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TRINITYC^jmGETORDNTO 


B"^ 


( 


I 


CHAMBERS'S 

Concise  Gazetteer 


OF 


The  World 


TOPOGRAPHICAL 
STATISTICAL 
HISTORICAL 
PRONOUNCING 


EDITED  BY 

DAVID  PATRICK,  LLD. 


RE-VISEHD     EIDITIOISI 


London:    47  Paternoster  Row 

W.    &    R.   CHAMBERS,    LIMITED 

Edinburgh:    339   High  Street  . 
1906 


Edinburgh : 
rinted  by  W.  &  R.  Chambers,  Limited. 


& 
103 


PEEFAOE. 


The  first  question  that  naturally  comes  into  one's  mind  when  a  place  is 
mentioned  is :  '  Where  is  it  ? '  '  What  is  to  he  known  ahout  it  ? '  is  as 
naturally  the  second.  One  cannot  open  a  newspaper  without  lighting  on  some 
reference  to  the  railway  bridge  over  the  Zambesi,  the  battle  of  Tsushima, 
difficulties  at  Koweit,  the  naval  base  at  Rosyth,  or,  it  may  be,  to  Masampho, 
Skagway,  Tchernavoda,  Tuskegee,  Zeebrugge ;  oi-  there  will  be  jfcn  allusion 
to  the  'prisoner  of  Chillon,'  the  'rector  of  Lutterworth,'  the  'martyr  of  Erro- 
mango,'  the  'sage  of  Chelsea,'  the  'Mantuan,'  the  'Corsican,'  the  'cur6 
of  Meudon,'  the  'victor  of  Barossa,'  the  'hero  of  Khartoum,'  the 
'Chiltern  Hundreds,'  the  'monks  of  Medmenham,'  or  the  'Little  Gidding 
community. ' 

Not  even  Macaulay's  schoolboy  could  carry  the  whereabouts  of  all  these 
places  in  his  head,  or  could  explain  every  one  of  the  allusions.  The  present 
work  aims  to  supply  the  want  indicated.  It  is  largely  based  on  the  geo- 
graphical matter  of  Chambers's  Encyclopcedia,  but  many  of  the  articles  are 
new,  and  there  are  numerous  additions  to  the  list.  It  is  a  Gazetteer  of  the 
World,  comprehensive  yet  handy,  containing  the  latest  and  most  reliable 
information  about  nameworthy  places  at  home  and  abroad  :  the  last  census  of 
civilised  countries,  and  the  most  authentic  official  figures,  have,  it  need  hardly 
be  said,  been  taken  advantage  of  in  every  available  case.  The  etymology  of 
the  names,  where  it  is  significant  and  interesting,  has  not  been  neglected,  and 
an  attempt  has  been  made  to  do  justice,  however  briefly,  to  history  and  literary 
associations.  This  is  probably  the  only  Gazetteer  of  the  World  that  explains 
the  interest  of  Craigenputtock  and  Somersby,  Morwenstow  and  Chalfont  St 
Giles,  Ramsbottom,  Wem,  and  Tong.  Yet,  full  though  it  is,  it  does  not 
profess  to  be  exhaustive  ;  to  give,  for  instance,  every  one  of  (at  least)  275  cities, 
counties,  towns,  townships,  villages,  hamlets,  and  post-offices  of  the  name  of 
Washington  in  the  United  States,  or  every  one  of  the  90  Newtons  on  both  sides 
of  the  Atlantic.  To  have  attempted  this  would,  by  the  curtailment  of  the 
longer  articles,  have  involved  the  sacrifice  of  much  space  now  put  to  a  better 
use.  Instead,  the  aim  of  the  work  has  been  to  tell  everything  that  may  be 
reasonably  wanted  about  every  place  likely  to  be  looked  for,  and  to  tell  it  with 
the  utmost  conciseness  consistent  with  clearness  and  readableness.  References 
to  standard  books  have  been  added  to  the  articles  on  the  more  important  and 
interesting  countries,  towns,  and  even  villages. 


PREFACE. 

■  The  pronunciation  lias  been  indicated  in  all  cases  where  douht  could  arise — 
by  accent  when  this  suffices,  or  by  re-spelling  in  full,  in  the  way  most  likely 
to  be  intelligible  to  the  average  reader ;  although  it  must  be  remembered  that 
in  many  cases  the  pronunciation  can  only  be  approximately  suggested  in 
English  spelling.  The  g  in  the  re-spellings  is  always  hard,  as  in  get ;  ay  or  a 
is  the  English  a  in  fate ;  I  is  the  sound  in  mine ;  ow  is  always  the  sound  in 
how,  now ;  uh  is  the  obscure  sound  between  eh  and  ah;  hh  here  represents  the 
guttural  ch  of  German  and  Scotch  words ;  and  recourse  had  sometimes  to  be 
had  to  6  to  represent  the  German  6  and  the  French  oeu,  and  to  il  to  indicate 
the  German  ii  and  the  ordinary  French  u.  Many  readers  will  be  glad  to 
know  that  the  instinctive  English  way  of  accenting  Altona,  Potomac,  Potosi, 
and  Cordilleras  is  not  that  customary  in  those  parts  ;  that  English  people  do 
not  pronounce  Godmanchester,  Belvoir,  or  Hughenden  as  the  spelling  sug- 
gests ;  that  Scotsmen  do  not  defer  to  Southron  expectations  in  such  names  as 
Culloden  and  Oban,  Kirkcudbright  and  Milngavie ;  that  the  Welsh  do  not  say 
Mer'ioneth,  and  that  Amlwch  is  easier  to  utter  than  it  looks  at  first  sight ; 
that  British  sailors  who  have  been  on  the  spot  are  not  safe  guides  for  the  true 
pronunciation  of  names  like  Callao  and  Iquique,  Monte  Video  and  Buenos 
Ayres,  Setubal  and  Santander. 

In  this  revised  reissue  facts,  figures,  and  statistics  have  as  far  as  possible  been 
brought  down  to  the  early  years  of  the  new  century ;  many  articles  have  been 
entirely  rewritten,  and  hundreds  have  been  inserted  for  the  first  time.  Since 
the  first  issue  Rhodesia  and  Nigeria  have  changed  beyond  recognition ;  the 
Commonwealth  of  Australia  has  been  constituted  ;  Canada  has  made  un- 
paralleled progress  ;  British  South  Africa  has  gone  through  more  than  one  crisis  ; 
Indian  provinces  have  been  reconstituted,  divided,  renamed ;  the  republic  of 
the  United  States  has  increased  vastly  in  population  and  wealth  at  home,  and 
entered  on  a  significant  policy  of  expansion  abroad ;  the  sister  kingdoms  of 
Norway  and  Sweden  no  longer  live  under  the  same  roof ;  Spain  has  lost  its 
colonies,  and  Panama  become  a  nation  ;  Port  Arthur  and  Dalny,  Korea  and 
Manchuria,  Russia  and  Japan,  have  *made  history;'  Vesuvius  has  been  in 
disastrous  eruption,  and  San  Francisco  been  destroyed.  These  are  but  instances 
of  thousands  of  new  landmarks  of  the  world's  progress  and  of  the  changes  time 
brings  with  it.  In  the  revision  of  this  work  a  strenuous  eff'ort  has  been  made 
to  take  account  of  all  new  developments  and  to  make  the  Gazetteer  a  still 
more  valuable  companion  to  the  general  reader. 


C  H  A.  M:  B  E  R  S  '  S 


OOIfOISE 


GAZETTEER  OF  THE  WORLD 


AA 


A  (pron.  Ah),  the  name  of  several  Euro- 
pean rivers — in  Westphalia,  Switzer- 
land, and  North  France — all  small. 

Aachen  (Ah'hen),  the  German  name 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
Aalborg  (Awl-borg;   'Eel-town'),  a 
seaport  of  Jutland  and  seat  of  a  bishopric,  on  the 
Limfiord.    Pop.  (1890)  19,503  ■  (1901)  31,462. 

Aalen  (Ah'len),  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  on  the 
Kocher,  46  miles  E.  of  Stuttgart.    Pop.  8805. 

Aalesund  (Aiul-e-soond),  a  Norwegian  town, 
with  an  excellent  harbour,  built  on  three  small 
islands  of  the  province  of  Romsdal.    Pop.  11,700. 

Aalst.    See  Alost. 

Aalten,  a  Netherlands  town,  on  the  Aa,  30  miles 
E.  of  Ariihem.    Pop.  7000. 

A'an,  or  Avon,  a  small  Banffshire  lake,  lying 
2250  feet  above  sea-level  among  the  Cairngorms, 
which  sends  off  the  Avon,  29  miles,  to  the  Spey. 

Aar  (Ahr),  next  to  the  Rhine  and  Rhone  the 
largest  river  in  Switzerland,  rises  in  the  Bernese 
Oberland,  flows  through  Lakes  Brienz  and  Thun, 
and  passing  Interlaken,  Thun,  Berne,  Soleure, 
and  Aarau,  joins  the  Rhine  above  Waldshut  after 
a  course  of  nearly  200  miles. 

Aarau  (Ahr'oiu).    See  Aabgau. 

Aargau  (Ahr'gow;  Fr.  Argovie),  the  least 
mountainous  canton  of  Switzerland,  on  the  lower 
course  of  the  Aar,  with  the  Rhine  for  its  nortli 
boundary.  Area,  548  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1900)  206,500, 
mainly  Protestant  and  German-speaking.  The 
chief  town  is  Aarau,  on  -the  Aar.     Pop.  7500. 

Aarhuus  (Atvr-hoos),  a  seaport  on  the  east 
coast  of  Jutland,  the  second  of  Danish  cities, 
with  a  fine  Gothic  cathedral  of  the  13th  century. 
Pop.  (1870)  15,025  ;  (1890)  33,306   ;  (1901)  51,850. 

Ab'aco.    See  Bahamas. 

Abakansk,  a  fortified  Siberian  town,  near  the 
Abakan's  junction  with  the  Yenisei.     Pop.  3000. 

Ab'ana  and  Pharpar  are  identified  generally, 
the  former  with  the  Barada,  flowing  through 
Damascus  ;  the  latter  with  the  Awaj,  which  rises 
on  the  SE.  slopes  of  Hermon,  passes  8  miles  from 
Damascus,  and  falls  into  a  lake  to  the  south. 


ABER 

Abancay  (Aban'kl),  chief  town  of  the  Peruvian 
province  of  Apurimac,  65  miles  WSW.  of  Cuzco. 
Pop.  5000. 

Abbazia  (Abbatzee'a),  a  health-resort  on  the  bay 
of  Fiume,  at  the  head  of  the  Quarnero  gulf  of  the 
Adriatic,  5  miles  NW.  of  Fiume  by  rail.  The 
'Nice  of  the  Adriatic'  has  since  about  1880 
become  famous  for  its  fine  climate,  beautiful 
situation,  and  luxuriant  vegetation.     Pop.  3000. 

Abbeoku'ta,  an  African  city,  or  rather  collec- 
tion of  small  towns  or  villages,  capital  of  the 
territory  of  Egba,  in  the  Yoruba  country,  80 
miles  N.  of  Lagos.    Pop.  150,000. 

Abbeville  (Ahb-veeV),  a  prosperous  manufac- 
turing town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Somme,  on 
the  river  Somme,  12  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
49  miles  S.  of  Boulogne.  The  west  front  of  the 
church  of  St  Wolfram,  commenced  in  the  reign 
of  Louis  XII.,  is  a  splendid  example  of  Flamboy- 
ant, with  noble  portals  and  rich  tracery.  The 
cliief  manufactures  are  woollen  cloths,  carpets, 
linens,  sacking,  and  sugar.  Near  Abbeville  were 
found,  in  1841,  many  prehistoric  flint  imple- 
ments.    Pop.  (1872)  18,108  ;  (1901)  21,100. 

Abbey  Craig,  an  abrupt  eminence  (362  feet), 
1 J  mile  ENE.  of  Stirling.  It  is  crowned  by  the 
Wallace  monument  (1869),  a  baronial  tower  220 
feet  high. 

Abbeydomey,  a  Kerry  village,  5|  miles  N. 
of  Tralee,  with  a  ruined  abbey  (1154). 

Abbeyfeale,  a  market-town,  37  miles  SW.  of 
Limerick.    Pop.  896. 

Abbeyleix  (Abbey-leece'),  a  town  of  Queen's 
County,  61  miles  SW.  of  Dublin.    Pop.  987. 

Abblate-Grasso  (Abbiah'tay),  a  town  of  Italy, 
14  miles  WSW.  of  Milan.     Pop.  7025. 

Abbotabad,  in  the  NW.  Frontier  Province  of 
India,  180  miles  NNW.  of  Lahore.     Pop.  5000. 

Abbotsbury,  a  Dorset  village,  at  the  head  of 
the  Fleet  tidal  inlet,  8  miles  NW.  of  Weymouth. 

Abbotsford,  built  in  1811-24  by  Sir  Walter 
Scott,  on  the  Tweed's  south  bank,  2  miles  W.  of 
Melrose. 

Aber,  a  Carnarvonshire  coast-village,  at  the 


ABERAVON 


6 


ABERDOUR 


mouth  of  a  lovely  little  glen,  4|  miles  E.  of 
Bangor. 

Aberavon,  or  Port  Talbot,  a  seaport  of  Gla- 
morganshire, on  the  Avon,  near  its  mouth  in 
Swansea  Bay,  32  miles  W.  of  Cardiff.  The  valley 
of  the  Avon  is  shut  in  by  lofty  hills,  while  every 
available  space  is  occupied  by  tinplate,  copper, 
and  iron  works.  It  is  one  of  the  'Swansea 
boroughs.*    Pop.  (1861)  2916  ;  (1901)  7560. 

Aberayron,  a  Cardiganshire  watering-place,  14 
miles  SSW.  of  Aberystwith.    Pop.  1340. 

Aberbrothock.    See  Arbroath. 

Abercarn,  a  coal-mining  municipality,  pros- 
perous and  progressive,  of  Monmouthshire,  8 
miles  NW.  of  Newport.    Pop.  12,600. 

Abercom,  a  Linlithgowshire  hamlet,  near  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  3|  miles  W.  of  South  Queensferry. 
From  681  to  685  it  was  the  seat  of  a  bishopric. 

Abordare,  a  town  of  Glamorganshire,  4  miles 
SW.  of  Merthyr-Tydvil,  and  within  its  parlia- 
mentary boundary.  Coal  and  iron  are  found  in 
abundance  in  the  vicinity,  and  Aberdare  is  a 
flourishing  centre  of  iron  and  tin  works.  Pop. 
(1841)  6471 ;  (1861)  32,299  ;  (1901)  43,400. 

Aberdeen,  the  chief  city  and  seaport  in  the 
north  of  Scotland,  lies  in  the  SB.  angle  of  Aber- 
deenshire, at  the  mouth  and  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Dee,  111  miles  N.  of  Edinburgh.  William 
the  Lion  confirmed  its  privileges  in  1179 ;  the 
English  burned  it  in  1336,  but  it  was  soon  rebuilt, 
and  called  New  Aberdeen.  Old  Aberdeen,  within 
the  same  parliamentary  boundary,  is  a  small 
town  a  mile  to  the  N.,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Don,  and  is  the  seat  of  St  Machar's  Cathedral 
(1357-1527),  now  represented  by  the  granite  nave. 
King's  College  and  University,  founded  by  Bishop 
Elphinstone  in  Old  Aberdeen  in  1494,  and  Maris- 
chal  College  and  University,  founded  by  the  Earl 
Marischal  in  New  Aberdeen  in  1593,  were  in  1860 
united  into  one  institution,  the  University  of 
Aberdeen.  It  has  25  professors  and  from  800  to 
900  students  in  its  four  faculties  of  arts,  divinity, 
law,  and  medicine ;  Avith  Glasgow  University  it 
sends  one  member  to  parliament.  Marischal 
College  was  rebuilt  in  1841,  and  greatly  enlarged 
in  1892-95 ;  whilst  King's  College  is  a  stately 
fabric,  dating  from  1500,  its  chapel  adorned 
with  exquisite  Avood  carvings.  Aberdeen  has 
a  flourishing  trade  and  thriving  manufactures ; 
and  having  been  largely  rebuilt  and  extended 
since  the  formation  of  Union  Street  in  1800, 
the  'Granite  City'  noAV  offers  a  handsome 
and  regular  aspect.  Among  the  chief  public 
edifices  are  the  County  Buildings  (1867-73),  the 
Post-office  (1876),  the  Market-hall  (1842 ;  rebuilt 
after  the  fire  of  1882),  the  Trades-hall  (1847),  the 
Koyal  Infirmary  (1740 ;  rebuilt  1840),  the  Lunatic 
Asylum  (1819),  the  Grammar-school  (1863),  the 
Art  Gallery  and  Art  School  (1882-83),  and  Gor- 
don's College  (1739-1834).  The  last  has  been 
much  extended  as  a  technical  school,  the  founda- 
tioners being  no  longer  resident;  Avhilst  the 
Infinnary  was  reconstructed  and  modernised  to 
celebrate  the  Queen's  Jubilee  (1887).  St  Nicholas, 
noAV  divided  into  the  East  and  West  churches, 
has  a  fine  new  spire  (1880),  190  feet  high.  A 
carillon  of  37  bells  was  placed  here  in  1887.  One 
may  also  notice  the  market-cross  (1686);  the 
Wallace,  Gordon  Pasha,  and  three  other  statues  ; 
and  the  Duthie  Public  Park  of  47  acres  (1883). 
Since  1810,  when  the  debt  upon  the  harbour  Avas 
£29,614,  the  expenditure  on  harbour  improve- 
ments has  exceeded  £1,000,000,  the  Avorks  having 
included  the  formation  of  the  Victoria   Dock 


(1848),  a  breakwater,  the  southward  diversion  of 
the  Dee  (1872),  and  a  graving-dock  (1886).  The 
trade  of  the  port  has  largely  increased  since 
1850  ;  and  the  aggregate  tonnage  of  vessels  enter- 
ing in  good  years  exceeds  600,000  tons.  Railway 
communication  has  also  been  fully  established 
since  1848-54.  The  chief  exports  are  woollens, 
linens,  cotton-yarns,  paper,  combs,  granite  (heAvn 
and  polished),  cattle,  grain,  preserved  provisions, 
and  fish.  Aberdeen  has  the  largest  comb  and 
granite-polishing  works  in  the  kingdom.  There 
are  several  large  paper-works  within  a  short  dis- 
tance of  the  town  ;  and  soap,  chemicals,  whisky, 
and  agricultural  implements  are  amongst  the 
manufactures.  Wooden  shipbuilding  was  for- 
merly a  prosperous  industry,  the  Aberdeen  clip- 
pers being  celebrated  as  fast  sailers.  Connected 
with  Aberdeen,  which  has  always  been  a  cele- 
brated seat  of  learning,  have  been  the  names 
of  Barbour,  Boece,  Jameson,  Gregory,  Reid, 
Beattie,  Campbell,  Byron,  Skinner,  Hill  Burton, 
W.  Dyce,  J.  Phillip,  and  Sir  A.  Anderson,  to 
whose  provostship  (1859-66)  belong  the  intro- 
duction of  a  fine  water-supply,  and  many  other 
improvements.  Pop.  of  the  parliamentary  burgh, 
which  since  1885  has  returned  two  members, 
(1801)26,992;  (1841)63,288;  (1881)105,003;  (1891) 
121,623  ;  (1901)  153,500. 

Aberdeenshire,  a  large  maritime  county  in 
.  the  extreme  NE.  of  Scotland.  The  fifth  in  size  of 
the  Scottish  counties,  it  has  a  maximum  length 
of  85  and  breadth  of  47  miles,  with  62  miles  of 
sea-coast,  and  an  area  of  1971  sq.  m.  It  has 
long  been  popularly  divided  into  five  districts 
(proceeding  from  south-Avest  to  north-east) — Mar, 
Strathbogie,  Garioch,  Formartine,  and  Buchan. 
Aberdeenshire  is  generally  hilly,  and  in  the 
soiith-west  (Braemar)  entirely  mountainous,  the 
loftiest  summits  here  being  Ben  Muich-Dhui 
(second  only  to  Ben  Nevis),  4296  feet ;  Cairntoul, 
4241 ;  Cairngorm,  4084  ;  Benabourd,  3924 ;  Loch- 
nagar,  3786 :  whilst  northAvard  rise  Bennachie, 
1698  ;  the  Buck  of  Cabrach,  2368  ;  and  Mormond 
Hill,  769.  The  predominant  rocks  are  granite 
and  gneiss.  Tlie  granite  is  very  durable,  and  is 
niuch  used  for  building  and  polishing.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Dee  (87  miles  long),  Don  (82),  and 
Ythan  (35),  which  run  eastward  into  the  North 
Sea ;  and  the  Deveron  (61  miles),  which  runs 
north-east  into  the  North  Sea.  The  Ythan  yields 
the  pearl-mussel,  but  rarely  pearls  of  any  value. 
The  most  fertile  parts  lie  between  the  Don  and 
Ythan,  and  in  the  north-east  angle  of  the  county. 
About  37  per  cent,  of  the  area  of  the  county 
is  cultiA^ated,  the  chief  crops  being  oats,  barley, 
and  turnips ;  Avhilst  nearly  8  per  cent,  is  under 
wood.  Aberdeenshire  is  unsurpassed  in  breeding 
and  feeding  stock.  Its  principal  breed  is  the 
Polled  Angus.  The  fisheries  on  the  coast  are 
very  productive,  and  Peterhead  is  the  East  Coast 
centre  of  this  industry.  Balmoral  (q.v.)  is  the 
principal  mansion ;  and  amongst  the  antiquities 
are  the  ruins  of  Kildrummie  Castle  and  the 
Abbey  of  Deer.  The  chief  towns  and  villages 
are  Aberdeen,  Peterhead,  Fraserburgh,  Huntly, 
Kintore,  Inverurie,  Turriff,  Ballater,  and  Castle- 
ton.  The  county  returns  tAvo  members  to  par- 
liament ;  the  city  of  Aberdeen,  two ;  and  the 
burghs  of  Peterhead,  Kintore,  and  Inverurie, 
Avith  Elgin,  Cullen,  and  Banff,  one.  Pop.  (1801) 
121,065;  (1841)  192,387;  (1891)  284,036;  (1901) 
30,440.  See  the  history  by  A.  Smith  (1875),  the 
Spalding  Club  publications,  and  Watt's  Aberdeen 
and  Banff  (1900). 

Aberdour,  (l)  a  Fife  village,  on  the  Firth  of 


ABERDOVEY 


ABYSSINIA 


Forth,  3  miles  W.  of  Burntisland,  with  a  ruined 
castle  of  the  Earls  of  Morton.  Pop.  748.  (2)  An 
Aberdeenshire  village,  8  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Fraser- 
burgh. Richard  Chancellor  was  lost  in  Aberdour 
Bay  (1556). 

Aberdovey,  a  watering-place  of  Merioneth- 
shire, on  the  Dovey  estuary,  10  miles  N  of 
Aberystwith. 

Aberfeldy,  a  pleasant  Perthshire  village,  near 
the  Tay's  south  bank,  32|-  miles  NW.  of  Perth  by 
rail.  The  neighbouring  Falls  of  Moness  are  cele- 
brated in  Burus's  Birks  of  Aberfeldy.  A  monu- 
ment (1887)  commemorates  the  embodiment  of 
the  Black  Watch  here  in  1740.    Pop.  1569. 

Aberffraw,  a  seaport  of  Anglesey,  12  miles  SE. 
of  Holyhead.     Pop.  959. 

Aberfoyle,  a  Perthshire  hamlet,  immortalised 
through  Scott's  Rob  Roy,  23  miles  W.  of  Stirling 
by  rail. 

AbergSiyennj  (Aiergen'ny ;  Rom.  Gdbannium), 
a  inarket-town  of  Monmouthshire,  at  the  Gav- 
enny's  influx  to  the  Usk,  13  miles  W.  of  Mon- 
mouth. It  has  remains  of  an  old  castle  and  of  a 
priory,  with  collieries  and  ironworks  near.  Pop. 
of  municipal  borough  (1901)  7800. 

Abergeldle  Castle,  the  Aberdeenshire  seat  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales,  on  the  Dee's  right  bank,  6 
miles  W.  of  Ballater,  and  2  ENE.  of  Balmoral. 

Abergele,  a  Denbighshire  market-town,  34 
miles  W.  of  Chester.  The  burning  here  in  1868 
of  the  Irish  limited  mail  cost  33  lives.    Pop.  1981. 

Aberlady,  a  Haddingtonshire  coast  village,  3 
miles  NE.  of  Longniddry.     Pop.  505. 

Abernethy,  a  small  police-burgh  of  Perthshire, 
near  the  Earn's  influx  to  the  Tay,  8^  miles  SE.  of 
Perth.  The  ancient  capital  of  the  Picts,  and 
from  865  till  908  the  seat  of  the  sole  Scottish 
bishopric,  it  retains  one  of  the  two  Round  Towers 
in  Scotland,  73  feet  high.    Pop.  852. 

Abersycban,  an  iron  and  coal  mining  town  of 
Monmouthshire,  11  miles  N.  of  Newport.  Pop. 
(1901)  17,770. 

AbertlUery,  a  town  of  Monmouthshire,  16 
miles  NNW.  of  Newport.    Pop.  21,945. 

Aberystwith,  a  watering-place  and  municipal 
borough  of  Cardiganshire,  on  the  Ystwith,  at  its 
mouth  in  Cardigan  Bay,  242  miles  NW.  of  London 
by  rail.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  University  College 
of  Wales  (1872).  There  are  remains  of  a  castle 
(1109).  Till  1885  it  was  one  of  the  Cardigan 
parliamentary  boroughs.  Pop.  (1851)  5281 :  (1891) 
6725 ;  (1901)  8015. 

Abingdon,  a  municipal  borough  of  Berkshire, 
situated  at  the  junction  of  the  Ock  and  the 
Thames,  6  miles  S.  of  Oxford,  and  60  WNW.  of 
London.  'Abbaddun'  (Abbot's  town)  was  an 
important  place  in  the  8th  century,  and  its 
Benedictine  abbey,  rebuilt  in  955,  was  very  rich. 
Its  school,  founded  in  1563,  was  rebuilt  in  1870. 
A  large  clothing  manufactory  employs  many 
hands.  Till  1S85  Abingdon  returned  a  member 
to  parliament.    Pop.  (1851)  5954  ;  (1901)  6480. 

Abington,  a  Lanarkshire  village,  on  the  Clyde, 
14  miles  SSE.  of  Lanark. 

Abkhasia,  or  Abasia,  a  district  of  Asiatic 
Russia,  between  the  Caucasus  and  the  Black  Sea. 
The  inhabitants,  who  numbered  at  the  outbreak 
of  the  Turkish  war  of  1878  about  30,000,  are 
now,  by  emigration,  less  than  half  as  numerous. 
Russia  gained  possession  of  the  fortresses  of 
Abkhasia  in  1824,  but  finally  subdued  the  people 
only  in  1864.    See  Caucasus. 


Abo  (pronounced  Oho),  the  chief  town  of  a 
government  in  Finland,  on  the  river  Aurajoki, 
near  its  embouchure  in  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  170 
miles  WNW.  of  Helsingfors  by  rail.  It  has  an 
active  trade,  and  exports  timber,  and  bar  and 
cast  iron.  Its  university  was  transferred  to 
Helsingfors  after  the  great  fire  of  1827.  A  peace 
between  Sweden  and  Russia  was  signed  here  in 
1743.     Pop.  (1890)  31,671;  (1900)  37,700. 

Abomey.    See  Dahomey. 

Aboukir',  a  coast-village  of  Egypt,  13  miles 
NE.  of  Alexandria.  In  Aboukir  Bay  Nelson  won 
the  great  '  Battle  of  the  Nile '  over  the  French 
fleet,  August  1,  1798.  Here  Napoleon  in  1799 
defeated  a  Turkish  army ;  and  here  Sir  Ralph 
Abercromby's  expedition  landed  in  1801. 

Abousambul.    See  Abu-Simbel. 


Aboyne',  a  Deeside  village,  32^  miles  W.  by 
S.  of  Aberdeen.  Aboyne  Castle  is  the  seat  of 
the  Marquis  of  Huntly.  See  his  Records  of 
Ahoyne  (1894). 

Abraham,  Plains  or  Heights  of,  close  to  the 
city  of  Quebec,  the  scene  of  Wolfe's  victory, 
13th  September  1759.  They  were  so  called  from 
a  pilot,  Abraham  Martin. 

Abrantes  (A-bran'tes),  a  town  of  Portugal,  on 
the  Tagus,  84  miles  NE.  of  Lisbon.     Pop.  6380. 

Abruzzo  (Abroot'so),  or  Abruzzi,  a  district  of 
Centi-al  Italy,  was  formerly  the  north-east  corner 
of  the  Kingdom  of  Naples,  in  the  loftiest  portion 
of  the  Apennines.  The  jagged  mountain  groups 
reach  in  the  Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia  9600  feet. 

Abu,  a  mountain  (5650  feet)  of  India,  in  the 
territory  of  Serohee,  Rajputana,  a  detached 
granite  mass  rising  like  an  island  from  the  plain 
of  Marwar,  near  the  Aravalli  ridge.  It  is  a  cele- 
brated place  of  pilgrimage,  especially  for  the 
Jains,  who  have  live  temples  at  Delwara,  about 
the  middle  of  the  mountain,  two  of  which  are 
the  most  superb  of  all  Jain  temples.  Both  are 
built  of  white  marble,  finely  carved,  and  date 
from  1031  and  1197  a.d.  The  mountain  contains 
a  beautiful  lake  4000  feet  above  the  sea  ;  and  the 
region  is  a  summer-resort  for  Europeans. 

Abu  Klea,  on  the  route  across  country  between 
Korti  and  Metammeh,  both  on  the  great  bend  of 
the  Nile  below  Khartoum.  Here,  on  17th  January 
1885,  Sir  Herbert  Stewart  defeated  the  Mahdi. 

Abushehr.    See  Bushire. 

Abu-Slmbel  (also  Abousambul  or  IpsambuT),  a 
place  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Nile,  in  Lower 
Nubia,  the  site  of  two  very  remarkable  rock-cut 
temples,  amongst  the  most  perfect  and  noble 
specimens  of  Egyptian  architecture. 

Aby'dos,  (1)  a  town  in  Asia  Minor,  situated  at 
the  narrowest  part  of  the  Hellespont,  opposite 
Sestos,  was  the  place  whence  Xerxes  and  his 
vast  army  passed  into  Europe  in  480  b.c.  ;  and 
in  poetry  is  famous  for  the  loves  of  Hero  and 
Leander. — (2)  A  city  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Nile,  once  second  only  to  Thebes, 
but  even  in  Strabo's  time  a  mere  ruin.  Here  the 
remains  of  the  Memnonium  and  of  a  temple  of 
Osiris  are  still  remarkable. 

Ab'yla.    See  Ceuta. 

Abyssinia  (from  the  Arabic  name  Hahesh, 
'mixture,' given  on  account  of  the  mixed  popu- 
lation), is  a  highland  state  of  Eastern  Africa, 
jealous  in  defence  of  its  independence,  and  lies 
between  tlie  flats  at  the  south  end  of  the  Red 
Sea  and  the  Blue  Nile  on  the  west,  and  extends 
from  Nubia    southward  to  the  Galla  country. 


ABYSSINIA 


8 


ACONCAGUA 


l)ivisions  are  Tigre  in  the  north,  Ainhara  in  the 
centre,  and  Shoa  in  the  south,  besides  outlying 
territories  in  the  S.  and  SE.  (Harar,  q.v.). 
Abyssinia,  with  an  area  of  180,000  sq.  m.,  mainly 
consists  of  a  huge  tableland  with  a  mean  eleva- 
tion of  7000  feet.  Tlie  declivity  to  the  bordering 
tract  on  the  Red  Sea  is  abrupt ;  towards  the  Nile 
basin  it  is  more  gradual.  The  main  mass  has 
been  cut  into  a  number  of  island-like  sections  by 
the  streams,  which  have  worn  their  channels  into 
ravines  of  vast  depth— as  much  sometimes  as  4000 
feet.  The  principal  are  the  head-streams  of  the 
Blue  Nile,  issuing  from  the  great  Lake  Tzana, 
Tana,  or  Dembea,  and  the  Atbara,  also  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Nile ;  less  important  are  the  Mareb 
and  the  Hawash.  Isolated  mountains,  with 
naked  perpendicular  sides,  present  the  most 
singular  forms.  The  Samen  Mountains  have 
summits  rising  to  the  height  of  15,000  feet. 
The  climate,  notwithstanding  its  tropical  posi- 
tion, is  on  the  whole  moderate  and  pleasant 
owing  to  its  elevation,  though  in  the  river 
valleys  and  swamps  the  heat  and  moisture  are 
sufiFocating  and  pestilential.  As  a  whole,  the 
country  is  exceedingly  fruitful ;  and  its  produc- 
tions are  of  the  most  varied  nature,  from  the 
pines,  heaths,  and  lichens  of  North  Europe  to 
the  choicest  tropical  plants.  Two,  and  in  some 
places  three,  crops  can  be  raised  in  one  year. 

The  population  numbers  some  four  millions, 
and  consists  of  various  elements,  the  chief  being 
the  Abyssinians  proper— a  brown,  well-formed 
people,  belonging  to  the  Semitic  stock.  The 
basis  of  the  language  is  the  ancient  Ethiopic 
(see  Ethiopia)  or  Ge'ez,  a  Semitic  tongue  which 
is  now  the  sacred  language.  The  modern  dialect 
of  Ainhara  is  the  prevalent  language  of  the 
country.  There  are  Gallas  and  Sonialis  in  the 
south  and  south-east.  The  Falashas  are  of 
Jewish  origin,  and  still  retain  many  of  their 
racial  peculiarities.  The  towns  are  small— 
Adis  Ababa,  capital  of  Shoa  and  of  Abyssinia; 
Gondar,  in  Amhara ;  Adowa,  or  Adua,  in  Tigre ; 
Axum  (q.v.),  the  old  capital— not  to  speak  of 
Harar  (q.v.),  lately  annexed.  Any  foreign  trade 
comes  mainly  through  Massowah.  The  religion  of 
the  Abyssinians  proper  is  a  debased  Christianity ; 
but  the  Gallas  and  other  alien  tribes  are  mostly 
Mohammedan,  and  partly  also  pagan.  Abyssinia 
is  a  part  of  what  was  anciently  called  Ethiopia  ; 
Ityopya  is  still  the  Abyssinian  name  of  the 
country.  The  first  king,  according  to  the  native 
tradition,  was  Menilehek  or  Menelek,  the  son  of 
Solomon  and  the  Queen  of  Sheba.  Christianity 
was  introduced  in  the  4th  century  by  Fru- 
mentius ;  the  kingdom  of  Axum,  named  from 
the  capital,  was  the  nucleus  of  the  state,  and 
attained  its  greatest  extent  in  the  6th  century. 
From  the  commencement  the  church  of  Abys- 
sinia has  adhered  to  the  mother-church  of  Egypt, 
and  with  her  adopted  the  Monophysite  doctrine  ; 
and  the  metropolitan  bishop  or  abuna  continues 
to  be  nominated  by  the  Coptic  Patriarch.  The 
modern  history  of  Abyssinia  has  been  mainly 
struggles  between  the  princes  of  various  districts 
for  supreme  power.  About  1850  an  Amharic 
adventurer  obtained  dominion  over  successive 
provinces,  and  in  1855  had  himself  crowned, 
under  the  name  of  Theodore,  as  Negus  of  Abys- 
sinia. His  maltreatment  of  European  political 
agents  and  missionaries  led  to  the  British  expedi- 
tion under  Lord  Napier,  which  stormed  Magdala, 
Theodore's  royal  fortress,  whereupon  Theodore 
died  by  his  own  hand.  Johannes,  king  of  Tigre, 
was  the  next  Negus,  and  on  his  death  in  1889, 
Menelek   of  Shoa  succeeded  to  the    'empire.' 


Meanwhile  Italy  had  occupied  the  flats  on  the 
coast,  now  the  Italian  dependency  of  Eritrea 
(with  Massowah  as  headquarters).  By  a  con- 
vention of  1889  Abyssinia  became  almost  an 
Italian  protectorate ;  but  after  the  battle  of 
Adowa  (1896),  disastrous  to  the  Italians,  Italy 
fully  recognised  Abyssinian  independence. 

Acadia  (Acadie)  was  the  name  given  by  the 
French  settlers  to  Nova  Scotia  (q.v.),  on  its  first 
settlement  in  1604. 

AcsLJutla,  (Acahoot-la),  a  small  seaport  on  the  W. 
coast  of  San  Salvador,  with  considerable  trade. 

Acapulco  (Acapool'co),  the  best  Mexican  harbour 
on  the  Pacific,  ISO  m.  SW.  of  capital.    Pop,  5000. 

Acarnania,  with  iEtolia,  a  north-western  pro- 
vince of  Greece  (q.v.). 

Accra,  since  1875  capital  of  the  (British)  Gold 
Coast  Colony,  and  after  Cape  Coast  Castle,  the 
most  important  town  on  the  coast,  lies  slightly 
to  the  W.  of  the  long,  of  Greenwich.  It  is 
a  healthy  place,  and  has  considerable  export 
trade  in  palm-oil,  ivory,  gold  dust,  india-rubber, 
monkey  skins,  gum  copal,  and  camwood.  There 
is  telegraphic  communication  with  England,  the 
Niger,  and  the  French  and  Portuguese  settle- 
ments to  the  south.     Pop.  20,000. 

Accrington,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Lanca- 
shire, incorporated  as  a  municipal  borough  in 
1878.  It  lies  in  a  deep  valley,  surrounded  by 
hills,  22  miles  N.  of  Manchester,  and  5^  miles 
E.  of  Blackburn.  The  town-hall  (1857)  is  a 
handsome  building,  and  there  is  a  neat  market- 
hall.  The  industries  are  mainly  calico-printing, 
Turkey-red  dyeing,  iron-founding,  with  coal- 
mining in  the  neighbourhood,  and  chemical 
works.     Pop.  (1841)  8719 ;  (1901)  43,120. 

Acerra  (A-ser'ra),  a  city  of  southern  Italy,  9 
miles  NE.  of  Naples  by  rail.    Pop,  14,121. 

Achaia,  a  small  Greek  district  lying  along  the 
north  coast  of  the  Peloponnesus, 

Achalganj,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  south  part 
of  Oude,  near  the  Ganges.    Pop.  5000. 

Acheen.    See  Atcheen. 

Achelo'us,  now  called  Aspropot'amo,  the  largest 
river  in  Northern  Greece,  rises  in  Mount  Pindus, 
flows  south  and  south-west,  and  falls  into  the 
Ionian  Sea  opposite  Cephalonia. 

Achill  (Ahh'iU),  'Eagle'  Isle,  off  the  west  coast 
of  Ireland,  belonging  to  County  Mayo,  is  15  miles 
long  by  12  miles  broad,  and  has  a  very  irregular 
coast-line.  It  is  wild  and  boggy,  not  500  of  its 
51,521  acres  being  cultivated.  There  are  three 
villages,  and  a  number  of  hovels  scattered  over 
its  barren  moors,  sometimes  in  small  clusters, 
forming  hamlets,  but  so  wretched  as  hardly  to 
be  fit  for  beasts.  Achill  rises  towards  the  north 
and  west  coast,  where  one  of  the  mountains, 
Achill  Head,  composed,  like  the  rest  of  the 
island,  wholly  of  mica-slate,  presents  towards 
the  sea  a  sheer  precipice,  2192  feet  high.  Pop. 
now  below  4500.  ' 

Aci  Reale  (A-see  lie-d'le),  'a  town  of  Sicily,  50 
miles  SW,  of  Messina  by  rail.  Lying  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Etna,  where  the  small  river  Aci 
enters  the  sea,  it  is  famed  for  its  mineral  waters, 
and  for  the  cave  of  Polyphemus  and  the  grotto 
of  Galatea  in  its  vicinity.     Pop,  26,431. 

Aconcagua,  the  highest  peak  of  the  Andes 
(q.v,),  rising  to  a  height  of  22,867  feet,  according 
to  Gussfeldt's  measurements  in  1883,  The  moun- 
tain, which  is  an  extinct  volcano  (though  this 
has  been  disputed),  is  100  miles  ENE.  of  Val- 


ACQUAVIVA 


ADELAIDE 


paraiso,  on  the  frontier  of  Chili  and  the  Argen- 
tine Kepublic. 

Acquaviva,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Apennines,  28  miles  SSE.  of  Bari  by  rail. 
Pop.  9986. 

Acqui  (Lat.  Aquce  Statiellce),  a  town  of  North- 
em  Italy,  21  miles  SSW.  of  Alessandria  by  rail. 
It  derives  its  name  from  its  hot  sulphur  springs, 
and  contains  an  old  castle,  a  Gothic  cathedral  (12th 
century),  and  remains  of  a  Roman  aqueduct. 
Pop.  9411. 

Acre,  St  Jean  d'Acre,  or  Acca,  the  Biblical 
Accho,  is  a  seaport  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  not  far 
from  the  base  of  Mount  Cannel,  and  contains 
about  10,000  inhabitants.  It  is  80  miles  NNW. 
of  Jerusalem,  and  27  S.  of  Tyre.  The  harbour  is 
partly  choked  with  sand,  yet  is  one  of  the  best 
on  this  coast.  In  1892  a  railway  was  commenced 
from  Acre  to  Damascus ;  and  omnibuses  run 
regularly  from  Haifa  to  Acre.  Taken  by  the 
Crusaders  in  1110,  Acre  was  recovered  in  1187 
by  the  Sultan  Saladin  ;  but  retaken  in  1191  by 
Richard  I.  of  England  and  Philip  at  a  cost  of 
100,000  men.  The  town  was  now  given  to  the 
Knights  of  the  Order  of  St  John,  who  kept  it  by 
constant  fighting  for  a  hundred  years.  In  1517 
it  was  captured  by  the  Turks ;  in  1799  besieged 
by  the  French  for  sixty-one  days,  but  success- 
fully defended  by  the  garrison,  aided  by  English 
sailors  and  marines  under  Sir  Sidney  Smith. 
In  1832  it  was  stormed  by  Ibrahim  Pasha,  son  of 
the  viceroy  of  Egypt,  and  held  by  him  till  in 
1840  it  was  bombarded  and  taken  by  a  combined 
English,  Austrian,  and  Turkish  fleet. 

Acri,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  13  miles  NE.  of 
Cosenza.     Pop.  3944. 

Acroceraunia.    See  Albania. 

Acton,  a  town  of  Middlesex,  4  miles  W.  of 
Hyde  Park.    Pop.  (1901)  37,744. 

Acton  Burnell,  a  Shropshire  parish,  8  miles 
SSE.  of  Shrewsbury,  at  whose  ruined  castle  was 
passed  in  1283  the  'Statute  of  Merchants.' 

Ada,  a  town  of  Northern  Hungary,  on  the 
river  Theiss,  an  important  station  for  steamers. 
Pop  9993. 

Adal  is  the  name  of  the  flat  and  barren  coun- 
try lying  between  the  Abyssinian  plateaux  and 
the  Red  Sea,  from  Massowa  to  the  Bay  of 
Tajurra,  its  greatest  width  being  300  miles. 

Adalia  (anc.  Attalia),  a  seaport  on  the  S.  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  on  the  Gulf  of  Adalia.    Pop.  30,000. 

Adamawa,  an  African  state  or  territory  be- 
tween the  Cameroons  and  Lake  Chad,  most  of 
which  (excluding  Yola)  by  Anglo-German  agree- 
ment lies  within  the  German  sphere— Yola  being 
in  Nigeria.  In  the  S.  are  mountains,  amid  which 
rise  numerous  streams,  the  most  important 
being  the  Benue  (q.v.),  which  waters  the  entire 
province.  The  people,  who  profess  Mohammed- 
anism, are  active,  industrious,  and  intelligent. 
The  chief  town  is  Yola  (15,000  inhabitants). 

Adams,  a  township  of  Massachusetts,  adjoining 
North  Adams,  with  busy  manufactories,  and  em- 
bracing Mount  Greylock  (3505  feet),  the  highest 
point  in  the  state.    Pop.  12,000. 

Adam's  Bridge,  a  chain  of  sand  shoals  30 
miles  long,  extending  from  a  small  island  off  tlie 
Indian  coast  to  one  just  off  Ceylon.  It  greatly 
obstructs  the  navigation  of  the  channel. 

Adam's  Peak,  the  name  given  by  Moham- 
medans, and  after  them  by  Europeans,  to  a 
mountain  summit  in  the  south  of  Ceylon,  7420 


feet  high  (not,  however,  the  highest  of  the 
group).  The  native  name  is  Samanella.  The 
cone  forming  the  summit  is  a  naked  mass  of 
granite,  terminating  in  a  narrow  platform,  in 
the  middle  of  which  is  a  hollow,  five  feet  long, 
having  a  resemblance  (increased  by  human 
agency)  to  a  human  footstep.  Mohammedan 
tradition  makes  this  the  scene  of  Adam's  peni- 
tence, after  his  expulsion  from  Paradise ;  he 
stood  1000  years  on  one  foot,  and  hence  the 
mark.  To  the  Buddhists,  the  impression  is  the 
Sri-pada,  or  sacred  footmark,  left  by  Buddha  on 
his  departure  from  Ceylon ;  and  the  Hindus 
recognise  Buddha  r.  .3  an  avatar  of  Vishnu.  Multi- 
tudes of  devotees  visit  the  mountain. 

