegetables
are grown for the markets in France, England,
and Germany. The cultivation of the grape, silk,
and tobacco is rapidly extending. Immense tracts
of land, suitable for no other cultivation, have
been successfully planted with vines. The forest
vegetation of Algeria is extremely rich by nature,
comprising pine, oak, cedar, pistachio, mastic,
carob, olive, myrtle. Special exports are cork
and halfa or esparto grass. Algeria has a very
considerable wealth of metals, iron and copper
being abundant, though little worked. Over 100
mineral springs are counted in Algeria.

Algeria is divided into three departments, each
subdivided into a civil and a military territory :

Area in sq. m. Pop. 1901.

Algiers department 65,930 1,641,210

Oran 44,620 1,107,354

Constantiue 73,930 1,990,992

184,480 4*39,556

Algerian Sahara 193,000 62,000

Total 377,480 4,801,556

The number of Europeans, in 1830 only 600, in
1840, 27,000, in 1881, 400,000, was in 1901 about
500,000, of whom 293,000 were French by origin
or naturalisation, and 150,000 Spanish, and 57,667
naturalised Jews, besides Italians, Germans, &c.
The native population, partly Arabs (including
Bedouins), partly Berbers or Kabyles ; the Moors
of the towns being of mixed descent from these
two stocks. In 1904 about 1900 English miles of
railway were open for traffic, and the telegraph
had over 6300 miles of line.

The trade of Algeria shows a constant increase.
Since the French occupation, the imports have
increased fifty, and the exports one hundred-
fold. The imports, three-fourths of which come
from France, have varied of late years from
8,800,000 to 13,000,000. The exports, two-

thirds of which go to France, varied from
6,000,000 to over 12,000,000. The imports are
chiefly manufactured cotton, hemp, linen, silk,
and woollen stuffs ; cloths, sugar, hides, paper,
liquors, metals, building materials, &c. The
exports are cereals, wool, raw hides, living
animals, minerals, early fruit, halfa and other
vegetable fibres, cork, iron, copper, and lead
ores.

Part of the present Algeria was anciently
included in Numidia and part in Mauritania.
Occupied and partially Romanised by the Romans,
it was overrun by the Vandals in the 5th cen-
tury. Later came the Arabs, who began about the
9th century to establish Mohammedan dynasties
and states. Hither emigrated many of the Moors
expelled from Spain. From the middle ages
downward, the Algerian coast towns were known
to Europe mainly as nests of pirates. The French
conquered the country, not without much fight-
ing, in 1830. From 1834 down to 1870 Algeria
was entirely under military rule. At that date
a civil governor-general, with residence at Algiers,
was substituted ; the Sahara is still under mili-
tary rule. The governor-general is assisted by a
council whose function is purely consultative.
The colonists send two deputies and one senator
for each department to the French Chambers.

Alghero (Algal 1 ro\ a seaport on the west coast
of the island of Sardinia, 15 miles SW. of Sassari.
It has a cathedral. Pop. 8995.

Algiers (Al jeers'; Fr. Alger ; Ar. Al-jezair, 'the
islands'), the capital of Algeria, was built about
935 A.D. by an Arab chief. It rises from the
sea-shore up the sides of a precipitous hill in
the form of an equilateral triangle. The apex
is formed by the Kasbah, the ancient fortress of
the deys, which is 500 feet above sea-level. With
the exception of some mosques, the new or low
town consists of wharfs, warehouses, govern-
ment houses, squares, and streets, principally
built and inhabited by the French ; while the
old or high town is almost wholly Moorish.
The great glory of the city is the Boulevard de
la Republique, with its magnificent terrace, built
in 1860-66 by Sir Morton Peto, at a cost of eight
million francs. Here may be found as motley a
crowd as anywhere in the world, denizens of all
nations Arabs, Moors, and Jews ; French,
Spaniards, Maltese, English, Germans, and
Italians. The shops, too, are occasionally very
good. The French have at great expense im-
proved the port, which is safe and spacious and
has a lighthouse. It is strongly fortified, and
can contain 40 warships and 300 trading vessels.
The original harbour was made in 1525 by con-
necting with the shore four little islands (hence
the name of the city). Near the great quays is
the railway station, connecting Algiers with
Constantino and Oran. The town has a Catholic
cathedral, a French Protestant church, an Eng-
lish church, a synagogue, a library, museum,
hospitals, theatres, and banks. There is a great
trade, Algiers being the chief commercial place
in Algeria. Algiers has become famous as a
winter residence for Europeans suffering from
chest diseases. It fell into the hands of the
French in 1830. Pop. (1901)96,550 ; with suburbs,
140,000 not quite half French.

Algoa Bay, a broad inlet at the eastern
extremity of the south coast of Africa, with a
sheltered anchorage except towards the south-
east. On it stands Port Elizabeth.

Alham'a (Arabic Al Hammdm, 'the bath'), a
decayed town of Andalusia, Spain, 24 miles SW.

ALHAMB&A

of Granada. Its warm sulphur baths are still
frequented by visitors. It was a famous fortress
of the Moors; and there are still remains of
Roman and Moorish buildings. The town was
much injured by a severe earthquake in the end
of 1885. Pop. 7867. ALHAMA DE ARAGON, 8
miles SW. of Calatayud, has famous mineral
springs. Pop. 1500. ALHAMA, 13 miles SW. of
Murcia, is also celebrated for its warm mineral
waters. Pop. 8356.

Alhambra, a fortified suburb of Granada,
which forms a sort of acropolis to the city, and
in which stand the exquisite remains of the
palace of the ancient Moorish kings of Granada.
The name is a corruption of the Arabic Kal 'at al
hamra, 'the red castle.' It is surrounded by a
strong wall, more than a mile in circuit, and
studded with towers. One of them contains the
famous Hall of the Ambassadors. The remains of
the Moorish palace are called by the Spaniards
the Casa Real. It was begun by Ibn-1-ahmar
(1248), and completed by his grandson, Moham-
med III., about 1314. The portions still stand-
ing are ranged round two oblong courts, one
called the Court of the Fishpond, the other the
Court of the Lions. They consist of porticos,
pillared halls, cool chambers, small gardens,
fountains, mosaic pavements, &c. In the most
beautiful room in the palace, the Hall of the
Abencerrages, to the beauty of colour and of
ornamentation is added an arcade resting on
light and graceful marble arches that run round
the place. A great part of the ancient palace
was removed to make way for the palace begun
by Charles V., but never finished. Since then
it has suffered from the neglect and greed of
successive governors ; from the French, who
blew up eight of its towers and tried to destroy
the whole; and from earthquake. A partial
restoration was made at the expense of Queen
Isabella (1862) ; but much damage was done by
fire in September 1890. See the works by
Washington Irving (1832), Owen Jones (1848),
and Murphy (new ed. 1856).

Alican'te, chief town of a Spanish province,
on a bay of the Mediterranean, 282 miles SB. of
Madrid by rail. It is the third seaport in the
kingdom. The chief exports are esparto grass,
lead, wine, almonds, and liquorice root. Its
climate is well suited for invalids. Population,
50,250. The province, formed in 1834 of parts of
the old kingdoms of Valencia and Murcia, lias an
area of 2098 sq. m. The wine of Alicante has a
high reputation) and there are about twenty lead
and copper mines. Pop. (1900) 470,150.

Aligarh (or Allygurh), a fort in the United Pro-
vinces of India, 55 miles N. of Agra. It was
stormed by the British in 1803 ; and here early
in the mutiny of 1857 ten days after the out-
break at Meerut the native troops rose. There
is here a Mohammedan Anglo-Indian college.
Fort, station, and the native city of Koil form
the municipality of Aligarh ; pop. 70,000.

Alima, a right-hand tributary of the Congo,
flowing mainly westward.
Aline, a sea-loch of Argyllshire.
Aliwal, a Punjab village on the Sutlej, 9 miles
W. of Ludhiana ; scene of a British victory over
the Sikhs on 28th June 1846. ALIWAL NORTH, a
town of Cape Colony, just across the Orange
from the Orange Colony, with a brisk trade ; pop.
3500. ALIWAL SOUTH, a port of Cape Colony, 200
miles E. of Capetown ; pop. 3000.

Alkmaar, an old town of the Netherlands, on

4 ALLEGHENY

the North Holland Canal, 19 miles N. by W. of
Amsterdam by rail. It has a Gothic town-house,
the 15th-century church of St Lawrence, manu-
factures of sailcloth, sea-salt, &c., and trade in
cattle, grain, butter, and excellent cheese of
which it exports enormous quantities. Alkmaar
held out against Alba in 1573, and here, in 1799,
the Duke of York signed a not very honourable
capitulation. Pop. 19,048.

Allahabad ('city of God'), the seat of the
government of the United Provinces of British
India, occupies the fork of the Ganges and
Jumna, 390 miles SE. of Delhi, and 564 WNW.
of Calcutta. The situation of Allahabad, at the
confluence of the holy streams of India, has ren-
dered it a much-frequented place of pilgrimage.
A stronghold existed here from the earliest
times, but the present fort and city were founded
by Akbar in 1575. From 1736 till 1750 the
Mahrattas held Allahabad, which was ceded to
the British in 1801. On 6th June 1857, the
mutiny extended to Allahabad ; and, the Euro-
peans continuing to hold the fort, the city soon
became little better than a heap of ruins. The
position of Allahabad, with its ready communi-
cation by river and rail, renders it naturally a
centre of commerce and civilisation. The most
noteworthy buildings are the great mosque and
the Sultan Khossor's caravanserai a line clois-
tered quadrangle. The fort contains the famous
pillar of Asoka (240 B.C.). Near by is the temple
covering the undying banian tree ; it is said to
communicate with Benares by a subterranean
passage, through which flows a third holy river,
the Saras wati, visible only to the eye of faith.
Allahabad possesses the government offices and
courts, Roman Catholic cathedral, Mayo Memo-
rial and town hall, a free public library, &c. The
Muir Central College, instituted by Sir W. Muir,
was opened in 1886 ; and a university was opened
in 1889. A great fair is held annually, which is
visited by about 250,000 persons. The cotton,
sugar, and indigo produce of the fertile district
of Allahabad is brought in large quantities into
the city. Pop. (1872) 143,693; (1901) 172,032.
ALLAHABAD district is 85 miles in length by 50 in
breadth. Area, 2850 sq. m. ; pop. 1,500,000.

Allan, (1) a tributary of the Forth, near Stir-
ling. (2) A tributary of the Teviot, near Hawick.
Alleghanies (Allegai'nies), a term sometimes
used as synonymous with the Appalachians (q.v.),
sometimes applied only to that portion of the
system which extends from Pennsylvania to
North Carolina, and which forms the watershed
between the Atlantic and the Mississippi. It is
sometimes used in a still more restricted sense.
The ridges, 2000 to 2400 feet high, are remarkable
for their parallelism and regularity, all the main
valleys being longitudinal. Composed of strati-
tied rocks of the Silurian, Devonian, and Carbon-
iferous ages, they are rich in coal, iron, and
limestone, and their forests supply much valu-
able timber.

Alleghany, a river, which, rising in the north
part of Pennsylvania, unites with the Mononga-
hela at Pittsburgh to form the Ohio. It is navi-
gable for nearly 200 miles above Pittsburgh.

Allegheny, or ALLEGHANY, one of the chief
manufacturing cities of Pennsylvania, on the
Alleghany River, opposite Pittsburgh. It is the
terminus of important railway lines, and the site
of the Western Penitentiary, a Presbyterian theo-
logical seminary, an observatory, the Carnegie
Public Library, a park of 100 acres, a Catholic or-
phanage, and a college for coloured persons. The

ALLEN 25

chief industries include rolling-mills for iron,
cotton and woollen mills, breweries, foundries,
a steel factory, blast-furnace, and locomotive
Avorks. It is a favourite place of residence for
Pittsburgh business men. Pop. (1870) 53,180;
(1880) 78,681 ; (1890) 105,287 ; (1900) 129,896.

Allen, Boo OF, a series of morasses east of the
Shannon, in King's County and Kildare, Ireland,
comprising about 150,000 acres. Their average
elevation is 250 feet above sea-level. Lough
Allen, in Leitrim, is a lake on the upper course
of the Shannon (q.v.), 8900 acres in area.

Allendale, a town of Northumberland, on the
Allen rivulet, 9 miles SW. of Hexham. Pop.
of parish, 3009.

Allentown, a manufacturing town of Penn-
sylvania, U.S., on the Lehigh River, CO miles
NW. of Philadelphia by rail. The Lehigh Valley
is rich in iron ore and anthracite coal, and has
large blast-furnaces, ironworks, and rolling-
mills ; and there are manufactures of furniture
and linen thread. Pop. (1860) 8025 ; (1880) 18,063 ;
(1890) 25,228 ; (1900) 35,416.

Alleppi. See AULAPOLAI.

Allier, a river of Central France, rising in the
east of the dep. of Lozere, and flowing 233 miles
northward through Haute-Loire, Puy-de-D6me,
and Allier, to the Loire below Nevers.

Allier, a dep. in the centre of Prance, has an
area of 2822 sq. m., and a population of 422,000.
Mineral springs are found at Vichy and else-
where. The chief town is Moulins.

Allington, a Kentish parish, 1 mile NNW.
of Maidstone. It was the birthplace of Sir
Thomas Wyatt the poet.

Alloa, a seaport town in Clackmannanshire,
on the left bank of the tidal Forth, 6 miles E.
of Stirling, and 35 WNW. of Edinburgh. Among
its buildings are the county court-house (1865),
the handsome new town-hall (1888), the corn
exchange (1862), and the parish church (1819);
and its special feature is the Lime-tree Walk
(1714), leading up from the harbour. It manu-
factures whisky, ale, woollen yarn, pottery, glass,
iron, &c. There is some shipbuilding; and coals
are exported from neighbouring pits. The harbour
was improved in 1863. The Forth is here crossed
by a railway viaduct (1885). Close by is Alloa
House (1838), the seat of the Earl of Mar and
Kellie, with Alloa Tower, 89 feet high, and built
about 1223. Here Queen Mary spent part of her
childhood, as also did James VI. and Prince
Henry. Pop. (1841) 5443 ; (1901) 11,417.

Alloway, Burns's birthplace, and the scene of
his Tarn o' Shanter, lies on the right bank of the
'bonny Doon,'_2 miles S. of the town of Ayr.
The 'auld clay biggin,' in which the poet was
born on 25th January 1759, was in 1880 converted
into a Burns Museum. The 'haunted kirk ' still
stands, a roofless ruin, near the 'Auld Brig;'
and hard by is the Burns Monument (1820).

All-Saints' Bay, in the province of Bahia,
Brazil, forms a superb natural harbour, measur-
ing 37 by 25 miles.

Allygurh. See ALIGARH.

Alma, a river in the Crimea, rising at the foot
of the Tchadir Dagii, and flowing westward into
the Bay of Kalamita, half-way between Eupat-
oria and Sebastopol. On its steep banks a bril-
liant victory was won on 20th of September 1854,
by the allied armies of Britain and France, under
Lord Raglan and Marshal St Arnaud, over the
Russian army commanded by Prince Menschikoff.

ALNWICK

Alma'da, a town of Portugal, in the province
of Estremadura, built upon a height over the
Tagus, opposite Lisbon. Pop. 8091.

Almaden', a town of Spain, in the chain of the
Sierra Morena, 50 miles SW. of Ciudad Real. It
is famous for its twelve rich quicksilver mines,
employing 4000 miners, with an annual output
of 2,500,000 Ib. The present mines, 1200 feet
deep, date from the 17th century ; but the quick-
silver was worked here by the Romans. Crown
property, they were rented by the Fuggers of
Augsburg (1525-1645), and by the Rothschilds
(1836-63), but are now again carried on by gov--
eminent. Pop. 8126. NEW ALMADEN, in the
Coast Range, California, 12 miles from San Jose,
was first worked regularly for mercury in 1845,
and now yields upwards of 2,000,000 Ib. a year.

Almagro, a town of Spain, 13 miles ESE. of
Ciudad Real. It has a great manufacture of
lace. Pop. 8289.

Almali. See ELMALU.

Almansa, a town of Spain in the province of
Albacete, 60 miles NW. of Alicante by rail.
There is a ruined Moorish castle. An obelisk,
about a mile distant, marks the spot where the
French, under the Duke of Berwick, on 25th
April 1707, defeated an army of Spanish and
English troops. Pop. 9480.

Almeida, one of the strongest fortified places
in Portugal, on the Spanish frontier, and in the
province of Beira. In 1702 it was captured by
the Spaniards, and in 1810 it was defended against
Massena by an English officer, until the explosion
of a powder-magazine compelled him to capitu-
late. Pop. 2500.

Almeri'a (Arabic Al-Mariyat, 'the conspicu-
ous '), the chief town of a Spanish province, on
a gulf or bay of the Mediterranean, 120 miles E.
of Malaga. It has a well-defended harbour, a
cathedral, and a grammar-school. In the time
of the Moors, it was, next to Granada, the richest
town in the kingdom, with 150,000 inhabitants.
Now, it has only a few trifling manufactures,
although it still keeps up considerable trade.
The much-needed railway from Linares to this
isolated port was being made in 1893-94. Popu-
lation, about 50,000. The province consists of
the eastern portion of the ancient kingdom of
Granada, and has an area of 3302 sq. m. There
are rich mines in the sierras, yielding copper,
iron, mercury, silver, and lead. Population
360,000.

Almodo'var del Campo, a town of New Castile,
Spain, 22 miles SW. of Ciudad Real ; pop. 12,279,
chiefly employed in agriculture and silver-mining.

Almond, in Scotland, tributaries (1) of the
Firth of Forth at Cramond ; and (2) of the Tay
above Perth.

Almondbury, to the SE. of Huddersfield, is
practically a part of Huddersfield (q.v.).

Almo'ra, a town in the United Provinces of
India, 87 miles N. of Bareilly, on the crest of a
ridge of the Himalayas, 5337 fet above the sea.
Pop. 8000.

Almunecar, a seaport of Andalusia, Spain, 33
miles S. of Granada ; pop. 8878.

Alnmouth, a little watering-place of Northum-
berland, at the mouth of the Alne, 5 miles ESE.
of Alnwick. Pop. 593.

Alnwick (An'nick), the county town of North-
umberland, on the Alne, 38 miles N. by W. of
Newcastle by rail. It has a large central market-
place, a spacious town-hall, and a corn exchange

ALORA

ALPS

Of 1862. Alnwick was at an early period a
fortified town, and one of its four gates remains,
with fragments of the walls. At the north
entrance of the town stands Alnwick Castle, the
seat originally of the De Vescis, and since 1310
of the Percies of Northumberland. It has been
sumptuously restored since 1854 in the Italian
palazzo style, and is one of the most magnificent
baronial structures in England. During the
middle ages, it was a bulwark against the inva-
sions of the Scots, and it was thrice besieged
by Malcolm Canmore, who here met his death ;
by David I. , who captured it ; and by William
the Lion, who here was taken prisoner. Alnwick
ceased in 1886 to enjoy certain prescriptive
municipal usages it formerly possessed. Pop.
7500.

Alo'ra, a town of Spain, 23 miles NW. of
Malaga by rail. Pop. 10,568.

Alost, or AALST, a town in the Belgium pro-
vince of Bast Flanders, on a navigable tributary
of the Scheldt, 19 miles NW. of Brussels by rail.
The church of St Martin, though unfinished, is
one of the grandest in Belgium, with a famous
painting by Rubens 'St Roche beseeching our
Saviour to stay the Plague of Alost,' and also the
mausoleum of Marten, a native of Alost and
Belgium's first printer (1473). Alost has also a
13th-century town-hall with a beautiful belfry,
and a Jesuit college. Pop. 30,200.

Alpe'na, an American post-town, at the mouth
of Thunder Bay River, in Michigan, with foun-
dries and numerous sawmills. Pop. (1880) 6153 ;
(1890) 11,283 ; (1900) 11,802.

Alpes, name of three deps. in France. That of
B ASSES- ALPES occupies the NB. part of Provence,
and is, for the most part, mountainous. The
wines are excellent; the mines produce lead,
green marble, &c. The dep. is watered by the
Durance; its chief town is Digne. Area, 2685
sq. m. ; population, 115,000.

The HAUTES-ALPES, lying north of the Basses-
Alpes, and forming a part of the old province of
Dauphine, is traversed by the chief range of the
Cottian Alps, which here rise to 14,000 feet. The
scenery, especially along the impetuous Durance,
is singularly picturesque. Area, 2158 sq. m. ;
population, 109,000. The mines produce lead,
copper, iron, and anthracite. Chief town, Gap.

ALPES MARITIMES, a dep. in the extreme SE.
of France, on the shores of the Mediterranean
and confines of Italy, was formed in 1860. It
is made up. of the ancient county of Nice, then
ceded to France, and of the arrondissement of
Grasse. The chain of the Alpes Maritimes forms
the northern boundary of the dep., and from it
numerous spurs run seaward, among which are
lovely and fertile valleys. The silkworm is
reared, and honey exported. There are some
mineral springs. The tunny, anchovy, and sar-
dine fisheries are important. The capital is Nice,
and the other principal towns are Antibes, Ville-
franche, Cannes, Grasse, and Menton or Mentone.
Area, 1482 sq. m. ; pop. 293,500.

Alpnach, or ALPNACHT, a Swiss village, in the
canton of Unterwalden, at the foot of Mount
Pilatus, 1 J mile from that part of Lake Lucerne
called Lake Alpnach. Its celebrated 'slide,' 8
miles long, for the timber of Mount Pilatus, is
now disused. Pop. 1679.

Alps (possibly a Celtic word meaning 'high;'
cf. Gaelic alp, ' a high mountain ; ' or connected
with Lat. ctibus, 'white'), the most extensive
system of lofty mountains in Europe, raising
their giant masses on a basis of 90,000 sq. m.,

between 6 40' and 18 E. long., and extending
in some places from the 44th to the 48th parallel
of latitude. The Alpine system is bounded on
the N. by the hilly ground of Switzerland and
the upper plain of the Danube ; on the E., by
the low plains of Austria ; on the S., by the
Adriatic Sea, the plains of Lombardy, and the
Gulf of Genoa; and on the W., by the plains of
Provence and the valley of the Rhone. A string
of lakes encircles both the northern and southern
bases of these mountains, the former at an eleva-
tion of 1200 to 2000 feet ; the latter, 600 to 700
feet. The varied natural scenery of France,
Italy, Germany, and Austria has a common
centre of union in this lofty region. Valleys
open out in all directions, sending their melted
snows on one side into the North Sea, on another
into the Black Sea, and on another into the
Mediterranean. The principal basins are those
of the Rhine, the Danube, the Po, the Rhone,
and the Var.

I. Of the WESTERN ALPS the principal ranges
are : (1) The Maritime Alps, extending from the
middle Durance southwards to the Mediter-
ranean, and rising in the Aiguille de Chambeyron
to a height of 11,155 feet. (2) The Cottian Alps,
north of these, whose highest summit, Monte
Viso, is 12,605 feet. (3) The Dauphine Alps,
separated by the valley of the Durance from the
Cottian ; their highest summit is the Pic des
Ecrins, 13,462 feet. (4) The Graian Alps, forming
the boundary between Savoy and Piedmont, and
attaining in the Grand Paradis, an elevation of
13,300 feet. II. MIDDLE ALPS. Central Cftaire.
(1) The Pennine Alps, between the plains of
Lombardy and the valley of the Rhone. Highest
summits : Mont Blanc, 15,732 feet ; Monte Rosa,
15,151 feet. (2) The Lepontian or Helvetian
Alps, from the depression of the Simplon, along
the plateau and masses of St Gothard, to the
pass of the Spliigen. (3) The Rhtetian Alps,
between the Inn, the Adda, and the Upper Adige.
Northern Chain. (I) The Bernese Alps, between
the Rhone and the Aar. Highest summits :
Finsteraarhorn, 14,026 feet ; Aletschhorn, 13,803 ;
Jungfrau, 13,671 feet. (2) The Alps of the Four
'Forest Cantons,' the Schwyz Alps, &c. The
Southern Chain. (I) The Ortler Alps, between
the Adda and the Adige. (2) The Trientine Alps,
between the Adige and the Piave. III. Of the
EASTERN ALPS the principal chains are : (1) The
Noric Alps, between the plains of the Drave and
the Danube. (2) The Carnian Alps, between the
Drave and the Save. (3) The Julian Alps, be-
tween the Save and the Adriatic Sea.

No lofty mountains in the world are more
easily crossed than the Alps ; the Mont Cenis,
the Brenner, the St Gothard, and tlie Simplon
(with still longer tunnel bored 1896-1904) rail-
ways into Italy from the north now afford special
facilities. Other notable passes are the Little St
Bernard (7190 feet at the highest point), the
Great St Bernard (8120 feet), and the Spliigen
(q.v.).

The rocks which enter into the composition
of the Alps belong to many different geological
systems, and occur for the most part as more or
less interrupted belts or zones, which extend
in the same general direction as the great chain
itself viz. from SW. to NE. The higher and
central ranges consist principally of crystalline
schists, such as gneiss and mica-schist, with
which granite is occasionally associated. These
crystalline Archnean rocks are flanked on either
side by an irregular zone of various sedimentary
strata, along with beds of limestone, dolomite,.

ALPUJARRAS

ALTENGAARl)

&c. The geological structure of the Alps clearly
shows that these mountains are 'mountains of
upheaval.' The strata of which they are com-
posed must originally have been spread out in
approximately horizontal positions, and they
have since been folded, flexed, puckered, and
fractured. Since their upheaval, the Alps have
suffered excessive denudation. Enormous moun-
tain-masses have been gradually removed by the
action of ice, running water, &c.

The population of the Alpine regions is esti-
mated at 6,000,000 to 7,000,000, of whom perhaps
one half are Teutonic, and the other half of
French, Italian (and Romanic), or Slavonic origin,
in pretty equal proportions. Six states share the
Alps. The western portion is shared by France
and Italy. Switzerland claims the Middle Alps
almost exclusively for her own. Bavaria has
only a small share. Austria has the largest
share of the Alps in the provinces of Tyrol,
Illyria, Styria, and the archduchy. The Alpine
mountains are rich in singularly beautiful natural
scenery, and attract such crowds of visitors that
they have been called ' the playground of Europe.'

See works by Agassiz, the brothers Schlagint-
weit, Murchison, Tyndall (1860-73), Bonney
(1868), Ball's Guides (3 vols. 1868-70), Umlauft
(Eng. trans. 1888), and see also SWITZERLAND.

Alpujarras (Al-poo-har'ras ; Arabic Al-Bush-
erat), a name applied to all the valleys lying
south of the chief chain of the Sierra Nevada, in
the south of Spain.

Alsace-Lorraine (Ger. Elsass-Lothringen), since
1871 a state or 'imperial territory' (Reichsland)
of the German empire, bounded west by France,
east by Baden, and south by Switzerland. Its
utmost length, from north to south, is 123
miles ; its breadth varies between 22 and 105
miles ; and its area is 5580 sq. m., of which 1353
belong to Upper Alsace (in the south), 1844 to
Lower Alsace (NE.), and 2383 to Lorraine (N\V.).
Pop. (1871) 1,549,738; (1900) 1,719,470, of whom
over 1,300,000 were Catholics, and 80 per cent.
German-speaking, the French-speaking population
being mainly in the larger towns and in Lorraine.
The Rhine flows 115 miles north-by-eastward
along all the eastern boundary, and receives,
below Strasburg, the 111 from Alsace, 127 miles
long. Other rivers are the Moselle, flowing
through Lorraine past Metz, and its affluent the
Saar. Along the Rhine is a strip of level country,
9 to 17 miles broad, and declining from 800 to
450 feet above sea-level. Westward of this rise
the Vosges Mountains, culminating at a height
of 4677 feet ; whilst Lorraine, rather hilly than
mountainous, rarely attains 1300 feet. About
48'5 per cent, of the entire area is arable, 11-6
meadow and pasture, and 30-8 under wood.
Alsace-Lorraine produces much wine, grain, and
tobacco ; it is rich in mines, iron and coal ; and
manufactures iron, cotton, wool, silks, chemicals,
glass, and paper. It contains the important
cities of Strasburg, Miihlhausen, Metz, and Col-
mar.

In Ca?sar's time Alsace-Lorraine was occupied
by Celtic tribes, and formed part of ancient
Gaul ; thereafter largely Germanised, from the
10th century it formed part of the German
empire, till a part of it was ceded to France at
the Peace of Westphalia (1648), and the rest fell
a prey to the aggressions of Louis XIV., who
seized Strasburg (1681) by surprise in time of
peace. By the Peace of Ryswick (1697), the
cession of the whole was ratified. In 1814-15
Russia would not hear of the restitution of

Alsace-Lorraine to Germany ; and it was not till
1871, after the Franco-German war, that Alsace
and German Lorraine were, by the treaty of
Frankfort, incorporated in the new German
empire. The great mass of the population were
strongly against the change, and 160,000 elected
to be French, though only 50,000 went into
actual exile, refusing to become German subjects.
For, at least since the era of the Revolution,
Alsace in sentiment was wholly French. To
France she gave the bravest of her sons Keller-
mann, Kleber, and many another hero ; Strasburg
first heard the Marseillaise; and MM. Erckmann-
Chatrian, Lorrainers both, faithfully represented'
their countrymen's love of La Patrie in the days
of the second as of the first Napoleon. See
French works by Grad (18S9) and Matthis (1890).

Alsen, a Baltic island off the coast of Sles-
wick. Formerly Danish, it became Prussian in
1864. It is 19 miles long, and 12 broad ; its area
is 121 sq. in. Pop. 25,000, almost all Danish-
speaking. The chief town is the port of Sonder-
borg ; pop. 6000.

Alster, a river in Holstein, formed by the
confluence of three streams, in the neighbour-
hood of Hamburg spreads itself out, and forms a
lake, called the Great or Outer Alster, and within
the town, the Inner Alster. It flows by several
channels into the Elbe.

Alston, a market-town of Cumberland, 26
miles ESE. of Carlisle. Pop. of parish, 3184.

Altai, the Ghin-shan or Golden Mountains of
the Chinese, is the name given to a wild moun-
tainous region which covers the southern parts
of Tomsk, in Siberia, and partly extends into
Mongolia. It comprises the mountainous border-
region of the great plateau of Central Asia, be-
tween the Tian-shan and the Sajan Mountains,
and consists of two separate parts the Altai
proper, belonging to the Russian empire ; and the
Great Altai, in Mongolia. The highest summit,
Byelukla, reaches the height of 11,000 feet. The
valleys on its outskirts are being rapidly colon-
ised by Russian agriculturists (over 600,000), who
find an easy living in the fertile soil and the rich
sub-alpine meadows. The gold-washings of the
Altai, and its silver, lead, copper, iron, and coal
mines, are another source of wealth. Nearly
45,000 Kalmucks, Teleutes, and Kumandintses
represent the small remainder of the formerly
much denser and more highly civilised popula-
tion, all of the Ural-Altaic stock. The town of
Barnaul (17,180 inhabitants) is the chief centre of
administration.

Altamu'ra, a town of South Italy, 28 miles
SW. of Bari, with a fine cathedral, founded in
1220 ; pop. 19,817.

Alte'a, a Spanish seaport, 25 miles NE. of
Alicante ; pop. 5865.

Al'tena, a town of Prussia, 47 miles NW. of
Siegen by rail, with manufactures of needles,
pins, and hardware ; pop. 12,900.

Altenburg, the capital of the duchy of Saxe-
Altenburg, on the Pleisse, 30 miles S. of Leipzig
by rail. On an almost perpendicular rock of
porphyry stands the old castle of Altenburg, the
scene in 1455 of the 'Prinzenraub.' Its founda-
tions are probably as old as the llth century ;
and, since the two fires of 1S65 and 1868, it has
been finely restored. Brushes, woollen goods,
gloves, and cigars are manufactured. Pop. (1890)
31,439 ; (1900) 37,150.

Altengaard, a hamlet in Finmarken, the
northernmost province of Norway, on the south

ALTHORP PARK

AMAZON

Side of the Alten Fiord, in 69 55' N. lat., with a
meteorological station.

Althorp Park, the seat of Earl Spencer, 6
miles NW. of Northampton.

Alton, a town of Hampshire, 8 miles SW. of
Farnham. Its Perpendicular parish church was
thoroughly restored in 1867. Hops are grown in
the neighbourhood, and there are large breweries
in the town. Pop. 5600.

Alton, a city and port of Illinois, U.S., on the
left bank of the Mississippi, 24 miles N. of St
Louis. Laid out in 1817, and since 1868 the seat
of a Catholic bishopric, it is a centre of com-
merce, and has a Baptist college (1836). Pop.
(1860) 6332 ; (1900) 14,210.

Al'tona, the largest and richest city in the
Prussian province of Sleswick-Holstein, is situ-
ated on the steep right bank of the Elbe, just
below Hamburg, so that the two cities are
divided only by the state-boundaries. Altona
lies higher than Hamburg, and is much healthier.
Of public buildings, the most notable are the
churches of the Trinity (1743) and St John (1873) ;
and of four monuments, there is one to Bliicher
(1832). Invested with special privileges in 1664,
and burnt by the Swedes in 1713, Altona was
annexed to Prussia in 1866. Pop. (1840) 28,095 ;
(1860) 45,524 ; (1890) 143,249 ; (1900) 161,501.

Altoo'na, a city of Pennsylvania, U.S., at the
eastern base of the Alleghanies, 117 miles E. of
Pittsburgh. It contains large locomotive works
and machine-shops in connection with the Penn-
sylvania Central Railroad, employing 5000 hands.
Pop. (1870) 10,610 ; (1900) 38,973.

Altorf, or ALTDORF, the chief town in the
Swiss canton Uri, at the head of the Lake of
Lucerne, and on the St Gothard road and rail-
way. There is a colossal statue of William Tell
in this the scene of his chief exploits. Pop. 3000.
ALTORF, or ALTDORF, in Middle Franconia
(pop. 4000), was the seat of a university from
1623 to 1809.

Allotting, a very ancient place of pilgrimage
in Upper Bavaria, not far from the river Inn, 31
miles N. of Traunstein. A chapel contains the
wonder-working black image of the Virgin, dat-
ing from the 8th century, and a rich treasure
of gold, silver, and precious stones. Another
chapel contains the tomb of Tilly. Pop. 4232.

Altrincham (Al'tring-am), a town of Cheshire,
on Bowdon Downs, 8 miles SW. of Manchester by
rail, is situated on the Bridgewater Canal. It
has manufactures of artificial manures, and an
iron-foundry ; but the chief employment is raising
fruits and vegetables for the Manchester market.
Pop. 17,100.

Altrive, the home and death-place of Hogg, the
Ettrick Shepherd, in Yarrow parish, Selkirkshire.

Alum-Bagh (Alambdgh), a domain 4 miles from
Lucknow, comprised a palace, mosque, and park ;
and in 1857 was converted by the rebels into a
fort. It was taken by the British in September ;
and on evacuating Lucknow, Sir James Outram
with 3500 men held it against 30,000 sepoys and
50,000 volunteers, until in March, Sir Colin
Campbell reconquered Lucknow, and relieved the
Alum-Bagh. Havelock had been buried within
the walls in November 1857.

Alum Bay, Isle of Wight, near the Needles, a
bay with fantastically variegated cliffs.

Alva, a town in what since 1891 is Clack-
mannanshire, at the base of the Ochils, 7| miles
ENE. of Stirling by rail (1863). It has extensive
manufactures of shawls and tweeds. Immedi-

ately behind the village is Alva Glen, noted for
its picturesque beauty and mamu'liceut water-
fall. Pop. 5000.

Alvara'do, a town of Mexico, on the Gulf of
Mexico, at the mouth of the river Alvarado
40 miles SE. of Vera Cruz ; pop. 6000.

Alwar, or ULWAR, a Rajput state of India, in
Rajputana, with an area of 3024 sq. in. and a pop.
of 750,000. The capital, Alwar, is a town of
56,750 inhabitants, 94 miles WNW. of Agra.

Alyth (Ai'litJi), a Perthshire town, 26 miles
NE. of Perth, with woollen, linen, and jute
manufactures. Pop. 1965.

Alzey (Altzei), a town of Rhenish Hesse, on
the Selz, 18 miles SW. of Mainz. Pop. 6932.

Amalfi (Amdl'fee), a seaport on the Gulf of
Salerno, 24 miles SE. of Naples. It has a Roman-
esque cathedral. Founded under Constantino
the Great, and long a powerful republic, with
50,000 inhabitants, and 'doges' of its own, it fell
about the close of the llth century under the
power of the Normans, was plundered by the
Pisans in 1135, and saw its commercial decay
completed by a terrible storm in 1343. Masani-
ello was a native. Pop. 7792.

Amarapu'ra (' city of the gods '), till 1860 the
capital of Burma, was situated on the left bank
of the Irawadi, 6 miles NE. of Ava. Founded in
1783, it was totally destroyed by fire in 1810, and
almost totally by earthquake in 1839 ; so that the
population dwindled from 175,000 in 1800, to
almost nil after Mandalay became the seat of
government. Little remains but some beautiful
trees, and a few ruined pagodas.

Amasia, a town in the province of Sivas, in
Asia Minor, in the deep valley of the Yeshil-
Irmak. The ancient town, long capital of the
kings of Pontus, was the birthplace of Strabo.
There ai*e numerous interesting remains of
antiquity, particularly the tombs of the kings of
Pontus. Silk and salt are the chief articles of
export. Pop. 25,000.

Amatitlan, a deep lake in the Central Ameri-
can state of Guatemala, surrounded with pre-
cipitous volcanic rocks. It empties into the
Pacific Ocean through the river Michatoyat. Near
the lake are many hot springs, and on the river
is the town of Amatitlan, as late as 1840 a miser-
able Indian village, but now, through the intro-
duction of the cochineal culture, an active town
of 10,000 inhabitants.

Amazon, or AMAZONS (Portuguese AmazSnas,
from an Indian word Amassona-, 'boat-destroyer'),
a river of South America, and the largest stream
on the face of the globe. It is known locally as
Maraiion, Orellana, Solimoens, Parana-tinga, and
Parana-uassu. The name Marafion (or Tungur-
agua) belongs properly to the more northern of
its two main head-streams, rising in Lake Lauri-
cocha (Peru) about 10 30' S. lat., 76 10' W. long.
Some writers insist that the river Apurimac, or
Ucayali (the more southern of the two great head-
streams), is the true Amazon. It is commonly
said that the Amazon, to its remotest source, is
nearly 4000 miles long ; but 3000 miles is a more
probable estimate. Most of the upper branches
flow in deep mountain gorges of the Cordillera ;
east of the Cordillera the vast forest-plain is
entered, which stretches from the sub-Andean
foot-hills to the sea. It is a region rich in
botanical treasures, having a fertile soil and a
prodigiously large rainfall. Owing to this rain-
fall, the country is traversed by a very great
number of large navigable rivers, either direct or .

AMAZONAS

AMERICA

Indirect affluents of the Amazon. Steam naviga-
tion has been introduced on many of the larger
brandies ; but the natural resources of the
country are very little developed.

The principal tributaries from the north are
the Napo, the Putumayo, the Japura, and the
llio Negro (which connects, through the Cassi-
quiare, with the Orinoco) ; from the south the
Javary, the Jutahy, the Jurua, the Purus, the
Madeira, the Tapajos, the Xingu, and the Toc-
antins. For a considerable distance the main
river forms the boundary between Peru and
Ecuador ; but its course lies chiefly through the
northern half of Brazil, its general direction
being to the NNE. Its mouth is crossed by the
equator. The drainage area of the river is placed
at 2,500,000 sq. m., or two-thirds the area of
Europe ; and the main stream and its tributaries
are said to afford over 25,000 miles of water-
way suitable for steam navigation. The main
channel, at the mouth, is 50 miles wide. The
average flow of the river is placed at 2J miles per
hour. The tides are noticed for about 400 miles
up the river. The tidal phenomenon called the
bore (here known as Pororoca) is very destructive
in the main channel of the lower river, near its
mouth. The name Amazon is probably derived
from the female warriors (Amazons) seen by early
explorers in the valley of this river ; the name
Maranon is derived from a voyager who visited
the river in 1503 ; Orellana was the name of one
who sailed on it in 1540.

The climate of the river- valley, though hot and
very damp, is greatly mitigated by its trade-
winds, which blow from the east with little
interruption throughout the dry season. The
river abounds in fish in very great variety of
species, and turtles and alligators are plentiful,
as well as porpoises and manatees. The main
river is fullest from March to June inclusive, and
lowest in August and September. The river is
open to the commerce of all nations, but trade
has been impeded by import and export duties.
Para is the principal outlet by sea of the com-
merce of the Amazon Valley. Many useful and
some highly valuable timber-trees grow on the
river. One of the leading pursuits of the lower
valley is the shipment to Para of india-rubber
and Brazil-nuts. The western part of the basin
affords quinine-yielding barks, coca, cacao, sugar,
coffee, palm-wax, ipecacuanha, copaiba, sarsa-
parilla, vanilla, and other valuable vegetable
products, and a considerable amount of gold is
procured in it.

See works by A. R. Wallace (1853 ; new ed.
1889), H. W. Bates (1864 ; new ed. 1892), Agassiz
(1868), Brown and Lidstone (1878), and H. H.
Smith (New York, 1879).

Amazo'nas, (1) the northernmost province of
Brazil, has an area of 750,000 sq. m., and a pop.
of 148,000. (2) A fertile department of Peru,
bounded on the N. by Ecuador. Area, 14,150
sq. m. ; pop. 70,800.

Ambala. See UMBALLA.

Amber, a decayed city in the Rajput state of
Jaipur, India, formerly its capital, about 4 miles
NE. of Jaipur, with a vast but deserted palace.
It is situated on the margin of a small lake, in a
deep hollow among hills.

Amberg, a town of Bavaria, 35 miles E. of
Nuremberg. Chief buildings are the town-hall
(1490) and St Martin's (1421), with a steeple 321
feet high. There is a large arsenal, some manu-
factures, and mining. Near is the Maria-Hilfs-
berg, a place of pilgrimage. Pop. 22,500.

Ambleside, a market-town of Westmorland,
situated in the heart of the Lake District, about
a mile from the head of Lake Windermere.
Rydal Mount, for many years the residence of
Wordsworth ; Fox How, a summer retreat of Dr
Arnold ; and the Knoll, where Miss Martineau
lived and died, are all in the neighbourhood.
Coarse woollen cloths are made here. Pop. 23CO.

Amboise, a French town in the dep. of Indre-
et-Loire, on the Loire, 15 miles by rail E. of
Tours. The town is memorable for the Huguenot
conspiracy (1560), which cost the lives of 1200
Protestants. The castle of Amboise from 1431
was a frequent residence of the Valois kings;
and since the days of Louis XL, 15,000 prisoners
are said to have been confined in its subterranean
'oubliettes.' Pop. 4580.

Amboyna, the most prominent of the Moluc-
cas or Spice Islands belonging to the Dutch,
lies SW. of Ceram, and NW. of Banda. Area,
365 sq. in. Pop. about 38,000, nearly a third
Mohammedans. Amboyna is mountainous, well
watered, fertile, and healthy. Clove, sago,
mango, and cocoa-nut trees are abundant, also
fine timber for cabinet-work. The Dutch took
Amboyna from the Portuguese in 1605. The
British settlement was destroyed by the Dutch
in the infamous Amboyna massacre of 1623, for
which, in 1654, Cromwell exacted compensation.
The British held the island in 1796-1802. It
became finally Dutch in 1814. AMBOYNA, capital
of the Dutch Moluccas, on the bay of Amboyna,
has a good roadstead ; pop. about 9000.

Ambriz, the northernmost division of the
Portuguese territory of Angola, West Africa,
extending from the Congo to the river Ambriz.
The town of Ambriz has a pop. of 5000. See
ANGOLA.

America, the Avestern continent and its adja-
cent islands, forming the main body of land found
in the western hemisphere. America has an area
of about 16,500,000 sq. in., and is larger than
Europe and Africa together. It is more than four
times as large as Europe, five times as large as
Australia, and half as large again as Africa ; but
is considerably smaller in area than Asia. It is
customary to regard Greenland as a part of Amer-
ica ; while the adjacent island of Iceland, though
partially in the western hemisphere, is usually
associated with Europe. The other principal
American islands in the Atlantic are Newfound-
land, Cape Breton, Anticosti, Prince Edward
Island, Long Island, the Bermudas, the Antilles
or West Indies, Joannes, the Falkland Islands,
Staten Land, and South Georgia. At the south-
ern extremity of America lies the archipelago of
Fuegia (Tierra del Fuego). In the Pacific are the
Aleutian Islands, Kadiak, the Alexander and
Queen Charlotte groups, Vancouver and other
British-Columbian Islands ; the Santa Barbara
group, Revilla-Gigedo, the Pearl Islands, and
others in the Gulf of Panama, the Galapagos,
Juan Fernandez and the associated islets, Chiloe
and the Chonos Archipelago. In the Arctic
Ocean there are many large but unimportant
islands.

The American continent consists of two prin-
cipal parts, NORTH AMERICA and SOUTH AMERICA,
which are connected by the narrow Isthmus of
Panama. These two bodies of land, though
differing very much in climate and productions,
are much alike in several respects. Each is of
triangular outline, with the shortest side to the
north, and with a narrow southern prolongation.
In outline, North and South America have each

AMERICA

a certain resemblance to Africa. The two Amer-
icas have each a high range of volcanic moun-
tains, extending from north to south along the
west coast, a broad central plain, and a relatively
low eastern mountain-range. Their great rivers
have also some features in common, especially in
regard to their direction. America is called the
New World ; and from the historical point of
view, this name is obviously appropriate; but
geologically it may be called the Old World,
since the oldest known strata have their widest
development on its surface ; and there have been
here found relics of prehistoric man, whicli must
be regarded as among the oldest yet discovered.

NORTH AMERICA has an area of more than
9,000,000 sq. m. It is considerably larger than
South America, which is in turn larger than
Europe and Australia combined. The western
mountain-system of North America comprises
a very great number of minor ranges, mostly
having a north and south direction. The main
chain (Sierra Madre) cannot be said to preserve
an unmistakable identity throughout. The Coast
Range, the Sierra Nevada, and the Cascade Moun-
tains are the most noted of the western parallel
ranges ; they all lie on the Pacific slope, and
they contain some of the highest of North
American peaks. The elevated plateau called
the Great Basin (chiefly in Utah and Nevada,
U.S.), contains the Great Salt Lake and several
smaller bodies of strongly saline water, evidently
the remains of a much larger lake which once
sent its waters to the sea. The eastern or great
Appalachian mountain-system has a general NNE.
direction, nearly parallel with the Atlantic coast-
line.