Adana  (A'dana),  a  province  in  the  SE.  of  Asia 
Minor,  is  named  from  its  chief  city  Adana,  con- 
taining 50,000  inhabitants.  The  city,  on  the 
Sihun,  30  miles  from  the  sea,  commands  the  pass 
of  the  Taurus  Mountains. 

Adare,  a  market-town  on  the  Maig,  in  the 
county,  and  11  miles  SW.  of  the  town,  of 
Limerick.     Pop.  516. 

Adda,  a  river  of  Lombardy,  rising  in  the  Alps, 
flowing  through  Lake  Como,  and  falling  into  the 
Po  after  a  course  of  180  miles. 

Addiewell,  a  mineral  village  of  Midlothian, 
1|  mile  WSW.  of  West  Calder.    Pop.  2000. 

Addis  Abeba  (Adis  Ababa),  capital  of  Abys- 
sinia,  lies  in  the  south  of  the  province  of  Shoa, 
8000  feet  above  the  sea.    Pop.  50,000. 

Addiscombe,  a  place  in  Surrey,  near  Croydon. 
A  mansion  here  was,  in  1812,  converted  by  the 
East  India  Company  into  a  college  for  their 
cadets,  but  sold  in  1861. 

Adelaide,  the  capital  of  South  Australia,  on  the 
Torrens,  7  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Port  Adelaide,  on 
St  Vincent  Gulf.  It  stands  on  a  large  plain,  and 
is  walled  in  on  the  eastern  and  southern  sides  by 
the  Mount  Lofty  range ;  the  town  proper  is  en- 
closed by  a  wide  belt  of  garden  and  shrubbery. 
The  first  settlement  was  made  in  1836,  and  named 
after  the  queen  of  William  IV.  The  Torrens 
divides  the  town  into  North  and  South  Adelaide, 
the  former  being  occupied  chiefly  with  residences, 
and  the  latter  forming  the  business  portion  of 
the  town.  Four  substantial  iron  bridges  span 
the  Torrens,  which  has  been  formed  by  a  dam 
into  a  lake  1^  mile  long.  The  streets  are  broad 
and  regularly  laid  out,  especially  in  Adelaide 
proper,  to  the  south  of  the  river,  where  they 
cross  each  other  at  right  angles,  and  are  planted 
with  trees.  Among  the  public  buildings  are  the 
new  parliament  houses,  erected  at  a  cost  of  about 
£100,000 ;  government  offices,  post-oflice,  and 
town-hall ;  South  Australian  Institute,  with 
museum,  library,  and  art-galleries  ;  and  hospital. 
The  botanical  garden,  with  the  botanical  garden 
park,  covers  more  than  120  acres  of  ground.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  woollen,  leather,  iron,  and 
earthenware  goods  ;  but  the  chief  importance  of 
Adelaide  depends  on  its  being  the  great  emporium 
for  South  Australia.  Wool,  wine,  Avheat,  flour, 
and  copper  ore  are  the  staple  articles  of  export. 
Among  educational  institutions  the  most  im- 
portant are  the  Adelaide  University ;  St  Peter's 
(Episcopal)  College ;  St  Barnabas  Theological 
College,  opened  in  1881 ;  and  Prince  Alfred 
(Wesleyan)  College.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican 
and  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  Glenelg  on  the 
sea,  5  miles  awav,  is  a  favourite  watering-place. 
Pop.  (1871)  27,208;  (1881)  38,479;  (1901)  39,250, 
or,  with  suburbs,  163,450— Port  Adelaide,  its 
haven,  dates  from  1840,  is  situated  on  an  estuary 


Adelsberg 


10 


ADRAR 


of  the  Gulf  of  St  Vincent,  has  a  safe  and  com-  '' 
modious  harbour,  and  an  ocean  dock  capable  of 
admitting  ships  of  the  largest  size.  It  is  a  prin- 
cipal port  of  call  for  vessels  arriving  from  Europe 
either  round  the  Cape  or  by  the  Suez  Canal ;  and 
since  1887  railway  communication  has  been  estab- 
lished between  Adelaide,  Melbourne,  Sydney,  and 
Brisbane.  Two  forts  have  been  erected  for  the 
defence  of  the  port.  Tramways  were  introduced 
in  1878.     Municipal  pop.  6000. 

Adelsberg,  a  market-town  in  Carniola,  22  miles 
NE.  of  Trieste,  with  a  pop.  of  1800.  Near  it  are 
numerous  caves,  the  most  famous  being  a  large 
stalactite  cavern,  the  AdeUherg  Grotto.  This 
cavern,  the  largest  in  Europe,  between  2  and  3 
miles  long,  is  divided  into  the  old  and  the  new 
grotto,  the  latter  discovered  in  1816 ;  a  third 
very  fine  one  came  to  light  in  1889.  The  various 
chambers,  called  by  names  such  as  the  Dome, 
the  Dancing-hall,  the  Belvedere,  contain  stalac- 
tites and  stalagmites  of  great  size  and  grotesque 
forms.  The  river  Poik  runs  through  a  part  of 
the  grotto,  and  then  disappears  below  the  ground. 

Aden,  a  peninsula  and  town  belonging  to 
Britain,  on  the  SW.  coast  of  Arabia,  105  miles  E. 
of  the  strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  the  entrance  to 
the  Red  Sea.  The  peninsula  is  a  mass  of  volcanic 
rocks,  5  miles  long  from  E.  to  W.,  and  rising  to 
1776  feet.  It  is  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a 
narrow,  level,  and  sandy  isthmus.  The  town  is 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  peninsula,  stands  in 
the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  is  sur- 
rounded by  indescribably  barren,  cinder-like 
rocks.  The  main  crater  is  known  as  the  Devil's 
Punch-bowl.  Frequently  the  heat  is  intense ; 
but  the  very  dry  hot  climate,  though  depressing, 
is  unusually  healthy  for  the  tropics.  The  Romans 
occupied  it  in  the  1st  century  a.d.  Till  the  dis- 
covery of  the  Cape  route  to  India  (1498),  it  was 
the  chief  mart  of  Asiatic  produce  for  the  Western 
nations  ;  but  in  1838  it  had  sunk  to  be  a  village 
of  600  inhabitants.  The  increasing  importance 
of  the  Red  Sea  route  gave  Aden  great  value  as  a 
station  for  England  to  hold  ;  and  in  1839,  after  a 
few  hours'  contest,  Aden  fell  into  the  hands  of 
the  British.  It  is  of  high  importance  both  in  a 
mercantile  and  naval  point  of  view,  especially  as 
a  great  coaling  station ;  it  has  a  garrison  and 
strong  fortifications.  The  population  and  re- 
sources of  the  place  have  rapidly  increased  since 
1838,  and  the  opening  of  the  Suez  Canal  in  1869 
gave  it  a  great  impetus.  The  annual  value  of  its 
imports  sometimes  exceeds  two  millions,  while 
that  of  its  exports  (coffee,  gums,  spices)  amounts 
to  a  million  and  a  half.  It  is  a  telegraphic  sta- 
tion on  the  cable  between  Suez  and  Bombay,  and 
on  the  line  to  Zanzibar  and  the  Cape.  To  provide 
for  its  growing  population,  a  considerable  terri- 
tory on  the  mainland  has  been  acquired  and 
added  to  the  peninsula,  the  total  area  (including 
the  island  of  Perim,  q.v.)  being  75  sq.  m.  ;  and 
the  settlement,  which  is  politically  connected 
with  Bombay  (seven  days'  sailing  distant),  had  in 
1901  a  population  of  41,250.  Tlie  bulk  of  the 
natives  are  Arabs  and  Somalis  from  Africa,  all 
speaking  Arabic.  In  the  settlement  there  are, 
besides  Aden  proper,  called  the  Camp,  or  the 
Crater,  two  other  centres  of  population— Steamer 
Point,  which  is  cooler  than  the  Crater ;  and  the 
outlying  town  of  Shaikh  Othman,  with  a  Presby- 
terian mission,  10  miles  towards  the  interior. 

Aderbijan.    See  Azerbijan. 

Aderno  (anc.  Adranum),  a  town  of  Sicily,  at 
the  base  of  Mount  Etna,  17  miles  NW.  of  Catania. 
Pop.  19,180. 


Adiabe'ne,  a  district  of  Assyria,  E.  of  the 
Upper  Tigris,  between  the  greater  and  the  lesser 
Zab  rivers. 

Adige(^*d'ijaj/;  Ger.  Etsch;  anc.  Athesis),  a  river 
of  Italy,  rising  in  the  Rhsetian  Alps,  and  formed 
by  various  streamlets  wliich  descend  from  these 
mountains  and  unite  at  Glarus.  Thence  it  flows 
east  into  Tyrol,  then,  after  a  slight  south-east- 
ward detour,  due  south  past  Trent  and  Rove- 
redo  into  Lombardy,  and,  passing  Verona,  takes 
a  south-eastern  sweep,  and  enters  the  Adriatic 
not  far  north  of  the  Po.  It  is  250  miles  long, 
650  feet  broad  in  the  plain  of  Lombardy,  and 
10  to  16  feet  deep. 

Adirondack  Mountains,  the  chief  range  in 
New  York  State,  lie  between  Lakes  Champlain 
and  Ontario.  Rising  froni  an  elevated  plateau 
about  2000  feet  above  sea-level,  they  are  remark- 
able for  grand  and  picturesque  scenery ;  the 
highest  summit.  Mount  Marcy,  is  5402  feet  high. 
Small  lakes  are  numerous ;  the  head-streams  of 
the  Hudson  are  here ;  and  there  is  much  fine 
timber  in  the  region.  The  whole  northern  wilder- 
ness of  New  York  State  is  popularly  known  as 
the  Adirondacks,  and  is  a  very  favourite  resort 
of  sportsmen  and  pleasure-seekers. 

AdjygTirli.    See  Ajaigarh. 

Adlington,  a  Lancashire  township,  3^  miles 
SE.  of  Chorley.     Pop.  4590. 

Admiralty  Island  lies  off"  the  coast  of  Southern 
Alaska,  in  57°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  134°  15'  W.  long. 
It  is  about  90  miles  long,  well  wooded  and 
watered  ;  and  contains  coal  and  copper.  It  is 
inhabited,  and  belongs  to  the  United  States. 

Admiralty  Islands,  a  group  of  40  islands,  to 
the  NE.  of  New  Guinea,  about  2°  S.  lat.,  and 
147°  E.  long.  They  were  discovered  by  the  Dutch 
in  1616.  The  largest  is  above  50  miles  long,  and 
is  mountainous  but  fruitful ;  their  total  area  is 
878  sq.  m.  Some  are  volcanic,  others  are  coral 
islands.  They  abound  in  cocoa-nut  trees,  and  are 
inhabited  by  a  race  of  tawny  frizzle-headed 
savages,  of  the  Papuan  stock,  about  800  in 
number.  Together  with  New  Britain  and  some 
adjoining  groups,  they  were  annexed  by  Germany 
in  1885,  and  now  form  part  of  the  Bismarck 
Archipelago. 

Adoni,  a  town  of  Madras,  64  miles  NE.  of 
Bellary.    Pop.  32,441. 

Adour,  a  French  river,  rising  in  the  dep.  of 
Hautes  Pyrenees,  and  flowing  180  miles  througlx 
Gers  and  Landes,  till  it  enters  the  Atlantic  below 
Bayonne.     It  is  navigable  for  80  miles. 

Adowa,  a  town  of  Abyssinia,  the  capital  of 
Tigre,  stands  6270  feet  above  sea-level,  and  145 
miles  NE.  of  Gondar.  Adowa  is  the  chief  entre- 
pot of  trade  between  the  interior  of  Tigre  and 
the  coast.  Here  on  1st  March  1896  an  Italian 
army  was  routed  by  the  Abyssinians.    Pop.  4000. 

Adpar,  a  town  of  Cardigan  and  Carmarthen 
shires,  on  the  Teifi,  opposite  Newcastle-Emlyn. 
Till  1885  it  was  one  of  the  Cardigan  boroughs. 

Adra  (anc.  Abdera),  a  Mediterranean  seaport 
of  Spain,  49  miles  SE.  of  Granada,  near  great 
lead-mines.    Pop.  9039. 

Adramytl  (anc.  Adramyttium;  Turkish  Edre- 
mid),  a  town  on  the  west  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
opposite  Mitylene.    Pop.  6000. 

Adrar,  a  region  of  30,000  sq.  m.  in  the  west  of 
the  Sahara,  bordering  on  the  Spanish  territory  of 
Rio  de  Oro,  but  now  recognised  as— wholly  or 
mostly— French. 


ADRIA  n 

Adtla,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  between  the 
Po  and  Adige,  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in 
Europe,  having  been  founded  by  the  Etruscans. 
So  late  as  the  12th  century  a.d.,  it  was  a  flourish- 
ing harbour  on  the  Adriatic  Sea,  to  which  it  gave 
name ;  but  it  has  been  gradually  separated  from 
the  sea,  from  which  it  is  now  14  miles  distant. 
It  still  retains  several  interesting  remains  of 
Etruscan  and  Roman  antiquity,  with  a  fine 
cathedral.    Pop.  11,320. 

Adrian,  a  city  of  Michigan,  U.S.,  situated  on 
the  Raisin  River.  It  is  well  furnished  with 
water-power,  commands  the  trade  of  a  large 
grain-growing  region,  has  several  factories,  and 
a  Methodist  college  founded  in  1859.  Pop.  (1870) 
8438  ;  (1890)  8756  ;  (1900)  9654. 

Adrlanople  (Turkish  Edirne  ;  Bulgarian  Odrin), 
the  third  city  of  European  Turkey,  stands  on  the 
navigable  Maritza  (the  ancient  Hebrus),  198  miles 
WNW.  of  Constantinople  ^y  rail.  The  splendid 
mosque  of  Selim  II.,  the  palace,  and  the  immense 
bazaar  of  Ali  Pasha,  may  be  named  as  its  prin- 
cipal features.  Founded  or  greatly  improved  by 
the  Emperor  Hadrian,  Adrianople  was  the  seat 
of  the  Ottoman  sultanate  from  1366  to  1453. 
The  Russo-Turkish  war  was  here  concluded, 
September  14,  1829,  by  the  Peace  of  Adrianople. 
After  the  capture  of  the  Turkish  army  defending 
the  Shipka  Pass  in  January  1878,  the  Russians 
entered  Adrianople  unopposed  ;  and  an  armistice 
was  concluded  here  on  the  31st.    Pop.  80,886. 

Adrian's  Wall.    See  Hadrian's  Wall. 

Adriatic  Sea,  a  large  arm  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  extending  450  miles  north-westward  between 
Italy  and  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  and  terminated  to 
the  south  by  the  strait  of  Otranto,  45  miles  wide. 
The  west  coast  is  comparatively  low  and  has  few 
inlets,  and  the  north  is  marshy  and  edged  with 
lagoons.  On  the  other  side,  the  coasts  of  Illyria, 
Croatia,  Dalmatia,  and  Albania  are  steep,  rocky, 
and  barren,  with  many  inlets,  and  begirt  with  a 
chain  of  almost  innumerable  small  rocky  islands. 
The  total  area  of  the  sea,  including  islands,  is 
calculated  at  52,220  sq.  m.— the  area  of  the 
Islands  being  1290 ;  the  mean  depth  is  110  fathoms, 
the  greatest  depth  565  fathoms.  The  chief  rivers 
flowing  into  it  are  the  Adige  and  the  Po,  which 
are  continually  depositing  soil  on  the  coast,  so 
that  places  once  on  the  shore  are  now  inland. 
The  extreme  saltness  of  the  Adriatic  is  probably 
owing  to  the  comparatively  small  quantity  of 
fresh  water  poured  into  it  by  rivers.  Venice, 
Trieste,  Fiume,  Ancona,  Bari,  and  Brindisi  are 
the  chief  ports.  The  fisheries  are  rich,  and  in- 
dustriously worked. 

Adur,  a  Sussex  river,  flowing  20  miles  south- 
ward to  the  English  Channel  at  Shorehani. 

wSIgean  Sea,  the  old  name  of  the  gulf  between 
Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  now  usually  called  Archi- 
pelago (q.v.). 

iEgi'na,  a  mountainous  Greek  island,  33  sq.  m. 
in  area,  in  the  Gulf  of  ^Egina  (the  ancient  Saro- 
nicus  Sinus).  The  town  of  ^gina  stands  at  the 
NW.  end  of  the  island.  There  are  considerable 
remains  still  left  of  the  ancient  city,  and  the 
ruins  of  solidly  built  walls  and  harbour  moles 
still  attest  its  size  and  importance.  The  island 
contains  about  9000  inhabitants. 

.ffiolian  Islands.    See  Lipari. 

.ffitna.    See  Etna. 

Afghanistan'  is  the  country  lying  to  tlie  north- 
west of  India.  Its  boundaries  are,  on  the  north, 
the  Oxus  or  Amu  Daria,  from  its  source  to  Khoja 


AfG^NISTAK 

Saleh,  and  thence  (since  1885-87)  a  line  drawn 
across  the  Turkoman  desert  (Russian  territory) 
south-westward  to  the  Murghab,  passing  south 
of  Penjdeh,  and  touching  the  Hari-Rud  at  Zul- 
fikar.  On  the  east,  the  frontier  runs  along  the 
eastern  foot  of  the  Suliman  Mountains  ;  but  here 
again  some  of  the  tribes  are  almost  independent, 
and  the  Indian  government  controls  the  more 
important  passes.  On  the  south,  a  line  passing 
north  of  Quetta  in  about  the  30th  parallel  of  N. 
lat.,  divides  Afghanistan  from  the  territory  of 
the  khan  of  Kelat  and  Beluchistan ;  while  on 
the  west,  the  meridian  of  61°  E.  long,  approxi- 
mately defines  the  boundary  with  Persia.  Within 
these  limits,  Afghanistan  extends  400  miles  from 
north  to  south,  and  600  miles  from  east  to  west, 
and  contains  an  area  which  may  be  roughly 
estimated  at  240,000  sq.  m.,  or  about  twice  the 
size  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  This  includes 
Badakhshan  and  Wakhan  in  the  north-east,  and 
Afghan  Turkestan  in  the  north,  comprising  the 
Uzbeg  States  of  Balkh,  Kunduz,  Malmana,  Shi- 
barghan,  Khulm,  Akcha,  and  Andkhoi,  owning 
allegiance  and  paying  tribute  to  the  Ameer. 
Afghanistan  may  be  divided  into  the  three  great 
river-basins  of  tlie  Oxus,  the  Indus,  and  the  Hel- 
mand.  Afghanistan  is  for  the  most  part  an  arid, 
mountainous  country,  and  cultivation  is  only 
met  with  in  some  of  its  valleys.  The  principal 
mountain  systems  are  the  Hindu  Kush,  with  its 
westerly  continuations,  the  Koh-i-Baba,  Pagh- 
man,  Safed-Koh,  and  Siah-Koh.  The  climate  is 
as  diversified  as  the  physical  configuration.  At 
Ghazni  (7279  feet)  the  winter  is  extremely 
rigorous ;  the  climate  of  Selstan,  in  the  south- 
west, is  hot  and  trying ;  while  other  parts  are 
temperate. 

The  population  of  Afghanistan  is  composed  of 
a  variety  of  nationalities,  and  is  estimated  at 
about  4,900,000.  The  Afghans  proper,  or  Pathans, 
number  about  3,000,000,  and  are  divided  into 
tribes  or  clans— Duranls,  Ghilzais,  Yusufzais,  and 
others.  The  Duranls  are  the  dominant  tribe ; 
the  GhilzAls,  the  strongest  and  most  warlike; 
the  Yusufzais,  the  most  turbulent.  Of  the  non- 
Afghans,  the  Tajiks  are  the  agricultural  and 
industrious  portion  of  the  population  ;  the  Hind- 
kis  and  Jats  chiefly  live  in  the  towns,  and  are 
traders  ;  the  Kizllbashes  are  Turko-Persians,  and 
form  the  more  educated  and  superior  class ; 
while  the  Hazaras,  a  race  of  Mongol  origin,  are 
nomads.  The  language  of  the  Afghans— the 
Pakhtu  or  Pushtu— belongs  to  the  Aryan  family. 
In  religion  they  are  Sunni-Mohammedans.  In 
character  they  are  proud,  vain,  cruel,  perfidious, 
extremely  avaricious,  revengeful,  selfish,  merci- 
less, and  idle.  'Nothing  is  finer  than  their 
physique,  or  worse  than  their  morale.'  The 
Afghans  do  not  as  a  rule  inhabit  towns,  except 
in  the. case  of  those  attached  to  the  court  and 
heads  of  tribes.  The  townsmen  are  mostly 
Hlndkis  and  other  non- Afghan  races,  who  prac- 
tise various  trades  and  handicrafts  considered 
derogatory  by  men  of  rank.  The  principal  towns 
are  Kabul  (population  140,000),  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment and  centre  of  a  fertile  district ;  Ghazni,  a 
strong  fortress ;  Kandahar,  the  chief  city  of 
Southern  Afghanistan,  witli  50,000  inhabitants ; 
and  Herat,  formerly  considered  the  key  of  India. 
Among  the  natural  i)roductlons  of  Afghanistan 
is  the  plant  yielding  the  asafoetlda.  Tlie  castor- 
oU  plant  is  everywhere  common,  and  good  tobacco 
is  grown  in  the  district  of  Kandahar.  The  culti- 
vated area  round  Herat  produces  magnificent 
crops  of  wheat,  barley,  cotton,  grapes,  melons, 
and  the  nuUberry-tree.    In  special  localities  are 


AFIUM-KARA-HISSAR 


12 


AFRICA 


forests  of  pistachio.  The  general  appearance  of 
the  country  during  winter  is  barren  and  arid  in 
the  extreme,  owing  to  the  absence  of  trees  and 
woody  shrubs ;  but  in  spring  a  mass  of  vegeta- 
tion springs  up,  giving  a  grand  colouring  to  the 
landscajje.  The  industrial  products  are  silk, 
chiefly  for  domestic  use,  and  carpets,  those  of 
Herat  being  of  admirable  quality.  The  manu- 
facture of  postins,  or  sheepskins,  is  one  of  the 
most  important  occupations.  Merchandise  is  all 
transported  on  camel  or  pony  back.  Commerce 
suffers  much  from  frequent  wars  and  bad  govern- 
ment. 

The  history  of  Afghanistan  as  an  independent 
state  only  dates  from  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century.  For  two  centuries  before,  Herat  and 
Kandahar  had  been  in  the  possession  of  Persia  ; 
while  Kabul  was  included  in  the  Mogul  empire 
of  Delhi.  Upon  the  death  of  Nadir  Shah  in  1747, 
Ahmed  Shah  Durani  subjugated  the  different 
provinces,  and  when  he  died  in  1773,  left  an 
empire  to  his  son,  Timur  Shah.  For  English- 
men, the  chief  events  in  the  history  of  Afghan- 
istan are  the  expedition  in  1839  which  estab- 
lished Shah  Soojah  on  tlie  throne ;  the  rebellion 
of  1841,  in  which  the  residents  Burnes  and  Mac- 
naghten  were  killed,  and  the  Anglo-Indian  troops 
perished  in  the  retreat ;  the  punitive  expedition 
in  1842  ;  the  defeat  of  Dost  Mohammed  in  1849 ; 
the  war  with  Shere  Ali  in  1878-79,  and  instal- 
ment of  Yakub  Khan ;  the  rising  at  Kabul  and 
murder  of  Cavagnari  the  English  resident ;  the 
punitive  expedition  under  Roberts  ;  the  establish- 
ment in  1881  by  British  assistance  of  Abdur- 
rahman, succeeded  in  1901  by  his  son  Habib- 
uUah  ;  and  alarms  as  to  Russian  encroachments. 

See  Elphinstone's  Cahnl  (1815) ;  Kaye's  History 
of  the  War  in  Afghanistan  (1851,  4th  ed.  1878) ; 
Bellew,  Afghanistan  and  the  Afghans  (1879); 
RejKDrts  by  Lumsden  and  Macgregor. 

Afium-Kara-Hissar  ('Opium  Black  Castle'), 
a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  170  miles  ENE.  of  Smyrna. 
The  chief  trade  is  in  opium,  and  there  are  manu- 
factures of  felts,  carpets,  arms,  and  saddlery. 
Pop.  20,000. 

Africa,  a  continent  of  the  eastern  hemisphere, 
forming  a  south-western  extension  of  Asia,  to 
which  it  is  attached  by  the  narrow  isthmus  of 
Suez,  now  pierced  by  a  canal  90  miles  long. 
Africa  is  thus  constituted  an  insular  mass  of 
irregular  triangular  shape,  with  base  on  the 
Mediterranean,  and  apex  at  the  junction  of  the 
Indian  and  Atlantic  Oceans,  which  bathe  its 
eastern  and  western  shores  respectively.  From 
Cape  Blanco  in  Tunis,  to  Cape  Agulhas  in  Cape 
Colony,  it  stretches  southward  across  about  5000 
miles,  disposed  almost  equally  on  both  sides  of  the 
equator.  The  extreme  eastern  and  western  points 
are  Capes  Guardafui  on  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
Verd  on  the  Atlantic,  a  distance  of  about  4500 
miles.  But  owing  to  the  sudden  contraction  of 
the  land  at  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  whence,  like  both 
Americas,  India,  and  other  peninsular  masses, 
it  tapers  continuously  southwards,  the  total 
area  is  considerably  less  than  would  seem  to  be 
indicated  by  these  extreme  distances.  Including 
Madagascar  and  all  adjacent  insular  groups,  it 
cannot  be  estimated  at  much  more  than  11,500,000 
sq.  m.,  or  some  5,000,000  less  than  either  Asia  or 
America.  Of  all  the  continents  except  Australia, 
Africa  is  the  most  uniform  and  monotonous  in 
its  general  outlines,  unrelieved  by  broad  estu- 
aries, bights,  or  inlets  of  any  kind  penetrating 
far  inland.  Hence,  although  about  three  times 
larger  than  Europe,  its  coast-line  scarcely  exceeds 


15,000  miles,  as  compared  with  the  19,000  of  that 
more  highly  favoured  continent. 

Geologically,  Africa  is  nearly  destitute  of  in- 
sular groups,  almost  the  only  islands  that  belong 
physically  to  the  mainland  being  lerba  and  one 
or  two  islets  in  the  Mediterranean,  and  a  few  on 
the  east  side,  such  as  Socotra,  and  farther  south, 
Pemba,  Zanzibar,  and  Mafia,  almost  forming 
parts  of  the  adjacent  coast.  Perim,  Dahlak.  and 
a  few  others  in  the  Red  Sea,  are  mere  coral  reefs, 
dominated  here  and  there  by  volcanic  crests. 
The  Comoro  group  between  Madagascar  and 
Mozambique  is  also  volcanic ;  while  Madagascar 
itself  and  the  outlying  Mascarenhas  (Mauritius, 
Reunion,  and  Rodriguez)  appear  to  be  surviving 
fragments  of  a  Miocene  continent,  now  flooded 
by  the  waters  of  the  Indian  Ocean.  On  the  west 
side,  the  little  Bissagos  group  alone  forms  a  geo- 
logical dependency  of  the  mainland.  Annabon, 
St  Thomas,  Prince,  and  Fernando  Po,  in  the  Gulf 
of  Guinea,  as  well  as  Madeira,  the  Canary,  and 
Cape  Verd  archipelagoes,  are  all  of  volcanic 
origin,  the  latter  being  separated  by  profound 
abysses  of  over  3000  feet  from  the  continent. 
Lastly,  St  Helena  and  Ascension  are  mere  rocks 
lost  amid  the  Atlantic  waters. 

Corresponding  with  the  uniform  continental 
contour,  is  the  generally  monotonous  character 
of  the  interior,  which  is  relieved  by  no  great 
central  highlands  or  conspicuous  water-partings 
at  all  comparable  to  those  of  the  other  great 
continental  regions.  The  somewhat  premature 
generalisation,  which  compared  it  to  '  an  inverted 
basin,'  gives  a  misleading  idea  of  its  true  con- 
formation. The  outer  rim  of  mountain-ranges  is 
not  nearly  so  continuous  and  uniform  as  this 
comparison  would  imply ;  while  the  interior  is 
disposed,  not  in  one  vast  elevated  plain,  but 
in  two  well-marked  physical  regions— a  great 
southern  tableland  with  a  mean  altitude  of  over 
3500  feet,  falling  northwards  to  a  much  lower 
but  still  elevated  plain  with  a  mean  altitude  of 
about  1300  feet.  Owing  to  this  generally  high 
altitude,  and  to  the  almost  total  absence  of 
extensive  low-lying  plains,  Africa,  notwithstand- 
ing the  lack  of  vast  alpine  regions  like  the  Euro- 
pean Alps  and  Pyrenees,  has  nevertheless  a 
greater  mean  elevation  (1900  to  2000  feet)  than 
Europe  (1000). 

The  southern  plateau  is  intersected  by  several 
mountain-ranges,  very  little  or  not  at  all  ex- 
plored. The  chief  mountain  systems  of  the 
north  are  the  Atlas  and  the  Abyssinian  high- 
lands. The  culminating  points  of  the  continent 
are  near  the  equator  :  Ruwenzori  (19,000),  Kenia 
(19,000),  and  Kilima-njaro  (19,680  feet). 

Hydrographically,  the  two  great  southern 
basins  of  the  Congo  and  Zambesi  balance  those 
of  the  Nile  and  Niger  of  the  northern  plain, 
while  the  secondary  Orange  and  Limpopo  in 
the  extreme  south  find  their  counterparts  in  the 
Senegal  and  Draa  of  the  NW.  The  Zambesi 
and  Limpopo,  together  with  the  Rovuma,  Juba, 
and  a  few  otlier  coast  streams,  flow  to  the  Indian 
Ocean  ;  all  the  others,  together  with  the  Cunene, 
Koanza,  Ogoway,  Volta,  Gambia,  Tensift,  Muluya, 
and  Mejerdah,  to  the  Atlantic,  either  directly  or 
through  the  Mediterranean.  The  Makua-Welle 
is  a  tributary  of  the  Congo ;  the  Shari  flows  into 
Lake  Tsad  or  Chad. 

Africa  possesses  a  magnificent  equatorial  lake 
system,  elsewhere  unrivalled  except  by  the  great 
North  American  lacustrine  basins.  They  are 
grouped  towards  the  east  side  of  the  continent 
between  15°  S.  and  4°  N.  lat.,  and  all  stand  on 
the  southern  tableland,  draining  seaward  through 


AFRICA 


13 


AFRICA 


the  Zambesi  (Nyassa,  with  outflow  Shire),  the 
Congo  (Tanganyika,  with  intermittent  outflow 
Lukuga),  and  the  Nile  (Alexandra  Nyanza,  Vic- 
toria Nyanza,  Albert-Edward  Nyanza,  and  Albert 
Nyanza,  with  outflow  Somerset  Nile).  The 
Alexandra  (Akanyaru)  drains  north-eastwards 
through  the  Alexandra  Nile  (Kagera)  to  the 
Victoria,  queen  of  African  lakes,  and,  next  to 
Superior  (31,200  sq.  m.),  the  largest  fresh- water 
basin  (over  30,000  sq.  m.)  on  the  globe.  Lakes 
Tsad  (Chad)  and  Ngami  have  no  seaward  out- 
flow ;  the  Abyssinian  Lake  Tana,  Tzana,  or  Dem- 
bea,  6100  feet,  is  a  true  alpine  lake. 

Above  all  the  great  divisions  of  the  globe, 
Africa  is  distinguished  by  the  general  uniformity 
of  its  climatic  phenomena,  a  circumstance  due 
to  its  massive  form  and  intertropical  position. 
In  the  region  approaching  nearest  to  the  northern 
or  southern  equinoctial  lines,  rain  falls  through- 
out the  year,  thanks  to  the  opposing  trade-winds. 
In  the  northern  hemisphere  a  zone  of  two  wet 
seasons  stretches  fx-om  the  equator  to  the  15°  lat. 
In  summer,  copious  showers  are  caused  by  the 
moisture-bearing  SW.  winds  ;  in  winter,  the  NW. 
currents  become  in  their  turn  the  bearers  of 
heavy  rain-charged  clouds  to  the  southern 
plateau.  But  on  both  sides  of  the  torrid  zone, 
comprising  about  seven-tenths  of  the  whole  con- 
tinent, the  diJBference  in  the  disposition  of  the 
winds  causes  a  corresponding  contrast  in  the 
rainfall.  Here  the  trade-winds  maintain  their 
normal  direction  constantly,  or  with  but  slight 
temporary  deviations.  Blowing  from  the  NE.  in 
the  northern,  from  the  SE.  in  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, they  divert  to  the  equator  most  of  the 
vapours  crossing  their  path,  leaving  elsewhere 
clear  skies  and  arid  lands.  Thus  it  happens  that 
Africa  has  two  almost  completely  barren  zones 
of  rocks,  gravels,  marls,  clay,  and  sand — the 
Sahara  and  Libyan  desert  in  the  north,  Kalahari 
and  other  wastes  in  the  south.  This  regular 
disposition  of  the  climates  is  completed  by  the 
regular  alternation  of  winds  and  rains  in  the 
zones  of  Mauritania  and  the  Cape,  both  belong- 
ing to  the  region  of  subtropical  rains,  which 
fall  in  the  respective  winters  of  each  hemisphere. 
Africa  is  thus  disposed  from  north  to  south  in 
successive  gray  and  more  or  less  intensely  green 
belts,  whose  limits  coincide  in  several  places 
with  the  isothermals,  or  lines  of  equal  tempera- 
ture. The  lines  indicating  mean  annual  tempera- 
tures of  68°  and  75°  F.,  traverse,  in  the  north, 
the  Mediterranean  seaboard  and  the  Sahara 
respectively ;  in  the  south,  the  Orange  basin 
and  a  zone  stretching  obliquely  from  Mozam- 
bique to  the  Cameroons ;  while  the  area  of 
greatest  mean  heat  (82°  F.)  is  comprised  within 
an  irregular  curve  enclosing  the  Upper  Nile 
basin  between  Khartoum  and  the  Albert  Nyanza 
north  and  south.  Lake  Tsad  and  Massowah 
(Massawah)  west  and  east.  The  climate,  except 
on  the  Mediterranean,  Saharan,  Red  Sea,  and 
extreme  south  coasts,  is  nearly  everywhere  mal- 
arious on  the  low-lying  and  generally  marshy 
coast-lands  between  the  outer  rim  and  the  sea. 
It  is  the  same  in  the  Chambeze,  Malagarazi 
(Unyamwesi),  Shari,  and  other  inland  districts, 
which  are  either  constantly  or  periodically  under 
water.  But  elsewhere,  with  due  precautions,  vue 
continent  cannot  be  regarded  as  insalubrious ; 
and  the  Sahara,  for  instance,  is  distinctly  a 
healthy  region,  although,  owing  to  rapid  radia- 
tion, the  hot  days  are  here  succeeded  by  cool 
and  occasionally  even  frosty  nights. 

About  41  per  cent,  of  the  surface  is  said  to  be 
either   desert,    or   under   scrub,    or    otherwise 


absolutely  waste,  and  35  per  cent,  steppe,  or 
nearly  treeless  grass-grown  savannah,  leaving 
only  24  per  cent,  for  forest  and  arable  lands. 
The  continuous  forest  growths  are  confined 
mainly  to  the  vast  equatorial  region  between 
the  Upper  Zambesi  and  Soudan,  and  to  some 
isolated  tracts  about  the  Abyssinian  plateau,  in 
the  Moroccan  Atlas,  all  along  the  Guinea  coast, 
about  the  Middle  Limpopo  and  Zambesi,  and  in 
parts  of  Masai  Land  and  the  Upper  Nile  basin. 

Fauna.— Mrica  is  the  peculiar  home  of  the 
large  fauna— such  as  the  lion,  the  panther  and 
leopard,  the  hyena,  fox,  and  jackal.  The  great 
herbivora  are  represented  by  the  elephant,  the 
rhinoceros,  the  buffalo,  the  giraffe,  the  hippo- 
potamus, and  the  crocodile.  Africa  is  also  tha 
special  home  of  the  gnu,  and  several  other  speciea 
of  antelopes.  The  monkey  family  is  also  spread 
over  the  whole  continent.  Peculiar  also  are  such 
equidaj  as  the  zebra  and  quagga.  Of  land  mam- 
mals there  are  altogether  enumerated  about  480 
species  peculiar  to  this  continent,  amongst  which 
are  95  of  the  simian  and  50  of  the  antelope  family. 
The  avi-fauna  includes  the  ostrich,  the  secretary, 
ibis,  guinea-fowl,  weaver-bird,  roller-bird,  love- 
bird, waxbill,  whydah,  sun-bird,  parrots,  quail, 
and  several  other  indigenous  species.  Reptiles 
and  insects  also  abound— the  tsetse  fly  being  one 
of  the  great  impediments  to  the  progress  of 
culture. 

Recent  authorities  roughly  estimate  the  popu- 
lation of  Africa  at  about  210,000,000,  or  18  to 
the  square  jnile,  a  density  five  times  less  than 
that  of  Europe.  According  to  the  nature  of  soil 
and  climate,  the  population  is  distributed  very 
unevenly  over  the  surface,  being  massed  some- 
what densely  in  the  Nile  delta,  in  the  Upper 
Nile  Valley,  and  generally  throughout  Soudan, 
less  thickly  over  the  southern  plateau,  and  very 
thinly  in  Mauritania  and  Tripolitana ;  while  large 
tracts,  especially  in  the  Western  Sahara,  the 
Libyan  and  Kalahari  wastes,  are  absolutely  un- 
inhabited. Of  the  whole  number,  probably  less 
than  1,000,000  are  recent  immigrants  from  Europe, 
settled  chiefly  in  the  extreme  north  (Egypt 
and  Algeria)  and  in  the  extreme  south  (Cape 
Colony,  Natal,  and  the  former  Boer  States). 
About  34,000,000,  all  of  Semitic  stock,  are  in- 
truders from  Asia,  some  in  remote  or  prehistoric 
times  (3,000,000  Himyarites  in  Abyssinia  and 
Harar  from  South  Arabia),  some  since  the  spread 
of  Islam  (over  30,000,000  nomad  and  other  Arabs, 
chiefly  along  the  Mediterranean  seaboard,  in  West 
Sahara,  and  Central  and  East  Soudan).  All  the 
rest,  numbering  about  175,000,000  altogether, 
may  be  regarded  as  the  true  aboriginal  element, 
and  may  be  regarded  as  falling  into  two  main 
groups— the  Negro  and  Negroid  peoples,  and  the 
Hamitic.  The  Negroes  proper,  including  the 
Fanti,  Ashanti,  Mandingo,  Haussa,  Bari,  and 
Monbuttu  stocks,  are  mainly  in  Upper  Guinea, 
Senegambia,  and  the  Soudan.  The  Bantus  to 
the  south  of  them  include  Kaffirs,  Zulus,  Bechu- 
anas,  Matabele,  Wagandas ;  and  the  other  Negroids 
are  the  Hottentots  and  the  Bushmen,  Batwas, 
and  Akkas.  To  the  Hamitic  stock  are  referred 
the  Berbers,  Gallas,  and  Somalis,  as  also  the 
Fans,  Fulahs,  and  the  Egyptian  Fellahs.  Speak- 
ing generally,  the  northern  Hamites  and  Semites 
are  Mohammedans  and  stock-breeders,  the 
southern  Bantus  nature-worshippers  and  agri- 
culturists ;  all  these  factors  intermingling  in  the 
intervening  zone  of  Soudan.  The  chief  exceptions 
to  this  broad  statement  are  the  Christian  Abys- 
sinians  (Monophysite  sect) ;  the  Hottentots,  who 
are   mainly  cattle-breeders ;   and   the  Algerian 


AFTON 


14 


AGRA 


Berbers,  who  prefer  tillage  to  pasturage.  Nearly 
the  whole  of  Africa  is  under  the  direct  or  indirect 
control  of  seven  European  states— Great  Britain, 
France,  Germany,  Portugal,  Spain,  Italy,  and 
Turkey — or  within  their  recognised  spheres  of 
influence.  The  only  independent  states  re- 
maining are  Morocco,  Abyssinia,  and  Liberia. 

Of  African  soil,  Great  Britain  holds  (1)  in 
South  Africa,  the  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  Transvaal, 
Orange  River  Colony,  Basutoland,  Bechuana- 
land  (as  a  protectorate),  Rhodesia,  British  Cen- 
tral Africa  Protectorate ;  (2)  in  East  Africa, 
Zanzibar  (as  a  protectorate)  and  dependencies, 
British  East  Africa  Protectorate,  Uganda,  British 
Soinaliland ;  (3)  in  West  Africa,  Gambia,  Sierra 
Leone,  Gold  Coast,  Lagos,  and  Northern  and 
Southern  Nigeria ;  (4)  Mauritius,  Ascension,  St 
Helena,  &c. ;  (5)  Egypt  (temporarily  occupied) ; 
(6)  Anglo-Egyptian  Soudan,  held  by  Britain  and 
Egypt  jointly.  France  holds  Algeria,  Tunis, 
Senegal,  French  Guinea,  the  Ivory  Coast, 
Dahomey,  the  Western  Soudan,  the  Sahara, 
French  Congo,  Obok  or  French  Somaliland, 
Madagascar,  Reunion,  and  the  Mayottes  and 
the  Comoros. 

German  Africa  includes  Togoland,  the  Camer- 
oons,  German  South-west  Africa  (Damaraland, 
Namaqualand),  and  German  East  Africa.  Portu- 
guese Africa :  Angola,  Portuguese  East  Africa, 
Madeira,  Cape  Verde  Islajids.  Spanish  Africa  : 
Ceuta,  Spanish  Sahara  (Rio  de  Oro  and  Adran) ; 
the  Canaries,  Fernando  Po,  and  other  Islands. 
Italian  Africa :  Eritrea,  Italian  Somaliland, 
Belgian  Africa  is  the  Congo  Free  State. 

According  to  estimates  based  on  the  latest 
available  data,  British  Africa  in  all  (without 
Egypt,  but  including  the  Egyptian  Soudan)  in- 
cludes about  3,510,000  sq.  m.,  with  about 
84,000,000  inhabitants ;  French  Africa,  2,970,000 
sq.  m.,  27,500,000  inhabitants  ;  Gennan  Africa, 
742,000  sq.  m.,  6,750,000  inhabitants  ;  Portuguese 
Africa,  804,000  sq.  m.,  7,750,000  inhabitants; 
Spanish  Africa,  250,000  sq.  m.,  population  not 
known ;  Italian  Africa,  136,000  sq.  m.,  1,000,000 
inhabitants  ;  Belgian  Africa  (Congo  Free  State), 
900,000  sq.  m.,  pop.  30,000,000 ;  Turkish  Africa 
(Egypt  and  Tripoli),  8,000,000  sq.  m.,  pop. 
11,300,000;  Abyssinia,  150,000  sq.  m,,  pop. 
3,500,000 ;  Morocco,  219,000  sq.  m.,  pop.  5,000,000  ; 
Liberia,  14,000  sq.  m.,  pop.  1,000,000. 

See  works  on  Africa  by  Keith  Johnston,  Reclus, 
Hartmann,  and  others  ;  the  works  and  the  lives 
of  Bruce,  Mungo  Park,  Livingstone,  Baker, 
Burton,  Speke  and  Grant,  Barth,  Schweinfurth, 
Cameron,  Stanley,  Johnston,  Thomson,  and  other 
travellers  ;  Jones's  History  of  African  Exploration 
(New  York,  1875) ;  books  on  the  partition  of  Africa 
by  Silva  White  (1892)  and  Scott  Keltie  (1893) ;  and 
Sir  H.  H.  Johnston's  Colonization  of  Africa  (1899). 

Afton,  an  Ayrshire  stream,  joining  the  Nith  at 
New  Cumnock. 

Agades  (A-gd-des),  once  a  very  important  city  of 
Africa,  and  still  a  great  meeting-place  of  trading 
caravans,  is  the  capital  of  the  state  Air  or  Asben, 
south  of  the  Sahara,  and  is  built  upon  the  eastern 
edge  of  a  great  tableland,  at  an  elevation  of  not 
less  than  2500  feet.  In  the  16th  century  it  prob- 
ably contained  60,000  inhabitants;  now  it  has 
some  7000. 

Agadlr,  the  southernmost  seaport  town  in 
Morocco,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sfls,  23  miles  SE. 
of  Cape  Qhir.  It  was  once  a  place  of  importance  ; 
but  a  revolt  in  1773,  and  the  consequent  rise  of 
Mogador,  have  lessened  its  value,  and  its  pop. 
now  does  not  exceed  1500. 


Agar,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  state  of  Gwalior, 
41  miles  NE.  of  Ujain.  It  stands  in  an  open  plain, 
1598  feet  above  the  sea.    Pop.  30,000. 