North of the St Lawrence River is seen the
vast and complicated mountain-system of the
Laurentides, which extend from the Atlantic
westward to near Lake Superior. The highest
mountain in North America is Mount McKinley,
in Alaska (20,464 feet). Orizaba, in Mexico, is
18,250 feet; Mount Logan, in Yukon, 19,539;
Mount St Elias, long believed to be the highest
summit, 18,024. Popocatepetl and Iztaccihuatl,
in Mexico, are 17,520 feet and 16,960 feet respec-
tively. Many other peaks are over 14,000 feet.

A very remarkable feature of North America
is the great central plain which reaches from the
Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. A promi-
nent feature of the central plain is the Hauteur
des Terres, a high ridge, whence flow the Missis-
sippi, the Red River, the St Lawrence, and the
Winnipeg. This ridge is nowhere over 2000 feet
high, and its ascent is extremely gradual. The
most general name for the great plains of North
America is prairie; there are local distinctions
between timbered and bald or treeless prairies ;
and few prairies are of a dead-level surface, and
many are ' rolling 'that is, their surface is a
succession of low wave-like swells and depres-
sions.

The coast-line of North America on the west
is almost everywhere high and rocky. To the
south of Puget Sound, good harbours are rare ;
but British Columbia and Alaska have great
numbers of good seaports, the coast-line being,
in many places, deeply cut with high-walled
fjords, or 'canals,' and elsewhere sheltered by
ranges of high and well-wooded islands. The
Atlantic coast, to the north of New York Bay, is
generally rocky and well sheltered with islands,
and has abundance of good natural harbours ;
but south of the parallel of New York, the coast
of the mainland is almost everywhere low and
sandy. Many of the best ports are formed by

river-mouths, and have sand-bars across their
entrances. Nowhere else in the world is there
any such extent of low and sandy coast as on
the Atlantic and Gulf seaboards of the United
States.

In general, Canada and the Atlantic slope are
well watered and have abundant rains. Along a
narrow strip on the Pacific slope, from San Fran-
cisco southward to Acapulco, the water-supply
is deficient, and the interior regions near the
coast have locally a desert character ; while from
Acapulco southward the rainfall is ample for all
needs. The central valley is generally well sup-
plied with water ; but to the west of the Missis-
sippi there are but scanty summer rains. As the
Rocky Mountains are approached, the water-
supply becomes more deficient ; and, except
where irrigation is practicable, agriculture proper
generally gives place to the grazing of cattle.
But in the Canadian part of the central valley
there is ordinarily no deficiency of rainfall. In
the Rocky Mountain region, the summers are
generally very dry ; and in some sections, irriga-
tion is required in order to produce crops. Still
the great volume and length of the North
American rivers, and the immense number of
lakes, are sufficient proof of the amplitude of
the general rainfall. In the Rocky Mountain
region of Canada, the great rivers, Yukon, Fraser,
Columbia, Saskatchewan, and Mackenzie, take
their rise. Between these mountains and Hud-
son Bay, a girdle of vast lakes, or inland seas
(Great Bear, Great Slave, Athabasca, Deer Lake,
Winnipeg, and others), are seen to form a regu-
lar succession running from the Arctic Circle in
a SSE. course to Lake Superior (412 by 167
miles), which is itself the largest fresh-water
lake in the world, and the first of a wonderful
chain of great sea-like expansions of the Upper
St Lawrence (the others being Michigan, Huron,
Erie, and Ontario). The line of these great lakes
(from Great Bear Lake to the Lake of the Woods
inclusive) marks the eastern limit of a fertile
prairie region resting on fossiliferous rocks. East
of this line we find a vast wilderness of ' Barren
Grounds.' North of the St Lawrence system,
almost the whole country is thickly studded
with lakes, which, with their connecting streams,
form a network of important waterways travers-
able by canoes and boats.

The Atlantic slope of the United States is well
supplied with water, and many of its streams
afford extensive navigation. The Hudson is
noted for its fine scenery ; the Potomac is one
of the noblest of American rivers ; and important
streams flowing to the Atlantic are the St John,
the Penobscot, the Kennebec, the Merrimac
(noted as affording more utilised water-power
than any other river in the world), the Connecti-
cut, the Delaware, the Susquehanna, the James,
and the St John's, nearly all navigable in their
lower courses. The chief rivers flowing to the
Gulf of Mexico are the Appalachicola, the Mobile,
the Pearl, the great Mississippi, the Sabine, the
Trinity, the Brazos, the Colorado of Texas, and
the Rio Grande.

Of the many large Alaskan rivers, the principal
are the Yukon and the Kuskoquim. The Fraser
is a swift and strong river ; the great river Col-
umbia is noted alike for its navigation, its salmon-
fisheries, and its enormous cataracts. The Rio
Colorado, whose waters flow to the Gulf of Cali-
fornia, traverses a desert plateau. Here, nearly
every watercourse runs in a deep-walled canon,
a narrow valley with precipitous sides, often of
prodigious height.

AMERICA 31

The winter cold and the summer heat of North
America are extreme, when we consider the
latitudes. Variations of temperature are more
sudden and more extreme than in South America
or Western Europe. The arctic portion of North
America has a climate of extreme severity ; and
much of the northern sub-arctic region has a
decidedly arctic climate. South of the Canadian
line, we are still in the spring-wheat belt ; and
not till we go south 4 or 5 degrees of latitude do
we enter the winter- wheat belt. Maize is planted
in the warmer parts of Canada, and in nearly all
the more southern parts of North America. The
other cereals grown in*the United States are
much the same as those ordinarily produced in
Europe. Sugar-cane is raised only in the most
southern parts of the United States, and in lati-
tudes still farther south. Tobacco is an im-
portant crop not only in tropical America, but
nearly as far north as Canada. Cotton reaches
its northern limit in California, Missouri, and
Virginia. True rice is grown in the more southern
United States. Throughout the Atlantic and
Gulf slopes of North America, the winter climate
is much more severe than in corresponding Euro-
pean latitudes. It will be observed that nearly
all the cultivated crop-products of North America
(except maize, potatoes, and tobacco) are of Old-
World origin. The same thing is true in a less
degree of the cultivated fruits. The European
apple thrives even better in North America than
in Europe ; so likewise do the peach, the pear,
and other fruits. But the grapes generally cul-
tivated in America are of native or hybrid origin ;
although the European grape does well in Cali-
fornia and Mexico. The cranberries, straw-
berries, and some of the other cultivated small
fruits of North America, are of native origin, as
are some of the more hardy varieties of the plum.
Subtropical fruits, such as the orange, h'g, and
lemon, do well in that limited part of non-tropi-
cal North America which lies south of the frost-
line. The mineral treasures of North America
are vast ; coal, iron, copper, gold, silver, lead,
and petroleum being abundant, besides salt and
other valuable products.

The native peoples of North and South America
alike would appear to have been all of one race,
although the Eskimo of the far North resemble
the ' Indian," or copper-coloured native races,
not so much in appearance and in physical
features, as in the polysynthetic or incorporative
character of their system of word-building. The
present population of North America contains
a copious element of the Indian stock, chiefly
found in the remoter parts of Canada and in
Mexico and Central America. In Spanish Amer-
ica and in Manitoba (Canada), there are many
persons of mixed white and Indian origin. The
Spanish language is spoken in Central America,
Mexico, Cuba, and Puerto Rico ; French prevails
in parts of Canada and Louisiana, and in some
of the West Indies ; and a German dialect pre-
vails locally in Pennsylvania. But by far the
largest share of the North American people are
English in language, if not in descent.

The political divisions of North America are
(1) Danish America, which includes Greenland,
and three small islands of the Virgin group in
the West Indies. (?) British North America, in
which division we may place the Dominion of
Canada, Newfoundland, Labrador, the Bermudas,
the numerous British West Indian islands, and
British Honduras. (3) The United States, includ-
ing the detached territory of Alaska. (4) Mexico.
(5) The Central American republics of Honduras,

AMERICA

Guatemala, Salvador, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica,
together with Panama unless its southern part
be regarded as belonging to the South American
continent. (6) The West Indian republics of
Hayti and San Domingo. (7) The Dutch West
Indies. See the articles on the separate states
and colonies.

The population of North America, with the
West Indies, is not less than 105,000,000 souls, of
whom 7,000,000 may be of Indian descent. The
very great majority of North American Indians,
who fall into about a dozen stocks or groups of
tribes, are found in Mexico and Central America.
The people of African stock number at least
11,000,000, most of whom are natives of the
United States. The original slave element was
derived from almost every coast-region of the
African continent.

SOUTH AMERICA has somewhat the same general
shape on the map as North America, and the
semi-continents have many features in common,
as well as certain marked contrasts. The broad-
est part of each is towards the north ; but the
northern portion of North America is a frozen
and most repelling region, having its coasts
washed by a trackless frozen ocean, filled with
barren and ice-crowned islands ; while the Carib-
bean Sea, which lies north of the southern half
of the continent, is entirely tropical, and is
encircled by a chain of rich and beautiful islands,
where frosts are never seen. The climates are
therefore reversed. The greater portion of North
America has either a cold or a temperate* climate ;
while that part of South America which is of
corresponding position and importance has a hot
climate. The tropical region of North America
is relatively small in area ; while in South Amer-
ica it is much the smaller part which has a. cold
climate. Moreover, the winter cold of Patagonia,
Tierra del Fuego, and the Falkland Islands is
never extreme, like that of so great a part of
North America. Even Tierra del Fuego, which
has a terribly bleak and blustering wet and
windy climate, is never very cold. The summers
of the extreme south of America are indeed
relatively cold, but the winters are correspond-
ingly mild ; that is to say, the climate is more
steady and less changeable than that of North
America.

The Andes, or South American Cordilleras,
have some features in common with the great
North American Cordilleras, the Rocky Moun-
tain system. They both extend north and south ;
both are near the west coast ; both are volcanic ;
and both cut off the rains from a considerable
region, rendering the climate locally very dry.
But the Andes are much more nearly continu-
ous ; they are a much more complete barrier to
the traveller and merchant, as well as to the
rain-bearing winds of the Atlantic ; they have
a much greater absolute height, and contain a
far greater number of very lofty peaks. Their
volcanic activity is also at present much more
intense than is seen at any point in North
America north of the Tehuantepec Isthmus. The
dry or desert region west of the Andes is far
more extensive and far more completely arid
than the corresponding section of North America.
To the east of the Andes, and as it were reclining
against them, there is an enormous and lofty
plateau on which are scattered various extinct
or dormant volcanic peaks ; but the western
slope of the Andes is usually very steep. In
some parts of the eastern sub- Andean plain there
appear complicated (but generally north and
south) ranges of lower mountains, occasionally

AMERICA

AMERSHAM

sending put an arm of hills into the plains of
the interior. The really temperate part of South
America, including most of Chili, Uruguay, and
the Argentine Republic, has a mild, and for the
most part singularly equable and agreeable clim-
ate ; although Northern Chili is a hot and arid
desert, and the southern third of that country,
including the Chonos Archipelago, is drenched
with continual rains. The greater and most
characteristic region of South America is the
tropical portion. For a tropical country the
climate is in general remarkably fine, regular,
and healthful. A marked feature is the large
and regular rainfall, caused by the Andes, which
here stand exactly across the course of the trade-
winds. These winds, carried gradually upwards
by the shelving plateaus, till they reach the cold
Andean summit-region, precipitate nearly all
their moisture, and leave the narrow strip of
land west of the Andes a desert. Towards the
north and south, the Pacific slope, being out of
the highway of the trade-winds, receives abun-
dant moisture from the Pacific. Owing to the
enormous rainfall of tropical South America, it
is above all others the land of great rivers. The
three great river-systems of the Orinoco, the
Amazon, and the Plata are all primarily devel-
oped upon the eastern terraces of the Andes ;
but the Plata derives its main water-supply from
the Brazilian mountains. Other large rivers are
the Magdalena in Colombia, the Sao Francisco
in Brazil, and the Rio Negro in the Argentine
Republic. South America has few large lakes,
Lake Titicaca being one of the most remarkable ;
but the slopes of the Southern Andes abound in
smaller lakes, doubtless of glacial origin.

The interior of South America presents con-
siderable variety. In the central and southern
portion of Venezuela we find extensive steppes
or prairies, here called llanos ; an open region,
in part treeless, but in general grassy and devoted
to pasturage. To the east and west of these the
country is for the most part densely wooded.
The vast forest-clad plain of the Amazon is of
fluviatile origin. Towards the southern tropic
we encounter a region which, though little de-
veloped, appears to be one of the finest and most
fertile on the globe. Farther south the forests
begin to disappear, and finally end in the great
treeless pampas of the Argentine Republic. The
Patagonian region south of the pampas consists
largely of a succession of terraces rising west-
ward to the Andes, and crossed by many swift
and copious rivers. Here are seen vast fields
covered with loose stones and shingle, recalling
the enormous boulder-covered waste of Labrador.
Farther south lies the Fuegian Archipelago, a
gloomy and unpleasant region with a bleak
climate.

The mineral wealth of South America is very
great, including gold, silver, mercury, copper,
diamonds, and coal.

The agricultural capabilities of a large part of
South America are unquestionably very great.
Stock-breeding is the leading industry on the
pampas of the south, and on the llanos and
campos of the north. Coffee-growing is a pro-
minent pursuit in Brazil. The cereal grains
thrive remarkably in the temperate regions.
Sugar, tobacco, and cotton are produced in
the warmer latitudes. Silver, copper, iodine,
nitrates, guano, hay, and provisions are shipped
from the west coast. From the La Plata coun-
tries wool and various cattle products still take
the lead, although flour and grain are becoming
important staples of export. Peruvian bark and

other medicines, india-rubber, cabinet-woods,
chocolate, tobacco, and fruits are shipped from
the tropical and forest-regions of the north.

The aboriginal population of South America is
divided into a large number of tribes, which have
been grouped under some eight different stocks.
The white population is largely Spanish in lan-
guage and descent, except in Brazil, where Por-
tuguese is spoken. The common people of Chili
are largely of Gallician (Spanish) descent ; while
Basque blood is said to prevail in Peru. The
Brazilian whites are to a considerable extent of
Azorean and Madeira stock. There are numbers
of German colonists in Brazil, the La Plata
countries, and Chili; and also many Italians,
Basques, and other Europeans in the Argentine
Republic and Uruguay. The English language
is spoken in the Falklands and in Guiana ; French
and Dutch prevail in parts of Guiana. The negro
element is strong in Brazil, in parts of Peru, and
in Guiana ; and there are many persons of mixed
descent. It is believed that the total population
of South America is about 38,000,000.

A considerable number of the islands usually
reckoned as West Indian, and assigned by most
geographers to North America, are really conti-
nental and South American. Such are the large
British colony of Trinidad ; the Venezuelan island
of Marguerita ; and the Dutch island of Curagoa.

All the states of America, each with a separate
article, are either republics or colonies.

NORTH AMERICA.

States.

Area in
sq. in.

Pop.

United States ....

3,025,600
3,556,350
766,000
172,700

320,000
1,062,800
96,550

76,085,794
5,639,201
13,545,462
3,984,721
10,516
6,340,267

British America, including j
Canada, Newfoundland, Ber- >
muda, British Honduras )
Mexico

Central America, including San )
Salvador, Nicaragua, Hon- h
duras, Guatemala, Costa Rica >

Polar lands (say)

West Indies

Total

9,000,000

105,605,961

SOUTH AMERICA.

States.

Area in
sq. m.

Pop.

Venezuela
Colombia and Panama

417,000
332,000
160,000
528,000
536,000
1,970,000
72,700
57,300
218,900
170,500
3,288,000
6,500

2,444,816
3,878,600
1,205,600
4,609,999
1,788,674
4,794,149
930,680
635,571
3,128,095
407,553
14,339,915
2,043

p eru

Argentine Republic

Chili

Guiana (Brit.,French,Dutch)
Brazil

Falkland Islands (British).. .
Total

7,756,900

38,165,695

Grand Total of America

16,756,900

143,771,656

Amersfoort, an ancient town of the Nether-
lands, 14 miles NE. of Utrecht by rail. It has a
large trade in grain ; and manufactures of brandy,
cotton, and woollen goods, leather, soap, and
beer. Here was born the statesman Olden-
barneveld. Pop. 18,182.

Amersham, a town of Bucks, 1\ miles ENE.
of Wycombe. Pop. 3210.

AMESBURY

AMSTERDAM

Amesfoury, a coursing ground in Wiltshire,
near Stoneheuge, and 7 J miles N. of Salisbury.

Amesbury, a township of Massachusetts, 38
miles by rail N. of Boston, with woollen and
carriage factories. Pop. 9473.

Amha'ra ('the high lands'), the middle and
largest of the three divisions of Abyssinia,
extending from the Tacazze to the Blue Nile, and
embracing the heautiful Lake Tzana. Capital,
Gondar (q.v.).

Amherst, a seaport of Tenasserim, Burma, on
the Bay of Bengal, at the mouth of the Sal win,,
80 miles S. of Maulmain. Founded in 1826 as
capital of the newly-ceded province, it was next
year superseded by Maulmain. Pop. 3000.

Amherst, a seaport of Nova Scotia, at the head
of Cumberland Basin, an inlet of the Bay of
Fundy ; pop. 5000.

Amherst, in Massachusetts, 20 miles N. of
Springfield, is seat of Amherst College (Congrega-
tional) and of an agricultural college ; pop. 5000.

Amherstburg, a town of Ontario, Canada, at
the head of Lake Erie, 4 miles S. of Detroit ;
pop. 2272.

Amiens (Fr. pron. Am-i-on 8 ; anc. Samardbriva),
a French city, capital once of Picardy, and now of
the dep. of Somme, on the many-channelled,
navigable Somme, 81 miles N. of Paris by rail.
Its fortifications have been turned into charming
boulevards, but it still retains its old citadel.
The cathedral of Notre Dame is a masterpiece of
Gothic architecture. Begun in 1220, it is 452
feet long, and has a spire (1529) 426 feet high ;
but its special feature is the loftiness of the nave,
141 feet. In his little work called The Bible of
Amiens, Ruskin says this church well deserves the
name given it by Viollet-le-Duc, ' the Parthenon
of Gothic architecture, ' and affirms that its style
is ' Gothic pure, authoritative, and unaccusable.'
Other noteworthy buildings are the H6tel-de-
Ville (1600-1760), in which the Peace of Amiens
was signed in 1802 ; the large museum (1864), in
Renaissance style ; and the public library (1791),
with 70,000 volumes. Amiens has considerable
manufactures of velvet, silk, woollen, and cotton
goods, ribbons, and carpets. Peter the Hermit
and Ducange were natives, and there are statues
to both of them. In the Franco-German war, on
27th November 1870, General Manteuffel inflicted,
near Amiens, a signal defeat on a French army
30,000 strong, and three days later the citadel
surrendered. Pop. (1872) 61,063 ; (1901) 90,758.

Amirante Islands, a group of eleven low,
wooded islands lying SW. of the Seychelles,
opposite the 'east coast of Africa. Area, 32 sq.
in. ; pop. 100 French-speaking half-breds. They
fell to Great Britain in 1814, and form a depend-
ency of Mauritius.

Am'lwch (pron. w as oo), a small seaport of
Anglesey, North Wales, on the north coast of the
island, 21 miles NNW. of the Menai Bridge by
rail (1867). It is a busy but rather dirty town,
with the neighbouring rich copper-mines of the
Parys Mountain. Till 1885 Amlwch united with
Beaumaris, &c. in returning one member. Pop.
of parish, 4443.

Ammergau. See OBER-AMMERGAU.

Amol, a town of Persia, 76 miles NE. of
Teheran, on the Heraz, a river which flows into
th.e Caspian ; pop. 10,000.

Amoor. See AMUR.

Amoy', a seaport of China, on a small island of
the same name, in the province of Fukien, 325
C

miles ENE. of Canton direct. The third in im-
portance of the treaty ports, it was one of the
earliest seats of European commerce in China,
the Portuguese having had establishments here
in the 16th, and the Dutch in the 17th century.
In 1841 it was taken by the British, and by the
treaty of Nankin, a British consul and British
subjects were permitted to reside there. The
trade is now open to all nations. The imports
are opium, rice, cotton-twist, British long-cloths,
beans, peas, umbrellas, clocks, &c. ; the exports
are tea, sugar, paper, opium, grass-cloths, gold-
leaf, &c. Pop. 95,600. The island of Amoy,
measuring 9 by 7 miles, has 400,000 inhabitants.

Ampthill, a town of Bedfordshire, 7 miles S.
by W. of Bedford. Pop. of parish, 2194.

Amraoti (sometimes Oomrawuttee), a district in
Berar, British India, with an area of 2759 sq. in. ,
and a pop. of 675,328. Its capital, Amraoti, is
an important cotton-mart, the terminus of a
state branch railway ; pop. 28,550.

Amritsar (often Umritsir), a well-built city of
the Punjab, 32 miles E. of Lahore by rail. It is
the religious metropolis of the Sikhs, a distinction
which, along with its name (literally, 'pool of
immortality '), it owes to its sacred tank, in the
midst of which stands the marble temple of the
Sikh faith. Founded in 1574, but all of it more
recent than 1762, it possesses considerable manu-
factures of cashmere shawls, cotton, silks, &c.,
and carries on trade to the annual value of
3,500,000. Pop. (1901) 162,500.

Amroha, a town in the United Provinces of
India, 20 miles NW. of Moradabad ; pop. 37,000.

Amrum, a north Frisian island off the coast
of Sleswick, SW. of Fohr, is a low-lying half-
moon of grassy downs, 8 miles long, of late visited
as a health-resort. Oysters are taken and wild
ducks decoyed. Pop. 1000.

Amsterdam (' dam ' or ' dike of the Amstel 'X
the capital of the Netherlands, is situated at the
influx of the Amstel to the Ij or Y (pron. eye),
an arm (now mostly drained) of the Zuider-Zee,
44| miles NNE. of Rotterdam by rail. It is
divided by the Amstel and numerous canals into
a hundred small islands, connected by more than
300 bridges. Almost the whole city, which
extends in the shape of a crescent, is founded on
piles driven 40 or 50 feet through soft peat and
sand to a firm substratum of clay. Merely a
fishing-village at the beginning of the 13th cen-
tury, with a small castle, in 1482 it was walled
and fortified. After the revolt of the seven pro-
vinces (1566), it speedily rose to be their first
commercial city ; and in 1585 it was enlarged by
the building of the New Town on the west. The
establishment of the Dutch East India Company
(1602) did much to forward the well-being of
Amsterdam, which, twenty years later, had 100,000
inhabitants. It had to surrender to the Prussians
in 1787, to the French in 1795 ; and the union of
Holland with France in 1810 entirely destroyed
its foreign trade. The old firms, however, lived
through the time of difficulty, and in 1815 com-
merce again began to expand an expansion
greatly promoted by the opening of the North
Holland Canal (1825), and the North Sea Canal
(1876).

The city has a fine appearance when seen from
the harbour, or from the high bridge over the
Amstel. Church towers and spires, and a perfect
forest of masts, relieve the flatness of the pros-
pect. The old ramparts have been levelled,
planted with trees, and formed into promenades.
The three chief canals the Heerengracht, Keizers-

AMSTERDAM

ANCONA

gracht, and Prinsengracht run in semicircles
within each other, and are from 2 to 3 miles long.
On each side of them, with a row of trees and a
carriage-way intervening, are handsome resi-
dences. The building-material is brick ; and the
houses have their gables towards the streets,
which gives them a picturesque appearance.
The defences of Amsterdam now consist in a row
of detached forts, and in the sluices, several
miles distant from the city, which can flood
(save in time of frost) the surrounding land.

The population, which from 217,024 in 1794,
sank to 180,179 in 1815, rose to upwards of 538,000
in 1902, of whom the majority belong to the Dutch
Reformed Church. The chief industrial establish-
ments are sugar refineries, engineering works,
mills for polishing diamonds and other precious
stones, dockyards, manufactories of sails, ropes,
tobacco, silks, gold and silver plate and jewelry,
colours and chemicals, breweries, distilleries,
with export houses for corn and colonial pro-
duce ; cotton-spinning, book-printing, and type-
founding are also carried on. The present Bank
of the Netherlands dates from 1824, Amsterdam's
famous bank of 1609 having been dissolved in
1796.

The former Stadhuis (' Townhouse '), converted
in 1808 into a palace for King Louis Bonaparte,
and still retained by the reigning family, is a
noble structure of 1648-55, 282 feet long, and 235
broad, with a round tower rising 182 feet. It has
a hall, 120 feet long, 57 wide, and 90 high, lined
with white Italian marble. The cruciform Nieuwe
Kerk (New Church), a Gothic edifice of 1408-14,
has a splendidly carved pulpit, and the tombs of
Admiral de Ruyter and Vondel. The 14th-cen-
tury Old Church (Oude Kerk) is rich in painted
glass, has a grand organ, and contains several
monuments of naval heroes. Literature and
science are represented by a university supported
by the municipal principality, museums and
picture-galleries, a botanical garden, several
theatres, &c. The new Ryksmuseum contains a
truly national collection of paintings, its choicest
treasure Rembrandt's 'Night-guard.' Rembrandt
made Amsterdam his home ; and his statue (1852)
now fronts the house he occupied. Spinoza was
a native. A water-supply was introduced in 1853.

Amsterdam, a manufacturing town of New
York, on the Mohawk River, 33 miles NW. of
Albany. Pop. 22,000.

Amsterdam, a barren volcanic islet annexed
by France, with the islet of St Paul, in 1893, is
in 37' 50' S. lat. and 77 30' E. long., about
midway between the Cape of Good Hope and
Tasmania.

Amu-Daria. See Oxus.

Amur (Amoor), or SAKHALIN, a river formed by
the junction of the Shilka and the Argun, which
both come from the south-west the former
rising in the foothills of the Yablonoi Mountains.
From the junction, the river flows 3000 miles
south-eastward and north-eastward to the Sea
of Okhotsk, opposite the island of Saghalien.
Its main tributaries are the Sungari and the
Usuri, both from the south. Above the Usuri,
the Amur is the boundary between Siberia and
Manchuria; below it, the river runs through
Russian territory. It is very valuable for
navigation, and carries a considerable fleet of
steamers, but on account of the bar at its
mouth, goods are generally disembarked, and
carried overland to Alexandrovsk. The river
is frozen for six months of the year ; in summer
there are extensive inundations.

From 1636, Russian adventurers made excur-
sions into the Chinese territories of the Lower
Amur.; but it was not until 1854-56 that two
military expeditions established the stations of
Alexandrovsk and Nikolaevsk. In 1858 China
agreed to the treaty of Tientsin, by which the
left bank of the Amur, and all the territory
north of it, became Russian ; and below the
confluence of the Usuri, both banks. In 1860
Russia acquired the wide territory extending
from the Amur and the Usuri to the Pacific
coast, with harbours on the Pacific in a com-
paratively temperate latitude, where navigation
is impeded by ice for not more than three or
four months a year.

This vast territory falls into two Russian
provinces the Maritime Province between the
Usuri and the sea, and the government of
Amur, north of the river. The latter has an
area of 172,850 sq. in., and a pop. of 122,640,
mostly belonging to the Tungusic stock. The
capital is, since 1882, Khabarovka, and not, as
formerly, Blagovestschensk. Nikolaevsk, once
the only important place in these regions, is on
the Amur, 26 miles from its mouth, where the
river is \\ mile wide, and in places 15 feet deep.
Near the southern end of the Maritime Province
(area, 715,980 sq. m. ; pop. 221,750) is situated
the important harbour of Vladivostok (' Rule of
the East'), or Port May, which, in 1872, was
placed in telegraphic communication with Europe
by the China submarine cable. Vladivostok is
one terminus of the Trans-Siberian railway com-
menced in 1891. The island of Saghalien (q.v.) is
also a part of the Amur region in the wider sense.

Amurnath, a cave in Cashmere, amidst the
mountains on the north-east boundary. It is an
opening in a gypsum rock, 30 yards high, and 20
in depth. Believed to be the residence of the
god Siva, it is visited by multitudes of pilgrims.

Anadyr, a gulf of North-east Siberia, into
which flows the Anadyr River after a course of
500 miles from the Stanovoi Mountains.

Anagni, a town of Italy, on a hill, 40 miles
ESE. of Rome. The seat of a bishop since 487,
it was the birthplace of popes Innocent III.,
Gregory IX., Alexander IV., and Boniface VIII.
Pop. 6347.

Anahuac ('near the water '), the original name
of the ancient kingdom of Mexico.

Anam. See ANNAM.

Ananiev, a town of Southern Russia, 100 miles
N. of Odessa ; pop. 16,449.

Anapa, a Russian seaport on the east shore of
the Black Sea, 50 miles SE. of Yenikale ; pop. 7037.

Anatolia. See ASIA MINOR.

Anco'na, the capital of a province in Italy, on
a promontory of the Adriatic, 127 miles SE. of
Ravenna by rail. Its harbour had become much
silted up, but in 1887 was improved and deepened ;
and it is still the most important seaport be-
tween Venice and Brindisi. The manufactures
are silk, ships 1 rigging, leather, tobacco, and soft
soap ; the exports (declining) are cream-of-tartar,
lamb and goat skins, asphalt, bitumen, corn,
hemp, coral, and silk. Since 1815, the old citadel
was the only fortification until, recently, strong
forts were erected on the neighbouring heights.
A mole 2000 feet long, built by Trajan, and a
triumphal arch of the same emperor, are the
most notable antiquities ; the cathedral was built
in the llth c. Pop. (1901) 57,000. Founded
about 380 B.C. by Syracusans, Ancona was de-
stroyed by the Goths, rebuilt by Narses, and

ANCRUM MOOR

ANDES

again destroyed by the Saracens in the 10th
century. It afterwards became a republic, but
in 1532 was annexed to the States of the Church.
In 1797 it was taken by the French, but sur-
rendered to the Russians and Austrians. During
1832-38 a French force held it ; in 1849 a revolu-
tionary garrison capitulated to the Austrians ;
and in 1861 it was incorporated in the kingdom
of Italy. The March of Ancona was the name
applied to the territory lying between the Adriatic
and the Apennines, from Tronto NW. to San
Marino.

Ancrum Moor, Roxburghshire, 5J miles NW.
of Jedburgh, was in 1544 the scene of the defeat
of 5000 English.

Andalu'sia (Span. Andahtci'a), a large and
fertile region occupying the south of Spain, and
washed both by the Mediterranean and the
Atlantic. The name is a form of Vandalitia or
Vandalusia, from the Vandals, who overran it
in the 5th century. The biblical Tarshish prob-
ably, it was the seat of a splendid Moorish
monarchy from the 8th century A.D. to 1235-48.
Andalusia mainly consists of the great basin
of the Guadalquivir ; in the south, the Sierra
Nevada attains a height of 11,657 feet. It is
still one of the most fertile districts of Spain,
with celebrated breeds of horses and mules. It
is divided into the provinces of Almeria, Jae'n,
Malaga, Cadiz, Huelva, Seville, Cordova, and
Granada. The chief towns are Seville, Cordova,
Jae'n, and Cadiz. Area, 33,340 sq. m. Pop.
3,470,089.

An' damans, a group of thickly wooded islands
towards the east side of the Bay of Bengal, 680
miles S. of the Hooghly mouth of the Ganges.
They consist of the Great and Little Andaman
groups. The former group, more than 150 miles
long and 20 miles broad, comprises four islands,
the North, Middle, and South Andaman, and
Rutland Island. The Little Andaman, 30 miles
S. of the larger group, is '28 miles long by 17
miles broad. The total area is 2508 sq. m. The
dark, dwarfish natives, seldom five feet high,
stand also in the lowest stage of civilisation.
Their number in Great Andaman is about 2000 ;
in Little Andaman, from 1000 to 1500. A British
settlement was made on North Andaman in 1789,
but abandoned in 1796 for Penang. The present
capital is Port Blair, on South Andaman, the
largest island of the group. The harbour here is
one of the finest in the world. Since 1858, the
Andamans have been used by the Indian govern-
ment as a penal settlement for sepoy mutineers
and other life-convicts. In 1901 the population
of the convict colony was 18,670, of whom 2240
were women. In 1872 Lord Mayo, viceroy of
India, was 1 - assassinated at Hopetown on Viper
. Island by a Mussulman convict.

Andelys, LES, a town in the Norman dep.
of Eure, 20 miles NE. of Evreux. Chateau
Gaillard was built here by Richard Coeur de Lion
to command the Seine. Pop. 5509.

Andenne, a town of Belgium, 12 miles E. of
Namur by rc*il ; pop. 7903.

Anderab, a town in Afghan Turkestan, on the
northern slope of the Hindu Rush Mountains, 80
miles SSE. of Kunduz ; pop. 6500.

Andermatt, or URSERN, a Swiss village in the
canton of Uri, 18 miles S. of the Lake of Lucerne.
Pop. 750.

Andernach (Roman Avtunnacum), a town of
Rhenish Prussia, on the Rhine, 11 miles NW. of
Cpblenz by rail. It was a residence of th.e Mero-

vingian kings, and afterwards one of the most
flourishing places on the Rhine. A great tower,
a fine church, and the ruined castle of the arch-
bishops of Cologne, give it quite a mediaeval
aspect. Pop. 7781.

Anderson, capital of Madison county, Indiana,
on the west fork of White River, 36 miles by rail
NE. of Indianopolis. It manufactures engines,
carriages, furniture, &c. Pop. (1880) 4126 ; (1890)
10,741. ; (1900) 20,178.

Andersonville, a village in Georgia, U.S., 60
miles SW. of Macon by rail, noted as having been
the seat of a Confederate States military prison.'
Andes (said to be derived from the Peruvian
anti, copper, metal), a lofty mountain-system of
South America, extending north and south along
the whole Pacific coast, and really a continuation
of the vast and complicated mountain-system of
Western North America, though on the Isthmus
of Darien the height of the connecting ridges is
less than 130 feet. The mountains of the Fuegian
Archipelago, south of the mainland of South
America, including Cape Horn and Diego
Ramirez, must be held to belong to this system.
Without allowing for curves, the Andes extend
some 4500 miles. The Patagonian portion of the
system is much cut by steep ravines, some-
times partly filled with glaciers, and not seldom
occupied by deep arms of the sea. On both
east and west sides of the ranges vegetation is
luxuriant, due to the excessive abundance of the
rainfall. Between lat. 42 and 24 S. the main
chain of the Andes recedes from the sea-coast,
leaving in Chili a tract of country nowhere
exceeding 120 geographical miles in breadth.
The mountains here reach a mean elevation of
11,830 feet; one of the peaks, Aconcagua/is the
loftiest on the American continent, 22,867 feet.
Another, Cima del Mercedario, is 22,312 feet. In
this region, both to the north and to the south,
there is but one main line of peaks ; but between
these two parts two high parallel ranges occur,
having between them a relatively low plateau.
The Bolivian Andes occupy perhaps one-third of
the area of the republic, and form a vast arid
region of great elevation. Amongst them are
Gualtieri, 22,000 feet high, and Sorata and Illi-
mani, both above 21,000. The east and west
Cordilleras of Bolivia enclose the land-locked
plateau of the Desaguadero, 13,000 feet in height,
and having an area of 30,000 sq. m.

In Peru the maritime Cordillera overlooks the
sea in a close succession of volcanic cones. Near
lat. 10 S. the chain divides into the seaward
Cordillera Negra, and the more eastward Cordil-
lera Nevada, with a deep trough or ravine inter-
vening. The central Cordillera of Peru is the
chain which bounds the Titicaca basin on the
west. The eastern Andes of Peru form a magnifi-
cent succession of grand peaks, with only very
local evidences of recent volcanic action. Of the
Peruvian peaks the highest are Huascan (22,000
feet) and Huandoy (21,088 feet). The lofty wilder-
nesses of the high Peruvian Andes form a cold
and wind-swept region known as the Puna. In
the SW. of Ecuador the various ridges of the
Andes coalesce, immediately to divide again into
two main chains, both characterised by intense
volcanic activity. According to Whymper Chim-
borazo is 20,498 feet, Cotopaxi 19,613, and Anti-
sana 19,335. The Colombian Andes are disposed
in three main lines. Only a few of the peaks of
the Venezuelan Andes rise above the snow-line.
One of the plateaus, Assuay, is 14,500 feet high ; the
lowest notable pass, Planchon, is 11,455 feet high.

ANDIJAN

ANGOLA

The great bulk of the Andean masses is com-
posed of stratified rocks ; upheaval, denudation,
and direct volcanic action have been leading fac-
tors in building the mountains. Volcanic action
is still very great in Ecuador, but less so in the
other parts of the chain. Gold, silver, copper,
mercury, and other metals abound in nearly
every part of the Andes. There are three trans-
Andean railways two in Peru, and a more im-
portant one, unfinished in 1004, which connects
the Chilian and Argentine railways by a rack-
rail line with five tunnels, nearly continuous,
about 8 miles long and at a height of between
9000 and 10,000 feet. See Conway, The Bolivian
Andes(lWI); Fitzgerald, The Highest Andes(1899);
Whymper, Travels amongst the Great Andes of the
Equator (1892).

Andijan, capital of a district in Ferghana,
connected by rail with Bokhara ; it was destroyed
by earthquake in 1902. Pop. 50,000.

Andkhui, capital of a khanate in Afghan
Turkestan, between the northern spurs of the
Paropamisus and the Amu-Daria (Oxus).

Andorra, a valley republic of the Eastern
Pyrenees, between the French dep. of Ariege
and the Spanish province of Lerida, part of
Catalonia. It is enclosed by mountains, through
which its river, the Balira, breaks to join the
Segre at Urgel. Area, 171 sq. m. ; pop. 5831.
Said to have been declared a free state by Charle-
magne, Andorra now stands under the common
protectorate of France and the Catalonian Bishop
of Urgel. The republic is governed by a sovereign
council of twenty-four members, chosen by cer-
tain heads of houses, and the council elects a
president for four years. The Andorrans are
good-natured, hard-working mountaineers, hos-
pitable, moral, and devoted to liberty. They
speak a dialect of Catalonian. The capital is
Andorra la Vieja (pop. 600) ; San Julian (500) and
Canillo (500) are the other towns. See works by
Berthet (Paris, 1879) and Deverell (Loud. 1884).

An'dover (Andeafaran, 'passage of the river
Ande '), a municipal borough and market-town of
Hampshire, 66 miles SW. of London. Chartered
by Henry I., Richard I., and John, Andover till
1867 returned two members, till 1885, one. The
chief trade consists in corn and malt ; at Wey-
hill, 3 miles west, an October fair is held,
formerly very important. Pop. 6000.

Andover, a village of Essex county, Massa-
chusetts, 23 miles N. of Boston, with about 7000
inhabitants. Settled in 1643 from its English
namesake, it is famous, even in Massachusetts,
for its educational institutions, especially the
Phillips Academy and the Congregational Theo-
logical Seminary.

Andria, a city of South Italy, 30 miles W. of
Bari, with a fine cathedral (1046) ; pop. 46,795.

Andros, (1) an island of the Greek Archipelago,
the most northern of the Cyclades, separated
from Euboea by a channel 6 miles broad. It is
25 miles long, 10 miles broad, and 156 sq. m. in
area. Pop. 20,562, of whom 1800 are in the chief
town, Andros, on a bay of the east coast.
(2) One of the Bahamas (q.v.).

Andujar, a town of Spain, on the Guadal-
quivir, at the base of the Sierra Morena, 48 miles
ENE. of Cordova by rail ; pop. 15,116.

Anega'da, a British coral island, the most
northerly of the Virgin Islands, lying east of
Porto Rico, in the West Indies. Area, 13 sq. m. ;
pop. 200.

Angara, a tributary of the Yenisei (q.v.).

Angeln, a district of Sleswick, between the
Bay of Flensburg and the Schlei, supposed to be
the home from which came the Angles who
invaded England in the 5th century.

Angermanland, a former division of Sweden,
now chiefly comprised in the government of
Westernorrland, extends along the Gulf of
Bothnia, and is watered by the river Angerman,
200 miles long. The chief town is Hernb'sand,
with a pop. of 6000.

Angermiinde, a town of Prussia, on Lake
Miinde, 43 miles NE. of Berlin by rail; pop.
7833.

Angers (On g zhayr ; anc. Andegavurri), formerly
the capital of the duchy of Anjou, and now
of the French dep. of Maine-et-Loire, on the
navigable Maine, not far from its junction with
the Loire, 214 miles SW. of Paris by rail. Angers
was the seat of a university (1246-1685), and of a
military college, at which the Earl of Chatham
and the Duke of Wellington received part of their
education. David, the great sculptor, was a
native. The castle was built by St Louis about
1250 on a projecting rock above the river. The
fine cathedral is also a 13th-century building.
Sail-making, wool and cotton spinning, and weav-
ing are carried on. The neighbouring slate-
quarries employ 3000 men. Pop. (1872) 54.454;
(1891) 70,508 ; (1901) 82,400.

Anglesey, or ANGLESEA (A.S. Angles Eyi.e.
' the Englishmen's island '), an island and county
of Wales, separated from the north-west main-
land by the Menaj Strait (q.v.), which is spanned
by the suspension bridge (1826) and by the
tubular bridge (1850). The extreme length is 21
miles; the extreme breadth, 19; the coast-line
measures about 80 ; and its area is 302 sq. m., or
193,453 acres. The climate is mild but foggy,
especially in autumn ; the general aspect of the
island, flat and uninteresting, there being very
little wood. The island is rich in minerals ; the
Parys and Mona copper-mines, near Amlwch,
were opened in 1768. Lead ore, containing much
silver, has also been found. Anglesey, known to
the Romans as Mona, was one of the chief seats
of the Druidical power, which in 61 A.D. was all
but destroyed by the Roman general, Suetonius
Paulinus. The island was again subdued by
Agricola, 76 A.D. Egbert conquered it in the
9th century, and it was finally subdued by
Edward I. The market-towns are Amlwch,
Beamnaris, Holyhead, Llangefni, and Llanerch-
y-medd. The first four united in sending one
member till 1885, when they were merged in
the county, which returns one member. Pop.
(1841) 38,106 ; (1901) 50,606.

Anglia, EAST, a kingdom founded by the
Angles about the middle of the 6th century, in
the eastern part of central England, in what
forms the present counties of Norfolk and Suffolk.

Angola, a name formerly used loosely of the
whole West African coast from Cape Lopez to
Benguela, but restricted, since the establishment
of the Congo Free State in 1885, to the Portuguese
West African possessions, extending from the
Congo southward to Cape Frio ; or even more
narrowly, to the northern section between the
Congo and the Coanza. Area, 312,000 sq. m. ;
pop. 2,000,000. The coast strip is level, barren,
extremely hot, and very unhealthy. Beyond
is hill-country, reaching a height of 3000 feet.
The main rivers are the Kwango, running north
to the Congo, and the Coanza and Cunene,
running west to the Atlantic. Yams, tobacog,

ANGORA

ANNAM

indigo, rice, cotton, and sugar are freely pro-
duced ; but under Portuguese mismanagement
the wealth of the country is undeveloped or
decaying. There is abundance of iron in the moun-
tains ; also copper, lead, sulphur, and petroleum
are obtained. Angola was long notorious for its
great slave-trade. The natives are Congo negroes,
and belong to the great Bantu stock. In the
16th century they were mostly converted by the
Jesuits to a kind of Christianity, but soon fell
back into fetichism. Many of the 3000 white
men, mostly Portuguese, are transported con-
victs, and there are some 30,000 mulattos. The
Portuguese under Diego Cam discovered this
coast in 1486, but St Paul de Loanda was not
built till 1578.

Ango'ra, or ANQWIREH (anc. Ancyra), capital
of a Turkish province in the mountainous interior
of Asia Minor, 220 miles ESE. of Constantinople.
It was a flourishing city under the Persians, and
was made the capital of the Roman province of
Galatia Prima. The present city has 32,000 in-
habitants ; its trade is mainly in the hands of
the Armenians, who number 9000. It is famous
for its breed of goats, with beautiful silky hair,
eight inches long.

Angostura, capital of the province of Guayana,
in Venezuela, on the right bank of the navigable
Orinoco, about 240 miles from its mouth. It is
built at a pass (angostura), where the river is
narrowed by rocks. The town is now more
usually called Ciudad Bolivar. Pop. 12,000.

Angouleme, the capital of the French dep. of
Charente, and formerly of the province of
Angoumois, stands 220 feet above the winding
Charente, 83 miles NB. of Bordeaux by rail. It
has a fine Romanesque cathedral (1136), and a
striking hotel-de-ville, with which is incorporated
the remnant of the ancient castle of Angouleme,
where was born the celebrated Marguerite of
Navarre, author of the Heptameron. Ravaillac
was also a native. The old bastions have been
converted into fine terrace-walks. There are
manufactures of machinery, paper, and wire, and
a brisk trade in brandy. Pop. (1866) 24,961;
(1891) 34,188 ; (1901) 37,650.

Angra, the capital of the Azores, a seaport at
the head of a deep bay on the south coast of the
island of Terceira. Pop. 11,070.

Angra-Pequena, a bay on the south-west
coast of Africa, 150 miles N. of the Orange River
mouth, on the coast of Great Namaqualand (q.v.).
It is the only port of the German South-west
African territory ; the neighbourhood is a sandy,
waterless region, enjoying a healthy climate. In
1883 Angra-Pequena was ceded by a Namaqua
chieftain to Luderitz, a Bremen merchant ; and
next year it was taken under German protection.

Angri, a town of South Italy, 17 miles NW. of
Salerno. Pop. 9110.

Anguilla, or LITTLE SNAKE, an English West
India Island, one of the Lesser Antilles, 160 miles
E. of the eastern extremity of Porto Rico. Area,
35 sq. m. ; pop. 4500.

Angus. See FOBFARSHIRB.

Anhalt, a duchy of the German empire, almost
surrounded by the Prussian province of Saxony,
which breaks it up into two principal and five
smaller portions. Area, 869 sq. m. ; pop. (1875)
213,689 ; (1900) 316,085, nearly all Protestants.
Dessau, Zerbst, BenVburg, Kb'then, and Ballen-
stedt are the principal towns. The eastern part
is level and fertile ; the western part, approaching
the Harz Mountains, is hilly and largely covered

with wood, and possesses mineral wealth, especi-
ally in lead and silver. Anhalt began to be an
independent principality in the first half of the
13th century. It was divided into three duchies
in the beginning of the 17th century, but in 1863
the whole territory was reunited into one duchy.

Ani, a ruined city of Turkish Armenia. 25
miles SE. of Kars.

Anio, the ancient name of the Teverone, a
tributary of the Tiber, which rises in Monte
Cantaro, and joins the larger river 3 miles above
Rome. Its beautiful cascade at Tivoli (the
ancient Tibur) is celebrated by the classical
poets.