Agde  (anc.  Agatha  Narbonensis),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Herault,  3  miles  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea,  on  the  left  bank  of  a  navigable 
stream,  the  mouth  of  which  forms  a  harbour. 
Pop.  7705. 

Agen  (J-zhon<'),  chief  town  of  the  French  dep. 
of  Lot-et-Garonne,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Garonne,  84  miles  SE.  of  Bordeaux.  It  carries 
on  an  active  trade  in  woollen  and  linen  fabrics, 
leather,  coloured  paper,  colours,  cordage,  and 
sailcloth ;  and  is  an  important  railway  centre. 
Joseph  Scaliger  and  the  barber-poet  Jasmin  were 
natives.    Pop.  18,500. 

Aghrim,  or  Aughrim  (Auhh'rim),  a  hill  in 
Gal  way,  Ireland,  30  miles  SW.  of  Athlone.  Here, 
on  12th  July  1691,  Ginckell  defeated  the  French 
and  Irish  adherents  of  James  II.  under  St  Ruth. 

Agincourt  (A'zJian^lcoor),  now  Azincourt,  a 
small  village  in  the  centre  of  the  French  dep. 
of  Pas-de-Calais,  celebrated  for  Henry  V.'s  great 
victory  over  the  French,  October  25,  1415. 

Agnano,  till  1870  a  small  lake  3  miles  west  of 
Naples,  about  60  feet  in  depth,  and  without  visible 
outlet.  As  it  caused  malaria,  it  has  been  drained. 
On  the  right  lies  the  Grotta  del  Cane  (q.v.),  and 
on  the  left  are  the  sulphurous  vapour-baths  of 
San  Germane. 

Agno'ne,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  22  miles  NW. 
of  Campobasso,  noted  for  its  copper  and  steel 
manufactures.     Pop.  6179. 

Agra,  a  city  in  the  United  Provinces  of 
Agra  and  Oudh,  on  the  Jumna,  139  miles 
SE.  of  Delhi  by  rail,  and  841  NW.  of  Calcutta. 
The  ancient  walls  embraced  an  area  of  11  sq. 
m.,  of  which  about  one-half  is  now  occupied. 
The  houses  are  mostly  built  of  red  sandstone, 
and,  on  the  whole,  Agra  is  the  handsomest  city 
in  Upper  India.  Some  of  the  public  buildings, 
monuments  of  the  house  of  Timur,  are  on  a  scale 
of  striking  magnificence.  Among  these  are  the 
fortress  built  by  Akbar,  within  the  walls  of  which 
are  the  palace  and  audience-hall  of  Shah  Jehan, 
the  Moti  Masjid  or  Pearl  Mosque,  and  the  Jama 
Masjid  or  Great  Mosque.  Still  more  celebrated 
is  the  white  marble  Taj  Mahal,  isituated  without 
the  city,  about  a  mile  to  the  east  of  the  fort. 
This  extraordinary  and  beautiful  maiisoleum  was 
built  by  the  Emperor  Shah  Jehan  for  himself  and 
his  favourite  wife,  who  died  in  1629 ;  and  Is 
remarkable  alike  for  the  complexity  and  grace  of 
the  general  design,  and  the  elaborate  perfection 
of  the  workmanship.  In  the  centre,  on  a  raised 
platform,  is  the  mausoleum,  sunnounted  by  a 
beautiful  dome,  with  smaller  domes  at  each 
corner,  and  four  graceful  minarets  (133  feet  high). 
Of  British  edifices  the  principal  are  the  Govern- 
ment House,  the  Government  College,  three 
missionary  colleges,  the  English  church,  and  the 
barracks.  The  climate,  during  the  hot  and  rainy 
seasons  (April  to  September),  is  very  injurious 
to  Europeans  ;  but  the  average  health  of  the  city 
is  equal  to  that  of  any  other  station  in  the 
North-western  Provinces.  The  principal  articles 
of  trade  are  cotton,  tobacco,  salt,  grain,  and 
sugar.  There  are  manufactures  of  shoes,  pipe 
stems,  and  gold  lace,  and  of  inlaid  mosaic  work, 
for  which  Agra  is  famous.  It  is  a  very  important 
railway  centre,  and  has  many  claims  to  be  re- 
garded as  the  commercial  capital  of  the  North- 
west. Pop.  (1901)  188,022.  Agra  first  rose  to 
importance  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century, 


AGRAM 


15 


AIRDS  MOSS 


and  was  the  capital  of  the  Mogul  sovereigns  till 
1658,  when  Aurungzebe  removed  'to  Delhi.  It 
was  taken  in  1784  by  Sindhia,  and  surrendered  in 
1803  to  Lord  Lake.  From  1835  till  1862,  it  was 
the  seat  of  government  for  the  North-west  Pro- 
vinces. During  the  mutiny  the  Europeans  had, 
in  June  1857,  to  retire  to  the  Fort  or  Residency. 
Heroic  sallies  were  occasionally  made  ;  and  Agi-a 
was  relieved  early  in  October  by  the  rapid  and 
brilliant  march  of  Colonel  Greathed. 

Agram  (Croatian  Zagreb),  capital  of  the  Aus- 
trian province  of  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  lies  at 
the  foot  of  a  richly  wooded  range  of  mountains, 
2  miles  from  the  Save,  and  142  NE.  of  Fiume  by 
rail.  The  cathedral,  dating  partly  from  the  11th 
century,  with  new  towers  and  an  ornate  western 
facade  added  in  1890-93,  is  one  of  the  finest 
Gothic  buildings  in  Austria.  The  manufactures 
include  tobacco,  leather,  and  linen.  An  earth- 
quake in  November  1880  destroyed  most  of  the 
public  buildings,  and  overthrew  200  houses. 
Agram  possesses  a  university  founded  in  1874, 
with  40  lecturers  and  400  students.  Pop.  (1890) 
87,529  ;  (1900)  57,800. 

Agrigentum.    See  Girgenti. 

Agtelek,  a  Hungarian  village  to  the  NE.  of 
Pesth,  near  one  of  the  largest  and  most  remark- 
able series  of  stalactitic  caverns  in  Europe,  some 
of  them  nearly  100  feet  high. 

Aguas  Calientes,  a  town  of  Mexico,  capital  of 
a  central  state,  with  an  area  of  2900  sq.  m.,  stands 
on  a  plain  6000  feet  above  sea-level,  270  miles  NAV. 
of  the  city  of  Mexico  by  rail.  The  environs 
abound  in  hot  springs,  hence  the  name.  Pop. 
32,500. 

Aguilar  de  la  Fronte'ra,  a  Spanish  town  of 
Andalusia,  26  miles  SSE.  of  Cordova.    Pop.  12,398. 

Agullas,  a  fortified  port  in  the  Spanish  province 
of  Murcia,  with  large  smelting-houses,  and  an 
export  trade  in  lead,  iron  ore,  sulphur,  esparto, 
and  figs.    Pop.  12,500. 

Agul'has,  Cape,  the  most  southern  point  of 
Africa,  lies  about  100  miles  ESE.  of  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  in  lat.  34°  49'  S.,  long.  20"  0'  40"  E. 
In  1849,  a  lighthouse  was  erected  on  the  point, 
which  is  very  dangerous  for  ships.  The  Agulhas 
Bank,  about  40  miles  broad,  extends  along  the 
whole  southern  coast  of  Africa,  from  near  Natal 
to  Saldanha  Bay. 

Ahmedabad',  chief  town  of  a  district  in  Guzerat, 
second  amongst  the  cities  of  the  province  of 
Bombay,  is  50  miles  NE.  of  the  head  of  the  Gulf 
of  Cambay.  It  was  built  in  1412  by  Ahmed 
Slaah,  and  finally  came  to  the  British  in  1818. 
In  the  18th  century  it  was  one  of  the  largest  and 
most  magnificent  cities  in  the  East,  with  a 
population  of  900,000.  Its  architectural  relics 
are  gorgeous,  even  in  the  midst  of  decay,  and 
illustrate  the  combination  of  Saracenic  with 
Hindu  forms  mainly  of  the  Jain  type.  The  Jama 
Masjid,  or  Great  Mosque,  rises  from  the  centre 
of  the  city,  and  is  adorned  by  two  superb 
minarets.  There  are  some  twelve  other  mosques 
(one  lined  with  ivory)  and  six  famous  tombs. 
The  modem  Jain  temple  is  of  singular  beauty. 
The  prosperity  of  the  place  was  almost  wholly 
destroyed  by  the  rapacity  of  the  Mahrattas,  but 
it  has  largely  recovered,  and  is  still  famous  for 
its  rich  fabrics  of  silk  and  cotton,  brocades, 
pottery,  paper  made  of  jute,  and  articles  of  gold, 
silver,  steel,  and  enamel.     Pop.  185,900. 

Ahmednagar  (Ahmadnagar),  a  town  of  the 
province  of  Bombay,  122  miles  E.  of  Bombay,  is 
the  third  city  of  the  Deccan.     It  was  tounded  in 


1494  by  Ahmed  Nizam  Shah.  In  1797  It  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  Mahrattas,  and  in  1817  became 
British.  It  became  a  municipality  in  1855  ;  and 
possesses  a  good  supply  of  water  by  means  of 
aqueducts.  Strong  carpets,  cotton  and  silk 
cloths,  and  copper  and  brass  pots,  are  manufac- 
tured here.    Pop.  42,492. 

Ahmedpur',  a  town  of  India,  25  miles  SW.  of 
Bahawalpur ;  pop.  30,000. 

Ahwas,  a  small  village  of  Persia,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Khuzistan,  70  miles  NE.  of  Bassora. 
The  neighbourhood  is  covered  with  the  ruins  of 
the  capital  of  Artabanus,  the  last  of  the  Parthian 
kings. 

Aidin  (Guzel-Hissar),  a  town  of  western  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  Meander,  60  miles  SE.  of  Smyrna 
by  rail,  is  the  capital  of  a  province,  and  was 
built  out  of  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Tralles. 
The  trade  is  important  in  morocco  leather, 
cotton,  and  fruit.     Pop.  37,000. 

Aigues-Mortes  (Aig  Mort),  a  town  (pop.  4787) 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Gard,  in  an  extensive  salt- 
marsh,  3  miles  from  the  Mediterranean  by  a 
canal.  In  the  middle  ages,  when  the  sea  came 
much  nearer  the  town,  it  was  a  very  important 
Mediterranean  harbour. 

Ailsa  Craig,  a  rocky  islet  of  Ayrshire,  10  miles 
W.  by  N.  of  Girvan.  Rising  abruptly  out  of  the 
sea  to  a  height  of  1114  feet,  it  is  about  2  miles 
in  circumference,  and  is  accessible  only  at  one 
point.  The  rock  is  a  mass  of  trap,  assuming  in 
some  places  a  distinctly  columnar  form.  On  the 
NW.,  perpendicular  cliff's  rise  to  a  height  of  from 
200  to  300  feet ;  on  the  other  sides,  the  Craig 
descends  to  the  sea  with  a  steep  slope.  Till  the 
erection  of  a  lighthouse  (1883-86),  the  only  in- 
habitants were  goats,  rabbits,  and  wild-fowl; 
solan  geese,  in  particular,  breeding  in  the  cliffs 
in  countless  numbers.  About  200  feet  from  the 
summit  are  some  springs,  and  on  the  ledge  of 
a  crag  on  the  eastern  front,  are  the  remains  of 
an  ancient  stronghold.  In  1831,  the  Earl  of 
Cassillis,  the  proprietor  of  Ailsa  Craig,  was  raised 
to  the  dignity  of  Marquis  of  Ailsa.  Pop.  about 
30  in  all. 

Ain,  a  French  river  flowing  118  miles  south- 
westward,  through  the  deps.  of  Jura  and  Ain,  to 
the  Rhone,  18  miles  above  Lyons. 

Ain,  an  eastern  dep.  of  France,  separated  from 
Savoy  by  the  Rhone.  The  eastern  part  is  moun- 
tainous, with  summits  5000  to  6500  feet  high. 
Bourg  is  the  capital.  Area,  2239  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
(1891)  356,907  ;  (1901)  350,416. 

Ain-Tab,  a  town  of  Syria,  on  an  aflauent  of 
the  Euphrates,  64  miles  NNE.  of  Aleppo ;  pop. 
40,000. 

Air,  or  AsBEN,  an  oasis-kingdom  in  the  north 
of  the  Soudan.    Agades  (q.v.)  is  the  capital. 

Aira  Force,  a  waterfall,  80  feet  high,  near  the 
west  shore  of  UUswater. 

Alrdrie,  a  flourishing  municipal  burgh  in  NE. 
Lanarkshire,  2  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Coatbridge,  and 
11  E.  of  Glasgow.  Standing  on  the  high-road 
between  Edinburgh  and  Glasgow,  near  the  Monk- 
land  Canal  and  the  North  British  Railway,  it 
owes  its  prosperity  to  the  abundance  of  coal  and 
ironstone  in  the  vicinity.  The  weaving  of  cotton 
goods  is  carried  on,  as  are  also  iron-founding, 
silk-weaving,  and  paper-making.  Since  1832  it 
has  united  with  Falkirk,  &c.  to  send  a  member 
to  parliament.  Pop.  (1831)  6594  ;  (1861)  12,918 ; 
(1891)  15,133,  or,  with  suburbs,  19,135. 

Airds  Moss,  a  moorish  tract  in  Ayrshire  to 


AIRE 


16 


AJMEEE 


the  NE.  of  Auchinleck,  the  scene  of  a  Covenant- 
ing skirmish  (1680). 

Aire,  a  river  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
flowing  70  miles  to  the  Ouse. 

Aire  (anc.  Vicus  Julii),  a  French  town  in  the 
dep.  of  Landes,  on  the  Adour,  112  miles  S.  of 
Bordeaux,  with  an  ancient  cathedral ;  pop.  3892. 

Alre-sur-Lys,  a  fortified  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Pas-de-Calais,  on  the  Lys,  37  miles  W.  of 
Lille  by  rail ;  pop.  8165. 

Airlie,  in  Forfarshire,  8  miles  WSW.  of  Forfar, 
the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Airlie,  famous  in  song. 

Alrolo,  an  Italian-Swiss  village,  in  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Ticino,  and  150  yards  from  the 
southern  mouth  of  the  great  St  Gothard  Tunnel ; 
pop.  2000. 

Airthrey,  a  place  with  mineral  springs  near 
Bridge  of  Allan. 

Aisne  (Ain),  a  French  river,  flowing  150  miles 
north-westward  and  westward  through  the  deps. 
of  Marne,  Ardennes,  Aisne,  and  Oise,  till  it  falls 
into  the  river  Oise,  above  Compiegne. 

Aisne,  a  dep.  in  the  north  of  France,  com- 
prising parts  of  Picardy,  Brie,  and  the  Isle  of 
France.  Hilly  in  the  south,  level  in  the  north, 
it  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the  Seine,  and  is 
watered  by  the  rivers  Aisne,  Marne,  and  Oise. 
Laon  is  the  capital.  Area,  2839  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
(1891)  545,493 ;  (1901)  585,583. 

Aiwalyk,  a  seaport  in  the  north-west  of  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  Gulf  of  Edremid  (Adramyti).  Pop. 
35,000. 

Alx  (Aiks),  a  French  town,  formerly  capital 
of  Provence,  in  the  dep.  of  Bouches-du-Rhone, 
20  miles  N.  of  Marseilles.  It  is  believed  to 
have  been  founded  by  the  Roman  consul,  C. 
Sextius  (120  B.C.),  on  account  of  the  mineral 
springs  in  the  neighbourhood,  and  thence  to  have 
got  the  name  Aquce  Sextice.  Aix  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishop ;  and  possesses  a  college  with  a 
public  library  of  150,000  volumes  and  1100  MSS. 
The  baptistery  of  the  cathedral  is  believed  to 
have  been  originally  a  temple  of  Apollo.  There 
is  also  an  old  clock-tower  with  a  quaint  mechan- 
ical clock.  The  industry  consists  chiefly  in 
cotton-spinning,  leather-dressing,  and  trade  in 
olive-oil,  wine,  almonds,  &c.  The  warm  springs 
are  slightly  sulphurous,  with  a  temperature  from 
90°  to  100°  F.  The  field  on  which  Marius  defeated 
the  Teutones  lies  in  the  plain  between  Aix  and 
Aries.    Pop.  25,000. 

Alx-la-Chapelle  (Aiks-Ia-shapel' ;  Ger.  Aachen), 
a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  is  situated  in  a 
fertile  hollow,  surrounded  by  heights,  and 
watered  by  the  "Wurm,  39  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Cologne.  Pop.  (1867)  67,923  ;  (1900)  135,245,  of 
whom  not  7  per  cent,  are  Protestants.  Aix  is 
the  centre  of  a  valuable  coal  district,  and  of 
numerous  thriving  manufactories,  especially  for 
spinning  and  weaving  woollen  fabrics,  for  needle 
and  pin  making,  and  for  machinery,  bells,  glass 
buttons,  chemicals,  and  cigars.  Charlemagne 
founded  its  world-wide  celebrity;  in  814  it 
became  his  grave,  the  spot  being  marked  with 
a  stone.  In  796  he  had  rebuilt  the  imperial 
palace,  on  whose  site  the  present  town-house  was 
built  in  1358,  as  well  as  the  chapel  which  forms 
the  nucleus  of  the  cathedral.  This  ancient 
cathedral  is  in  the  form  of  an  octagon,  which, 
with  various  additions  round  it,  forms  on  the 
outside  a  sixteen-sided  figure.  The  so-called 
'great  relics,'  shown  once  in  seven  years,  attract 
thousands  of  strangers.    Much  lias  of  late  years 


been  done  to  restore  this  venerable  pile.  The 
columns  brought  by  Charlemagne  from  the  palace 
of  the  Exarch  at  Ravenna,  had  been  carried  off 
by  the  French ;  but  most  of  them  were  restored 
at  the  Peace  of  Paris.  The  town-house,  on  the 
market-place,  is  flanked  by  two  towers  older  than 
itself.  In  its  coronation-hall,  thirty-five  German 
emperors  and  eleven  empresses  have  celebrated 
their  coronation  banquet,  and  the  walls  have 
been  decorated  with  frescoes  of  scenes  from  the 
life  of  Charlemagne.  Before  the  town-house 
stands  a  beautiful  fountain,  with  a  bronze  statue 
of  Charlemagne.  Aix-la-Chapelle  now  possesses 
broad  streets,  many  fine  public  buildings,  taste- 
ful churches,  and  luxurious  hotels ;  and  from 
being  a  quiet  old  city  of  historical  interest,  has 
become  a  busy  centre  of  manufacturing  industry. 

The  mineral  springs,  of  which  six  are  hot  and 
two  cold,  were  known  in  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne. The  temperature  of  the  hot  springs 
varies  from  111°  to  136°  P. ;  they  are  efficacious 
in  cases  of  gout,  rheumatism,  cutaneous  diseases, 
&c.     The  cold  springs  are  chalybeate. 

The  name  of  the  place  is  derived  from  the 
springs,  for  which  it  has  been  always  famous. 
Charlemagne  granted  extraordinary  privileges  to 
this  city,  which  in  the  middle  ages  contained 
more  than  100,000  inhabitants.  Seventeen  im- 
perial diets  and  eleven  provincial  councils  were 
held  within  its  walls.  The  removal  of  the  corona- 
tions to  Frankfort  (1531),  the  religious  contests 
of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  a  great  fire  which 
in  1056  consumed  4000  houses,  combined  with 
other  causes  to  bring  into  decay  this  once  flour- 
ishing community.  In  1793  and  1794,  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  was  occupied  by  the  French ;  and  by 
the  treaties  concluded  at  Campo  Formio  and 
Luneville  it  was  formally  ceded  to  France,  until 
in  1815  it  fell  to  Prussia. 

Aix-les-Bains  (Aiks-le-Ban«),  a  small  town  in 
the  French  dep.  of  Savoy,  in  a  delightful  valley 
near  Lake  Bourget,  8  miles  N.  of  Chamb6ry.  It 
Avas  a  much-frequented  bathing-place  in  the  time 
of  the  Roman  empire  (Aquce  Gratiance),  and 
among  its  many  ancient  remains  are  the  arch 
of  Campanus,  the  ruins  of  a  temple,  and  of  a 
vapour-bath.  The  two  sulphurous  hot  springs 
are  used  both  for  drinking  and  as  baths,  and 
attract  annually  5000  visitors.    Pop.  4799. 

Ajaccio  (Ayat'cho),  capital  of  Corsica,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  island,  at  the  head  of  the 
Gulf  of  Ajaccio.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral,  com- 
pleted in  1585,  and  a  spacious  harbour,  protected 
by  a  citadel ;  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Napoleon. 
There  is  a  statue  of  him  as  First  Consul  (1850), 
and  an  equestrian  monument  of  him  as  emperor 
surrounded  by  his  four  brothers  (1865).  The 
house  of  the  Bonapartes,  the  'Casa  Bonaparte,' 
is  now  national  property.  The  chief  employ- 
ments are  the  anchovy  and  pearl  fisheries,  and 
the  trade  in  wine  and  olive-oil.  Ajaccio  has 
become  a  winter-resort  for  consumptive  patients. 
Pop.  21,200. 

Ajaigarh,  a  hill-fort  of  India,  in  the  United 
Provinces,  about  180  miles  WSW.  of  Allahabad. 
Within  its  walls  are  two  great  masses  of  ruined 
Jain  temples. 

Ajalon,  the  modem  Ydlo,  a  town  of  the  Levites 
belonging  to  the  tribe  of  Dan  in  ancient  Pales- 
tine, In  a  valley  near  it  Joshua  defeated  five 
Canaanitish  kings,  the  sun  and  moon  standing 
still  in  order  to  make  his  victory  more  complete. 

Ajmere  (Ajmir),  an  ancient  city  of  Rajputana, 
the  capital  of  a  district,  228  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Agra  by  rail.    It  is  situated  in  a  picturesque  and 


AJODHYA 


17 


ALASKA 


rocky  valley,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  stone  wall 
with  five  gateways.  Tlie  Dargah  or  tomb  of  the 
Mussubnaii  saint,  Kwaja,  within  the  town,  is 
held  in  great  veneration.  Trade  has  revived 
since  the  opening  of  the  railway  (1875),  the  prin- 
cipal export  being  cotton.    Pop.  75,500. 

Ajodhya,  an  ancient  city  of  Oudh,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Gogra,  adjacent  to  Fyzabad  (q.v.). 
Its  site  is  marked  by  heaps  of  ruins,  overgrown 
with  jungle  ;  there  is  also  a  modern  town  of  the 
same  name  with  7500  inhabitants,  nearly  100 
temples,  36  mosques,  and  a  fair  which  yearly 
attracts  half  a  million  of  pilgrims. 

Ak'abali  (the  Biblical  Elath),  a  haven  at  the 
head  of  the  Gulf  of  Akabah,  the  north-eastern 
horn  of  the  Red  Sea. 

Akerman.    See  Akjerman. 

Akhalzikh,  a  town  of  Russian  Transcaucasia, 
110  miles  W.  of  Titlis,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Kur  ; 
pop.  13,757. 

Ak-Hlssar  (anc.  Thyatira),  a  town  of  Asia 
Minor,  52  miles  NE.  of  Smyrna ;  pop.  12,000. 

AkMat,  or  Ardish,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
on  the  NW.  shore  of  Lake  Van  ;  pop.  4000. 

Akhtyrka,  a  town  of  Russia,  58  miles  NW,  of 
Kharkotf,  on  a  small  affluent  of  the  Dnieper; 
pop.  23,400. 

Aklta,  a  town  in  Hondo  Island,  Japan ;  pop. 
29,500. 

Akjerman  (^fc-i/er-?H«u),  or  Akerman,  a  town 
of  Russia,  in  Bessarabia,  on  the  Black  Sea,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  D)iiester  ;  pop.  28,300. 

AkmoUinsk,  capital  of  a  province  of  Western 
Siberia,  300  miles  SW.  of  Omsk  ;  pop.  5700. 

Akola,  a  town  of  Berar,  India,  60  miles  SW. 
of  Kllichpur;  pop.  29,300. 

Akot,  a  town  of  Berar,  35  miles  SW.  of 
Elliclipur;  pop.  16,000, 

Akron,  in  Summit  county,  Ohio,  U.S.,  is  36 
miles  south  of  Cleveland,  It  has  woollen  fac- 
tories, flour-mills,  a  steam-engine  factory,  a  stove 
factory,  a  mineral-paint  mill,  &c.  Pop,  (1870) 
10,006;  (1890)  21,601  ;  (1900)  42,730. 

Ak-shehr  ('  White  City '),  a  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
near  the  salt  lake  of  Ak-shehr,  and  60  miles  SB. 
of  Konieh  ;  pop,  6000. 

Ak-su,  a  town  of  Chinese  Turkestan,  260  miles 
NE.  from  Yarkand,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Tarim, 
and  at  the  southern  base  of  the  Thian-shan 
Mountains.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  a 
separate  khanate ;  in  1867  it  became  a  part  of 
the  state  of  Eastern  Turkestan,  under  Yakoob 
Beg,  but  was  reconquered  by  China  in  1877.  It 
is  celebrated  for  its  manufactures  of  cotton  cloth 
and  saddlery,  and  is  an  entrepot  of  commerce 
between  Russia,  Tartary,  and  China.  Pop.  20,000, 
besides  a  large  Chinese  garrison. 

Akyab,  a  town  of  Burma,  the  chief  seaport  of 
Arakan,  is  situated  on  the  eastern  side  of  the 
island  of  Akyab,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Kuladan 
River,  190  miles  SE.  of  Calcutta.  In  1826,  benig 
then  a  mere  fishing-village,  it  was  chosen  for  the 
chief  station  of  the  province,  and  now  is  a  great 
rice  port ;  pop.  43,989. 

Alabama,  one  of  the  United  States,  touching 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  lying  between  Georgia 
and  Mississippi.  In  the  south  are  the  Piny 
Woods ;  next  the  fertile  Cane-brake  or  Black 
Belt ;  next  the  mineral  region ;  to  the  north, 
part  of  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Tennessee.  The 
Alabama  and   Tonibigbee  are  navigable  rivers. 


Cotton,  maize,  oats,  wheat,  and  sweet  potatoes 
are  produced  ;  the  minerals,  including  coal  and 
iron,  are  important ;  and  manufactures  are  de- 
veloping. The  climate  is  warm  but  equable,  and 
save  in  the  Black  Belt  and  near  the  swamps, 
healthful,  Montgomery  is  the  capital.  Mobile 
the  chief  port  of  the  state.  Area,  51,5*0  sq,  m. 
—more  than  England  without  Wales  ;  pop.  (1840) 
590,756;  (1890)  1,513,017;  (1900)  1,828,697,  of 
wliom  827,000  were  coloured. 

Ala  Dagh,  a  range  (11,000  feet)  in  the  great 
tableland  of  Erzerum,  in  Turkish  Armenia,  to 
tlie  north  of  Lake  Van. 

Alago'as,  a  maritime  province  of  Brazil', 
bounded  on  the  N,  and  W.  by  Pernambuco.  Pop. 
about  520,000.  Tlie  town  of  Alagoas,  once  the 
capital,  has  5000  iuiiabilants.  The  present  capital 
is  the  port  of  Maceio. 

Alals,  a  town  of  the  French  dep.  of  Gard,  on 
a  plain  at  the  base  of  the  Cevennes  Mountains, 
81  miles  NW,  of  Nimes  by  rail.  It  embraced  the 
Protestant  cause  in  the  religious  wars  of  France, 
and  was  besieged  and  taken  in  1629,  Alais  owes 
its  prosperity  chiefly  to  the  mineral  wealth  of  the 
surrounding  district,  which  produces  coal,  iron, 
lead,  zinc,  and  asphalt ;  there  are  large  iron- 
foundries  here,  and  manufactures  of  silk  and 
ribbons.     Pop,  18,500, 

Alajuela  (A-la-'hoo-ay'la),  a  city  of  Costa  Rica, 
Central  America,  23  miles  WNNV,  of  Cartago, 
with  whicli  it  is  connected  by  rail ;  pop,  10,000. 

Alameda  (A-la-mai'da),  a  watering-place  of  Cali- 
fornia, on  the  Bay,  3  miles  by  steain-ferry  E.  of 
San  Francisco.    Pop.  17,500. 

Al'amos,  Los  ('the  poplars'),  a  town  of 
Mexico,  in  the  state  of  Sonora,  45  miles  E.  of 
the  Gulf  of  California,  is  famous  for  its  copper 
and  silver  mines  ;  pop.  10,000. 

Aland  Islands  (6'land),  a  group  of  300  small 
islands  and  rocks  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf 
of  Bothnia,  opposite  Abo,  the  largest  being 
situated  about  25  miles  from  the  Swedish  coast. 
Only  80  of  them  are  inhabited.  The  inhabitants 
are  of  Swedish  origin,  skilful  sailors  and  fisher- 
men. Pop.  24,000,  of  whom  two-thirds  inhabit 
the  largest  island,  called  Aland,  which  is  18  miles 
in  length,  and  contains  Bomarsund.  These 
islands,  formerly  Swedish,  were  taken  possession 
of  by  Russia  in  1809, 

Ala-shehr  ('the  exalted  city,'  anc,  Philadel- 
fMa),  a  city  of  Asia  Minor,  75  miles  E,  of 
Smyrna,  It  was  founded  about  200  e.g.,  and  is 
femous  as  the  seat  of  one  of  the  Seven  Churches 
of  Asia.  It  is  still  a  place  of  considerable  im- 
portance, and  carries  on  a  thriving  trade  with 
Smyrna,  to  which  it  is  now  joined  by  a  railway. 
There  are  many  interesting  remains  of  antiquity. 
Pop.  15,000,  including  3000  Greeks. 

Alaska,  a  territory  of  the  United  States,  occu- 
pying the  NW.  portion  of  the  North  American 
continent,  together  with  a  great  number  of 
islands,  mostly  in  the  Pacific  Ocean.  It  is 
bounded  N,  by  the  Arctic  Ocean,  E,  by  the 
North-west  Territories  of  Canada  and  by  British 
Columbia  ;  SW.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  W.  by 
Behring  Sea  and  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Its  land  area 
is  estimated  at  581,400  sq.  m,,  or  about  as  large 
as  Great  Britain,  Ireland,  France,  and  Spain 
combined.  The  northern  portion  of  Alaska, 
containing  five-sixths  of  its  area,  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  vast  expanse  of  moor  or  tundra,  broken 
here  and  there  by  mountain-spurs  (an  especially 
marked  feature  in  the  south),  and  varied  by  count- 
less lakes,  water-courses,  and  swamps,     Abou^ 


ALA-TAU 


18 


ALBANIA 


one-third  of  this  region  lies  within  the  Arctic 
Circle.  The  winter  climate  is  here  terribly  severe, 
and  the  short  summers  are  rendered  almost  un- 
endurable by  clouds  of  mosquitoes  or  gnats. 
This  region  is  ti'aversed  by  the  great  river  Yulvon, 
about  2000  miles  long,  the  Kuskoquim,  and  other 
large  streams.  Its  population  is  Innuit  or 
Eskimo,  in  the  north  and  on  the  coast,  but 
Athabascan  or  Tinneh  (lied  Indian)  elsewhere. 
The  fisheries  and  the  fur-trade  afford  subsistence 
to  the  scanty  population.  A  second  section  com- 
prises the  Aleutian  Islands  (q.v.),  and  a  great 
part  of  the  peninsula  of  Aliaska.  This  division 
is  mountainous,  and  actively  volcanic.  It  is 
very  thinly  peopled  by  the  Aleuts.  The  Pribylof 
Islands,  in  Behring  Sea,  are  the  main  seat  of  the 
capture  of  the  fur-seal.  South-eastern  Alaska 
consists  of  a  narrow  strip  of  continental  land, 
together  with  the  Alexander  Archipelago,  lying 
near  the  mainland.  This  region  is  extremely 
mountainous,  and  has  many  great  glaciers  nearly 
reaching  the  sea.  The  climate  on  the  tide-level 
is  singularly  mild  for  the  latitude,  but  almost 
incessant  rains  prevail.  The  country  is  well 
timbered,  and  the  waters  abound  in  valuable 
fish.  The  natives  are  Indians  of  the  Haida  and 
Thlinket  races.  Alaska  has  a  very  small  English- 
speaking  white  population,  and  a  few  semi- 
Russian  natives.  Gold  is  mined  in  the  Yukon 
valley,  at  Cape  Nome,  and  elsewhere.  Coal, 
mostly  of  poor  quality,  is  common. 

A  few  cattle  are  kept  near  the  settlements,  but 
th»  climate  is  so  wet  that  slieep  cannot  do  well. 
Some  potatoes  and  a  few  garden  vegetables  are 
grown.  Tlie  native  animals  include  the  reindeer, 
the  moose,  tlie  Rocky  Mountain  sheep,  bears, 
wolves,  and  foxes ;  the  niuskrat,  ermine,  mink, 
sable,  lynx,  beaver,  wolverene,  squirrel,  hare, 
porcupine,  and  marmot ;  the  sea  and  river  otter ; 
fur,  hair,  and  other  seals,  and  the  walrus.  The 
fisheries  are  very  important.  Among  the  valu- 
able food  fishes  are  the  cod,  herring,  halibut,  and 
salmon  of  several  species.  Tlie  principal  towns 
of  the  territory  are  all  small,  and  most  of  them 
are  on  the  coast.  Among  them  are  Sitka,  the 
capital ;  Fort  Wrangel ;  and  Belkofsky,  the  chief 
dep6t  of  the  trade  in  seal-otter  furs  ;  Juneau  is  a 
gold-mining  town  ;  and  Skagway  is  the  port  for 
the  access  to  Klondike  by  the  White  Pass. 
Illoolook  is  on  Oonalashka  Island.  Alaska,  for- 
merly called  Russian  America,  was  first  visited 
by  the  Russians  under  Vitus  Behring  in  1741. 
In  1799  the  whole  country  passed  under  control 
of  the  Russian  American  Company.  In  1867  the 
United  States  purchased  the  entire  territory 
from  Russia  for  $7,200,000  in  gold.  Pop.  (1900) 
80,600  whites,  and  30,000  Eskimo.s  and  Indians. 

See  Wardman,  A  Trip  to  Alaska  (1885);  Elliott, 
Our  Arctic  Province  (1886);  H.  W.  Seton  Karr, 
The  Shores  and  Alps  of  Alaska  (1887);  Halleck, 
Our  New  Alaska  (1886);  The  Alaska  Coast  Pilot; 
Woolman,  Picturesque  Alaska  (1890);  Emmons, 
Alaska  and  its  Mineral  Resources  (1898) ;  reports 
of  the  geological  survey  (1900,  &lc.)  and  of  the 
Harrinian  Expedition  (1901-4). 

Ala-tau  ('mottled'),  a  range  of  lofty  moun- 
tains forming  the  boundary  between  Turkestan 
and  Mongolia,  and  the  northern  limit  of  the  great 
tableland  of  Central  Asia.  It  is  made  up  of  five 
sierra-like  sub-ranges,  all  grouped  round  Lake 
Issik-Kul,  which  range  in  elevation  from  10,000 
to  15,000  feet.  The  loftiest  peak,  Kiian  Tengri, 
is  24,000  feet  above  the  sea. 

Alatyr,  a  Russian  town,  on  the  Sura,  103  miles 
NW.  of  Simbirsk  ;  pop.  15,000. 


Alausl,  a  town  of  Ecuador,  70  miles  E.  of 
Guayaquil,  7980  feet  above  the  sea  ;  pop.  6000. 

Al'ava,  the  southern  and  largest,  but  most 
sparsely  populated,  of  the  three  Basque  provinces 
of  Spain.  Mountains  are  scattered  through  the 
whole  province,  and  yield  various  minerals,  stone, 
and  timber  in  abundance.  Area,  1205  sq.  m.  The 
inhabitants,  who  are  chiefly  Basques,  number  a 
little  over  96,000.  The  soil  is  generally  fertile, 
and  along  the  Ebro  fruits  and  wine  are  produced. 
The  capital  is  Vittoria. 

Alba  (anc.  Alba  Pompeia),  a  very  ancient  city 
of  North  Italy,  on  the  Tanaro,  41  miles  S\V.  of 
Alessandria  by  rail.  Its  cathedral  was  founded 
in  1486.     Pop.  6961. 

Albacete  (Al-ha-thai/teh),  capital  of  a  Spanish 
province,  140  miles  SE.  of  Madrid  by  rail,  in  a  fer- 
tile but  treeless  plain.  It  has  great  cattle-fairs. 
Pop.  20,671.— The  province  is  partly  formed  from 
tlie  former  kingdom  of  Murcia,  and  partly  from 
New  Castile.  It  is  generally  hilly,  in  some  parts 
attaining  5000  feet.  The  mineral  wealth  is  con- 
siderable.   Area,  5972  sq.  m. ;  pop.  233,000. 

Albania  forms  the  south-western  portion  of 
the  remaining  immediate  possessions  of  European 
Turkey,  and  extends  along  the  western  shore  of 
tlie  Balkan  Peninsula,  from  the  river  Bojana  to 
the  Gulf  of  Arta.  To  the  north  it  is  bounded, 
since  1878-80,  by  the  newly-won  Montenegrin 
territory,  and  by  Bosnia ;  on  the  south  it  is 
separated,  since  1881,  from  Greece  by  the  river 
Arta.  The  eastern  boundary  is  a  mountain-range, 
which  to  the  north  attains  an  altitude  of  7990 
feel'.  Westward  of  this  range  lie  parallel  chains, 
enclosing  long  elevated  valleys,  sinking  to  level 
strips  along  the  coast,  which  mostly  consist  of 
unhealthy  swamps  and  lagoons.  The  highlands 
advance  to  the  sea,  forming  steep  rocky  coasts. 
One  promontory,  the  Acroceraunian,  projecting 
in  Cape  Linguetta  far  into  the  sea,  reaches  a 
height  of  6642  feet. 

A  fine  climate  and  a  favourable  soil  would  seem 
to  invite  the  inhabitants  to  agriculture,  but  for 
the  most  part  in  vain.  In  the  north,  little  is 
cultivated  but  maize,  with  some  rice  and  barley, 
in  the  valleys  ;  whilst  the  mountain  terraces  are 
used  as  pastures  for  numerous  herds  of  cattle  and 
sheep.  In  the  south  the  slopes  of  the  lower 
valleys  are  covered  with  olives,  fruit,  and  mul- 
berry trees,  intermixed  with  patches  of  vines  and 
maize,  while  the  densely  wooded  mountain-ridges 
furnish  valuable  supplies  of  timber.  The  plateau 
of  Janina  yields  abundance  of  grain  ;  and  in  the 
valleys  opening  to  the  south,  the  finer  fruits  are 
produced,  along  with  maize,  rice,  and  wheat. 

Upper  or  Northern  Albania  formed  part  of  the 
Ulyria  of  the  Romans ;  Lower  or  Southern  Al- 
bania corresponds  to  ancient  Epirus.  The  in- 
habitants form  a  peculiar  people,  the  Albanians, 
called  by  the  Turks  Arnauts,  and  by  themselves 
Skipetars.  According  to  Lord  Strangford,  'the 
true  Albanian  part  of  their  language,  after  pre- 
cipitation of  the  foreign  elements,  is  distinctly 
Indo-European,  and  is  more  closely  connected 
wilh  Greek  than  with  any  other  Indo-European 
language  existing  or  recorded  (Letters  on  Philo- 
logical Subjects,  1878).  The  Albanians  are  half- 
civilised  mountaineers,  frank  to  a  friend,  vin- 
dictive to  an  enemy.  They  are  constantly  under 
arms,  and  are  more  devoted  to  robbery  than  to 
cattle-rearing  and  agriculture.  They  live  in  per- 
petual anarchy,  every  village  being  at  war  with 
its  neighbour.  Many  of  them  serve  as  mercen- 
aries in  other  countries,  and  they  form  the  best 
soldiers  of  the  Turkish  army.    At  one  time  the 


ALBANO  19 

Albanians  were  all  Christians;  but  after  the 
death  of  their  last  chief,  the  hero  Scanderbeg, 
in  1467,  and  their  subjugation  by  the  Turks,  a 
large  part  became  Mohammedans.  The  Al- 
banians are  by  most  writers  divided  tribally 
into  Gheghs,  Tosl<s,  Ljaps,  &c.  ;  but  again,  to 
quote  Lord  Strangford,  '  the  true  and  intelligible 
division  is  that  of  religious  denomination.  The 
typical  region  of  the  Mussulmans  is  in  the 
centre ;  tliat  of  the  Latins  is  in  the  northern 
district ;  and  that  of  the  Albanians  in  com- 
munion with  the  Greek  Church,  corresponding 
fairly  to  Epirus,  is  in  the  south,  with  Janina 
for  its  capital."  Of  the  1,400,000  Albanians  of 
the  Ottoman  empire,  it  is  estimated  that 
1,000,000  are  Mohammedans,  280,000  members 
of  the  Greek  Church,  and  120,000  Roman  Cath- 
olics. There  are,  besides,  some  250,000  Albanians 
in  Greece  ;  and  100,000  in  Italy  (Sicily  mostly), 
whither  they  emigrated  towards  the  close  of  the 
15th  century.  By  the  treaty  concluded  then,  in 
1478,  between  the  Turks  and  the  Venetians, 
Albania  became  a  Turkish  province,  which  al- 
most gained  independence  under  Ali  Pasha,  but 
which,  during  the  insurrection  of  Greece  (1821-8), 
returned  to  at  least  nominal  allegiance  to  the 
Porte.  Ten  rebellions  have  since  broken  out- 
one  in  1883. 

See  Von  Hahn's  Albanesische  Studien  (1854), 
and  his  Reise  im  Jalir  1863  (1870);  Herguard's 
Haute  Alhanie  (1858) ;  Kniglit's  Travel  in  Albania 
(1880) ;  and  other  works  cited  in  the  full  biblio- 
graphy of  Meyer's  Albanische  Studien  (1883). 

Alba'no,  a  town  of  Italy,  13  miles  SSE.  of 
Rome,  on  the  declivity  of  the  lava-walls  which 
encompass  Lake  Albano,  and  opposite  the  site 
of  Alba  Longa.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  is 
surrounded  by  the  mansions  of  wealthy  Romans. 
There  are  numerous  remains  of  ancient  buildings. 
Good  wine  is  made  here.     Pop.  8560. 

The  Alban  Lake,  or  Lago  di  Castello,  is  formed 
in  the  basin  of  an  extinct  volcano,  and  has  a  cir- 
cumference of  6  miles,  with  a  depth  of  530  feet. 
Its  surface  is  961  feet  above  the  sea-level.  While 
the  Romans  were  at  war  with  Veii  (390  b.c),  they 
opened  a  tunnel  through  the  lava-wall  which 
bounds  it.  The  tunnel,  which  still  fulfils  its 
ancient  office,  is  a  mile  in  length,  with  a  height 
of  7  feet,  and  a  width  of  4  feet. 

Albany  is  a  division  of  the  eastern  province  of 
Cape  Colony,  in  which  Grahamstown  (q.v.)  stands. 

Albany,  capital  of  the  state  of  New  York,  and 
seat  of  justice  of  Albany  county,  stands  on  the 
west  bank  of  Hudson  River,  142  iniles  N.  of  the 
city  of  New  York.  The  river  is  an  important 
channel  of  commerce,  which  is  further  facilitated 
by  the  Erie  and  Champlain  canals ;  and  six  im- 
portant railway  lines  centre  here.  The  city  has 
a  copious  water-supply,  and  excellent  drainage 
and  sewerage  systems,  and  is  lighted  by  elec- 
tricity and  gas.  Albany  has  a  fine  city  hall,  a 
high  school,  one  large  and  several  small  public 
parks,  a  theatre,  an  opera-house  and  a  music-hall, 
a  celebrated  county  prison  ;  Roman  Catholic  and 
Episcopalian  cathedrals ;  a  noted  state  normal 
school,  a  law  school,  a  medical  college ;  an 
observatory,  a  large  United  States  government 
building,  and  a  very  costly  and  splendid  state 
capitol,  considered  the  finest  building  of  its  class 
in  the  whole  republic.  Three  bridges  and  several 
ferries  cross  the  river  to  the  suburban  towns  of 
East  Albany,  Greenbush,  and  Bath.  Albany  has 
a  large  trade  in  timber,  grain  (especially  barley), 
and  cattle.  Leading  articles  of  manufacture  are 
cast-iron  stoves  and  heating  apparatus,  farming 


ALBERT  NYANZA 

implements,  boots  and  shoes,  bricks,  wagons, 
clothing,  flour,  stoves,  castings  and  hollow-ware, 
furniture,  ales  and  beer,  malt,  tobacco,  cigars, 
musical  instruments,  and  stationers'  goods.  The 
winter  climate  of  An)any  is  severe  for  its  latitude. 
The  extensive  cattle-markets  are  situated  at  West 
Albany.  Near  the  site  of  Albany  the  Dutch 
founded  a  fur-trading  station  in  1614.  The  Dutch 
colony  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in  1664,  and 
the  town  took  its  present  name  in  honour  of  the 
Duke  of  York  and  Albany,  afterwards  James  II. 
of  England,  who  received  a  grant  of  the  colony. 
In  1686  a  city  charter  was  granted  to  Albany, 
which  is  thus  the  oldest  chartered  city  in  the 
United  States.  In  1807  Albany  became  the 
capital  of  the  state.  Till  the  19th-century  period 
the  city  had  many  of  the  quaint  characteristics 
of  a  Dutch  town.  Pop.  (1800)  5349  ;  (1830)  24,209 ; 
(1860)  62,367  ;  (1890)  94,923;  (1900)  94,151. 

Albany,  in  Western  Australia,  is  on  King 
George's  Sound,  256  miles  SSE.  of  Perth,  by  a 
line  of  railway  projected  in  1885.  It  is  a  place 
of  call  for  P.  &  0.  steamers.     Pop.  3665. 

Albay,  a  town  in  the  south  end  of  the  Philip, 
pine  island  of  Luzon,  2  miles  from  the  Bay  of 
Albay ;  pop.  13,000. 

Albemarle  Sound,  a  shallowish  inlet  in  the 
north  coast  of  North  Carolina,  U.S.,  running  60 
miles  inland,  with  a  breadth  of  4  to  15  miles. 

Alberta,  from  1882  one  of  the  four  provisional 
districts  of  the  Nortli-west  Territory  of  Canada, 
made  a  province  of  tlie  Dominion  in  February 
1905.  It  includes,  besides  the  former  district, 
about  oiie-liaif  of  the  former  district  of  Atha- 
basca and  small  parts  of  Saskatchewan  and 
Assiniboia.  The  area  is  275,000  sq.  m.  The  SW. 
portion  of  tlie  province  contains  the  great  cattle- 
raiiclies  of  Canada,  and  has  good  grass  and  water. 
Fort  MacLeod  and  Calgary,  both  thriving  towns, 
are  the  two  great  centres  for  tlie  ranchmen. 
The  latter  stands  in  a  valley  between  the  Bow 
and  Elbow  rivers,  and  is  the  trading  centre  for  a 
large  district.  Coal  is  abundant  on  tlie  Bow  and 
Belly  rivers  ;  timber  is  plentiful  ;  there  are  also 
petroleum  deposits,  and  the  Rocky  Mountains 
and  their  foot-hills  are  rich  in  minerals.  The 
capital  is  Edmonton.     Pop.  estimated  at  250,000. 

Albert  Lea,  a  post-village  in  Freeborn  county, 
Minnesota,  on  a  lake  of  the  same  name,  100  miles 
S.  of  St  Paul.  It  contains  flour-mills,  grain  ele- 
vators, and  machine-shops.  Three  railways  centre 
here.     Pop.  1966. 

Albert-Edward  Nyanza  (Muta  Nzige,  South- 
ern Luta  Nzige),  a  lake  of  Equatorial  Africa,  dis- 
covered by  Stanley  in  1876,  and  again  visited  by 
him  in  1889.  It  occupies  the  southern  end  of  a 
vast  natural  depression,  of  which  the  Albert 
Nyanza  fills  the  northern  extremity ;  is  due 
south  of  the  mountain  mass  of  Ruwenzori ;  and  is 
surrounded  by  wide  grassy  plains,  over  which  it 
once  seems  to  have  extended.  It  is  3307  feet 
above  sea-level ;  and  beyond  the  depression  in 
which  it  lies  is  a  tableland  from  5500  to  6500  feet 
high.  The  water  of  the  lake  flows  into  the  Albert 
Nyanza  by  the  Semliki  River. 

Albert  Nyanza  (Mwutan  Nzige,  Luta  Nzige), 
a  large  lake  of  East  Central  Africa,  is  situated 
in  a  deep  rock-basin,  80  miles  NW.  of  the 
Victoria  Nyanza.  It  is  of  an  oblong  shape,  100 
miles  long  from  N.  to  S.,  and  25  broad.  On 
the  E.  it  is  fringed  by  precipitous  cliffs,  with 
isolated  peaks  rising  5000  feet  above  it.  The 
lake  itself  lies  2720  feet  above  the  sea,  and  1470 
feet  below  the  general  level  of  the  country ;  its 


ALBERT  RIVER 


20 


ALDERNEY 


water  is  fresh  and  SAveet,  and  it  is  of  great  depth 
towards  the  centre.  The  N.  and  W.  shores  of 
the  lake  are  bordered  by  the  Blue  Mountains, 
nearly  10,000  feet  in  height.  The  existence  of 
this  vast  lake  first  became  known  to  Europeans 
through  Speke  and  Grant  in  1862 ;  in  1864  Sir 
Samuel  Baker  was  the  first  European  to  visit 
it,  and  named  it  after  the  Prince  Consort.  In 
1887  Emin  Pasha  recorded  his  conviction  that  the 
western  part  of  the  lake  was  filling  up.  It  is  a 
great  reservoir  or  backwater  of  the  Nile.  The 
Somerset-Nile  runs  into  its  north-east  corner,  and 
the  Nile  issues  out  of  its  north-west  corner. 

Albert  River,  North  Queensland,  traverses 
a  grassy  plain,  and  flows  200  miles  to  the  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria,  below  Burketown.  It  is  connected 
by  a  cross  branch  with  another  nearly  parallel 
stream,  the  Gregory. 

Albi,  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of  Tarn,  is 
built  on  a  height  near  the  Tarn,  a  tributary  of 
the  Garonne,  42  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Toulouse. 
It  is  very  old,  and  suffered  greatly  during  the 
persecutions  of  the  Albigenses,  who  took  their 
name  from  it.  Tlie  chief  buildings  are  the  cathe- 
dral (1282-1512),  the  old  fortress,  and  the  arch- 
bishop's palace.    Pop.  15,300. 

Albion,  a  town  of  Michigan,  U.S.,  on  the  Kala- 
mazoo River,  96  miles  W.  of  Detroit.  It  is  the 
seat  of  a  Methodist  college,  with  over  300 
students.     Pop.  4716. 

Albuera  (Alhooai'ra),  in  the  Spanish  province 
of  Estremadura,  a  hamlet,  famous  for  Beresford's 
defeat  of  the  French,  May  16,  1811. 

Albufera  (Alboofai'rd),  a  Spanish  lake  10  miles 
long,  close  to  the  sea  and  connected  by  canal 
(7  miles)  with  Valencia. 

Al'bula,  a  pass  (7595  feet ;  J  mile  long)  and  a 
mountain-stream  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Grisons. 

Albuiiol,  a  small  town  of  Spain,  40  miles  SE. 
of  Granada.     Pop.  8945. 

Albuquerque  (Albookerlcay),  a  town  of  Spain, 
24  miles  N.  of  Badajoz,  near  the  Portuguese 
frontier.     Pop.  7400. 

Al'bury  (or  '  Federal  City '),  on  the  New  South 
Wales  bank  of  the  Murray  River,  at  the  head  of 
its  navigation,  and  190  miles  NE.  of  Melbourne 
by  rail.     Pop.  5850. 

Alcala'  de  Guadaira,  a  town  of  Spain,  9  miles 
E.  by  S.  from  Seville  by  rail,  celebrated  for  pro- 
ducing the  finest  bread  in  Spain.     Pop.  8991. 

Alcala'  de  Honares,  a  town  in  Spain,  Cer- 
vantes's  birthplace,  on  the  Henares,  21  miles  E. 
of  Madrid  by  rail.  Its  university,  founded  by 
Cardinal  Ximenes  in  1510,  enjoyed  a  European 
fame,  but  was  removed  to  Madrid  in  1836,  and 
the  town  is  now  not  a  shadow  of  its  former  self. 
Here  was  printed  in  1517  the  great  Complutensian 
Bible,  a  monument  of  the  piety  and  learning  of 
the  great  cardinal.  The  chief  buildings  are  the 
Colegio  de  San  Ildefonso,  the  seat  of  the  ancient 
university ;  its  chapel  containing  the  founder's 
tomb  ;  the  archbishop's  palace  ;  the  cathedral ; 
and  the  church  of  Santa  Maria,  in  which,  in  1547, 
Cervantes  was  baptised.  Pop.  14,974.  The  Com- 
•plntum  of  the  Romans,  the  town  owes  its  modern 
name  to  the  Moors,  under  whom  it  was  Al-Kalat, 
'the  castle.' 

Alcala'  la  Re'al  ('  the  royal  castle '),  a  city  of 
Andalusia,  Spain,  in  the  province  of  Jaen,  26 
miles  NW.  of  Granada.  Its  strong  fortress  was 
taken  in  1340  from  the  Moors  by  Alfonso  XI.  in 
person,  whence  the  name  Ileal.     Pop.  15,977. 

Arcamo,  a  quaint  old  town  of  Sicily,  52  miles 
SW.  of  Palermo  by  rail.    Originally  founded  by 


the  Saracens  on  Monte  Bonlfato  (2713  feet),  it 
long  retained  a  Moslem  population,  who  were 
driven  out  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  in  1233, 
wlien  the  new  town  was  built  at  the  foot  of  the 
hill.     Pop.  51,697. 

Alcaniz',  a  town  of  Aragon,  Spain,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Teruel,  63  miles  SE.  of  Saragossa,  on 
the  Guadalope,  with  a  magnificent  collegiate 
church ;  pop.  7673. 

Alcan'tara  (Arabic,  '  the  bridge '),  an  old  Span- 
ish town  in  Estremadura,  on  a  rocky  height  above 
tlie  Tagus,  near  the  Portuguese  frontier.  Tlie 
six-arched  bridge,  670  feet  long  and  210  high, 
from  which  it  takes  its  name,  was  built  under 
Trajan,  105  a.d.  It  has  twice  been  partially 
blown  up,  but  the  larger  part  is  still  intact. 
Pop.  3414. 

Alcan'ta,ra,  a  seaport  of  Brazil, in  the  province 
of  Maranhao,  on  the  Bay  of  St  Marcos ;  pop.  10,000. 

Alcaraz,  a  town  of  La  Mancha,  Spain,  36  miles 
WSW.  of  Albacete  ;  pop.  4672. 

Alcaude'te,  a  town  of  Spain,  22  miles  SW.  of 
Jaen.     Pop.  9191. 

Alcazar  al-keblr,  a  city  of  Morocco,  80  miles 
NW.  of  Fez.  Here,  in  1578,  Sebastian,  king  of 
Portugal,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  the  Moors. 
Pop.  9000. 

Alcazar  de  San  Juan,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the 
province  of  Ciudad  Real,  92  miles  SSE.  of  Madrid 
by  rail.     Pop.  9512. 

Alcester,  a  Warwickshire  market-town,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Alne  and  Arrow,  15  miles  WSW. 
of  Warwick.    Pop.  2406. 

Alci'ra,  a  town  of  Spain,  22  miles  SSW.  of 
Valencia  by  rail,  on  an  island  in  the  river  Xucar  ; 
pop.  18,469. 

Alcoy,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  river  Alcoy,  15 
miles  N.  of  Alicante,  manufacturing  paper,  especi- 
ally cigarette-paper,  sugar-plums,  and  coarse 
woollen  cloths  ;  pop.  32,520. 

Aldborougli,  a  decayed  town,  now  a  mere 
village,  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the 
river  Ure  and  on  Watling  Street,  7^  miles  SE.  of 
Ripon.  Till  1832  it  sent  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment. Extensive  remains  of  the  Roman  town  of 
Isurium  have  been  found  here.  Pop.  of  town- 
ship, 507. 

Aldeburgh,  a  small  seaport  and  watering-place 
of  Suffolk,  29  miles  NE.  of  Ipswich  by  rail.  It 
was  disfranchised  in  1832  ;  but  in  1885  it  received 
a  new  municipal  charter.  It  has  a  quaint,  half- 
timbered  Moot  Hall ;  and  in  the  church  is  a  bust 
of  the  poet  Crabbe,  who  was  a  native.    Pop.  2159. 

Alderney  (Fr.  Aurigny),  a  British  island  in  the 
English  Channel,  55  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Portland 
Bill,  15  NE.  of  Guernsey,  31  N.  of  Jersey,  and 
10  W.  of  Cape  la  Hogue.  The  Race  of  Alderney, 
or  strait  that  separates  it  from  the  coast  of  Nor- 
mandy, is  very  dangerous  in  stormy  weather. 
The  island  is  4|  miles  by  IJ  mile  ;  area,  3  sq.  m. 
The  highest  point  is  281  feet  above  sea-level.  To 
the  S.  the  coast  is  bold  and  lofty ;  to  the  N.  it 
descends,  forming  numerous  small  bays,  one  of 
which  has  been  formed  into  a  fine,  though  un- 
completed, harbour,  with  a  granite  breakwater, 
at  a  cost,  including  strong  fortifications,  of  more 
than  £1,250,000.  The  Caskets  are  a  small  cluster 
of  dangerous  rocks,  6|  miles  to  the  W.,  on  which 
are  three  lighthouses.  The  soil  in  the  centre  of 
the  island  is  highly  productive ;  the  Alderney 
cattle  are  a  small  but  handsome  breed.  Half 
the  inhabitants,  originally  French,  now  speak 
English,  and  all  understand  it.    Protestantism 


ALDERSHOT  CAWIP 

has  prevailed  here  since  the  Reformation.  Alder- 
ney  is  a  dependency  of  Guernsey,  and  subject  to 
the  British  crown.  The  'town'  of  St  Anne  is 
situated  in  a  picturesque  valley  near  the  centre 
of  the  island.  It  has  an  Albert  memorial  in  the 
shape  of  a  Gothic  arch,  and  a  cruciform  church 
(1850)  in  the  Early  English  style,  with  a  tower 
104  feet  high.  Pop.  of  island  (1841)  1038  ;  (1861) 
4932  ;  (1881)  2048  ;  (1891)  1857  ;  (1901)  2062.  See 
Channel  Islands. 

Aldershot  Camp,  a  permanent  cainp  of  exer- 
cise on  the  confines  of  Hampshire,  Surrey,  and 
Berkshire,  35  miles  SW.  of  London,  and  18^-  S.  of 
Windsor.  It  was  established  in  1854-55  during  the 
Crimean  war,  to  provide  for  practical  instruction 
in  tactics,  outpost  duties,  and  other  exercises 
requiring  a  wide  tract  of  country  and  large  bodies 
of  troops,  &c.  From  its  situation  on  the  Bagshot 
Sands  it  is  extremely  healthy ;  the  old  wooden  huts 
have  been  superseded  by  brick  huts  and  barracks. 
The  Basingstoke  Canal,  running  directly  across 
the  Heath,  has  occasioned  a  division  into  North 
Camp  and  South  Camp.  There  are  usually  from 
10,000  to  15,000  troops  of  all  arms  at  the  camp  ; 
and  a  considerable  town  has  sprung  up  near  it, 
with  a  population  of  over  31,000,  as  against  875 
in  Aldershot  parish  in  1S51. 

Aldwinkle  All  Saints,  a  Northamptonshire 
parish,  on  the  Nen,  3  miles  NNE.  of  Thrapston. 
l)ryden  was  a  native,  as  Avas  Fuller  of  the  adjoin- 
ing parish  of  Aldwinkle  St  Peter. 

Aldworth.    See  Haslemere. 

Ale,  a  Roxburghshire  stream,  flowing  24  miles 
to  the  Teviot. 

Alemtejo  {AlenHal'zho),  the  largest  (9381  sq. 
m.)  but  most  sparsely  peopled  of  the  iirovinces 
of  Portugal.  The  chief  towns  are  Evora  (the 
capital),  Elvas,  and  Portalegre.    Pop.  410,150. 

Alengon  {AlovPsonP),  chief  town  of  the  dep.  of 
Orne,  on  the  Sarthe,  68  miles  SSE.  of  Caen. 
The  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  (1553-1617)  is  a 
Gothic  edifice,  with  good  stained  glass.  Woollens 
and  linens,  embroidered  fabrics,  straw-hats,  lace- 
work,  artificial  flowers,  hosiery,  ifec.  are  made ; 
the  manufacture  of  the  faiTious  Alencjon  point- 
lace  {point  d' Ale  neon)  employs  barely  a  tenth 
part  of  the  20,000  hands  that  once  engaged  in  it. 
The  cutting  of  the  so-called  Alengon  diamonds 
(quartz-crystals)  is  an  industry  which  has  also 
greatly  declined.  Pop.  (1872)  15,080;  (1891) 
17,141;  (1001)14,500. 

Aleppo  (Italianised  form  of  Haleb),  a  town  in 
tlie  north  of  Syria,  capital  of  a  Turkish  province 
between  the  Orontes  and  the  Euphrates,  in  a 
fruitful  valley  watered  by  the  Kuweik.  It  stands 
in  a  large  hollow,  surrounded  by  rocky  hills  of 
limestone,  and  beyond  is  mere  desert.  The  fruit- 
ful gardens,  celebrated  for  their  excellent  plan- 
tations of  pistachios,  are  the  sole  contrast  to 
tlie  desolation  which  environs  the  city,  whose 
numberless  cupolas  and  minarets,  clean,  well- 
paved  streets,  and  stately  houses,  make  it  even 
yet  one  of  the  most  beautiful  in  the  East.  Till 
the  discovery  of  the  sea-route  to  India,  it  was  a 
principal  emporium  of  trade  between  Europe  and 
Asia.  It  supplied  a  great  part  of  the  East  with 
fabrics  of  silk,  cotton,  and  wool,  and  gold  and 
silver  stufls  ;  but  in  1S22  an  eartliquake  swallowed 
up  two-thirds  of  the  houses.  The  plague  of  1827, 
the  cholera  of  1832,  and  the  oppression  of  the 
Egyptian  government,  all  but  completed  its  de- 
struction. It  has  only  partially  recovered  from 
its  misfortunes,  but  is  still  the  principal  em- 
porium of  the  inland  commerce  of  Northern  Syria. 


21  ALEXANDRIA 

Its  port  is  Scanderoon.  Aleppo  has  a  large  trade 
in  cotton  and  silk  goods,  skins,  tobacco,  wine, 
and  oil ;  and  manufactures  much-admired  cloth 
(of  silk,  cotton,  and  wool),  carpets,  cloaks,  and 
soap.  English  goods  are  largely  imported.  The 
trade  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  the  native  Chris- 
tians (Greeks  and  Armenians),  who  may  number 
20,000,  and  have  superseded  the  European  houses 
formerly  here.  The  Jews,  5000  in  number,  are  a 
very  wealthy  community.  Aleppo  is  a  telegraph 
station  on  the  Indo-European  line.    Pop.  120,000. 

Aleshki,  a  Russian  town  in  the  government  of 
Taurida,  on  the  Dnieper  ;  pop.  8915. 

Alessandria,  the  capital  of  a  province  of  North- 
ern Italy,  in  a  inarshy  country  near  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Bormida  and  Tanaro,  58  miles  ESE. 
of  Turin,  It  was  built  in  1168  by  the  inhabitants 
of  Cremona,  Milan,  and  Placentia,  as  a  bulwark 
against  the  Emperor  Frederick  I.,  and  was  after- 
wards called  Alessandria  in  honour  of  Pope  Alex- 
ander III.  In  1800,  Bonaparte  here  concluded 
an  armistice.  It  was  the  principal  stronghold  of 
the  Piedmontese  during  the  insurrection  of  1848- 
49.  The  citadel  is  still  one  of  the  strongest 
fortresses  in  Italy,  and  in  war  the  whole  sur- 
rounding country  can  be  inundated.  The  richly 
decorated  cathedral  was  rebuilt  in  1823.  Pop. 
70,761,  who  carry  on  a  trade  in  linens,  woollens, 
silk  fabrics,  stockings,  and  wax-candles.  Two 
great  fairs  are  held  here  annually. 

Aletsch,  the  largest  glacier  (12^  miles  long)  in 
Europe,  sweeps  round  the  southern  side  of  the 
Jungfrau.  To  the  NW.  lies  the  Aletschhorn 
(13,773  feet). 

Aleutian  Islands,  a  chain  of  about  150  islands, 
in  several  groups,  extending  Avestward  from  the 
American  peninsula  of  Aliaska,  and  forming  an 
insular  continuation  of  that  peninsula  towards 
the  Asiatic  peninsula  of  Kamchatka.  These 
islands  are  chiefly  included  in  the  United  States 
territory  of  Alaska,  and  fall  into  five  groups— 
the  Fox,  Andreanov,  Rat  (Kreesi),  Blizhni,  and 
Komandorski  Islands.  The  chain  is  apparently  a 
continuation  of  the  main  Alaskan  range  of  moun- 
tains, and  contains  volcanic  peaks  from  4000  to 
8000  feet  high.  The  islands  abound  in  springs, 
and  are  overrun  with  foxes,  dogs,  and  reindeer, 
while  the  coasts  swarm  with  fish,  seals,  and 
otters.  •  The  2000  inhabitants,  of  mixed  descent, 
from  the  aboriginal  Eskimos  and  Russian  settlers, 
are  luuiters  and  fishers,  and  trade  in  furs  and  fish. 
See  works  cited  at  Alaska. 

Alexandra  Park,  a  place  of  public  recreation 
for  northern  London,  6  miles  N.  of  Charing  Cross. 
It  was  opened  in  1863,  and  its  present  'palace' 
dates  froni  1873,  its  predecessor  having  been 
burnt  two  years  before. 

Alexandretta.    See  Scanderoon. 

Alexandria  was  founded  by  Alexander  the 
Great  in  332  b.c.  It  was  situated  originally  on 
the  low  tract  of  land  which  separates  the  lake 
Mareotis  from  the  Mediterranean,  14  miles  west 
of  the  Canopic  mouth  of  the  Nile.  In  the  Medi- 
terranean, off  the  city,  lay  an  island,  on  whose 
NE.  point  stood  tlie  famous  lighthouse,  the 
Pharos,  built  in  the  3d  century  b.c,  and  said 
to  have  been  400  feet  high.  The  island  was  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  a  mole,  thus  form- 
ing the  two  harbours.  Alexandria  had  reached 
its  greatest  splendour  Avhen,  on  the  death  of 
Cleopatra,  the  last  of  the  Ptolemies,  in  30  b.c. 
it  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Romans.  Its 
population  may  have  numbered  300,000  free 
citizens,  and   a  larger  number  of   slaves.    Its 


ALEXANDRIA 


ALGERIA 


glory  was  long  unaffected,  and  it  was  the  em- 
porium of  the  world's  commerce,  especially  for 
corn.  In  the  reign  of  Caracalla,  however,  it 
suffered  severely  ;  and  the  rise  of  Constantinople 
promoted  the  decay  of  Alexandria.  Christianity 
was  introduced,  according  to  tradition,  by  St 
Mark.  The  strife  between  Christianity  and 
heathenism — powerfully  described  in  Kingsley's 
Hypatia — gave  rise  to  bloody  contests  in  Alex- 
andria. The  Serapeuin,  the  last  seat  of  heathen 
theology  and  learning,  was  stormed  by  the 
Christians  in  389  a.d.,  and  converted  into  a 
Cliristian  church.  Alexandria  was  a  chief  seat 
of  Christian  theology  till  it  was  taken  by  the 
Arabs  in  641.  The  choice  of  Cairo  as  capital  of 
the  Egyptian  califs  hastened  the  now  rapid  decay 
of  the  city  ;  the  discovery  of  America,  and  of  the 
passage  to  India  by  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  very 
much  diminished  its  trade ;  and  when,  in  1517, 
the  Turks  took  the  place,  the  remains  of  its 
former  splendour  wholly  vanished.  In  1778 
Alexandria  contained  no  more  than  6000  inhab- 
itants. Under  Mehemet  Ali,  however,  the  tide 
turned,  and  the  city  recovered  rapidly.  It  is 
now  again  one  of  the  most  important  commercial 
places  on  the  Mediterranean.  The  Suez  Canal 
diverted  part  of  its  trade ;  but  this  was  more 
than  compensated  by  the  general  impetus  given 
to  Egyptian  prosperity.  In  1882,  during  the 
rising  of  Arabi  Pasha,  an  English  fleet,  in  the 
interests  of  the  khedive,  bombarded  the  forts  of 
Alexandria  for  over  ten  hours,  July  11.  On  the 
two  following  days  the  town  was  sacked  and 
plundered  by  the  soldiery  and  populace,  and 
great  part  of  it  destroyed  by  fire. 

The  present  city  (called  Skanderi'eh  by  the 
Arabs)  is  chiefly  built  on  the  mole,  which  has 
been  increased  by  alluvial  deposits  till  it  has 
become  a  broad  neck  of  land  between  the  two 
harbours.  The  city  is  a  strange  mixture  of  East 
and  West,  old  and  new.  The  unpaved  native 
town  contains  poor  houses  and  wretched  huts. 
The  ever-increasing  Prankish  quarters  have  quite 
a  well-lit  European  appearance,  and  swarm  with 
caf6s,  shops,  theatres,  and  the  like.  The  castle 
stands  near  the  old  Pharos,  and  the  handsome 
new  lighthouse  has  a  revolving  light,  visible  at 
a  distance  of  20  miles.  Recent  improvements, 
undertaken  at  a  cost  of  £2,000,000,  were  to  con- 
vert the  old  harbour— the  western  one— into  one 
of  the  best  and  most  spacious  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean. There  is  railway  communication  with 
Cairo  and  Suez  ;  the  Mahmoudieh  Canal  connects 
Alexandria  Avith  the  Nile.  The  recent  growth 
of  the  city  has  been  extraordinary.  Pop.  (1825) 
16.000;  (1840)  60,000;  (1882)  227,064;  (1900) 
320,000,  of  whom  50,000  were  foreigners,  many 
Greeks,  Italians,  and  French.  The  value  of  ex- 
ports (cotton,  cotton  seed,  lentils,  wheat,  oil  seed, 
hemp,  drugs)  varied  in  1891-1901  from  £10,000,000 
to  £15,000,000  (two-thirds  going  to  Britain) ;  of 
imports,  from  £5,000,000  to  £13,000,000  (half  from 
Britain).  Of  the  few  remaining  objects  of  an- 
tiquity the  most  prominent  is  Pompey's  Pillar,  as 
it  is  erroneously  called.  Of  the  so-called  Cleo- 
patra's Needles — two  obelisks  of  the  16th  century 
B.C.  which  long  stood  here — one  was  brought  to 
England  and  erected  on  the  Thames  Embank- 
ment, 1878 ;  and  the  other,  presented  by  the 
khedive  to  the  United  States,  was  set  up  at  New 
York  in  1881. 

Alexandria,  a  town  of  Dumbartonshire,  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Leven,  opposite  Bonhill, 
8  miles  N.  of  Dumbarton.  It  has  grown  from  a 
mere  '  clachan '  to  a  thriving  town,  such  gro-wth 
being  due  to  the  neighbouring  cotton-printing, 


bleaching,  and  Turkey-red  dye-works,  established 
since  1768.     Pop.  (1841)  3039  ;  (1891)  7796. 

Alexandria,  a  port  of  entry  on  the  right  or 
Virginian  bank  of  the  Potomac,  U.S.,  7  miles 
below  Washington  (on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
river),  and  100  from  the  entrance  of  the  Poto- 
mac into  Chesapeake  Bay,  whence  the  largest 
vessels  may  reach  the  port.  There  are  cotton 
manufactures  here.  Pop.  (1870)  13,570;  (1890) 
14,339;  (1900)14,528. 

Alexandropol  (formerly  Gumri),  the  largest 
town  in  the  Erivan  district  of  Russian  Armenia, 
with  a  stronghold  commanding  the  head-waters 
of  the  Euphrates.  The  silk  trade  is  actively 
carried  on.    Pop.  30,477. 

Alexandrov,  a  town  in  the  Russian  govern- 
ment of  Vladimir,  58  miles  NB.  of  Moscow. 
Pop.  7200. 

Alexandrovsk,  a  Russian  town  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Ekateriiioslav,  on  the  Dnieper.  Pop. 
16,500.— (2)  A  port  in  East  Siberia,  opposite 
Saglialien. — (3)  A  town  in  the  province  of  the  Don, 
15  miles  NNE.  of  Novo-Tclierkask.     Pop.  16,250. 

Alexinatz,  a  town  of  Servia,  on  the  Moravitza, 
134  miles  SSE.  of  Belgrade  by  rail.     Pop.  5108. 

Alford,  (1)  a  market-town  of  Lincolnshire,  23 
miles  NNE.  of  Boston  ;  pop.  of  parish,  2843. — 
(2)  A  village  of  Aberdeenshire,  30  miles  NW.  of 
Aberdeen.  Here  Montrose  defeated  the  Cove- 
nanters under  Baillie,  2d  July  1645.     Pop.  635. 

Alfoxton  Park,  in  Somerset,  12  miles  WNW. 
of  Bridgwater,  was  Wordsworth's  home  in  1797-98. 

Alfreton,  a  market-town  of  Derby.shire,  14 
miles  NNE.  of  Derby  by  rail.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  hats,  stockings,  and  brown  earthenware, 
with  neighbouring  collieries  and  ironworks. 
Pop.  of  parish,  17,355. 

Algarve,  the  smallest  and  most  southerly  of 
the  provinces  of  Portugal.  The  name  is  Arabic, 
and  means  'a  land  lying  to  the  west.'  It  was  a 
Moorish  province  till  1253.  Area,  1873  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  254,037.  The  northern  part  of  the  province 
is  occupied  by  a  range  of  barren  mountains  of 
4000  feet  high,  terminating  in  Cape  St  Vincent. 
The  chief  town  is  Faro. 

Algeci'ras,  or  Aloeziras,  a  town  of  Spain,  on 
the  Bay  of  Gibraltar,  5  miles  by  water  (9  by  road) 
W.  of  Gibraltar.  Its  harbour  is  bad,  but  it 
possesses  a  good  dock ;  and  its  oranges  are 
famous,  as  well  as  its  bull-fights.  It  was  the 
first  town  in  Spain  taken  by  the  Moors  (711); 
in  1344  it  was  retaken  by  Alfonso  XI.  of  Castile, 
after  a  twenty  months'  siege.  He  destroyed  the 
old  Moorish  town  ;  the  modern  one  was  built  by 
Charles  III.  in  1760.     Pop.  12,924. 

Algeria  (Fr.  Algerie),  a  country  on  the  north 
coast  of  Africa,  which  has  since  1830  been  a 
French  possession,  and  is  now  regarded  as  an 
outlying  part  of  France  rather  than  as  a  colony. 
It  lies  between  Morocco  and  Tunis,  and  is  usually 
defined  as  extending  from  the  Mediterranean  to 
about  the  30th  parallel  of  N.  lat.  on  the  south.  But 
the  southern  boundary,  separating  the  Algerian 
Sahara  from  the  rest  of  French  Sahara  (which 
now  extends  southwards  to  a  line  drawn  west 
froni  Lake  Chad  to  the  Niger),  is  very  arbitrary. 
The  total  area,  with  the  northern  or  Algerian 
Sahara,  is  about  255,000  sq.  m.,  or  more  than 
twice  the  size  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland. 
From  the  coast  inwards  Algeria  is  marked  off 
into  three  distinct  regions :  in  the  north,  the 
TeZi— mountainous,  cultivated  land,  with  fruit- 
ful valleys  ;  in  the  middle,  the  region  of  Steppea 


ALGERIA 


ALHAMA 


— mountainous  tableland,  producing  much  grass 
and  other  fodder  for  cattle  after  the  rains,  and 
traversed  from  west  to  east  by  a  string  of  brack- 
ish lakes  or  marshes,  called  Shotts;  while  farther 
south  is  the  Algerian  Sahara,  with  oases.  In  the 
northern  part  of  the  Tell  is  a  series  of  mountain- 
chains,  called  by  tlie  Frencli  the  Lesser  Atlas  or 
Coast  Mountains ;  while  the  south  limit  is  a 
parallel  chain,  the  Middle  Atlas.  The  Tell,  the 
most  fertile  and  much  the  most  populous  section 
of  Algeria,  occupies  an  area  altogether  of  about 
54,000  sq.  m.  The  Algerian  Sahara  consists  partly 
of  sandy  dunes,  partly  of  country  covered  after 
rain  with  herbage ;  and  there  are  oases  round 
the  wells. 

The  more  considerable  streams  of  Algeria  rise 
in  the  middle  region,  and  have  therefore  to  seek 
their  outlet  in  the  Mediterranean,  through  passes 
in  the  middle  and  coast  ranges.  Though  swollen 
in  the  winter,  they  shrink  in  the  summer  to  a 
thread,  or  even  quite  out  of  sight.  Not  one  of 
them  is  navigable,  but  they  are  used  for  purposes 
of  irrigation.  The  Shelif  is  the  longest  and 
largest. 

The  climate  of  Algeria  is  distinguished  into 
only  three  seasons  :  winter,  from  November  to 
February;  spring,  from  March  to  June  ;  summer, 
from  July  to  October.  The  planting  of  forests, 
drainage,  and  irrigation,  by  the  French,  have 
effected  great  improvements.  In  the  Sahara,  by 
the  sinking  of  artesian  wells,  desert  tracts  have 
been  converted  into  cultivated  land,  and  in  ten 
years  the  inhabitants  of  the  oases  of  the  northern 
Sahara  increased  from  6600  to  13,000,  while  about 
517,000  palms  and  90,000  fruit-trees  are  now 
counted.  Algeria  is  coming  to  the  front  as  a 
wheat-growing  country.  Fruits  and  vegetables 
are  grown  for  the  markets  in  France,  England, 
and  Germany.  The  cultivation  of  the  grape,  silk, 
and  tobacco  is  rapidly  extending.  Immense  tracts 
of  land,  suitable  for  no  other  cultivation,  have 
been  successfully  planted  with  vines.  The  forest 
vegetation  of  Algeria  is  extremely  rich  by  nature, 
comprising  pine,  oak,  cedar,  pistachio,  mastic, 
carob,  olive,  myrtle.  Special  exports  are  cork 
and  halfa  or  esparto  grass.  Algeria  has  a  very 
considerable  wealth  of  metals,  iron  and  copper 
being  abundant,  though  little  worked.  Over  100 
mineral  springs  are  counted  in  Algeria. 

Algeria  is  divided  into  three  departments,  each 
subdivided  into  a  civil  and  a  military  territory  : 

Area  in  sq.  iii.  Pop.  1901. 

Algiers  department 65,930  1,641.210 

Gran 44,620  1,107,354 

Constantiue 73.930  1,990,992 

184,480  4,'739,556 

Algerian  Sahara 193,000  62,000 

Total 377.480  4,801,556 

The  number  of  Europeans,  in  1S30  only  600,  in 
1S40,  27,000,  in  18S1,  400,000,  was  in  1901  about 
500,000,  of  whom  293,000  were  French  by  origin 
or  naturalisation,  and  150,000  Spanish,  and  57,667 
naturalised  Jews,  besides  Italians,  Germans,  &c. 
The  native  population,  partly  Arabs  (including 
Bedouins),  partly  Berbers  or  Kabyles  ;  the  Moors 
of  the  towns  being  of  mixed  descent  from  tliese 
two  stocks.  In  1904  about  1900  English  miles  of 
railway  were  open  for  traffic,  and  the  telegraph 
had  over  6300  miles  of  line. 

The  trade  of  Algeria  shows  a  constant  increase. 
Since  the  French  occupation,  the  imports  have 
increased  fifty,  and  the  exports  one  hundred- 
fold. The  imports,  three-fourths  of  Avhich  come 
from  France,  l)ave  varied  of  late  years  from 
£8,800,000  to  £13,000,000.     The   exports,   two- 


thirds  of  which  go  to  France,  varied  from 
£6,000,000  to  over  £12,000,000.  The  imports  aro 
chiefly  manufactured  cotton,  hemp,  linen,  silk, 
and  woollen  stuffs ;  cloths,  sugar,  hides,  papier, 
liquors,  metals,  building  materials,  &c.  The 
exports  are  cereals,  wool,  raw  hides,  living 
animals,  minerals,  early  fruit,  halfa  and  other 
vegetable  fibres,  cork,  iron,  copper,  and  lead 
ores. 

Part  of  the  present  Algeria  was  anciently 
included  in  Numidia  and  part  in  Mauritania. 
Occupied  and  partially  Romanised  by  the  Romans, 
it  was  overrun  by  the  Vandals  in  the  5th  cen- 
tury. Later  came  the  Arabs,  who  began  about  the 
9th  century  to  establish  Mohammedan  dynasties 
and  states.  Hither  emigrated  many  of  the  Moors 
expelled  from  Spain.  From  the  middle  ages 
downward,  the  Algerian  coast  towns  were  known 
to  Europe  mainly  as  nests  of  pirates.  The  French 
conquered  the  country,  not  without  much  fight- 
ing, in  1830.  From  1834  down  to  1870  Algeria 
was  entirely  under  military  rule.  At  that  date 
a  civil  governor-general,  with  residence  at  Algiers, 
was  substituted ;  the  Sahara  is  still  under  mili- 
tary rule.  The  governor-general  is  assisted  by  a 
council  whose  function  is  purely  consultative. 
The  colonists  send  two  deputies  and  one  senator 
for  each  department  to  the  French  Chambers. 

Alghero  (Algai'ro),  a  seaport  on  the  west  coast 
of  the  island  of  Sardinia,  15  miles  SW.  of  Sassari. 
It  has  a  cathedral.     Pop.  8995. 

Algiers  (Al jeers';  Fr.  Alger;  Ar.  Al-jezair,  'the 
islands '),  the  capital  of  Algeria,  was  built  about 
935  A.D.  by  an  Arab  chief.  It  rises  from  the 
sea-shore  up  the  sides  of  a  precipitous  hill  in 
the  form  of  an  equilateral  triangle.  The  apex 
is  formed  by  the  Kasbah,  the  ancient  fortress  of 
the  deijs,  which  is  500  feet  above  sea-level.  With 
the  exception  of  some  mosques,  the  new  or  low 
town  consists  of  wharfs,  warehouses,  govern- 
ment houses,  squares,  and  streets,  principally 
built  and  inhabited  by  the  French ;  while  the 
old  or  high  town  is  almost  wholly  Moorish. 
The  great  glory  of  the  city  is  the  Boulevard  de 
la  Republique,  with  its  magnificent  terrace,  built 
in  1860-60  by  Sir  Morton  Peto,  at  a  cost  of  eight 
million  francs.  Here  may  be  found  as  motley  a 
crowd  as  anywhere  in  the  world,  denizens  of  all 
nations  —  Arabs,  Moors,  and  Jews;  French, 
Spaniards,  Maltese,  English,  Germans,  and 
Italians.  The  shops,  too,  are  occasionally  very 
good.  The  French  have  at  great  expense  im- 
proved the  port,  which  is  safe  and  spacious  and 
has  a  lighthouse.  It  is  strongly  fortified,  and 
can  contain  40  warships  and  300  trading  vessels. 
The  original  harbour  was  made  in  1525  by  con- 
necting with  the  shore  four  little  islands  (hence 
the  name  of  the  city).  Near  the  great  quays  is 
the  railway  station,  connecting  Algiers  with 
Constantine  and  Oran.  The  town  has  a  Catholic 
cathedral,  a  French  Protestant  church,  an  Eng- 
lish church,  a  synagogue,  a  library,  museum, 
hospitals,  theatres,  and  banks.  There  is  a  great 
trade,  Algiers  being  the  chief  commercial  place 
in  Algeria.  Algiers  has  become  famous  as  a 
winter  residence  for  Europeans  suffering  from 
chest  diseases.  It  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
French  in  1830.  Pop.  (1901)96,550  ;  with  suburbs, 
140,000— not  quite  half  French. 

Algoa  Bay,  a  broad  inlet  at  the  eastern 
extremity  of  the  south  coast  of  Africa,  with  a 
sheltered  anchorage  except  towards  the  south- 
east.    On  it  stands  Port  Elizabeth. 

Alham'a  (Arabic  Al  Hammdm,  'the  bath'),  a 
decayed  town  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  24  miles  8W. 


ALHAMBRA 

of  Granada.  Its  warm  sulphur  baths  are  still 
frequented  by  visitors.  It  was  a  famous  fortress 
of  the  Moors ;  and  there  are  still  remains  of 
Roman  and  Moorish  buildings.  The  town  was 
much  injured  by  a  severe  earthquake  in  the  end 
of  1885.  Pop.  7867.— Alhama  de  Araoon,  8 
miles  SW.  of  Calatayud,  has  famous  mineral 
springs.  Pop.  1500.— Alhama,  13  miles  SW.  of 
Murcia,  is  also  celebrated  for  its  warm  mineral 
waters.     Pop.  835G. 

Alhambra,  a  fortified  suburb  of  Granada, 
which  forms  a  sort  of  acropolis  to  the  city,  and 
in  which  stand  the  exquisite  remains  of  the 
palace  of  the  ancient  Moorish  kings  of  Granada. 
The  name  is  a  corruption  of  the  Arabic  Kal  'at  al 
hamra,  'the  red  castle.'  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
strong  wall,  more  than  a  mile  in  circuit,  and 
studded  with  towers.  One  of  them  contains  the 
famous  Hall  of  the  Ambassadors.  The  remains  of 
the  Moorish  palace  are  called  by  the  Spaniards 
the  Casa  Real.  It  was  begun  by  Ibn-1-ahmar 
(1248),  and  completed  by  his  grandson,  Moham- 
med III.,  about  1314.  The  portions  still  stand- 
ing are  ranged  round  two  oblong  courts,  one 
called  the  Court  of  the  Fishpond,  the  other  the 
Court  of  the  Lions.  They  consist  of  porticos, 
pillared  halls,  cool  chambers,  small  gardens, 
fountains,  mosaic  pavements,  &c.  In  the  most 
beautiful  room  in  the  palace,  the  Hall  of  the 
Abencerrages,  to  the  beauty  of  colour  and  of 
ornamentation  is  added  an  arcade  resting  on 
light  and  graceful  marble  arches  that  run  round 
the  place.  A  great  part  of  the  ancient  palace 
was  removed  to  make  way  for  the  palace  begun 
by  Charles  V.,  but  never  finished.  Since  then 
it  has  suffered  from  the  neglect  and  greed  of 
successive  governors ;  from  the  French,  who 
blew  up  eight  of  its  towers  and  tried  to  destroy 
the  whole ;  and  from  earthquake.  A  partial 
restoration  was  made  at  the  expense  of  Queen 
Isabella  (1862) ;  but  much  damage  was  done  by 
fire  in  September  1890,  See  the  works  by 
Washington  Irving  (1832),  Owen  Jones  (1848), 
and  Murphy  (new  ed.  1856). 

Alican'te,  chief  town  of  a  Spanish  province, 
on  a  bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  282  miles  SE.  of 
Madrid  by  rail.  It  is  the  third  seaport  in  the 
kingdom.  The  chief  exports  are  esparto  grass, 
lead,  wine,  almonds,  and  liquorice  root.  Its 
climate  is  well  suited  for  invalids.  Population, 
50,250.— The  province,  formed  in  1834  of  parts  of 
the  old  kingdoms  of  Valencia  and  IMiircia,  has  an 
area  of  2098  sq.  m.  The  wine  of  Alicante  has  a 
high  repntatioui  and  there  are  about  twenty  lead 
and  copper  mines.     Pop.  (1900)  470,150. 

Aligarh  (or  Allygurh),  a  fort  in  the  United  Pro- 
vinces of  India,  55  miles  N.  of  Agra.  It  was 
stormed  by  the  British  in  1803;  and  here  early 
in  the  mutiny  of  1857— ten  days  after  the  out- 
break at  Meerut — the  native  troops  rose.  There 
is  here  a  Mohammedan  Anglo-Indian  college. 
Fort,  station,  and  the  native  city  of  Koil  form 
the  municipality  of  Aligarh  ;  pop.  70,000. 

Alima,  a  right-hand  tributary  of  the  Congo, 
flowing  mainly  westward. 
Aline,  a  sea-loch  of  Argyllshire. 
Aliwal,  a  Punjab  village  on  the  Sutlej,  9  miles 
W.  of  Ludhiana  ;  scene  of  a  British  victory  over 
the  Sikhs  on  28th  June  1846.— Aliwal  North,  a 
town  of  Cape  Colony,  just  across  the  Orange 
from  the  Orange  Colony,  with  a  brisk  trade  ;  pop. 
3500.— Aliwal  South,  a  port  of  Cape  Colony,  200 
miles  E.  of  Capetown  ;  pop.  3000. 

Alkmaar,  an  old  town  of  the  Netherlands,  on 


24 


ALLEGHENY 


the  North  Holland  Canal,  19  miles  N.  by  W.  of 
Amsterdam  by  rail.  It  has  a  Gothic  town-house, 
the  15th-century  church  of  St  Lawrence,  manu- 
factures of  sailcloth,  sea-salt,  &e.,  and  trade  in 
cattle,  grain,  butter,  and  excellent  cheese— of 
which  it  exports  enormous  quantities.  Alkmaar 
held  out  against  Alba  in  1573,  and  here,  in  1799, 
the  Duke  of  York  signed  a  not  very  honourable 
capitulation.     Pop.  19,048. 