Anjou (OnOzhoo), a former province in the NW.
of France, of about 3500 sq. m. in extent, now
forming the dep. of Maine-et-Loire, and small
parts of the deps. of Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne,
and Sarthe. It lies on both sides of the lower
course of the Loire, where it receives the Maine.
Its capital was Angers.

Anklam, a town in the Prussian province of
Pomerania, on the navigable Peene, 4 miles from
its mouth in the Kleines Haff, and 41 SE. of
Stralsund by rail. Long a place of commercial
importance, a member of the Hanseatic League
from the 14th to the 16th century, it manufac-
tures iron, sugar, and soap. Pop. 14,784.

Anko'bar, the capital of the kingdom of
Shoa, in Abyssinia, is built 8200 feet above sea-
level. Pop. 600015,000.

Annaberg, a mining town of Saxony, on the
Erzgebirge range, 34 miles S. of Chemnitz by
rail. Pop. 16,822.

Annabon. See ANNOBON.

Annagh, an island of County Mayo, in Achill
Sound.

Annam, an ' empire ' on the east coast of the
Indo-Chinese peninsula, has since 1885 been a
French protectorate and part of French Indo-
China, which comprises, besides Annam, Tong-
king or Tonquin in the north (once a province of
Annam), French Cochin-China in the south, and
Cambodia on both sides of the lower Mekong.
Before the French controversy with Siam in
1893, the western boundary of Annam was gener-
ally understood to be the main mountain ranges
between the Mekong and the sea. But in 1893
France insisted that the Mekong should be
regarded as the frontier ; and this demand was,
under protest, conceded from Cambodia north
to the Laos country, or about 18 N. lat. The
area of Annam, as now extended (but without
Tonquin or other divisions of Indo-China), is some
50,000 sq. m. ; the population, Annamites on the
coast, and Mois and Laos in the hills and west of
them, is variously stated at from 5,000,000 to
10,000,000.

Annam lies wholly in the torrid zone, yet even
during the hot and rainy season, extending over
the six months from April to September, the
thermometer seldom mounts from a minimum
of 70 to beyond 100 F. On account of the
moisture, however, the heats in June and July
are sometimes almost intolerable. The country,
save on the coast and along the Mekong, is
mountainous ; minerals are believed to abound ;
coal is worked near Turane. The mountains are
covered with valuable timber, and the lower
lands are extremely fertile. The chief produc-
tions are, besides rice and other cereals, cotton,
cinnamon, sugar, tea, coffee, and tobacco. The
chief ports are Turane (wholly under French
control), Qui-Nhon, and Xuan-Day : Hue is the

ANNAMABOE

ANTARCTIC OCEAN

capital. The principal imports are rice, cotton
cloths and yarns, opium, and paper, for the most
part from China and Japan.

The Annamese are mainly of Mongoloid stock.
The inhabitants of the mountains are taller,
fairer, and stronger than the inhabitants of the
plain. The latter are small of stature but well
proportioned, indolent but expert. The speech
of the Annamese is monosyllabic, like Chinese,
from which they have borrowed many words.
The mass of the people worship tutelary spirits ;
Confucianism is in vogue with the more culti-
vated ; the remainder adhere to Buddhism. There
are besides about 420,000 Roman Catholics, de-
scendants of immigrants from Macao and Japan
(1624), and of Portuguese fugitives from Malacca.
The native prince is retained on the throne,
and the interior administration on the Chinese
pattern is in the hands of Annamite officials,
though the French, through the superior council
of Indo-China, have supreme authority, and
French troops occupy part of the citadel of Hue.
Annamaboe, a seaport on the Gold Coast of
Africa, 10 miles E. of Cape Coast Castle. Pop.
5000.

Annan, a seaport of Dumfriesshire, on the
river Annan, near its entrance into the Solway
Firth, 18 miles ESB. of Dumfries by rail. Edward
Irving was a native (marble statue, 1892) ; and
Carlyle, as a schoolboy, led ' a doleful and hate-
ful life ' at the academy. A royal burgh, Annan
unites with Dumfries, &c. to return one member.
Pop. 5805.

Annandale, a district of Dumfriesshire, tra-
versed by the river Annan, which, rising near
headstreams of the Tweed and Clyde, flows 49
miles southward to the Solway Firth, at a point
If mile below Annan town. Near its source is
a singular hollow called the Marquis of Annan-
dale's (or Devil's) Beef-tub.

Annap'olis, a seaport of Nova Scotia, on an
arm of the Bay of Fundy, 95 miles W. of Halifax
by rail. Established in 1604 by the French as
the capital of their province of Acadia, under
the name of Port Royal, it was ceded to Britain
in 1713, and changed its name in honour of Queen
Anne ; not till 1750 was it superseded by Halifax.
Pop. 1200.

Annapolis, the capital of Maryland, U.S., on
the south bank of the Severn, 2 miles from its
entrance into Chesapeake Bay, and 40 miles E.
by N. of Washington by rail. Among its edifices
are an imposing state-house, St John's College
(1784), a Roman Catholic seminary, a naval hos-
pital (1871), and a naval academy (1845). Founded
as Providence in 1649, Annapolis was renamed
after Queen Anne in 1708. Pop. (1870) 5744;
(1890) 7604 ; (1900) 8525.

Ann Arbor, a flourishing city of Michigan, on
the Huron River, 38 miles W. of Detroit by rail.
Settled in 1824, and incorporated as a city in
1851, it is the seat of the state university (1837),
and has manufactories of carriages, furniture,
paper, woollen goods, blinds, and ploughs, with
mineral springs and a hydropathic establishment.
Pop. (1870) 7363 ; (1890) 9431 ; (1900) 14,509.

An'necy, chief town of the French dep. of
Haute-Savoie, 22 miles S. of Geneva, and 25
miles NW. of Aix-les-Bains by rail. It stands
at the NW. extremity of the Lake of Annecy,
which, lying 1426 feet above the sea, is 9 miles
long, and flows by the Fier to the Rhone. It has
manufactures of linens, cotton-yarn, silks, straw
goods, and steel wares. The castle of the Counts

of Geneva is now a barrack ; and there are a
cathedral (1523) and hotel-de-ville, with a statue
near it of the chemist Berthollet. Here Eugene
Sue died in exile. Pop. 11,331.

Anniston, a town of Alabama, 63 miles by rail
E. of Birmingham, with flourishing iron mines
and works. Pop. 10,000.

Annobon, or ANNOBOM, the smallest of the
four islands in the Bay of Biafra, the eastern
part of the Gulf of Guinea, now belonging to
Spain. Area, 6 sq. m. ; pop. 1600 negroes, who
profess to be Catholics. The island was dis-
covered by the Portuguese on New- Year's Day
(Anno Bom), 1471.

Annonay (anc. Annoniacum), a town in the
French dep. of Arddche, 37 miles S. of Lyons.
The chief manufacture is paper, the first estab-
lished by the father of the aeronauts Montgolfier,
who were born here. Pop. 14,000.

Annsborough, a village of County Down, 3
miles W. of Dundrum. Pop. 430.

Ansbach (in England often ANSPACH), a town
of Bavaria, on the Rezat, 25 miles SW. of Nurem-
berg. It manufactures furniture, buttons, bricks,
&c. The last margrave of Ansbach, of the
Hohenzollern line, gave up his possessions in
1791 to Prussia ; and in 1807 Napoleon transferred
Ansbach to Bavaria. Pop. 18,057.

Ansonia, a borough within the town of Derby,
New Haven county, Connecticut, on the Nauga-
tuck River, 2 miles above its confluence with
the Housatonic, and 12 W. of New Haven by
rail. It has manufactures of iron, brass, and
copper goods, clocks, electrical goods, webbing
and knit goods, carriages, and hardware. Pop.
13,000.

Anspach. See ANSBACH.

Anstruther, EASTER and WESTER, two con-
tiguous royal burghs on the coast of Fife, 9 miles
S. of St Andrews. Fishing and fish-curing are
the staple industries, the harbour (1866-77) being
at Cellardyke. East Anstruther was the birth-
place of Dr Chalmers, Tennant the poet, and
Goodsir the anatomist. With the other St
Andrews burghs, they return one member to the
House of Commons. Joint pop. 1700 ; or, with
Kilrenny, 4500.

Antananarivo, or TANANAR^VO, the capital of
Madagascar, has a population estimated at 100,000.
It is situated on a hill, in an undulating district,
at an elevation of 5000 feet above the level of
the sea, from which it is distant 110 miles.

Antarctic Ocean, the ocean situated about, or
within, the Antarctic Circle. The Great Southern
Ocean is that part of the ocean which surrounds
the world between the latitude of 40 S. and the
Antarctic Circle. The northern portions of this
band are often called the South Atlantic, South
Indian, and South Pacific, while the southern
portions are usually called the Antarctic Ocean.
The average depth of the continuous ocean which
surrounds south polar land is about two miles ;
it gradually shoals towards Antarctic land, which
in some places is met with a short distance
within the Antarctic Circle. Only three navi-
gators, Cook, Weddell, and Ross, have crossed
the 70th parallel south. The last in 1841 sailed
along the coast as far as 70 S., within sight of
high mountain ranges, which here terminated in
an active volcano, Mount Erebus, 12,000 feet
high. His farther progress was stopped by an
icy barrier 150 to 200 feet in height, along which
he sailed to the east for 300 miles. The depth

off this ice-barrier was 260 fathoms, so that it

AtfTEQUERA

Was just in the condition to generate those
large, fiat-topped, tabular icebergs which are the
characteristic feature of the Antarctic regions.
Where the coast is steep and high, there is no
true 'ice-barrier,' the ice being only 6 or 10 feet
above the sea, extending many miles from the
shore. Ross and D'Urville alone have succeeded
in setting foot on land within the Antarctic
Circle. This land was of volcanic origin ; but
there is no doubt a large extent of continental
land around the South Pole, for the Challenger
in 1874 dredged up granitites, mica-schists, sand-
stones, and other continental rocks close to the
ice-barrier. Dr Murray estimates the extent of
the Antarctic continent at 3,000,000 sq. m. Vege-
tation and land animals have not been observed
on this land. Whales, grampuses, seals, pen-
guins, petrels, albatrosses, and other oceanic
birds abound. Diatoms are very abundant in
the surface-waters, and their dead frustules form
a pure white deposit called diatom ooze, about
the latitude of 60, outside the blue muds which
surround the continent. Life is abundant in the
surface-waters, and at the bottom of the ocean.
The mean temperature both of the air and sea,
south of 63 S., is even in summer below the
freezing-point of sea-water. The fall of rain and
snow is estimated as about equal to a rainfall of
30 inches annually. The ice on the Antarctic
continent is stated by some writers to have a
thickness of several miles, but there is no reliable
information on this point. In 1901-4 a series of
expeditions added much to our knowledge of
Antarctica. See works by Mackinder (1892),
Burn-Murdoch (1894), Cook (New York, 1900),
Bernacchi (1901), Borchgrevink (1901), Neumayer
(Berlin, 1901), Gerlache (Paris, 1902), and Balch
(Philadelphia, 1902).

Anteque'ra (the Antiquaria of the Romans),
a town in the Spanish province of Malaga, on
the Guadalhorce, 65 miles W. of Granada by rail.
Held by the Moors from 712 to 1410, it retains
some portions of a Moorish castle and of the
ancient walls. Pop. 31,600.

Antibes (OnPteeV; anc. Antipolis), a seaport in
the French dep. of Alpes Maritimes, 7 miles 8.
of Cannes. Founded by a colony of Greeks from
Massilia (Marseilles), Antibes in the Austrian
War of Succession was severely bombarded by
Browne during a three months' siege (1746).
Pop. 8050.

Anticosti, a Canadian island in the Gulf of St
Lawrence, which it divides into two channels,
is 140 miles long, and 30 broad in the centre.
The hills in the interior rise to about 600 feet.
Anticosti has two good havens, one at Ellice
Bay, near the western end, and the other at Fox
Bay, in the NW. The climate is severe; the
surface an alternation of rocks and swamps. It
is visited by fishermen in the summer, but there
are hardly any inhabitants save lighthouse-
keepers and a few officials.

Antietam (pron. Antee-tairi), a narrow but deep
river in Maryland, U.S., falling into the Potomac
7 miles above Harper's Ferry. On its banks,
near Sharpsburg, on 17th September 1862, the
Union troops under McClellan defeated the Con-
federates under Lee, though at a loss of nearly
13,000 men.

Antig'ua, a West India island, the most im-
portant of the Leeward Islands, is 28 miles long
and 14 wide ; in Boggies Hill attains a maximum
altitude of 1328 feet ; and has an area of 97 sq.
m. Antigua was discovered in 1493 by Colum-
bus, who named it after the church of Santa

39 ANTRIM

Maria La Antigua in Seville. It was first settled
by a few English in 1632, and was declared a
British possession by the Treaty of Breda (1667)
Antigua is the seat of an Anglican bishop. It
has suffered severely from earthquakes as in
1689, 1843, and 1874-and from hurricanes.
Numerous islets, rocks, and shoals border the
shore, so that, generally speaking, access is diffi-
cult and dangerous. Antigua produces lar^e
quantities of sugar, molasses, rum tamarinds
carrowroot, and cotton. Pop., including Bar-
buda, a little over 35,000 ; of St John, the capital,

Anti-Lebanon. See LEBANON.

Antilles, a term applied to the whole of the
West India Islands (q.v.) except the Bahamas.
The Greater Antilles are Cuba, Jamaica, Hayti,
and Porto Rico ; the others are known as the
Lesser Antilles.

An'tioch, the ancient capital of the Greek
kings of Syria, and long the chief city in Asia,
lies in a fertile and beautiful plain, on the left
bank of the river Orpntes, 14 miles from the sea.
In the time of Antiochus the Great, and under
the Roman emperors of the first three centuries,
it contained 500,000 inhabitants, and vied in
splendour with Rome itself. It was one of the
earliest strongholds of Christianity indeed, it
was here that the name Christians was first used.
Its downfall dates from the 5th century; and
the modern Antakieh, which forms a portion of
Syria, in the province of Aleppo, has a popula-
tion of only 17,500, mostly Turks employed in
silk-culture, eel-fishing, and in the production of
corn and oil. It exhibits almost no traces of its
former grandeur, except the ruins of the walls
built by Justinian, and of a fortress erected by
the Crusaders. ANTIOCH, in Pisidia, founded
also by Nicator, was declared a free city by the
Romans in the 2d century B.C. It was often
visited by St Paul.

Antip'aros (anc. Oliaros), one of the middle
Cyclades, in the ^gean Sea, close to Paros. It
is 13 sq. m. in area, and has about 700 inhabit-
ants. Rich lead mines were discovered in 1872.
Its wonderful stalactite grotto is not alluded to
by any classical writer, but has been well known
since 1673. At a depth of 918 feet under the
entrance, the chief chamber is reached 312 feet
long, 98 wide, and 82 high.

Antisana, a volcano of the Andes, in Ecuador,
35 miles SE. of Quito, 19,335 feet high.

Antiva'ri, a seaport on the coast-district
assigned to Montenegro by the Treaty of Berlin
in 1878. It was formerly Albanian, and is 18
miles NW. of Scutari. Pop. 1500.

Antofagasta, a port in the Chilian province of
the same name. Founded in 1870, it owes its
rapid rise to the neighbouring saltpetre deposits,
and to the rich mines of Caracoles, with which it
is connected by railway. It was taken from
Bolivia by Chili in the war of 1879. Pop. 20,100.

Antoninus, WALL OF, or GRAHAM'S DYKE, a
Roman rampart erected in 140 A.D., during the
reign of Antoninus Pius, from Carriden on the
Firth of Forth to near Old Kilpatrick on the
Firth of Clyde. It was 36 miles long, and
followed the earlier line of Agricola's forts (81
A.D.). See Waldie's Northern Roman Wall (1883).

Antrim, a maritime county of Ulster, stands
second among the Irish counties in population,
but in size only ninth. Its greatest length is 57
miles; its greatest breadth, 28; its extent of
sea-coast, 90 ; and its area, 1192 sq. m. Of this,

ANTWERP

APENNINES

rather more than three-fourths is in tillage and
pasture ; and one per cent, under wood. Off the
north coast lie Rathliii Isle and the Skerries ;
and off the east coast, the Maiden Rocks. The
east coast is hilly ; and from Lame to Fair Head,
parallel ranges stretch SW. into the interior,
forming valleys opening seaward, called the
Glens of Antrim. The interior slopes towards
Lough Neagh. The highest eminences are
Trostan, 1810 feet; and Slievemish, or Blemish,
1782. The principal streams are the Bann, from
Lough Neagh to the Atlantic ; the Main, running
parallel to the Bann, but in the reverse direc-
tion, into Lough Neagh ; and the Bush, flowing
north into the Atlantic. Many peat-bogs occur.
Between Ballycastle and the mouth of the Bann,
the basalt assumes very picturesque forms ; and
the Giants' Causeway (q.v.) is one of the most
perfect examples of columnar basalt in the world.
Fine salt-mines occur at Duncrue and Carrick-
fergus ; small coal-fields near Ballycastle and in
the interior ; and rich beds of iron ore in Glen-
ravel. The soil is mostly light, and the chief
crop is oats. There are some linen, cotton, and
coarse woollen manufactures. The towns are
Lisburn, Ballymena, Ballymoney, Carrickfergus,
Larne, and Antrim (pop. 1820). Belfast, most of
which was formerly reckoned as in Antrim, is
now wholly without the administrative comity.
County Antrim returns four members to parlia-
ment : Bel fast borough, four. Pop. (1841) 351,496 ;
(1891) 427,968; (1901, excluding Belfast) 190,090
over 99,000 Presbyterians, 41,000 Protestant
Episcopalians, 40,400 Roman Catholics.

Antwerp (Fr. Anvers; Flem. Antwerpen, 'on
the wharf), the chief commercial city of Bel-
gium, on the river Scheldt, 52 miles from the
sea, and 27 N. of Brussels. It is the Liverpool
of the Continent, and the tonnage of vessels
entering its port has increased tenfold within
thirty years, until it stands at over 6,000,000
tons annually. The trade and manufactures of
Antwerp have so extended, that the large dock
and quay accommodation having been found too
limited, a new quay, 2 miles in length, and
docks, constructed at a cost of nearly 4,000,000,
were opened in 1885. The chief exports are flax,
sugar, iron, woollen goods, metals, glass, and
tallow ; the chief imports are wheat, petroleum,
wool, cotton, coffee, tobacco. The manufactures
consist chiefly of sugar, white-lead, cotton goods,
lace, linen-thread, sewing-silk, black silk stuffs,
starch, and printers' ink. There are also to be
mentioned oil-refining, tobacco-manufacture, the
cutting of diamonds and other precious stones,
and shipbuilding. The chief public institutions
are the Academy of Sciences, Academy of Paint-
ing and Sculpture, a Medical and Surgical School,
Naval Arsenal, Museum (with specimens of the
pictures of Rubens, Vandyck, Titian, and Matsys),
Zoological Gardens, the Flemish Theatre, and the
Plantin Museum (1876). The six-aisled cathedral
(1352-1518), the noblest Gothic structure in Bel-
gium, is 500 feet in length by 250 in breadth,
with a roof supported by 125 pillars, and an
exquisite spire, 403 feet high, in which hangs a
splendid carillon of 99 bells. The interior is
enriched by the two greatest of all the pictures
of Rubens, the Elevation of, and the Descent
from, the Cross. The Church of St James con-
tains the monument of the Rubens family. The
Exchange (1531), a fine building, is said to have
been Gresham's model of the old London Ex-
change. It was burnt in 1858, but rebuilt in the
same style, and reopened in 1872. The hotel-de-
Ville (1565) is a fine building in the Renaissance

style. The old fortifications were demolished ifl.
1860, though Alva's famous citadel (1567) stood
till 1874 ; and since 1851 new fortifications have
been erected outside the city, with detached
forts to the south-east, rendering Antwerp one
of the most strongly fortified places in Europe.
Pop. (1846) 88,487 ; (1891) 232,723 ; (1904)291,950.

Antwerp in the beginning of the 16th century
was the commercial capital of the world. When
in 1576 it was seized by the Spanish soldiery,
8000 persons were murdered, and the city-hall
and nearly a thousand buildings burnt. This
and the assault of the Duke of Parma in 1585,
caused Antwerp to sink into decay. From 1794
till 1814, while it was held by the French,
Napoleon attempted to make it a great military
and commercial centre. The union of Belgium
with Holland in 1815 was very favourable to
Antwerp. When the revolutionary party gained
possession in 1830, the Dutch commandant,
General Chasse, retreated to the citadel, and
commenced a bombardment, which destroyed
the arsenal. In 1832, 50,000 French under Mar-
shal Gerard appeared before Antwerp, to demand
the surrender of the citadel ; and after its interior
had been reduced to ruins by the French artillery,
Chasse capitulated. The city was handed over
to the Belgians, and since the treaty of 1839,
Antwerp has had a singularly prosperous career.
French is the business language, but the majority
of the inhabitants speak Flemish.

Anupshalir, a town of India, in the United
Provinces of A<*ra and Oudh, on the Ganges, 73
miles SB. of Delhi ; pop. 15,000.

Aonlaganj', or AOUNLAH, a town of India, 21
miles SW. of Bareilly ; pop. 14,000.

Aosta (anc. Augusta Pretoria), a cathedral
city of Italy, on the Dora Baltea, 19 miles from
the opening of the great St Bernard Pass, and 80
miles NNW. of Turin by rail. St Bernard was
archdeacon of Aosta ; and here Anselm, arch-
bishop of Canterbury, was born. Near by are
the celebrated baths and mines of St Didier.
Pop. 7672.

Apatln', a town of Hungary, on the left bank
of the Danube, 49 miles SW. of Theresiopol ; pop.
13,9/3.

Ap'eldorn, a town of Holland, 17 miles N. of
Arnheim. The Loo, a royal hunting-lodge,
beloved of William of Orange, is near. Paper-
making is the staple industry. Pop. 26,283. .

Ap'ennines (Ital. Appennini, Lat. Mons Apen-
nimis), a mountain-chain extending 740 miles
uninterruptedly throughout the whole length of
the Italian peninsula. It belongs to the system
of the Alps. The average height of the entire
chain is about 4000 feet, which in the north sinks
to 3500 feet, and in the Abruzzi rises to 7000 feet.
Here, in Monte Corno, the highest peak of the
range known as Gran Sasso d'ltalia, they reach
an elevation of 9574 feet, and in Monte Velino, of
7916 feet. The Apennines are crossed by thirteen
principal passes ; and seven of these are traversed
by railways. The principal chain exhibits,
for the most part, a dreary and barren appear-
ance. It looks like a vast wall, with very few
projecting peaks to break its dull monotony.
Only in the Abruzzi, and above all, in the marble
mountains of Carrara and Seravezza, do the bold
and magnificent forms of the Alps appear. Where
water is plentiful there is no lack of rich pastures
and dense forests ; but usually only thin grass
and wild scrubby bushes cover the stony slopes.
The greater number of the forest brooks, with
deep rocky ravines, during summer are dry.

APEtfRADE

Where the mountains dip down to the sea, as at
the Riviera of Genoa and the Gulf of Naples, a
rich, peculiarly southern vegetation clothes the
declivities. There is no region of perpetual
snow ; but the summits of the Abruzzi and the
lofty peaks of Lunigiana are often covered with
snow from October far into May.

Apenrade (Ah-pen-rah'dd), a Sleswick-Holstein
seaport, 66 miles NNW. of Kiel. Pop. 7361.

Apia (Ah-pee'a). See SAMOA.

Apol'da, a town of Saxe- Weimar, 9 miles NE.
of Weimar by rail. It has manufactures of
hosiery, amongst the most important in Ger-
many, besides dye-works, machine-works, and
bell-foundries. Pop. 20,850.

Appalachians, a great mountain-system of
North America, nearly parallel with the Atlantic
coast, and extending from the Gulf of St Law-
rence SSW. to the west central portion of
Alabama. Geologically, it is much older than
the Western Cordillera, known as the Rocky
Mountain system, but it is in the main much
later in geologic date than the Laurentian
system, which represents it on the north of the
St Lawrence. It is the parent of many of the
rivers of the Atlantic States ; but several large
streams break its continuity ; and one, the river
Hudson, is a tidal channel which carries even
sea-going vessels through the range. The
Appalachians consist, in the main, of various
parallel ranges, separated by wide valleys. Even
the low hill-ranges between the mountains and
the sea have much of the same parallelism, and
the sea-coast has in a marked degree the same
general direction and curvature as the mountains
themselves ; while, far to the NE., the nearly
detached peninsula of Nova Scotia and the island
of Newfoundland are traversed by ranges exhibit-
ing the same parallelism and the same general
direction as are seen in the Appalachian ranges.

Locally, the Appalachians have various names
e.g. in the Gaspe Peninsula, the Shickshock
Mountains, the Franconia Mountains of New
Hampshire (where Mount Washington attains
6293 feet) ; the Green Mountains of Vermont are
the Hoosic Range in Massachusetts ; the Cat-
skills and Shawangunk Mountains ; in Penn-
sylvania and Maryland, the South Mountain or
Blue Ridge, which is regarded as identical with
the Unaka or Smoky Mountain Ridge of North
Carolina and Tennessee ; and west of the South
Mountain of Pennsylvania the great Alleghany
Ridge (q.v.), which often gives name to the whole
system.

Nowhere do the Appalachians reach the snow-
line. Their highest points occur in North Caro-
lina, where Mitchell's Peak reaches the height of
6688 feet. The principal coal-beds of this chain
occur in Pennsylvania to the NNE., and in the
other states southward along the mountains to
their termination in Alabama, the chief coal-
basins being either among the mountains, or to
the westward of them. There are beds of anthra-
cite coal on the eastern slopes of the Appa-
lachians, chiefly in Pennsylvania, west of which
the coal becomes bituminous, after we have
crossed basins of semi-anthracitic and moderately
bituminous coal. This coal region is one of the
most productive, extensive, and important any-
where known. Of the metals, by far the most
important is iron, of which various ores are
largely wrought. Gold occurs chiefly to the
eastward of the mountains, and is wrought at
various points from Virginia to Alabama. Zinc,
lead, and other metals are found in this range,

41 APURIMAC

which also affords marbles, slates, and a great
variety of building-stones.

Appalachico'la, a river of the United States,
rising in Georgia, and flowing through Florida
into Appalachicola Bay in the Gulf of Mexico.
Reckoning from its remotest sources, it is about
400 miles long, being navigable by steamboats
for 70 miles up to the junction of the Chatta-
hoochee with the Flint, where the name ot
Appalachicola is first given. APPALACHICOLA is
also a cotton-shipping seaport at the mouth of
this stream ; pop. 3500.

Appenzell' (from Ablatis Cello), a double
canton in the NE. of Switzerland. It is divided
into two divisions Innerroden and Ausserroden ;
the former of which is peopled by Roman
Catholics ; the latter by Protestants, and noted
for its dense population. The surface is moun-
tainous, especially in the south, where Mount
Sentis attains 8220 feet. The chief river is the
Sittern. The canton, once dependent on the
Abbey of St Gall, won its independence after
a struggle, and joined the seven old cantons in
1452. Area, 162 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 68,780, of
whom over 55,000 were in Ausserroden. Appenzell,
the capital, is situated on the Sittern ; pop. 4500.
The largest town is Herisau (pop. 14,100).

Appin (Apfhane, 'abbey lands'), a beautiful
coast district of Argyllshire, extending along the
east shore of Loch Linnhe, 15 miles NNE. of
Oban. It is the country of a branch of the
Stewarts.

Appleby, the county town of Westmorland,
on the Eden, 13 miles SE. of Penrith. There is
a castle, first mentioned in 1088, the keep of
which, called Caesar's Tower, is still in tolerable
condition. Appleby was disfranchised in 1832,
but received a new municipal charter in 1885.
Pop. 1776.

Appleton, a city of Wisconsin, U.S., 185 miles
N. of Chicago, and 120 miles from Milwaukee by
rail. It stands on the Grand Chute Rapids of
the Fox River, which, with a descent of 30 feet
in 1 mile, affords immense water-power for
flour, paper, and woollen mills. There are also
manufactures of machinery. Lawrence Univer-
sity (1847) is a Methodist institution. Pop.
(1880) 8005 ; (1890) 11,869 ; (1900) 15,085.

Appomattox Courthouse, a village of Vir-
ginia, 20 miles E. of Lynchburg. Here Lee, on
April 9, 1865, surrendered the army of Northern
Virginia, 27,805 men strong, to Grant. .

Apsheron, a peninsula on the west coast of
the Caspian Sea, belonging to the Russian govern-
ment of Baku. Its enormous petroleum industry
is noticed at Baku (q.v.).

Apt (Apta Julia), a cathedral town In the
French dep. of Vaucluse, 30 miles E. of Avig-
non ; pop. 4378.

Apulia (modern Puglia), the south-eastern
part of Italy as far as the promontory of Leuca,
comprising the three provinces of Bari, Foggia,
and Lecce, with an area of 8540 sq. m., and a
pop. of 2,054,000.

Apu're, a navigable river of Venezuela, which
rises near the western boundary among the
Eastern Cordillera, and flows nearly 1000 miles
eastward to the Orinoco,

Apu'rimac, a river of Peru, also called Tambo,
which, after a northward course of 500 miles,
helps to form the Ucayali, and finally joins the
Amazon. It gives name to a province with an
area of 8200 sq. m., and a pop. of 180,000.

AQtttLA

ARABIA

Aq'uila, the capital of an Italian province, on
the Alterno, near the loftiest of the Apennines,
64 miles SE. of Terni by rail. It was built by
the Emperor Frederick II. from the ruins of the
ancient Amiternum, a town of the Sabines, and
birthplace of Sallust the historian. In 1703 it
was almost destroyed by an earthquake, in which
2000 persons perished. It is a bishop's see,
and a busy place, with a large trade in saffron.
Pop. 24,720.

Aquilei'a (also Aglar), a decayed town of
Austria, at the head of the Adriatic, 22 miles
NW. of Trieste ; pop. 1000.

Aquita'nia, the Latin name of a part of Gaul,
originally including the country between the
Pyrenees and the Garonne, peopled by Iberian
tribes and by Celtic settlers.

Arabgir' (anc. Anabrace), a town of Asiatic
Turkey, in the province of Sivas, not far from
the Euphrates, and on the caravan road from
Aleppo to Trebizond. Pop. 30,000, one-fourth
Armenians, the rest Turks.

Arabia, the great south-western peninsula of
Asia. Its greatest length from NW. to SE. is
about 1800 miles ; its mean breadth, about 600 ;
its area, 1,230,000 sq. m. ; and its population
conjectured to be 5,000,000. It is bounded on
the N. by the highlands of Syria and the plains
of Mesopotamia ; on the E., by the Persian Gulf
and the Gulf of Oman ; on the S., by the Arabian
Sea; and on the W., by the Red Sea and the
Suez Canal. Midway between Mecca and Medina
runs the tropic of Cancer. Ptolemy is supposed
to be the author of the famous threefold division
into Arabia Petrcea, in the NW. ; Arabia Felix,
to the south of Mecca ; and Arabia Deserta, in
the interior. Modern divisions are : the Sinaitic
Peninsula (see SINAI), between the Gulfs of Suez
and Akaba ; the Hedjaz (' the Barrier '), the larger
and northern strip to the east of the Red Sea ;
Yemen, the southern and smaller strip to the east
of the Red Sea ; Hadramaut, the region along the
southern coast ; Oman, the extreme south-eastern
end of the peninsula ; El-Hasa, along the Persian
Gulf ; Nejd, the central highlands of Arabia.

In shape, Arabia is an irregular parallelogram,
broadest at the southern end ; in character, it is
mainly African. The vast central plateau rises
from a height of 2500 feet in the N. to 7000 feet
in the SW., and is bounded by western and
southern mountain chains, the former attaining,
to the south of Mecca, a height of 8500 feet.
Between the mountains and the sea is a low hot
strip of land, partially fertile, of varying width.
There is a desert in the north of the interior,
the mountainous country of Nejd near the very
centre, and to the south of Nejd another very
sterile sandy desert (Dahna). Hedjaz and Yemen
extend from the Red Sea indefinitely towards the
interior, and consist partly of the TeMma, or low
country, along the sea, and partly of the moun-
tain district beyond. Mecca and Medina, with
their seaports Jiddah and Yembo, are in Hedjaz.
Yemen is on the whole well watered, has rich
and fertile valleys, and contains one-fifth of the
whole population of Arabia. Yemen possesses
two very important commercial towns, Mocha
and Loheia, situated on the coast of the Red Sea.
Hadramaut resembles the Hedjaz in character.
Oman is mainly mountainous, is partly very
fertile, and possesses the good harbour of Mus-
cat. It has considerable trade, and some manu-
factures of cotton, silk, and arms. Hasa is com-
paratively level and fertile. Large portions of
Arabia are perfectly arid ; nowhere does a river

reach the sea all the year round ; but the more
fertile portions are so extensive as to constitute
two-thirds of the total area : one-third of the
whole may be accounted desert and uninhabit-
able.

Politically, Hedjaz, Yemen, and El-Hasa are
really three Turkish provinces ; the Sinaitic
Peninsula is in Egyptian hands ; England exer-
cises much influence in Hadramaut through her
possession of Aden ; the Sultan of Oman is inde-
pendent, and in alliance with England ; Nejd,
the seat of the once powerful Wahabi State, is
independent. The Emir of Shomer or Shammar
pays a small annual tribute to the Sherif of
Mecca, in recognition of Turkish supremacy.

The Arab is of medium stature, muscular make,
and brown complexion. Independence looks out
of his glowing eyes ; by nature he is quick, sharp-
witted, imaginative, and passionately fond of
poetry. Courage, temperance, hospitality, and
good faith are his leading virtues ; but these are
often marred by a spirit of rapacity and sanguin-
ary revenge. His wife or wives do the work,
keep the house, and educate the children.
Arabian life is either nomadic or settled. The
wandering tribes, or Bedouin, who have, how-
ever, their allotted winter and summer camping-
grounds, and a strong attachment to their own
mode of life, entertain notions of the rights of
property differing seriously from those regulat-
ing the West ; yet even their most marauding
tribes are not without a traditional code of law
and honour, the only law recognised among them ;
the enforcing of it is left to every tribesman.
The settled tribes, styled Hadesi and Fellahs,
are despised by the Bedouin, who scorn to inter-
marry even with the few artisans that accompany
every tribe. The Bedouin are several times out-
numbered by the settled population, and there-
fore must not be regarded as normal Arabs,
who are adventurous, commercial, and willing
to become sailors. Yet mountain and desert
barriers and patriarchal anarchy make Arabia
the 'anti-industrial centre of the world.' The
export of coffee, dates, figs, spices, and drugs,
though still considerable, is said to be only a
shadow of the old commerce which existed
before the circumnavigation of Africa. The
government is patriarchal, and the chief men
of the various tribes have the title of Emir,
Sheikh, or, in a religious sense, Imam.

Before the rise of Mohammed the history of
the peninsula is obscure and confused ; one
bond of union amongst the tribes, constantly at
war with each other, was the Kaaba, a small rude
temple of unknown antiquity, where the idols of
the tribes, over 350 in number, were kept. The
grand epoch in Arabian history, the Hegira
(Hedjra), is Mohammed's flight in 622 A.D. from
Mecca to Medina, where he gathered his first
body of adherents, and commenced actively the
establishment of his doctrines by the sword and
otherwise. Now for the first time the Arabian
tribes became united under one sceptre, and were
powerful enough to erect new empires in three
quarters of the world in Palestine, Mesopotamia,
and Persia ; in Egypt and the north of Africa ;
and in Spain. The dominion of the Arabs, from
the time of Mohammed till the fall of the califate
of Bagdad in 1258, or even to the expulsion of
the Moors from Spain, is an important period in
the history of civilisation. The Arabian literature
becaine the vehicle of a characteristic culture,
and Arabic scholars were the main cultivators of
philosophy and science including mathematics,
astronomy, medicine, &c. in the middle ages.

ARABIAN GULF

ARAVALLI

But the movements that had so much effect on the
destinies of other nations left Arabia itself in a
neglected and exhausted condition, and the pen-
insula was broken up into several distinct and
unimportant principalities. In the 16th and 17th
centuries the Turks, Persians, Dutch, and Portu-
guese took possession of parts of the country.
The native orthodox Moslem Wahabi empire was
founded in Central Arabia about 1760, shattered
in 1812 by Mehemet Ali of Egypt, and again
restored. And now the country is politically
distributed as above described.

See works by Pococke, Niebuhr, Burckhardt,
Burton, Palgrave, Welsted, and Doughty and
Lady Anne Blunt.
Arabian Gulf. See RED SEA.
Arabian Sea, that part of the Indian Ocean
which lies between India on the east and Arabia
on the west. Its two great arms are the Red
Sea proper and the Persian Gulf.
Aracan. See ARAKAN.

Arad, a town of Hungary, on the Maros, an
affluent of the Theiss, 95 miles SE. of Buda-
Pesth, and 74 E. of Szegedin by rail. It carries
on a large trade in corn, spirits, wine, and
tobacco, and is one of the greatest cattle-markets
in Hungary. Pop. 56,260. NEW ARAD, across
the river, has 5000 inhabitants.

Ar'afat, MOUNT, a granite hill (260 feet), 15
miles SE. of Mecca, visited by the faithful, and
believed to be the spot where Adam again met
Eve, after a punitive separation of 200 years.

Ar'agon, once a kingdom, now divided into
the three provinces of Saragossa, Huesca, and
Teruel, in the NE. of Spain. Area, 17,980 sq.. m. ;
population, 913,000. It is bounded on the north
by the Pyrenees, and watered by the Ebro.
Aragon was conquered by the Moors in the
beginning of the 8th century, recovered from
them and united with Catalonia (1137), and was
united with Castile through the marriage of
Ferdinand of Aragon with Isabella, heiress of
Castile (1469). The chief towns are Saragossa,
Calatayud, Huesca, and Teruel.

Arago'na, a town of Sicily, 6 miles NNE. of
Girgenti by rail. Pop. 12,000.

Araguay', a large river of Brazil, flowing 1000
miles northward, till, at San Joao, it joins the
Tocantins, which again, after a northerly course
of 300 miles more, mingles its estuary with that
of the Amazon.

Ar'akan, long the most northerly division of
British Burma, is a narrow strip of territory on
the Bay of Bengal. Its length is 400 miles, its
breadth varies from 90 miles in the north to
about 15 ; and the area is 14,526 sq. m. A range
of mountains, nearly parallel with the line of
coast, the highest point 7000 feet above sea-
level, separates Arakan from Pegu and Upper
Burma. Rice is the chief article of exportation ;
the others are cotton, tobacco, sugar, hemp,
indigo, betel-nuts, and timber, especially teak.
The imports consist mainly of British manu-
factures. Pop. 737,518.

Aral, LAKE, separated by the platsau of Ust-
Urt from the Caspian Sea, is the largest lake in
the steppes of Asia. It has an area of about
24,000 sq. m. ; is fed by the Jaxartes and Oxus
(the present Sir-Daria and Amu-Daria) ; has no
outlet ; and is generally shallow, its only deep
water (225 feet) being on the west coast. Its
level is 117 feet above that of the Caspian, which
is 84 feet below the surface of the Black Sea.
Like other lakes which are drained only by

evaporation, it is brackish. Fish, including
sturgeon, carp, and herring, are abundant. The
lake is dotted with multitudes of islands and
islets ; and navigation is difficult. The area now
occupied by the Sea of Aral has been dry land
twice within historical times the Jaxartes and
the Oxus then running south of the Sea of Aral
to the Caspian. This was the case during the
Greco-Roman period, and again during the 13th
and 14th centuries A.D.

Aran, SOUTH ISLES OF, Ireland, are three small
islands lying NE. and SW. across the entrance to
Gal way Bay. Total area, 11,287 acres. They
rise to a height of from 200 to 354 feet on the
west side, ending in cliffs facing the Atlantic.
Most of the land is rudely cultivated. Inish-
more, the chief island, is still known as Aran-na-
naomh, or 'Aran of the Saints.' Pop. 3100. See
Burke's South Isles of Aran (1887).

Aranjuez (A-rdn-hoo-ayth' ; Lat. Ara Jovis), a
town of Spain, on the Tagus, 30 miles SSE. of
Madrid by rail. Its palace was long a favourite
spring-resort of the royal family, from Charles V.
downwards. Pop. 12,700.

Ar'arat, a general old name for the district
through which the Aras flows, and never the
name by which the Mount of Ararat has been
known to the people around it. Associated,
however, as the mountains of this district are in
Genesis, viii. 4, with the landing-place of the
ark after the flood, the name has been, naturally
enough, appropriated to the highest peak, which
in Armenian is called Massis or Massis Ljarn ;
in Tartar and Turkish, Aghri-Dagh, or curved
mountain ; and in Persian, Koh-i-Nuh, or Noah's
mountain. The twin mountains of Ararat form
an elliptical mass, 25 miles long, by 13 broad,
and rising, Great Ararat to 16,969 feet, Little
Ararat to 12,840 feet above the sea-level ; the
two summits 7 miles apart. In 1828 the Czar
Nicholas annexed the territory around Erivan ;
and Little Ararat is now the meeting points of
the Russian, Turkish, and Persian empires. On
the 20th of June 1840, dreadful shocks of earth-
quake were felt, and great masses of the moun-
tain were thrown into the plain. Tournefort
made a partial ascent of the mountain in 1700 ;
and several ascents have been made since 1829.
See Bryce's Transcaucasia and Ararat (2d ed.
1878).

Aras (anc. Araxes), the chief river of Armenia,
formed by the junction of the Bingol-Su and the
Kaleh-Su, and itself, after a course of 500 miles,
joining the Kur (anc. Cyrvs), which descends
from the Caucasus through Georgia, about 75
miles from its mouth. Their united waters turn
suddenly to the south, and fall by three mouths
into the Caspian.

Araucania, the country of the Araucos or
Araucanian Indians, in the south of Chili. The
Chilian province of Arauco, lying between the
Andes and the Pacific Ocean, and bounded on the
north by Concepcion, on the south by Valdivia,
was formed in 1875, with an area of 8100 sq. m.,
and a pop. (1903) of 71,500. A large part of Arauco
and the more southerly province of Valdivia is
occupied by Indians, who have mostly submitted
to Chilian authority. The Araucanians are a
fierce and warlike people, now numbering more
than 50,000.

Arau're, a town of Venezuela, 60 miles ENE.
ofTruxillo. Pop. 5000.

Aravalli, a range of mountains in Western
India, extending 300 miles north-eastward through

ARBELA

ARCTIC OCEAN

Rajputana. The highest summit is Abu (q.v.),
5650 feet.

Arbe'la, now Brbil or Arbil, a small town of
Assyria, east from Mosul, gave name to Alex-
ander's final defeat of Darius, 331 B.C.

Arbigland, an estate, the birthplace of Paul
Jones, on the coast of Kirkcudbrightshire, 13
miles S. of Dumfries.

Arbirlot, a Forfarshire parish, 3 miles W. by
S. of Arbroath. Archbishop Gladstanes and Dr
Guthrie were ministers.

Arbo'ga, a town in Sweden, on the small river
Arboga, by which, with the aid of a canal, the
lakes Hielmar and Malar are united, 101 miles
WNW. of Stockholm by rail. Pop. 5823.

Arbois, a town in the French dep. of Jura, 7
miles NE. of Poligny by rail. Pop. 4040.

Arbroath', or ABERBROTH'OCK, a seaport of
Forfarshire, at the mouth of the Brothock Burn,
17 miles ENE. of Dundee. Here in 1178 William
the Lion founded a Tyronensian abbey in which
he was buried (1214), and which was destroyed
by the Reformers in 1560. The picturesque ruins
of its cruciform church, which measured 276 by
160 feet, present a noble west doorway and a
rose-window, 'the round O of Arbroath.' The
chief industries are flax-spinning, engineering,
and the manufacture of boots, sail-cloth, and
linen fabrics. The new harbour, begun in 1841,
admits vessels of 400 tons ; the old harbour was
converted into a wet-dock (1871-77). The chief
exports are grain, potatoes, fish, and paving-
flags; the chief imports are coal, flax, hemp,
jute, and hides. Arbroath is a royal burgh,
and with Montrose, &c., returns one member.
Arbroath is the 'Fairport' of Scott's Antiquary.
Pop. (1831) 13,795 ; (1901) 22,546. See works by
Miller (1860), Hay (1876), and J. Adam (1886). *

Arbuthnott, a Kincardineshire parish, 2 miles
WNW. of Bervie. Dr Arbuthnott was a native.

Arcachon (Ar'ca-shon"'), a bathing-place dating
from 1854, in the French dep. of Gironde, 34
miles SW. of Bordeaux by rail. The fine broad
sands are admirably adapted for bathing; and
the place is sheltered by sand-hills, covered with
extensive pine-woods. The climate is always
temperate, and the rainfall is but 32 inches.
Scientific oyster-culture is practised here on a
large scale. Pop. 10,300.

Arcadia, the central, mountainous part of the
Peloponnesus (or Morea) in Greece, treated in
poetry as the home of primitive simplicity, peace,
and innocence.

Archaig, a loch of Lochaber, Inverness-shire, 10
miles N. of Fort William. It is 12 miles long,
and sends off the Archaig River li mile to Loch
Lochy.

Archangel, the chief city of a Russian govern-
ment, 40 miles above the junction of the Dwina
with the White Sea. It is the seat of an arch-
bishop, and the chief commercial city for the
north of Russia and Siberia, and is frequented
by much shipping especially British from June
to October, the port being clear of ice only during
that period. The harbour is a mile below the
town, at the island of Solombaly ; and 12 miles
below are a government dockyard and mer-
chants' warehouses. The chief articles of traffic
are fish, flax, oats, linseed, tar, pitch, rosin,
train-oil, skins, furs, timber, wax, iron, tallow,
bristles, caviare. The manufactures include
cordage, canvas, linen, leather, beer, and sugar.
The town, which owes its name to a monastery
Of St Michael, and which is connected by river

and canal with a great part of European Russia,
is the oldest seaport in the empire, dating its
rise from a visit paid by the English seaman,
Chancellor, in 1553. Pop. 19,540. The govern-
ment has an area of 331,505 sq. m., and a pop. of
350,000.