Allahabad  ('city  of  God'),  the  seat  of  the 
government  of  the  United  Provinces  of  British 
India,  occupies  the  fork  of  the  Ganges  and 
Jumna,  390  miles  SE.  of  Delhi,  and  564  WNW, 
of  Calcutta.  The  situation  of  Allahabad,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  holy  streams  of  India,  has  ren- 
dered it  a  much-frequented  place  of  pilgrimage. 
A  stronghold  existed  here  from  the  earliest 
times,  but  the  present  fort  and  city  were  founded 
by  Akbar  in  1575.  From  1736  till  1750  the 
Mahrattas  held  Allahabad,  which  was  ceded  to 
the  British  in  1801.  On  6th  June  1857,  the 
mutiny  extended  to  Allahabad  ;  and,  the  Euro- 
peans continuing  to  hold  the  fort,  the  city  soon 
becaine  little  better  than  a  heap  of  ruins.  The 
position  of  Allahabad,  with  its  ready  communi- 
cation by  river  and  rail,  renders  it  naturally  a 
centre  of  commerce  and  civilisation.  The  most 
noteworthy  buildings  are  the  great  mosque  and 
the  Sultan  Khossor's  caravanserai— a  fine  clois- 
tered quadrangle.  The  fort  contains  the  famous 
pillar  of  Asoka  (240  B.C.).  Near  by  is  the  temple 
covering  the  undying  banian  tree ;  it  is  said  to 
communicate  with  Benares  by  a  subterranean 
passage,  through  which  flows  a  third  holy  river, 
the  Saraswati,  visible  only  to  the  eye  of  faith. 
Allahabad  possesses  the  government  offices  and 
courts,  Roman  Catholic  cathedral.  Mayo  Memo- 
rial and  town  hall,  a  free  public  library,  <fec.  The 
Muir  Central  College,  instituted  by  Sir  W.  Muir, 
was  opened  in  1886  ;  and  a  university  was  opened 
in  18S9.  A  great  fair  is  held  annually,  which  is 
visited  by  about  250,000  persons.  The  cotton, 
sugar,  and  indigo  produce  of  the  fertile  district 
of  Allahabad  is  brought  in  large  quantities  into 
the  city.  Pop.  (1872)  143,693;  (1901)  172,032.— 
Allahabad  district  is  85  miles  in  length  by  50  in 
breadth.     Area,  2850  sq.  m,  ;  pop.  1,500,000. 

Allan,  (1)  a  tributary  of  the  Forth,  near  Stir- 
ling.— (2)  A  tributary  of  the  Teviot,  near  Hawick. 
AUeghanies  (Allegai'nies),  a  term  sometimes 
used  as  synonymous  with  the  Appalachians  (q.  v.), 
sometimes  applied  only  to  that  portion  of  the 
system  which  extends  from  Pennsylvania  to 
North  Carolina,  and  which  forms  the  watershed 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mississippi.  It  is 
sometimes  used  in  a  still  more  restricted  sense. 
The  ridges,  2000  to  2400  feet  high,  are  remarkable 
for  their  parallelism  and  regularity,  all  the  main 
valleys  being  longitudinal.  Composed  of  strati- 
fied rocks  of  the  Silurian,  Devonian,  and  Carbon- 
iferous ages,  they  are  rich  in  coal,  iron,  and 
limestone,  and  their  forests  supply  much  valu- 
able timber. 

Alleghany,  a  river,  which,  rising  in  the  north 
part  of  Pennsylvania,  unites  with  the  Mononga- 
hela  at  Pittsburgh  to  form  the  Ohio.  It  is  navi- 
gable for  nearly  200  miles  above  Pittsburgh. 

Allegheny,  or  Alleghany,  one  of  the  chief 
manufacturing  cities  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Alleghany  River,  opposite  Pittsburgh.  It  is  the 
terminus  of  important  railway  lines,  and  the  site 
of  the  Western  Penitentiary,  a  Presbyterian  theo- 
logical seminary,  an  observatory,  the  Carnegie 
Public  Library,  a  park  of  100  acres,  a  Catholic  or- 
phanage, and  a  college  for  coloured  persons.    The 


ALLEN 


26 


ALNWICK 


chief  industries  include  rolling-mills  for  iron, 
cotton  and  woollen  mills,  breweries,  foundries, 
a  steel  factory,  blast-furnace,  and  locomotive 
works.  It  is  a  favourite  place  of  residence  for 
Pittsburgh  business  men.  Pop.  (1870)  53,180; 
(1880)  78,681  ;  (1890)  105,287  ;  (1900)  129,896. 

Allen,  Bog  of,  a  series  of  morasses  east  of  the 
Shannon,  in  King's  County  and  Kildare,  Ireland, 
comprising  about  150,000  acres.  Their  average 
elevation  is  250  feet  above  sea-level.  Lough 
Allen,  in  Leitrim,  is  a  lake  on  the  upper  course 
of  the  Shannon  (q.v.),  8900  acres  in  area. 

Allendale,  a  town  of  Northumberland,  on  the 
Allen  rivulet,  9  miles  SW.  of  Hexham.  Pop. 
of  parish,  3009. 

Allentown,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Penn- 
sylvania, U.S.,  on  the  Lehigh  River,  60  miles 
NW.  of  Pliiladelphia  by  rail.  The  Lehigh  Valley 
is  rich  in  iron  ore  and  anthracite  coal,  and  has 
large  blast-furnaces,  ironworks,  and  rolling- 
mills  ;  and  there  are  manufactures  of  furniture 
and  linen  thread.  Pop.  (1860)  8025 ;  (1880)  18,063 ; 
(1890)  25,228 ;  (1900)  35,416. 

Alleppi.    See  Aulapolai. 

AUier,  a  river  of  Central  France,  rising  in  the 
east  of  the  dep.  of  Lozere,  and  flowing  233  miles 
northward  through  Haute-Loire,  Puy-de-D6me, 
and  Allier,  to  the  Loire  below  Nevers. 

Alller,  a  dep.  in  the  centre  of  France,  has  an 
area  of  2822  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  422,000. 
Mineral  springs  are  found  at  Vicliy  and  else- 
where.    The  chief  town  is  Moulins. 

Allington,  a  Kentish  parish,  1^  mile  NNW. 
of  Maidstone.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Sir 
Thomas  Wyatt  the  poet. 

Alloa,  a  seaport  town  in  Clackmannanshire, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  tidal  Forth,  6^  miles  E, 
of  Stirling,  and  35  WNW.  of  Edinburgh.  Among 
its  buildings  are  the  county  court-house  (1865), 
the  handsome  new  town-hall  (1888),  the  corn 
exchange  (1862),  and  the  parish  church  (1819) ; 
and  its  special  feature  is  the  Lime-tree  Walk 
(1714),  leading  up  from  the  harbour.  It  manu- 
factures whisky,  ale,  woollen  yarn,  pottery,  glass, 
iron,  &c.  There  is  some  shipbuilding;  and  coals 
are  expoiiied  from  neighbouring  pits.  The  harbour 
was  improved  in  1863.  The  Forth  is  here  crossed 
by  a  railway  viaduct  (1885).  Close  by  is  Alloa 
House  (1838),  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Mar  and 
Kellie,  with  Alloa  Tower,  89  feet  high,  and  built 
about  1223.  Here  Queen  Mary  speni}  part  of  her 
childhood,  as  also  did  James  VI.  and  Prince 
Henry.     Pop.  (1841)  5443  ;  (1901)  11,417. 

AUoway,  Burns's  birthplace,  and  the  scene  of 
his  Tam  o'  Shanter,  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
'bonny  Doon,'.2  miles  S.  of  the  town  of  Ayr. 
The  'auld  clay  biggin,'  in  which  the  poet  was 
born  on  25th  January  1759,  was  in  1880  converted 
into  a  Burns  Museum.  The  'haunted  kirk'  still 
stands,  a  roofless  ruin,  near  the  'Auld  Brig;' 
and  hard  by  is  the  Burns  Monument  (1820). 

All-Saints'  Bay,  in  the  province  of  Bahia, 
Brazil,  forms  a  superb  natural  harbour,  measur- 
ing 37  by  25  miles. 

Allygurh.    See  Aligarh. 

Alma,  a  river  in  the  Crimea,  rising  at  the  foot 
of  the  Tchadir  Dagh,  and  flowing  westward  into 
the  Bay  of  Kalamita,  half-way  between  Eupat- 
oria  and  Sebastopol.  On  its  steep  banks  a  bril- 
liant victory  was  won  on  20th  of  September  1854, 
by  the  allied  armies  of  Britain  and  France,  under 
Lord  Raglan  and  Marshal  St  Arnaud,  over  the 
Russian  army  commanded  by  Prince  MeuschikoflT. 


Alma'da,  a  town  of  Portugal,  in  the  province 
of  Estremadura,  built  upon  a  height  over  the 
Tagus,  opposite  Lisbon.    Pop.  8091. 

Almaden',  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  chain  of  the 
Sierra  Morena,  50  miles  SW.  of  Ciudad  Real.  It 
is  famous  for  its  twelve  rich  quicksilver  mines, 
employing  4000  miners,  with  an  annual  output 
of  2,500,000  lb.  The  present  mines,  1200  feet 
deep,  date  from  the  17th  century  ;  but  the  quick- 
silver was  worked  here  by  the  Romans.  Crown 
property,  they  were  rented  by  the  Fuggers  of 
Augsburg  (1525-1645),  and  by  the  Rothschilds 
(1836-63),  but  are  now  again  carried  on  by  gov-* 
ernment.  Pop.  8126.— New  Almaden,  in  the 
Coast  Range,  California,  12  miles  from  San  Jose, 
was  first  worked  regularly  for  mercury  in  1845, 
and  now  yields  upwards  of  2,000,000  lb.  a  year. 

Almagro,  a  town  of  Spain,  13  miles  ESE.  of 
Ciudad  Real.  It  has  a  great  manufacture  of 
lace.     Pop.  8289. 

Almali.    See  Elmalu. 

Almansa,  a  town  of  Spain  in  the  province  of 
Albacete,  60  miles  NW.  of  Alicante  by  rail. 
There  is  a  ruined  Moorish  castle.  An  obelisk, 
about  a  mile  distant,  marks  the  spot  where  the 
French,  under  the  Duke  of  Berwick,  on  25th 
April  1707,  defeated  an  army  of  Spanish  and 
English  troops.    Pop.  9480. 

Almeida,  one  of  the  strongest  fortified  places 
in  Portugal,  on  the  Spanish  frontier,  and  in  the 
province  of  Beira.  In  1762  it  was  captured  by 
the  Spaniards,  and  in  1810  it  was  defended  against 
Massena  by  an  English  officer,  until  the  explosion 
of  a  powder-magazine  compelled  him  to  capitu- 
late.   Pop.  2500. 

Almeri'a  (Arabic  Al-Mariyat,  'the  conspicu- 
ous '),  the  chief  town  of  a  Spanish  province,  on 
a  gulf  or  bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  120  miles  E. 
of  Malaga.  It  has  a  well-defended  harbour,  a 
cathedral,  and  a  grammar-school.  In  the  time 
of  the  Moors,  it  was,  next  to  Granada,  the  richest 
town  in  the  kingdom,  with  150,000  inhabitants. 
Now,  it  has  only  a  few  trifling  manufactures, 
although  it  still  keeps  up  considerable  trade. 
The  much-needed  railway  from  Linares  to  this 
isolated  port  was  being  made  in  1898-94.  Popu- 
lation, about  50,000.— The  province  consists  of 
the  eastern  portion  of  the  ancient  kingdom  of 
Granada,  and  lias  an  area  of  3302  sq.  m.  There 
are  rich  mines  in  the  sierras,  yielding  copper, 
iron,  mercury,  silver,  and  lead.  Population, 
860,000. 

Almodo'var  del  Campo,  a  town  of  New  Castile, 
Spain,  22  miles  SW.  of  Ciudad  Real ;  pop.  12,279, 
chiefly  employed  in  agriculture  and  silver-mining. 

Almond,  in  Scotland,  tributaries  (1)  of  the 
Firth  of  Forth  at  Cramond ;  and  (2)  of  the  Tay 
above  Perth. 

Almondbury,  to  the  SE.  of  Huddersfield,  is 
practically  a  part  of  Huddersfield  (q.v.). 

Almo'ra,  a  town  in  the  United  Provinces  of 
India,  87  miles  N.  of  Bareilly,  on  the  crest  of  a 
ridge  of  the  Himalayas,  5337  feet  above  the  sea. 
Pop.  8000. 

Almufiecar,  a  seaport  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  33 
miles  S.  of  Granada  ;  pop.  8878. 

Alnmouth,  a  little  watering-place  of  Northum- 
berland, at  the  mouth  of  the  Alne,  5  miles  ESE. 
of  Alnwick.     Pop.  593. 

Alnwick  (An' nick),  the  county  town  of  North- 
umberland, on  the  Alne,  88^  Tuiles  N.  by  W,  of 
Newcastle  by  rail.  It  has  a  large  central  market- 
I^lace,  a  spacious  town-hall,  and  a  corn  exchange 


ALORA 


ALPS 


of  1862.  Alnwick  was  at  an  early  period  a 
fortified  town,  and  one  of  its  four  gates  remains, 
with  fragments  of  the  walls.  At  the  north 
entrance  of  the  town  stands  Alnwick  Castle,  the 
seat  originally  of  the  De  Vescis,  and  since  1310 
of  the  Percies  of  Northumberland.  It  has  been 
sumptuously  restored  since  1854  in  the  Italian 
palazzo  style,  and  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent 
baronial  structures  in  England.  During  the 
middle  ages,  it  was  a  bulwark  against  the  inva- 
sions of  the  Scots,  and  it  was  thrice  besieged— 
by  Malcolm  Canmore,  who  here  met  his  death ; 
by  David  I.,  who  captured  it;  and  by  William 
the  Lion,  who  here  was  taken  prisoner.  Alnwick 
ceased  in  1886  to  enjoy  certain  prescriptive 
municipal  usages  it  formerly  possessed.  Pop. 
7500. 

Alo'ra,  a  town  of  Spain,  23  miles  NW.  of 
Malaga  by  rail.     Pop.  10,568. 

Alost,  or  Aalst,  a  town  in  the  Belgium  pro- 
vince of  Bast  Flanders,  on  a  navigable  tributary 
of  the  Scheldt,  19  miles  NW.  of  Brussels  by  rail. 
The  church  of  St  Martin,  though  unfinished,  is 
one  of  the  grandest  in  Belgium,  with  a  famous 
painting  by  Rubens— 'St  Roche  beseeching  our 
Saviour  to  stay  the  Plague  of  Alost,'  and  also  the 
mausoleum  of  Marten,  a  native  of  Alost  and 
Belgium's  first  printer  (1473).  Alost  has  also  a 
13th-century  town-hall  Avith  a  beautiful  belfry, 
and  a  Jesuit  college.    Pop.  30,200. 

Alpe'na,  an  American  post-town,  at  the  mouth 
of  Thunder  Bay  River,  in  Michigan,  with  foun- 
dries and  numerous  sawmills.  Pop.  (1880)  6153  ; 
(1890)  11,283  ;  (1900)  11,802. 

Alpes,  name  of  three  deps.  in  France.  That  of 
Basses- Alpes  occupies  the  NB.  part  of  Provence, 
and  is,  for  the  most  part,  mountainous.  The 
wines  are  excellent;  the  mines  produce  lead, 
green  marble,  &c.  The  dep.  is  watered  by  the 
Durance;  its  chief  town  is  Digne.  Area,  26S5 
sq.  m.  ;  population,  115,000. 

The  Hautes- Alpes,  lying  north  of  the  Basses- 
Alpes,  and  forming  a  part  of  the  old  province  of 
Dauphine,  is  traversed  by  the  chief  range  of  the 
Cottian  Alps,  which  here  rise  to  14,000  feet.  The 
scenery,  especially  along  the  impetuous  Durance, 
is  singularly  picturesque.  Area,  2158  sq.  m.  ; 
population,  109,000.  The  mines  produce  lead, 
copper,  iron,  and  anthracite.     Chief  town,  Gap. 

Alpes  Maritimes,  a  dep.  in  the  extreme  SB. 
of  France,  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean 
and  confines  of  Italy,  was  formed  in  1860.  It 
is  made  up,  of  the  ancient  county  of  Nice,  then 
ceded  to  France,  and  of  the  arrondissement  of 
Grasse.  The  chain  of  the  Alpes  Maritimes  forms 
the  northern  boundary  of  the  dep. ,  and  from  it 
numerous  spurs  run  seaward,  among  which  are 
lovely  and  fertile  valleys.  The  silkworm  is 
reared,  and  honey  exported.  There  are  some 
mineral  springs.  The  tunny,  anchovy,  and  sar- 
dine fisheries  are  important.  The  capital  is  Nice, 
and  the  other  principal  towns  are  Antibes,  Ville- 
franche,  Cannes,  Grasse,  and  Menton  or  Mentone. 
Area,  1482  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  293,500. 

Alpnach,  or  Alpnacht,  a  Swiss  village,  in  the 
canton  of  Unterwalden,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Pilatus,  1  h  mile  from  that  part  of  Lake  Lucerne 
called  Lake  Alpnach.  Its  celebrated  'slide,'  8 
miles  long,  for  the  timber  of  Mount  Pilatus,  is 
now  disused.     Pop.  1679. 

Alps  (possibly  a  Celtic  word  meaning  '  high  ; ' 
cf.  Gaelic  alp,  '  a  high  mountain  ; '  or  connected 
with  Lat.  albus,  'white'),  the  most  extensive 
system  of  lofty  mountains  in  Burope,  raising 
their  giant  masses  on  a  basis  of  90,000  sq.  m., 


between  6°  40'  and  18°  E.  long.,  and  extending 
in  some  places  from  the  44th  to  the  48th  parallel 
of  latitude.  The  Alpine  system  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  hilly  ground  of  Switzerland  and 
the  upper  plain  of  the  Danube;  on  the  E.,  by 
the  low  plains  of  Austria ;  on  the  S.,  by  the 
Adriatic  Sea,  the  plains  of  Lombardy,  and  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa;  and  on  the  W.,  by  the  plains  of 
Provence  and  the  valley  of  the  Rhone.  A  string 
of  lakes  encircles  both  the  northern  and  southern 
bases  of  these  mountains,  the  former  at  an  eleva- 
tion of  1200  to  2000  feet ;  the  latter,  600  to  700 
feet.  The  varied  natural  scenery  of  France, 
Italy,  Germany,  and  Austria  has  a  common 
centre  of  union  in  this  lofty  region.  Valleys 
open  out  in  all  directions,  sending  their  melted 
snows  on  one  side  into  the  North  Sea,  on  another 
into  the  Black  Sea,  and  on  another  into  the 
Mediterranean.  The  principal  basins  are  those 
of  the  Rhine,  the  Danube,  the  Po,  the  Rhone, 
and  the  Var. 

I.  Of  the  Western  Alps  the  principal  ranges 
are :  (1)  The  Maritime  Alps,  extending  from  the 
middle  Durance  southwards  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean, and  rising  in  the  Aiguille  de  Chambeyron 
to  a  height  of  11,155  feet.  (2)  The  Cottian  Alps, 
north  of  these,  whose  highest  summit,  Monte 
Viso,  is  12,605  feet.  (3)  The  Dauphine  Alps, 
separated  by  the  valley  of  the  Durance  from  the 
Cottian ;  their  highest  summit  is  the  Pic  des 
Bcrins,  13,462  feet.  (4)  The  Graian  Alps,  forming 
the  boundary  between  Savoy  and  Piedmont,  and 
attaining  in  the  Grand  Paradis,  an  elevation  of 
13,300  feet.  11.  Middle  Alps.  Central  Chain.— 
(1)  The  Pennine  Alps,  between  the  plains  of 
Lombardy  and  the  valley  of  the  Rhone.  Highest 
summits  :  Mont  Blanc,  15,732  feet ;  Monte  Rosa, 
15,151  feet.  (2)  The  Lepontian  or  Helvetian 
Alps,  from  the  depression  of  the  Simplon,  along 
the  plateau  and  masses  of  St  Gothard,  to  the 
pass  of  the  Spliigen.  (3)  The  Rhsetian  Alps, 
between  the  Inn,  the  Adda,  and  the  Upper  Adige. 
Northern  Chain. — (1)  The  Bernese  Alps,  between 
the  Rhone  and  the  Aar.  Highest  summits : 
Finsteraarhorn,  14,026  feet ;  Aletschhorn,  13,803 ; 
Jungfrau,  13,671  feet.  (2)  The  Alps  of  the  Four 
'Forest  Cantons,'  the  Schwyz  Alps,  &c.  The 
Southern  Chain.— (I)  The  Ortler  Alps,  between 
the  Adda  and  the  Adige.  (2)  The  Trientine  Alps, 
between  the  Adige  and  the  Piave.  TIL  Of  the 
Eastern  Alps  the  principal  chains  are  :  (1)  The 
Noric  Alps,  between  the  plains  of  the  Drave  and 
the  Danube.  (2)  The  Carnian  Alps,  between  the 
Drave  and  the  Save.  (3)  The  Julian  Alps,  be- 
tween the  Save  and  the  Adriatic  Sea. 

No  lofty  mountains  in  the  world  are  more 
easily  crossed  than  the  Alps ;  the  Mont  Cenis, 
the  Brenner,  the  St  Gothard,  and  the  Simplon 
(with  still  longer  tunnel  bored  1896-1904)  rail- 
ways into  Italy  from  the  north  now  afford  si)ecial 
facilities.  Other  notable  passes  are  the  Little  St 
Bernard  (7190  feet  at  the  highest  point),  the 
Great  St  Bernard  (8120  feet),  and  the  Spliigen 
(q.v.). 

The  rocks  which  enter  into  the  composition 
of  the  Alps  belong  to  many  different  geological 
systems,  and  occur  for  the  most  part  as  more  or 
less  interrupted  belts  or  zones,  which  extend 
in  the  same  general  direction  as  the  great  chain 
itself— viz.  from  SW.  to  NB.  The  higher  and 
central  ranges  consist  principally  of  crystalline 
schists,  such  as  gneiss  and  mica-schist,  with 
which  granite  is  occasionally  associated.  These 
crystalline  Archaean  rocks  are  flanked  on  either 
side  by  an  irregular  zone  of  various  sedimentary 
strata,  along  with  beds  of  limestone,  dolomite,. 


Alpujarras 


6? 


altengaarB 


&c.  The  geological  structure  of  the  Alps  clearly 
shows  that  these  mountains  are  'mountains  of 
upheaval.'  The  strata  of  which  they  are  com- 
posed must  originally  have  been  spread  out  in 
approximately  horizontal  positions,  and  they 
have  since  been  folded,  flexed,  puckered,  and 
fractured.  Since  their  upheaval,  the  Alps  have 
suffered  excessive  denudation.  Enormous  moun- 
tain-masses have  been  gradually  removed  by  the 
action  of  ice,  running  water,  &c. 

The  population  of  the  Alpine  regions  is  esti- 
mated at  6,000,000  to  7,000,000,  of  whom  perhaps 
one  half  are  Teutonic,  and  the  other  half  of 
French,  Italian  (and  Romanic),  or  Slavonic  origin, 
in  pretty  equal  proportions.  Six  states  share  the 
Alps.  The  western  portion  is  shared  by  France 
and  Italy.  Switzerland  claims  the  Middle  Alps 
almost  exclusively  for  her  own.  Bavaria  has 
only  a  small  share.  Austria  has  the  largest 
share  of  the  Alps — iu  the  provinces  of  Tyrol, 
Illyria,  Styria,  and  the  archduchy.  The  Alpine 
mountains  are  rich  in  singularly  beautiful  natural 
scenery,  and  attract  such  crowds  of  visitors  that 
they  have  been  called  '  the  playground  of  Europe.' 

See  works  by  Agassiz,  the  brothers  Schlagint- 
weit,  Murchison,  Tyndall  (1860-73),  Bonney 
(1868),  Ball's  Guides  (3  vols.  1868-70),  Umlauft 
(Eng.  trans.  1888),  and  see  also  Switzerland. 

Alpujarras  (Al-poo-har'ras ;  Arabic  Al-Bush- 
erat),  a  name  applied  to  all  the  valleys  lying 
south  of  the  chief  chain  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  in 
the  south  of  Spain. 

Alsace-Lorraine  (Ger.  Elsass-Lothringen),  since 
1871  a  state  or  'imperial  territory'  (ReAchslancl) 
of  the  German  empire,  bounded  west  by  France, 
east  by  Baden,  and  south  by  Switzerland.  Its 
utmost  length,  from  north  to  south,  is  123 
miles ;  its  breadth  varies  between  22  and  105 
miles  ;  and  its  area  is  5580  sq.  m.,  of  which  1353 
belong  to  Upper  Alsace  (in  the  south),  1844  to 
Lower  Alsace  (NE.),  and  2383  to  Lorraine  (N\V.). 
Pop.  (1871)  1,549,738;  (1900)  1,719,470,  of  wlioni 
over  1,300,000  were  Catholics,  and  80  per  cent. 
German-speaking,  the  French-speakiiigpopulation 
being  mainly  in  the  larger  towns  and  in  Lorraine. 
The  Rhine  flows  115  miles  north-by-eastward 
along  all  the  eastern  boundary,  and  receives, 
below  Strasburg,  the  111  from  Alsace,  127  miles 
long.  Other  rivers  are  the  Moselle,  flowing 
through  Lorraine  past  Metz,  and  its  affluent  the 
Saar.  Along  the  Rhine  is  a  strip  of  level  country, 
9  to  17  miles  broad,  and  declining  from  800  to 
450  feet  above  sea-level.  Westward  of  this  rise 
the  Vosges  Mountains,  culminating  at  a  height 
of  4677  feet ;  whilst  Lorraine,  rather  hilly  than 
mountainous,  rarely  attains  1300  feet.  About 
48*5  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  is  arable,  11*6 
meadow  and  pasture,  and  30-8  under  wood. 
Alsace-Lorraine  produces  much  wine,  grain,  and 
tobacco ;  it  is  rich  in  mines,  iron  and  coal ;  and 
manufactures  iron,  cotton,  wool,  silks,  chemicals, 
glass,  and  paper.  It  contains  the  important 
cities  of  Strasburg,  Miihlhausen,  Metz,  and  Col- 
mar. 

In  Cpesar's  time  Alsace-Lorraine  was  occupied 
by  Celtic  tribes,  and  formed  part  of  ancient 
Gaul ;  thereafter  largely  Germanised,  from  the 
10th  century  it  formed  part  of  the  German 
empire,  till  a  part  of  it  was  ceded  to  France  at 
the  Peace  of  Westphalia  (1648),  and  the  rest  fell 
a  prey  to  the  aggressions  of  Louis  XIV.,  who 
seized  Strasburg  (1681)  by  surprise  in  time  of 
peace.  By  the  Peace  of  Ryswick  (1697),  the 
cession  of  the  whole  was  ratified.  In  1814-15 
Russia  would   not  hear   of  the   restitution  of 


ALsace- Lorraine  to  Gennany  ;  and  it  was  not  till 
1871,  after  the  Franco-German  war,  that  Alsace 
and  German  Lorraine  were,  by  the  treaty  of 
Frankfort,  incorporated  in  the  new  German 
empire.  The  great  mass  of  the  population  were 
strongly  against  the  change,  and  160,000  elected 
to  be  French,  though  only  50,000  went  into 
actual  exile,  refusing  to  become  German  subjects. 
For,  at  least  since  the  era  of  the  Revolution, 
Alsace  in  sentiment  was  wholly  French.  To 
France  she  gave  the  bravest  of  her  sons — Keller- 
mann,  Kleber,  and  many  another  hero  ;  Strasburg 
first  heard  the  Marseillaise;  and  MM.  Erckmann- 
Chatrian,  Lorrainers  both,  faithfully  represented* 
their  countrymen's  love  of  La  Patrie  in  the  days 
of  the  second  as  of  the  first  Napoleon.  See 
French  works  by  Grad  (1889)  and  Matthis  (1890). 

Alsen,  a  Baltic  island  off"  the  coast  of  Sles- 
wick.  Formerly  Danish,  it  became  Prussian  in 
1864.  It  is  19  miles  long,  and  12  broad  ;  its  area 
is  121  sq.  m.  Pop.  25,000,  almost  all  Danish- 
speaking.  The  chief  town  is  the  port  of  Sonder- 
borg ;  pop.  6000. 

Alster,  a  river  in  Holstein,  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  three  streams,  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Hamburg  spreads  itself  out,  and  forms  a 
lake,  called  the  Great  or  Outer  Alster,  and  within 
the  town,  the  Inner  Alster.  It  flows  by  several 
channels  into  the  Elbe. 

Alston,  a  market-town  of  Cumberland,  26 
miles  ESE.  of  Carlisle.    Pop.  of  parish,  3184. 

Altai,  the  Ghin-shan  or  Golden  Mountains  of 
the  Chinese,  is  the  name  given  to  a  wild  moun- 
tainous region  which  covers  the  southern  parts 
of  Tomsk,  in  Siberia,  and  partly  extends  into 
Mongolia.  It  comprises  the  mountainous  border- 
region  of  the  great  plateau  of  Central  Asia,  be- 
tween the  Tian-shan  and  the  Sajan  Mountains, 
and  consists  of  two  separate  parts— the  Altai 
proper,  belonging  to  the  Russian  empire ;  and  the 
Great  Altai,  in  Mongolia.  The  highest  summit, 
Byelukla,  reaches  the  height  of  11,000  feet.  The 
valleys  on  its  outskirts  are  being  rapidly  colon- 
ised by  Russian  agriculturists  (over  600,000),  who 
find  an  easy  living  in  the  fertile  soil  and  the  rich 
sub-alpine  meadows.  The  gold-washings  of  the 
Altai,  and  its  silver,  lead,  copper,  iron,  and  coal 
mines,  are  another  source  of  wealth.  Nearly 
45,000  Kalmucks,  Teleutes,  and  Kumandintses 
represent  the  small  remainder  of  the  fonnerly 
much  denser  and  more  highly  civilised  popula- 
tion, all  of  the  Ural-Altaic  stock.  The  town  of 
Barnaul  (17,180  inhabitants)  is  the  chief  centre  of 
administration. 

Altamu'ra,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  28  miles 
SW.  of  Bari,  with  a  fine  cathedral,  founded  in 
1220  ;  pop.  19,817. 

Alte'a,  a  Spanish  seaport,  25  miles  NB.  of 
Alicante  ;  pop.  5865. 

Al'tena,  a  town  of  Prussia,  47  miles  NW.  of 
Siegen  by  rail,  with  manufactures  of  needles, 
pins,  and  hardware  ;  pop.  12,900. 

Altenburg,  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe- 
Altenburg,  on  the  Pleisse,  30  miles  S.  of  Leipzig 
by  rail.  On  an  almost  perpendicular  rock  of 
porphyry  stands  the  old  castle  of  Altenburg,  the 
scene  in  1455  of  the  'Prinzenraub.'  Its  founda- 
tions are  probably  as  old  as  the  11th  century ; 
and,  since  the  two  fires  of  1865  and  1868,  it  has 
been  finely  restored.  Brushes,  woollen  goods, 
gloves,  and  cigars  are  manufactured.  Pop.  (1890) 
31,439  ;  (1900)  37,150. 

Altengaard,  a  hamlet  in  Finmarken,  the 
northernmost  province  of  Norway,  on  the  south 


ALTHORP  PARK 


28 


AMAZON 


elde  of  the  Alten  Fiord,  in  69°  55'  N,  lat.,  with  a 
meteorological  station. 

Althorp  Park,  the  seat  of  Earl  Spencer,  6 
miles  NW.  of  Northampton. 

Alton,  a  town  of  Hampshire,  8|  miles  SW.  of 
Farnham.  Its  Perpendicular  parish  church  was 
thoroughly  restored  in  1867.  Hops  are  grown  in 
the  neighbourhood,  and  there  are  large  breweries 
in  the  town.    Pop.  5600. 

Alton,  a  city  and  port  of  Illinois,  U.S.,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  24  miles  N.  of  St 
Louis.  Laid  out  in  1817,  and  since  1868  the  seat 
of  a  Catholic  bishopric,  it  is  a  centre  of  com- 
merce, and  has  a  Baptist  college  (1836).  Pop. 
(1860)  6332  ;  (1900)  14,210. 

Al'tona,  the  largest  and  richest  city  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Sleswick-Holstein,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  steep  right  bank  of  the  Elbe,  just 
below  Hamburg,  so  that  the  two  cities  are 
divided  only  by  the  state-boundaries.  Altona 
lies  higher  than  Hamburg,  and  is  much  healthier. 
Of  public  buildings,  the  most  notable  are  the 
churches  of  the  Trinity  (1743)  and  St  John  (1873) ; 
and  of  four  monuments,  there  is  one  to  Bllicher 
(1832).  Invested  with  special  privileges  in  1664, 
and  burnt  by  the  Swedes  in  1713,  Altona  was 
annexed  to  Prussia  in  1866.  Pop.  (1840)  28,095  ; 
(1860)  45,524 ;  (1890)  143,249  ;  (1900)  161,501. 

Altoo'na,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  U.S.,  at  the 
eastern  base  of  the  Alleghanies,  117  miles  E.  of 
Pittsburgh.  It  contains  large  locomotive  works 
and  machine-shops  in  connection  with  the  Penn- 
sylvania Central  Railroad,  employing  5000  hands. 
Pop.  (1870)  10,610  ;  (1900)  38,973. 

Altorf,  or  Altdorf,  the  chief  town  in  the 
Swiss  canton  Uri,  at  the  head  of  the  Lake  of 
Lucerne,  and  on  the  St  Gothard  road  and  rail- 
way. There  is  a  colossal  statue  of  William  Tell 
in  this  the  scene  of  his  chief  exploits.  Pop.  3000. 
— Altorf,  or  Altdorf,  in  Middle  Franconia 
(pop.  4000),  was  the  seat  of  a  university  from 
1623  to  1809. 

Altotting,  a  very  ancient  place  of  pilgrimage 
in  Upper  Bavaria,  not  far  from  the  river  Inn,  31 
miles  N.  of  Traunstein.  A  chapel  contains  the 
wonder-working  black  image  of  the  Virgin,  dat- 
ing from  the  8th  century,  and  a  rich  treasure 
of  gold,  silver,  and  precious  stones.  Another 
chapel  contains  the  tomb  of  Tilly.     Pop.  4232. 

Altrincham  (Al'tring-am),  a  town  of  Cheshire, 
on  Bowdon  Downs,  8  miles  SW.  of  Manchester  by 
rail,  is  situated  on  the  Bridgewater  Canal.  It 
has  manufactures  of  artificial  manures,  and  an 
iron-foundry ;  but  the  chief  employment  is  raising 
fruits  and  vegetables  for  the  Manchester  market. 
Pop.  17,100. 

Altrive,  the  home  and  death-place  of  Hogg,  the 
Ettrick  Shepherd,  in  Yarrow  parish,  Selkirkshire. 

Alum-Bagh  (Alambdgh),  a  domain  4  miles  from 
Lucknow,  comprised  a  jialace,  mosque,  and  park ; 
and  in  1857  was  converted  by  the  rebels  into  a 
fort.  It  was  taken  by  the  British  in  September ; 
and  on  evacuating  Lucknow,  Sir  James  Outram 
with  3500  men  held  it  against  30,000  sepoys  and 
50,000  volunteers,  until  in  March,  Sir  Colin 
Campbell  reconquered  Lucknow,  and  relieved  the 
Alum-Bagh.  Havelock  had  been  buried  within 
the  walls  in  November  1857. 

Alum  Bay,  Isle  of  Wight,  near  the  Needles,  a 
bay  with  fantastically  variegated  cliffs. 

Alva,  a  town  in  what  since  1891  is  Clack- 
mannanshire, at  the  base  of  the  Ochils,  7|  miles 
ENE.  of  Stirling  by  rail  (1863).  It  has  extensive 
manufactures  of  shawls  and  tweeds.    Immedi- 


ately behind  the  village  is  Alva  Glen,  noted  for 
its  picturesque  beauty  and  magnificent  water- 
fall.   Pop.  5000. 

Alvara'do,  a  town  of  Mexico,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Alvarado, 
40  miles  SE.  of  Vera  Cruz  ;  pop.  6000. 

Alwar,  or  Ulwar,  a  Rajput  state  of  India,  in 
Rajputana,  with  an  area  of  8024  sq.  m.  and  a  pop. 
of  750,000.  The  capital,  Alwar,  is  a  town  of 
56,750  inhabitants,  94  miles  WNW.  of  Agra. 

Alyth  (Ai'lith),  a  Perthshire  town,  26  miles 
NE.  of  Perth,  with  woollen,  linen,  and  jute 
manufactures.     Pop.  1065. 

Alzey  (Altzei),  a  town  of  Rhenish  Hesse,  on 
the  Selz,  18  miles  SW.  of  Mainz.     Pop.  6932. 

Amalfi  (Amdl'fee),  a  seaport  on  the  Gulf  of 
Salerno,  24  miles  SE.  of  Naples.  It  has  a  Roman- 
esque cathedral.  Founded  under  Constantino 
the  Great,  and  long  a  powerful  republic,  with 
50,000  inhabitants,  and  'doges'  of  its  own,  it  fell 
about  the  close  of  the  11th  century  under  the 
power  of  the  Normans,  was  plundered  by  the 
Pisans  in  1135,  and  saw  its  commercial  decay 
completed  by  a  terrible  storm  in  1343.  Masani- 
ello  was  a  native.    Pop.  7792. 

Amarapu'ra  ('  city  of  the  gods '),  till  1860  the 
capital  of  Burma,  was  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Irawadi,  6  miles  NE.  of  Ava.  Founded  in 
1783,  it  was  totally  destroyed  by  fire  in  1810,  and 
almost  totally  by  earthquake  in  1839 ;  so  that  the 
population  dwindled  from  175,000  in  1800,  to 
almost  nil  after  Mandalay  became  the  seat  of 
government.  Little  remains  but  some  beautiful 
trees,  and  a  few  ruined  pagodas. 

Amasia,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Sivas,  in 
Asia  Minor,  in  the  deep  valley  of  the  Yeshil- 
Irmak.  The  ancient  town,  long  capital  of  the 
kings  of  Pontus,  was  the  birthplace  of  Strabo. 
There  ai'e  numerous  interesting  remains  of 
antiquity,  particularly  the  tombs  of  the  kings  of 
Pontus.  Silk  and  salt  are  the  chief  articles  of 
export.     Pop.  25,000. 

Amatitlan,  a  deep  lake  in  the  Central  Ameri- 
can state  of  Guatemala,  surrounded  with  pre- 
cipitous volcanic  rocks.  It  empties  into  the 
Pacific  Ocean  through  the  river  Michatoyat.  Near 
the  lake  are  many  hot  springs,  and  on  the  river 
is  the  town  of  Amatitlan,  as  late  as  1840  a  miser- 
able Indian  village,  but  now,  through  the  intro- 
duction of  the  cochineal  culture,  an  active  town 
of  10,000  inhabitants. 

Amazon,  or  Amazons  (Portuguese  A^iazdnas, 
from  an  Indian  word  Amassoim,  'boat-destroyer'), 
a  river  of  South  America,  and  the  largest  streain 
on  the  face  of  the  globe.  It  is  known  locally  as 
Maranon,  Orellana,  Solimoens,  Parana-tinga,  and 
Parana-uassu.  The  name  Marailon  (or  Tungur- 
agua)  belongs  properly  to  the  more  northern  of 
its  two  main  head-streams,  rising  in  Lake  Lauri- 
cocha  (Peru)  about  10°  30'  S.  lat.,  76°  10'  W.  long. 
Some  writers  insist  that  the  river  Apurimac,  or 
Ucayali  (the  more  southern  of  the  two  great  head- 
streams),  is  the  true  Amazon.  It  is  commonly 
said  that  the  Amazon,  to  its  remotest  source,  is 
nearly  4000  miles  long  ;  but  3000  miles  is  a  more 
probable  estimate.  Most  of  the  upper  branches 
flow  in  deep  mountain  gorges  of  the  Cordillera ; 
east  of  the  Cordillera  the  vast  forest-plain  is 
entered,  which  stretches  from  the  sub-Andean 
foot-hills  to  the  sea.  It  is  a  region  rich  ii. 
botanical  treasures,  having  a  fertile  soil  and  a 
prodigiously  large  rainfall.  Owing  to  this  rain- 
fall, the  country  is  traversed  by  a  very  great 
number  of  large  navigable  rivers,  either  direct  or- 


AMAZONAS 


AMERICA 


Indirect  affluents  of  the  Amazon.  Steam  naviga- 
tion has  been  introduced  on  many  of  the  larger 
branches ;  but  the  natural  resources  of  the 
country  are  very  little  developed. 

The  priucipal  tributaries  from  the  north  are 
the  Napo,  the  Putumayo,  the  Japura,  and  tlie 
Rio  Nogro  (which  connects,  through  the  Cassi- 
quiare,  witli  the  Orinoco);  from  tlie  south  the 
Javary,  the  Jutahy,  the  Jurua,  the  Purus,  the 
Madeira,  the  Tapajos,  the  Xingu,  and  the  Toc- 
antins.  For  a  considerable  distance  the  main 
river  forms  the  boundary  between  Peru  and 
Ecuador ;  but  its  course  lies  chiefly  through  the 
northern  half  of  Brazil,  its  general  direction 
being  to  the  NNE.  Its  mouth  is  crossed  by  the 
equator.  The  drainage  area  of  the  river  is  placed 
at  2,500,000  sq.  m.,  or  two-thirds  the  area  of 
Europe  ;  and  the  main  stream  and  its  tributaries 
are  said  to  afford  over  25,000  miles  of  water- 
way suitable  tor  steam  navigation.  The  main 
channel,  at  the  mouth,  is  50  luiles  wide.  The 
average  flow  of  the  river  is  placed  at  2J  miles  per 
hour.  The  tides  are  noticed  for  about  400  miles 
up  the  river.  The  tidal  phenomenon  called  the 
bore  (liere  known  as  Pororoca)  is  very  destructive 
in  the  main  channel  of  the  lower  river,  near  its 
mouth.  The  name  Amazon  is  probably  derived 
from  the  female  warriors  (Amazons)  seen  by  early 
explorers  in  tlie  valley  of  this  river ;  the  name 
Maraiion  is  derived  from  a  voyager  who  visited 
the  river  in  1503  ;  Orellana  was  the  name  of  one 
who  sailed  on  it  in  1540. 

The  climate  of  the  river- valley,  though  hot  and 
very  damp,  is  greatly  mitigated  by  its  trade- 
winds,  which  blow  from  the  east  with  little 
interruption  throughout  the  dry  season.  The 
river  abounds  in  flsh  in  very  great  variety  of 
species,  and  turtles  and  alligators  are  plentiful, 
as  well  as  porpoises  and  manatees.  The  main 
river  is  fullest  from  March  to  June  inclusive,  and 
lowest  in  August  and  September.  The  river  is 
open  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations,  but  trade 
has  been  impeded  by  import  and  export  duties. 
Para  is  the  principal  outlet  by  sea  of  the  com- 
merce of  the  Amazon  Valley.  Many  useful  and 
some  highly  valuable  timber-trees  grow  on  the 
river.  One  of  the  leading  pursuits  of  the  lower 
valley  is  the  shipment  to  ParS.  of  india-rubber 
and  Brazil-nuts.  The  western  part  of  the  basin 
aff'ords  quinine-yielding  barks,  coca,  cacao,  sugar, 
coffee,  palm-wax,  ipecacuanha,  copaiba,  sarsa- 
parilla,  vanilla,  and  other  valuable  vegetable 
products,  and  a  considerable  amount  of  gold  is 
procured  in  it. 

See  works  by  A.  R.  Wallace  (1853  ;  new  ed. 
1889),  H.  W.  Bates  (1864 ;  new  ed.  1892),  Agassiz 
(1868),  Brown  and  Lidstone  (1878),  and  H.  H. 
Smith  (New  York,  1879). 

Amazo'nas,  (l)  the  northernmost  province  of 
Brazil,  has  an  area  of  750,000  sq.  in.,  and  a  pop. 
of  148,000.— (2)  A  fertile  department  of  Peru, 
bounded  on  the  N.  by  Ecuador.  Area,  14,150 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  70,800. 

Ambala.    See  Umballa. 

Amber,  a  decayed  city  in  the  Rajput  state  of 
Jaipur,  India,  formerly  its  capital,  about  4  miles 
NE.  of  Jaipur,  with  a  vast  but  deserted  palace. 
It  is  situated  on  the  margin  of  a  small  lake,  in  a 
deep  hollow  among  hills. 

Amberg,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  35  miles  E.  of 
Nureniberg.  Chief  bviildings  are  the  town-hall 
(1490)  and  St  Martin's  (1421),  with  a  steeple  321 
feet  high.  There  is  a  large  arsenal,  some  manu- 
factures, and  mining.  Near  is  the  Maria-Hilfs- 
berg,  a  place  of  pilgrimage.     Pop.  22,500. 


Ambleside,  a  market-town  of  Westmorland, 
situated  in  the  lieart  of  the  Lake  District,  about 
a  mile  from  the  head  of  Lake  Windermere. 
Rydal  Mount,  for  many  years  the  residence  of 
Wordsworth  ;  Fox  How,  a  summer  retreat  of  Dr 
Arnold ;  and  the  Knoll,  where  Miss  Martineau 
lived  and  died,  are  all  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Coarse  woollen  clotlis  are  made  here.    Pop.  2360. 