Archipel'ago, an Italian coinage, first met
with in 1268, and signifying 'the chief sea, 1 was
applied originally to that part of the Mediter-
ranean which separates Greece from Asia (the
jEgean Sea of the ancients) ; but is now extended
to any sea, like it, thickly interspersed with
islands, or rather to the group of islands them-
selves. All archipelagoes fall naturally into
two groups, the oceanic and the continental.
The islands in the Greek Archipelago consist
principally of two groups, called Cyclades and
Sporades; the first from their encircling the
sacred island of Delos, the second from their
being scattered in a wavy line. The former lie to
the east of Southern Greece, while the latter skirt
the west of Asia Minor. The numerous islands
which stud this sea range in size from the merest
barren rocks to Crete, with an area of 3326 sq. in.
Most are of volcanic origin, with high bluffs
rising abruptly from the sea. Of the Cyclades,
all belonging to Greece, the principal are : Syra,
Delos, Tenos, Andros, Cythnos, Thera, Naxos,
Melos, and Paros. The chief islands of the
Sporades are : Carpathos, Rhodes, Cos, Patmos,
Icaria, Samos, Chios, Lesbos, Lemnos, Imbros,
Samothrace, and Psyra. These all belong to
Turkey, and constitute a separate vilayet of the
empire, except Samos, which is autonomous, and
tributary only ; but the following, off Euboea
(Negropont), and many smaller islands, belong to
Greece : Scyros, Icos, Scopelos, and Sciathos.

Arcis-sur-Aube (Ar'see-siir-Odb), a town of 2841
inhabitants, in the French dep. of Aube, on the
navigable Aube, 22 miles N. of Troyes by rail. It
was the birthplace of Dan ton, and near it the
allies defeated Napoleon, March 20-21, 1814.

Ar'cole, a village on the left bank of the Adige,
in Northern Italy, 15 miles ESE. of Verona.
Here Napoleon defeated the Austrians, 15-17th
November 1796.

Arcos de la Fronte'ra, a town on the Guada-
lete, in the Spanish province of Cadiz, 20 miles
ENE. of Xeres. It was so called from its stand-
ing on the frontiers of the old Moorish kingdom
of Granada. Pop. 16,910.

Arcot (Aru-Kadu, 'six deserts'), a city of
British India, in the presidency of Madras, on
the Palar, 5 miles from Arcot railway station,
and 65 WSW. of Madras. In 1751 Clive captured
Arcot ; and having taken it, was in turn besieged
for seven weeks. Pop. 12,000.

Arctic Ocean. The Arctic Ocean lies to the
north of Europe, Asia, and North America, and
surrounds the North Pole ; it is usually defined
as the water area within the Arctic Circle.
Physiographically, the Norwegian Sea and Green-
land Sea, situated between Norway and Green-
land, belong to the same basin as the Arctic
Ocean. If the Arctic Ocean be regarded as lying
wholly within the Arctic Circle, then it is almost
land-locked between that circle and the parallel
of 70 N. It communicates with the Pacific by
Behring Strait, and Avith the Atlantic through
Davis Strait and the wide sea between Norway
and Greenland. The area of the ocean is about
5,500,000 sq. m., and into it there drain about
8,600,000 sq. m. of land. The coasts of Europe
and Asia are low, and have several deep indent*-

ARDAHAN

tions, the principal being the White Sea and Gulf
of Obi. The shores of North America are skirted
by a most irregular assemblage of islands, forming
numerous gulfs, bays, and channels. The prin-
cipal rivers from Asia are the Lena, Yenesei, and
Obi; from Europe, the Onega, Dwina, and
Petchora ; from America, the Mackenzie. The
Arctic highlands are covered with an enormous
depth of snow and ice. In some places this
results in the formation of great glaciers, one of
the most remarkable of which is the Humboldt
Glacier, in 79 N. lat., on the west coast of Green-
land. There are, however, no large, flat-topped
tabular icebergs, like those of the southern hemi-
sphere, within the Arctic Ocean ; and this of
itself is good evidence that there is no expanse of
land towards the North Pole. The whole ocean
is covered by immense ice-fields from 5 to 50 feet
in thickness. During winter these are bound
together by the severe frost, but these continuous
masses break up during the summer months into
floes and floe-bergs. Sometimes vast spaces of
water and long lanes are formed between the floes
and ice-fields, and these have, doubtless, given
rise to the notions regarding an open Polar Sea
which at one time prevailed. When these great
floating ice-fields come together, the margins
where they collide are piled up on each other, and
thus is produced the well-known hummocky ice-
floes. When this hummocky ice is jammed against
a shallow shore, and becomes fixed for long periods
of time, the appearances are produced to which
Nares gave the name of ' Palseocrystic Sea.' In
the more open parts of the ocean the ice is, how-
ever, always in motion. Immense quantities of
field and hummocky ice pass down each year
between Spitzbergen and Greenland, and Green-
land and Iceland. Parry reached a latitude of 82
45', Markham reached 83 20', and Lockwood (of
Greely's expedition, 1882) 83 24', the most
northerly point yet attained. In 1850 M'Clure
entered Behring Strait, and brought his crew home
by Davis Strait, thus discovering the North-west
Passage. In 1878 and 1879 Nordenskiold sailed
from the Atlantic to the Pacific along the northern
shores of Europe and Asia, thus discovering the
North-east Passage. In 1893 Nansen set forth on
his novel and adventurous expedition; hoping
that his ship would be carried by the current,
after being frozen in the ice, from the shores of
Asia across or near the North Pole, and ultimately
out into the open sea again off the coasts of
Greenland. The ocean appears to be shallow
to the north of Europe and Asia, the depth
500 miles to the north of the Lena being only 38
fathoms ; but between Spitzbergen and the north
of Greenland there is a deep opening into the frozen
sea, where the depth is 2500 fathoms. Whales,
seals, and walruses are now a much less plentiful
source of wealth than they used to be. In winter
the temperature of the air is sometimes as low as
- 47 F., and in summer is usually a little above
the freezing-point.

See books on Arctic exploration or special
expeditions by K?ne (1853), M'Clintock (1859),
Blake (1874), Markham (1874, 1878, and 1881),
Payer (1876), Nares (1878), Nordenskiold (1881),
De Long (1882), Gilder (1883), Greely (1386),
Nansen (1897), Peary (1898), and Dittmar (1901).

Ardahan, a village of about 300 houses in the
portion of Turkish Armenia ceded in 1878 to
Russia, 35 miles NW. of Kars.

Ardalan, a province in the west of Persia, em-
bracing the basin of the Shirwan Rud. Area, 6000
sq. m. ; pop. 150,000. Capital, Kermanshah(q.v.).

45 AREQUIPA

Ardchattan, an Argyllshire parish on Loch
Etive, with a ruined priory (1231).

Ardebil, a town of Persia, 110 miles E. of
Tabriz ; pop. 16,000.

Ardeche, a mountainous dep. in the south of
France, takes its name from a tributary of the
Rhone, and includes part of ancient Languedoc.
In the NW. of the dep., the Cevennes culminate
in the volcanic Mont-Mezene (5752 feet). Iron,
coal, antimony, lead, marble, and gypsum are
wrought. Area, 2136 sq. in. ; pop. 350,000. The
capital is Privas.

Ardee', a town in the west of County Louth,
Ireland, on the river Dee, 12 miles inland. The
ancient castle, built about the year 1200, is used
as the town-house ; and there is a handsome
convent. Pop. 1880.

Ardennes, an extensive hill-country and forest,
occupying the SE. corner of Belgium, between the
Moselle and the Meuse, but extending also into
France and Rhenish Prussia. The average height
of the hills is less than 1600 feet ; but in the east
they attain 2100. The Arduenna Silva of the
Romans extended over a still wider area. See a
work by Lindley (1887). Shakespeare's Forest of
Arden is a district in Warwickshire, extending
from the Avon to near Birmingham.

Ardennes, a French dep. bordering on Belgium.
Mezieres is the capital, but Sedan is the chief
town. Area, 2020 sq. in. ; pop. 314,923.

Ardglass, a coast-town of County Down, 6
miles SSE. of Downpatrick. Pop. 504.

Ardlam'ont Point, Argyllshire, at the W. en-
trance to the Kyles of Bute. Ardlamont House,
the old seat of the Lamonts, became famous
through a ' not proven ' murder trial (1893).

Ardmore', a watering-place in County Water-
ford, 7 miles ENE. of Youghal.

Ardnamurchan Point, a rugged headland of
Argyllshire, the most westerly point of the main-
land, with a castle-like lighthouse (1849).

Ardoch, Perthshire, 12 miles NNE. of Stirling,
has a Roman camp, the most entire in Britain.

Ardoye, a town of Belgium, 17 miles S. of
Bruges ; pop. 6082.

Ardrisn'aig, a seaport of Argyllshire, at the
entrance of the Crinan Canal, 2 miles SSW. of
Lochgilphead. Pop. 1258.

Ardross'an, a seaport and watering-place in
Ayrshire, 1 mile WNW. of Saltcoats, and 32 miles
SW. of Glasgow by rail. It dates from 1806, and
the harbour is one of the safest and most acces-
sible on the west coast of Scotland. A new dock
was formed in 1887-92. The chief exports are
coal and pig-iron. On a hill above the town
stands a fragment of Ardrossan Castle, said to
have been surprised by Wallace. Pop. (1851)
2071 ; (1891) 5294 ; (1901) 5950.

Ardvreck Castle. See ASSYNT.

Areci'bo, a town on the north coast of the
Spanish West Indian island of Porto Rico, 45
miles W. of San Juan. Pop. 10,000.

Arenberg (Aremberg), from 1644 till 1820 a
small sovereign duchy of Germany, lying between
Jiilich and Cologne ; now part of the district of
Coblenz, Rhenish Prussia.

Ar'endal, a town of Norway, near the mouth of
the Nidelf in the bay of Christiania. It is built
partly on piles, partly on rock, and has been
called ' Little Venice.' Its bay forms an excellent
harbour. Pop. 11,150.

Arequipa (Ar-e-kee'pa), a name given to a moun-

AREZZO

ARGYLLSHIRE

tain in the west Cordillera of the Peruvian Andes,
and then to a city at its foot, and to the southern
dep. of Peru. The mountain, also called Mitsi, is
volcanic, and has a height of 18,500 feet. Its neigh-
bourhood is subject to earthquakes. The city,
in a rich valley, 7700 feet above the sea, is the
third largest in Peru, with 35,000 inhabitants.
The dep. has an area of 27,744 sq. in., and a pop.
of 260,282.

Arezzo (anc. Arretium), the chief city of an
Italian province, near the confluence of the Chiana
with the Arno, 38 miles ESE. of Florence. The
Piazza Grande, built by Vasari, is remarkable ;
and the Gothic cathedral (begun 1277) has a
splendid marble altar by Pisano. The city pro-
duces silk, and manufactures cloth, combs, and
pottery. Natives were Petrarch, the poet Aretino,
the painter Spinello Aretino ; Guido of Arezzo,
inventor of the musical scale ; the botanist
Cesalpino ; Pope Julius III. ; and Vasari. Pop.
15,816.

Argaum', a village in Berar, India, between
Ellichpur and Aurungabad. Near it, on 28th
November 1803, two months after Assaye, Wel-
lesley again defeated the Mahrattas.

Argenta (Ar-jen'ta), a town of Central Italy,
21 miles SB. of Ferrara by rail ; pop. 3000.

Argentan (Ar-zhon g tan a ), a Norman town in the
French dep. of Orne, on the river Orne, 42 miles
SSE. of Caen by rail ; pop. 5728.

Argenteuil (Ar-zJion g -tuh'yee^, a town in the
French dep. of Seine-et-Oise, on the Seine, 6 in.
NW. of Paris. Its ruined priory was founded in
656, and was by Charlemagne turned into a nun-
nery, of which Heloise became abbess. Pop. 15,799.

Argentine Republic, or ARGENTINA, a federal
republic of South America, taking its name from
the river La Plata (' River of Silver '). It has an
area of 1,125,086 sq. m., including the unsettled
territories on the north and the south, but the
organised and settled provinces occupy less than
one-half this area. The whole country is more than
ten times larger than Great Britain and Ireland
taken together. The republic is made up of four-
teen provinces and a number of territories. On the
west, the Andes divide this republic from Chili ;
Bolivia bounds the country on the north, while
Paraguay, Brazil, Uruguay, and the Atlantic
Ocean form the eastern limit. The great island-
group of Fuegia, on the south, belongs partly to
this republic and partly to Chili.

Except for the sub-Andean foot-hills, and a
few other local and unimportant hilly or moun-
tainous tracts, nearly all the country consists
of vast plains or pampas. The northern plain
region (the Chaco) is in part densely wooded ; but
most of the Pampas country is open, presenting
wide ranges of treeless pasture, varied by patches
of huge thistles and other coarse plants. In the
Patagonian region there are extensive districts
completely covered with stones and shingle,
interspersed with clumps of thorny brushwood,
and having in the hollows many strongly saline
ponds or lakes.

The climate in the extreme north is very hot, for
it lies north of the tropic of Capricorn. The more
remote southern territories have an extremely
bleak, windy, and disagreeable climate, but are
not really so cold as might be expected from their
relatively high latitude. But the country in
general enjoys an equable, temperate, and health-
ful climate. The people of the country are mostly
Spanish in their language and descent, although
there are many Italians, French, and other Euro-
pean immigrants. The Gauchos, or herdsmen of

the plains, are a hardy and spirited, but ignorant
race, often of partial Indian descent. Some of
the Indians of the remote districts have become
skilled in the rearing of flocks and herds. Agri-
culture has of late been rapidly extended. Wheat,
maize, flax, and linseed are exported ; but the
chief staples of export are skins, hides, hair,
bones, bone-ashes, horns, phosphorus, ostrich-
feathers, wool, tallow, dried and salt beef, beef-
extract, fresh meat (frozen), and live animals.
The greater part of the republic is well watered
and highly fertile, but there are extensive regions
of waste land. Sugar-culture thrives in the NW.
and north. Wines, spirits, and dried fruits are
extensively produced ; a valuable product of the
north is mate, or Paraguay tea. The rivers Parana
and Uruguay, with their large tributaries, are
important channels of trade. The mineral re-
sources of the country are comparatively unde-
veloped. The principal seaport is Buenos Ayres,
the capital and largest city. Among the other
large towns are Cordoba, Rosario, La Plata, Men-
doza, Tucuman, Corrientes, Salta, and Santa Fe.
The commerce of the country (imports25,000,000;
exports 36,000,000) is mainly with Great Britain,
Germany, the United States, and France.

The population of the country in 1869 was
1,736,922 ; in 1902 it was officially estimated at
5,025,000 (4-5 to the sq. m.), of whom 500,000
were of Italian birth, 200,000 Spanish (very many
of them Basques), 95,000 French, 22,000 English,
18,000 German, and 15,000 Swiss. Much of the in-

crease is due to immigration (from 60,000 to 90,000

annually). The religion

The government is closely modelled upon that

,
ion is Roman Catholic.

of the United States. In 1892 the length of
railway lines open for traffic was 7140 miles, with
a projected extension across the Andes to meet
the Chilian railways. The river La Plata was
visited by the Spaniards in 1516, and the country
was colonised in 1535. In 1810 the colonists
founded a local provisional government. A san-
guinary war for independence followed, which
did not cease till 1824. Spain acknowledged the
independence of the country in 1842. Since
1890 financial troubles and political turmoil have
seriously injured the well-being of what was
long the best governed and most prosperous of
South American states.

See Mulhall, Handbook of the River Plate (1884) ;
M. F. Paz Soldan, Geografia Argentina (1885);
Lady F. Dixie, Across Patagonia (1880); Rum-
bold, The Great Silver River (2d ed. 1890); Turner,
Argentina and the Argentines (1892) ; Hudson,
The Naturalist in La Plata; and the recent
British and American Consular Reports.

Ar/golis, the north-eastern peninsula of the
Morea of Greece, lying between the Bays of
Nauplia and ^Egina. Together with Corinth, it
forms one of the thirteen provinces of the king-
dom of Greece, with an area of 1442 sq. m., and
a pop. of 160,000. Its capital is Nauplia.

Argos'toli, a seaport of the Ionian Islands, the
capital of Cephalonia, is the seat of a Greek
bishop, and has a good harbour. It was almost
destroyed by earthquake in 1867. Near it are
the 'sea-mills of Argostoli,' two holes in the
rocky coast, into which the sea pours with a
force sufficient to drive two mills. Pop. 9871.

Argyll' shire, a county in the west of Scotland.
Its greatest length is 115 miles ; its greatest
breadth, 55 ; and its extent of coast-line as much
as 2289 miles, owing to the numerous sea-lochs.
Next to Inverness, it is the largest county in
Scotland, its area being 3213 sq. m., of which

ARGYROKASTRON

ARKANSAS

023 belong to the islands. The chief islands are
Mull, Islay, Jura, Tyree, Coll, Lismore, and
Colonsay, with lona and Staft'a. The chief peaks
are Bidean nam Bian (3766 feet) and Ben Cruachan
(3689) ; the sea-lochs, Lochs Moidart, Sunart,
Linnhe (branching off into Lochs Leven and
Eil), Fyne, and Long ; the streams are the Orchy
and Awe ; the fresh-water lakes are Lochs Awe
and Lydoch. Lead occurs at Strontian (where
the mineral Strontianite was discovered), at Tyn-
drum, and in Islay and Coll; roofing-slates in
Easdale and Ballachulish ; coal near Campbel-
town ; fine marble in Tyree, &c. ; and excellent
granite near Inveraray. The total percentage of
cultivated area is only 5 -7. Sheep and cattle
rearing is the chief occupation. Whisky is manu-
factured in Campbeltown and Islay. Towns
and villages are Inverasay, Campbeltown, Oban,
Dunoon, Lochgilphead, Tarbert, and Tobermory.
The county returns one member. to parliament.
Pop. (1831) 100,973 ; (1901) 65,84934,428 Gaelic-
speaking.

Argyrokastron (the Turkish Ergeri), a town
of Albania, in the province of Janina, near the
Dryno, an affluent of the Viosa. Pop. 9000.

Aria'no (Arianum), a cathedral city of Italy,
2800 feet above the sea, and 84 miles NE. of
Naples by rail. Pop. 17,522.

Ari'ca, a seaport of Tacna, the most southerly
department of Peru. It was stormed and taken
by the Chilians in 1880, was retained (with Tacna)
by treaty for ten years, and was still in Chilian
hands in 1905. Pop. (once 30,000) 4000.

Arichat (A-ree-shatf), a seaport on the south
side of Isle Madame, Nova Scotia, with a harbour
for the largest vessels. It is the see of a Roman
Catholic bishop. Pop. 2000.

Ariege, a dep. in the south of France, lying
along the northern slopes of the Pyrenees. Area,
1890 sq. in. ; pop. (decreasing) 200,000. The river
Ariege rises in the Pyrenees, and flows 93 miles
to the Garonne near Toulouse.

Arin'os, a river in the south-west of Brazil,
which, after a north-west course of 700 miles,
joins the Tapajos, itself an affluent of the Amazon.

Arizona, till 1906 a territory of the United
States, bounded N. by Utah, E. by New
Mexico, S. by the republic of Mexico (Sonora),
and W. by California and Nevada. Its western
boundary is mostly formed by the Colorado of
the West. This river traverses the NW. part
of Arizona in a deep and narrow water-worn
channel (the Grand Canon), more than 300 miles
long, and nowhere less than a mile below the
surface of the surrounding country. Arizona had
an area of 112,920 sq. in. ; it was thus nearly as
large as Italy. It is in general a region of high
plateaus, traversed by various mountain-ranges,
presenting abundant evidence of not remote vol-
canic action. In the SW. the country has a
desert character, and in all parts the rainfall is
decidedly limited 14 '21 inches annually at Fort
Defiance. In various parts there are extensive
lava-beds. The whole region lies in the drainage
basin of the Colorado, the chief affluents being
the Gila, the Bill Williams, and the Colorado
Chiquito. The water-supply over large areas of
Arizona is mainly derived from deep natural
wells and ' water-holes.' It is believed that fully
10,000,000 acres of ground might be profitably
irrigated. The country is in general extremely
healthful ; but in the SW. the summer heat is
excessive, and malarial fevers are not unknown
upon the bottom-lands of the Lower Colorado.

Maize, barley, and wheat are the leading pro-
ducts. Arizona is an important seat of gold and
silver mining. Copper is also mined and smelted
very largely. Coal has been obtained. Rock-
salt, lead, and other valuable mineral deposits
are found in almost every part of the country.
The principal towns are Phoenix, the capital, and
Tucson. Some interesting old Indian towns, or
pueblos (Moquis), still remain, with their remark-
able native semi-civilisation. This region was
first visited by Spaniards in 1570. After 1821 the
country was a part of Mexico until 1848, when
most of it passed to the United States, the trans-
ference being completed in 1853 by the ' Gadsden
Purchase.' The territory was organised in 1863.
In 1870 the population was 9658 ; in 1900, 122,900.
In 1906, including the adjoining territory of New
Mexico, it was made a state of the Union. Total
area, 235,380 sq. m. ; pop. (1900) 318,210. See
NEW MEXICO.
Arkaig. See ARCHAIG.

Arkan'sas (formerly pron. Ar'kansaw), a state
of the American Union, is bounded on the N. by
Missouri, on the E. by Missouri, Tennessee, and
Mississippi, on the S. by Louisiana, and on the
W. by Texas and the Indian Territory. Area,
53,850 sq. m. about that of England without
Wales, of which some 800 sq. in. is water-surface.
The southern limit is the parallel of 30 N. lat.,
and the northern boundary for the most part is
on the parallel of 36 30'. The Mississippi River
washes nearly all the eastern border of the state.
The extreme east and west limits are respectively
89 40' and 94 42f W. long. Nearly all the
country is well timbered. Along the eastern
border of the state lies a strip of rich alluvial
and swampy land, limited westward by Crowley's
Ridge. A similar low and wet tract is traversed
by the lower Arkansas River. The southern half
of the state contains great areas of yellow and
loamy land of Tertiary age, interspersed thinly
with tracts of red clays and hills of iron-ore.
West of the Crowley's Ridge region is a con-
siderable breadth of gray silty prairies. In the
west of the yellow Tertiary loams are large
patches of 'black prairie' of Cretaceous age.
The west and central portions of the state form
a broken hill-region of Tertiary origin. Great
prairies of red loam and clay soil prevail in the
W. and NW. Towards the north is the Ozark
mountain-region, a broken country of high hills
and ridges. The soils, though of extremely vari-
ous character, are mostly good throughout the
state. The coal-measures very extensively under-
lie the surface, and coal crops out at many
points ; but thus far it has not been much
wrought. Silver-bearing galena and zinc appear
to be abundant, and iron-ores exist in vast
amounts. The villages of Hot Springs in Gar-
land county, and Eureka Springs in the NW., are
celebrated health-resorts. The novaculite, or
hone-stone, of this state is extensively wrought
and exported. The Mississippi, Arkansas, Red,
White, St Francis, Ouachita, and other navigable
rivers afford cheap transport. Agriculture is the
leading pursuit in Arkansas, and cotton is the
great staple of production. Maize is also very
largely produced, and considerable quantities of
oats and wheat are harvested. Live-stock, wool,
tobacco, pork, fruit, and dairy products are
marketed. Although malarial fevers and severe
heat are to be encountered in the marshy and
flat alluvial districts, the larger portion of the
country has an agreeable and healthful climate.
In quality, variety, and accessibility, the

ARKANSAS CITY

of this state is hardly surpassed. The mineral
resources of the state have been but little util-
ised. Lying outside the great currents of immi-
gration, Arkansas has, until very recent years,
preserved to a remarkable degree the character
of a frontier country. Even the large extent of
river navigation for a long time served to hinder
the development of the country, since it dis-
couraged the construction of railways ; and the
old system of slave labour and of large holdings
of land was not favourable to rapid material
development. This region formed a part of the
French colony of Louisiana, and was purchased,
together with the rest of that colony, by the
United States in 1803. The earliest French settle-
ment was made at Arkansas Post in 1685. Ar-
kansas was organised as a territory in 1819, and
became a state in 1836, and seceded in 1861.

The principal towns are Little Rock, the state
capital (pop. 40,000), Pine Bluflf (12,000), and
Fort Smith (11,000); Hot Springs (9500) is a
health-resort. Pop. of Arkansas (1820) 14,255 ;
(1860) 435,450 ; (1880) 802,525 ; (1890) 1,128,179 ;
(1900) 1,311,564, of whom upwards of 366,000 were
of African or mixed descent.

Arkansas City, a manufacturing town in the
state of Kansas, on the Arkansas River, 51 miles
by rail S. by E. of Wichita. Pop. (1880) 1012 ;
(1890) 8547 ; (1900) 6140.

Arkansas River, next to the Missouri the
Mississippi's chief affluent, is 1514 miles long
(800 navigable for steamers) ; rises in the Rocky
Mountains, at an altitude of 10,000 feet, on the
borders of Utah, and joins the ' Father of Waters '
at Napoleon, 275 miles above New Orleans. Its
chief tributary is the Canadian River.

Arkinholm. See LANGHOLM.

Arklow, a seaport of Wicklow, 49 miles S. of
Dublin, at the mouth of the lovely Avoca. There
are ruins of the castle of the Ormonds, destroyed
by Cromwell in 1649, and traces of an ancient
monastery. Pop. 4000.

Arko'na, the NE. promontory of the island of
Riigen, in the Baltic. Its chalk cliffs, rising 177
feet, are topped with a lighthouse (1827), itself
78 feet high. Here stood a famous fortification
long impregnable, and the temple of the Wend
deity Swantewit, destroyed by Waldemar I. of
Denmark in 1168.

Arlberg, a crystalline mountain mass of Aus-
tria amongst the Alps, which forms the boundary
between the Tyrol and Vorarlberg ('the land
before or beyond the Arlberg'). The difficult
pass over this ridge, from Bludenz to Landeck
and Innsbruck, is 5300 feet high ; but a railway,
with a main tunnel 6720 yards long, through the
Arlberg Alp was opened in 1884.

Aries (Roman Arelate), a town in the French
dep. of Bouches du Rhone, on the principal
branch of the Rhone, 15 miles from the sea, and
63 miles NW. of Marseilles. Its Roman remains
include baths, a palace of Constantino, an aque-
duct, and an amphitheatre for 25,000 spectators.
The cathedral (7th century) has a splendid door-
way. Aries manufactures silk, hats, tobacco,
brandy, soap, glass bottles, and railway wagons.
Pop. 13,87d.

Arlon (Arlon 3 '), a town of Belgium, 27 miles
WNW. of Luxemburg by rail. Pop. 7684.

Armadale, a police-burgh of Linlithgowshire,
with chemical works, 2 miles W. by S. of Bath-
gate. Pop. 3990.

Armagh', the capital of County Armagh, 33
miles SW. of Belfast, is situated on a gentle

48 ARMENIA

eminence, whence its Ard-Magha, 'high field.'
The cruciform 12th-century cathedral occupies
the site of one founded by St Patrick in the 5th
century. A new Roman Catholic cathedral (1904)
occupies the principal height to the north, and
the primate's palace that to the south. There
are a college, a celebrated observatory, public
library (1771), and barracks for 200 men. The
chief manufacture is linen-weaving. Armagh,
from 495 to the 9th century, was the metropolis
of Ireland, renowned as a school of theology and
literature. Till 1885 it returned one member.
Pop. 7500.

Armagh, a small inland county in Ulster,
Ireland. Its greatest length is 32 miles, and
breadth 20. Area, 512J sq. in., about one-half
under tillage. Slieve Gullion, in the SW., attains
1893 feet. The country bordering upon Lough
Neagh is low and boggy, and the Louth plain
extends into the south end of Armagh. The
principal rivers are the Callan, Tynan, Upper
Bann, and Blackwater. The soil is fertile, with
a good deal of bog. Besides agriculture, linen
and cotton weaving are the chief industries. The
county returns three members of parliament.
The chief towns are Armagh, Lurgan, Porta-
down, and part of Newry. Pop. (1841) 233,024 ;
(1891) 143,056 ; (1901) 125,392, of whom 45 per
cent, were Catholics, and 32 Episcopalians.

Armagnac (Ar-nidn-yac), a district in the
south of France, a part of Gascony now mostly
included in the dep. of Gers. The soil is fer-
tile, and its wine and brandy (Eau d' Armagnac)
are well known.

Armenia, a high tableland in the upper valleys
of the Euphrates, Tigris, Aras, and Kur, some
500 miles long, by nearly the same breadth. In
ancient times an independent country, it re-
peatedly recovered its independence down to the
middle ages, although with varying boundary.
It is now, however, distributed between Russia,
Turkey, and Persia, and stretches, in its utmost
extent, from Asia Minor on the W. to the Caspian
Sea on the E., and from the Caucasus on the N.
to the Murad Su on the S. The interior consists
mostly of pastoral plateaus, 2700 to 7000 feet
above sea-level, crowned by conical heights or
traversed by mountain-chains, and culminating
in Mount Ararat, 16,969 feet high. A chain of
mountains, stretching from Ararat to the con-
fluence of the two head-waters of the Euphrates,
divides Armenia into a northern half and a
southern half. The mountain-system of Armenia
is mostly volcanic, a fact still evidenced by the
hot mineral springs, such as the sulphur springs
of Tiflis, and by earthquakes. The Murad Su
and the Kara Su form the head-waters of the
Euphrates ; whilst the Shett, rising to the south
of Lake Van, and an arm of the Diarbekr,
rising in the Alinjik Dagh, constitute the head-
waters of the Tigris. Other rivers are the Aras,
the Kur, and the Tchorak. Of lakes, there is
Van in Turkish, Goktcha or Sevan in Russian,
and Urmia in Persian Armenia. Armenia is rich
in metals, possessing mines of silver, lead, iron,
arsenic, alum, rock-salt, and especially copper.
The climate is distinguished into a region of rains,
with subtropical climate, embracing parts of the
valley of the Kur and the Upper Tigris ; a region
of perpetual snow, and an intermediate region
of very various grades. The plateaus volcanic,
dry, and singularly bare of wood have a very
severe climate ; the winters long and inclement,
and the summers short.

The ancients distinguished Armenia Major, the

ARMENTIERES

larger and eastern half, bordering on Media and
the Caspian Sea, on Mesopotamia and Assyria,
from Armenia Minor to the west of the Euphrates.
Turkish Armenia comprises, besides the old Ar-
menia Minor, the vilayets of Van, Bitlis, Darsim,
Erzerum, with parts of Diarbekr and Charput.
The Sasun (q.v.) district was the scene of
great atrocities by Kurds and Turks in 1893-94.
Russian Armenia, formerly Persian, forms the
NE. part of old Armenia Major, and includes
the governments of Erivan, Elizabetpol, and
Kars, with parts of Tiflis. In this Russian
division of Armenia are situated the three old
monasteries Etchmiadzin (q.v.), Haghpad, and
Sanahine. Persia holds the SE. corner of Ar-
menia Major in the province of Azerbijan.

The Armenians, whose national character is
almost as strong as is that of the Jews, belong
to the Iranian group of the Indo-Germaiiic family.
The Armenians, at the present day, are to be
found in almost all Turkish provinces ; in Russia,
Persia, and India ; in the great commercial cities
of the Mediterranean ; in the Austrian empire ;
at London, Manchester, and other capitals of
Western Europe, occupying posts as money-
changers, bankers, and merchants, though also
as artisans and porters. Their number in Armenia
itself is estimated at 1,000,000 at the most ; in
Persia and adjacent territories, 100,000 ; in Euro-
pean Turkey, 400,000; in Russia, 500,000; in
India, 5000; in Africa, 5000; in Transylvania,
Hungary, and Galicia, 16,000. Their total number
is calculated at not more than 2,500,000. Among
the foreign invaders domesticated in Armenia are
the Turks, mostly engaged in agriculture ; the
nomadic Kurds; in the SE., the Tartars; Nes-
torians occupying the mountains of the Persian
frontier, and speaking a Syriac dialect ; Georgians,
in the north. Greeks, Jews, and Gypsies are also
scattered throughout Armenia. The Armenians
themselves are at home mostly shepherds and
tillers of the soil. The Armenian church differs
from the Greek church in being monophysite
(attributing one nature only to Christ). Some
Armenians are 'united' (i.e. to- the Roman
Catholic Church).

See Curzon, Armenia (1854) ; Norman, Armenia
(1878); Tozer, Turkish Armenia (1881); Creagh,
Armenians, Koords, and Turks (1880) ; Hepworth,
Through Armenia on Horseback (1898) ; H. F. B.
Lynch, Armenia (2 vols. 1901) ; and works named
at ARARAT.

Armentieres, a manufacturing town in the
French dep. of Nord, on the Lys, 12 miles WNW.
of Lille by rail. Pop. 2(5,500.

Armisticio, a territory of Venezuela, with an
area of 7040 sq. m., bounded on the S. and W. by
the United States of Colombia.

Armor'ica, an old name of Brittany (q.v.).

Arnhem, the capital of the Dutch province of
Guelderland, on the Rhine, 38 miles ESE. of
Utrecht. The manufactures include tobacco,
woollen and cotton goods, soap, and paper. Sir
Philip Sidney died here in 1586 ; in 1813 the
town was taken by the Prussians. Pop. (1891)
51,105 ; (1903) 60,150.

Arnhem Land, a name formerly applied to a
region in northern Australia (belonging to the
colony of South Australia), so called from the
ship of the Dutch navigators who discovered it
in 1618.

Arno, next to the Tiber the most considerable

river of Central Italy, rises on Mount Falterona,

an offset of the Apennines, at 4444 feet above

sea-level, and 25 miles N. of Arezzo. It flows

49 ARRAN

140 miles westward to the sea, 11 miles below
Pisa, where it once had its embouchure. At
Florence it is 400 feet wide, but is fordable in
summer. Of its rapid and destructive inunda-
tions the most memorable were those of 1537 and
1740.

Arnold, a town of Notts, 5 miles N. by E.
of Nottingham, with lace and stocking manu-
factures. Boningtou was a native. Pop 8769

Arnsberg, a town of Westphalia, on the Ruhr,
36 miles E. of Hagen by rail. Here were held
the famous Vehmgerichte. Pop. 9131.

Arnstadt, the chief town in the principality
of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, on the Gera, 10
miles S. of Erfurt. Dating back to 704 A.D., it
is now a manufacturing town, with weaving,
glove-making, brewing, &c. Pop. 14,818.

Arnswalde, a Prussian town, 41 miles SE. of
Stettin, between three lakes. Pop. 8378.

Arokszallas, a town of Hungary, 44 miles NE.
of Pesth. Pop. 12,794.

Arolsen, the capital of the principality of
Waldeck, on the Aar, 14 miles SSW. of Warburg.
Its castle (1720) contains West's ' Death of Wolfe.'
The sculptor Rauch and the painter Kaulbach
were natives. Pop. 2620.

Aroo'stook, a river which, rising in the north
of Maine, falls into the St John in New Bruns-
wick, after a course of about 120 miles.

Arpi'no (anc. Arpinum), the birthplace of
Cicero and Marius, on an eminence midway
between Rome and Naples. Pop. 5145.

Ar'qua, an Italian village with 1000 inhabitants,
12 miles SW. of Padua, in the Euganean Hills.
Here Petrarch died (1374).

Arrabida, a monastery, cave, and place of
pilgrimage, W. of Setubal (q.v.) in Portugal.

Arracan. See ARAKAN.

Arragon. See ARAGON.

Arrah, a town of Bengal, 320 miles NW. of
Calcutta by rail. Here in 1857 a dozen English-
men, with 50 Sikhs, held out for eight days
against 3000 sepoys. Pop. 46,998.

Arran, an island of Buteshire, in the mouth of
the Firth of Clyde, 5| miles SW. of Bute, 10 W.
of Ayrshire, and 3 E. of Kintyre, from which it is
separated by Kilbrannan Sound. It is 19 miles
long and 10 J broad, with an area of 168 sq. m.,
about a seventh part being cultivated. Pop.
(1821) 6541 ; (1901) 4819. The general aspect of
Arran is mountainous and heathy, and in the
north the jagged peaks are singularly grand.
All around the coast is the low platform of an
ancient sea-margin, with lofty cliffs on the S. and
SW., from which the country rises abruptly.
The highest point is Goatfell (Gaelic Gaoth
Bheinn, 'wind mountain"), which rises 2866 feet.
From its sides slope the romantic glens of Rosa
and Sannox, and at its base to the SE. opens
Brodick Bay. South of this, round a bluff head-
land, is Lamlash Bay, the chief harbour of Arran,
and the best on the Firth of Clyde, sheltered by
Holy Island, ence the seat of a monastery. A
picturesque mass of columnar basalt, 1030 feet
high, succeeds. Farther south lies Whiting Bay,
near which are two cascades 100 and 50 feet high.
At the SE. point of Arran is Kildonan Castle,
opposite which is the small isle of Pladda,
crowned by a lighthouse. Large caverns occur
in the cliffs of the S. and SW. coast. In one of
these, the 'King's Cave," in the basaltic promon-
tory of Drumadoon, Robert the Bruce hid him-
self. Shiskine Vale, opening into Drumadoon

ARRANMORE 50

Bay, is the most fertile part of Arran. Loch
Ranza, a bay in the north end of Arran, runs a
mile inland, and is a herring-fishing rendezvous.
There are only rivulets in Arran ; one of them
tumbles over a precipice 300 feet high. Almost
the whole island belongs to the Duke of Hamil-
ton, whose seat is Brodick Castle. Many anti-
quities occur, such as cairns, standing stones,
and stone circles. Lochranza Castle, now in
ruins, was once a residence of the Scots kings.
See D. Landsborough's Arran (2d ed. 1875), and
J. Bryce's Geology of Arran (4th ed. 1875).

Arranmore, or NORTH ARRAN, a Donegal island,
4 miles long by 3 wide, and 745 feet high.

Arras, the capital of the French dep. of Pas-
de-Calais, on the navigable Scarpe, 120 miles
N. of Paris. A fortress of the first rank, it has
a cathedral (1755-1833) and a beautiful Gothic
hotel-de-yille (1510), whose belfry, 246 feet high,
was rebuilt in 1835. There are manufactures of
lace, hosiery, beet-sugar, &c. ; and its tapestry
was formerly so famous that in England the
name arras was given to all such hangings.
Arras was the capital of the Celtic Atrebates
(whence the name), and subsequently of Artois.
It did not finally become French till 1640.
Robespierre was a native. Pop. (1872) 21.447 :
(1891) 25,701 ; (1901) 25,850.

Arrochar, a village at the head of Loch Long,
17 miles N. of Helensburgh by rail.

Arroyo Molinos, a village in Estremadura,
Spain, where Lord Hill routed the French, 28th
October 1811.

Arru Islands, a group of over eighty islands
in the Dutch East Indies, lying west of New
Guinea, with a united area of 2650 sq. m., and a
population of 15,000. The largest island is
Tanna-Besar (77 miles long by 50 broad). The
surface is low, the coasts are steep and inacces-
sible, on the east side fringed with coral reefs.
The soil is covered with the most luxuriant vege-

"Arsamas, a Russian town, 60 miles S. of
Nijni-Novgorod ; pop. 11,497.

Ars-sur-Moselle, a town of Alsace-Lorraine,
on the Moselle, 6 miles SW. of Metz by rail :
pop. 4620.

Arta (Turkish Narda, the ancient Ambracia),
capital of a division of Thcssaly, ceded to Greece
by Turkey in 1881 (area, 395 sq. m. ; pop. 31,178).
The town stands on the Arta (the ancient Arac-
thus), 8 miles from its mouth in the Gulf of Arta
(the ancient Ambratian Gulf), an arm of the
Ionian Sea between Greece and Albania. It is
the see of a Greek archbishop. Pop. 7328.

Arthur's Seat, a lion-shaped hill, immediately
east of Edinburgh, rising 822 feet. The ascent is
easy, and the prospect from the top unrivalled.
Arthur's Seat is supposed to derive its name
from the British king.

Artois (Ar-twah'), an old province in the north
of France, bounded by Flanders and Picardy, and
almost corresponding with the modern dep. of
Pas-de-Calais. Its capital was Arras.

Artvln, a town of Russian Armenia, on the
Charuch, 34 miles S. of Batum ; pop. 8000.

Am. See ARRU.

Arun, a Sussex river, flowing 37 miles to the
English Channel at Littlehampton.

Ar'undel, an ancient municipal borough (till
1867 also parliamentary) of Sussex, on the navi-
gable Arun, 5 miles from its mouth, and 10 miles
E. of Chichester. Arundel Castle, the seat of

ASHANTI

the Fitzalans, Earls of Arundel, from 1243 to
1580, and since then of the Howards, comprises
a circular Norman keep, 100 feet hih and a
modern Gothic edifice dating from 1791. It has
stood three great sieges, in 1102, in 1139, and in
1644. There are a cruciform parish church (1387)
and a splendid R. C. church (1873). Pop. 8644.

Aruwimi, an important tributary of the Congo,
entering the latter from the north in 1 Iff N.
lat., 23 30' E. long. It was explored for 100
miles by Stanley in 1883, and by it Stanley
advanced to the relief of Emin Pasha in 1887.

Arve (Arv), a Swiss stream rising in the Col de
Balme, one of the Savoy Alps, and flowing 62
miles through the Vale of Chamouni and the
canton of Geneva to the Rhone.

Arveyron, a small tributary of the Arve, in
Savoy, is the outlet of the famous Mer de Glace,
in the Vale of Chamouni, from which it issues in
a torrent through a beautiful grotto of ice 40 to
150 feet high.

Asben. See AIR.

Ascension, a solitary island nearly in the
middle of the South Atlantic, 685 miles NW. of
St Helena, in 7 57' S. lat., and 14 21' W. long.
It is said to have received its name from having
been discovered by a Portuguese navigator on
Ascension-day, 1501. It is 7 miles long, 6 broad,
and 35 sq. m. in area. First occupied by the
English in 1815, in connection with Napoleon's
detention on St Helena, it is now used only as a
sanatorium, having ceased since 1887 to be a
coaling depot. Like St Helena, it is of volcanic
origin, one of the peaks of a submarine ridge
which separates the north and south basins of
the Atlantic. It rises in the Green Mountain to
a height of 2870 feet. Several astronomers and
savants have visited Ascension, from Halley in
1677, to Darwin, Sir Wyville Thomson, and Mr
Gill. Pop., with Kroomen, about 450. See Mrs
Gill's Six Months in Ascension (1879).

Asch, a town of Bohemia, 14 miles NW. of
Eger, with thriving silk, cotton, and woollen
manufactures ; pop. 19,209.

Aschaffenburg (Asha/enboorg'), a Bavarian
town of Lower Franconia, on the Main, at the
Aschaff s influx, 25 miles SE. of Frankfort. The
castle of Johannisburg, a Renaissance pile of 1605-
14, overlooks the whole town. Paper is the staple
manufacture. Pop. 18,630. The Romans built a
fortress at Aschaffenburg, which in 1814 was
ceded to Bavaria by Austria. Near it the Prus-
sians defeated the Austrians, July 14, 1866.

Aschersleben (Asherslay'beri), a town of Prus-
sian Saxony, on the Bine, 32 m. SW. of Magdeburg.
Population, 28,500, largely occupied in manufac-
tures of woollens, linens, sugar, &c.

As'coli (anc. Asculum Picenum), a city of Italy,
on the Tronto, 83 miles S. of Ancona by rail. It
has a fine cathedral, and it suffered much from
an earthquake in 1878. Pop. 15,195. ASCOLI
(anc. Asculum Apulum) is another episcopal city,
19 miles S. of Foggia. Pop. 6178. Pyrrhus here
defeated the Romans, 279 B.C.

Ascot Heath, a circular race-course in Berk-
shire, nearly 2 miles long, 29 miles WSW. of
London, and 6 SW. of Windsor. The races, which
take place early in June, were instituted in 1711.

Ashanti, or ASHANTEE, a negro kingdom of
Western Africa, included since 1896 in the
British protectorate, and attached to the Gold
Coast colony, behind which it lies. It is a
hilly country ; its rivers are the Volta, Prah,

ASHBOURNE

ASIA

and Assinee. Population estimated at from
1,000,000 to 3,000,000, of whom a fifth are war-
riors. The country proper is one continuous
forest; the land in the neighbourhood of the
towns is carefully cultivated, and extremely fer-
tile, producing maize, millet, rice, yams, tobacco,
sugar, cocoa, the pine-apple, gums, dye-woods,
and timber. The principal exports are gold-dust
and palm-oil. The capital is Coomassie (q.v.);
Kpando, near the Volta, is an important centre
of trade, and so is Salaga or Paraha. In 1700
Coomassie was made the capital by Osai Tutu,
who conquered various neighbouring states, and
became a sort of feudal sovereign over a large
district. In their course of conquest over the
Fan tees, the Ashantis became involved in war
with the British (1807-26), and were finally
driven from the sea-coast ; and in 1873-74 an
army under Wolseley took Coomassie. King
Prempeh, after a spell of raiding, was forced in
1896 to accept the British protectorate; and a
rebellion was suppressed after a third expedition
to Coomassie, which is now connected by rail
with the Gold Coast ports. See works by
Bowdich (1819; new ed. 1873), Brackenbury
(1874), Reade (1874), Stanley (1874), Weitbrecht
(1875), Reindorf (1895), and Freeman (1898).

Ashbourne, a market-town of Derbyshire, 13
miles NW. of Derby. Its church (1241) has a
spire 212 feet high ('the Pride of the Peak ') ; the
grammar-school dates from 1585. Prince Charles
Edward was here in 1745, and here Moore wrote
great part of Lalla Rookh. Pop. 4040.

Ashburnbam, a Sussex parish, 5 miles W. of
Battle, with the seat of the Earl of Ashburnham.

Ashburton, a small town in the south of
Devonshire, on the borders of Dartmoor, 9 miles
NNW. of Totnes by rail. Till 1868 it returned a
member to parliament. Pop. of parish, 2662.

Ashburton River, an unnavigable stream of
Western Australia, rising in the mountains west
of the Great Desert, and flowing 400 miles north-
westward into Exmouth Gulf. Its lower course
was explored by Sholl in 1866, its upper by Giles
in 1876.

Ashby-de-la-Zouch, a town of Leicestershire,
18 miles NW. of Leicester. It owes its suffix to
the Norman family of La Zouch. Their ruined
castle, celebrated in Scott's Ivanhoe, and rebuilt
in 1480 by Sir William Hastings, crowns a height
to the south of the town. Mary, Queen of
Scots, was imprisoned here. Leather is the
staple industry. Pop. 4750.

Ashdod (New Test. Azotus, now Esdud), a
village on the Mediterranean, 21 miles S. of Jaffa.
Once a chief city of the Philistines, it is now a
miserable place with a pop. of 300.

Ashdown, the seat of Lord Craven, in West
Berkshire, 3 miles NW. of Lambourn. Here, in
871, Ethelred and Alfred gained the great victory
of JEscdun over the Danes.

Ashe, the Duke of Marlborough's birthplace,
3 miles SW. of Axminster, Devon.

Asheville, capital of Buncombe county, North
Carolina, 70 miles by rail NW. of Spartanburg,
with a number of tobacco factories. Pop. (1880)
2616 ; (1890) 10,235 ; (1900) 14,694.