Amboise,  a  French  town  in  the  dep.  of  Indre- 
et-Loire,  on  the  Loire,  15  miles  by  rail  E.  of 
Tours.  Tlie  town  is  memorable  for  the  Huguenot 
conspiracy  (1560),  which  cost  the  lives  of  120O 
Protestants.  The  castle  of  Amboise  from  1431 
was  a  frequent  residence  of  the  Valois  kings; 
and  since  the  days  of  Louis  XL,  15,000  prisoners 
are  said  to  have  been  conflned  in  its  subterranean 
'oubliettes.'    Pop.  4580. 

Amboyna,  the  most  prominent  of  the  Moluc- 
cas or  Spice  Islands  belonging  to  the  Dutch, 
lies  SW.  of  Ceram,  and  NW.  of  Banda.  Area, 
365  sq.  ni.  Pop.  about  38,000,  nearly  a  third 
Mohammedans.  Amboyna  is  mountainous,  well 
watered,  fertile,  and  healthy.  Clove,  sago, 
mango,  and  cocoa-nut  trees  are  abundant,  also 
flne  timber  for  cabinet-work.  The  Dutch  took 
Amboyna  from  the  Portuguese  in  1605.  The 
British  settlement  was  destroyed  by  the  Dutch 
in  the  infamous  Amboyna  massacre  of  1623,  for 
which,  in  1654,  Cromwell  exacted  compensation. 
The  British  held  tlie  island  in  1796-1802.  It 
became  finally  Dutch  in  1814.— Amboyna,  capital 
of  the  Dutch  Moluccas,  on  the  bay  of  Amboyna, 
has  a  good  roadstead  ;  pop.  about  9000. 

Ambrlz,  the  northernmost  division  of  the 
Portuguese  territory  of  Angola,  West  Africa, 
extending  from  the  Congo  to  the  river  Ainbriz. 
The  town  of  Anibriz  has  a  pop.  of  5000.  See 
Angola. 

America,  the  western  continent  and  its  adja- 
cent islands,  forming  the  main  body  of  land  found 
in  the  western  hemisphere.  America  has  an  area 
of  about  16,500,000  sq.  m.,  and  is  larger  than 
Europe  and  Africa  together.  It  is  more  than  four 
times  as  large  as  Europe,  five  times  as  large  as 
Australia,  and  half  as  large  again  as  Africa ;  but 
is  considerably  smaller  in  area  than  Asia.  It  is 
customary  to  regard  Greenland  as  a  part  of  Amer- 
ica ;  while  the  adjacent  island  of  Iceland,  though 
partially  in  the  western  hemisphere,  is  usually 
associated  with  Europe.  The  other  principal 
American  islands  in  the  Atlantic  are  Newfound- 
land, Cape  Breton,  Anticosti,  Prince  Edward 
Island,  Long  Island,  the  Bermudas,  the  Antilles 
or  West  Indies,  Joannes,  the  Falkland  Islands, 
Staten  Land,  and  South  Georgia.  At  the  south- 
ern extremity  of  America  lies  the  archipelago  of 
Fuegia  (Tierra  del  Fuego).  In  the  Pacific  are  the 
Aleutian  Islands,  Kadiak,  the  Alexander  and 
Queen  Charlotte  groups,  Vancouver  and  other 
British-Columbian  Islands ;  the  Santa  Barbara 
group,  Revilla-Gigedo,  the  Pearl  Islands,  and 
others  in  the  Gulf  of  Panama,  the  GalSpagos, 
Juan  Fernandez  and  the  associated  islets,  Chiloe 
and  the  Chonos  Archipelago.  In  the  Arctic 
Ocean  there  are  many  large  but  unimportant 
islands. 

The  American  continent  consists  of  two  prin- 
cipal parts,  North  America  and  South  America, 
which  are  connected  by  the  narrow  Isthmus  of 
Panama.  These  two  bodies  of  land,  though 
diff'ering  very  much  in  climate  and  productions, 
are  mnch  alike  in  several  respects.  Each  is  of 
triangular  outline,  with  the  shortest  side  to  the 
north,  and  with  a  narrow  southern  prolongation. 
In  outline,  North  and  South  America  have  each 


AMERICA 


30 


AMERICA 


a  certain  resemblance  to  Africa.  The  two  Amer- 
icas have  each  a  high  range  of  volcanic  moun- 
tains, extending  from  north  to  south  along  the 
west  coast,  a  broad  central  plain,  and  a  relatively 
low  eastern  mountain-range.  Their  great  rivers 
have  also  some  features  in  common,  especially  in 
regard  to  their  direction.  America  is  called  the 
New  World ;  and  from  the  historical  point  of 
view,  this  name  is  obviously  appropriate;  but 
geologically  it  may  be  called  the  Old  World, 
since  the  oldest  known  strata  have  their  widest 
development  on  its  surface  ;  and  there  have  been 
here  found  relics  of  prehistoric  man,  which  must 
be  regarded  as  among  the  oldest  yet  discovered. 

North  America  has  an  area  of  more  than 
9,000,000  sq.  m.  It  is  considerably  larger  than 
South  America,  which  is  in  turn  larger  than 
Europe  and  Australia  combined.  The  western 
mountain-system  of  North  America  comprises 
a  very  great  number  of  minor  ranges,  mostly 
having  a  north  and  south  direction.  The  main 
chain  (Sierra  Madre)  cannot  be  said  to  preserve 
an  unmistakable  identity  tliroughout.  The  Coast 
Range,  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  the  Cascade  Moun- 
tains are  the  most  noted  of  the  western  parallel 
ranges ;  they  all  lie  on  the  Pacific  slope,  and 
they  contain  some  of  the  highest  of  North 
American  peaks.  The  elevated  plateau  called 
the  Great  Basin  (chiefly  in  Utah  and  Nevada, 
U.S.),  contains  the  Great  Salt  Lake  and  several 
smaller  bodies  of  strongly  saline  water,  evidently 
the  remains  of  a  much  larger  lake  which  once 
sent  its  waters  to  the  sea.  The  eastern  or  great 
Appalachian  mountain-system  has  a  general  NNE. 
direction,  nearly  parallel  with  the  Atlantic  coast- 
line. 

North  of  the  St  Lawrence  River  is  seen  the 
vast  and  complicated  mountain-system  of  the 
Laurentides,  which  extend  from  the  Atlantic 
westward  to  near  Lake  Superior.  The  highest 
mountain  in  North  America  is  Mount  McKinley, 
in  Alaska  (20,464  feet).  Orizaba,  in  Mexico,  is 
18,250  feet;  Mount  Logan,  in  Yukon,  19,539; 
Mount  St  Elias,  long  believed  to  be  the  highest 
summit,  18,024.  Popocatepetl  and  Iztacciliuatl, 
in  Mexico,  are  17,520  feet  and  16,960  feet  respec- 
tively.    Many  other  peaks  are  over  14,000  feet. 

A  very  remarkable  feature  of  North  America 
is  the  great  central  plain  which  reaches  from  the 
Arctic  Ocean  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  A  promi- 
nent feature  of  the  central  plain  is  the  Hauteur 
des  Terres,  a  high  ridge,  whence  flow  the  Missis- 
sippi, the  Red  River,  the  St  Lawrence,  and  the 
Winnipeg.  This  ridge  is  nowhere  over  2000  feet 
high,  and  its  ascent  is  extremely  gradual.  The 
most  general  name  for  the  great  plains  of  North 
America  is  prairie;  there  are  local  distinctions 
between  timbered  and  iald  or  treeless  prairies ; 
and  few  prairies  are  of  a  dead-level  surface,  and 
many  are  'rolling' — that  is,  their  surface  is  a 
succession  of  low  wave-like  swells  and  depres- 
sions. 

The  coast-line  of  North  America  on  the  west 
is  almost  everywhere  high  and  rocky.  To  the 
south  of  Puget  Sound,  good  harbours  are  rare  ; 
but  British  Columbia  and  Alaska  have  great 
numbers  of  good  seaports,  the  coast-line  being, 
in  many  places,  deeply  cut  with  high- walled 
flords,  or  'canals,'  and  elsewhere  sheltered  by 
ranges  of  high  and  well-wooded  islands.  Tire 
Atlantic  coast,  to  the  north  of  New  York  Bay,  is 
generally  rocky  and  well  sheltered  with  islands, 
and  has  abundance  of  good  natural  harbours ; 
but  south  of  the  parallel  of  New  York,  the  coast 
of  the  mainland  is  almost  everywhere  low  and 
sandy.    Many  of  the  best  ports  are  formed  by 


river-mouths,  and  have  sand-bars  across  their 
entrances.  Nowhere  else  in  the  world  is  there 
any  such  extent  of  low  and  sandy  coast  as  on 
the  Atlantic  and  Gulf  seaboards  of  the  United 
States. 

In  general,  Canada  and  the  Atlantic  slope  are 
well  watered  and  have  abundant  rains.  Along  a 
narrow  strip  on  the  Pacific  slope,  from  San  Fran- 
cisco southward  to  Acapulco,  tlie  water-supply 
is  deficient,  and  the  interior  regions  near  the 
coast  have  locally  a  desert  character  ;  while  from 
Acapulco  southward  the  rainfall  is  ample  for  all 
needs.  The  central  valley  is  generally  well  sup- 
plied with  water  ;  but  to  the  west  of  the  Missis- 
sippi there  are  but  scanty  sunnner  rains.  As  the 
Rocky  Mountains  are  approached,  the  water- 
supply  becomes  more  deficient ;  and,  except 
where  irrigation  is  practicable,  agriculture  proper 
generally  gives  place  to  the  grazing  of  cattle. 
But  in  the  Canadian  part  of  the  central  valley 
there  is  ordinarily  no  deficiency  of  rainfall.  In 
the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  the  summers  are 
generally  very  dry  ;  and  in  some  sections,  irriga- 
tion is  required  in  order  to  produce  crops.  Still 
the  great  volume  and  length  of  the  North 
American  rivers,  and  the  immense  number  of 
lakes,  are  sufficient  proof  of  the  amplitude  of 
the  general  rainfall.  In  the  Rocky  Mountain 
region  of  Canada,  the  great  rivers,  Yukon,  Fraser, 
Columbia,  Saskatchewan,  and  Mackenzie,  take 
their  rise.  Between  these  mountains  and  Hud- 
son Bay,  a  girdle  of  vast  lakes,  or  inland  seas 
(Great  Bear,  Great  Slave,  Athabasca,  Deer  Lake, 
Winnipeg,  and  others),  are  seen  to  form  a  regu- 
lar succession  running  from  tlie  Arctic  Circle  in 
a  SSE.  course  to  Lake  Superior  (412  by  167 
miles),  which  is  itself  the  largest  fresh-water 
lake  in  the  world,  and  tlie  first  of  a  wonderful 
chain  of  great  sea-like  expansions  of  the  Upper 
St  Lawrence  (the  others  being  Michigan,  Huron, 
Erie,  and  Ontario).  The  line  of  these  great  lakes 
(from  Great  Bear  Lake  to  the  Lake  of  the  Woods 
inclusive)  marks  the  eastern  limit  of  a  fertile 
prairie  region  resting  on  fossiliferous  rocks.  East 
of  this  line  we  find  a  vast  wilderness  of  '  Barren 
Grounds.'  North  of  the  St  Lawrence  system, 
almost  the  whole  country  is  thickly  studded 
with  lakes,  which,  with  their  connecting  streams, 
form  a  network  of  important  waterways  travers- 
able by  canoes  and  boats. 

The  Atlantic  slope  of  the  United  States  is  well 
supplied  with  water,  and  many  of  its  streams 
afford  extensive  navigation.  The  Hudson  is 
noted  for  its  fine  scenery ;  the  Potomac  is  one 
of  the  noblest  of  American  rivers  ;  and  important 
streams  flowing  to  the  Atlantic  are  the  St  John, 
the  Penobscot,  the  Kennebec,  the  Merrimac 
(noted  as  affording  more  utilised  water-power 
than  any  other  river  in  the  world),  the  Connecti- 
cut, the  Delaware,  the  Susquehanna,  the  James, 
and  the  St  John's,  nearly  all  navigable  in  their 
lower  courses.  The  chief  rivers  flowing  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  are  the  Appalachicola,  the  Mobile, 
the  Pearl,  the  great  Mississippi,  the  Sabine,  the 
Trinity,  the  Brazos,  the  Colorado  of  Texas,  and 
the  Rio  Grande. 

Of  the  many  large  Alaskan  rivers,  the  principal 
are  the  Yukon  and  the  Kuskoquim.  The  Fraser 
is  a  swift  and  strong  river ;  the  great  river  Col- 
umbia is  noted  alike  for  its  navigation,  its  salmon- 
fisheries,  and  its  enonnous  cataracts.  The  Rio 
Colorado,  whose  waters  flow  to  the  Gulf  of  Cali- 
fornia, traverses  a  desert  plateau.  Here,  nearly 
every  watercourse  runs  in  a  deep-walled  canon, 
a  narrow  valley  with  precipitous  sides,  often  of 
prodigious  height. 


AMERICA  31 

The  winter  cold  and  the  summer  heat  of  North 
America  are  extreme,  when  we  consider  the 
latitudes.  Variations  of  temperature  are  more 
sudden  and  more  extreme  than  in  South  America 
or  Western  Europe.  The  arctic  portion  of  North 
Ajnerica  has  a  climate  of  extreme  severity ;  and 
nuich  of  tlie  northern  sub-arctic  region  has  a 
decidedly  arctic  climate.  South  of  the  Canadian 
line,  we  are  still  in  the  spring-wheat  belt ;  and 
not  till  we  go  south  4  or  5  degrees  of  latitude  do 
we  enter  the  winter- wheat  belt.  Maize  is  planted 
in  the  warmer  parts  of  Canada,  and  in  nearly  all 
the  more  southern  parts  of  North  America.  The 
other  cereals  grown  iil*-'the  United  States  are 
much  the  same  as  those  ordinarily  produced  in 
Europe.  Sugar-cane  is  raised  only  in  the  most 
southern  parts  of  the  United  States,  and  in  lati- 
tudes still  farther  south.  Tobacco  is  an  im- 
portant crop  not  only  in  tropical  America,  but 
nearly  as  far  north  as  Canada.  Cotton  reaches 
its  northern  limit  in  California,  Missouri,  and 
Virginia.  True  rice  is  grown  in  the  more  southern 
United  States.  Throughout  the  Atlantic  and 
Gulf  slopes  of  North  America,  the  winter  climate 
is  much  more  severe  than  in  corresponding  Euro- 
pean latitudes.  It  will  be  observed  that  nearly 
all  the  cultivated  crop-products  of  North  America 
(except  maize,  potatoes,  and  tobacco)  are  of  Old- 
World  origin.  Tlie  same  thing  is  true  in  a  less 
degree  of  the  cultivated  fruits.  The  European 
apple  thrives  even  better  in  North  America  than 
in  Europe ;  so  likewise  do  the  peach,  the  pear, 
and  other  fruits.  But  the  grapes  generally  cul- 
tivated in  America  are  of  native  or  hybrid  origin  ; 
although  the  European  grape  does  well  in  Cali- 
fornia and  Mexico.  The  cranberries,  straw- 
berries, and  some  of  the  other  cultivated  small 
fruits  of  North  America,  are  of  native  origin,  as 
are  some  of  the  more  hardy  varieties  of  the  plum. 
Subtropical  fruits,  such  as  the  orange,  fig,  and 
lemon,  do  well  in  that  limited  part  of  non-tropi- 
cal North  America  which  lies  south  of  the  frost- 
line.  Tlie  mineral  treasures  of  North  America 
are  vast ;  coal,  iron,  copper,  gold,  silver,  lead, 
and  petroleum  being  abundant,  besides  salt  and 
other  valuable  products. 

The  native  peoples  of  North  and  South  America 
alike  would  appear  to  have  been  all  of  one  race, 
although  the  Eskimo  of  the  far  North  resemble 
the  '  Indian,'  or  copper-coloured  native  races, 
not  so  much  in  appearance  and  in  physical 
features,  as  in  the  polysynthetic  or  incorporative 
character  of  their  system  of  word-building.  The 
present  population  of  North  America  contains 
a  copious  element  of  the  Indian  stock,  chiefly 
found  in  the  remoter  parts  of  Canada  and  in 
Mexico  and  Central  America.  In  Spanish  Amer- 
ica and  in  Manitoba  (Canada),  there  are  many 
persons  of  mixed  white  and  Indian  origin.  Tlie 
Spanish  language  is  spoken  in  Central  America, 
Mexico,  Cuba,  and  Puerto  Rico  ;  French  prevails 
in  parts  of  Canada  and  Louisiana,  and  in  some 
of  the  West  Indies ;  and  a  German  dialect  pre- 
vails locally  in  Pennsylvania.  But  by  far  the 
largest  share  of  the  North  American  people  are 
English  in  language,  if  not  in  descent. 

The  political  divisions  of  North  America  are 
(1)  Danish  America,  which  includes  Greenland, 
and  three  small  islands  of  the  Virgin  group  in 
the  West  Indies.  C^)  British  North  America,  in 
which  division  we  may  place  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  Newfoundland,  Labrador,  the  Bermudas, 
the  numerous  British  West  Indian  islands,  and 
British  Honduras.  (3)  The  United  States,  includ- 
ing the  detached  territory  of  Alaska.  (4)  Mexico. 
(5)  The  Central  American  republics  of  Honduras, 


AMERICA 

Guatemala,  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica, 
together  with  Panama— unless  its  southern  part 
be  regarded  as  belonging  to  the  South  American 
continent.  (6)  The  West  Indian  republics  of 
Hayti  and  San  Domingo.  (7)  The  Dutch  West 
Indies.  See  tlie  articles  on  the  separate  states 
and  colonies. 

The  population  of  North  America,  with  the 
West  Indies,  is  not  less  than  105,000,000  souls,  of 
wliom  7,000,000  may  be  of  Indian  descent.  The 
very  great  majority  of  North  American  Indians, 
who  fall  into  about  a  dozen  stocks  or  groups  of 
tribes,  are  found  in  Mexico  and  Central  America. 
The  people  of  African  stock  number  at  least 
11,000,000,  most  of  whom  are  natives  of  the 
United  States.  Tlie  original  slave  element  was 
derived  from  almost  every  coast-region  of  the 
African  continent. 

South  America  has  somewhat  the  same  general 
shape  on  the  map  as  North  America,  and  the 
semi-continents  have  many  features  in  common, 
as  well  as  certain  marked  contrasts.  The  broad- 
est part  of  each  is  towards  the  north ;  but  the 
northern  portion  of  North  America  is  a  frozen 
and  most  repelling  region,  having  its  coasts 
washed  by  a  trackless  frozen  ocean,  filled  with 
barren  and  ice-crowned  islands  ;  while  the  Carib- 
bean Sea,  which  lies  north  of  the  southern  half 
of  the  continent,  is  entirely  tropical,  and  is 
encircled  by  a  chain  of  rich  and  beautiful  islands, 
where  frosts  are  never  seen.  The  climates  are 
therefore  reversed.  The  greater  portion  of  North 
America  has  either  a  cold  or  a  temperate,  climate  ; 
wliile  that  part  of  South  America  which  is  of 
corresponding  position  and  importance  has  a  hot 
climate.  The  tropical  region  of  North  America 
is  relatively  small  in  area  ;  while  in  South  Amer- 
ica it  is  much  the  smaller  part  which  has  a. cold 
climate.  Moreover,  the  winter  cold  of  Patagonia, 
Tierra  del  Fuego,  and  the  Falkland  Islands  is 
never  extreme,  like  that  of  so  great  a  part  of 
North  America.  Even  Tierra  del  Fuego,  which 
has  a  terribly  bleak  and  blustering  wet  and 
windy  climate,  is  never  very  cold.  The  summers 
of  the  extreme  south  of  America  are  indeed 
relatively  cold,  but  the  winters  are  correspond- 
ingly mild ;  that  is  to  say,  the  climate  is  more 
steady  and  less  changeable  than  that  of  North 
America. 

The  Andes,  or  South  American  Cordilleras, 
have  some  features  in  common  with  the  great 
North  American  Cordilleras,  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain system.  They  both  extend  north  and  south ; 
both  are  near  the  west  coast ;  both  are  volcanic ; 
and  both  cut  oft"  the  rains  from  a  considerable 
region,  rendering  the  climate  locally  very  dry. 
But  the  Andes  are  much  more  nearly  continu- 
ous ;  they  are  a  much  more  complete  barrier  to 
the  traveller  and  merchant,  as  well  as  to  the 
rain-bearing  winds  of  the  Atlantic ;  they  have 
a  much  greater  absolute  height,  and  contain  a 
far  greater  number  of  very  lofty  peaks.  Their 
volcanic  activity  is  also  at  present  much  more 
intense  than  is  seen  at  any  point  in  North 
America  north  of  the  Tehuan tepee  Isthmus.  The 
dry  or  desert  region  west  of  the  Andes  is  far 
more  extensive  and  far  more  completely  arid 
than  the  corresponding  section  of  North  America. 
To  the  east  of  the  Andes,  and  as  it  were  reclining 
against  them,  there  is  an  enormous  and  lofty 
plateau  on  which  are  scattered  various  extinct 
or  dormant  volcanic  peaks ;  but  the  western 
slope  of  the  Andes  is  usually  very  steep.  In 
some  parts  of  the  eastern  sub- Andean  plain  there 
appear  complicated  (but  generally  north  and 
south)  ranges  of  lower  mountains,  occasionally 


AMERICA 


32 


AMERSHAM 


sending  out  an  arm  of  hills  into  the  plains  of 
the  interior.  The  really  temperate  part  of  South 
America,  including  most  of  Chili,  Uruguay,  and 
the  Argentine  Republic,  has  a  mild,  and  for  the 
most  part  singularly  equable  and  agreeable  clim- 
ate ;  although  Northern  Chili  is  a  hot  and  arid 
desert,  and  the  southern  third  of  that  country, 
including  the  Chonos  Archipelago,  is  drenched 
with  continual  rains.  The  greater  and  most 
characteristic  region  of  South  America  is  the 
tropical  portion.  For  a  tropical  country  the 
climate  is  in  general  remarkably  fine,  regular, 
and  healthful.  A  marked  feature  is  the  large 
and  regular  rainfall,  caused  by  the  Andes,  which 
here  stand  exactly  across  the  course  of  the  trade- 
winds.  These  winds,  carried  gradually  upwards 
by  the  shelving  plateaus,  till  they  reach  the  cold 
Andean  summit-region,  precipitate  nearly  all 
their  moisture,  and  leave  the  narrow  strip  of 
land  west  of  the  Andes  a  desert.  Towards  the 
north  and  south,  the  Pacific  slope,  being  out  of 
the  highway  of  the  ti'ade-winds,  receives  abun- 
dant moisture  from  the  Pacific.  Owing  to  the 
enormous  rainfall  of  tropical  South  America,  it 
is  above  all  others  the  land  of  great  rivers.  The 
three  great  river-systems  of  the  Orinoco,  the 
Amazon,  and  the  Plata  are  all  primarily  devel- 
oped upon  the  eastern  terraces  of  the  Andes ; 
but  the  Plata  derives  its  main  water-supply  from 
the  Brazilian  mountains.  Other  large  rivers  are 
the  Magdaleua  in  Colombia,  the  Sao  Francisco 
in  Brazil,  and  the  Rio  Negro  in  the  Argentine 
Republic.  South  America  has  few  large  lakes. 
Lake  Titicaca  being  one  of  the  most  remarkable  ; 
but  the  slopes  of  the  Southern  Andes  abound  in 
smaller  lakes,  doubtless  of  glacial  origin. 

The  interior  of  South  America  presents  con- 
siderable variety.  In  the  central  and  southern 
portion  of  Venezuela  we  find  extensive  steppes 
or  prairies,  here  called  llanos  ;  an  open  region, 
in  part  treeless,  but  in  general  grassy  and  devoted 
to  pasturage.  To  the  east  and  west  of  these  the 
country  is  for  the  most  part  densely  wooded. 
The  vast  forest-clad  plain  of  the  Amazon  is  of 
fluviatile  origin.  Towards  the  southern  tropic 
we  encounter  a  region  which,  though  little  de- 
veloped, appears  to  be  one  of  the  finest  and  most 
fertile  on  the  globe.  Farther  south  the  forests 
begin  to  disappear,  and  finally  end  in  the  great 
treeless  pampas  of  the  Argentine  Republic.  The 
Patagonian  region  south  of  the  pampas  consists 
largely  of  a  succession  of  terraces  rising  west- 
ward to  the  Andes,  and  crossed  by  many  swift 
and  copious  rivers.  Here  are  seen  vast  fields 
covered  with  loose  stones  and  shingle,  recalling 
the  enormous  boulder-covered  waste  of  Labrador. 
Farther  south  lies  the  Fuegian  Archipelago,  a 
gloomy  and  unpleasant  region  with  a  bleak 
climate. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  South  America  is  very 
great,  including  gold,  silver,  mercury,  copper, 
diamonds,  and  coal. 

The  agricultural  capabilities  of  a  large  part  of 
South  America  are  unquestionably  very  great. 
Stock-breeding  is  the  leading  industry  on  the 
pampas  of  the  south,  and  on  the  llanos  and 
campos  of  the  north.  Coffee-growing  is  a  pro- 
minent pursuit  in  Brazil.  The  cereal  grains 
thrive  remarkably  in  the  temperate  regions. 
Sugar,  tobacco,  and  cotton  are  produced  in 
the  warmer  latitudes.  Silver,  copper,  iodine, 
nitrates,  guano,  hay,  and  provisions  are  shipped 
from  the  west  coast.  From  the  La  Plata  coun- 
tries wool  and  various  cattle  products  still  take 
the  lead,  although  flour  and  grain  are  becoming 
important  staples  of  export.    Peruvian  bark  and 


other  medicines,  india-rubber,  cabinet-woods, 
chocolate,  tobacco,  and  fruits  are  shipped  froin 
the  tropical  and  forest-regions  of  the  north. 

The  aboriginal  population  of  South  America  is 
divided  into  a  large  number  of  tribes,  which  have 
been  grouped  under  some  eight  different  stocks. 
The  white  population  is  largely  Spanish  in  lan- 
guage and  descent,  except  in  Brazil,  where  Por- 
tuguese is  spoken.  The  common  people  of  Chili 
are  largely  of  Gallician  (Spanish)  descent ;  while 
Basque  blood  is  said  to  prevail  in  Peru.  The 
Brazilian  whites  are  to  a  considerable  extent  of 
Azorean  and  Madeira  stock.  There  are  numbers 
of  German  colonists  in  Brazil,  the  La  Plata 
countries,  and  Chili ;  and  also  many  Italians, 
Basques,  and  other  Europeans  in  the  Argentine 
Republic  and  Uruguay.  The  English  language 
is  spoken  in  the  Falklands  and  in  Guiana ;  French 
and  Dutch  prevail  in  parts  of  Guiana.  The  negro 
element  is  strong  in  Brazil,  in  parts  of  Peru,  and 
in  Guiana  ;  and  there  are  many  persons  of  mixed 
descent.  It  is  believed  that  the  total  population 
of  South  America  is  about  38,000,000. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  islands  usually 
reckoned  as  West  Indian,  and  assigned  by  most 
geographers  to  North  America,  are  really  conti- 
nental and  South  American.  Such  are  the  large 
British  colony  of  Trinidad  ;  the  Venezuelan  island 
of  Marguerita  ;  and  the  Dutch  island  of  Curagoa. 

All  the  states  of  America,  each  with  a  separate 
article,  are  either  republics  or  colonies. 

NORTH   AMERICA. 


States. 

Area  in 
»!.  m. 

Pop. 

United  States 

3,025,600 
3,556.350 

766,000 

172,700 

.320,000 

1,062.800 

96,550 

76,085,794 

British      America,      including  ) 
Canada,  Newfoundland,  Ber-  y 
muda,  British  Honduras ' 

5,639,201 
13,545,462 

Central  America,  including  San  \ 
Salvador,     Nicaragua,     Hon-  >- 
duras,  Guatemala,  Coste  Rica  ) 

3,984,721 
10,516 

Polar  lands  (say) 

"West  Indies          .          .... 

6,340,267 

Total 

9,000,000 

105,605,961 

SOUTH  AMERICA. 


States. 

Area  in 
sq.  m. 

Pop. 

417,000 

.332,000 

160,000 

528,000 

536,000 

1,970,000 

72.700 

57,300 

218,900 

170,500 

3,288,000 

6,500 

2,444,816 

3,878,600 
1  ''05  600 

Colombia  and  Panama 

4,609,999 
1  788  674 

Bolivia                        

4,794,149 
930.680 
635,571 

3,128,095 

Uruguay 

Paraguay . 

Chili               

Guiana  (Brit.,French,Dutch) 
Brazil          

407,553 
14,339,915 

Falkland  Islands  (British).. . 

2,043 

7,756,900 

38,165,695 

Grand  Total  of  America 

16,756,900 

143,771,656 

Amersfoort,  an  ancient  town  of  the  Nether- 
lands, 14  miles  NE.  of  Utrecht  by  rail.  It  has  a 
large  trade  in  grain  ;  and  manufactures  of  brandy, 
cotton,  and  woollen  goods,  leather,  soap,  and 
beer.  Here  was  born  the  statesman  Olden- 
barneveld.    Pop.  18,182. 

Amersham,  a  town  of  Bucks,  7j  miles  ENB. 
of  Wycombe.    Pop.  3210. 


AMESBURY 


33 


AMSTERDAM 


Amesbury,  a  coursing  ground  in  Wiltshire, 
near  Stonehenge,  and  7i  miles  N.  of  Salisbury. 

Amesl)ury,  a  township  of  Massachusetts,  38 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Boston,  with  woollen  and 
carriage  factories.     Pop.  9473. 

Amha'ra  ('the  high  lands'),  the  middle  and 
largest  of  the  three  divisions  of  Abyssinia, 
extending  from  the  Tacazze  to  the  Blue  Nile,  and 
embracing  the  beautiful  Lake  Tzana.  Capital, 
Gondar  (q.v.). 

Amherst,  a  seaport  of  Tenasserim,  Burma,  on 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sal  win, , 
80  miles  S.  of  Maulmain.  Founded  in  1S26  as 
capital  of  the  newly-ceded  province,  it  was  next 
year  superseded  by  Maulmain.    Pop,  3000. 

Amherst,  a  seaport  of  Nova  Scotia,  at  the  head 
of  Cumberland  Basin,  an  inlet  of  the  Bay  of 
Fundy ;  pop.  5000. 

Amherst,  in  Massachusetts,  20  miles  N.  of 
Springtield,  is  seat  of  Amherst  College  (Congrega- 
tional) and  of  an  agricultural  college  ;  pop.  5000. 

Amherstburg,  a  town  of  Ontario,  Canada,  at 
the  head  of  Lake  Erie,  4  miles  S.  of  Detroit ; 
pop. 2272. 

Amiens  (Fr.  pron.  Am-i-omP  ;  anc.  Samarobriva), 
a  French  city,  capital  once  of  Picardy,  and  now  of 
the  dep.  of  Somme,  on  the  many-channelled, 
navigable  Somme,  81  miles  N.  of  Paris  by  rail. 
Its  fortifications  have  been  turned  into  charming 
boulevards,  but  it  still  retains  its  old  citadel. 
The  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame  is  a  masterpiece  of 
Gothic  architecture.  Begun  in  1220,  it  is  452 
feet  long,  and  has  a  spire  (1529)  426  feet  high ; 
but  its  special  feature  is  the  loftiness  of  the  nave, 
141  feet.  In  his  little  work  called  The  Bible  of 
Amiens,  Ruskin  says  this  church  well  deserves  the 
name  given  it  by  Viollet-le-Duc,  '  the  Parthenon 
of  Gothic  architecture,'  and  affirms  that  its  style 
is  '  Gothic  pure,  authoritative,  and  unaccusable.' 
Other  noteworthy  buildings  are  the  H6tel-de- 
Ville  (1600-1760),  in  which  the  Peace  of  Amiens 
was  signed  in  1802  ;  the  large  museum  (1864),  in 
Renaissance  style  ;  and  the  public  library  (1791), 
with  70,000  volumes.  Amiens  has  considerable 
manufactures  of  velvet,  silk,  woollen,  and  cotton 
goods,  ribbons,  and  carpets.  Peter  the  Hermit 
and  Ducange  were  natives,  and  there  are  statues 
to  both  of  them.  In  the  Franco-German  war,  on 
27th  November  1870,  General  Manteuffel  inflicted, 
near  Amiens,  a  signal  defeat  on  a  French  army 
30,000  strong,  and  three  days  later  the  citadel 
surrendered.    Pop.  (1872)  61,063 ;  (1901)  90,758. 

Amir  ante  Islands,  a  group  of  eleven  low, 
wooded  islands  lying  SW.  of  the  Seychelles, 
opposite  the  east  coast  of  Africa.  Area,  32  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  100  French-speaking  half-breds.  They 
fell  to  Great  Britain  in  1814,  and  form  a  depend- 
ency of  Mauritius. 

Am'lwch  (pron.  lu  as  oo),  a  small  seaport  of 
Anglesey,  North  Wales,  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
island,  21J  miles  NNW.  of  the  Menai  Bridge  by 
rail  (1867).  It  is  a  busy  but  rather  dirty  town, 
with  the  neighbouring  rich  copper-mines  of  the 
Parys  Mountain.  Till  1885  Amlwch  united  with 
Beaumaris,  &c.  in  returning  one  member.  Pop. 
of  parish,  4443. 

Ammergau.    See  Ober-Ammergau. 

Amol,  a  town  of  Persia,  76  miles  NE.  of 
Teheran,  on  the  Heraz,  a  river  which  flows  into 
th.e  Caspian  ;  pop.  10,000. 

Amoor.    See  Amur. 

Amoy',  a  seaport  of  China,  on  a  small  island  of 
the  same  name,  in  the  province  of  Fukien,  325 


miles  ENE.  of  Canton  direct.  The  third  in  im- 
portance of  the  treaty  ports,  it  was  one  of  the 
earliest  seats  of  European  commerce  in  China, 
the  Portuguese  having  had  establishments  here 
in  the  16th,  and  the  Dutch  in  the  17th  century. 
In  1841  it  was  taken  by  the  British,  and  by  the 
treaty  of  Nankin,  a  British  consul  and  British 
subjects  were  permitted  to  reside  there.  The 
trade  is  now  open  to  all  nations.  The  imports 
are  opium,  rice,  cotton-twist,  British  long-cloths, 
beans,  peas,  umbrellas,  clocks,  &c.  ;  the  exports 
are  tea,  sugar,  paper,  opium,  grass-cloths,  gold- 
leaf,  &c.  Pop.  95,600.  The  island  of  Amoy, 
measuring  9  by  7  miles,  has  400,000  inhabitants. 

Ampthill,  a  town  of  Bedfordshire,  7  miles  S. 
by  W.  of  Bedford.     Pop.  of  parish,  2194. 

Amraoti  (sometimes  Oomrawuttee),  a  district  in 
Berar,  British  India,  with  an  area  of  2759  sq.  m., 
and  a  pop.  of  675,328.  Its  capital,  Amraoti,  is 
an  important  cotton-mart,  the  terminus  of  a 
state  branch  railway  ;  pop.  28,550. 

Amritsar  (often  Umritsir),  a  well-built  city  of 
the  Punjab,  32  miles  E.  of  Lahore  by  rail.  It  is 
the  religious  metropolis  of  the  Sikhs,  a  distinction 
which,  along  with  its  name  (literally,  'pool  of 
immortality '),  it  owes  to  its  sacred  tank,  in  the 
midst  of  which  stands  the  marble  temple  of  the 
Sikh  faith.  Founded  in  1574,  but  all  of  it  more 
recent  than  1762,  it  possesses  considerable  manu- 
factures of  cashmere  shawls,  cotton,  silks,  &c., 
and  carries  on  trade  to  the  annual  value  of 
£3,500,000.     Pop.  (1901)  162,500. 

Amroha,  a  town  in  the  United  Provinces  of 
India,  20  miles  NW.  of  Moradabad  ;  pop.  37,000, 

Amrum,  a  north  Frisian  island  off  the  coast 
of  Sleswick,  SW.  of  Fohr,  is  a  low-lying  half- 
moon  of  grassy  downs,  8  miles  long,  of  late  visited 
as  a  health-resort.  Oysters  are  taken  and  wild 
ducks  decoyed.     Pop.  1000. 

Amsterdam  ('  dam '  or  '  dike  of  the  Amstel  'X 
the  capital  of  the  Netherlands,  is  situated  at  the 
influx  of  the  Amstel  to  the  Ij  or  Y  (pron.  eye), 
an  arm  (now  mostly  drained)  of  the  Zuider-Zee, 
44|  miles  NNE.  of  Rotterdam  by  rail.  It  is 
divided  by  the  Amstel  and  numerous  canals  into 
a  hundred  small  islands,  connected  by  more  than 
300  bridges.  Almost  the  whole  city,  which 
extends  in  thS  shape  of  a  crescent,  is  founded  on 
piles  driven  40  or  50  feet  through  soft  peat  and 
sand  to  a  firm  substratum  of  clay.  Merely  a 
fishing-village  at  the  begiiming  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury, with  a  small  castle,  in  1482  it  was  walled 
a)id  fortified.  After  the  revolt  of  the  seven  pro- 
vinces (1566),  it  speedily  rose  to  be  their  first 
commercial  city ;  and  in  1585  it  was  enlarged  by 
the  building  of  the  New  Town  on  the  west.  The 
establishment  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company 
(1602)  did  much  to  forward  the  well-being  of 
Amsterdam,  which,  twenty  years  later,  had  100,000 
inhabitants.  It  had  to  surrender  to  the  Prussians 
in  1787,  to  the  French  in  1795  ;  and  the  union  of 
Holland  with  France  in  1810  entirely  destroyed 
its  foreign  trade.  The  old  firms,  however,  lived 
through  the  time  of  difficulty,  and  in  1815  com- 
merce again  began  to  exi)and — an  expansion 
greatly  promoted  by  the  opening  of  the  North 
Holland  Canal  (1825),  and  the  North  Sea  Canal 
(1876). 

The  city  has  a  fine  appearance  when  seen  from 
the  harbour,  or  from  the  high  bridge  over  the 
Amstel.  Church  towers  and  spires,  and  a  perfect 
forest  of  masts,  relieve  the  flatness  of  the  pros- 
pect. The  old  ramparts  have  been  levelled, 
planted  with  trees,  and  formed  into  promenades. 
Thethreechief  canals— the  Heerengracht,  Keizers- 


AMSTERDAM 


34 


ANCONA 


gracht,  and  Prinsengracht— run  in  semicircles 
within  each  other,  and  are  from  2  to  3  miles  long. 
On  each  side  of  them,  with  a  row  of  trees  and  a 
carriage-way  intervening,  are  handsome  resi- 
dences. The  building-material  is  brick  ;  and  the 
houses  have  their  gables  towards  the  streets, 
which  gives  them  a  picturesque  appearance. 
The  defences  of  Amsterdam  now  consist  in  a  row 
of  detached  forts,  and  in  the  sluices,  several 
miles  distant  from  the  city,  which  can  flood 
(save  in  time  of  frost)  the  surrounding  land. 

The  population,  which  from  217,024  in  1794, 
sank  to  180,179  in  1815,  rose  to  upwards  of  538,000 
in  1902,  of  whom  the  majority  belong  to  tlie  Dutch 
Reformed  Church.  The  chief  industrial  establish- 
ments are  sugar  refineries,  engineering  works, 
mills  for  polisliing  diamonds  and  other  precious 
stones,  dockyards,  manufactories  of  sails,  ropes, 
tobacco,  silks,  gold  and  silver  plate  and  jewelry, 
colours  and  chemicals,  breweries,  distilleries, 
with  export  houses  for  corn  and  colonial  pro- 
duce ;  cotton-spinning,  book-printing,  and  type- 
founding  are  also  carried  on.  The  present  Bank 
of  the  Netherlands  dates  from  1824,  Amsterdam's 
famous  bank  of  1609  having  been  dissolved  in 
1796. 

The  former  Stadhuis  ('  Townhouse '),  converted 
in  1808  into  a  palace  for  King  Louis  Bonaparte, 
and  still  retained  by  the  reigning  family,  is  a 
noble  structure  of  1648-55,  282  feet  long,  and  235 
broad,  with  a  round  tower  rising  182  feet.  It  has 
a  hall,  120  feet  long,  57  wide,  and  90  high,  lined 
with  white  Italian  marble.  The  cruciform  Nieuwe 
Kerk  (New  Church),  a  Gothic  edifice  of  1408-14, 
has  a  splendidly  carved  pulpit,  and  the  tombs  of 
Admiral  de  Ruyter  and  Vondel.  The  14th-cen- 
tury Old  Church  (Oude  Kerk)  is  rich  in  painted 
glass,  has  a  grand  organ,  and  contains  several 
monuments  of  naval  heroes.  Literature  and 
science  are  represented  by  a  university  supported 
by  the  municipal  principality,  museums  and 
picture-galleries,  a  botanical  garden,  several 
theatres,  &c.  The  new  Ryksmuseum  contains  a 
truly  national  collection  of  paintings,  its  choicest 
treasure  Rembrandt's  'Night-guard.'  Rembrandt 
made  Amsterdam  his  home  ;  and  his  statue  (1852) 
now  fronts  the  house  he  occupied.  Spinoza  was 
a  native.    A  water-supply  was  introduced  in  1853. 

Amsterdam,  a  manufacturing  town  of  New 
York,  on  the  Mohawk  River.  33  miles  NW.  of 
Albany.     Pop.  22,000. 

Amsterdam,  a  barren  volcanic  islet  annexed 
by  France,  with  the  islet  of  St  Paul,  in  1893,  is 
in  37*  50'  S.  lat.  and  77°  30'  E.  long.,  about 
midway  between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
Tasmania. 

Amu-Darla.    See  Oxus. 

Amur  (Amoor),  or  Sakhalin,  a  river  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  Shilka  and  the  Argun,  which 
both  come  from  the  south-west — the  former 
rising  in  the  foothills  of  the  Yablonoi  Mountains. 
From  the  junction,  the  river  flows  3000  miles 
south-eastward  and  north-eastward  to  the  Sea 
of  Okhotsk,  opposite  the  island  of  Saghalien. 
Its  main  tributaries  are  the  Sungari  and  the 
Usuri,  both  from  the  south.  Above  the  Usuri, 
the  Amur  is  the  boundary  between  Siberia  and 
Manchuria ;  below  it,  the  river  runs  through 
Russian  territory.  It  is  very  valuable  for 
navigation,  and  carries  a  considerable  fleet  of 
steamers,  but  on  account  of  the  bar  at  its 
mouth,  goods  are  generally  disembarked,  and 
carried  overland  to  Alexandrovsk.  The  river 
is  frozen  for  six  months  of  the  year ;  in  summer 
there  are  extensive  inundations. 


From  1636,  Russian  adventurers  made  excur- 
sions into  the  Chinese  territories  of  the  Lower 
Amur.;  but  it  was  not  until  1854-56  that  two 
military  expeditions  established  tlie  stations  of 
Alexandrovsk  and  Nikolaevsk.  In  1858  China 
agreed  to  the  treaty  of  Tientsin,  by  which  the 
left  bank  of  the  Amur,  and  all  the  territory 
north  of  it,  became  Russian ;  and  below  the 
confluence  of  the  Usuri,  both  banks.  In  1860 
Russia  acquired  the  wide  territory  extending 
from  the  Amur  and  the  Usuri  to  the  Pacific 
coast,  with  harbours  on  the  Pacific  in  a  com- 
paratively temperate  latitude,  where  navigation 
is  impeded  by  ice  for  not  more  than  three  or 
four  months  a  year. 

This  vast  territory  falls  into  two  Russian 
provinces — the  Maritime  Province  between  the 
Usuri  and  the  sea,  and  the  government  of 
Amur,  north  of  the  river.  The  latter  has  an 
area  of  172,850  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  122,640, 
mostly  belonging  to  the  Tungusic  stock.  The 
capital  is,  since  1882,  Khabarovka,  and  not,  as 
formerly,  Blagovestschensk.  Nikolaevsk,  once 
the  only  important  place  in  these  regions,  is  on 
the  Amur,  26  miles  from  its  mouth,  where  the 
river  is  IJ  mile  wide,  and  in  places  15  feet  deep. 
Near  the  southern  end  of  the  Maritime  Province 
(area,  715,980  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  221,750)  is  situated 
the  important  harbour  of  Vladivostok  ('  Rule  of 
the  East'),  or  Port  May,  which,  in  1872,  was 
placed  in  telegraphic  communication  with  Europe 
by  the  China  submarine  cable.  Vladivostok  is 
one  terminus  of  the  Trans-Siberian  railway  com- 
menced in  1891.  The  island  of  Saghalien  (q.v.)  is 
also  a  part  of  the  Amur  region  in  the  wider  sense. 

Amurnath,  a  cave  in  Cashmere,  amidst  the 
mountains  on  the  north-east  boundary.  It  is  an 
opening  in  a  gypsum  rock,  30  yards  high,  and  20 
in  depth.  Believed  to  be  the  residence  of  the 
god  Siva,  it  is  visited  by  multitudes  of  pilgrims. 