Ashford, a market-town of Kent, 14 miles SW.
of Canterbury, and 56 SE. of London. It is a
railway junction, and the seat of the South-
eastern Railway workshops. Eastwell Park lies
3 miles N. Pop. 13,500.

Ashiestiel, a Selkirkshire mansion, on the

Tweed, 5J miles WSW. of Galashiels. Scott
lived here 1804-12.

Ashingdon, a parish of South Essex, 2* miles
N. of Rochford. Here, in the battle of Assan-
dun (1016), the sixth fought in the year, Canute
defeated Edmund Ironside.

Ashland (1), a post-borough of Schuylkill
county, Pennsylvania, 119 miles NW. of Phila-
delphia by rail. It depends principally upon its
rich mines of anthracite coal ; but it has also
foundries, machine-shops, and several mills. Pop.
(1890) 7346 ; (1900) 6438. (2) Capital of Ashland
county, Wisconsin, on Lake Superior, 391 miles
by rail NW. of Milwaukee. It has a busy trade in
lumber, is a terminus of five railways, and has
grown up since 1880. Pop, 13,500.'

Ashraf, a town in the Persian province of
Mazanderan, near the south coast of the Caspian
Sea, 56 miles W. of Astrabad. A favourite resi-
dence of Shah Abbas the Great, it still contains
over 800 houses.

Ashridge Park, Earl Brownlow's seat, on the
Bucks and Herts border, 3 miles N. of Berk-
hampstead.

Ashtabu/la, a rapidly increasing town of the
state of Ohio, U.S., on the Cleveland and Erie
Railway, 3 miles from Lake Erie, and 49 miles
NE. of Cleveland. Pop. (1880)4445 ; (1900) 12,950.
Ashton-in-Makerfield, a township in South
Lancashire, 4 miles S. of Wigan. Pop. (1881)
9824 ; (1891) 13,379 ; (1901) 18,687.

Ashton-under-Lyne, a town of Lancashire, 6J
miles E. of Manchester. It was enfranchised in
1832, and returns one member. A great seat of
the cotton manufacture, it suffered severely
during the cotton famine (1861-65). The popula-
tion is also employed in bleaching, dyeing, and
calico-printing, in collieries, and in the manu-
facture of machines, bricks, &c. Ainong the
buildings are the town-hall (1841), the infirmary
(1860), and the old parish church, with tombs of
the Assheton family, from whom., the town got
its name. Pop. (1851) 29,791 ; (1901) 51,080, of
whom 43,890 were within the municipal borough.
Asia, the largest of the divisions of the world,
occupies the northern portion of the eastern
hemisphere in the form of a massive continent
which extends beyond the Arctic Circle, and by its
southern peninsulas nearly reaches the equator.
Apparently Asia was a local name given to the
plains of Ephesus, gradually extended to the
Anatolian peninsula, and later on to the whole
of the continent.

Viewed in their broad features, Europe and
Asia constitute but one continent, extending from
west to east, and having the shape of an immense
triangle, the angles of which are Spain in the
west, the peninsula of the Tchuktchis in the
north-east, and that of Malacca in the south-
east. The Arctic Ocean in the north, the Pacific
in the east, and the Indian Ocean, continued by
its narrow gulf, the Red Sea, which nearly
reaches the Mediterranean, enclose the continent
of Asia. This immense mass of land touches the
latitude of 77 34' N. in Cape Tchelyuskin, while
Cape Burros, at the extremity of the peninsula
of Malacca, and 5350 miles distant from the
former, falls short by 1 15' of reaching the
equator. Cape Baba, in Asia Minor, advances as
far west as the 26th degree of longitude, and the
utmost NE. extremity of Asia East Cape, 5990
miles distant from Cape Baba protrudes to the
190th degree (12 hours 40 minutes) to the east of
Greenwich. The area covered by Asia and its

ASIA

islands is 17,255,890 sq. m. that is, almost
exactly one-third of the land-surface of the globe
(32 per cent.). It is one-half larger than Africa, and
more than four times larger than Europe. Geo-
graphically, Europe is a mere appendix to Asia,
and no exact geographical delimitation of the
two continents is possible. The low Urals are
not even an administrative frontier: European
Russia extends over their eastern slope. Caucasus
is Asiatic in character ; but, to separate it from
Europe, one must resort to the old dried-up
channel of the two Manytch rivers, which, at a
geologically recent epoch connected the Black
Sea with the Caspian. Asia Minor also Asiatic
in character so closely approaches Europe that
the Sea of Marmora and its narrow river-like
straits seem almost an artificial boundary. The
line of separation from Africa is better defined
by the narrow Red Sea ; but Arabia participates
so largely in the physical features of Africa that
it is in a sense intermediate between the two
continents. In the south-east, the numberless
islands of the Dutch Indies relics of a sunken
continent appear as a bridge towards Australia.
And in the extreme north-east, Asia sends out a
peninsula to meet one of the Alaskan peninsulas
in America, from which it is separated only by
a shallow and narrow channel, Behring Strait.
Although the coasts of Asia are much more
indented by gulfs and peninsulas than those of
Africa or America, still it stands in this respect
much behind Europe, and the length of its coast-
line is reckoned at 33,000 miles in all (Europe hav-
ing one of 50,000 miles) ; besides, about one-fifth
of its shores is washed by the ice-bound Arctic
Ocean, or by the foggy and icy Sea of Okhotsk.
Its peninsulas are massive too, and, as a rule,
little indented. Three immense offsets continue
the continent of Asia into more tropical latitudes
Arabia, India, and the Indo-Chinese Peninsula.
Asia Minor protrudes between the Black Sea and
the Mediterranean. In the Pacific there are only
three large peninsulas Corea, Kamchatka, and
that of the Tchuktchis.

The islands of Asia are very numerous, and
cover an aggregate of no less than 1,023,000 sq.
m. (nearly 6 per cent, of Asia's surface). The
coasts of Asia Minor are dotted with islands.
Cyprus and Ceylon are important. In Eastern
Asia, a narrow strip of islands, some large like
Sumatra (177,000 sq. m.) and Java, others mere
reefs, extend in a wide semicircle, under the
name of Andaman and Sunda Islands, from
Burma to Australia, separating the Indian Ocean
from the shallow Java Sea and the Malay Archi-
pelago. This last an immense volcanic region
inhabited by the Malay race comprises the huge
Borneo, the ramified Celebes, and the numberless
small islands of the Moluccas, the Philippines,
&c. ; connected northward with the Chinese
coast by the island of Formosa, which, like
Hainan, may almost be considered part of the
Chinese mainland. The Loo-choo (Liu-kiu) Islands
and the Japanese Archipelago, the latter joining
Kamchatka by the Kuriles, continue farther NE.
the chain of islands. Saghalien is close to the
continent. In the Arctic Ocean also are some
unimportant islands.

Asia is at once the largest and the highest of
all continents. Not only has it a number of
mountains which exceed by five and six thousand
feet the loftiest summits of the Andes ; it has
also the highest and the most extensive plateaus.
If the whole mass of its mountains and plateaus
were uniformly spread over its surface, the con-
tinent would rise no less than 2800 to 3000 feet

above the sea. High plateaus are the predomi-
nant feature of Asia's orographical structure :
they occupy nearly two-fifths of its area. One
of them that of Western Asia, including Ana-
tolia, Armenia, and Iran extends in a south-
easterly direction from the Black Sea to the
valley of the Indus ; while the other the high
plateau of Eastern Asia, still loftier and much
more extensive stretches NE. from the Hima-
layas to the north-eastern extremity of Asia.
These vast regions, mostly unfit for human
settlement, and over wide areas mere dry deserts,
divide Asia into two parts the lowlands of
Siberia and the Aral-Caspian depression to the
north, and the lowlands of Mesopotamia, India,
and China to the south. The highest parts of
the East Asian plateau are in Tibet, varying from
18,000 feet to 10,000 feet in height. This highest
plateau of the earth is girdled by the highest chain
of mountains, the Himalayas a typical ' border-
ridge' which has one foot on the high plateau,
and the other in valleys ten to fifteen thousand
feet deeper, where the palm and vine grow freely.
This immense chain of snow-clad peaks, which
in Europe would reach from Gibraltar to Greece,
raises its lofty summits above 20,000 feet ; its
lowest passes are 15,000 feet high, and Gauri-
sankar or Mount Everest the highest mountain
of the globe has its snow-cap at a height of
29,000 feet, that is, 5 miles above the sea.

In the north-west, the Tibet plateau joins
another much smaller, but very high plateau
that of Pamir (' the roof of the world '), of which
the Tagarma peak reaches a height of 25,800 feet.
Farther north and north-east of the Pamir is a
wide, intricate complex of several high chains,
known under the general name of Tian-shan
(q.v.). The great Khan-tengri rises there to
24,000 feet.

On the north, the plateau of Tibet is bordered
by a succession of lofty chains (Kuen-lun, Altyn-
tagh, Nan-shan), reaching more than 20,000 feet
in their highest parts. These chains separate it
from the great central depression which is occu-
pied by Eastern Turkestan in the west, and by
the Desert of Gobi in the east. This great
depression including the Han-hai, or ' dried-up
sea,' of the basin of the Tarim has an altitude
of from 3000 to 4000 feet in the west, and 2200
feet in its lowest part the depression of Lake
Lob-nor. It has no outlet. The dry and barren
ridge called Eastern Tian-shan, and two other
ridges running NW., separate the Han-hai depres-
sion of Central Asia from the trenches of Urumtsi
and Urungu, which descend west to the lowlands
of Siberia. Beyond the great depression the
plateau rises again, and reaches an average
height of from 4000 to more than 5000 feet in the
upper basin of the Yenisei and Selenga. To
the north-west, the plateau is bordered by the
snow-clad Sailughem ridge of the Altai (8000 to
9000 feet), which is broken by the depression in
which Lake Baikal lies. A broad zone of alpine
tracts more than 150 miles wide and 2000 miles
long the Altai, the Kuznetskiy Ala-tau, the
Baikal, Lena, Olekma, and Vitim mountains
fringes this plateau in the west.

The hilly tracts of Asia are not confined to the
plateaus and their border-ridges. The Caucasus,
an immense wall of snow-clad mountains,
stretches NW. to SE. for nearly 800 miles along
the border of the Armenian plateau, from which
it is separated by the broad valley of the Kura.
It reaches 18,560 feet in the Elborous (Elburz)
peak. The Urals, from 2000 to 4000 feet high,
which separate Europe from Asia, are a broad

ASIA

belt of hilly tracts, stretching as a whole from
north to south.

The interior of the Indian peninsula is again
occupied by the wide plateau of the Deccan,
having an average height of from 1500 to 3000
feet, bordered in the west by the Western Ghats
(7870 feet high) and the Cardaman Mountains,
and in the east by the much lower and broader
Eastern Ghats. The Pedrotallagalla peak in
Ceylon rises 8330 feet.

The whole of North-western Asia is occupied
by an immense lowland Siberia which joins
in the south the wide Aral-Caspian depression.
This lowland, whose level is less than five or
six hundred feet high, does not touch the alpine
regions which fringe the great plateau of East
Asia. It is separated from them by a belt of
elevated, undulating plains. On the northern
coast of the Caspian, the Aral-Caspian depression
descends even below the level of the sea. The
wide space between the great plateaus of Western
and Eastern Asia and that of the Deccan, watered
by the Indus and the Ganges, is again an
immense lowland, covering no less than 400,000
sq. m., and supplying the means of existence to
125 millions of inhabitants. Another wide low-
land, Mesopotamia, or the broad valley of the
Tigris and Euphrates, was a cradle of civilisation
from the remotest antiquity. The predominant
feature of Asia's hydrography is the existence of
very wide areas having no outlet to the sea. On
the great plateau of Eastern Asia the region of the
Han-hai and Gobi is watered only by the Tarim,
which falls into the rapidly drying marshes of
Lob-nor. If we add to this wide area the drain-
age basins of Lake Balkhash with its tributaries,
the Hi and other smaller rivers ; the great Lake
Aral, with the Syr-daria (Jaxartes) and Amu-
daria (Oxus), as also the numerous rivers which
flow towards it or its tributaries, but are desic-
cated by evaporation before reaching them ; and
finally the Caspian with its tributaries, we find
an immense surface of more than 4,000,000 sq. m.
that is, much larger than Europe which has
no outlet to the ocean. Four inland drainage
areas more must be added to the above the
plateaus of Iran and Armenia, two separate areas
in Arabia, and one in Asia Minor.

The drainage area of the Arctic Ocean includes
all the lowlands of Siberia, its plains, and large
portions of the great plateau. The chief rivers
flowing north to the Arctic Ocean are the Obi,
with the Irtish; the Yenisei, with its great
tributary the Angara, which brings to it the
waters of Lake Baikal ; and finally the Lena,
with its great tributaries, the Vitim, Olekma,
Vilui, and Aldan.

Three great rivers enter the Pacific, and all
three are navigable for thousands of miles : the
Amur, composed of the Argun and Shilka, and
receiving the Sungari (a great artery of naviga-
tion in Manchuria), the Usuri, and the Zeya ; the
Hoang-ho ; and the Yang-tse-kiang, the last two
taking their rise on the plateau of Tibet. The
Cambodia or Mekong, the Salwen, and the
Irawadi, rising in the eastern parts of the high
plateau, water the Indo-Chinese Peninsula.
Rising on the same height, the Indus and the
Brahmaputra flow through a high valley in
opposite directions along the northern base of
the Himalayas, until both pierce the gigantic
ridge at its opposite ends, and find their way in
opposite directions to the sea. The Tigris and
Euphrates, both rising in the high plateau of
Armenia, flow parallel to each other.

A succession of great lakes, or rather inland

seas, are situated all along the northern slope ot
the high plateaus of Western and Eastern Asia.
The Caspian, 800 miles long and 270 wide, is an
immense sea, its level now 85 feet below the level
of the ocean ; Lake Aral has its level 157 feet
above the ocean ; farther east we have Lake
Balkhash (780 feet), Zaisan (1200 feet), and Lake
Baikal (1550 feet). Three large lakes, Urmia, Van,
and Goktcha, and many smaller ones, lie on the
highest part of the Armenian plateau.

Volcanoes play an important part in Asia's
geology; more than 120 active volcanoes are
known in Asia, chiefly in the islands of the
south-east, the Philippines, Japan, the Kuriles,
and Kamchatka, and also in a few islands of the
Sea of Bengal and Arabia, and of Western Asia.
Numerous traces of volcanic eruptions are found,
not only in these same regions, but also in Eastern
Tian-shan, in the north-western border-ridges of
the high Siberian plateau, and in the south-west
of Aigun in Manchuria. Earthquakes are fre-
quent, especially in Armenia, Turkestan, and
around Lake Baikal.

Asia is exceedingly rich in a great variety of
mineral products. There are gold-mines of great
wealth in the Urals, the Altai, and Eastern
Siberia ; and auriferous sands are found in Corea,
Sumatra, Japan, and the Caucasus Mountains.
Silver is extracted in Siberia; platinum in the
Urals ; copper in Japan, India, and Siberia ; tin
in Banca ; mercury in Japan. Iron ore is found
in nearly all the mountainous regions, especially
of Asia Minor, Persia, Turkestan, India, China,
Japan, and Siberia ; but iron mining is still at a
rudimentary stage. Immense coal-beds are spread
over China and the islands of the Pacific (Hai-
nan, Japanese Archipelago, Saghalien), Eastern
Siberia, Turkestan, India, Persia, and Asia Minor.
They cover no less than half a million square
miles in China alone ; but the extraction of coal
is as yet very limited. Graphite is found in
Siberia. The diamonds of India, the sapphires
of Ceylon, the rubies of Burma and Turkestan,
the topazes, beryls, &c. of the Urals and Ner-
tchinsk, have a wide repute. Layers of rock-salt
are widely spread, and still more so the salt
lakes and springs. The petroleum wells of the
Caspian shores rival those of the United States.
Mineral springs are widely spread over Asia ;
those of Caucasus and Transbaikalia already
attract a number of patients.

Even Eastern Europe has quite a continental
climate. Still more continental is the climate
throughout Asia, with the exception of a part of
its coast regions. On account of the immense
area of Asia, great differences of climate are met
with, and therefore the meteorologists subdivide
the continent into several very different climatic
regions, of which Eastern Siberia, dry, and in
winter very cold, includes Verkhoyansk, the
coldest spot of the Eastern Hemisphere ; while
India, the Indo-Chinese Peninsula, and adjoining
islands have a tropical climate, with abundant
periodical rains. Asia Minor has of all Asiatic
regions the most moderate and agreeable climate.
During the winter, Asia, as a whole, with the
exception of India, the Indo-Chinese Peninsula,
and South-western Arabia, enjoys a temperature
much lower than that of corresponding latitudes
elsewhere ; while in July, throughout all Asia,
except on the coasts of the Kara Sea, Kamchatka,
and the Manchurian littoral, the temperature is
higher than under the same latitudes elsewhere.

The aggregate population of Asia is estimated
at 891 millions, being thus more than one-half of
the entire population of the globe. This popula-

ASIA

tion gives, however, only an average of ^inhabit-
ants per sq. m. It is very unequally distributed,
and reaches 557 per sq. m. in some provinces of
China denser than in England (540 per sq. m.)
and 470 in some parts of North-western India.
Nearly one-tenth is almost quite uninhabited.

The inhabitants of Asia belong to five different
groups : the so-called Caucasian (Fair type) in
Western Asia and India ; the Mongolian in Cen-
tral and Eastern Asia, as also in the Indo-Chinese
Peninsula ; the Malay in Malacca and the Indian
Archipelago ; the Draviclas in South-eastern India
and Ceylon ; and the Negritos and Papuas in the
virgin forests of the Philippine Islands and
Celebes. A sixth great division comprises the
stems which inhabit North-eastern Asia the
Hyperboreans. The Europeans reckon about six
millions (Russians) in Caucasus, Turkestan, and
Siberia; some 100,000 (British) in India; and
75,000 in the Dutch Indies.

The four great religions which are professed by
the great majority of mankind the Jewish,
Buddhist, Christian, and Mohammedan had their
origin in Asia. At present the inhabitants of
Asia belong chiefly to the Buddhist religion,
which inclusive of the followers of Lamaism,
the moral philosophy of Confucius, and the
teachings of Lao-tse, who all accept more or less
the Buddhist ritual has no less than 530 to 560
millions of followers i.e. nearly one-third of
mankind. The old faith of Hinduism has no less
than 207 millions of followers in India. Most of
the inhabitants of Western Asia, as also of part
of Central Asia, follow the religion of Islam ;
they may number about 90 millions. The
Christians number about 20 millions in Armenia,
Caucasus, Siberia, and Turkestan. Many of the
Ural- Altaians continue to maintain their ancient
faith, Shamanism. Jews are scattered mostly in
Western and Central Asia. A few fire-worshippers
Guebres or Parsees who are found in the west
of India and Persia are the sole remnant of the
once wide-spread religion of Zoroaster.

The chief political divisions of Asia, with their
approximate areas and population (mostly esti-
mated), are as follows :

States and Territories.

Area
In sq. m.

Siberia 4,824,570

Caucasus 182,500

Transcaspia (with Caspian) 400,070

Russian Turkestan 1,541,500

Khiva and Bokhara 114,600

Asiatic Turkey 729,410

Arabia 968,200

Persia 636,400

Afghanistan 240,000

Kaflristan and Hindu Kush 20,000

Beluchistan 106,800

India (with Burma) 1,560,160

Nepal, Bhutan, &c 89,600

Ceylon 25,360

French and Portuguese India 1,800

Siam 280,650

Malacca States 31,500

French Indo-Chiua 225,620

Population.

5,731,552

9,251,945

372,193

7,349,481

Chinese Empire

Corea

Macao

Hong-kong

Japan

Dutch East Indies

Philippines, &c. (U.S. and Ger.)..

British Borneo and Labuau

Native Borneo

Cyprus

16,953,530

3,741,222

9,000,000

4,000,000

1,000,000

840,000

295,038,950

3,300,000

3,576,990

847,484

6,000,000

676,138

20,000,000

4,218,400

84,250

148,500

116,260

IS
3,580

10,000,000

75,000

297,200

46,450,000

35,200,000

8,342,000

175,000

645,000

237,022

17,211,760 891,730,717

The amount of cereals rice, millet, wheat,
barley, oats, &c. supplied by the rich corn-
fields of China, Indo-China, Japan, and even

Turkestan may be best judged by the density
of population in the better- watered parts of these
countries, and by the rapidly increasing amounts
of corn exported, especially from India ; while in
Southern Siberia, the Altai, and the Middle Amur,
Russian settlers raising wheat, rye, oats, barley,
melons, &c. on the virgin soil of the prairies enjoy
a welfare hardly known in Russia. The crops
of cotton in India and Asia Minor helped Europe
to meet the cotton crisis of 1863 ; and those of
Bokhara and Transcaucasia gave an impulse to
the growing cotton industry of Russia. Tea is the
chief crop of Southern China, Assam, India, and
Ceylon ; and coffee is largely grown in Arabia,
India, Ceylon, and the Dutch colonies. The silk-
worm culture is widely spread in Asia Minor,
Persia, Turkestan, India, China, and Japan.
The sugar-cane is largely raised in Southern and
South-eastern Asia. Oleaginous plants, indigo
and other dye plants, jute, spices, the cinchona-
tree, and opium-producing plants are extensively
cultivated ; as also fruit-trees in Western Asia
and Turkestan. The cocoa-palm, the bread-tree,
and the gutta-percha tree are also grown in
tropical Asia.

On the inland steppes and plateaus of Asia,
numberless herds of horses, horned cattle, and
sheep furnish all the necessaries of life to the
nomad or half-nomad Mongolian inhabitants of
these regions, and supply the European trade with
a yearly increasing amount of hides, wool, and
tallow. The forests of the far north and north-east
afford the means of existence to nomad and
Russian hunters. Both supply the trade with
rich furs ; while the rivers of Siberia and Man-
churia provide food for the nomad Ostiaks, Gols,
and Ghilyaks. And the Behring and Okhotsk
Seas of the Northern Pacific, and their islands,
supply the civilised world with some of the
finest furs.

The plateaus, the deserts, and the mountainous
regions of Asia, thickly clothed with impene-
trable forests and intersected by deep gorges and
valleys, are so many obstacles to the communica-
tion between different parts of the continent.
The roads of Asia, except those of China and
India, and a few main lines elsewhere, are mostly
mere footpaths or tracks marked in the deserts,
with wells far apart, and bleached with the bones
of camels. Caravans of camels are therefore the
chief means of transport for goods and travellers
in the interior ; donkeys, yaks, and even goats
and sheep are employed in crossing the high
passages of the Himalayas ; horses are the usual
means of transport in most parts of China and
Siberia, and in the barren tracts of the north the
reindeer, and still farther north the dog, are
made use of. Fortunately, the great rivers of
Asia (especially China and Siberia) provide water
communication over immense distances.

Railways are only beginning to make their
appearance in Asia. In India they already
represent a total length of 26,000 miles. Russia,
too, has spread her railways right across Asia to
the shores of the Pacific. China decided in 1886
to open its territory to railway-construction, and
in 1905 had nearly 3000 miles open, and con-
cessions given for about 2500 more. Japan has
over 4000 miles open. There are also railways in
Burma, Siam, and Turkey in Asia. All the chief
ports in the south and south-east of Asia are
already in regular steam communication with
Europe and the United States.

Telegraph communications are in a much more
advanced state than the roads. St Petersburg
is connected by telegraph with the mouth of

ASIAGO 55

ASPINWALL

the Amur, Vladivostok, and Port Arthur; while
another branch, crossing Turkestan and Mongolia,
runs on to Tashkend, Peking, and Shanghai. Con-
stantinople is connected with Bombay, Madras,
Singapore, Saigon, Hong-kong, and Nagasaki in
Japan ; and Singapore with Java, Australia, and
so with New Zealand. India has nearly 60,000
miles of telegraphs ; China, 14,000 miles ; and
Japan, 17,000 miles, with 2200 miles of sub-
marine cables.

Hitherto Asia has supplied Europe chiefly with
raw materials gold, silver, petroleum, teak and
a variety of timber-wood, furs, raw cotton, silk,
wool, tallow, and so on ; with the products
of her tea, coffee, and spice plantations ; and
with a yearly increasing amount of wheat and
other grain. Steam-industry, although but a
very few years old, threatens to become a rival
to European manufacture. Indian cottons of
European patterns and jute-stuffs already com-
pete with those of Lancashire and Dundee. The
silks, printed cottons, carpets, jewellery, arid cut-
lery of particular districts in India, China, Japan,
Asia Minor, and Persia, far surpass in their
artistic taste many like productions of Europe ;
and the export of these articles is increasing.

CENTRAL ASIA is a term, in its geographical
sense, used of the region lying between the
Altai Mountains and the Persian Gulf, and in-
cludes part of Siberia, all Turkestan, Afghanistan,
Beluchistan, and part of Persia. An earlier usage
that of Humboldt gave this name to the khan-
ates of Bokhara and Tartary. In Russian official
language, Central Asia is an administrative divi-
sion of the empire lying to the SW. of Siberia, and
comprising, with part of what used to be called
Siberia, the recent Russian annexations in Turkes-
tan. Russian Central Asia is divided into the
governments of Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk, Tur-
gai, Uralsk, Semirechinsk, Sir-daria, Zarafshan,
Amu-daria, the Trans-Caspian territory, and Fer-
ghana. The total area is given at 1,201,000 sq.
m., and the pop. at 4,390,000. For the physical
geography of the region, see ASIA ; see also
TURKESTAN, SIBERIA, KHOKAND, &c.

Asiago, a town of North Italy, 22 miles N. of
Vicenza, on a ridge. Pop. 2016.

Asia Minor (Asia the Less) is the name usually
given to the western peninsular projection of
Asia, forming part of Turkey in Asia. The late
Greek name for Asia Minor is Anatolia
Anatole, ' the East,' whence is formed the Turkish
Anadoli. Asia Minor includes the whole penin-
sula, with an area of 220,000 sq. m. It consti-
tutes the western prolongation of the high table-
land of Armenia, with its border mountain-ranges.
The interior consists of a great plateau, or rather
series of plateaus, rising in gradation from 3500
to 4000 feet, with bare steppes, salt plains,
marshes and lakes ; the structure is volcanic,
and there are several conical mountains, one of
which, the Ergish-dagh (Argseus), with two
craters, attains a height of 11,830 feet. The
plateau is bordered on the north by a long train
of parallel mountains, 4000 to 6000 feet high.
These mountains sink abruptly doAvn on the
north side to a narrow strip of coast. Similar
is the character of the border ranges on the
south, the ancient Taurus, only that they are
more continuous and higher, being, to the north
of the Bay of Skanderoon, 10,000 to 12,000 feet.
Between the highlands and the sea lie the fertile
coast-lands. Of the rivers the largest is the
Kizil Irmak (Halys), which, like the Yeshil
Irmak (Iris), and the Sakaria (Sangarius), flows

into the Black Sea ; the Sarabat (Hermus) and
Meinder (Maeander) flow into the Jigean. Here
the forest-trees and cultivated plants of Europe
are seen mingled with the forms characteristic of
Persia and Syria. The central plateau, which is
barren, has the character of an Asiatic steppe,
more adapted for the flocks and herds of nomadic
tribes than for agriculture ; while the coasts,
rich in all European products, fine fruits, olives,
wine, and silk, have quite the character of the
south of Europe, which on the warmer and drier
south coast shades into that of Africa.

The inhabitants, some 7,000,000 in number,
comprise the dominant race, the Osmanli Turks,
who number about 1,200,000 ; allied to these are '
the Turkomans and Yuruks. There are also
hordes of nomadic Kurds, with the robber tribes
of the Lazes in the north-east. The Greeks and
Armenians are the most progressive elements in
the population, and have most of the trade ;
while the Greeks monopolise the professions, the
ownership of the land is largely passing into the
hands of Greeks, Armenians, and Jews.

Here, especially in Ionia, was the early seat of
Greek civilisation, and here Alexander the Great
and the Romans successively contended for the
mastery of the civilised world. Since the con-
quest by the Turks (about 1300 A.D.), the ancient
civilisation of the country and its prosperity
have been sadly brought to ruin. After the
Russo-Turkish war of 1877 Great Britain made
a secret engagement to guarantee the Asiatic
dominions of the Porte, and to assume an in-
definite protectorate over Asia Minor.

Asirgarh, a strong fortress in the Central
Provinces, 300 miles NE. of Bombay, stands on
an isolated mountain, 850 feet above the base.

Askabad, a town of Russian Turkestan, the
political centre of Transcaspia, situated on the
Transeaspian Railway, 290 miles SB. of Mikhail-
ovsk, the seaward terminus, and 232 WNW. of
Merv. It was occupied by the Russians in 1881.

Askeaton, a town in the county, and 15 milea
WSW. of the town, of Limerick. Pop. 679.

Askja (AsKya,; 'basket'), the largest volcano
in Iceland, rises near the centre of the island.
Its vast circular crater, over 23 sq. in. in area, and
about 17 miles in circumference, lies at a depth
of over 700 feet within a mountain built up to
a height of 4633 feet above the sea. A great
eruption in 1875 first called attention to Askja.

As'olo, a walled town 35 miles NW. of Venice,
with memories of Caterina Cornaro, queen of
Cyprus, and Robert Browning. Pop. 955.

Aspatria, a Cumberland village, with an agri-
cultural college, 7| miles NE. of Maryport.

Aspe (Asp), a romantic valley (pop. 12,000) in
the Western Pyrenees, close to the Spanish fron-
tier. It was formerly a republic under the pro-
tection of the princes of Beam. (2) A town of
Spain, 25 miles W. of Alicante. Pop. 7910.

Aspern, a small village of Austria, on the
Danube's left bank, nearly opposite Vienna.
Here on May 21-22, 1809, Napoleon was defeated
by the Austrians under Archduke Charles.

Aspinwall, or COLON, a seaport of the republic
of Panama, but practically a United States colony,
is situated at the Atlantic extremity of the
Panama Railway (1849-55), and of the unfinished
inter-oceanic Panama Canal, on the island of
Manzanilla in Limon Bay, 8 miles NE. of the old
Spanish port of Chagres, and 47 NW. of Panama
by rail. In 1870 the Empress Eugenie presented
the town with a statue of Columbus, after whom

ASPROMONTE

ASSYRIA

it is named officially Colon. The name Aspin-
wall it derives from a New York merchant, the
originator of the Panama Railway ; the company
having founded the town in 1850. Pop. 4500.

Aspromonte (As-pro-mon'tay), a rugged moun-
tain (6907 feet) of Italy, near Reggio, overlooking
the Strait of Messina. Here Garibaldi was de-
feated and captured, 28th August 1862.

Assab Bay, an Italian trading station on the
west coast of the Red Sea, 40 miles NW. of the
Strait of Bab-el-Mandeb. The district around it
(area, 243 sq. m. ; pop. 1300) was sold in 1870 by
some Danakil chieftains to an Italian steamship
company for a coaling station, and in 1880 was
taken over by the Italian government.

Assal', a large salt-lake, nearly 600 feet below
sea-level, in Adal, East Africa, 9 miles from the
coast of the Bay of Tajurrah.

Assam', from 1S74 to 1905 a separate province
at the NE. extremity of British India, with an
area of 46,341 sq. in. ; but in 1905 made part of
the new joint province of Eastern Bengal and
Assam (see BENGAL). A series of valleys, watered
by the Brahmaputra and some sixty lesser rivers,
it is very fertile, and abounds in wood ; the
tea-plant is indigenous. Since 1840, when its
commercial cultivation was begun, 600.000 acres
have been taken up for tea ; some three-fourths
of the tea grown in India is the produce of
Assam. The other products are rice, mustard,
gold, ivory, amber, musk, iron, lead, petroleum,
and coal. Scarcely a fourth of the fertile area is
cultivated. There is steamboat and railway com-
munication with Calcutta. In 1826, at the close
of the first Burmese war, Assam was ceded to
the British, but it was only in 1838 that, in con-
sequence of the misgovernment of the native
rajah, the entire country was placed under British
administration. The towns of any size are Gau-
hati (12,000) and Sebsagar (6000). A majority of
the people are Hindus. A striking feature of
Assam is the abundance of tigers, rhinoceroses,
leopards, bears, buffaloes, and elephants ; the
"snakes are most destructive to human life. Pop.
(1872) 4,124,972 ; (1881) 4,881,426 ; (1891) 5,476,833;
(1901)6,126,343.

Assa'ye, an Indian village in the extreme
north-east of the Nizam's dominions, 43 miles
NE. of Aurungabad. Here, on 23d September
1803, Wellesley, afterwards Duke of Wellington,
with 4500 men, defeated 50,000 Mahrattas.

Assen, a town of NE. Holland, 17 miles S. of
Groningen by rail. Pop. 11,200.

Assiniboia, till 1905 a Canadian district within
the limits of the North-west Territories, formed
by an order in Council in 18S2. It was bounded
on the south by the United States frontier, on
the east by Manitoba, and on the north by the
former district of Saskatchewan, and had an area
of 89,535 sq. m. It contained the towns of Regina
(now the capital of the new province of Alberta)
and Fort Pelly. The climate is subject to ex-
tremes, ranging from 58" F. below zero in winter
to 106 above it in summer. In 1905 the new
provinces of Saskatchewan and Alberta were
formed, and Assiniboia was divided between them,
Saskatchewan getting the greater portion.

Assin'iboine, a river of British North America,
rising in 51 40' N. lat. and 105 E. long., and,
after a course of 400 miles, at Winnipeg joining
the Red River (q.v.), which discharges its waters
into Lake Winnipeg. Its tributaries are the Little
Souris, Qu'appelle, Rapid River or Little Saskat-
chewan, White Sand River, and Beaver Creek.

Assi'si, a town of Central Italy, on a steep
hill, 14 7niles SB. of Perugia by rail. It is the
birthplace of St Francis, who founded here in,
1209 the mendicant order that bears his name.
The monastery (1229) has two Gothic churches,
one surmounting the other, with frescoes and
paintings by Cimabue, Giotto, &c. ; beneath, in
a Doric crypt (1818), are the relics of St Francis.
Assisi also possesses a cathedral. Pop. 6705.

Assiut. See SIOUT.

Assmannshau'sen, a village on the Rhine, 3
miles below Rudesheim, famous for its red and
white wine.

Assos, a ruined town on the Gulf of Edremid,
whose still imposing remains were successfully
excavated, in 1881-83, by the American Institute
of Archaeology.

Assouan' (also Eswan; the ancient Syene) is
the southernmost city of Egypt proper, on the
right bank of the Nile, and beside the first or
lowest cataract. Near are the islands of Philse
and Elephantine. On the left bank are cata-
combs. There are some remains of the ancient
city. In the neighbourhood are the famous
syenite quarries from which so many of the huge
obelisks and colossal statues were cut to adorn
the temples and palaces of ancient Egypt. Here
is the great dam erected (1899-1902) in connection
with Egyptian irrigation. Pop. 12,000.

Assumption. See ASUNCION.

As'synt, LOCH, a beautiful fresh-water lake of
Sutherland, 6 miles E. of Lochinver. Lying
215 feet above sea-level, it measures 6J miles by
f mile. To Ardvreck Castle, on a north-eastern
promontory, the Marquis of Montrose was
brought a prisoner in 1650.

Assyria, the northernmost of the three great
countries that occupied the Mesopotamia!! plain.
It was bounded on the N. by the Niphatea
Mountains of Armenia ; on the S. by Susiana
and Babylonia ; on the E. by Media ; and on the
W., according to some, by the Tigris, but more
correctly by the watershed of the Euphrates, for
many Assyrian ruins are found to the west of the
Tigris. It was thus about 280 miles long from N.
to S., and rather more than 150 broad from E. to
W. This plain is diversified by mountain-chains
on the north and east, and watered by the Tigris
and its affluents, between two of which the Zab
rivers lay the finest part of the country, called
Adiabene. As it was the boundary-land between
the Semitic people and Iran, it became the scene
of important political events. Its extraordinary
fertility enabled it to support a large population.
The high degree of prosperity and civilisation
reached by its inhabitants in very early times is
attested not only by ancient writers, but by the
extensive ruins of mighty cities, by the canals
and contrivances for irrigation, and by the numer-
ous proofs furnished by recent excavations of
an acquaintance with the arts and sciences. The
ruins of many cities are grouped around Nineveh ;
while lower down, the Tigris exhibits an almost
unbroken line of ruins from Tekrit to Bagdad.
Under the Mohammedans this fine country is
now almost a desert. Nineveh (q.v.) was the
capital. There are indications that this Semitic
state was founded as far back as 2330 B.C. ; its
king was certainly powerful about 1320 B.C. ;
Tiglath-pileser (1140) was its first great prince ;
after some centuries of decay the empire was
again a great power under Shalmaneser II, (858).
In the 7th century B.C. the empire was greatly
decayed, and Babylon independent : finally

ASTERABAi)

ATHBOY

Nineveh was taken in 605, and Assyria became &
province of Media. The Assyrian language was
akin to Hebrew and Phoenician. On the topo-
graphy and archaeology, see books by Botta,
Oppert, Layard, George Smith, Perrot and
Chipiez, Sayce, Maspero, Rogers (1901).

Asterabad'. See ASTUABAD.

Asti (Asia Pompeia), a city of Piedmont, lies
on the Tanaro, 35 miles ESE. of Turin. The vino
d'Asti is a kind of sweet muscatel, effervescing
like champagne. Pop. 17,340.

Aston, the name of upwards of 60 English
towns, villages, townships, or parishes, the best
known being beside Birmingham (q.v.).

Astoria, originally a fur-trading station in
Oregon, U.S., on the left bank of the Col-
umbia, founded by the Pacific Fur Company
in 1811, and named from its chief proprietor,
John Jacob Astor. It was a main point in the
American claim to the territory of Oregon (q.v.).
There are upwards of 50 large salmon-tinning
establishments in the neighbourhood. The
lumbering industry is also important. Pop.
(1881) 2803 ; (1891) 6184 ; (1900) 8381.

Astrabad', a decayed town in the north of
Persia, at the foot of the Elburz Mountains, 30
miles SE. of the Caspian. Pop. (1808) 75,000 ;
(1904) 18,000.

Astrakhan', a barren government in the SE.
of European Russia, watered by the Volga, and
washed on the SE. by the Caspian Sea. Area,
91,327 sq. m. ; pop. 1,003,500. ASTRAKHAN, the
capital, is situated on a high island in the Volga,
41 miles from its mouth in the Caspian Sea. The
Kreml, or fortress, and the White Town alone
have houses of stone ; the suburbs contain wooden
buildings only. Lengthwise through the middle
Of the city runs a canal which connects the
Kutum arm of the Volga with the main stream.
Of nearly 40 Greek churches, the finest is the
cathedral (1696), on the highest point in the
Kreml. Pop. 113,710, consisting of Russians,
Armenians, Tartars, and Persians. Almost the
entire commerce with Persia and Transcaucasia
passes through the city. Its great markets
attract every year many thousands of merchants,
and its three bazaars are among the busiest marts
in Europe or Asia. The city is connected by
steamers with all parts of the Caspian, and is
the principal harbour of that sea. The industries
are shipbuilding, dyeing, silk manufacture, &c. ;
the sturgeon and other fisheries are amongst the
greatest in the world.

Astrolabe Bay, a large inlet of the sea on the
northern coast of the eastern portion of New
Guinea, opposite the end of New Britain.

Astu'rias, or OVIEDO, a northern province of
Spain, washed on the north by the Bay of Biscay.
Area, 4091 sq. m. ; population, 628,000. The
chief towns are Oviedo (q.v.), the capital, Gijon,
Aviles, Llanes, and Luarca.

Asuncion (Span. As-soon-thee-oan r ), capital of
the republic of Paraguay, on Paraguay River, has
connection by steamers with Buenos Ayres, and
by a railway of 45 miles with Paraguari. Founded
in 1537 on the Feast of the Assumption, it has a
cathedral (1845) and a trade in leather, tobacco,
sugar, manioc, and mate or Paraguay tea. Pop.
(1857) 40,000; (1886) 24,838 ; (1901) 51,700.

Atacama', a northern province of Chili, with
an area of 30,400 sq. m., and a population of
70,000. Silver and copper are largely mined, and
gold is also found in considerable quantities.
Capital, Copiapo; pop. 9916. The Desert of

Atacama till the war of 1879 belonged also
partly to Bolivia. Its silver and saltpetre works
have to some extent peopled its solitudes.

At'bara, a tributary of the Nile, rises in
Abyssinia near Lake Tzana, flows mainly north-
west, and after receiving the larger Takazze,
joins the Nile below Berber being its only
tributary below the junction of the White with
the Blue Nile. For some months its course is
almost dry.

Atchafalay'a, an outlet of the Red River or
of the Mississippi, but receiving very little of
the waters of the latter except in time of flood.
It runs nearly southward to Chetimaches Lake,
and after passing through it, reaches the Gulf of
Mexico by Atchafalaya Bay after a course of
about 220 miles.

Atcheen (also Aclieen or Atchin; called by
the Dutch Atjeh), until 1873 an independent
state in the north-west part of Sumatra, now a
province of the Dutch Indies, with an area of
20,501 sq. m., and a pop. of 290,700. The natives
in appearance, dress, character, and manners, are
distinct from the rest of the inhabitants of
Sumatra, being of darker colour and lower
stature, and more active and industrious. The
capital is Kota Radja or Atcheen, in the north-
western extremity, on a stream navigable by
boats, 4 miles from its port Oleh-leh, with
which, since 1876, it has been connected by a
railway. Pop. 10,000.

Atchison, a city of Kansas, U.S., on the Mis-
souri's left bank, 333 miles above St Louis. Nine
railway lines converge here ; and the city has
flour-mills, an iron-foundry, machine-shops, manu-
factures of furniture, carriages, and wagons. Pop.
(1870) 7054 ; (1880) 15,106 ; (1900) 15,722.

Ateshga (' place of fire '), a spot on the penin-
sula of Apsheron, on the west coast of the Caspian
Sea. Many Guebres or Persian Fire- worshippers
still visit it, and bow before the holy flames which
issue from the bituminous soil.

Ates'sa, a town of South Italy, 23 miles SSE.
of Chieti. Pop. 5086.

Ath, or AATH, a fortified town in the province
of Hainault, Belgium, on the navigable Dender,
32 miles SW. of Brussels. Pop. 11,000.

Athabas'ca (locally La Biche, 'red -deer or elk
river '), a river and lake in the North-west Terri-
tory of the Canadian Dominion, forming part of
the great basin of the Mackenzie. The river rises
in the Rocky Mountains, in a little lake at the
foot of Mount Brown, one of the highest points
in the range, and flows over 600 miles NE. and
NW., until it unites with the Peace River, from
beyond the Rocky Mountains, to form the Slave
River, which, again, after passing through Great
Slave Lake, takes the name of the Mackenzie
(q.v.). Lake Athabasca receives nearly all its
waters from, and has its sole outlet in, the Atha-
basca River, which traverses not its length but
its breadth, and that not in its middle, but at its
extremity. It is 230 miles long, and from 14 to
30 broad. It was discovered in 1771 by Samuel
Hearne, and named by him Lake of the Hills.
ATHABASCA, formerly one of the four divisions of
the Canadian North-west, defined in 1882, be-
tween British Columbia and a line to the east of
the Athabasca River, and between the parallels
55 and 60 N. lar. In 1905 it was about equally
divided between the newly formed provinces of
Alberta and Saskatchewan.

Athboy, a market-town of County Meath, on

ATHELNEY

ATLANTA

the river Athboy, 7 miles NW. of Trim. Pop.
613.

Ath'elney, ISLE OF (' island of nobles '), a
marsh at the junction of the rivers Tone and
Parret, in the middle of Somersetshire, 7 miles
ENE. of Taunton. Here Alfred hid himself from
the Danes in 878.

Athenry, in County Galway, 10 miles NW. of
Loughrea. Pop. 850.

Athens, anciently capital of the Greek state of
Attica and centre of Greek culture, now capital
of the modern kingdom of Greece, 4 miles from
its harbour of Piraeus, on the Gulf of -ffigina. The
city, which takes its name from Athena, ' goddess
of science, arts, and arms,' and its own patron
divinity, was originally built on the Acropolis,
a conspicuous limestone rock rising 500 feet above
the Attic plain, and afterwards spread out on
the plain below ; while the Acropolis became the
citadel and subsequently the site of a group of
beautiful temples of the time of Pericles (5th
century, B.C.). The ruins of the Parthenon, the
Erechtheum, the temple of Nike Apteros (' Wing-
less Victory '), and the Propylaea, still remain to
testify to the former glory of the Acropolis. Of
the other ancient buildings the most notable are
the Theseum (also of the Periclean period, and
still almost perfect), and the fragments of the
vast temple of Zeus (begun in 530 B.C. and finished
by the Roman Emperor Hadrian), with the theatre
of Dionysus, &c. Not far from the Acropolis
rose the hill Lycabettus (911 feet), and the hillocks
or ridges of the Pnyx and the Areopagus or Mars
Hill. At a greater distance the plain is bounded
by Hymettus (3368 feet), Pentelicus (3641), and
other ranges. Athens was fabled to have been
founded by the hero Cecrops. The most brilliant
period of its history was when, after the Persian
wars (5th century, B.C.), Athens took the lead
amongst the Greek states, became powerful by
land and sea, was adorned by Pericles with her
most glorious buildings, and brought Greek litera-
ture and Greek philosophy to their highest de-
velopment. Its decline dates from the disastrous
conclusion of the Peloponnesian war (403 B.C.).
It was plundered and ruined by Sulla in 87 B.C. ;
and neither under Byzantine nor Turkish rule
ever attained any prosperity. In the days of her
glory Athens had some 100,000 free inhabitants
and twice as many slaves ; when after the libera-
tion of Greece Athens was made the capital of
the new kingdom (1834), it was a wretched village
of a few hundred houses. Since then it has had
a prosperous growth, looks like a well-built
German town, and had in 1904 a pop. of 115,000,
with a fine royal palace, many handsome private
residences, a university with 50 professors and
more than 1000 students, and a good deal of mis-
cellaneous trade by way of the Piraeus. It is
connected by rail also with Corinth, and the
Athens-Larissa line is to bring Greece into rail-
way communication with the rest of Europe.
See, besides works on Greece, ancient and modern,
Dyer's Ancient Athens (1873). ;

Athens, a name applied to more than twenty
places in the United States. (1) In Georgia, 92
miles WNW. of Augusta. It contains several
cotton factories, and is the seat of the university
of Georgia (1801). Population, above 11,000.
(2) In the south of Ohio, on the Hocking River,
is the seat of the Ohio University (1804). Pop.
3200.

Atherstone, a market-town of Warwickshire,
14 miles N. of Coventry by rail. Drayton was
born close by. Pop. 5300.

Atherton, a township of Lancashire, 13 miles
WNW. of Manchester. Pop. (1871) 7581 ; (1891)
15,833 ; (1901) 16,211.

Athlone, a town of Ireland, on the Shannon,
chiefly in Westmeath, but partly in Roscommon,
80 miles W. of Dublin by rail. The chief manu-
factures are felt-hats, friezes, linens, and stays.
The Shannon is crossed by a fine bowstring and
lattice iron bridge of two arches, 175 and 40 feet
span. Till 1885 Athlone returned one member.
Its castle, founded in King John's reign, in the
war of 1688 was unsuccessfully besieged by Wil-
liam III., but was afterwards taken by General
Ginckell. The fortifications cover 15 acres, and
contain barracks for 1500 men. Pop. 6617.

Ath'ple, a district in the north of Perthshire,
occupying a great part of the southern slopes of
the Grampians.

A'thos (Gr. Hagion Oros, 'Holy Hill'), the
most eastern of the three tongues of the Chalci-
dice Peninsula on the ^Cgean Sea, connected
with the mainland by a low and narrow isthmus,
about a mile across. The length of the peninsula
is about 31 miles ; its breadth varies from 3 to 6
miles. At the southern extremity, a solitary
peak rises abruptly to a height of 6346 feet above
the sea. Xerxes cut a canal through the isth-
mus, traces of which still exist. This peninsula
is the seat of twenty large monasteries, besides
numerous hermitages and chapels. The entire
number of monks is about 6000. They enjoy
complete autonomy, subject to paying the Turk-
ish government an annual tribute of about 3500.
Caryes, the principal place in the peninsula, is
picturesquely situated in the midst of vineyards
and gardens, and has 1000 inhabitants. Here
the market is held ; but no female, even of the
lower animals, is permitted on Athos. In the
middle ages, Athos was the centre of Greek learn-
ing and Christian-Byzantine art. Now learning
is at a very low ebb ; scarcely more than two or
three monks of tolerable education can be found
in a monastery. The libraries are neglected,
though containing several beautiful (but not
important) manuscripts. See works by Curzon
(1849 ; 6th ed. 1881), Athelstan Riley (1887), and
Brockhaus (Leip. 1891).

Athy', the chief town of County Kildare, on
the Barrow, here joined by the Grand Canal, 45
miles SW. of Dublin by rail. Pop. 3(300.

Atitlan, a Central American lake, in Guate-
mala, 24 miles long, and 8 to 10 miles broad. It
seems to occupy the crater of an extinct volcano,
and is of great depth. It has no visible outlet.
High cliffs surround it, and on its southern bank
rises the volcano of Atitlan (12,538 feet), at whose
foot lies the little Indian town of Santiago de
Atitlan, with a pop. of 9000.

Atlanta, a flourishing city of the United
States, capital of Georgia, is situated 1100 feet
above sea-level, 294 miles NW. of Savannah, and
7 miles SE. of the Chattahooch.ee River. Seven
railroads centre at it. Atlanta has an extensive
and rapidly increasing trade in cotton, dry goods,
horses and mules, and especially tobacco. Public
buildings are the custom-house, state-house,
opera-house, the Atlanta University for the edu-
cation of coloured young men and women, Clark
Theological School (coloured Methodist), and two
medical colleges. In September 2, 1864, the city
was captured by the Union troops under General
Sherman, and the entire business portion de-
stroyed by them on leaving it a month later.
Since the restoration of peace, however, its pros-
perity has been uninterrupted and its growth

ATLANTIC CITY 59

rapid. Atlanta was settled in 1840 ; was incor-
porated as the village of Marthasville in 1842 ; as
Atlanta, in 1847. Pop. (1850) 2572 ; (1870) 21,879 ;
(1890) 65,533'; (1900) 89,872.

Atlantic City, a fashionable American health-
resort, on a narrow, sandy island off the coast of
New Jersey, 60 miles SE. of Philadelphia by rail.
Pop. (1870) 1043 ; (1890) 13,055 ; (1900) 27,838.

Atlantic Ocean (so called either from Mount
Atlas or from the fabulous island of Atlantis),
separating the Old from the New World, Europe
and Africa being on the E., and North and South
America on the W. Its greatest width is about
5000 miles, but between Brazil and the African
coast the distance is only about 1600 miles. It is
in open communication with both the Arctic
Ocean and Antarctic or Southern Ocean. The
North Atlantic, stretching from 70 N. to the
equator, has an area of 14,000,000 sq. m. It com-
municates with many inclosed or partially in-
closed seas, such as the Caribbean Sea, Gulf of
Mexico, and Hudson Bay on the west, the Baltic,
North Sea, Mediterranean, and Black Sea on the
east. The South Atlantic from the equator to
40 S. has an area of 10,100,000 sq. m. ; if it be
supposed to extend through the great Southern
Ocean as far as the Antarctic circle, its area is
16,700,000 sq. m.

Towards the centre of the North Atlantic, be-
tween Africa and North America, and in the
centre of the South Atlantic, between Africa and
South America, there are anticyclonic areas of
high atmospheric pressure (over 30 inches), out
of which winds blow in all directions to surround-
ing regions where the pressure is less. The
positions of these high-pressure areas and the
winds that blow out from them, determine the
great oceanic currents and the positions of the
Sargasso seas, for the winds everywhere deter-
mine and control the movements of the surface
waters. The SE. and NE. trades drive the
heated surface waters of the tropics before them,
and eventually produce the Equatorial current,
which on reaching Cage St Roque bifurcates,
one branch becoming the Brazil current of the
South Atlantic, the other and larger branch
passing on to the Caribbean Sea and Gulf of
Mexico, finally issuing from the latter by the
Strait of Florida, forming the Gulf Stream (q.v.),
the greatest and most important of all oceanic
currents. A cold Arctic current passes south-
ward along the shores of Greenland, and unites
off Cape Farewell with the Davis Strait current,
forming the Labrador current, which passes along
the west coast of America, and passes beneath
the Gulf Stream to the south of the banks of
Newfoundland. Icebergs are carried as far south
as 40 N. in the northern and as far north as 38
S. in the southern hemisphere. In the equatorial
regions, the surface water has generally a tem-
perature ranging from 70 to 84 F. ; the tempera-
ture decreases as the depth increases. The warm
water is a relatively thin stratum, the greater
part of ocean water having a temperature below
40 F. It is ice-cold in the Atlantic at the
bottom even beneath the equator. The water of
the Atlantic contains the least salt towards the
poles and in the equatorial belt of calms. The
saltest water (density over 1-0275) is found in the
centre of the trade- wind regions. The salinity of
the deeper waters is considerably below the
average of the surface. The average depth of
the Atlantic is between 2 and 3 miles (2200
fathoms). A low submarine ridge runs down the
centre, from north to south, with an average

ATTICA

depth of about 1700 fathoms over it. On either
side of this ridge there are, both in the North
and South Atlantic, depths of between 3000 and
4000 fathoms. The greatest depth yet met with
is just north of the Virgin Islands (4561 fathoms).
The surface waters from equator to poles swarm
with all kinds of pelagic plants and animals,
many of which emit phosphorescent light, pro-
ducing what is known as luminosity of the sea.
In the centre of the North Atlantic, in the so-
called Sargasso Sea, there are enormous floating
banks of gulf weed (Sargassum bucciferum), on
which a large number of peculiar animals live.
Life has been found to exist at all depths in the
Atlantic, but it becomes less abundant as greater
depths and a greater distance from continental
shores are reached. There are relatively few
oceanic islands. Iceland, the Azores, St Paul's
Bocks, Ascension, and the Tristan da Cunha
group all rise from the central elevation, and are
all of volcanic origin. Jan Mayen rises from the
deep water of the Norwegian Sea. The coral
group of Bermudas rises from the deep water of
the Western North Atlantic. Off the west coast
of Africa are the Canaries, Cape Verds, and
Madeira. In the South Atlantic, to the west of
the central ridge, are Fernando Noronha and
Trinidad, and to the east of the central ridge, St
Helena. There are numerous continental islands,
such as the British Isles, Newfoundland, the West
Indies, the Falklands, and others. The most
civilised nations of the world inhabit the shores
of the Atlantic, and it is the great commercial
highway of the world. It has been sounded in
all directions, and the nature of its bed is so well
known that telegi'aph cables can be laid across
it with great certainty of success. In the neigh-
bourhood of some continental shores, and around
some of the volcanic cones which rise from the
floor of the ocean, there are occasionally very
steep slopes ; but as a rule, the bed of the ocean
is a widespread, gently undulating plain.

Atlas, the great mountain-system of North-
western Africa, stretching north-eastward from
Cape Nun in Morocco to Cape Bon in Tunis, a
distance of 1400 miles. It is not properly a
mountain-chain, but rather a very irregular moun-
tainous mass of land, that attains its greatest
height (13,000 feet) in Miltsin 27 miles SE. of
the city of Morocco, whilst in Algeria the eleva-
tion is only 7673 feet, in Tunis 4476, and in
Tripoli 3200. The slopes on the north, west,
and south are covered with vast forests of pine,
oak, cork, white poplar, wild olive, &c. The
valleys are well watered and capable of cultiva-
tion with great profit.

Atra'to, a river of Colombia, rising on the
Western Cordillera at an altitude of 10,560 feet,
and running 305 miles northward through low
swampy country, till it falls by several mouths,
interrupted by bars, into the Gulf of Darien. It
is navigable by steamers for fully 250 miles,
being 750 to 1000 feet wide, and 8 to 70 feet
deep. A route, surveyed by the United States
government in 1871, proposed to connect the
Atrato and the Jurador, flowing into the Pacific,
by a canal 48 miles long.

Atrauli (Atrowli), a town of British India, in
the United Provinces, 16 miles NE. of Aligarh.
Pop. 18,000.

Atrek, a river of Pe/sia, rising in Khorasan,
and flowing nearly 350 miles westward to the
Caspian Sea, from Shatt downwards along the
boundary with the Russian empire.

At'tica, one of the political divisions or states

ATTLEBOROtIGH

AUDE

Of Hellas or ancient Greece, of which Athens was
the capital. Its area was about 640 sq. m. ;
rather smaller than that of Lanarkshire. To-
day Attica and Boeotia together form a nomarchy
or government of Greece, with an area of 2472
sq. m., and a pop. of 315,000.

Attleborough, a market-town of Norfolk, 16
miles SW. of Norwich. It had a college of the
Holy Cross (1387). Pop. of parish, 2302.

Attleborough, a post-village in Massachusetts,
U.S., 31 miles SW. of Boston by rail. Pop. 11,350.

Attock, a town of the Punjab, on the left
bank of the Indus, here spanned by a great rail-
way bridge (1883). A fort was established here
by the Emperor Akbar in 1581, to defend the
passage of the river, but it is no longer a position
of strength. The situation, however, of Attock
is important, whether in a commercial or in a
military view, it being at the head of the steain-
boat navigation of the Indus, 940 miles from its
mouth. Pop. 4000.

Attrek. See ATREK.

Aubagne (0-bdn'), a town in the French dep. of
Bouches-du-Rhone, on the Huveaune, 10 miles
E. of Marseilles by rail. Pop. 5498.

Aube (OaV), a dep. in the north-east of France,
occupying the southern part of the old province
of Champagne and a small portion of Burgundy.
The western part belongs to the basin of the
Seine ; the eastern to that of the Aube, which
rises near Mount Saule, on the plateau of Lan-
3, and flows 140 miles north-westward by La
Bar, and Acris, to the Seine. Area, 2310
sq. m. Pop. 246,000.

Aubenas (Odb-nd), a town of SE. France, dep.
Ardeche, 50 miles NNE. of Alais by rail. It is
built on a height rising 688 feet above the river
Ardeche, and has a fine old castle. Pop. 5671.

Aubervilliers (0-ber-veel-yay'), in the Seine
dep., 5 miles N. of Paris. Pop. 28,000.

Auburn, or LISSOY, a Westmeath village, 7
miles NE. of Athlone. Goldsmith's father was
rector here, and it is his ' deserted village ; ' the
name ' Auburn ' was taken from his poem.

Auburn, several places in the United States.
(1) In the state of New York, 173 miles W. by
N. of Albany. The outlet of Owasco Lake flows
through the town, furnishing a water-power
which is employed in manufactures of agricultural
machinery, wool, cotton, silk, carpets, iron, &c.
The state prison, founded here in 1816, with over
1000 inmates, has since 1823 been conducted on
the ' silent ' or ' Auburn ' system. There are also
a state asylum and a state armoury. Pop. (1870)
17,225; (1880) 21,924; (1900) 30,345. (2) A town
of Maine, on the west bank of the Androscoggin
River, opposite Lewiston, and 35 miles N. of
Portland by rail. It has manufactures of cotton,
furniture, and boots and shoes. Population,
above 13,000.

Aubusson (0-biis-son s ), a town in the French
dep. of Creuse, in the rocky gorge of the river
Creuse, 47 miles ENE. of Limoges. Pop. 6248.

Auch (Oash), capital of the French dep. of Gers,
on the river Gers, 44 miles S. of Agen by rail.
The Augusta Auscorum of the Romans, it is built
on a hill, whose summit is crowned by the
cathedral (1489-1662), rich in stained glass and
carved woodwork. Pop. 9500.

Auchendrane, a seat 4 miles S. of Ayr, the
scene of Scott's Ayrshire Tragedy.

Auchenheath, a Lanarkshire collier village,
2J miles N. of Lesmahagow. Pop. 640.

Auchensaugh, a Lanarkshire hill, 2 miles
SSE. of Douglas, where in 1712 the Cameronians
founded the Reformed Presbyterian Church.

Auchinblae, a Kincardineshire village, 5 miles
NNE. of Lawrencekirk. Pop. 450.

Auchinleck, an Ayrshire village, 15 miles E.
of Ayr by rail. Pop. 2168. The parish con-
tains Auchinleck House (locally called ' Place
Affleck '), the seat of the Boswells.

Auchmithie, a Forfarshire fishing-village, 3J
miles NNE. of Arbroath. It is the 'Mussel-
crag ' of Scott's Antiquary. Pop. 353.

Auchmuty, a Fife village, on the Leven, 1J
mile W. of Markinch. Pop., with Balbirnie
Mills, 419.

Auchterarder, a Perthshire village, 14 miles
SW. of Perth by rail. Pop. 2276, largely em-
ployed in the woollen manufacture. The oppo-
sition to the presentee to Auchterarder parish
originated (1834) the struggle which ended in the
formation of the Free Church in 1843,

Auchtergaven, a Perthshire parish, 7 miles
N. by W. of Perth. The poet Robert Nicoll was
a native.

Auchtermuchty, a Fife royal burgh, 10J miles
WSW. of Cupar. Pop. 1387.

Auckland, the northern provincial district of
New Zealand, includes fully half of North Island,
and is about 400 miles long by 200 wide at its
widest. The coast-line of nearly 1200 miles is
very long in proportion to the area. Volcanic
action has deeply left its mark on the surface of
Auckland ; and the warm lake and geyser scenery
of the region about 90 miles SE. below the Bay
of Plenty is amongst the most remarkable in
the world. The 'Hot Lake ' district covers an
area 120 miles long by 10 to 15 wide, and includes
hot springs, cisterns of hot water, and mud vol-
canoes ; at Rotorua is an admirably equipped
bathing-boom and sanatorium. The other lakes
are Tarawera, Rotoiti, and Rotomahana. The
wonderful pink and white terraces near Tarawera
Lake were destroyed by a volcanic eruption in
1886. Pop. (1875) 79,104; (1881) 99,451; (1891)
133,267 ; (1901) 175,870.

Auckland, the largest city in the North Island
of New Zealand, on a peninsula 7 miles wide on
the Hauraki Gulf. It stands on the south side
of Waitemata Harbour, one of the finest harbours
in New Zealand ; and its splendid wharves and
graving-docks offer the most complete facilities
for shipping. Auckland is distant from Sydney
1315 miles ; from Melbourne, 1650. It possesses
also a harbour on the western side of the island
in Manukau, only 6 miles across. It has a uni-
versity college and cathedral, and the foundation
stone of a Free Library and Art Gallery was laid
in 1885. Shipbuilding, sugar- refining, rope-
spinning, and brick-making are among the
industries. Pop. (1881) 16,675; (1901) 34,220.
Founded in 1840, and named after Lord Auck-
land, governor-general of India, the town was
capital of New Zealand till 1865.

Auckland Islands, a group of islands about
180 miles to the south of New Zealand. The
largest of them measures 30 miles by 15. It has
two good harbours, and is covered with the richest
vegetation. The Auckland Islands are valuable
chiefly as a whaling station, but are not peopled.
They were annexed by Great Britain in May 1886.

Aude (Oad), a maritime dep. in S. France,
part formerly of Languedoc. Area, 2438 sq. m. ;
population, 313,500. The southern part is occu-
pied by spurs of the Pyrenees, attaining 4037 feet

AUDENSHAW

AUSTRALASIA

in the Pay de Bugarach ; but the greater portion
belongs to the valley of the lower Ancle (130
miles), falling into the Mediterranean. The chief
town is Carcassonne (q.v.).

Audenshaw, a town of Lancashire, 5 miles E.
from Manchester. Pop. 7220.

Audh. See OUDH.

Audley, a town of Staffordshire, 5 miles NW.
of Hanley, with coal and iron works. Pop. 13,700.

Audley End, Essex, l mile SW. of Saffron
Walden, the seat of Lord Braybrooke.

Auerstadt (Ow'er-stet), a village of Prussian
Saxony, 10 miles W. of Naumburg. Here, in Octo-
ber 1806, the French defeated the Prussians.

Aughnacloy, a Tyrone town, on the Black-
water, 10 miles SW. of Dungannon. Pop. 974.

Aughrim. See AGHRIM.

Augsburg, a city of Bavaria, capital of the
province of Swabia, is situated in the angle
between the rivers Wertach and Lech, 37 miles
WNW. of Munich. It has a noble street, the
Maximilian Strasse, adorned with three bronze
fountains (1593-1602) ; and the principal edifices
are the Renaissance town-house (1620), with its
splendid 'Golden Hall;' the Perlach Tower,
dating from the llth century ; the former epis-
copal palace, where, on 25th June 1530, the
Protestant princes presented the Augsburg Con-
fession to Charles V. ; the grand old mansion of
the merchant-princes, the Fuggers ; the ' Three
Moors,' one of the most interesting hostelries
in Germany; and the Gothicised Romanesque
cathedral (994-1421), with its bronze doors and
early glass-paintings. The industry of Augsburg
is once more vigorous. Cotton is now the staple
manufacture, besides woollens, paper, tobacco,
machinery, gold and silver wares, brewing, print-
ing, lithography, and bookselling. Pop. (1871)
51,270; (1900) 89,500 ; of whom 66 per cent, were
Catholics. The Emperor Augustus in 12 B.C.
here founded the 'colony' of Augusta Vlndeli-
corum, which in 1276 became a free city of the
empire, and which was the centre of German art
as represented by the Holbeins, Burgkmair,
Altdorfer, <fcc. The discovery of the Cape route
to India, and of America, dried up the sources of
Augsburg's prosperity. It ceased to be a free
city on the abolition of the German empire in
1806, and was taken possession of by Bavaria.

Augusta, or AGOSTA, a fortified seaport of
Sicily, 11 miles N. of Syracuse by rail. Pop.
12,210. Near it, in 1676, the French under
Duquesne gained a great naval victory over a
Spanish and Dutch fleet under De Ruyter.

Augusta (1), the capital of Maine, U.S., on the
Kennebec, 63 miles NNE. of Portland by rail. A
dam, 17 feet high, affords considerable water-
power ; there are several cotton and other mills ;
and in 1886 a new system of waterworks was
introduced. Augusta contains a U.S. arsenal ;
and at Togus, 4 miles distant, is one of the
national institutions for disabled soldiers. Pop.
(1880) 8665; (1900) 11,683. (2) The third city of
Georgia, U.S., on the Savannah River, 231 miles
from its mouth, but only 132 from Savannah by
rail. It is the head of steamboat navigation on
the river, which is here spanned by three bridges,
connecting the town with Hamburg, S.C., and
which is crossed by a stone dam, 1720 feet in
length, from which a canal, 8 miles long and 150
feet wide, supplies water both for domestic use
and for the cotton and other mills. Augusta is
the seat of the Medical College of Georgia (1832).
Pop. (I860) 12,493 ; (1880) 21,891 ; (1900) 39,540.

Augustenburg, a village of 600 inhabitants
on a bay of the island of Alsen (q.v.). Its castle
(1776) was formerly the residence of the Dukes of
Holstein-Sonderburg- Augustenburg.

Augusto'vo, a town of Russian Poland, on the
Netta, a feeder of the Bug, 138 miles NE. of
Warsaw. Pop. 13,094.

Augustus, FORT. See FORT AUGUSTUS.

Aulapolai', or ALLEPPI, a seaport, with a
lighthouse, in Travancore state, Madras, 33 miles
S. of Cochin. Pop. 25,000.

Auldearn, a Nairnshire village, 2$ miles ESE.
of Nairn. Near it Montrose won his fourth
victory, 9th May 1645. Pop. 313.

Aumale (0-mdl'), an unimportant town of 1966
inhabitants, in the French dep. of Seine-
Inferieure, on the Breste. Since 1547 it has
given the title of duke to various families.
AUMALE, a town of Algeria, 57 miles SE. of
Algiers, is a strong military post. Pop. 3706.

Auray (O'ray), a port in the French dep. of
Morbihan, 20 miles E. of Lorient by rail. Here
is a large deaf and dumb institute ; and 2 miles
north is the famous place of pilgrimage of St
Anne of Auray. Pop. 5517.

Aurich (Ow'rihh), in the Prussian province of
Hanover, almost in the centre of East Friesland,
16 miles NE. of Emden by rail. Pop. 6399.

Aurillac (0-reel-yac), capital of the French dep.
of Cantal, on the Jourdanne, 116 miles SW. of
Clermont. Pop. 14,756.

Aurora (1), a city of Illinois, U.S., on Fox River,
at the junction of several railroads, 39 miles
WSW. of Chicago. It has machine-shops, flour-
mills, manufactories of woollens, cottons, watches,
corsets, silver ware, carriages, and extensive rail-
road workshops. Pop. (1860) 6011 ; (1880) 11,873 ;
(1900) 24,147. (2) A city of Missouri, 270 miles
SW. of St Louis, in a mining region. Pop. 6500.

Aurungabad, the name of at least four places
in India, the most important being in the state
of Hyderabad, on the Doodna, a tributary of the
Godavery. It has a ruined palace of Aurungzebe,
and the mausoleum of his daughter. Pop. 36,850.

Auskerry, an Orkney island, 2 miles S. of
Stronsay. Pop. 7.

Aussee, a town in the Salzkammergut of Styria,
at the confluence of three mountain-streams,
which form the Traun, 23 miles SE. of Ischl by
rail. Situated 2171 feet above the level of the
sea, it has mineral springs and baths and pretty
villas, and is visited by some 6000 strangers
annually. Pop. 1569.

Aussig, a town of Bohemia, on the Elbe, here
joined by the Biela, 66 miles NNW. of Prague.
It has large chemical works. Pop. 37,270.

Austerlitz (Czech Slavlcov), a town of Moravia,
on the Littawa, 12 miles ESE. of Briinn. Pop.
3500. Here, on 2d December 1805, Napoleon
defeated the Russians and Austrians.

Austin, the capital of Texas, U.S., on the
Colorado River, 166 miles W. by N. of Houston.
It has a State Capitol (1887) and a State Uni-
versity. Austin was named after the founder of
the state of Texas. Pop. 22,500.

Australa'sia is a term etymologically equal
to Southern Asia; but used to indicate Australia
and the adjoining islands Tasmania, New Zea-
land, Papua or New Guinea. New Caledonia, the
New Hebrides, New Ireland, and New Britain.
The term would thus exclude the Malay Archi-
pelago, Micronesia, and Polynesia proper ; but
some authors include these great groups of

AUSTRALIA

62 AUSTRALIA

Islands also, making the name therefore equi-
valent to Oceania. Popularly, on the other hand,
it means the ' Australian Colonies ' of Great
Britain, including Tasmania, New Zealand, Fiji,
&c.

Australia, by far the largest island on the
earth's surface, and with or without adjoining
islands, reckoned one of the continents, lies
between 10 39' and 39 ll' S. lat., and between
113 5' and 153 16' E. long. It has a length from
west to east of about 2400 miles ; and a breadth
from north to south of 1971 miles ; with a total
area of 2,944,628 sq. in., about one-fourth less
than that of Europe, or more than twenty-five
times that of Great Britain and Ireland. By the
shortest route, its nearest point is 11,000 miles
distant from England. It is separated from New
Guinea by Torres Strait, 90 miles broad, and
from Tasmania by Bass Strait, 140 miles wide ;
on the NW., W., and S., it is washed by the
Indian Ocean; and on the E., by the South
Pacific. This island-continent is, above all other
continents, exceedingly compact, with an almost
unbroken outline on the east and west. Parallel
with the east coast, at a distance of about 60
miles, stretches for 1200 miles the Great Barrier
Reef. The name Australia in its present signifi-
cation was suggested by Captain Flinders, and
came into use about 1817.

The island is mainly a plateau with a pre-
cipitous face outwards, and at most places
bounded by a strip of lower-lying land between
that face and the sea-coast. The eastern edge
of the plateau averages 2000 feet in height, the
western but 1000 feet; while there is in all
directions an inclination towards a central de-
pression somewhat south and east of the actual
centre of the continent. One great river, the
Murray, Australia's only great river, drains by
means of its many large tributaries Darling,
Murrain bidgee, &c. the whole of the south
portion of the eastern half of the plateau, most
of Victoria, New South Wales, the south of
Queensland, and the east of South Australia ; and
in the SE. corner is the principal mountain range,
the Australian Alps (highest points Mount Town-
send, 7350 feet, and Mount Kosciusko, 7308)
continued northwards into New South Wales by
the Blue Mountains, the Liverpool Range, &c.
There is no drainage into the interior in the
western part of the plateau, which is but slightly
inclined : and here the slight and irregular rain-
fall collects in salt marshes, which sometimes in
flood greatly extend their area. Next to the
Murray, the most important rivers are the Fitz-
roy and the Burdekin in Queensland. By far the
best part of the continent for European settle-
ment and European agriculture is the south-
east Victoria, New South Wales, and part of
South Australia both on and outside of the
plateau. Queensland is rich and fertile, but
tropical and sub-tropical. The northern coast
strip is largely covered with tropical forests. A
portion only of Western Australia is available
for agriculture or pastoral occupation. Consid-
erable areas of the interior are hopeless, irre-
claimable, almost impassable sandy desert ; but
much of the interior area, covered with scrub and
prickly plants, might under irrigation become
available for human occupation.

The foundation of the plateau is granite, some-
times replaced by palaeozoic slates and schists
inclined so as to stand almost on edge. Above
both are in east and south-east coal-bearing areas,
of both mesozoic and palaeozoic age. The central
depression is of cretaceous age. The higher

edges of the plateau are all volcanic, craters,
asli cones, and ash beds being still very con-
spicuous in many places. Gold, discovered in
New South Wales in 1851, has since been found
in all the Australian colonies, especially Vic-
toria, Queensland, and New South Wales. In
1851-91, Australia produced about 100,000,000 oz.
valued at over 350,000,000. Of late years the
gold produce has much fallen off. There are
rich silver-mines in New South Wales, copper-
mines in South Australia, and tin-mines in
Queensland. There are great coal-fields in New
South Wales and Queensland ; and iron has been
found in several colonies. Lead, bismuth, anti-
mony, diamonds, and various kinds of precious
stones form part of Australia's mineral wealth.

In proportion to its size, Australia, lying
mostly within the temperate zone, enjoys on the
whole an equable climate, although subject to
great occasional irregularities ; in general, hot
and dry, and remarkably salubrious. Within
the tropics, it has its rainy season in summer
(November to April) ; south of the tropics, almost
exclusively in winter. The principal mountains,
both for extent and height, lying to the east
or windward side, receive by far the heaviest
tribute of moisture brought by the winds from
the Pacific ; and, as a rule, the amount of rainfall
on the east side is in inverse proportion to the
distance from the east coast. The west side has
far less rain than the east, and there the rainfall
is proportionate to the proximity to the west
coast. What moisture is left in the winds after
their passage across the highlands, the intense
heat rising from the central plains tends to dis-
sipate, instead of allowing it to condense into
rain. South Australia, Victoria, and in a less
degree, New South Wales, are exposed to hot
winds from the interior which rapidly raise the
temperature of the lands they visit to 115 or
higher, and are followed by an equally sudden
fall. Melbourne has a mean temperature of 58 ;
Sydney, 63; Adelaide, a little higher; Perth,
about the same as at Sydney. Captain Sturt
found the mean temperature of the interior for
three months over 101 F. in the shade, and the
drought such as to unloosen the screws of his
boxes, split his combs into thin laminae, make
the leads drop out of his pencils, and his finger-
nails become brittle as glass ; the season was,
however, an exceptional one, and good pastoral
country exists within a short distance of what
he described as the 'Stony Desert.' The east
highlands have a greater proportion of snow than
their latitude and height would argue. At 5000
feet of altitude, in certain situations, snow lies
all the year round, and many of the higher
mountains are covered with snow all the winter.

The worst feature in the climate of Australia
is the total uncertainty and inequality of the
rainfall in all parts of the continent, menacing
the whole country with almost equally distress-
ing alternations of drought and flood. Droughts
sometimes completely wither up vegetation over
large tracts of land, to the destruction of many
thousands of cattle. The ordinary drought itself
renders almost all the rivers of Australia, with the
exception of the Murray proper, merely intermit-
tent ; shrunk for months together into straggling
water-holes, with or without some connecting
thread of stream. As rivers, they really cease
to exist for a longer or shorter period every year.
Even the Murray is only navigable at certain
seasons of the year. The rainy season, on the
other hand, swells these pools into terrific floods,
inundating the country, and often most seriously

AUSTRALIA

destroying property. Most successful irrigation
colonies have been established at Mildura in
Victoria, and Renmark in South Australia, both
utilising the waste waters of the River Murray.
Water for the use of stock in summer is exten-
sively stored in dams, and large tracts of country
with no surface-water have been made available
for settlement by sinking wells. In some dis-
tricts where the conformation is favourable,
artesian wells have proved a success.

The vegetation of Australia is altogether
unique, standing at a long interval from that
of all other quarters of the globe ; but it is
exceedingly abundant in species. These, it is
calculated, number about 10,000 considerably
more than are to be found in all Europe. A
peculiarity of Australian vegetation is the abund-
ance of 'scrub' the 'mallee,' 'mulga,' &c.
The highlands are rich in wood, such as that of
the gum-trees of the genus Eucalyptus, growing
to a height of 250 feet, with a girth of 12 to 20
feet ; one felled giant measuring as much as 480
feet. Then in the south and west, and even a
little into the interior, though less abundantly
there, are the valuable shea-oaks, beef-woods, or
Casuarinas. The ' wattles ' or acacias, abounding
everywhere in the country, and comprising over
300 species, are also a most characteristic feature
of Australia, with lovely yellow blossoms, and
generally fragrant. The Australian bush is
fragrant all the year. Australia affords so wide
a variety of climate and soil that most European
trees and plants have been successfully intro-
duced. The Scotch thistle has become a serious
nuisance.

The zoology of Australia is even more peculiar
than its botany. The mammalia of other lands
are totally wanting here, except some rats and
mice, and the dingo or wild dog, while the mar-
supials or pouch-bearing mammalia of Australia
have but the opossums of America to represent
them in any other part of the world. The largest
of the marsupials are the kangaroo, hare kangaroo,
and rat kangaroo. The fruit-eating bat, or flying-
fox, is found. Then there are opossums and
phalangers. The wombat is the largest of the
marsupials, next to the kangaroo. The ant-eater
of Western Australia is of the size of a squirrel.
The ornithorhynchus, platypus, duck-mole, or
water-mole, having no teeth or marsupial pouch,
has broad webbed feet, a horny mandible like
a duck-bill, and is oviparous. Australia favours
the acclimatisation of animal as well as plant
life, and the rabbit has proved so prolific as to
require special public eiforts for its suppression.
The camel has done excellent service in the work
of exploration.

The birds, if not quite so unique and strange a
feature of Australia as are its mammalia, excel
those of all other temperate lands for beauty of
plumage and fineness of form. Passing over the
splendid parrots and cockatoos, we note for their
singularity of figure or brilliancy of feather, the
regent-bird, rifle-bird, fly-catcher, and lyre-bird.
Notable are also honey-suckers, brush-turkeys,
the bower-birds, the emu and cassowary, and the
Podargi, of enormous mouth 'more-porks,' as
they are called, from their singular cry. Alto-
gether, Australia has 650 distinct species of birds
to muster against Europe's 500. Of reptiles,
Australia has no less than 140 different kinds,
its largest lizard measuring from 4 to 6 feet.
Nor does Australia want for snakes. Though
destitute of both the vipers and pit-vipers, it
makes up for this by the Elapidse (a family
including the Indian cobras), constituting two-

thirds of the snakes of Australia, all poisonous,
though only five kinds are fatally so. The black
snake of Australia measures from 5 to 8 feet long.
Australia abounds, moreover, in insects, beauti-
ful and peculiar. English singing and game
birds have been largely introduced. The com-
mon sparrow has multiplied to such an extent
that it has become a pest. Axis deer and Angora
goats have been acclimatised.

Almost as much as its botany and zoology,
the human natives of Australia are isolated and
peculiar, separated by a wide remove from the
Papuans, the Malays, and the Negroes. Of a
dark coffee-brown complexion, rather than
actually black, the Australian stands not much
short of the average European in height, but is
altogether of much slimmer and feebler build ;
his legs, in particular, are very lean and destitute
of calves (a defect common to dark races). His
head is long and narrow, with a low brow promi-
nent just above the eyes, but receding thence in
a very marked degree. The nose, proceeding
from a narrow base, broadens outwardly to a
somewhat squat end. The face bulges into high
cheek-bones. The mouth is big and uncouth,
the upper jaw projecting over the lower, but
with fine white teeth. The whole head and face,
and indeed the whole person, is covered with a
profusion of hair, which, when freed of its
usually enclogging oil and dirt, is soft and
glossy. The intellect of the Australian, directed
almost exclusively to the means of procuring
food, operates wholly within the range of the
rudest bodily senses ; but inside that elementary
sphere, displays no little nimbleness and skill.
He is unsurpassed in tracking and running down
his prey ; and his weapons, though of the most
primitive kind, are well adapted to assist him
in that purpose, whilst his rude culinary and
domestic apparatus manifests equal skill. His
language, within its very circumscribed sensuous
sphere, is fairly expressive and complete ; and
in the facility with which he learns to chatter
foreign languages is noteworthy. Outside this
circle, however, all is blank to the Australian.
In summer the natives roam about naked, and
sense of shame seems almost wholly undeveloped
in them. Morality is entirely reduced to the
notion of property, wives being one item in a
man's chattels the stealing of which has a definite
punishment attached to it. Yet the ' black
fellows ' are capable of loyal affection and grati-
tude. Without doubt they have often murdered
Europeans, but in many cases this was but more
or less legitimate reprisal for prior atrocities
committed by the convicts or other reckless
Europeans. None of them have fixed habita-
tions ; caves may be taken advantage of, but
usually the best habitation they have is a screen
of twigs and bushes, covered with foliage or turf;
sometimes, however, logs of wood and turf serve
for a few days' or weeks' shelter. By way of
food the Australian devours the kangaroo, emu,
opossum, wombat, lizards, snakes (of which the
head is rejected), frogs, larvae, white ants, moths,
which are usually roasted, fire being produced
by rubbing together two pieces of stick. His
boomerang is an ingenious throw-stick, and is
skilfully used even for knocking down birds on
the wing. There is no government among this
people outside that of the family, and no laws
except traditionary rules about property. In the
way of religion they have little save their terror
of ghosts and demons, and some superstitious
traditional rites applicable to certain epochs in a
man's life, more particularly at his burial. Their

AUSTRALIA

marriage customs are curious, the fundamental
principle being exogamy, the custom which pro-
hibits a man from marrying a woman of his own
tribe. They cannot usually count beyond five.
Like almost all other savages, the native Aus-
tralians are rapidly vanishing before the advance
of civilisation. In the settled districts some of
them are usefully employed as shepherds and
stockmen, but the majority prefer nomadic habits.
The intermittent use of European clothing induces
consumption, while the diseases and vices they
acquire from Europeans are another potent
factor of their destruction. The lowest estimate
of their number, prior to European settlement
among them, gives over 150,000 ; they are now
calculated at less than half that figure.

Some old 15th and 16th century maps show,
where the north of Australia is, a territory
of various outline named Java Major, or Java
the Greater ; and it seems probable that after
Magellan's death his followers sighted Western
Australia in 1522. The present Torres Strait
refers to the presence of Torres there in 1606.
Dirk Hartog Island in the west carries us back
to Dirk Hartog and the year 1616. Arnhem
Peninsula is a reminiscence of the Dutch vessel
Arnhem, which in 1618 explored the coast of
that land. The Dutch ship, Guldene Zeepaard,
in 1627 sighted a large part of the south coast
from Cape Leeuwin eastwards. The Gulf of
Carpentaria was named, probably by Tasman,
after Carpentier, governor of the Dutch Indies,
1623-27. All the early explorers brought back a
forbidding report of desolate shores thinly occu-
pied by brutal savages. In 1688 Australia was
first seen by British eyes in the person of
Dampier, who gives name to an archipelago in
the NW. Near a century later (1770) we find
Captain Cook at this island-continent, on his
course of circumnavigation of the globe, explor-
ing the whole eastern coast from Gipps Land on
the SE. (in Victoria) to Cape York; and the
exploration of the whole coast of Australia was
completed by the Beagle (in which Charles
Darwin sailed), 1837-43.

Inland exploration began with the first British
occupation of New South Wales in 1788, but for
the first twenty-five years was confined inside
the Blue Mountains, to a district of some 50
miles inland. In 1813, however, that barrier
was passed, and the valley of the Fish River and
Bathurst Plains were brought within the limits
of civilisation. Two years later (1815) the Lach-
lan River (tributary of the Murrumbidgee) was
lighted on. Important later explorations were
those of Hume and Sturt (1819-28), Mitchell
(1835), Eyre (1839-40), Sturt (1844-45), Leichardt
(1843-46), M'Donall Stuart (1862, across the con-
tinent from south to north), Burke and Wills
(disastrous, same date), Gregory (1861), Jardine
(1864). Later still, using the trans-continental
telegraph of 1872 as a basis, were the expeditions
of Giles, Warburton, and Forrest ; and those of
Hodgkinson, Giles, Favenc, Hann, Crawford,
Stockdale, Carrington, Lindsay, Tenison- Woods,
Milman, and Tietkins. These expeditions seem
to demonstrate that much of the interior of
Australia, between the west of the overland
telegraph line and the east of the narrow hilly
border of Western Australia, is little better than
desert unmitigated sand, dense scrub, or porcu-
pine grass. A considerable area in the east of
Western Australia is yet unexplored ; as also are
the adjoining parts of the Northern Territory of
South Australia, and the interior of Cape York
Peninsula.

The first European settlement in Australia was
made in 1788 at Botany Bay under Captain
Phillip, but was almost immediately transferred
to the adjoining Port Jackson, close to where
Sydney now is ; it comprised in all 1030 persons,
of whom 757 were convicts. In 1825 Moreton
Bay (now Queensland) was settled as a part of
New South Wales, attaining in December 1859
the position of a separate colony. The settle-
ment of Western Australia (the Swan River Set-
tlement, as it was then called) dates from 1829.
It continued to be a penal settlement from 1851
to 1868. Port Phillip (now Victoria), then a part
of New South Wales, was first colonised in 1835,
and on 1st July 1851 was constituted an inde-
pendent colony. The colonisation of South Aus-
tralia by British emigrants dates from 1836.

Especially after the discovery of gold in 1851,
Australia advanced in all departments of material
well-being at a rate surpassing that of any other
country on the globe. In 1801 the settlement
at and about Sydney had increased to 5547
persons ; in 1835 the European settlers of Aus-
tralia (including Tasmania) amounted to 80,000.
By 1851 the population had risen to 350,000.
The discovery in that year of the gold-fields
caused a sudden and enormous inrush of immi-
grants from all parts of the world ; now Aus-
tralia alone has over 3,800,000, and Australasia
4,600,000. The population is, of course, almost
all of European origin, the predominating ele-
ment being British. The British-born are no
longer the most numerous element in the colonial
populations, the native-born being now over three-
fourths. Chinese and Germans number about
30,000 and 38,500 respectively; there are many
Polynesians (' Kanakas ') in Queensland ; not to
speak of Scandinavians, Americans, and French.
The largest cities are Melbourne, capital of Vic-
toria ; Sydney, of New South Wales ; Adelaide, of
South Australia ; Brisbane, of Queensland ; Ball-
arat, in Victoria, and Sandhurst, also in Victoria.

The Commonwealth of Australia, comprising the
five Australian ' states ' (heretofore colonies) and
Tasmania, was sanctioned by the British Parlia-
ment on July 9, 1900, and proclaimed in Sydney
on January 1, 1901. The Executive is vested in the
Governor -general (representing the sovereign),
assisted by an Executive Council of seven minis-
ters of state, who must be members of the
Federal Parliament. The Legislature consists of
the Governor-general, a Senate, and a House of
Representatives. The Senate, corresponding to
the House of Lords in Britain, has 36 members
(6 from each state) elected for six years, half of
them being renewed every three years ; in cer-
tain circumstances it may be dissolved by the
Governor-general and entirely re-elected. The
House of Representatives, corresponding to the
British House of Commons, has 75 members
elected for three years, and apportioned among
the separate states according to population New
South Wales sending 26 ; Victoria, 23 ; Queens-
land, 9 ; South Australia, 7 ; Western Australia,
5 ; and Tasmania, 5. Members of both Houses
receive 400 per annum.

The Federal Parliament legislates on all matters
affecting the Commonwealth as a whole, such as
commerce, railways, shipping, firiance, defence,
postal and telegraph services, emigration, &c.,
leaving more local matters to be dealt with by
the state parliaments. Each state has a gover-
nor, a Legislative Council, and Legislative
Assembly. See the separate articles.

There is no state church in Australia. In
respect of numbers, Episcopacy is the dominant

AUSTRALIA

form of religion, Roman Catholics come second,
Presbyterians third, and Methodists fourth. Edu-
cation has of late been rapidly diffusing itself.
In all the colonies education is either free and
compulsory, or the primary schools are all so
liberally endowed by the government as to place
elementary instruction within the reach of all
classes ; while libraries, museums, botanical
gardens, schools of art, mechanics' institutes,
&c., are multiplying in all the colonies under
the liberal patronage of the several governments.
There are universities in Melbourne, Sydney,
and Adelaide, and also well-equipped astron-
omical observatories.

Literary enterprise in Australia is mainly ab-
sorbed in journalism, as may well be believed
when it is mentioned that in the Australasian
colonies, including Tasmania and New Zealand,
some 800 newspapers, magazines, and periodicals
are published, many of them dailies. The current
book literature is of course mainly that of the
old country ; and of the literature produced in
the colonies, by far the greater part is still the
work of men born and bred in Britain. In
literature proper, there are but few outstanding
names those of Lindsay Gordon, Marcus Clarke,
Henry Kendall, P. W. Hume, Mrs Campbell
Praed, and ' Rolfe Boldrewood,' being perhaps
the best known.

The chief and most general staple produce of
Australia, for which the country is peculiarly
adapted, and which constitutes its largest export,
is wool. Over all the highlands and the river-
lands of the sea- border wherever, in fact, there is
water sheep thrive remarkably, except perhaps
within the tropics, and the wool is of the finest
quality, realising the highest prices in the English
market. The exports of wool from Australia
have an annual value of from 16,000,000 to
20,000,000 (New South Wales alone sending to
the amount of from 7,300,000 to 11,300,000 a
year in 1882-91). The cereals of Europe and maize
have been introduced into the island-continent
with the happiest success. Potatoes everywhere
yield abundantly. The vine is extensively culti-
vated. Sugar is a very important product of
Queensland ; tobacco, cotton, arrowroot, and
bananas are also largely grown.

The trade of Australia exhibits a remarkable
development, the average of trade per inhabitant

being about five times that of Europe, and nearly
five times that of Canada. The imports of Aus-
tralia have risen from 35,557,716 in 1874, to
68,129,455 in 1901 ; the exports in the same
period from 36,724,866 to 75,026,787. It has
not escaped the influence of the wave of depres-
sion which has affected the whole of the civilised
world during recent years, followed by many
financial disasters, including the stoppage of
many of the banks. The borrowing powers of
the various governments have been much too
freely used, and many of the public works are
unproductive, and the public debt has become
burdensome. The exports consist principally of
wool, frozen meat, preserved meat, tallow, skins
of all kinds, hides, wheat, cotton, sugar, and
wine. New South Wales, alone of all the divi-
sions of Australia, has (since the governorship
of Sir Hercules Robinson, 1872-79) adopted the
principle of free-trade. A heavy protective tariff
prevails in Victoria, and the example of this
colony has been followed by South Australia.

Since 1870, railways and telegraphs have been
increasing rapidly ; there is railway
from Adelaide, via Melbourne and Sydney, to

lway connection

Brisbane, communication having been completed
in 1888 ; and there are shorter lines in the several
colonies. At the end of 1902 the railway lines of the
Commonwealth already working measured 13,821
miles,and 1065 miles were in course of construction.
Telegraphically, the colonies are now all linked
together with Tasmania and New Zealand, and
with the mother-country via Java and India.

Manufactures suitable to the country are rap-
idly developing. Magnificent lines of steamers
maintain frequent communication with Europe
and America, between the various colonies, and
with the Fiji Islands and New Caledonia. Mails
have been delivered in Adelaide in twenty-nine
days from London vid Brindisi, and the sea-
passage between Adelaide and Plymouth may be
covered in about thirty-five days. Mails have
been delivered at King George's Sound in less
than twenty-four days from London. The length
of the voyage in sailing-ships ranges generally
from severity to one hundred days.

The following are some of the statistics of the
Australian colonies, as shown in the official tables
for the census year 1901. For comparison those
of New Zealand are added.

STATISTICS 1901.

COLONIES.

Area in
Sq. Miles.

Pop. in

1891.

Pop. in
1901.

Revenue
in 1901.

Public Debt
in 1301.

Imports in
1901.

Exports in
1901.