Anadyr,  a  gulf  of  North-east  Siberia,  into 
which  flows  the  Anadyr  River  after  a  course  of 
500  miles  from  the  Stanovoi  Mountains. 

Anagni,  a  toAvn  of  Italy,  on  a  hill,  40  miles 
ESE.  of  Rome.  The  seat  of  a  bishop  since  487, 
it  was  the  birthplace  of  popes  Innocent  III., 
Gregory  IX.,  Alexander  IV.,  and  Boniface  VIII. 
Pop.  6347. 

Anahuac  ('near  the  water'),  the  original  name 
of  the  ancient  kingdom  of  Mfexico. 

Anam.    See  Annam. 

Ananlev,  a  town  of  Southern  Russia,  100  miles 
N.  of  Odessa  ;  pop.  16,449. 

Anapa,  a  Russian  seaport  on  the  east  shore  of 
the  Black  Sea,  50  miles  SE.  of  Yenikale;  pop.  7037. 

Anatolia.    See  Asia  Minor. 

Anco'na,  the  capital  of  a  province  in  Italy,  on 
a  promontory  of  the  Adriatic,  127  miles  SE.  of 
Ravenna  by  rail.  Its  harbour  had  become  much 
silted  up,  but  in  1887  was  improved  and  deepened ; 
and  it  is  still  the  most  important  seaport  be- 
tween Venice  and  Brindisi.  The  manufactures 
are  silk,  ships'  rigging,  leather,  tobacco,  and  soft 
soap  ;  the  exports  (declining)  are  cream-of-tartar, 
lamb  and  goat  skins,  asphalt,  bitumen,  corn, 
hemp,  coral,  and  silk.  Since  1815,  the  old  citadel 
was  the  only  fortification  until,  recently,  strong 
forts  were  erected  on  the  neighbouring  heights. 
A  mole  2000  feet  long,  built  by  Trajan,  and  a 
triumphal  arch  of  the  same  emperor,  are  the 
most  notable  antiquities ;  the  cathedral  was  built 
in  the  11th  c.  Pop.  (1901)  57,000.  Founded 
about  380  B.C.  by  Syracusans,  Ancona  was  de- 
stroyed by  the  Goths,  rebuilt  by  Narses,  and 


ANCRUM  MOOR 


35 


ANDES 


again  destroyed  by  the  Saracens  in  the  10th 
century.  It  afterwards  became  a  republic,  but 
in  1532  was  annexed  to  the  States  of  the  Church. 
In  1797  it  was  taken  by  tlie  French,  but  sur- 
rendered to  the  Russians  and  Austrians.  During 
1832-38  a  French  force  held  it ;  in  1849  a  revolu- 
tionary garrison  capitulated  to  the  Austrians ; 
and  in  1861  it  was  incorporated  in  the  kingdom 
of  Italy.— The  March  of  Ancona  was  the  name 
applied  to  the  territory  lying  between  tlie  Adriatic 
and  the  Apennines,  from  Tronto  NW.  to  San 
Marino. 

Ancrum  Moor,  Roxburghshire,  5i  miles  NW. 
of  Jedburgh,  was  in  1544  the  scene  of  the  defeat 
of  5000  English. 

Andalu'sla  (Span.  Andahid'a),  a  large  and 
fertile  region  occupying  the  south  of  Spain,  and 
washed  both  by  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Atlantic.  The  name  is  a  form  of  Vandalitia  or 
Vandalusia,  from  the  Vandals,  who  overran  it 
in  the  5th  century.  The  biblical  Tarshish  prob- 
ably, it  was  the  seat  of  a  splendid  Moorish 
monarchy  from  the  8th  century  a.d.  to  1235-48. 
Andalusia  mainly  consists  of  the  great  basin 
of  the  Guadalquivir;  in  the  south,  the  Sierra 
Nevada  attains  a  height  of  11,657  feet.  It  is 
still  one  of  the  most  fertile  districts  of  Spain, 
with  celebrated  breeds  of  horses  and  mules,  it 
is  divided  into  the  provinces  of  Almeria,  Jaen, 
Malaga,  Cadiz,  Huelva,  Seville,  Cordova,  and 
Granada.  The  chief  towns  are  Seville,  Cordova, 
Jaen,  and  Cadiz.  Area,  33,340  sq.  m.  Pop. 
3,470,089. 

An'damans,  a  group  of  thickly  wooded  islands 
towards  the  east  side  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  680 
miles  S.  of  the  Hooghly  mouth  of  the  Ganges. 
They  consist  of  the  Great  and  Little  Andaman 
groups.  The  former  group,  more  than  150  miles 
long  and  20  miles  broad,  comprises  four  islands, 
the  North,  Middle,  and  South  Andaman,  and 
Rutland  Island.  The  Little  Andaman,  30  miles 
S.  of  the  larger  group,  is  28  miles  long  by  17 
miles  broad.  The  total  area  is  2508  sq.  m.  The 
dark,  dwarfish  natives,  seldom  five  feet  high, 
stand  also  in  the  lowest  stage  of  civilisation. 
Their  number  in  Great  Andaman  is  about  2000  ; 
in  Little  Andaman,  from  1000  to  1500.  A  British 
settlement  was  made  on  North  Andaman  in  1789, 
but  abandoned  in  1796  for  Penang.  The  present 
capital  is  Port  Blair,  on  South  Andaman,  the 
largest  island  of  the  group.  The  harbour  here  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  world.  Since  1858,  the 
Andamans  have  been  used  by  the  Indian  govern- 
ment as  a  penal  settlement  for  sepoy  mutineers 
and  other  life-convicts.  In  1901  the  population 
of  the  convict  colony  was  18,670,  of  whom  2240 
were  women.  In  1872  Lord  Mayo,  viceroy  of 
India,  was'-  assassinated  at  Hopetown  on  Viper 
,  Island  by  a  Mussulman  convict. 

Andelys,  Les,  a  town  in  the  Norman  dep. 
of  Eure,  20  miles  NE.  of  Evreux.  Chateau 
Gaillard  was  built  here  by  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion 
to  command  the  Seine.     Pop.  5509. 

Andenne,  a  town  of  Belgium,  12  miles  E.  of 
Namur  by  r^vil ;  pop.  7903. 

Anderab,  a  town  in  Afghan  Turkestan,  on  the 
northern  slope  of  the  Hindu  Kush  Mountains,  80 
miles  SSE,  of  Kunduz  ;  pop.  6500. 

Andermatt,  or  Ursern,  a  Swiss  village  in  the 
canton  of  Uri,  18  miles  S.  of  the  Lake  of  Lucerne. 
Pop.  750. 

Andernacll  (Roman  Aiitunnacum),  a  town  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Rhine,  11  miles  NW.  of 
Coblenz  by  rail.    It  was  a  residence  of  tl^e  Mero- 


vingian kings,  and  afterwards  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  places  on  the  Rhine.  A  great  tower, 
a  fine  church,  and  the  ruined  castle  of  the  arch- 
bishops of  Cologne,  give  it  quite  a  mediaeval 
aspect.     Pop.  7781. 

Anderson,  capital  of  Madison  county,  Indiana, 
on  the  west  fork  of  White  River,  36  miles  by  rail 
NE.  of  Indianopolis.  It  manufactures  engines, 
carriages,  furniture,  &c.  Pop.  (1880)  4126 ;  (1890) 
10,741. ;  (1900)  20,178, 

Anderson vllle,  a  village  in  Georgia,  U.S.,  60 
miles  SW.  of  Macon  by  rail,  noted  as  having  been 
the  seat  of  a  Confederate  States  military  prison." 
Andes  (said  to  be  derived  from  the  Peruvian 
anti,  copper,  metal),  a  lofty  mountain-system  of 
South  America,  extending  north  and  south  along 
the  whole  Pacific  coast,  and  really  a  continuation 
of  the  vast  and  complicated  mountain-system  of 
Western  North  America,  though  on  the  Isthmus 
of  Darien  the  height  of  the  connecting  ridges  is 
less  than  130  feet.  The  mountains  of  the  Fuegian 
Archipelago,  south  of  the  mainland  of  South 
America,  including  Cape  Horn  and  Diego 
Ramirez,  must  be  held  to  belong  to  this  system. 
Without  allowing  for  curves,  tlie  Andes  extend 
some  4500  miles.  The  Patagonian  portion  of  the 
system  is  much  cut  by  steep  ravines,  some- 
times partly  filled  with  glaciers,  and  not  seldom 
occupied  by  deep  arms  of  the  sea.  On  both 
east  and  west  sides  of  the  ranges  vegetation  is 
luxuriant,  due  to  the  excessive  abundance  of  the 
rainfall.  Between  lat.  42°  and  24°  S.  the  main 
chain  of  the  Andes  recedes  from  the  sea-coast, 
leaving  in  Chili  a  tract  of  country  nowhere 
exceeding  120  geographical  miles  in  breadth. 
The  mountains  here  reach  a  mean  elevation  of 
11,830  feet ;  one  of  the  peaks,  Aconcagua^  is  the 
loftiest  on  the  American  continent,  22,867  feet. 
Another,  Cima  del  Mercedario,  is  22,312  feet.  In 
this  region,  both  to  the  north  and  to  the  south, 
there  is  but  one  main  line  of  peaks  ;  but  between 
these  two  parts  two  high  parallel  ranges  occur, 
having  between  them  a  relatively  low  plateau. 
The  Bolivian  Andes  occupy  perhaps  one-third  of 
the  area  of  the  republic,  and  form  a  vast  arid 
region  of  great  elevation.  Amongst  them  are 
Gualtieri,  22,000  feet  high,  and  Sorata  and  Illi- 
mani,  both  above  21,000.  The  east  and  west 
Cordilleras  of  Bolivia  enclose  the  land-locked 
plateau  of  the  Desaguadero,  13,000  feet  in  height, 
and  having  an  area  of  30,000  sq.  m. 

In  Peru  the  maritime  Cordillera  overlooks  the 
sea  in  a  close  succession  of  volcanic  cones.  Near 
lat.  10°  S.  the  chain  divides  into  the  seaward 
Cordillera  Negra,  and  the  more  eastward  Cordil- 
lera Nevada,  with  a  deep  trough  or  ravine  inter- 
vening. The  central  Cordillera  of  Peru  is  the 
chain  which  bounds  the  Titicaca  basin  on  the 
west.  The  eastern  Andes  of  Peru  form  a  magnifi- 
cent succession  of  grand  peaks,  with  only  very 
local  evidences  of  recent  volcanic  action.  Of  the 
Peruvian  peaks  the  highest  are  Huascan  (22,000 
feet)  and  Huandoy  (21,088  feet).  The  lofty  wilder- 
nesses of  the  high  Peruvian  Andes  form  a  cold 
and  wind-swept  region  known  as  the  Puna.  In 
the  SW.  of  Ecuador  the  various  ridges  of  the 
Andes  coalesce,  immediately  to  divide  again  into 
two  main  chains,  both  characterised  by  intense 
volcanic  activity.  According  to  Whymper  Chim- 
borazo  is  20,498  feet,  Cotopaxi  19,613,  and  Anti- 
sana  19,335.  The  Colombian  Andes  are  disposed 
in  three  main  lines.  Only  a  few  of  the  peaks  of 
the  Venezuelan  Andes  rise  above  the  snow-line. 
One  of  the  plateaus,  Assuay,  is  14,500  feet  high ;  the 
lowest  notable  pass,  Planchon,  is  11,455  feet  high. 


ANDIJAN 


ANGOLA 


The  great  bulk  of  the  Andean  masses  is  com- 
posed of  stratified  rocks ;  upheaval,  denudation, 
and  direct  volcanic  action  have  been  leading  fac- 
tors in  building  the  mountains.  Volcanic  action 
is  still  very  great  in  Ecuador,  but  less  so  in  the 
other  parts  of  the  chain.  Gold,  silver,  copper, 
mercury,  and  other  metals  abound  in  nearly 
every  part  of  the  Andes.  There  are  three  trans- 
Andean  railways — two  in  Peru,  and  a  more  im- 
portant one,  unfinished  in  1004,  which  connects 
the  Chilian  and  Argentine  railways  by  a  rack- 
rail  line  with  five  tunnels,  nearly  continuous, 
about  8  miles  long  and  at  a  height  of  between 
9000  and  10,000  feet.  See  Conway,  The  Bolivian 
Andes (1901);  Fitzgerald,  The  Highest  Andes (1899); 
Whymper,  Travels  amongst  the  Great  Andes  of  the 
Equator  (1892). 

Andljan,  capital  of  a  district  in  Ferghana, 
connected  by  rail  witli  Bokhara  ;  it  was  destroyed 
by  eartliquake  in  1902.    Pop.  50,000. 

Andkhul,  capital  of  a  khanate  in  Afghan 
Turkestan,  between  the  northern  spurs  of  the 
Paropamisus  and  tlie  Amu-Daria  (Oxus). 

Andorra,  a  valley  republic  of  the  Eastern 
Pyrenees,  between  the  French  dep.  of  Ari6ge 
and  the  Spanish  province  of  Lerida,  part  of 
Catalonia.  It  is  enclosed  by  mountains,  through 
which  its  river,  the  Balira,  breaks  to  join  the 
Segre  at  Urgel.  Area,  171  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  5831, 
Said  to  have  been  declared  a  free  state  by  Charle- 
magne, Andorra  now  stands  under  the  common 
protectorate  of  France  and  the  Catalonian  Bishop 
of  Urgel.  The  republic  is  governed  by  a  sovereign 
council  of  twenty-four  members,  chosen  by  cer- 
tain heads  of  houses,  and  the  council  elects  a 
president  for  four  years.  The  Andorrans  are 
good-natured,  hard-working  mountaineers,  hos- 
pitable, moral,  and  devoted  to  liberty.  They 
speak  a  dialect  of  Catalonian.  The  capital  is 
Andorra  la  Vieja  (pop.  600) ;  San  Julian  (500)  and 
Canillo  (500)  are  the  other  towns.  See  works  by 
Berthet  (Paris,  1879)  and  Deverell  (Loud.  1884). 

An'dover  (Andeafaran,  'passage  of  the  river 
Ande '),  a  municipal  borough  and  market-town  of 
Hampshire,  66  miles  SW.  of  London.  Chartered 
by  Henry  I.,  Richard  I.,  and  John,  Andover  till 
1867  returned  two  members,  till  1885,  one.  The 
chief  trade  consists  in  corn  and  malt ;  at  Wey- 
hill,  3  miles  west,  an  October  fair  is  held, 
formerly  very  iniportant.    Pop.  6000. 

Andover,  a  village  of  Essex  county,  Massa- 
chusetts, 23  miles  N.  of  Boston,  with  about  7000 
inhabitants.  Settled  in  1643  from  its  English 
namesake,  it  is  famous,  even  in  Massachusetts, 
for  its  educational  institutions,  especially  the 
Phillips  Academy  and  the  Congregational  Theo- 
logical Seminary. 

Andrla,  a  city  of  South  Italy,  30  miles  W.  of 
Bari,  with  a  fine  cathedral  (1046) ;  pop.  46,795. 

Andres,  (1)  an  island  of  the  Greek  Archipelago, 
the  most  northern  of  the  Cyclades,  separated 
from  Euboea  by  a  channel  6  miles  broad.  It  is 
25  miles  long,  10  miles  broad,  and  156  sq.  m.  in 
area.  Pop.  20,562,  of  whom  1800  are  in  the  chief 
town,  Andros,  on  a  bay  of  the  east  coast. — 
(2)  One  of  the  Bahamas  (q.v.). 

Andujar,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Guadal- 
quivir, at  the  base  of  the  Sierra  Morena,  48  miles 
ENE.  of  Cordova  by  rail ;  pop.  15,116. 

Anega'da,  a  British  coral  island,  the  most 
northerly  of  the  Virgin  Islands,  lying  east  of 
Porto  Rico,  in  the  West  Indies.  Area,  13  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  200. 

Angara,  a  tributary  of  the  Yenisei  (q.v.). 


Angeln,  a  district  of  Sleswick,  between  the 
Bay  of  Flensburg  and  the  Schlei,  supposed  to  be 
the  home  from  whiclx  came  the  Angles  who 
invaded  England  in  the  5th  century. 

Angermanland,  a  former  division  of  Sweden, 
now  chiefly  comprised  in  the  government  of 
Westernorrland,  extends  along  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  and  is  watered  by  the  river  Angerman, 
200  miles  long.  The  chief  town  is  Hernosand, 
with  a  pop.  of  6000. 

Angermlinde,  a  town  of  Prussia,  on  Lake 
MUnde,  43  miles  NE.  of  Berlin  by  rail;  pop. 
7833. 

Angers  (On'zhayr ;  anc.  Andegavum),  formerly 
the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Anjou,  and  now 
of  the  French  dep.  of  Maine-et-Loire,  on  the 
navigable  Maine,  not  far  from  its  junction  with 
the  Loire,  214  miles  SW.  of  Paris  by  rail.  Angers 
was  the  seat  of  a  university  (1246-1685),  and  of  a 
military  college,  at  which  the  Earl  of  Chatham 
and  the  Duke  of  Wellington  received  part  of  their 
education.  David,  the  great  sculptor,  was  a 
native.  The  castle  was  built  by  St  Louis  about 
1250  on  a  projecting  rock  above  the  river.  The 
fine  cathedral  is  also  a  13th-century  building. 
Sail-making,  wool  and  cotton  spinning,  and  weav- 
ing are  carried  on.  The  neighbouring  slate- 
quarries  employ  3000  men.  Pop.  (1872)  54,454; 
(1891)  70,508  ;  (1901)  82,400. 

Anglesey,  or  Anglesea  (A.S.  Angles  Ey—i.e. 
'  the  Englishmen's  island '),  an  island  and  county 
of  Wales,  separated  from  the  north-west  main- 
land by  the  Menai  Strait  (q.v.),  which  is  spanned 
by  the  suspension  bridge  (1826)  and  by  the 
tubular  bridge  (1850).  The  extreme  length  is  21 
miles ;  the  extreme  breadth,  19 ;  the  coast-line 
measures  about  80 ;  and  its  area  is  302  sq.  m.,  or 
193,453  acres.  The  climate  is  mild  but  foggy, 
especially  in  autumn  ;  the  general  aspect  of  the 
island,  flat  and  uninteresting,  there  being  very 
little  wood.  The  island  is  rich  in  minerals  ;  the 
Parys  and  Mona  copper-mines,  near  Amlwch, 
were  opened  in  1768.  Lead  ore,  containing  much 
silver,  has  also  been  found.  Anglesey,  known  to 
the  Romans  as  Mona,  was  one  of  the  chief  seats 
of  the  Druidical  power,  which  in  61  a.d.  was  all 
but  destroyed  by  the  Roman  general,  Suetonius 
Paulinus.  The  island  was  again  subdued  by 
Agricola,  76  a.d.  Egbert  conquered  it  in  the 
9th  century,  and  it  was  finally  subdued  by 
Edward  I.  The  market-towns  are  Amlwch, 
Beaumaris,  Holyhead,  Llangefni,  and  Llanerch- 
y-medd.  The  first  four  united  in  sending  one 
member  till  1885,  when  they  were  merged  in 
the  county,  which  returns  one  member.  Pop. 
(1841)  38,106  ;  (1901)  50,606. 

Anglla,  East,  a  kingdom  founded  by  the 
Angles  about  the  middle  of  the  6th  century,  in 
the  eastern  part  of  central  England,  in  what 
forms  the  present  counties  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk. 

Angola,  a  name  formerly  used  loosely  of  the 
whole  West  African  coast  from  Cape  Lopez  to 
Benguela,  but  restricted,  since  the  establishment 
of  the  Congo  Free  State  in  1885,  to  the  Portuguese 
West  African  possessions,  extending  from  the 
Congo  southward  to  Cape  Frio ;  or  even  more 
narrowly,  to  the  northern  section  between  the 
Congo  and  the  Coanza.  Area,  312,000  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  2,000,000.  The  coast  strip  is  level,  barren, 
extremely  hot,  and  very  unhealthy.  Beyond 
is  hill-country,  reaching  a  height  of  3000  feet. 
The  main  rivers  are  the  Kwango,  running  north 
to  the  Congo,  and  tlie  Coanza  and  Cunene, 
running  west  to  the  Atlantic.    Yams,  tobacog, 


AKGOItA 


37 


ANNAM 


Indigo,  rice,  cotton,  and  sugar  are  freely  pro- 
duced ;  but  under  Portuguese  mismanagement 
the  wealth  of  the  country  is  undeveloped  or 
decaying.  There  is  abundance  of  iron  in  the  moun- 
tains ;  also  copper,  lead,  sulphur,  and  petroleum 
are  obtained.  Angola  was  long  notorious  for  its 
great  slave-trade.  The  natives  are  Congo  negroes, 
and  belong  to  the  great  Bantu  stock.  In  the 
16th  century  they  were  mostly  converted  by  the 
Jesuits  to  a  kind  of  Christianity,  but  soon  fell 
back  into  fetichism.  Many  of  the  3000  white 
men,  mostly  Portuguese,  are  transported  con- 
victs, and  there  are  some  30,000  mulattos.  The 
Portuguese  under  Diego  Cam  discovered  this 
coast  in  1486,  but  St  Paul  de  Loanda  was  not 
built  till  1578. 

Ango'ra,  or  Angwireh  (anc.  Aiicyra),  capital 
of  a  Turkish  province  in  the  mountainous  interior 
of  Asia  Minor,  220  miles  ESB.  of  Constantinople. 
It  was  a  flourishing  city  under  the  Persians,  and 
was  made  the  capital  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Galatia  Prima.  The  present  city  has  32,000  in- 
habitants ;  its  trade  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of 
the  Armenians,  who  number  9000.  It  is  famous 
for  its  breed  of  goats,  with  beautiful  silky  hair, 
eight  inches  long. 

Angostura,  capital  of  the  province  of  Guayana, 
in  Venezuela,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  navigable 
Orinoco,  about  240  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is 
built  at  a  pass  (angostura)^  where  the  river  is 
narrowed  by  rocks.  The  town  is  now  more 
usually  called  Ciudad  Bolivar.    Pop.  12,000. 

Angouleme,  the  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of 
Charente,  and  formerly  of  the  province  of 
Angoumois,  stands  220  feet  above  the  winding 
Charente,  83  miles  NE.  of  Bordeaux  by  rail.  It 
has  a  fine  Romanesque  cathedral  (1136),  and  a 
striking  hotel-de-ville,  with  which  is  incorporated 
the  remnant  of  the  ancient  castle  of  Angouleme, 
where  was  born  the  celebrated  Marguerite  of 
Navarre,  author  of  the  Heptameron.  Ravaillac 
was  also  a  native.  The  old  bastions  have  been 
converted  into  fine  terrace-walks.  There  are 
manufactures  of  machinery,  paper,  and  wire,  and 
a  brisk  trade  in  brandy.  Pop.  (1866)  24,961; 
(1891)  34,188  ;  (1901)  37,650. 

Angra,  the  capital  of  the  Azores,  a  seaport  at 
the  head  of  a  deep  bay  on  the  south  coast  of  the 
island  of  Terceira.    Pop.  11,070. 

Angra-Pequena,  a  bay  on  the  south-west 
coast  of  Africa,  150  iniles  N.  of  the  Orange  River 
mouth,  on  the  coast  of  Great  Namaqualand  (q.v.). 
It  is  the  only  port  of  the  German  South-west 
African  territory  ;  the  neighbourhood  is  a  sandy, 
waterless  region,  enjoying  a  healthy  climate.  In 
1883  Angra-Pequena  was  ceded  by  a  Namaqua 
chieftain  to  Llideritz,  a  Bremen  merchant ;  and 
next  year  it  was  taken  under  German  protection. 

Angrl,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  17  miles  NW.  of 
Salerno.     Pop.  9110. 

Anguilla,  or  Little  Snake,  an  English  "West 
India  Island,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  160  miles 
E.  of  the  eastern  extremity  of  Porto  Rico.  Area, 
35  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  4500. 

Angus.    Seo  Forfarshire. 

Anhalt,  a  duchy  of  the  German  empire,  almost 
surrounded  by  the  Prussian  province  of  Saxony, 
which  breaks  it  up  into  two  principal  and  five 
smaller  portions.  Ai-ea,  869  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1875) 
213,689;  (1900)  316,085,  nearly  all  Protestants. 
Dessau,  Zerbst,  Bemburg,  Kbthen,  and  Ballen- 
stedt  are  the  principal  towns.  The  eastern  part 
Is  level  and  fertile ;  the  western  part,  approaching 
the  Harz  Mountains,  is  hilly  and  largely  covered 


with  wood,  and  possesses  mineral  wealth,  especi- 
ally in  lead  and  silver.  Anhalt  began  to  be  an 
independent  principality  in  the  first  half  of  the 
13th  century.  It  was  divided  into  three  duchies 
in  the  beginning  of  the  17th  century,  but  in  1863 
the  whole  territory  was  reunited  into  one  duchy. 

Ani,  a  ruined  city  of  Turkish  Armenia,  25 
miles  SE.  of  Kars. 

Anio,  the  ancient  name  of  the  Teverone,  a 
tributary  of  the  Tiber,  which  rises  in  Monte 
Cantaro,  and  joins  the  larger  river  3  miles  above 
Rome.  Its  beautiful  cascade  at  Tivoli  (the 
ancient  Tibur)  is  celebrated  by  the  classical 
poets. 

Anjou  (OnCzhoo),  a  former  province  in  the  NW. 
of  France,  of  about  3500  sq.  m.  in  extent,  now 
forming  the  dep.  of  Maine-et-Loire,  and  small 
parts  of  the  deps.  of  Indre-et-Loire,  Mayenne, 
and  Sarthe.  It  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  lower 
course  of  the  Loire,  where  it  receives  the  Maine. 
Its  capital  was  Angers. 

Anklam,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Pomerania,  on  the  navigable  Peene,  4  miles  from 
its  mouth  in  the  Kleines  Haff,  and  41  SE.  of 
Stralsund  by  rail.  Long  a  place  of  commercial 
importance,  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic  League 
from  the  14th  to  the  16th  century,  tt  manufac- 
tures iron,  sugar,  and  soap.     Pop.  14,784. 

Anko'bar,  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Shoa,  in  Abyssinia,  is  built  8200  feet  above  sea- 
level.     Pop.  6000—15,000. 

Annaberg,  a  mining  town  of  Saxony,  on  the 
Erzgebirge  range,  34  miles  S.  of  Chemnitz  by 
rail.     Pop.  16,822. 

Annabon.    See  Annobon. 

Annagh,  an  island  of  County  Mayo,  in  Achill 
Sound. 

Annam,  an  '  empire '  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
Indo-Chinese  peninsula,  has  since  1885  been  a 
French  protectorate  and  part  of  French  Indo- 
China,  which  comprises,  besides  Annam,  Tong- 
king  or  Tonquin  in  the  north  (once  a  province  of 
Annam),  French  Cochin-China  in  the  south,  and 
Cambodia  on  both  sides  of  the  lower  Mekong. 
Before  the  French  controversy  with  Siam  in 
1893,  the  western  boundary  of  Annam  was  gener- 
ally understood  to  be  the  main  mountain  ranges 
between  the  Mekong  and  the  sea.  But  in  1893 
France  insisted  that  the  Mekong  should  be 
regarded  as  the  frontier ;  and  this  demand  was, 
under  protest,  conceded  from  Cambodia  north 
to  the  Laos  country,  or  about  18°  N.  lat.  The 
area  of  Annam,  as  now  extended  (but  without 
Tonquin  or  other  divisions  of  Indo-China),  is  some 
50,000  sq.  m.  ;  the  population,  Annamites  on  the 
coast,  and  Mois  and  Laos  in  the  hills  and  west  of 
them,  is  variously  stated  at  from  5,000,000  to 
10,000,000. 

Annam  lies  wholly  in  the  torrid  zone,  yet  even 
during  the  hot  and  rainy  season,  extending  over 
the  six  months  from  April  to  September,  the 
thennometer  seldom  mounts  froni  a  minimum 
of  70°  to  beyond  100°  F.  On  account  of  the 
moisture,  however,  the  heats  in  June  and  July 
are  sometimes  almost  intolerable.  The  country, 
save  on  the  coast  and  along  the  Mekong,  is 
mountainous  ;  minerals  are  believed  to  abound  ; 
coal  is  worked  near  Turane.  The  mountains  are 
covered  with  valuable  timber,  and  the  lower 
lands  are  extremely  fertile.  The  chief  produc- 
tions are,  besides  rice  and  other  cereals,  cotton, 
cinnamon,  sugar,  tea,  coff'ee,  and  tobacco.  The 
chief  ports  are  Turane  (wholly  under  French 
control),  Qui-Nhon,  and  Xuan-Day :  Hue  is  tho 


AKNAMABOE 


ANTARdTIC  OCEAN 


capital.  The  principal  imports  are  rice,  cotton 
cloths  and  yarns,  opium,  and  paper,  for  the  most 
part  from  China  and  Japan. 

The  Annamese  are  mainly  of  Mongoloid  stock. 
The  Inhabitants  of  the  mountains  are  taller, 
fairer,  and  stronger  than  the  inhabitants  of  the 
plain.  The  latter  are  small  of  stature  but  well 
proportioned,  indolent  but  expert.  The  speech 
of  the  Annamese  is  monosyllabic,  like  Chinese, 
from  which  they  have  borrowed  many  words. 
The  mass  of  the  people  worship  tutelary  spirits  ; 
Confucianism  is  in  vogue  with  the  more  culti- 
vated ;  the  remainder  adhere  to  Buddhism.  There 
are  besides  about  420,000  Roman  Catholics,  de- 
scendants of  immigrants  from  Macao  and  Japan 
(1624),  and  of  Portuguese  fugitives  from  Malacca. 
The  native  prince  is  retained  on  the  throne, 
and  the  interior  administration— on  the  Chinese 
pattern— is  in  the  hands  of  Annamite  officials, 
though  the  French,  through  the  superior  council 
of  ludo-China,  have  supreme  authority,  and 
French  troops  occupy  part  of  the  citadel  of  Hue. 
Annamaboe,  a  seaport  on  the  Gold  Coast  of 
Africa,  10  miles  E.  of  Cape  Coast  Castle.  Pop. 
5000. 

Annan,  a  seaport  of  Dumfriesshire,  on  the 
river  Annan,  near  its  entrance  into  the  Solway 
Firth,  18  miles  ESE.  of  Dumfries  by  rail.  Edward 
Irving  was  a  native  (marble  statue,  1892) ;  and 
Civrlyle,  as  a  schoolboy,  led  '  a  doleful  and  hate- 
ful life '  at  the  academy.  A  royal  burgh,  Annan 
unites  with  Dumfries,  &c.  to  return  one  member. 
Pop.  5805. 

Annandale,  a  district  of  Dumfriesshire,  tra- 
versed by  the  river  Annan,  which,  rising  near 
headstreams  of  the  Tweed  and  Clyde,  flows  49 
miles  southward  to  the  Solway  Firth,  at  a  point 
If  mile  below  Annan  town.  Near  its  source  is 
a  singular  hollow  called  the  Marquis  of  Annan- 
dale's  (or  Devil's)  Beef-tub. 

Annap'olis,  a  seaport  of  Nova  Scotia,  on  an 
arm  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  95  miles  W.  of  Halifax 
by  rail.  Established  in  1604  by  the  French  as 
the  capital  of  their  province  of  Acadia,  under 
the  name  of  Port  Royal,  it  was  ceded  to  Britain 
in  1713,  and  changed  its  name  in  honour  of  Queen 
Anne  ;  not  till  1750  was  it  superseded  by  Halifax. 
Pop.  1200. 

Annapolis,  the  capital  of  Maryland,  U.S.,  on 
the  south  bank  of  the  Severn,  2  miles  from  its 
entrance  into  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  40  miles  E. 
by  N.  of  Washington  by  rail.  Among  its  edifices 
are  an  imposing  state-house,  St  John's  College 
(1784),  a  Roman  Catholic  seminary,  a  naval  hos- 
pital (1871),  and  a  naval  academy  (1845).  Founded 
as  Providence  in  1649,  Annapolis  was  renamed 
after  Queen  Anne  in  1708.  Pop.  (1870)  5744; 
(1890)  7604  ;  (1900)  8525. 

Ann  Arljor,  a  flourishing  city  of  Michigan,  on 
the  Huron  River,  38  miles  W.  of  Detroit  by  rail. 
Settled  in  1824,  and  incorporated  as  a  city  in 
1851,  it  is  the  seat  of  the  state  university  (1837), 
and  has  manufactories  of  carriages,  furniture, 
paper,  woollen  goods,  blinds,  and  ploughs,  with 
mineral  springs  and  a  hydropathic  establishment. 
Pop.  (1870)  7363  ;  (1890)  9431 ;  (1900)  14,509. 

An'necy,  chief  town  of  the  French  dep.  of 
Haute-Savoie,  22  miles  S.  of  Geneva,  and  25 
miles  NW.  of  Aix-les-Bains  by  rail.  It  stands 
at  the  NW.  extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Annecy, 
which,  lying  1426  feet  above  the  sea,  is  9  miles 
long,  and  flows  by  the  Fier  to  the  Rhone.  It  has 
manufactures  of  linens,  cotton-yarn,  silks,  straw 
goods,  and  steel  wares.    The  castle  of  the  Counts 


of  Geneva  is  now  a  barrack ;  and  there  are  a 
cathedral  (1523)  and  hotel-de-ville,  with  a  statue 
near  it  of  the  chemist  Berthollet.  Here  Eugene 
Sue  died  in  exile.    Pop.  11,331. 

Anniston,  a  town  of  Alabama,  63  miles  by  rail 
E.  of  Birmingham,  with  flourishing  iron  mines 
and  works.     Pop.  10,000. 

Annobon,  or  Annobom,  the  smallest  of  the 
four  islands  in  the  Bay  of  Biafra,  the  eastern 
part  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  now  belonging  to 
Spain.  Area,  6  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1600  negroes,  who 
profess  to  be  Catholics.  The  island  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  on  New- Year's  Day 
(Anno  Bom),  1471. 

Annonay  (anc.  Annoniacum),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Arddche,  37  miles  S.  of  Lyons. 
The  chief  manufacture  is  paper,  the  first  estab- 
lished by  the  father  of  the  aeronauts  Montgolfler, 
who  were  born  here.     Pop.  14,000. 

Annsborough,  a  village  of  County  Down,  3 
miles  W.  of  Dundrum.    Pop.  430. 

Ansbacli  (in  England  often  Anspach),  a  town 
of  Bavaria,  on  the  Rezat,  25  miles  SW.  of  Nurem- 
berg. It  manufactures  furniture,  buttons,  bricks, 
&c.  The  last  margrave  of  Ansbach,  of  the 
HohenzoUern  line,  gave  up  his  possessions  in 
1791  to  Prussia  ;  and  in  1807  Napoleon  transferred 
Ansbach  to  Bavaria.     Pop.  18,057. 

Ansonla,  a  borough  within  the  town  of  Derby, 
New  Haven  county,  Connecticut,  on  the  Nauga- 
tuck  River,  2  miles  above  its  confluence  with 
the  Housatonic,  and  12  W.  of  New  Haven  by 
rail.  It  has  manufactures  of  iron,  brass,  and 
copper  goods,  clocks,  electrical  goods,  webbing 
and  knit  goods,  carriages,  and  hardware.  Pop. 
13,000. 
Anspacli.  See  Ansbach. 
Anstruther,  Easter  and  Wester,  two  con- 
tiguous royal  burghs  on  the  coast  of  Fife,  9  miles 
S.  of  St  Andrews.  Fishing  and  fish-curing  are 
the  staple  industries,  the  harbour  (1866-77)  being 
at  Cellardyke.  East  Anstruther  was  the  birth- 
place of  Dr  Chalmers,  Tennant  the  poet,  and 
Goodsir  the  anatomist.  With  the  other  St 
Andrews  burghs,  they  return  one  member  to  the 
House  of  Couuuons.  Joint  pop.  1700 ;  or,  with 
_,Kilrenny,  4600. 

Antananarivo,  or  Tananar\vo,  the  capital  of 
Madagascar,  has  a  population  estimated  at  100.000. 
It  is  situated  on  a  hill,  in  an  undulating  district, 
at  an  elevation  of  5000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea,  from  which  it  is  distant  110  miles. 

Antarctic  Ocean,  the  ocean  situated  about,  or 
within,  the  Antarctic  Circle.  The  Great  Southern 
Ocean  is  that  part  of  the  ocean  which  surrounds 
the  world  between  the  latitude  of  40°  S.  and  the 
Antarctic  Circle.  The  northern  portions  of  this 
band  are  often  called  the  South  Atlantic,  South 
Indian,  and  South  Pacific,  while  the  southern 
portions  are  usually  called  the  Antarctic  Ocean. 
The  average  depth  of  the  continuous  ocean  which 
surrounds  south  polar  land  is  about  two  miles  ; 
it  gradually  shoals  towards  Antarctic  land,  which 
in  some  places  is  met  with  a  short  distance 
within  the  Antarctic  Circle.  Only  three  navi- 
gators, Cook,  Weddell,  and  Ross,  have  crossed 
the  70th  parallel  south.  The  last  in  1841  sailed 
along  the  coast  as  far  as  70°  S.,  within  sight  of 
high  mountain  ranges,  which  here  terminated  in 
an  active  volcano.  Mount  Erebus,  12,000  feet 
high.  His  farther  progress  was  stopped  by  an 
icy  barrier  150  to  200  feet  in  height,  along  which 
he  sailed  to  the  east  for  300  miles.  The  depth 
off  this  ice-barrier  was  260  fathoms,  so  that  it 


AlJTEQtJERA 

Was  just  in  the  condition  to  generate  those 
large,  tiat-topped,  tabidar  icebergs  which  are  the 
characteristic  feature  of  the  Antarctic  regions. 
Where  the  coast  is  steep  and  high,  there  is  no 
true  'ice-barrier,'  the  ice  being  only  6  or  10  feet 
above  the  sea,  extending  many  miles  from  tlie 
shore.  Ross  and  D'Urville  alone  have  succeeded 
in  setting  foot  on  land  within  the  Antarctic 
Circle.  This  land  was  of  volcanic  origin  ;  but 
there  is  no  doubt  a  large  extent  of  continental 
land  around  the  South  Pole,  for  the  Challenger 
in  1874  dredged  up  granitites,  mica-schists,  sand- 
stones, and  other  continental  rocks  close  to  the 
ice-barrier.  Dr  Murray  estimates  the  extent  of 
the  Antarctic  continent  at  3,000,000  sq.  m.  Vege- 
tation and  land  animals  have  not  been  observed 
on  this  land.  Whales,  grampuses,  seals,  pen- 
guins, petrels,  albatrosses,  and  other  oceanic 
birds  abound.  Diatoms  are  very  abundant  in 
the  surface-waters,  and  their  dead  frustules  form 
a  pure  white  deposit  called  diatom  ooze,  about 
the  latitude  of  60°,  outside  the  blue  muds  which 
surround  the  continent.  Life  is  abundant  in  the 
surface-waters,  and  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 
The  mean  temperature  both  of  the  air  and  sea, 
south  of  63°  S.,  is  even  in  sunnner  below  the 
freezing-point  of  sea-water.  The  fall  of  rain  and 
snow  is  estimated  as  about  equal  to  a  rainfall  of 
30  inches  annually.  The  ice  on  the  Antarctic 
continent  is  stated  by  some  writers  to  have  a 
thickness  of  several  miles,  but  there  is  no  reliable 
information  on  this  point.  In  1901-4  a  series  of 
expeditions  a<lded  much  to  our  knowledge  of 
Antarctica.  See  works  by  Mackinder  (1892), 
Bum-Murdoch  (1894),  Cook  (New  York,  1900), 
Bernacchi  (1901),  Borchgrevink  (1901),  Neumayer 
(Berlin,  1901),  Gerlache  (Paris,  1902),  and  Balch 
(Philadelphia,  1902). 

Anteque'ra  (the  Antiqioaria  of  the  Romans), 
a  town  in  the  Spanish  province  of  Malaga,  on 
the  Guadalhorce,  65  miles  W.  of  Granada  by  rail. 
Held  by  the  Moors  from  712  to  1410,  it  retains 
some  portions  of  a  Moorish  castle  and  of  the 
ancient  walls.    Pop.  31,600. 

Antlbes  {OnPteeV;  anc.  Antipolis),  a  seaport  in 
the  French  dep.  of  Alpes  Maritimes,  7^  iniles  S. 
of  Cannes.  Founded  by  a  colony  of  Greeks  from 
Massilia  (Marseilles),  Antibes  in  the  Austrian 
War  of  Succession  was  severely  bombarded  by 
Browne  during  a  three  months'  siege  (1746). 
Pop.  8050. 

Anticosti,  a  Canadian  island  in  the  Gulf  of  St 
Lawrence,  which  it  divides  into  two  channels, 
is  140  miles  long,  and  30  broad  in  the  centre. 
The  hills  iji  the  interior  rise  to  about  600  feet. 
Anticosti  has  two  good  havens,  one  at  Ellice 
Bay,  near  the  Avestern  end,  and  the  other  at  Fox 
Bay,  in  the  NW.  The  climate  is  severe ;  the 
surface  an  alternation  of  rocks  and  swamps.  It 
is  visited  by  fishermeii  in  the  summer,  but  there 
are  hardly  any  inhabitants  save  lighthouse- 
keepers  and  a  few  officials. 

Antletam  (pron.  Antee-tam),  a  narrow  but  deep 
river  in  Maryland,  U.S.,  falling  into  the  Potomac 
7  miles  above  Harper's  Ferry.  On  its  banks, 
near  Sharpsburg,  on  17th  September  1862,  the 
Union  troops  under  McClellan  defeated  the  Con- 
federates under  Lee,  though  at  a  loss  of  nearly 
13,000  men. 

Antig'ua,  a  West  India  island,  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  Leeward  Islands,  is  28  miles  long 
and  14  wide  ;  in  Boggles  Hill  attains  a  maximum 
altitude  of  1328  feet ;  and  has  an  area  of  97  sq. 
m.  Antigua  was  discovered  in  1493  by  Colum- 
bus, who  named  it  after  the  church  of  Santa 


3d  ANTRIM 


Maria  La  Antigua  in  Seville.  It  was  first  settled 
by  a  few  English  in  1632,  and  was  declared  a 
British  possession  by  the  Treaty  of  Breda  (1667). 
Antigua  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  bishop.  It 
has  sutfered  severely  from  earthquakes— as  in 
1689,  1843,  and  1874— and  from  hurricanes. 
JSumerous  islets,  rocks,  and  shoals  border  the 
shore,  so  that,  generally  speaking,  access  is  diffi- 
cult and  dangerous.  Antigua  produces  laro'e 
quantities  of  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  tamarinds 
arrowroot,  and  cotton.  Pop.,  including  Bar- 
buda, a  little  over  35,000 ;  of  St  John,  the  capital, 
10,000.  11. 

Anti-Lebanon.    See  Lebanon. 

Antilles,  a  term  applied  to  the  whole  of  the 
West  India  Islands  (q.v.)  except  the  Bahamas. 
The  Greater  Antilles  are  Cuba,  Jamaica,  Hayti, 
and  Porto  Rico;  the  others  are  known  as  the 
Lesser  Antilles. 

An'tioch,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Greek 
kings  of  Syria,  and  long  the  chief  city  in  Asia, 
lies  in  a  fertile  and  beautiful  plain,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  river  Orontes,  14  miles  from  the  sea. 
In  the  time  of  Antiochus  the  Great,  and  under 
the  Roman  emperors  of  the  first  three  centuries, 
it  contained  600,000  inhabitants,  and  vied  in 
splendour  with  Rome  itself.  It  was  one  of  the 
earliest  strongholds  of  Christianity— indeed,  it 
was  here  that  the  name  Christians  was  first  used. 
Its  downfall  dates  from  the  5th  century;  and 
the  modern  Antakieh,  which  forms  a  portion  of 
Syria,  in  the  province  of  Alappo,  has  a  popula- 
tion of  only  17,500,  mostly  Turks  employed  in 
silk-culture,  eel-fishing,  and  in  the  production  of 
corn  and  oil.  It  exhibits  almost  no  traces  of  its 
former  grandeur,  except  the  ruins  of  the  walls 
built  by  Justinian,  and  of  a  fortress  erected  by 
the  Crusaders.— Antioch,  in  Pisidia,  founded 
also  by  Nicator,  was  declared  a  free  city  by  the 
Romans  in  the  2d  century  b.c.  It  was  often 
visited  by  St  Paul. 

Antip'aros  (anc.  Oliaros),  one  of  the  middle 
Cyclades,  in  the  ^gean  Sea,  close  to  Paros.  It 
is  133  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  has  about  700  inhabit- 
ants. Rich  lead  mines  were  discovered  in  1872. 
Its  wonderful  stalactite  grotto  is  not  alluded  to 
by  any  classical  writer,  but  has  been  well  known 
since  1673.  At  a  depth  of  918  feet  under  the 
entrance,  the  chief  chamber  is  reached— 312  feet 
long,  98  wide,  and  82  high. 

Antisana,  a  volcano  of  the  Andes,  in  Ecuador, 
35  miles  SE.  of  Quito,  19,335  feet  high. 