Acres under
crop in 19014

Victoria
New South Wales
Queensland
South Australia.
West Australia.
Tasmania

87,884
310,367
668,497
903,690
975,920
26,215

1,140,405
1,132,234
393,718*
320,431*
49,782*
146,667

1,201,341
1,359,133
496,596*
362,604*
184,124*
172,475

7,702,818
10,805,543
4,096,290
2,661,549
3,142,912
826,163

50,013,552
61,479,662
38,534,614
26,448,805
11,709,430
9,095,735

18,927,340
26,928,218
6,376,239
7,478,288
6,454,171
1,965,199

18,646,097
27,351,124
9,249,366
8,318,820
8,515,623
2,945,757

2,913,296
2,567,215
307,344
2,188,707
217,124
513,719

TOTAL
New Zealand . . .

2,972,573
104,471

3,183,237
626,658t

3,776,273

772, 71 9 1

29,235,275
6,217,789

197,281,798
52,966,447

68,129,455
11,817,915

75,026,787
12,881,424

8,707,405
12,195,542

GRAND TOTAL..

3,077,044

3,809,895

4,548,992

35,453,064

250,248,245

79,947,370

87,908,211

20,902,947

Exclusive of aborigines. f Exclusive of Maoris (43,143 in 1901). J Including sown grasses and hay.

See also the articles VICTORIA, NEW SOUTH
WALES, QUEENSLAND, SOUTH AUSTRALIA, WEST-
ERN AUSTRALIA, and those on the great cities,
&c., of Australia ; the Australian Handbook and
other annuals ; The Australian Encyclopaedia,
edited by G. C. Levey, C.M.G. (1892) ; A. Trollope,
Australia and New Zealand (1873) ; A. R. Wallace,
4li>stralasia (1893) ; historical works by Bonwick

(1882), Rusden (1883), Allen (1882), Sir Henry
Parkes (1892), and Greville Tregarthen (' Nations'
series, 1893) ; a history of exploration by Favenc
(1888); R. Wallace, Rural Economy and Agri-
culture of Australia and New Zealand (1891) ;
works on the aborigines by Dawson (1881) and
Curr (1888) ; and D. B. W. Sladen's Australian
Poets and A Century of Australian Song (1888).

AUSTRIA

Austria, the usual name of the great empire
now officially called the AUSTRO - HUNGARIAN
MONARCHY, is a Latinised form of the German
Oesterrcich (Fr. Autriche), meaning ' Eastern King-
dom." Since 18G7, the empire is composed of a
union of two states under one emperor, but ad-
ministratively distinct. The one is Austria, or
Cisleithania (' on this side the Leitha,' a tributary
of the Danube on the frontiers of the archduchy
of Austria and Hungary) ; the other, Hungary
and the lands of the Hungarian crown, or Trans-
leithania. The Austrian dominions form geo-
graphically a compact territory, with a circum-
ference of about 5350 miles. The total area,
240,456 sq. m., is greater than that of any other
European state save Russia, and is nearly twice
the area of the United Kingdom. The body of
the empire lies in the interior of Europe, though
it has about 500 miles of sea-coast on the Adri-
atic. Austria borders on Italy, Switzerland,
Bavaria, Saxony, Prussia, Russia, Roumania,
Servia, and Montenegro. The nominally Turkish
provinces of Bosnia and Herzegovina, occupied
and administered by Austria, are for all practical
purposes part of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy,
though not included as such in official statistics.
The following table shows the area and popula-
tion of the empire at the censuses of 1880 and
1900:

I. AUSTRIAN LANDS

Lower Austria

Upper Austria

Salzburg

Btyria

Carinthia

Carniola

Istria, Trieste, Ac

Tyrol and Vorarlberg

.. 3,084
_ ..11,324

Bohemia 19,980

Moravia 8,583

Silesia 1,987

Galicia 30,307

Bukowina 4,035

Dalmatia 4,940

Area in Population Population
sq, miles. in 1880. in 1900.
2,329,021

760,879

163,566
1,212,367

348,670

481,176

650,897

911,887
5,557,134
2,151,619

565,772
5,951,954

7,654
4,631
2,767
8,670
4,005

193,247

1.356,058

367,344

755,183

979,878

6,318,280

2,435,081

476,164

7,295,538
729,921
691,597

Total for Austria.. 115,823 22,130,705 26,107,304
II. LANDS OF THE HUNGARIAN CROWN

Hungary & Transylvania 107,858 13,700,005 16,653,332

Fiume 8 21,363 38,139

Croatia and Slavonia 16,767 1,889,351 2,512,060

Total for Hungary 124,633 15,610,719 19,203,531

Total for the Monarchy.240,456 37,741,424 45,310,835

The area of Bosnia and Herzegovina is 23,179
Sq. in., and the pop. in 1895 was estimated at
1,738,092. In 1900 the capital, Vienna, had a
pop. of 1,622,269; and there were in the empire
seven other towns above 100,000 (Budapest,
Prague, Trieste, Lemberg, Gratz, Briin, Szegedin),
and thirteen others above 50,000.

Three-fourths of Austria is mountainous or
hilly, being traversed by three great mountain-
chains the Alps, Carpathians, and Sudetes,
whose chief ridges are of primitive rock. The
Rhaetian and Noric Alps stretch from Switzerland
to the Danube, and contain the highest points of
the Austrian territories, the Ortler Spitze risin^
to 12,814 feet. The Carpathian Chain, extending
for 880 miles, rises on the left bank of the
Danube, near Presburg, and sweeping in a curve,
first east, and then southward through Transyl-
vania, again meets the Danube ; it culminates at
8517 feet. The Sudetes run through the north-
east of Moravia and Bohemia, in which last the
range is known as the Riesengebirge, or Giant
Mountains. Continuous with this range, but

beginning on the left bank of the Elbe, are the
Erzgebirge, or Ore Mountains, on the confines
of Saxony. The chief plains of the Austrian
empire are the vast lowlands of Hungary and
the plain of Galicia. The chief lakes are Lake
Balaton (382 sq. m.) and the Neusiedler See (117),
both in Hungary ; and remarkable is also the
Zirknitz Lake (q.v.) in Illyria.

The leading rivers are : the Danube, which has
a course of 850 miles within the Austrian
dominions, its navigable affluents being the Inn,
Save, Drave, March, Waag, and the Thoiss, which
drains nearly half of Hungary ; the Vistula, with
its tributary the Bug ; the Elbe, with the Moldau
and Eger ; the Dniester and Adige.

The climate of Austria varies much on account
of the extent and diversity of the surface. In
the warmest southern region between 42-46lat.,
rice, olives, oranges, and lemons ripen in the
better localities ; and wine and maize are pro-
duced everywhere. In the middle temperate
region from 46-49, which has the greatest extent
and diversity of surface, wine and maize still
thrive to perfection. In the northern region,
beyond 49, except in favoured spots, neither
wine nor maize succeeds ; but grain, fruit, flax,
and hemp thrive excellently.

The mineral wealth of Austria is not surpassed
in any European country. Bohemia, Hungary,
Styria, Carinthia, Salzburg, and Tyrol take the
first place in respect of mineral pi-oduce. Ex-
cept platinum, none of the useful metals is want-
ing. The value of their yearly produce is estim-
ated at about 12,000,000. Of this sum coal yields
about a half, iron a fifth, salt a tenth, and gold
and silver together one-fourteenth ; whilst copper,
zinc, quicksilver, lead, iron, coal, and many other
minerals, together with precious stones, marble,
gypsum, &c., are plentiful. Austria is peculiarly
rich in salt. Rock-salt exists in immense beds
on both sides of the Carpathians, chiefly at
Wieliczka (q.v.). There are inexhaustible de-
posits of coal in the monarchy, the richest in
Moravia and Bohemia. Austria has some 1COO
mineral springs, some of them of European
reputation, as the sulphur baths of Baden in
Lower Austria, the saline waters of Karlsbad,
Marienbad, Franzensbad, Teplitz, &c., all in
Bohemia.

Although three-fourths of the surface is moun-
tainous, more than five-sixths is productive, being
used either for tillage, meadows, pasture, or forest.
Grain of all kinds is cultivated ; rice grows
in the Banat ; potatoes are raised everywhere ;
fruit grows in profusion; for wine, Austria is
second only to France ; and other vegetable pro-
ducts are flax and hemp, tobacco, rape-seed.
Nearly a third of the productive surface is covered
with wood.

Bohemia takes the lead in manufacturing in-
dustry, then follow Austria Proper, Moravia and
Silesia, and Hungary. Vienna is the chief seat
of manufacture for articles of luxury ; Moravia,
Silesia, and Bohemia for linen, woollen, and glass
wares ; Styria and Carinthia, for iron and steel
wares. The chief manufactured articles of export
are those of silk and wool ; the only others of
consequence are linen twist, glass wares, and
cotton goods. The yearly value of manufactured
iron is considerable. The glass wares of Bohemia
are of special excellence. The manufactures of
cotton, of silk, of hemp and flax, are very exten-
sive. The manufacture of tobacco is a state
monopoly. Austria is not favourably situated
for foreign commerce. High mountains oppose
great obstacles on all hands to communication,

AUSTRIA

and separate the producing districts from the
only sea that touches the empire ; while the
chief navigable rivers have their mouths in other
countries. The total imports vary in value from
42,000,000 to 70,000,000 a year, some of the
principal items being cotton, wool, woollen yarn,
cotton yarn, coffee, silk, coal and coke, machin-
ery, furs and hides, tobacco. The exports have an
annual value of from 60,000,000 to 80,000,000,
half being for agricultural products grain, sugar,
cattle, flour, eggs, feathers, &c. ; also timber,
minerals, wood-wares.

Nearly two-thirds of the whole commerce of
the empire is carried on with Germany. Its
next best markets are Roumania, Russia, Italy,
and Servia. The direct trade with Great Britain
is comparatively small ; the Board of Trade
returns recognising only the trade by way of
the Austrian seaboard. Between 1891 and 1902
the exports from Austria to Great Britain varied
from 1,100,000 to 1,375,245 ; and the goods im-
ported direct from Great Britain, from 1,600,000
to 2,516,899. The length of railways in 1902
was 12,750 miles more than half belonging to
state lines.

There are three distinct budgets, one for the
whole empire, another for Austria Proper, and
a third for the kingdom of Hungary. Besides
their share of the interest on the national debt,
Austria pays a larger and Hungary a smaller
sum towards the 'common expenditure of the
empire ; ' the precise proportions to be settled
every ten years have of late been fiercely
disputed by the Hungarians, and, with Hun-
garian home-rule demands, caused very strained
relations between Austria and Hungary in
1904-5. The budget estimates for the imperial
expenses for the year 1904 showed a total of
16,270,500. The accounts of Austria Proper
generally show large deficits. In 1904 the revenue
was, however, stated at 72,396,250, and the
expenditure at 72,282,150. In 1904 the general
debt of the empire was 222,212,084, and the
special debt of Austria 156,904,946. For Hun-
gary in 1903 the revenue and expenditure nearly
balanced at 45,435,946 ; the debt (largely for
railways) amounted to 214,366,540. Hungary
also pays 2,541,606 annually to the common
debt of the empire.

The population is very unequally distributed.
The most populous districts are those of the
south-west and of the north-west. The Al-
pine regions and those of the Carpathians are
sparsest ; and generally the density diminishes
towards the east. The population of Austria
embraces a greater number of races, distinct
in origin and language, than that of any other
European country except Russia. The Slavs
are the most numerous race, amounting to
nearly 42 per cent, of the whole population.
They form the bulk of the population of Bo-
hemia, Moravia, Carniola, Dalmatia, Croatia,
Slavonia, the Woiwodina, the north of Hungary,
and Galicia. They are, however, split up into
a number of peoples or tribes, differing greatly
in language, religion, culture, and manners ; so
that their seeming preponderance in the empire
is thus lost. The chief branches of the Slavic
stem are, in the north, the Czechs or Bohemians
(the most numerous of all), Ruthenians, and
Poles; and in the south, the Slovenians, Croats,
Serbs, and Bulgarians. The Germans number
above 25 per cent., dispersed everywhere, but
mainly in the western parts of the empire. The
Romance peoples (speaking languages derived
from that of ancient Rome) amount to fully 9

per cent. , and are divided into western and east-
ern. The western consist of Italians, inhabiting
the south of Tyrol, Istria, and Dalmatia ; the
Ladins (Latins), in some valleys of Tyrol ; and
the Friulians about Gorz, north of Trieste. The
eastern Romance people are the Roumanians,
who are found in Transylvania, Hungary, the
Woiwodina, and the Bukowina. The Magyars, or
Hungarians proper, number over 16 per cent. :
they are located chiefly in Hungary and Tran-
sylvania. The small remaining portion is com-
posed chiefly of Jews, Armenians, and Gypsies.
The principal languages are German, Hungarian,
and Bohemian ; but Polish, Ruthenian, and Croat
languages are also spoken.

In 1900 there were 30,580,192 Roman Catholics ;
4,990,678 Greeks and Armenians united with the
Roman Church; 3,423,175 Orthodox Greeks;
1,654,396 Lutherans ; 2,569,699 Calvinists ; 68,872
Unitarians; 2,076,277 Jews. There are nearly 300
abbeys and above 500 convents in the empire.

Education, whether high or low, is mostly
gratuitous. The primary schools in Austria are
to a very large extent in the hands of the clergy.
The law enforces compulsory attendance at the
' Volks-schulen,' or national schools, of all chil-
dren between the ages of six and twelve. There
is a very great difference between the German
provinces and the Slavonic ones in respect of
education. In Vorarlberg 82 per cent, of the in-
habitants read and write ; in Bukowina not quite
10 per cent. There are eleven universities in the
empire, at Vienna, Prague, Gratz, Brunn, Inns-
bruck, Pesth (Budapest), Cracow, Klausenburg,
Lemberg, and Czernowitz. Vienna, Gratz, and
Innsbruck rank as German universities ; Prague
has since 1880 a Bohemian and a German uni-
versity. There are in the whole monarchy over
4000 newspapers and other periodicals (about 380
newspapers), of which nearly half are in German.

Military service is compulsory on all citizens
capable of bearing arms. The term of service
is twelve years three in the standing army,
seven in the reserve, and two in the landwehr.
The army has on a peace footing 396,000 men,
and on a war footing 2,580,000. The navy com-
prised 11 ironclads, 15 cruisers, 62 torpedo boats,
and 20 vessels for coast defence. These are
manned by about 9000 men, raised to 14,000 in
time of war.

Austria is a monarchy hereditary in the House
of Hapsburg-Lorraine. In the case of the reign-
ing family dying out, the states of Bohemia
and of Hungary have the right of choosing a
new king. Since the year 1867 Austria has
been reconstructed as a dual empire, consisting
of a German or 'Cisleithan* monarchy, and a
Magyar or ' Transleithan ' kingdom. Each of the
two countries has its own laws, parliament,
ministers, and government, and deals with the
affairs exclusively relating to itself. The ministers
for affairs common to the whole empire (foreign
affairs, finance, army) are not responsible to either
parliament, but to the Delegations a body form-
ing a connecting link between the two portions
of the empire. These constitute' a parliament of
120 members : the one-half is chosen by the legis-
lature of Germanic Austria, and the other half
represents Hungary. The person of the sovereign
is another link between the two members of the
empire.

The Austrian Reichsrath consists of an upper
and a lower house. The upper house is com-
posed of the princes of the imperial family who
are of age, of upwards of 50 nobles, 10 arch-
bishops, 7 bishops, and 105 life-members nomi-

AUSTRIA

AVEYRON

nated by the emperor. The lower house num-
bers 353 elected members. The executive of
Hungary is carried on in the name of ' the king '
by a responsible ministry.

The empire of Austria arose from the smallest
beginnings at the end of the 8th century. In
796 a Margraviate, called the Eastern Mark (i.e.
'March' or frontier-land), was founded as an
outpost of the empire of Charlemagne, in the
country between the Enns and the Raab. The
name Oesterreich appears first in 996. In 1156 the
mark was raised to a duchy ; and after coming
into the possession of the House of Hapsburg in
1282, it rapidly rose to be a powerful state. The
princes of that House extended their dominion
by marriage, by purchase, and otherwise, over a
number of other states, including the crowns of
Bohemia and Hungary ; and from 1438 down to
the 19th century, they held almost without in-
terruption the throne of the German empire
(nominally 'the Holy Roman Empire '}the
emperor being the most conspicuous, if not
always the most powerful personage amongst the
crowned heads of Europe. In 1804 Francis
declared himself hereditary Emperor of Austria,
and two years afterwards resigned the dignities
of German Emperor and King of the Romans.
Thenceforward, especially during the troublous
times of 1848-50, Austria held the pre-eminence
amongst German states ; but after the victory of
Prussia at Koniggratz (Sadowa), in the short but
decisive Austro-Prussian war of 1866, Austria was
excluded from Germany an exclusion made final
by the reconstruction of the German empire with
the kings of Prussia as hereditary German em-
perors. In 1867 Austria was itself reconstituted
on its present footing as the Austro-Hungarian
monarchy.

See Coxe, History of the House of Austria (3 vols.
1847-53; continued by Kelley, 1853); Leger,
Histoirede I'Autriche-Hongrie (1879) ; Sidney Whit-
man, The Realm of the Habsburgs (1893).

Austria, ARCHDUCHY OF, the cradle and nucleus
of the Austrian empire, lies on both sides of the
Danube, from the mouth of the Inn to Presburg,
on the borders of Hungary, and embraces an area
of 18,052 sq. m., with a pop. (1900) of 4,089,547.
It now forms three of the crown-lands, or adminis-
trative provinces of the empire viz. Lower and
Upper Austria (i.e. Austria below, and Austria
above, the Enns), and the duchy of Salzburg.

Auteuil (0-tuh'yee l ), formerly a country village
at the entrance of the Bois de Boulogne, now en-
closed within the fortifications of Paris. It was
the residence of Boileau and Moliere.

Autun (0-tun g ; anc. Augustodunum), in the
French dep. of Saone-et-Loire, in the Burgundian
district of Autunois, on the river Arroux, 31 miles
NW. of Chalon by rail. It has a fine cathedral
(12th century), and many ruins of Roman temples,
gates, triumphal arches, and other antiquities.
Cloth, carpets, and velvet are manufactured.
Talleyrand was bishop of the diocese, and here
Macmahon was born. Pop. 13,593.

Auvergne, a southern central district of
France, was before the Revolution a separate
province, and coincided nearly with the modern
departments of Cantal and Puy-de-D6me. Of
several summits that have apparently been at
one time volcanoes, the highest is Mont-Dore
(6188 feet). Auvergne produces iron, lead, copper,
and coal, and is rich in valuable mineral springs,
both cold and hot. Many Auvergnats, speaking
their own patois, seek employment in Paris and
Belgiuin.

Auxerre (0-serr 1 ; anc. Autissiodorim), chief
town of the French dep. of Yonne, on the Yonne,
109 miles SE. of Paris. Its noble Gothic cathedral
dates from 1215, but was not completed till the
16th century. The principal manufactures are
wine (a light Burgundy), candles, chemicals, and
hosiery. Pop. 15,300.

Auxonne (0-zonn'\ a fortified town in the
French dep. of Cote d'Or, on the Saone, 20 miles
SE. of Dijon. Pop. 5118.

Ava, a ruined city of Burma, of which it was
the capital 1364-1740, and again 1822-38. It
stands on the Irawadi, 6 miles SW. of Amara-
pura. On the opposite bank stands Sagaing (q.v).

Avallon (anc. Aballo), a town in the French
dep. of Yonne, 26 miles SE. of Auxerre, on a
steep hill of red granite, nearly surrounded by
the river Cousin. Pop. 5571.

Avalon, a peninsula forming the eastern part
of Newfoundland (q.v.), in which St John's, the
capital, is situated.

Avatcha, a bay on the east coast of Kam-
chatka, by far the best harbour of the peninsula,
and containing the smaller bay on which stands
the capital, Petropaulovsk (q.v.).

Avebury, or ABURY, a village of Wiltshire, 6
miles W. of Marlborough. It is the site of the
largest megalithic structure in Britain, including
a large outer circle, 330 yards in diameter, and
two smaller stone circles. The stones that remain
are 5 to 20 feet in height above the ground, and
3 to 12 in breadth and thickness. From an en-
trance to the circle issued the ' Kennet Avenue,"
running 1430 yards south-eastward in a perfectly
straight line, and 17 yards broad, with a range of
blocks on either side similar to those of the circle
itself. Of surrounding antiquities may be men-
tioned a double circle on Hakpen Hill, and a
large barrow, or lofty conical mound called Sil-
bury Hill, f mile to the S. It measures 676
yards in circumference, and is 130 feet high.

Aveiro, a town of Portugal, a bishop's see, 40
miles S. of Oporto by rail, on a salt lake or
lagoon joined to the sea by a canal. Pop. 9167.

Avelli'no (anc. Abellinum), chief town of an
Italian province at the foot of Monte Vergine,
59 miles E. of Naples by rail. It has a cathedral.
Pop. 23,790.

Aventine Hill. See ROME.

Aver'nus (Gr. Aornos, ' birdless ; ' now Lago
d' Aver no), a small, nearly circular lake in Cam-
pania, Italy, situated between Cumse, Puteoli,
and Baise. It is l mile in circumference, and
occupies the crater of an extinct volcano. The
mephitic vapours arising from it were believed in
ancient times to kill the birds that flew over it ;
hence, according to some, its Greek appellation.
Owing to its gloomy and awful aspect, it became
the centre of almost all the fables of the ancients
respecting the world of shades. Here were
located Homer's entrance to the under world,
the Elysian fields, the grove of Hecate, and the
grotto of the Cumean Sibyl.

Aversa, a town of Italy, 12J miles by rail N.
of Naples. Pop. 23,183.

Avesnes (A-vehri), a town in the French dep. of
Nord, 13 miles E. by rail of Cambrai. Pop. 5446.

Aveyron, a mountainous dep. in the south of
France, named from the river which runs 90
miles westward through it to the Tarn, a feeder
of the Garonne. Area, 3376 sq. m. ; population,
382,000. The capital is Rodez.

AVEZZANO

AXHOLME

Avezza'no, a town of South Italy, 22 miles S.
of Aquila. Pop. 6166.

Aviglia'no, a town of South Italy, 10 miles
NW. of Potenza. Pop. 12,949.

Avignon (Avenio), a city of Provence, capital
of the French dep. of Vaucluse, on the left bank
of the Rhone, 75 miles NW. of Marseilles. With
narrow, crooked streets, ' windy Avignon ' still
is encircled by lofty crenellated walls (1349-68),
except on the north side, where the Eocher des
Doms rises steeply from the Rhone to a height
of L'OO feet. Here is the cathedral, dating from
the llth century, with its papal throne ; whilst
hard by towers the vast palace of the popes
(1339-64). The multitude of churches and con-
vents made Rabelais call Avignon la ville son-
nante, 'the city of bells;' and churches there
still are in plenty, though that of the Cordeliers,
with the tomb of Petrarch's Laura, was demolished
in 1791. Near the hotel-de-ville (1862) are the
quaint old Jacquemart belfry and a statue of
Crillon, Henry IV.'s brave captain ; Petrarch's
statue (1874) may also be noticed. The univer-
sity (1303) was abolished in 1794. Avignon has
manufactures of paper, leather, silk, iron, &c.
Pop. (declining) now about 34,000. Avignon was
the capital of the ancient Cavares, and presents
many remains of the times of the Romans. In
the middle ages it formed, with the surrounding
district, a county, which the popes bought in
1348. They held it till 1790, when the city with
its district was united with France. Pope
Clement V. and six of his successors from 1309
to 1378 resided here, as also did the French anti-
popes (1378-1418). A little cottage was long the
loved retreat of John Stuart Mill, the place
where he died in 1873.

Av'ila, capital of a Spanish province of Avila,
in Old Castile, stands 3000 feet above the sea, at
the base of the Sierra de Guadarrama, 71 miles
NW. of Madrid by rail. It has a fine Gothic
cathedral, a Moorish castle, and massive granite
walls 42 feet high and 14 broad, with 86 towers
and 10 gateways. Its university (1482) was
reduced to a college in 1807. Pop. 11,809. Here
St Teresa was born. The province is mountain-
ous. Area, 2981 sq. m. ; pop. 200,500.

Aviles (anc. Flavignavia), a seaport of Spain,
close to the Bay of Biscay, 19 miles N. of Oviedo.
Pop. 12,145.

Avlona (Ital. Valona, anc. Aulori), the best
seaport in Albania, stands on an eminence near
an inlet of the Adriatic, protected by the island
of Sasseno (anc. Saso). It carries on considerable
trade with Brindisi, &c. Pop. 5000. Valonia,
imported hence to England for tanning, is the
acorn-cup of a kind of oak. Up to 1691 the town
belonged to the Venetians.

Avo'ca, or OVOCA (Celt, 'meeting of the
waters '), a small river of County Wicklow,
formed by the union of the Avonmore and Avon-
beg. It runs through a very picturesque vale
only J mile broad, with wooded banks 300 to
500 feet high, and after a course of 9 miles
reaches the sea at Arklow. See AVONDALE.

Av'ola (Abolla), a seaport of Sicily, 13 miles
SW. of Syracuse. The famous honey of Hybla
comes from this neighbourhood. Pop. 12,286.

Avon (Celt, 'river' or 'stream'), the name
of several of the smaller British rivers. (1) The
Upper or Warwickshire Avon rises at Naseby
in Northamptonshire, runs 96 miles south-west
through Warwickshire and Worcestershire, pass-
ing Rugby, Warwick, Stratford, and Evesham,

and joins the Severn at Tewkesbury. It receives
several tributaries, including the Swift from
Lutterworth. (2) The Lower or Bristol Avon
rises in north-west Wiltshire, and runs 70 miles,
first south in Wiltshire, and then west and north-
west between Gloucestershire and Somerset,
passing Bradford, Bath, and Bristol, to the
Bristol Channel. It is navigable for large vessels
up to Bristol. (3) The Wiltshire and Hampshire
or East Avon rises in the middle of Wiltshire,
and runs south 70 miles through Wiltshire and
Hampshire, passing Amesbury, Salisbury, and
Ringwood, and entering the English Channel
at Christchurch. It is navigable up to Salisbury.
In Wales, two rivers named Avon one rising
in Monmouthshire, the other in Glamorganshire
fall into Swansea Bay. In Scotland there are
several of the same name, affluents of the Spey,
Clyde, and Forth. See also A' AN.

Avondale, the Wicklow seat of the late Mr
C. S. Parnell, on the Avonmore, 1 mile S. of
Rathdrum.

Avonmouth, in Gloucestershire, at the mouth
of the Avon, 6 miles NW. of Bristol, has a pier
and extensive docks (1879), constructed at a cost
of 600,000.

Avranches (Av-ron g sh'), a French town in
the dep. of Manche, on the left bank of the
See, near its mouth in St Michel's Bay, 37 miles
E. of St Malo by rail. Till 1801 a bishop's seat,
its former cathedral was built in the 18th
century on the site of a cathedral consecrated
in 1121, in which Henry II. received absolution
for Becket's murder. Pop. 7764.

Awbeg, a river of Cork, flowing 30 miles to
the Blackwater.

Awe, LOCH, an Argyllshire lake, with Loch
Awe station and hotel near its foot, 22 miles E.
of Oban. Lying 118 feet above sea-level, it
extends 22f miles north-eastward, is from 3 fur-
longs to 3 miles broad, covers 15^ sq. in., and
has a maximum depth of 102 feet. The scenery
is most striking at the north-east end originally
the head of the lake, where the water is studded
with numerous wooded islets, overshadowed by
towering and rugged mountains, the chief Ben
Cruachan (3689 feet). On a rocky peninsula,
in the north end of the lake, stands Kilchurn
Castle, once a fortress of great strength, built
about 1440 by Sir Colin Campbell of Glenorchy.
The waters of the lake are carried off at its
north-west end by the brawling river Awe, which,
after a course of 5 miles, enters Loch Etive at
Bunawe. The magnificent 'Pass of Brander,'
through which the road and railway run beneath
the shoulder of Ben Cruachan, was the scene of
a conflict in 1308 between Robert the Bruce and
the Macdougals of Lorn, in which that clan was
all but exterminated. At the north-east end of
the loch it receives the waters of the Orchy and
Strae.

Ax, a town in the French dep. of Ariege, at
the foot of the Pyrenees, 74 miles SSE. of
Toulouse. Pop. 1233. Its 80 hot sulphur-springs
range in temperature from 77 to 172 F.

Axbridge, a Somerset village, 10 miles NW. of
Wells. Pop. of parish, 732.

Axe, two rivers of Somerset and of Dorset and
Devon, flowing the one 25 miles to the Bristol
Channel, the other 21 to the English Channel.

Axholme, ISLE OF, a low level tract of North-
west Lincolnshire, cut off by the Trent from the
rest of the county. Measuring 18 by 5 miles, it
was anciently a forest, and then a marsh, which

AXIM

AZERBIJAN

WAs drained into the Trent in 1625 and succeed-
ing years by Cornelius Vermuydeu, a Dutchman,
at a cost of 56,000. Epworth here was the
home of the Wesleys.

Axim, an important station and port on the
Gold Coast, a little E. of the mouth of the
Ancobrah River.

Ax'minster, a town of Devonshire, on the
Axe, 27 miles E. of Exeter by rail. From 1755
till 1835 Axminster was famous for the manu-
facture of Turkey and Persian carpets. Dr
Buckland was a native. Pop. of parish, 2909.
See Pulman's Book oftlie Axe (1875).

Axmouth, a Devon fishing village, 6 miles
SSW. of Axminster. Pop. 615.

Axum, once capital of an Ethiopian kingdom,
is now in the modern Abyssinian province of
Tigre, and lies mainly in ruins. Pop. 5000. See
a monograph on it by J. T. Bent (1893).

Ayacu'cho (formerly Huamanga or Guamanrja),
a town of Peru, 220 miles ESE. of Lima. Founded
by Pizarro in 1539, it is now a handsome and
thriving town. Here, on 9th December 1824,
the combined forces of Peru and Colombia totally
defeated the last Spanish army that ever set
foot on the continent. Pop. 20,000. The dep. of
Ayacucho has an area of about 20,000 sq. in., and
a pop. of upwards of 300,000.

Ayamon'te, a fortified town in the Spanish
province of Huelva, Andalusia, on the Guadiana,
near its mouth. Pop. 6511.

Ayasaluk, a village on the site of the ancient
Ephesus (q.v.).

Aylesbury, the chief town of Buckingham-
shire, in a fertile vale, on a rivulet flowing to the
Tame, 43^ miles NW. of London. Among its
buildings are the cruciform parish church, finely
restored by Sir G. G. Scott (1849-67), the corn
exchange and markets (1865), and the county
infirmary (1862). The inhabitants are engaged
in making bone-lace and straw-plait, in brewing,
dairying, and rearing fat ducks for the London
markets. Aylesbury was taken from the Britons
by the Saxons in 571. Till 1885 it formed with
its hundred a parliamentary borough, returning
two members. Pop. (1841) 5429 ; (1901) 9244.

Aylesford, a village near the centre of Kent,
on the right bank of the Medway, 3J miles NW.
of Maidstone. Remarkable ancient remains are
found here, including the cromlech called Kits
Coity House (q.v.). Pop. of parish, 2647.

Ayr, the county town of Ayrshire, at the
mouth of the river Ayr, 40 miles SSW. of
Glasgow by rail. The Town's Buildings, with
a spire 226 feet high, were erected in 1828, and
greatly enlarged in 1881. The so-called ' Wallace
Tower' is a Gothic edifice of 1834, 113 feet high.
There are also the County Buildings, modelled
after the temple of Isis in Rome, the Academy
(founded 1764 ; new building, 1880), and the
Carnegie library (1893). Three bridges span the
river, and connect Ayr proper with Newton-
upon-Ayr and Wallacetown a railway viaduct,
and the 'Twa Brigs' of Burns. Of these the
narrow four-arched ' Auld Brig ' dates probably
from the end of the 15th century, and the ' New
Brig' (1788) was rebuilt in 1879. There are
statues of General Smith Neill, the thirteenth
Earl of Eglinton, and Burns. Part of the tower
of the old church of St John, built in the 12th
century, and turned into a fort by Cromwell, is
still standing, and now forms, with additions, a
dwelling-house. Harbour improvements, includ-
ing a wet dock and slip dock, have been carried

out since 1874 at a cost of over 150,000. The
tonnage of vessels entering the port has in-
creased in seventeen years from 140,000 to
345,000. The chief export is coal ; grain and
timber are imported ; and there are manufactures
of lace and woollen fabrics, carpets, large saw-
mills, &c. A splendid new water-supply, drawn
from Loch Fiulas, 20 miles distant, was intro-
duced in 1887. William the Lion made Ayr a
royal burgh about 1200 ; and it unites with
Campbeltown, Irvine, Inveraray, and Oban in
sending a member to parliament. Pop. (1841)
15,749 ; (1861) 18,573 ; (1901) 28,697.

Ayrshire, a large maritime county in the SW.
of Scotland, washed on the W. by the Firth of
Clyde and the North Channel. Its greatest
length is 78 miles ; its greatest breadth, 28 ; and
its area is 1149 sq. in., it being seventh in size of
the Scottish counties. The general aspect of
the county is undulating ; Shalloch on Minnoch
(2520 feet) in the S. is the highest summit ; Loch
Doon (5| x | mile) is much the largest of several
fresh-water lakes ; and the chief rivers only 20
to 38 miles long are the Ayr, the ' bonny ' Doon,
the Garnock, the Irvine, the Girvan, and the
Stinchar in the south, with the first 16 miles of
the Nith. Ayrshire is rich in valuable minerals,
especially coal, ironstone, limestone, and free-
stone. The three ancient divisions of the county
are Carrick, south of the Doon, mostly wild and
hilly; Kyle, between the Doon and the Irvine,
containing much rich level land ; and Cunning-
hame, comprising all the country north of the
Irvine, mostly fertile. The percentage of culti-
vated area is 43'2. Dairy-husbandry is carried
to high perfection. The Dunlop cheese, almost
as celebrated as Stilton, since 1855 has been
almost superseded by Cheddar. Manufactures,
especially woollen and cotton, are largely carried
on to an important extent. Pop. (1801) 84,207 ;
(1881) 217,504 ; (1901) 254,468. Ayrshire returns
two members to parliament. The chief towns
are Ayr, Kilmarnock, Girvan, Maybole, Dairy,
Kilwinning, Beith, Irvine, Stewarton, Old Cum-
nock, Ardrossan, Saltcpats, Troon, Mauchline,
Galston, Newmilns, Kilbirnie, and Largs. Of
antiquities, the most interesting are the ruins
of Crossraguel and Kilwinning Abbeys ; of ' Allo-
way's haunted kirk,' with the ' auld clay biggin,'
Burns's birthplace, hard by ; and of the castles
of Turnberry (the family seat of Bruce), Dunure,
Loch Doon, Dean, Dundonald, &c. It contains
the battlefields of Largs and London Hill ; and
during the religious persecutions of the Stuarts,
it was a stronghold of the Covenanters. See
works byJ. Paterson (2 vols. 1847-52), and A.
Millar (1885).

Ayton, a Berwickshire village, 7J miles NW.
of Berwick-upon-Tweed. Pop. 603.

Ayuthia, the former capital of Siam, on the
Menam, 50 miles N. of Bangkok. Founded in
1357, it was sacked and half destroyed by the
Burmese in 1767. Among its magnificent but
ruinous buildings are Buddhist temples, especi-
ally the ' Golden Mount,' 400 feet high.

Azamgarh. ('Azam's Fort'), a town in the
United Provinces of India, on the river Tons,
81 miles N. of Benares. It was founded in 1665
by Azam Klian. Pop. 19,000.

Azerbijan', or ADERBAIJAN, the ancient Media
Atropatene, the north-western province of Persia,
has an area of about 40,100 sq. m., and a pop. of
2,000,000. The surface is very mountainous,
Savalan (an extinct volcano), near Ardebil,
reaching over 13,000 feet; whilst Mount Ararat

A2INCOURT

BABYLONIA

rises on the north-west border. The chief rivers
are the Aras or Araxes, the Kara Su, and the
Kizil-Uzen. The salt lake Urmia (q.v.), the
largest in Persia, is near the western border.
Towns are Tabriz (the capital) and Urmia.

Azincourt. See AGINCOURT.

Azo'res, or WESTERN ISLANDS, a Portuguese
archipelago in the mid-Atlantic, in 36 55'
39 55' N. lat. and 25" 10' 31 16' W. long.
Stretching over a distance of 400 miles, their
nine islands are divided into three distinct
groups Sta Maria and Sao Miguel in the SE. ;
Terceira, Sao Jorge, Pico, Graciosa, and Fayal in
the middle ; and Flores and Corvo in the NW.
Of these, Flores lies 1176 miles W. of Cape Rocca
in Portugal, 1484 SW. of Falmouth, and 1703
ESE. of Halifax. In 1431-53 the Azores were
taken possession of by the Portuguese. They
were then uninhabited ; but Punic coins have
been found on Corvo. The Portuguese called
them Azores, from a$or or azor, a hawk or kite,
found in numbers on the islands. Their total
area is 919 sq. in., and the pop. 257,000. The
area, population, and the maximum altitude
of the different islands are as follows : Sta Maria
(38 sq. in. ; 5880 ; 1889 feet) ; Sao Miguel (299 sq.
in. ; 107,000 ; 3854 feet) ; Teroeira (164 sq. m. ;
45,391 ; 3435 feet) ; Graciosa (24 sq. m. ; 8718) ;
Sao Jorge (91 sq. m. ; 18,000) ; Pico (173 sq. m. ;
27,904 ; 7613 feet) ; Fayal (69 sq. m. ; 26,264) ;
Flores (54 sq. m. ; 10,700 ; 3087 feet); Corvo (7
sq. m.; 1000). The capital is Angra, in Terceira ;
but Ponta Delgada, in Sao Miguel, is a larger
town, being counted ' the third city of Portugal '
(pop. 18,000). The Azores are of volcanic origin,
and with the exception of Corvo, Flores, and
Graciosa, are still liable to eruptions and violent
earthquakes, the worst of twenty-one shocks
since 1444 having been those of 1591, 1638, 1719,
and 1841. Hot mineral springs are numerous.
The coast is generally steep and rugged; the

interior abounds in ravines and mountains.
Oranges are the chief article of export. The
climate is extremely moist, but equable; and
though the islands are exposed to severe storms
of wind and rain, some of them are visited as
winter health-resorts, especially by Americans.
The Azores are regarded as a province, not a
colony, of Portugal, and as belonging to Europe.
See works by Godman (1870), W. F. Walker (1886)
and Roundell (1889).

Azo'tus. See ASHDOD.

Azov, a town in the south of Russia, on the
left bank of the Don, 7 miles from its mouth. Spite
of the silting of the harbour, there is a large export
of grain, with fishing and fish-curing. Pop. 27,500.

Azov, SEA OF, named after the town, is a large
gulf of the Black Sea, formed by the Crimean
peninsula, or rather an inland lake connected
with the Black Sea by the Strait of Yenikale or
Kertch (anc. Bosporus Cimmerius), 28 miles long,
and barely 4 wide at the narrowest. The intri-
cate Siwash or Putrid Sea, which is just a succes-
sion of swamps, is cut off from the western
portion of the Sea of Azov by the long narrow
slip of low sandy land called the Peninsula of
Arabat. The ancient name of the Sea of Azov
was Palus Mceotis or 'Mseotic Marsh;' by the
Turks it is called Balik-Denghis, or 'Fish Sea.'
from its abundance of fish. The water is almost
fresh. The whole sea is shallow, from 3 to 52
feet deep; and measuring 235 by 110 miles, it
occupies an area of 14,500 sq. m. Tho largest
river emptying into it is the Don.

Azpeitia,(Ath-pay'e-te-a), a town in the Spanish
prov. Guipuzcoa, on the Urola, 18 miles SW. of
San Sebastian. A mile from it is the famous con-
vent of Loyola (1683), now converted into a mus-
eum. It comprises a tower of the Santa Casa, in
which St Ignatius of Loyola, the great founder
of the Jesuits, was born in 1491. Pop. 6548.

AALBEK, a ruined city of Syria, 35
miles NNW. of Damascus, and 38 SSE.
of Tripoli. The name signifies ' City
of Baal,' the Sun-god, and was by the
Greeks, during the Seleucide dynasty,
converted into Heliopolis. Baalbek lies 4500
feet above sea-level, at the opening of a small
valley into the plain of El-Buka'a (Ccele-Syria),
on the lowest slope of Anti-Lebanon. It was
once the most magnificent of Syrian cities, full
of palaces, fountains, and beautiful monuments ;
now it is famous only for the splendour of its
ruins the Great Temple, a Corinthian edifice,
surmounting a Cyclopean substruction or plat-
form ; the Temple of Jupiter, larger than the
Parthenon at Athens ; and a circular building,
supported on six granite columns. From the
earliest times a chief seat of sun-worship, Baal-
bek was completely pillaged by Timur Beg in
1400; and its destruction was completed by a
terrible earthquake in 1759. It is now a wretched
village, with some few hundred inhabitants. See
works by Woou and Dawkins (1757), Renan(1864),
and Frauberger (1891).

Baba, CAPE (Gr. Lectum), a bold rocky head-
land near the western point of Anatolia, 12 miles
from the northern extremity of Mitylene. The
town of Baba here has a pop. of 4000.

Babatag, or BABADAGH, a town of 7000 inhab-
itants, in the Roumanian Dobrudja, 2J miles W.
of Lake Razim.

Bab-el-Mandeb (i.e. 'the gate of tears'), the
strait between Arabia and the continent of Africa,
by which the Red Sea is connected with the Gvjf
of Aden and the Indian Ocean. The Arabian
peninsula here throws put a cape, bearing the
same name as the strait, and 865 feet high, 20
miles distant from which the wall-like coast of
Africa rises in Ras es Sean to over 400 feet.
Within the straits, but nearer to Arabia, lies the
bare rocky island of Perim (q.v.), since 1857
occupied by the British as a fort.

Bablock Hythe, a ferry over the Isis or
Thames, 4 miles WSW. of Oxford.

Babylonia (Babilu in the Assyrian inscrip-
tions, Babirush in the Persian) was the name
given by the Greeks, and after them the Romans,
to the low alluvial plain watered by the lower
streams of the Tigris and Euphrates, now form-
ing the modern Arab province of Irak-Arabi. In
the Old Testament it bears the various names of
Shinar, Babel, and ' the land of the Chaldees.'
For thousands of years before the Christian era
it was the seat of a special type of civilisation ;
the earliest inhabitants we know of were Sumeri-
ans and Akkadians, both probably belonging to
the Ugro-Finnic branch of the Turanian races.
Subsequently, Semitic tribes settled in the
country. After long wars with the neighbouring
power, Assyria, Babylonia was conquered in 729
B.C. by the Assyrians, and in 712-705 Babylonia
became an Assyrian province. In 625 Nabo

BACCHIGLIONE

BADEN BEI WIEN

polassar rebelled and became an independent
king, and was succeeded by his son Nebuchad-
nezzar. And henceforward Babylonia was a
separate state till 538, when it was conquered
by Cyrus and became a Persian province. For
the site of the city of Babylon, see HILLAH.

Bacchiglione (Balc-keel-yo'nay), a river of N.
Italy, rising in the Alps, and flowing 90 miles
south-eastward, to the Adriatic near Chioggia.

Bacharacli (Bahh'a-rahli), a town of Rhenish
Prussia, qn the Rhine, 30 miles SE. of Coblenz.
Pop. 1840. Its name is said to be a corruption of
Bacchi am ('Bacchus' altar'), and the vine is
still largely cultivated. Here Bliicher crossed
the Rhine, January 1, 1814.

Backergunge. See BAKERGANJ.

Bacolor, a town of the island of Luzon, Philip-
pines, 10 miles NW. from Manila. Pop. 9737.

Bactrfa, a province of the ancient Persian
empire, lying north of the Paropamisus (Hindu
Kush) Mountains, on the Upper Oxus.

Ba'cup, a town of Lancashire, on the Spodden
rivulet, 19i miles N. by E. of Manchester by rail.
Constituted a municipal borough in 1882, it has
a mechanics' institute (1846, enlarged 1870), a
market-hall (1867), a very large co-operative store
that cost 22,000, &c. Cotton-spinning and
powerloom-weaving are the staple industries ;
and there are also dye-works, brass and iron
foundries, and neighbouring coal-pits and vast
stone quarries. Pop. (1798) 1426 ; (1871) 17,199 ;
(1881) 25,033 ; (1891) 23,498 ; (1901) 22,505.

Badagry, a small British port on the Slave
Coast, Upper Guinea, long a great slaving port,
with 10,000 inhabitants.

Badajoz (Bad-a-jozz' ; Spanish pron. Badh-a-
Jihoath'), capital of a Spanish province, is built
on a slight hill crowned by a Moorish castle,
on the Guadiana, crossed here by a stone bridge
of 28 arches. It is 5 miles from the Port-
tiguese frontier, 174 miles from Lisbon, and 315
from Madrid by rail. Badajoz is a fortress of
the first rank, and has an old cathedral built
like a fortress, with a splendid organ. Its chief
articles of manufacture are hats, soap, coarse
woollens, leather, and pottery. Pop. (1900)
30,900. Badajoz was the Pax Augusta of the
Romans, the Bax Augos, Bathaljus of the Moors.
As one of the keys of Portugal, it has often been
besieged twice in vain by the British in 1811,
but was stormed by Wellington in 1812, after a
most murderous resistance by the French, and
delivered up to pillage for two days. The pro-
vince has an area of 8687 sq. m., and a pop. of
(1900) 520,246.

Badakhshan', a territory of Central Asia,
lying in 36 38 N. lat., and 69 72 E. long.,
with the chain of the Hindu Kush on the S., and
the Oxus, or Amu Darya, on the N. It is drained
by the Kokcha, a head-stream of that river, and
is famous throughout the East as a picturesque
hill-country diversified with woods, rich pasture,
and fertile, well-cultivated valleys, its surface
varying from 500 to 15,600 feet above sea-level.
Faizabad (q.v.) is the capital. The inhabitants,
estimated at 100,000, are largely Tajiks, an Aryan
race speaking Persian, and Mohammedans.

See Yule's Marco Polo (1871) ; Wood's Journey
to the Source of the Oxus (new ed. 1872) ; and Vam-
bery's Central Asia (1874).

Badalona, a Spanish seaport, 5 miles NE. of
Barcelona. Pop. 19,885.

Baden (Bdh-den), a grand-duchy in the SW.
corner of the German empire between Alsace-

Lorraine and Wiirtemberg, separated from Swit- 1
zerlaud by the Rhine. Area, 5824 sq. m., less
than Yorkshire ; pop. (1900) 1,867,944, mainly
Catholics. The Schwarzwald, or Black Forest
(q.v.), attains a maximum altitude of 4903 feet.
Being drained by the Rhine and the Danube,
Baden belongs to the basins of two opposite
seas ; the sources of the Danube, however, drain
only some 350 sq. in. The Rhine's chief tribu-
taries are the Neckar, Murg, and Elz. On the
north-east the Baden territories are bounded by
the Maine. Except a part of the Lake of Con-
stance, Baden has no lake of importance. The
Rhine Valley of Baden is one of the warmest and
most fruitful districts, not only of Germany, but
of Europe. Grain, vegetables of all sorts, tobacco,
hemp, rape, opium, &c. are grown, and a large
quantity of wine is produced. The principal
minerals are the products of the limestone
quarries and of the clay and gravel pits, and
gypsum, largely used for pavements. Coal, zinc,
and manganese are found, and the production of
salt and soda is important. Baden is rich in
mineral springs ; and there are a great number
of much-frequented watering-places, as Baden-
Baden, Badenweiler, &c.

The manufactures of Baden include ribbons
and cotton fabrics, paper, leather, rubber goods,
chemicals, machinery, tobacco, chicory, sugar,
beer, trinkets, mirrors, wooden clocks, and straw-
plaiting. Karlsruhe is the residence of the
sovei'eign ; the capitals of the four ' circles ' are
Constance, Freiburg, Karlsruhe, and Mannheim ;
and besides, there are two towns each with a
population above 20,000.

Baden, a town and fashionable watering-place
in the Swiss canton of Aargau, on the Limmat,
14 miles NW. of Zurich by rail. Its sulphur-
baths, the Thermce Helvetica of the Romans,
yearly attract some 20,000 visitors. Their tem-
perature is as high as 117 r F. Pop. 6692.

Baden-Baden, a town in the grand-duchy of
Baden, situated in the pleasant valley of the Oos,
at the edge of the Black Forest, 8 miles from the
Rhine, and 23 SSW. of Karlsruhe by rail. Pop.
above 16,000 ; but its visitors during the season
(May September) are often four times the num-
ber of the settled population. Its thirteen
medicinal springs were known to >the Romans.
They have a temperature of 115 to 150 F., are
impregnated with iron, magnesia, lime, and sul-
phuric and carbonic acids, and are especially
recommended in chronic cutaneous diseases, gout,
rheumatism, and stomach complaints. The beauty
of Baden-Baden has been largely due to its gam-
ing-tables, once the most renowned in Europe,
but closed in 1872 ; besides paying a rent of over
14,000, they devoted a like sum yearly to the
beautifying of the promenades and public gardens.
The buildings include the Conversationshaus
(1824) ; the new Trinkhalle, or pump-room (1842) ;
the theatre (1862) ; the Friedrichsbad (1877) ; the
villa occupied by Queen Victoria in 1872 and
1876 ; the ruined ' old castle ' crowning the Schloss-
berg ; and the ' new castle ' (1479), destroyed, like
the old, by the French in 1689, but restored, and
now the summer residence of the grand-duke.

Baden bei Wien (i.e. 'Baden near Vienna;'
Bdh-den bi Veane), a watering-place of Austria, on
the Schwechat, 17 miles S. by W. of Vienna by
rail. It was the Aquce Pannonicce of the Romans,
and is still famous for its warm mineral springs,
which are visited during the season by upwards
of 10,000 persons. They are sulphurous, with
much carbonic acid gas, have a temperature of

BADENOCH

79 to 104" F., and are good for skin diseases,
gout, and rheumatism. Pop. 12,500.

Ba'denoch, a Highland district in the south-
east part of Inverness-shire, 45 miles long by 19
broad, bounded by Lochaber, Athole, Braemar,
and Moray, and traversed by the Spey.

Badenweiler, a Black Forest watering-place in
the SW. corner of Baden, 20 miles NNE. of Basel ;
frequented yearly by some 5000 visitors.

Badghis, a region north of Herat, comprising
the country between the Murghab and the Hari-
rud rivers, as far northward as the edge of the
desert. It lies just to the south of the boundary
line between Afghanistan and the Russian terri-
tories, as defined in 1887.

Badminton, the seat of the Duke of Beaufort,
in the south of Gloucestershire, 7 miles E. of
Yate Junction. It is a stately Pallaclian edifice
of 1682, with a fine park.

Badrinath, a peak of the main Himalayan
range, Garhwal district, North-western Pro-
vinces, India, 22,901 feet above the sea. A shrine
of Vishnu stands on one of its shoulders at a
height of 10,400 feet, 56 miles NE. of Srinagar.

Baena, a Spanish town 25 miles SSE. of Cor-
dova. Pop. 14,801.

Baeza, a town of Spain, in the province of
Jaen, 9 miles from Baeza station, this being 160
S. of Madrid. The Roman Beatia, and the seat
of Moorish califs, with 150,000 inhabitants, it
never fairly recovered from its sack by the
Castilians in 1228. Here are a quondam uni-
versity (1533) and the oratory of St Philip de
Neri. Pop. 15,430.

Baffin Bay, a gulf, or rather sea, on the NE.
coast of North America, extending between
Greenland and the great islands NE. of Hudson
Bay (one of which is called Baffin Island), in 69
to 78 3 N. lat. It is about 800 miles long, with an
average breadth of 280. The shores are lofty and
precipitous, backed by snow-clad mountains.
Baffin Bay communicates with the Atlantic by
Davis Strait; and with the Arctic Ocean by
Smith and Lancaster Sounds. Discovered in
1562, it was first explored in 1615 by William
Baffin, pilot of Bylot's expedition.

Bagamoyo, a village on the coast of German
East Africa, opposite the island of Zanzibar, a
frequent starting point of expeditions to the
interior.

Bagdad, or BAGHDAD, the capital of a pro-
vince of Asiatic Turkey, on the Tigris, 500
miles from its mouth. It is surrounded by a
brick wall, 5 miles in circumference, and 40 feet
high, but in some places broken down, and by a
deep dry ditch ; the river is spanned by a bridge
of boats, 220 yards long, and the communication
is guarded by a citadel. There are four gates,
the finest of which, bearing date 1220, has re-
mained closed since 1638. Bagdad has an ex-
tremely picturesque appearance from the outside,
being encircled and interspersed with groves of
date-trees, through which one may catch the
gleam of domes and minarets ; but it does not
improve on closer inspection. The bazaars
exhibit the produce of both Turkish and Euro-
pean markets ; but commerce has greatly de-
creased since Persia began to trade with Europe
by way of Trebizond, or of the Persian Gulf on
the south. Nevertheless Bagdad still carries on
a considerable traffic with Aleppo and Damascus,
and has manufactures of red and yellow leather,
silks, and cotton stuffs. Dates, wool, grain, and
timbac (a substitute for tobacco) are exported,

3 BAGSHOT HEATlf

and a number of horses are sent into India. Of
the population, estimated at 180,000, the greatest
part are Turks and Arabs. In 1831 an inundation
destroyed one-half of the town and several
thousand lives. Cholera visits it periodically;
in 1831, 4000 people perished daily for several
days from its ravages. In 1870-71 Bagdad also
suffered severely from famine. Since 1836, British
steamers have plied on the Tigris between Bagdad
and Basra ; and here is one of the chief stations
of the Anglo-Indian telegraph.

Bagdad in the 9th century was greatly enlarged
by Haroun Al-Raschid, and under his son, Al-
Mamuri, it became the great seat of Arabic learn-
ing and literature. It was conquered by the
sultan, Murad IV., in 1638, and ever since has
been under the sway of the Porte. The province
of Bagdad, comprising great part of the lower
basins of the Euphrates and Tigris, falls into the
vilayets of Bagdad (pop. 850,000), Mosul (350,000),
and Basra (200,000).

Bagenalstown, a market-town on the Barrow,
in the county, and 10 miles S. of the town of
Carlow. Pop. 1900.

Baghal, or BHAGUL, a Punjab hill-state in
North-west India, on the south bank of the
Sutlej. Area, 124 sq. m. ; pop. 24,633.

Baghelkhand, the name of five native states,
under the political superintendence of the
governor-general's agent for Central India, lying
to the south of the districts of Mirzapur and
Allahabad. The total area is 11,324 sq. m. ;
pop. 1,562,595.

Bagheria, or BAGARIA, a town of Sicily, 8
miles E. by S. of Palermo by rail. Pop. 12,650.

Baghistan. See BEHISTUN.

Bagirmi, or BAGHERMI, a country in Central
Africa, bounded on the W. by Bornu and a por-
tion of Lake Tsad. Its area is estimated at
nearly 71,000 sq. m. ; its pop. at 1,500,000. The
capital is Masena.

Bagnacavallo (Ban-ya-ca-val'lo), a cathedral
city of Italy, 11 miles W. of Ravenna. Pop. 3843.

Bagnara (Ban-yali'ra), an Italian coast-town,
16 miles NE. of Reggio. Pop. 9749.

Bagneres (Ban-yehr'), two watering-places both
in the Pyrenees, France. (1) BAGNERES DE
BIGORRE, on the Adour, in the dep. of Hautes
Pyrenees, 1820 feet above sea-level, 13 miles SE.
of Tarbes by rail. Known to the Romans as
Vicus Aquensis Balnearies or Aquce Bigerrorum,
it now is visited by 20,000 strangers yearly, and
has fourteen baths and over fifty springs (90 to
135 F.), recommended for catarrhal and nervous
diseases. Pop. 6986. (2) BAGNERES DE LUCHON,
in the dep. of Haute Garonne, 43 miles by road
SE. of Bagneres de Bigorre, and 22 by rail S.
of Montrejeau Junction. Its cold, tepid, and
hot sulphurous waters (up to 130 F.) are recom-
mended in rheumatism, gout, cutaneous dis-
eases, and paralysis, and attract 10,000 visitors
annually. Pop. 3585.

Bagni di Lucca (Ban'yee dee Look'ka), a bath-
ing-place of Italy, 17 miles N. of Lucca, and has
hot springs of from 96" to 136 F. Pop. 900.

Bagno a Ripoli (Ban'yo dh Rip'olee), an Italian
village, 5 miles from Florence, containing baths.

Bagno in Romagna (Ban'yo in Romdn'ya), an
Italian bathing-place, on the Savio, 35 miles E.
by N. of Florence. It has hot springs of tem-
perature 10S-110 F. Pop. 1875.

Bagshot Heath, near Windlesham in Berk-

BAHAMAS

BAIKAL

shire and Surrey, is a tract of nearly 50 sq. m.,
463 feet above sea-level.

Baha'mas, or LUCAYOS (Span. Los Cayos), a
chain of British West Indian islands, stretching
nearly 600 miles north-westward from near the
north coast of Hayti to the east coast of Florida.
The chain extends in N. lat. from 21 42' to 27
34', and in W. long, from 72 40' to 79 5'. There
are 20 larger islands, 653 islets or cays, and 2387
reefs. The chief members of the group, if
reckoned from the NW., are : Great Bahama,
Abaco, Eleuthera, New Providence, Andros, Cat
Island, San Salvador or Watling's Island, Exuma,
Long Island, Crooked Island, Acklin, Mariguana,
Inagua, Little Inagua. The Caicos (q.v.) and
Turk's Island, which geographically belong to
the Bahamas, have since 1848 been politically
annexed to Jamaica.

The area is 5390 sq. m. ; and in 1900 the popula-
tion was 53,565, of whom about 6500 are Euro-
peans. Of coralline formation, the islands gener-
ally are of reef-like shape, long, narrow, and
low, the highest hill not exceeding 230 feet.
With very little appearance of soil, they derive
considerable fertility from the tendency of the
porous rock to retain moisture. Sponges are
largely found round the shores. Cotton cultiva-
tion received a great impulse during the American
civil war. The sugar-cane, too, is grown more
largely than formerly ; but the salt manufacture
has ceased to be remunerative. The tempera-
ture ranges from 57 to 113 F. ; but in the winter
the climate is so delightfully temperate as to be
often recommended in the United States to
sufferers from pulmonary complaints. The
annual rainfall is from 43 to 45 inches. In 1866
and 1883 the Bahamas were visited by furious
and destructive cyclones.

The Bahamas, Columbus's earliest discovery
(1492), were occupied in 1629 by the English,
to whom, after various vicissitudes of fortune
in the wars with Spain and France, they were
ultimately secured by the peace of Versailles
(1783). Nassau, in New Providence, is the seat
of government. During the American civil war,
Nassau became the station for blockade-runners,
and thence derived unexampled prosperity ; the
value of imports and exports rising from 234,029
and 157,350 in 1860, to 5,346,112 and 4,672,398
in 1864. They have greatly declined since ; their
present annual value, on a four years' average,
being 325,000 and 200,000. So far, however,
as agriculture is concerned, the impulse then
received has been maintained by the Bahamas.
Both Baptists and Wesleyans are nearly twice
as numerous as members of the Church of Eng-
land, which was disestablished in 1869. See
works by Bacot (2d ed. 1871) and Powles (1888).

Bahar. See BEHAR.

Bahawalpur, capital of an Indian native state
in political connection with the Punjab, lies
near the left bank of the Sutlej, which here is
crossed by the fine ' Empress ' railway bridge. It
has manufactures of scarfs, turbans, silks, and
chintzes. Pop. 13,635. Area of the state, 17,285
sq. m. ; pop. 750,042.

Bahia (Bd-ee'a), capital of a Brazilian province,
next to Rio de Janeiro the largest city of the
republic, on a range of hills along the sea-shore.
The bay, which is one of the finest in America, is
defended by forts, with the island of Itaparica
sheltering the entrance. Bahia has a university,
and is the seat of an archbishop, who is primate
of Brazil. The chief exports are sugar, cotton,
coffee, tobacco, rice, &c. Bahia is the oldest

city in Brazil, and till 1763 was the capital
The bay was discovered by Amerigo Vespucci
in 1503, and the city was founded by a Portu-
guese navigator named Correa in 1510. Pop.
180,000. The province has an area of 164,502
sq. m., and a pop. of 1,950,000.

Bahia Blanca, a growing port of the Argentine
Republic, in the province of Buenos Ayres. It is
situated on the Naposta River, three miles from
its entrance into the bay of Bahia Blanca, and
has a good harbour. Pop. about 10,000.

Bahia Honda, a harbour on the north coast
of Cuba, 60 miles WSW. of Havana, protected by
a fort. Pop. 1500.

Bahr, an Arabic word signifying a large body
of water, is applied both to lakes and rivers.
Bahr-el-Abiad (the White River), and Bahr-el-
Azrak (the Blue River), are the chief branches
of the Nile (q.v.). Bahr-el-Ghazal is the name
of the upper branch of the Nile, constituted by
the Bahr-el-Arab and many other tributaries,
which flows sluggishly eastward to join the
Bahr-el-Jebel and so form the Bahr-el-Abiad.
The Bahr-el-Ghazal gives name to a province in
the SW. of the Egyptian Soudan, bravely held for
years by the governor, Frank Lupton. Bahr-el-
Yemen is the Red Sea (q.v.), and Bahr-Lut (Sea
of Lot) the Dead Sea (q.v.).

Bahraich, a town of Oudh, India, 70 miles
NE. of Lucknow. To the shrine of Masatid, a
warrior and Mussulman saint, there is a great
concourse of pilgrims every May. Pop. 27,000.

Bahrein Islands, or AVAL ISLANDS, a group
of islands in the Persian Gulf. The most import-
ant of these is Bahrein (pop. 40,000), 33 miles
long and 10 broad. Manama, the capital, has a
good harbour. The Bahrein Islands are chiefly
remarkable for their pearl-fisheries, which em-
ploy, during the season, from 1000 to 2000 boats,
each manned with from 8 to 20 men. The
annual value of the pearls is estimated at up-
wards of 300,000. The islands are inhabited by
Arabs, and since 1861 have been under English
protection. Pop. 70,000.

Balsa, a small town of antiquity, on the coast
of Campania, 10 miles W. of Naples and opposite
Puteoli. The ruins still standing on the desolate
coast, or visible beneath the clear waters of the
sea, are now the only evidence of its former
magnificence.

Baikal (Turkish, Bei-kul, ' rich lake ') is, after
the Caspian Sea and the Sea of Aral, the largest
lake of Asia, with an area of 13,500 sq. m. It
is a fresh-water lake, and is situated in the south
of Siberia, in the government of Irkutsk, in 51
20' 55" 3& N. lat., and 103 110 E. long., and
somewhat resembles a sickle in shape. Its
length is 330 miles, and its breadth 9J to 40
miles ; height above the sea, 1360 feet ; mean
depth 850 feet, but in some places as much as
4500 feet, more than 3000 feet below sea-level.
Its waters are a deep blue, and remarkably clear.
Its outlet is by the Lower Angara, a chief tribu-
tary of the Yenisei ; but the river is inconsider-
able in size compared with those which flow into
the lake. It has several islands the largest,
Olkhon, 32 miles long. There are numerous hot
springs on its shores, and earthquakes are fre-
quent. Formerly the lake or rather sea seems
to have been much more extensive. The diffi-
cult section of the great Siberian railway passing
round the south end of the sea was not completed
till 1904 ; the connection being till then carried on
by steamers (or across the Baikal ice in winter),

BAILEN

BALAKLAVA

The annual value of its salmon, sturgeon, and
other fisheries is estimated at 200,000 roubles.
The capture of fresh-water seals is a source of
income to the Russian settlers. The surface of
the lake is frozen from November to May, but
the traffic is carried on over the ice.

Bailen', or BAYLEN, a town of Andalusia,
Spain, 22 miles N. of Jaen. Pop. 7988. Here,
on July 19, 1808, the Spaniards won their first
and only victory over the French, 18,000 of whom
laid down their arms.

Bailieborough, a market-town of Cavan
county, 58 miles NW. of Dublin. Pop. 1154.

Bailleul (Ba-yul'\ a town in the French dep. of
Nord, 19 miles NW. of Lille. The Baliol family
hence derived its name. Pop. 11,900.

Baireuth, or BAYREUTH (Bye'roit), capital of
the Bavarian province of Upper Franconia, on
the Red Maine, 43 miles NNB. of Nuremberg by
rail. Its principal buildings are the old palace,
dating from 1454 ; the new palace (1753) ; the old
opera-house (1748); and a magnificent 'national
theatre ' (1875) for the performance of the operas
of Wagner, who, dying at Venice, was in 1883
buried in the garden of his villa here. Jean
Paul Richter died here in 1825, and a monument
has been erected to his memory. Baireuth's
chief articles of industry are cottons, woollens,
linen, leather, tobacco, parchment, and porce-
lain. Population, 30,000, of whom only about
15 per cent, are Catholics. See Milner-Barry's
Baireuth and the Franconian Switzerland (1887).

BaituI, or BETUL (Bay-tool'), a town of British
India, in the hill-country of the Central Province,
50 miles NE. of Ellichpur. Pop. 5700.

Baja (Beth' y a), a market-town of Hungary, on
the Danube, 90 m. S. of Pesth, with a fine castle,
several convents, and brisk trade. Pop. 19,941.

Bajmok (Bye-mok), a village of Hungary, 16
miles SW. of Theresienstadt. Pop. 6661.

Bakarganj, a British district in the Dacca
division of India, under the lieutenant-governor
of Bengal, contains 3649 sq. m. Barisal, the
headquarters, on the Barisal River, is the only
town with over 5000 inhabitants. Bakarganj,
the former capital, near the junction of the
Krishnakati and Khairabad rivers, is now in
ruins. Pop. 2,353,965.

Bakau (Ba-kow 1 ), a Roumanian town on the
river Bistrisza, 187 miles N. of Bucharest by
rail. Pop. 15,000.

Bakchiserai (Turkish, 'Garden Palace'), a
town in the Russian government of Taurida, the
residence of the ancient princes or khans of the
Crimea, 15 miles by rail SW. of the present
capital, Simferopol. The palace (1519) of the
khans has been restored by the Russian govern-
ment in the oriental style. Pop. 15,377.

Bakel, a town with a strong fort, in the E. of
the French colony of Senegal, on the Senegal
River. Pop. 2600.

Baker, MOUNT, a volcano (14,100 feet) of
Washington State, U.S., in the Cascade Range,
a continuation of the Rocky Mountains, 20 miles
from the Canadian frontier. It was very active
in 1880.

Bakewell, an ancient market-town in Derby-
shire, on the Wye, 25 miles NNW. of Derby. It
has warm baths and a mineral spring. Pop. 2848.

Bakhmut, a town of Southern Russia, in the
government of Ekaterinoslav, on a tributary of
the DoneU. Pop. 19,674.

Bakhtegan, or NIRIS, a shallow salt-lake
(74 x 13 miles) in the Persian province of Far-
sistan, 47 miles E. of Shiraz.

Bakony Forest, a densely wooded hill-country
of Hungary, extending from Lake Balaton north-
ward to the Danube. Immense herds of swine
are annually driven hither to feed upon the
mast.

Baku, an important seaport of Russian Trans-
caucasia, on the Apsheron peninsula, on a
crescent-shaped bay in the Caspian Sea. Since
1883 it has been connected by rail with Tiflis,
and so with Poti and Batoum on the Black Sea,
561 miles distant ; and since 1887, by the North
Caucasus Railway, with Novorossiak on the
Black Sea. The whole soil around Baku is
impregnated with petroleum, which, mono-
polised till 1872, now forms the staple branch
of its industry. Some of the fountains ignite
spontaneously, a fact which caused Baku to be
esteemed as a holy city by the Parsees (see
ATESHGA). Most of the petroleum wells are
situated on the Balakhani peninsula, 8 or 9
miles to the north. Lines of pipe carry the
oil into the ' black town ' of Baku, which is full
of oil refineries emitting vast volumes of smoke.
One well, tapped in 1886, began to spout oil with
extraordinary force, deluging the whole district,
till the outflow, on the eighth day, had reached
a daily rate of 11,000 tuns, or more than the
entire produce of the world at the time. Another
gigantic naphtha fountain burst out in 1887,
rising to a height of 350 feet, and after forming
an extensive petroleum lake, forced its way into
the sea. How rapidly the industry grew may be
judged from the fact that the number of drilled
wells increased from 1 in 1871 to 400 in 1883.
Cotton, silk, opium, saffron, and salt are also
exported. The Arabian Masudi is the first who
mentions Baku, about 943, and he gives an
account of a great volcanic mountain in its
vicinity, now extinct. Baku was taken by
Russia from the Persians in 1806. The harbour,
which is strongly fortified, is one of the chief
stations of the Russian navy in the Caspian.
The population some 16,000 in 1880 was in 1900
about 115,000. Baku is capital of a government
of Russian Transcaucasia, with an area of 15,516
sq. m., and a pop. of 810,000. See works by
Marvin (1884-86).

Ba'la, a town of Merionethshire, North Wales,
near the foot of Bala Lake, 12 miles SW. of
Corwen by rail. Pop. 1622. Bala Lake measures
4 miles by 1 mile, and sends off the Dee from its
foot. From Lake Vyrnwy (q.v.), 10 miles south,
Liverpool draws its water-supply.

Balaghat' (' above the Ghats '), a large tract of
elevated country in the south of India, extend-
ing from the rivers Toombudra and Krishna in
the north to the farthest extremity of Mysore in
the south. Also a British district in the Central
Provinces. Pop. 330,554.

Balahissar, a village in the south-western
part of the province of Angora, in Asia Minor,
on the site of the ancient Pessimis, which was
famous for its worship of Cybele.

Balakla'va, a small Greek fishing-village with
700 inhabitants, in the Crimea, 8 miles SE. of
Sebastopol. The landlocked harbour, which
affords secure anchorage for the largest ships,
till 1860 was a naval station. Balaklava is the
Symbolon Limen of Strabo, and the Cembalo of the
Genoese (1365-1475), who were expelled by the
Turks, as these were in turn by the Russians.
During 1854-56 it was the British headquarters,

BALASINOR

BALLAARAT?

and the famous charge of the Six Hundred (25th
October 1854) has made the name glorious as
Thermopylte.

Balasinor, a tributary state of India, in the
province of Guzerat, Bombay. Area about 150
sq. m. ; pop. 42,000. The chief town, Balasinor,
is 51 miles N. of Baroda. Pop. 9000.

Balasor', a seaport of Bengal, on the right
bank of the Burabalang River, 15 miles from its
mouth. Pop. 20,865.

Balaton, LAKE (Ger. Platten-See), a lake, the
largest in Hungary, 55 miles SW. of Pesth.
Lying 426 feet above sea-level, it has a length of
48 miles, a breadth of 10, and an area of 245
sq. m. Its mean depth is 20 feet, but in one
part it sinks to 150. It is fed by over thirty
streams the chief the Szala as well as by
numerous springs. Its outlet is by the Sio,
which flows to the Sarvitz, a feeder of the
Danube. The waters have a slightly brackish
taste. Fish of various kinds abound, including
a kind of perch, weighing from 10 to 20 pounds,
and found nowhere else.

Balbriggan, a watering-place in Dublin
county, 21 miles N. by E. of Dublin. It manu-
factures linen, cotton (especially cotton stock-
ings), and calico. Pop. 2233.

Balcarres, a Fife mansion near Colinsburgh,
where Lady Ann Barnard wrote 'Auld Robin
Gray.' It is a seat now of the Earl of Crawford.

Baldock, a town of Hertfordshire, 37 miles N.
of London. Pop. 2057.

Baldoon', a ruin If mile SSW. of Wigtown, the
true scene of Scott's Bride of Lammermoor.

Bale. See BASEL.

Balearic Isles, a group of islands Mallorca
(Majorca), Minorca, Iviza, Formentera, Cabrera,
and several smaller islets lying off the coast of
Valencia. They formed from 1220 to 1344 the
kingdom of Mallorca, which was united in 1349
with the crown of Aragon ; and they now form a
Spanish province, with an area of 1935 sq. m.,
and a population of 312,000. The Phoenicians
visited the Balearic Isles at a very early date,
and they were followed by the Greeks, the
Carthaginians, and (123 B.C.) the Romans. The
Baleares were famous slingers. See Bidwell's
Balearic Isles (1876).

Balerno, a Midlothian village, with paper-
works, on the Water of Leith, 7 miles SW. of
Edinburgh. Pop. 699.

Balfron', a Stirlingshire village, 19 miles NNW.
of Glasgow. Pop. 737.

Balfrush' (more correctly Barfurusli, ' mart of
burdens'), a town in the Persian province of
Mazanderan, on the Bhawal, 12 miles from its
mouth in the Caspian Sea. It is a centre of
trade between Russia and Persia. Pop. 30,000.

Balgovmie. See DON (Aberdeenshire).

Balham, part of Streatham (q.v.).

Bali (Bdh'lee), or LITTLE JAVA, one of the Sunda
Islands, lying east of Java. It is 75 miles long,
60 broad, and 2300 sq. m. in area ; pop. 760,000.
A chain of mountains crosses the island from
east to west, rising in the volcanic peak of
Gunungagung to 12,379 feet. The Balinese are
a superior race, and speak a language related to
Javanese. Their religion is Brahmanism of an
ancient type. Under the Dutch, the nine little
principalities of the island are governed by native
rulers. Chinese and a few Europeans are the
chief traders.

Balize. See BELIZE, HONDURAS.

Balkans, a ridge or series of ridges of moun-
tains in south-eastern Europe (anc. Hcemus ;
Balkan is Turkish for 'mountain'). They form
the boundary between Bulgaria and Eastern
Roumelia, extending from Timok, SE. of Sophia,
eastward to the Black Sea, and accordingly are
the backbone of the joint principality of Bulgaria
and Eastern Roumelia. The watershed between
the Danube and the ^Egean, they have a steep
slope southwards, but northwards incline gradu-
ally towards the Danube. They are highest in
the west, where the mean height is 6500 feet.
The ridge is crossed by some 30 passes, of which
the Shipka, between Kezanlik and Tirnova, and
4290 feet high, is the most noted in history
especially as the scene of severe fighting in the
Russo-Turkish war of 1877-78. The term BALKAN
PENINSULA, frequently occurring in connection
with the evergreen ' Eastern Question,' is a usual
name for the peninsula in South-eastern Europe
running southwards between the Adriatic and
the ^Egean. The most convenient northern boun-
dary is the Save and the Lower Danube ; though
historically and politically Rpumania and some
parts of the Austrian dominions are closely
associated with the regions south of the Danube.
Greece is a peninsula upon a peninsula, but is
not usually accounted one of the Balkan States.
In a general way the Balkan Peninsula and
Balkan States cover the area of Turkey in Europe
and the non-Turkish States either now or lately
under Turkish suzerainty, with the exception
of Roumania and Greece. See the articles
TURKEY, BULGARIA, SERVIA, MONTENEGRO,
ALBANIA, and BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA.

Balkh (anc. Bactria), a district of Afghan
Turkestan, the most northerly province of
Afghanistan. Offsets of the Hindu-Kush traverse
it in a NW. direction, and slope down to the low
steppes of Bokhara. Its length is 250 miles ; its
breadth, 120. The natives are Uzbegs. BALKH,
long the chief town, is surrounded by a mud
wall ; but though bearing the imposing title of
'mother of cities,' it has not in recent times had
any of the grandeur of ancient Bactra, on the site
of which it is built. It was twice destroyed by
Genghis Khan and Timur. A terrible outbreak
of cholera in 1877 caused the capital of Afghan
Turkestan to be transferred to Mazar, west of
Balkh ; since which Balkh has been an insignifi-
cant village.

Balkhash' (Kirghiz Tengis; Chinese Sihai), a
great inland lake near the eastern borders of
Russian Central Asia, between 44 and 47 N. lat.,
and 73 and 79 E. long. Lying 780 feet above
sea-level, it extends 323 miles WSW. ; its breadth
at the west end is 50 miles, at the east from 9 to
4 miles ; the area is 8400 sq. m. The water is
clear, but intensely salt. Its principal feeder is
the river Hi. It has no outlet.

Ballaarat, or BALLARAT, a thriving town of
Victoria, 100 miles WNW. of Melbourne, and 58
NW. of Geelong by rail. It is next in import-
ance to Melbourne, and owes its rise to the dis-
covery of the gold-fields there in June 1851,
being the oldest of the considerable gold-fields of
Victoria, and in fact the oldest but one of all
the gold-fields of the colony. Ballaarat is the
see of Protestant and Roman Catholic bishops.
Amongst the industries are iron -founding, brew-
ing, distilling, with flour and woollen mills.
When the surface diggings became exhausted
after the first rush in 1851, deposits of gold
were found at greater depths, and now there are
mines as deep as some English coal-pits, with

BALLABGARH

BALTIC PROVINCES

steam pumping and all the requisite machinery.
The 'Welcome Nugget,' the largest ever found,
was discovered in 1858 at Bakery Hill. It
weighed 2217 oz. 16 dwt., and was sold for
10,500. Pop. (1891) 40,849 ; (1901) 49,414.

Eallabgarh, a town of India, in the Punjab,
21 miles S. of Delhi. Pop. 7000.

Ballachu'lish, a village of Argyllshire, on
the south shore of salt-water Loch Leven, 16
miles S. of Fort- William. Its quarries of blue
roofing clay-slate, commenced about 1760, pro-
duce in a busy year 17,000,000 roofing-slates,
weighing 30,000 tons. Pop. 1045.

Ballaghaderreen, a town of County Mayo, 12
miles NW. of Castlereagh. Pop. 1266.

Ballantrae (Ballantray 1 ), a fishing-village at
the mouth of the Stinchar, in the S. of Ayrshire,
10 miles WSW. of Pin wherry station. Pop. 514.

Bal'later, a village of Aberdeenshire, on the
Dee, 44 miles WSW. of Aberdeen by rail. Near
it are the medicinal springs of Pannanich, Bal-
moral Castle (q.v.), and Ballatrich Farm, con-
nected with Byron's boyhood. Pop. 1250.

Ballenstedt, a town of Anhalt, in the Harz
Mountains, 7 miles SE. of Quedlinburg by rail.
Its castle was a monastery 940-1525, and from
1765 till 1863 the residence of the dukes of
Anhalt-Bernburg. Pop. 5852.

Balleny Islands, five small volcanic islands
discovered in the Antarctic Ocean, 1839, nearly
on the Antarctic circle, and in long. 164 E.

Ballina', a seaport on the confines of counties
Mayo and Sligo, on the tidal Moy, 7 miles S. of
its entrance into Killala Bay, and 168 miles NW.
of Dublin by rail. It has a R. C. cathedral (that
of the Bishop of Killala). In 1798 the French
landed and took Ballina, but were three weeks
afterwards defeated at Killala. Pop. 4505.

Ballinakill, a town of Queen's county, 63 miles
SW. of Dublin. Pop. 464.

Ballinamore, a town of County Leitrim, 15
miles NE. of Carrick-on-Shannon. Pop. 654.

Ballinasloe', a town in Connaught on the
borders of counties Gal way and Koscommon,
on the river Suck, 94 miles W. of Dublin. At
the great annual fair for five days in October, as
many as 60,000 sheep and 6000 horned cattle,
besides horses, have been sold. Pop. 4904.

Ballincollig, a town of County Cork, on the
Bride, 7 miles W. of Cork. Pop. 740.

Ballingarry, a town in the county, and 16
miles SW. of the town of Limerick. Pop. 540.

Ballinrobe', a town of County Mayo, on the
Robe, 17 miles SSE. of Castlebar. Pop. 1552.

Balloch, a village at the foot of Loch Lomond,
20 miles NW. of Glasgow.

Ballochmyle, an Ayrshire estate, near Mauch-
line, rendered famous by Burns.

Ballybay, a town of Monaghan, 79 miles NNW.
of Dublin. Pop. 1208.

Ballybunnion, a watering-place of Kerry, 9
miles NW. of Listowel.

Ballycas'tle, a seaport of County Antrim, on
an open bay opposite Rathlin Isle, 68 miles N.
of Belfast by rail. Its harbour and pier cost
150,000, but the former is silted up, and the
sea has destroyed the latter. Pop. 1471.

Ballyclare, a town of Antrim, 10 miles SW.
of Larne. Pop. 2066.

Ballyconnell, a village in the county, and 14
miles NNW. of the town of Cavan.

Ballygawley, a Tyrone village, 11 miles WSW.
of Dungannon.

Ballyhalbert, a fishing-village of County
Down, 13 miles SE. of Newtonards.

Ballyhooly, a village in the county, and 18
miles N. by E. of the city of Cork.

Ballyjamesduff, a market-town in the county,
and 11 miles SE. of the town of Cavan. Pop.
652.

Ballylongford, a Kerry village, 8 miles N. of
Listowel. Pop. 545.

Ballymahon, a market-town in the county,
and 12 miles S. of the town of Longford. Pop.
713.'

Ballyme'na, a town of County Antrim, on the
Braid, 33 miles NNW. of Belfast by rail. It is
one of the greatest linen and flax markets in
Ireland, and its vicinity is covered with extensive
bleach-fields. Pop. (1901) 10,886.

Ballymoney, a market-town of County Antrim,
53 miles NNW. of Belfast by rail. Pop. 2955.

Ballymote, a town in the county, and 14 miles
S. of the town of Sligo. Pop. 997.

Ballynahinch, a market-town of County Down,
12 miles S. of Antrim. Pop. 1542.

Ballyragget, a town in the county, and 10
miles NW. of the town of Kilkenny. Pop. 518.

Ballyshannon, a seaport of County Donegal,
at the mouth of the river Erne, on a small inlet
running off from Donegal Bay, 157 miles NW. of
Dublin by rail. It is celebrated for its salmon-
fishing. Pop. 2359.

Ballywalter, a fishing- village of County Down,
10 miles SE. of Newtonards.

Balme, Col de, a mountain pass (7200 feet)
between Mont Blanc and the Dent du Midi,
taking over the route from Martigny to Chamonix.

Balmer'ino, a small village of Fife, on the
Firth of Tay, 3 miles SW. of Dundee by water.
Near it are scanty remains of a Cistercian abbey
(1227). See a work by J. Campbell (1867).

Balmo'ral, a royal residence in Braemar,
Aberdeenshire, 9 miles W. of Ballater, and 52 of
Aberdeen. Standing 926 feet above sea-level on
a natural platform that slopes gently down from
the base of Craig-gowan (1437 feet) to the Dee, it
commands a magnificent prospect on every side.
The estate was acquired by Prince Albert in
1848-52; and the castle rebuilt (1853-55) at a
cost of 100,000 in the Scottish Baronial style of
architecture.

Balquhidder(.BaZ-'w7u(M'er), aPerthshire parish,
28 miles NW. of Stirling, with Rob Roy's grave.

Balrampur, a town of Oudh, India, near the
frontier of Nepaul. Pop. 15,000.

Balta, a town on the Kodema, an affluent of
the Bug, in the government of Podolia, Russian
Poland. Pop. 24,440.

Baltic Provinces, the five Russian govern-
ments bordering on the Baltic viz. Courland,
Livonia, Esthonia, Petersburg, and Finland ; or
in a restricted sense often the first three. The
Baltic provinces once belonged to Sweden,
except Courland, which was a dependency of
Poland. They came into the possession of Russia
partly in the beginning of the 18th century,
through the conquests of Peter the Great, partly
under Alexander in 1809. No pains have been
spared to Russianise them, and since 1876-77
they have lost their remaining privileges, and
been thoroughly incorporated in the Russian

BALTIC SEA

BAMBERQ

empire. The inhabitants are mainly Esths and
Letts, with many Germans.

Baltic Sea, the great gulf or inland sea bor-
dered by Denmark, Germany, Russia, and Sweden,
and communicating with the Kattegat and North
Sea by the Sound and the Great and Little Belts.
Its length is from 850 to 900 miles; breadth,
from 100 to 200 ; and area, including the Gulfs
of Bothnia and Finland, 184,496 sq. m., of which
12,753 are occupied by islands. Its mean depth
is 44 fathoms, and the greatest ascertained depth,
between Gottland and Courland, 140. The group
of the Aland Islands divides the south part of
the sea from the north part or Gulf of Bothnia
(q.v.). The Gulf of Finland (q.v.), branching off
eastwards into Russia, separates Finland from
Esthonia. A third gulf is that of Riga or Livonia.
The Kurisch and other Haffs are not gulfs, but
fresh-water lakes at the mouths of rivers. The
water of the Baltic is colder and clearer than
that of the ocean, and contains in most places
only a fourth of the proportion of salt found in
the Atlantic ; though the salinity varies in
different parts and at different seasons. Ice
hinders the navigation from three to five months
yearly. Rarely, as in 1658 and 1809, the whole
surface is frozen over. Tides, as in all inland
seas, are little perceptible at Copenhagen, about
a foot. Upwards of 250 rivers flow into this
sea, which, through them and its lakes, drains
not much less than one-fifth of all Europe,
its drainage area being estimated as 717,000 sq.
m. The chief of these rivers are the Oder,
Vistula, Niemen, Dwina, Narva, Neva, and
Motala. The principal islands are Zealand, Fiinen,
Bornholm, Samsoe, and Laaland (Danish) ; Gott-
land, Oland, and s Hveen (Swedish) ; the Aland
Islands (Russian)-; and Riigen (Prussian). The
Eider Canal, connecting the Baltic near Kiel
with the North Sea at Tonningen, facilitates
the grain trade ; and the two seas are also con-
nected by the Gotha Canal, which joins the lakes
of South Sweden. These are navigable for boats
of light draught only ; but in 1887-95 a great
canal was constructed from Brunsbiittel, at the
mouth of the Elbe, to Holtenau and Kiel, to
allow the passage of the largest vessels, being 61
miles long, 28 feet deep, 200 wide at the surface,
and 85 at the bottom ; and as the voyage round
from the Elbe to Kiel represents nearly 600 miles
of dangerous sailing or steaming, the canal must
prove of great value to commerce and to the
German navy. The cost was estimated at
8,000,000, .and the yearly maintenance at
50,000. The most important harbours in the
Baltic are : in Denmark, Copenhagen ; in Ger-
many, Kiel, Liibeck, Stralsund, Stettin, Danzig,
Konigsberg, and Memel ; in Russia, Riga, Narva,
Cronstadt, and Sveaborg ; and in Sweden, Stock-
holm and Karlskrona.

Baltimore, a fishing-village in County Cork,
on Baltimore Bay, 7 miles SW. of Skibbereen.
Here in 1887 the Baroness Burdett-Coutts estab-
lished a technical fishery school. Pop. 597.

Baltimore, a port of entry and the largest city
of Maryland, and the seventh city of the United
States in population, stands on the northern
bank of the river Patapsco, an arm of Chesa-
peake Bay, 250 miles by ship-channel from the
ocean, 96 miles SW. of Philadelphia, and 40 NE.
of Washington, D.C., in 39 17' N. lat., 76 37'
W. long. Its site is uneven, and its surround-
ings are picturesque and pleasant. The plan of
the streets is not so strictly uniform as in many
cities. The harbour is spacious and

perfectly secure, having a minimum depth of 24
feet, and access from the sea is safe and easy.
Baltimore is an important centre of the traffic
in bread-stuffs, and is also the seat of extensive
and varied industries cotton and woollen goods,
flour, tobacco and cigars, beer, glassware, boots
and shoes, iron and steel (including machinery,
car-wheels, iron bridges, stoves, furnaces, &c.),
clothing, pianos, organs, and the canning of
oysters, employing over 2000 hands.

Baltimore is noted for the fine architecture of
its public and other buildings, among the finest
being the chamber of commerce, the Roman
Catholic archiepiscopal cathedral, the custom-
house, the Maryland Institute, the academy of
music, the city-hall, the Johns Hopkins Hos-
pital, the post-office, and the Peabody Insti-
tute. The public monuments (the Washington
column is 210 feet high) have given it the name
of the 'monumental city.' There are several
public squares and parks, the beautiful Druid
Hill Park of nearly 700 acres, being the most
celebrated. The Johns Hopkins University,
endowed with over $3,500,000 by a Quaker phil-
anthropist of that name (1795-1873), was opened
in 1876, and ranks as one of the first seats of
learning in the country. Founded in 1729, the
city was named in honour of Lord Baltimore,
the founder of the Maryland colony, and in 1796
was incorporated as a city. Pop. (1790) 13,503 ;
(1830) 80,625; (1860) 212,218; (1880) 332,313;
(1890) 434,439; (1900) 508,957.

Baltinglass, a Wicklow market-town, on the
Slaney, 10 miles E. of Mageney. Pop. 1007.

Baltistan, or LITTLE TIBET, an alpine region
of Kashmir, through which the Upper Indus
flows. It contains Mount Godwin-Austen, 28,250
feet high, next to Everest the highest on the
globe.

Baltjik', a Bulgarian seaport, on the Black
Sea, 20 miles NE. of Varna. Near it is ruined
Tomi, whither Ovid was exiled. Pop. 4000.

Baluchistan. See BELUCHISTAN.

Balwearie, 2 miles W. by S. of Kirkcaldy,
the ruined tower of the 'wizard' Sir Michael
Scott.

Bambarra, one of the Soudan states of Western
Africa, lying (where 5 W. long, and 12 N. lat.
cross one another) on both sides of the Upper
Niger. The inhabitants, a branch of the Man-
dingoes, number about 2,000,000, and are superior
to their neighbours in intelligence. The upper
classes profess Mohammedanism, but the lower
are pagans. The principal towns are Sego, San-
sanding, Yamina, and Bammako. In 1881 a
French treaty with the sultan of Sego opened
the country, which is now in the French sphere.

Bamberg, a Bavarian city, in Upper Fran-
conia, on the Regnitz, 3 miles above its conflu-
ence with the Main, and 33 N. of Nuremberg by
rail. Set in the midst of vineyards, orchards,
and hop-gardens, and founded about 769, from
1007 to 1802 it was the seat of independent
prince-bishops. The magnificent Romanesque
cathedral, founded by the Emperor Henry II. in
1004, has five towers, and contains the elabor-
ately carved tomb of the founder and his em-
press, Cunigunda. Opposite it is the palace
(1702) of the former prince-bishops, from one
of whose windows Marshal Berthier met his
death. St Michael's Benedictine abbey (1009)
was in 1803 converted into an almshouse. The -
ruins of the castle of Altenburg stand on an
eminence 1J mile from the town. Pop. (187})

BAMBOROUGH CASTLE

BANFFSHIRE

25,738; (1900) 41,850, who manufacture beer,
cotton, cloth, gloves, tobacco, &c.

Bamborough Castle, an ancient fortress on
the Northumbrian coast, 5 miles E. of Belford,
and 1(3J SE. of Berwick. Crowning a basaltic
rock, 150 feet high, it was founded about 547
by Ida the 'Flame-bearer,' first king of North-
umbria, and named Bebbanburli, after Bebbe, his
queen. Forfeited by Tom Forster for his share
in the '15, it was purchased by Bishop Crewe,
and bequeathed by him in 1721 to trustees for
benevolent purposes. In 1894 it was purchased
from the trustees by Lord Armstrong, and en-
dowed as an almshouse of cultured poverty.
Bamborough village was a royal borough before
the Conquest, and in Edward I.'s time returned
two members. Grace Darling is buried in the
churchyard. See vol. i. of Bateson's History of
Northumberland (1893).

Bambouk, a country of Senegambia, Western
Africa, lying in the angle formed by the Senegal
and Faleme rivers. It has rich iron ore and
deposits of gold in its rivers, especially the
Faleme. Faranaba and Mandinka are the chief
towns. The inhabitants, Mandingoes, are pro-
fessedly Mohammedans.

Bamian, a mountain-valley in Afghanistan,
on the road between Kabul and Turkestan, and
near the northern base of the Koh-i-baba range.
It lies 8500 feet above sea-level, is drained by
a feeder of the Oxus. The inhabitants are
Hazaras. The most notable feature of the dis-
trict is a number of Buddhist figures of enor-
mous size carved in the conglomerate cave-
pierced rocks, 200 to 300 feet high, which form
the northern side of the valley. Of these there
are five; and the two principal were described
by a Chinese Buddhist monk about 630 A.D.
The largest is 173 feet high, or 3 feet higher than
the Nelson Monument in Trafalgar Square.

Bam'mako, a trading town of Bambarra, on
the Upper Niger, fortified by the French in 1883.
Pop. 10,000.

Banagher, a town of King's county, on the
Shannon, 18 miles SE. of Ballinasloe. Pop. 1114.

Banas, or BUNAS, three rivers of India. (1)
In Rajputana, rising in the Aravalli Mountains,
and flowing 300 miles NE. and SE. to the Cham-
bal. (2) A river also rising in the Aravalli
Mountains, and flowing 180 miles SW. to the
Runn of Cutch. (3) In Chutia Nagpur, Bengal,
flowing 70 miles NW. to the Son, near Rampur.

Banat, any district or territory under a Ban
or military frontier chief, but specially applied
since 1718 to a part of Hungary which had no
separate ban or governor, and was bounded by
the Theiss, Danube, and Maros. It was formed
in