Antiva'ri,  a  seaport  on  the  coast-district 
assigned  to  Montenegro  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin 
in  1878.  It  was  formerly  Albanian, "  and  is  18 
miles  NW.  of  Scutari.    Pop,  1500. 

Antofagasta,  a  port  in  the  Chilian  province  of 
the  same  name.  Founded  in  1870,  it  owes  its 
rapid  rise  to  the  neighbouring  saltpetre  deposits, 
and  to  the  rich  mines  of  Caracoles,  with  which  it 
is  connected  by  railway.  It  was  taken  from 
Bolivia  by  Chili  in  the  war  of  1879.    Pop.  20,100. 

Antoninus,  Wall  of,  or  Graham's  Dyke,  a 
Roman  rampart  erected  in  140  a.d.,  during  the 
reign  of  Antoninus  Pius,  from  Carriden  on  the 
Firth  of  Forth  to  near  Old  Kilpatrick  on  the 
Firth  of  Clyde.  It  was  36  miles  long,  and 
followed  the  earlier  line  of  Agricola's  forts  (81 
A.D.).    See  Waldie's  Northern  Roman  Wall  (1883). 

Antrim,  a  maritime  county  of  Ulster,  stands 
second  among  the  Irish  counties  in  population, 
but  in  size  only  ninth.  Its  greatest  length  is  57 
miles ;  its  greatest  breadth,  28 ;  its  extent  of 
sea-coast,  90 ;  and  its  area,  1192  sq.  m.    Of  this, 


ANTWERP 


46 


AP£1IN!n£S 


rather  more  than  three-fourths  is  in  tillage  and 
pasture ;  and  one  per  cent,  under  wood.  Off  the 
north  coast  lie  Rathliu  Isle  and  the  Skerries  ; 
and  off  the  east  coast,  the  Maiden  Rocks.  The 
east  coast  is  hilly  ;  and  from  Larne  to  Fair  Head, 
parallel  ranges  stretch  SW.  into  the  interior, 
forming  valleys  opening  seaward,  called  the 
Glens  of  Antrim.  The  interior  slopes  towards 
Lough  Neagh.  The  highest  eminences  are— 
Trostan,  1810  feet;  and  Slievemish,  or  Blemish, 
1782.  The  principal  streams  are  the  Bann,  from 
Lough  Neagh  to  the  Atlantic  ;  the  Main,  running 
parallel  to  the  Bann,  but  in  the  reverse  direc- 
tion, into  Lough  Neagh  ;  and  the  Bush,  flowing 
north  into  the  Atlantic.  Many  peat-bogs  occur. 
Between  Ballycastle  and  the  mouth  of  the  Bann, 
the  basalt  assumes  very  picturesque  forms ;  and 
the  Giants'  Causeway  (q.v.)  is  one  of  the  most 
perfect  examples  of  columnar  basalt  in  the  world. 
Fine  salt-mines  occur  at  Duncrue  and  Carrick- 
fergus  ;  small  coal-fields  near  Ballycastle  and  in 
the  interior ;  and  rich  beds  of  iron  ore  in  Glen- 
ravel.  The  soil  is  mostly  light,  and  the  chief 
crop  is  oats.  There  are  some  linen,  cotton,  and 
coarse  woollen  manufactures.  The  towns  are 
Lisburn,  Ballymena,  Ballymoney,  Carrickfergus, 
Larne,  and  Antrim  (pop,  1820).  Belfast,  most  of 
which  was  formerly  reckoned  as  in  Antrim,  is 
now  wholly  without  the  administrative  county. 
County  Antrim  returns  four  members  to  parlia- 
ment :  Belfast  borough,  four.  Pop.  (1841)351,496; 
(1891)  427,968;  (1901,  excluding  Belfast)  196,090 
—over  99,000  Presbyterians,  41,000  Protestant 
Episcopalians,  40,400  Roman  Catholics. 

Antwerp  (Fr.  Anvers;  Flem.  Antwerpen,  'on 
the  wharf),  the  chief  commercial  city  of  Bel- 
gium, on  the  river  Scheldt,  52  miles  from  the 
sea,  and  27  N.  of  Brussels.  It  is  the  Liverpool 
of  the  Continent,  and  the  tonnage  of  vessels 
entering  its  port  has  increased  tenfold  within 
thirty  years,  until  it  stands  at  over  6,000,000 
tons  annually.  The  trade  and  manufactures  of 
Antwerp  have  so  extended,  that  the  large  dock 
and  quay  accommodation  having  been  found  too 
limited,  a  new  quay,  2  miles  in  length,  and 
docks,  constructed  at  a  cost  of  nearly  £4,000,000, 
were  opened  in  1885.  The  chief  exports  are  flax, 
sugar,  iron,  woollen  goods,  metals,  glass,  and 
tallow ;  the  chief  imports  are  wheat,  petroleum, 
wool,  cotton,  coffee,  tobacco.  The  manufactures 
consist  chiefly  of  sugar,  white-lead,  cotton  goods, 
lace,  linen-thread,  sewing-silk,  black  silk  stuffs, 
starch,  and  printers'  ink.  There  are  also  to  be 
mentioned  oil-refining,  tobacco-manufacture,  the 
cutting  of  diamonds  and  other  precious  stones, 
and  shipbuilding.  The  chief  public  institutions 
are— the  Academy  of  Sciences,  Academy  of  Paint- 
ing and  Sculpture,  a  Medical  and  Surgical  School, 
Naval  Arsenal,  Museum  (with  specimens  of  the 
pictures  of  Rubens,  Vandyck,  Titian,  and  Matsys), 
Zoological  Gardens,  the  Flemish  Theatre,  and  the 
Plantin  Museum  (1876),  The  six-aisled  cathedral 
(1352-1518),  the  noblest  Gothic  structure  in  Bel- 
gium, is  500  feet  in  length  by  250  in  breadth, 
with  a  roof  supported  by  125  pillars,  and  an 
exquisite  spire,  403  feet  high,  in  which  hangs  a 
splendid  carillon  of  99  bells.  The  interior  is 
enriched  by  the  two  greatest  of  all  the  pictures 
of  Rubens,  the  Elevation  of,  and  the  Descent 
from,  the  Cross,  The  Church  of  St  James  con- 
tains the  monument  of  the  Rubens  family.  The 
Exchange  (1531),  a  fine  building,  is  said  to  have 
been  Gresham's  model  of  the  old  London  Ex- 
change. It  was  burnt  in  1858,  but  rebuilt  in  the 
same  style,  and  reopened  in  1872.  The  hotel-de- 
Ville  (1665)  is  a  fine  building  in  the  Renaissance  I 


style.  The  old  fortifications  were  demolished  lA 
1860,  though  Alva's  famous  citadel  (1567)  stood 
till  1874  ;  and  since  1851  new  fortifications  have 
been  erected  outside  the  city,  with  detached 
forts  to  the  south-east,  rendering  Antwerp  one 
of  the  most  strongly  fortified  places  in  Europe. 
Pop.  (1846)  88,487  ;  (1891)  232,723  ;  (1904)291,950. 

Antwerp  in  the  beginning  of  the  16th  century 
was  the  commercial  capital  of  the  world.  When 
in  1576  it  was  seized  by  the  Spanish  soldiery, 
8000  persons  were  nmrdered,  and  the  city-hall 
and  nearly  a  thousand  buildings  burnt.  This 
and  the  assault  of  the  Duke  of  Parma  in  1585, 
caused  Antwerp  to  sink  into  decay.  From  1794 
till  1814,  while  it  was  held  by  the  French, 
Napoleon  attempted  to  make  it  a  great  military 
and  commercial  centre.  The  union  of  Belgium 
with  Holland  in  1815  was  very  favourable  to 
Antwerp.  When  the  revolutionary  party  gained 
possession  in  1830,  the  Dutch  commandant, 
General  Chasse,  retreated  to  the  citadel,  and 
commenced  a  bombardment,  which  destroyed 
the  arsenal.  In  1832,  50,000  French  under  Mar- 
shal Gerard  appeared  before  Antwerp,  to  demand 
the  surrender  of  the  citadel ;  and  after  its  interior 
had  been  reduced  to  ruins  by  the  French  artillery, 
Chasse  capitulated.  The  city  was  handed  over 
to  the  Belgians,  and  since  the  treaty  of  1839, 
Antwerp  has  had  a  singularly  prosperous  career. 
French  is  the  business  language,  but  the  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  speak  Flemish. 

Anupslialir,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  United 
Provinces  of  Aqra  and  Oudh,  on  the  Ganges,  73 
miles  SE,  of  Delhi ;  pop.  15,000, 

Aonlaganj',  or  Aounlah,  a  town  of  India,  21 
miles  SW.  of  Bareilly  ;  pop.  14,000. 

Aosta  (anc,  Augusta  Prcetoria),  a  cathedra] 
city  of  Italy,  on  the  Dora  Baltea,  19  miles  from 
the  opening  of  the  great  St  Bernard  Pass,  and  80 
miles  NNW.  of  Turin  by  rail.  St  Bernard  was 
archdeacon  of  Aosta;  and  here  Anselm,  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  was  born.  Near  by  are 
the  celebrated  baths  and  mines  of  St  Didier. 
Pop.  7672. 

Apatln',  a  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Danube,  49  miles  SW.  of  Theresiopol ;  pop. 
13,973. 

Ap'eldorn,  a  town  of  Holland,  17  miles  N,  of 
Arnheim,  The  Loo,  a  royal  hunting-lodge, 
beloved  of  William  of  Orange,  is  near.  Paper- 
making  is  the  staple  industry.    Pop.  26,283.. 

Ap'ennlnes  (Ital.  Appennini,  Lat,  Mons  Apen- 
ninus),  a  mountain-chain  extending  740  miles 
uninterruptedly  throughout  the  whole  length  of 
the  Italian  peninsula.  It  belongs  to  the  system 
of  the  Alps,  The  average  height  of  the  entire 
chain  is  about  4000  feet,  which  in  the  north  sinks 
to  3500  feet,  and  in  the  Abruzzi  rises  to  7000  feet. 
Here,  in  Monte  Corno,  the  highest  peak  of  the 
range  known  as  Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia,  they  reach 
an  elevation  of  9574  feet,  and  in  Monte  Velino,  of 
7916  feet.  The  Apennines  are  crossed  by  thirteen 
principal  passes  ;  and  seven  of  these  are  traversed 
by  railways.  The  principal  chain  exhibits, 
for  the  most  part,  a  dreary  and  barren  appear- 
ance. It  looks  like  a  vast  wall,  with  very  few 
projecting  peaks  to  break  its  dull  monotony. 
Only  in  the  Abruzzi,  and  above  all,  in  the  marble 
mountains  of  Carrara  and  Seravezza,  do  the  bold 
and  magnificent  forms  of  the  Alps  appear.  Where 
water  is  plentiful  there  is  no  lack  of  rich  pastures 
and  dense  forests ;  but  usually  only  thin  grass 
and  wild  scrubby  bushes  cover  the  stony  slopes. 
The  greater  number  of  the  forest  brooks,  with 
deep   rocky  ravines,  during   summer   are   dry. 


I 


AP£NRAD£ 

Where  the  mountains  dip  down  to  the  sea,  as  at 
the  Riviera  of  Genoa  and  the  Gulf  of  Naples,  a 
rich,  peculiarly  southern  vegetation  clothes  the 
declivities.  There  is  no  region  of  perpetual 
snow ;  but  the  summits  of  the  Abruzzi  and  the 
lofty  peaks  of  Lunigiana  are  often  covered  with 
snow  from  October  fer  into  May. 

Apenrade  [Ah-pen-rah'dd),  a  Sleswick-Holstein 
seaport,  6Q  miles  NNW.  of  Kiel.    Pop.  7361. 

Apia  (Ah-pee'a).     See  Samoa. 

Apol'da,  a  town  of  Saxe- Weimar,  9J  miles  NE. 
of  Weimar  by  rail.  It  has  manufactures  of 
hosiery,  amongst  the  most  important  in  Ger- 
many, besides  dye-works,  machine-works,  and 
bell-foundries.     Pop.  20,850. 

Appalachians,  a  great  mountain-system  of 
North  America,  nearly  parallel  with  the  Atlantic 
coast,  and  extending  from  the  Gulf  of  St  Law- 
rence SSW.  to  the  west  central  portion  of 
Alabama.  Geologically,  it  is  much  older  than 
the  Western  Cordillera,  known  as  the  Rocky 
Mountain  system,  but  it  is  in  the  main  much 
later  in  geologic  date  than  the  Laurentian 
system,  which  represents  it  on  the  north  of  the 
St  Lawrence.  It  is  the  parent  of  many  of  the 
rivers  of  the  Atlantic  States ;  but  several  large 
streams  break  its  continuity  ;  and  one,  the  river 
Hudson,  is  a  tidal  channel  which  carries  even 
sea-going  vessels  through  the  range.  The 
Appalachians  consist,  in  the  main,  of  various 
parallel  ranges,  separated  by  wide  valleys.  Even 
the  low  hill-ranges  between  the  mountains  and 
the  sea  have  much  of  the  same  parallelism,  and 
the  sea-coast  has  in  a  marked  degree  the  same 
general  direction  and  curvature  as  the  mountains 
themselves ;  while,  far  to  the  NE.,  the  nearly 
detached  peninsula  of  Nova  Scotia  and  the  island 
of  Newfoundland  are  traversed  by  ranges  exhibit- 
ing the  same  parallelism  and  the  same  general 
direction  as  are  seen  in  the  Appalachian  ranges. 

Locally,  the  Appalachians  have  various  names 
— e.g.  in  the  Gaspe  Peninsula,  the  Shickshock 
Mountains,  the  Franconia  Mountains  of  New 
Hampshire  (where  Mount  Washington  attains 
6293  feet) ;  the  Green  Mountains  of  Vermont  are 
the  Hoosic  Range  in  Massachusetts ;  the  Cat- 
skills  and  Shawangunk  Mountains ;  in  Penn- 
sylvania and  Maryland,  the  South  Mountain  or 
Blue  Ridge,  which  is  regarded  as  identical  with 
the  Unaka  or  Smoky  Mountain  Ridge  of  North 
Carolina  and  Tennessee ;  and  west  of  the  South 
Mountain  of  Pennsylvania  the  great  Alleghany 
Ridge  (q.v.),  which  often  gives  name  to  the  whole 
system. 

Nowhere  do  the  Appalachians  reach  the  snow- 
line. Their  highest  points  occur  in  North  Caro- 
lina, where  Mitchell's  Peak  reaches  the  height  of 
6688  feet.  The  principal  coal-beds  of  this  chain 
occur  in  Pennsylvania  to  the  NNB.,  and  in  the 
other  states  southward  along  the  mountains  to 
their  termination  in  Alabama,  the  chief  coal- 
basins  being  either  among  the  mountains,  or  to 
the  westward  of  them.  There  are  beds  of  anthra- 
cite coal  on  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Appa- 
lachians, chiefly  in  Pennsylvania,  west  of  which 
the  coal  becomes  bituminous,  after  we  have 
crossed  basins  of  semi-anthracitic  and  moderately 
bituminous  coal.  This  coal  region  is  one  of  the 
most  productive,  extensive,  and  important  any- 
where knoAvn.  Of  the  metals,  by  far  the  most 
important  is  iron,  of  which  various  ores  are 
largely  wrought.  Gold  occurs  chiefly  to  the 
eastward  of  the  mountains,  and  is  wrought  at 
various  points  from  Virginia  to  Alabama.  Zinc, 
lead,  and  other  metals  are  found  in  this  range, 


41  APURIMAC 

which  also  affords  marbles,  slates,  ahd  a  great 
variety  of  building-stones. 

Appalachlco'la,  a  river  of  the  United  States, 
rismg  m  Georgia,  and  flowing  through  Florida 
into  Appalachicola  Bay  in  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
Reckoning  from  its  remotest  sources,  it  is  about 
400  miles  long,  being  navigable  by  steamboats 
for  70  miles  up  to  the  junction  of  the  Chatta- 
hoochee  with  the  Flint,  where  the  name  ot 
Appalachicola  is  first  given.— Appalachicola  is 
also  a  cotton-shipping  seaport  at  the  mouth  of 
this  stream  ;  pop.  3500. 

Appenzeir  (from  Abbatis  Cella),  a  double 
canton  in  the  NE.  of  Switzerland.  It  is  divided 
into  two  divisions— Innerroden  and  Ausserroden ; 
the  fonner  of  which  is  peopled  by  Roman 
Catholics ;  the  latter  by  Protestants,  and  noted 
for  its  dense  population.  The  surface  is  moun- 
tainous, especially  in  the  south,  where  Mount 
Sentis  attains  8220  feet.  The  chief  river  is  the 
Sittern.  The  canton,  once  dependent  on  the 
Abbey  of  St  Gall,  won  its  independence  after 
a  struggle,  and  joined  the  seven  old  cantons  in 
1452.  Area,  162  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1900)  68,780,  of 
whom  over  55,000  were  in  Ausserroden.  Appenzell, 
the  capital,  is  situated  on  the  Sittern  ;  pop.  450a 
The  largest  town  is  Herisau  (pop.  14,100). 

Appin  (Apthane,  'abbey  lands'),  a  beautiful 
coast  district  of  Argyllshire,  extending  along  the 
east  shore  of  Loch  Linnhe,  15  miles  NNE.  of 
Oban.  It  is  the  country  of  a  branch  of  the 
Stewarts. 

Appleby,  the  county  town  of  Westmorland, 
on  the  Eden,  13  miles  SE.  of  Penrith.  There  is 
a  castle,  first  mentioned  in  1088,  the  keep  of 
which,  called  Caesar's  Tower,  is  still  in  tolerable 
condition.  Appleby  was  disfranchised  in  1832, 
but  received  a  new  municipal  charter  in  1885. 
Pop.  1776. 

Appleton,  a  city  of  Wisconsin,  U.S.,  185  miles 
N.  of  Chicago,  and  120  miles  from  Milwaukee  by 
rail.  It  stands  on  the  Grand  Chute  Rapids  of 
the  Fox  River,  which,  with  a  descent  of  30  feet 
in  1^  mile,  affords  immense  water-power  for 
flour,  paper,  and  woollen  mills.  There  are  also 
manufactures  of  machinery.  Lawrence  Univer- 
sity (1847)  is  a  Methodist  institution.  Pop. 
(1880)  8005  ;  (1890)  11,869  ;  (1900)  15,085. 

Appomattox  Courthouse,  a  village  of  Vir- 
ginia, 20  miles  E.  of  Lynchburg.  Here  Lee,  on 
April  9,  1865,  surrendered  the  army  of  Northern 
Virginia,  27,805  men  strong,  to  Grant.    . 

Apsheron,  a  peninsula  on  the  west  coast  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  belonging  to  the  Russian  govern- 
ment of  Baku.  Its  enormous  petroleum  industry 
is  noticed  at  Baku  (q.v.). 

Apt  (Apia  Julia),  a  cathedral  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Vaucluse,  30  miles  E.  of  Avig- 
non ;  pop.  4378. 

Apulia  (modern  Puglia),  the  south-eastern 
part  of  Italy  as  far  as  the  promontory  of  Leuca, 
comprising  the  three  provinces  of  Bari,  Foggia, 
and  Lecce,  with  an  area  of  8540  sq.  m.,  and  a 
pop.  of  2,054,000. 

Apu're,  a  navigable  river  of  Venezuela,  which 
rises  near  the  western  boundary  among  the 
Eastern  Cordillera,  and  flows  nearly  1000  miles 
eastward  to  the  Orinoco. 

Apu'rimac,  a  river  of  Peru,  also  called  Tambo, 
which,  after  a  northward  course  of  500  miles, 
helps  to  form  the  Ucayali,  and  finally  joins  the 
Amazon.  It  gives  name  to  a  province  with  an 
area  of  8200  sq.  ni.,  and  a  pop.  of  180,000. 


AQUILA 


42 


AHA^IA 


Aq'nila,  the  capital  of  an  Italian  province,  on 
the  Alterno,  near  the  loftiest  of  the  Apennines, 
64  miles  SE.  of  Terni  by  rail.  It  was  built  by 
the  Emperor  Frederick  II.  from  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Amitermom,  a  toAvn  of  the  Sabines,  and 
birthplace  of  Sallust  the  historian.  In  1703  it 
was  almost  destroyed  by  an  earthquake,  in  whicli 
2000  persons  perished.  It  is  a  bishop's  see, 
and  a  busy  place,  with  a  large  trade  in  saffron. 
Pop.  24,720. 

Aquilei'a  (also  Aglar),  a  decayed  town  of 
Austria,  at  the  head  of  the  Adriatic,  22  miles 
NW.  of  Trieste  ;  pop.  1000. 

Aquita'nia,  the  Latin  name  of  a  part  of  Gaul, 
originally  including  the  country  between  the 
Pyrenees  and  the  Garonne,  peopled  by  Iberian 
tribes  and  by  Celtic  settlers. 

Arabgir'  (anc.  Anabrace),  a  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  in  the  province  of  Sivas,  not  far  from 
the  Euphrates,  and  on  the  caravan  road  from 
Aleppo  to  Trebizond.  Pop.  30,000,  one-fourth 
Armenians,  the  rest  Turks. 

Arabia,  the  great  south-western  peninsula  of 
Asia.  Its  greatest  length  from  NW.  to  SE.  is 
about  1800  miles ;  its  mean  breadth,  about  600 ; 
its  area,  1,230,000  sq.  m.  ;  and  its  population 
conjectured  to  be  5,000,000.  It  is  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  the  highlands  of  Syria  and  the  plains 
of  Mesopotamia ;  on  the  E.,  by  the  Persian  Gulf 
and  the  Gulf  of  Oman  ;  on  the  S.,  by  the  Arabian 
Sea;  and  on  the  W.,  by  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Suez  Canal.  Midway  between  Mecca  and  Medina 
runs  the  tropic  of  Cancer,  Ptolemy  is  supposed 
to  be  the  author  of  the  famous  threefold  division 
into  Arabia  Fetrcea,  in  the  NW.  ;  Arabia  Felix, 
to  the  south  of  Mecca ;  and  Arabia  Deserta,  in 
the  interior.  Modern  divisions  are  :  the  Sinaitic 
Peninsula  (see  Sinai),  between  the  Gulfs  of  Suez 
and  Akaba  ;  the  Hedjdz  ('  the  Barrier '),  the  larger 
and  northern  strip  to  the  east  of  the  Red  Sea ; 
Yemen,  the  southern  and  smaller  strip  to  the  east 
of  the  Red  Sea ;  Hadramaut,  the  region  along  the 
southern  coast ;  Oman,  the  extreme  south-eastern 
end  of  the  peninsula  ;  El-Hasa,  along  the  Persian 
Gulf ;  Nejd,  the  central  highlands  of  Arabia. 

In  shape,  Arabia  is  an  irregular  parallelogram, 
broadest  at  the  southern  end  ;  in  character,  it  is 
mainly  African.  The  vast  central  plateau  rises 
from  a  height  of  2500  feet  in  the  N.  to  7000  feet 
in  the  SW.,  and  is  bounded  by  western  and 
southern  mountain  chains,  the  former  attaining, 
to  the  south  of  Mecca,  a  height  of  8500  feet. 
Between  the  mountains  and  the  sea  is  a  low  hot 
strip  of  land,  partially  fertile,  of  varying  width. 
There  is  a  desert  in  the  north  of  the  interior, 
the  mountainous  country  of  Nejd  near  the  very 
centre,  and  to  the  south  of  Nejd  another  very 
sterile  sandy  desert  (Dahna).  Hedjaz  and  Yemen 
extend  from  the  Red  Sea  indefinitely  towards  the 
interior,  and  consist  partly  of  the  Tehama,  or  low 
country,  along  the  sea,  and  partly  of  the  moun- 
tain district  beyond.  Mecca  and  Medina,  with 
their  seaports  Jiddah  and  Yembo,  are  in  Hedjaz. 
Yemen  is  on  the  whole  well  watered,  has  rich 
and  fertile  valleys,  and  contains  one-fifth  of  the 
whole  population  of  Arabia.  Yemen  possesses 
two  very  important  commercial  towns.  Mocha 
and  Loheia,  situated  on  tlie  coast  of  the  Red  Sea. 
Hadramaut  resembles  the  Hedjaz  in  character. 
Oman  is  mainly  mountainous,  is  partly  very 
fertile,  and  possesses  the  good  harbour  of  Mus- 
cat. It  has  considerable  trade,  and  some  manu- 
factures of  cotton,  silk,  and  arms.  Hasa  is  com- 
paratively level  and  fertile.  Large  portions  of 
Arabia  are  perfectly  arid ;  nowhere  does  a  river 


reach  the  sea  all  the  year  round ;  but  the  more 
fertile  portions  are  so  extensive  as  to  constitute 
two-thirds  of  the  total  area :  one-third  of  the 
whole  may  be  accounted  desert  and  uninhabit- 
able. 

Politically,  Hedjaz,  Yemen,  and  El-Hasa  are 
really  three  Turkish  provinces ;  the  Sinaitic 
Peninsula  is  in  Egyptian  hands ;  England  exer- 
cises much  influence  in  Hadramaut  through  her 
possession  of  Aden  ;  the  Sultan  of  Oman  is  inde- 
pendent, and  in  alliance  with  England ;  Nejd, 
the  seat  of  the  once  powerful  Wahabi  State,  is 
independent.  The  Emir  of  Shomer  or  Shammar 
pays  a  small  annual  tribute  to  the  Sherif  of 
Mecca,  in  recognition  of  Turkish  supremacy. 

The  Arab  is  of  medium  stature,  muscular  make, 
and  brown  complexion.  Independence  looks  out 
of  his  glowing  eyes  ;  by  nature  he  is  quick,  sharp- 
witted,  imaginative,  and  passionately  fond  of 
poetry.  Courage,  temperance,  hospitality,  and 
good  faith  are  his  leading  virtues  ;  but  these  are 
often  marred  by  a  spirit  of  rapacity  and  sanguin- 
ary revenge.  His  wife  or  wives  do  the  work, 
keep  the  house,  and  educate  the  cliildren. 
Arabian  life  is  either  nomadic  or  settled.  The 
wandering  tribes,  or  Bedouin,  who  have,  how- 
ever, their  allotted  winter  and  summer  camping- 
grounds,  and  a  strong  attachment  to  their  own 
mode  of  life,  entertain  notions  of  the  rights  of 
property  differing  seriously  from  those  regulat- 
ing the  West ;  yet  even  their  most  marauding 
tribes  are  not  without  a  traditional  code  of  law 
and  honour,  the  only  law  recognised  among  them ; 
the  enforcing  of  it  is  left  to  every  tribesman. 
The  settled  tribes,  styled  Hadesi  and  Fellahs, 
are  despised  by  the  Bedouin,  who  scorn  to  inter- 
marry even  with  the  few  artisans  that  accompany 
every  tribe.  The  Bedouin  are  several  times  out- 
numbered by  the  settled  population,  and  there- 
fore must  not  be  regarded  as  normal  Arabs, 
who  are  adventurous,  commercial,  and  willing 
to  become  sailors.  Yet  mountain  and  desert 
barriers  and  patriarchal  anarchy  make  Arabia 
the  'anti-industrial  centre  of  the  world.'  The 
export  of  coffee,  dates,  figs,  spices,  and  drugs, 
though  still  considerable,  is  said  to  be  only  a 
shadow  of  the  old  commerce  which  existed 
before  the  circumnavigation  of  Africa.  The 
government  is  patriarchal,  and  the  chief  men 
of  the  various  tribes  have  the  title  of  Emir, 
Sheikh,  or,  in  a  religious  sense,  Imam. 

Before  the  rise  of  Mohammed  the  history  of 
the  peninsula  is  obscure  and  confused ;  one 
bond  of  union  amongst  the  tribes,  constantly  at 
war  with  each  other,  was  the  Kaaba,  a  small  rude 
temple  of  unknown  antiquity,  where  the  idols  of 
the  tribes,  over  350  in  number,  were  kept.  The 
grand  epoch  in  Arabian  history,  the  Hegira 
(Hedjra),  is  Mohammed's  flight  in  622  a.d.  from 
Mecca  to  Medina,  where  he  gathered  his  first 
body  of  adherents,  and  commenced  actively  the 
establishment  of  his  doctrines  by  the  sword  and 
otherwise.  Now  for  the  first  time  the  Arabian 
tribes  became  united  under  one  sceptre,  and  were 
powerful  enough  to  erect  new  empires  in  three 
quarters  of  the  world— in  Palestine,  Mesopotamia, 
and  Persia ;  in  Egypt  and  the  north  of  Africa ; 
and  in  Spain.  The  dominion  of  the  Arabs,  from 
the  time  of  Mohammed  till  the  fall  of  the  califate 
of  Bagdad  in  1258,  or  even  to  the  expulsion  of 
the  Moors  from  Spain,  is  an  important  period  in 
the  history  of  civilisation.  The  Arabian  literature 
became  the  vehicle  of  a  characteristic  culture, 
and  Arabic  scholars  were  the  main  cultivators  of 
philosophy  and  science — including  mathematics, 
astronomy,  medicine,  &c. — in  the  middle  ages. 


ARABIAN  GULF 


43 


ARAVALLl 


I 


But  the  movements  that  had  so  muoh  effect  on  the 
destinies  of  other  nations  left  Arabia  itself  in  a 
neglected  and  exhausted  condition,  and  the  pen- 
insula was  broken  up  into  several  distinct  and 
unimportant  principalities.  In  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries  the  Turks,  Persians,  Dutch,  and  Portu- 
guese took  possession  of  parts  of  the  country. 
The  native  orthodox  Moslem  Wahabi  empire  was 
founded  in  Central  Arabia  about  1760,  shattered 
in  1812  by  Mehemet  Ali  of  Egypt,  and  again 
restored.  And  now  the  country  is  politically 
distributed  as  above  described. 

See  works  by  Pococke,  Niebuhr,  Burckhardt, 
Burton,  Palgrave,  Welsted,  and  Doughty  and 
Lady  Anne  Blunt. 

Arabian  Gulf.    See  Red  Sea. 

Arabian  Sea,  that  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
which  lies  between  India  on  the  east  and  Arabia 
on  the  west.  Its  two  great  arms  are  the  Red 
Sea  proper  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Aracan.     See  Arakan. 

Arad,  a  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Maros,  an 
affluent  of  the  Theiss,  95  miles  SE,  of  Buda- 
Pesth,  and  74  E.  of  Szegedin  by  rail.  It  carries 
on  a  large  trade  in  corn,  spirits,  wine,  and 
tobacco,  and  is  one  of  the  greatest  cattle-markets 
in  Hungary.  Pop.  56,260.— New  Arad,  across 
the  river,  has  5000  inhabitants. 

Ar'afat,  Mount,  a  granite  hill  (260  feet),  15 
miles  SE.  of  Mecca,  visited  by  the  faithful,  and 
believed  to  be  the  spot  where  Adam  again  met 
Eve,  after  a  punitive  separation  of  200  years. 

Ar'agon,  once  a  kingdom,  now  divided  into 
the  three  provinces  of  Saragossa,  Huesca,  and 
Teruel,  in  the  NE.  of  Spain.   Area,  17,980  sq,  m. ; 

Eopulation,  913,000.  It  is  bounded  on  the  north 
y  the  Pyrenees,  and  watered  by  the  Ebro. 
Aragon  was  conquered  by  the  Moors  in  the 
beginning  of  the  8th  century,  recovered  from 
them  and  united  with  Catalonia  (1137),  and  was 
united  with  Castile  through  the  marriage  of 
Ferdinand  of  Aragon  with  Isabella,  heiress  of 
Castile  (1469).  The  chief  towns  are  Saragossa, 
Calatayud,  Huesca,  and  Teruel. 

Arago'na,  a  town  of  Sicily,  6  miles  NNE.  of 
Girgenti  by  rail.     Pop.  12,000. 

Araguay',  a  large  river  of  Brazil,  flowing  1000 
miles  northward,  till,  at  San  Joao,  it  joins  the 
Tocantins,  which  again,  after  a  northerly  course 
of  300  miles  more,  mingles  its  estuary  with  that 
of  the  Amazon. 

Ar'akan,  long  the  most  northerly  division  of 
British  Burma,  is  a  narrow  strip  of  territory  on 
the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Its  length  is  400  miles,  its 
breadth  varies  from  90  miles  in  the  north  to 
about  15  ;  and  the  area  is  14,526  sq.  m.  A  range 
of  mountains,  nearly  parallel  with  the  line  of 
coast,  the  highest  point  7000  feet  above  sea- 
level,  separates  Arakan  from  Pegu  and  Upper 
Burma.  Rice  is  the  chief  article  of  exportation  ; 
the  others  are  cotton,  tobacco,  sugar,  hemp. 
Indigo,  betel-nuts,  and  timber,  especially  teak. 
The  imports  consist  mainly  of  British  manu- 
factures.   Pop.  787,518. 

Aral,  Lake,  separated  by  the  platsau  of  Ust- 
Urt  from  the  Caspian  Sea,  is  the  largest  lake  in 
the  steppes  of  Asia.  It  has  an  area  of  about 
24,000  sq.  m.  ;  is  fed  by  the  Jaxartes  and  Oxus 
(the  present  Sir-Daria  and  Amu-Daria);  has  no 
outlet ;  and  is  generally  shallow,  its  only  deep 
water  (225  feet)  being  on  the  west  coast.  Its 
level  is  117  feet  above  that  of  the  Caspian,  which 
is  84  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  Black  Sea. 
Like   other   lakes  which   are  drained  only  by 


evaporation,  it  is  brackish.  Fish,  including 
sturgeon,  carp,  and  herring,  are  abundant.  The 
lake  is  dotted  with  multitudes  of  islands  and 
islets  ;  and  navigation  is  difficult.  The  area  now 
occupied  by  the  Sea  of  Aral  has  been  dry  land 
twice  within  historical  times— the  Jaxartes  and 
the  Oxus  then  running  south  of  the  Sea  of  Aral 
to  the  Caspian.  This  was  the  case  during  the 
Greco-Roman  period,  and  again  during  the  13th 
and  14th  centuries  a.d. 

Aran,  South  Isles  of,  Ireland,  are  three  small 
islands  lying  NE.  and  SW.  across  the  entrance  to 
Gal  way  Bay.  Total  area,  11,287  acres.  They 
rise  to  a  height  of  from  200  to  354  feet  on  the 
west  side,  ending  in  clifls  facing  the  Atlantic. 
Most  of  the  land  is  rudely  cultivated.  Inish- 
more,  the  chief  island,  is  still  known  as  Aran-iia- 
naomh,  or  'Aran  of  the  Saints.'  Pop.  3100.  See 
Burke's  South  Isles  of  Aran  (1887). 

Aranjuez  (A-rdn-hoo-ayth' ;  Lat.  Ara  Jovis),  a 
town  of  Spain,  on  the  Tagus,  30  miles  SSE.  of 
Madrid  by  rail.  Its  palace  was  long  a  favourite 
spring-resort  of  the  royal  family,  from  Charles  V. 
downwards.    Pop.  12,700. 

Ar'arat,  a  general  old  name  for  the  district 
through  which  the  Aras  flows,  and  never  the 
name  by  which  the  Mount  of  Ararat  has  been 
known  to  the  people  around  it.  Associated, 
however,  as  the  mountains  of  this  district  are  in 
Genesis,  viii.  4,  with  the  landing-place  of  the 
ark  after  the  flood,  the  name  has  been,  naturally 
enough,  appropriated  to  the  highest  peak,  which 
in  Armenian  is  called  Massis  or  Massis  Ljarn  ; 
in  Tartar  and  Turkish,  Aghri-Dagh,  or  curved 
mountain  ;  and  in  Persian,  Koh-i-Nuh,  or  Noah's 
mountain.  The  twin  mountains  of  Ararat  form 
an  elliptical  mass,  25  miles  long,  by  13  broad, 
and  rising.  Great  Ararat  to  16,969  feet.  Little 
Ararat  to  12,840  feet  above  the  sea-level ;  the 
two  summits  7  miles  apart.  In  1828  the  Czar 
Nicholas  annexed  the  territory  around  Erivan  ; 
and  Little  Ararat  is  now  the  meeting  points  of 
the  Russian,  Turkish,  and  Persian  empires.  On 
the  20th  of  June  1840,  dreadful  shocks  of  earth- 
quake were  felt,  and  great  masses  of  the  moun- 
tain were  thrown  into  the  plain.  Tournefort 
made  a  partial  ascent  of  the  mountain  in  1700 ; 
and  several  ascents  have  been  made  since  1829. 
See  Bryce's  Transcaucasia  and  Ararat  (2d  ed. 
1878). 

Aras  (anc.  Araxes),  the  chief  river  of  Armenia, 
formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Bingol-Su  and  the 
Kaleh-Su,  and  itself,  after  a  course  of  500  nules, 
joining  the  Kur  (anc.  Cyrus),  which  descends 
from  the  Caucasus  through  Georgia,  about  75 
miles  from  its  mouth.  Their  united  waters  turn 
suddenly  to  the  south,  and  fall  by  three  mouths 
into  the  Caspian. 

Araucania,  the  country  of  the  Araucos  or 
Araucanian  Indians,  in  the  south  of  Chili.  The 
Chilian  province  of  Arauco,  lying  between  the 
Andes  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  bounded  on  the 
north  by  Concepcion,  on  the  south  by  Valdivia, 
was  formed  in  1875,  with  an  area  of  8100  sq.  m., 
and  a  pop.  (1903)  of  71,500.  A  large  part  of  Arauco 
and  the  more  southerly  province  of  Valdivia  is 
occupied  by  Indians,  who  have  mostly  submitted 
to  Chilian  authority.  The  Araucanians  are  a 
fierce  and  warlike  people,  now  numbering  more 
than  50,000. 

Arau're,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  60  miles  ENE. 
ofTruxillo.     Pop.  5000. 

Aravalli,  a  range  of  mountains  in  Western 
India,  extending  300  miles  north-eastward  through 


AKBELA 


44 


ARCTIC  OCEAN 


Rjyputana.    The  highest  summit  is  Abu  (q.v.), 
5650  feet. 

Arbela,  now  Brbil  or  Arbil,  a  small  town  of 
Assyria,  east  from  Mosul,  gave  name  to  Alex- 
ander's final  defeat  of  Darius,  331  b.c. 

Arblgland,  an  estate,  the  birthplace  of  Paul 
Jones,  on  the  coast  of  Kirkcudbrightshire,  13 
miles  S.  of  Dumfries. 

Arbirlot,  a  Forfarshire  parish,  3  miles  W.  by 
S.  of  Arbroath.  Archbishop  Gladstanes  and  Dr 
Guthrie  were  ministers. 

Arbo'ga,  a  town  in  Sweden,  on  the  small  river 
Arboga,  by  which,  with  the  aid  of  a  canal,  the 
lakes  Hielmar  and  Malar  are  united,  101  miles 
WNW.  of  Stockholm  by  rail.    Pop.  5823. 

Arbois,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Jura,  7 
miles  NE.  of  Poligny  by  rail.    Pop.  4040. 

Arbroath',  or  Aberbroth'ock,  a  seaport  of 
Forfarshire,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Brothock  Burn, 
17  miles  BNE.  of  Dundee.  Here  in  1178  William 
the  Lion  founded  a  Tyronensian  abbey  in  which 
he  was  buried  (1214),  and  which  Avas  destroyed 
by  the  Reformers  in  1560.  The  picturesque  ruins 
of  its  cruciform  church,  which  measured  276  by 
160  feet,  present  a  noble  west  doorway  and  a 
rose-window,  'the  round  O  of  Arbroath.'  The 
chief  industries  are  flax-spinning,  engineering, 
and  the  manufacture  of  boots,  sail-cloth,  and 
linen  fabrics.  The  new  harbour,  begun  in  1841, 
admits  vessels  of  400  tons  ;  the  old  harbour  was 
converted  into  a  wet-dock  (1871-77).  The  chief 
exports  are  grain,  potatoes,  fish,  and  paving- 
flags  ;  the  chief  imports  are  coal,  flax,  hemp, 
jute,  and  hides.  Arbroath  is  a  royal  burgh, 
and  with  Montrose,  &c.,  returns  one  member. 
Arbroath  is  the  'Fairport'  of  Scott's  Antiquary. 
Pop.  (1831)  13,795  ;  (1901)  22,546.  See  works  by 
Miller  (1860),  Hay  (1876),  and  J.  Adam  (1886). 

Arbuthnott,  a  Kincardineshire  parish,  2^  miles 
WNW.  of  Bervie.     Dr  Arbuthnott  was  a  native. 

Arcachon  {Ar'ca-shon''),  a  bathing-place  dating 
from  1854,  in  the  French  dep.  of  Gironde,  34 
miles  SW.  of  Bordeaux  by  rail.  The  fine  broad 
sands  are  admirably  adapted  for  bathing ;  and 
the  place  is  sheltered  by  sand-hills,  covered  with 
extensive  pine-woods.  The  climate  is  always 
temperate,  and  the  rainfall  is  but  32  inches. 
Scientific  oyster-culture  is  practised  here  on  a 
large  scale.    Pop.  10,300. 

Arcadia,  the  central,  mountainous  part  of  the 
Peloponnesus  (or  Morea)  in  Greece,  treated  in 
poetry  as  the  home  of  primitive  simplicity,  peace, 
and  innocence. 

Archaig,  a  loch  of  Lochaber,  Inverness-shire,  10 
miles  N.  of  Fort  William.  It  is  12  miles  long, 
and  sends  off  the  Archaig  River  1\  mile  to  Loch 
Lochy. 

Archangel,  the  chief  city  of  a  Russian  govern- 
ment, 40  miles  above  the  junction  of  the  Dwina 
with  the  White  Sea.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop, and  the  chief  commercial  city  for  the 
north  of  Russia  and  Siberia,  and  is  frequented 
by  much  shipping— especially  British— from  June 
to  October,  the  port  being  clear  of  ice  only  during 
that  period.  The  harbour  is  a  mile  below  the 
town,  at  the  island  of  Solombaly ;  and  12  miles 
below  are  a  government  dockyard  and  mer- 
chants' warehouses.  The  chief  articles  of  traflUc 
are  fish,  flax,  oats,  linseed,  tar,  pitch,  rosin, 
train-oil,  skins,  furs,  timber,  wax,  iron,  tallow, 
bristles,  caviare.  The  manufactures  include 
cordage,  canvas,  linen,  leather,  beer,  and  sugar. 
The  town,  Avhich  owes  its  name  to  a  monastery 
of  St  Michael,  and  which  is  connected  by  river 


and  canal  with  a  great  part  of  European  Russia, 
is  the  oldest  seajjort  in  the  empire,  dating  its 
rise  from  a  visit  paid  by  the  English  seaman, 
Chancellor,  in  1553.  Pop.  19,540.— The  govern- 
ment has  an  area  of  331,505  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of 
350,000. 

Archlperago,  an  Italian  coinage,  first  met 
with  in  1268,  and  signifying  '  the  chief  sea,'  was 
applied  originally  to  that  part  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean which  separates  Greece  from  Asia  (the 
iEgean  Sea  of  the  ancients) ;  but  is  now  extended 
to  any  sea,  like  it,  thickly  interspersed  with 
islands,  or  rather  to  the  group  of  islands  them- 
selves. All  archipelagoes  fall  naturally  into 
two  groups,  the  oceanic  and  the  continental. 
The  islands  in  the  Greek  Archipelago  consist 
principally  of  two  groups,  called  Cyclades  and 
Sporades;  the  first  from  their  encircling  the 
sacred  island  of  Delos,  the  second  from  their 
being  scattered  in  a  wavy  line.  The  former  lie  to 
the  east  of  Southern  Greece,  while  the  latter  skirt 
the  west  of  Asia  Minor.  The  numerous  islands 
which  stud  this  sea  range  in  size  from  the  merest 
barren  rocks  to  Crete,  with  an  area  of  3326  sq.  m. 
Most  are  of  volcanic  origin,  with  high  bluffs 
rising  abruptly  from  the  sea.  Of  the  Cyclades, 
all  belonging  to  Greece,  the  principal  are  :  Syra, 
Delos,  Tenos,  Andros,  Cythnos,  Thera,  Naxos, 
Melos,  and  Paros.  The  chief  islands  of  the 
Sporades  are  :  Carpathos,  Rhodes,  Cos,  Patmos, 
Icaria,  Samos,  Chios,  Lesbos,  Lemnos,  Imbros, 
Samothrace,  and  Psyra.  These  all  belong  to 
Turkey,  and  constitute  a  separate  vilayet  of  the 
empire,  except  Samos,  which  is  autonomous,  and 
tributary  only;  but  the  following,  off  Euboea 
(Negropont),  and  many  smaller  islands,  belong  to 
Greece  :  Scyros,  Icos,  Scopelos,  and  Sciathos. 

Arcls-Sur-Aube  (Ar'see-silr-Odb),  a  town  of  2841 
inhabitants,  in  the  French  dep.  of  Aube,  on  the 
navigable  Aube,  22  miles  N.  of  Troyes  by  rail.  It 
was  the  birthplace  of  Dan  ton,  and  near  it  the 
allies  defeated  Napoleon,  March  20-21,  1814. 

Ar'cole,  a  village  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Adige, 
in  Northern  Italy,  15  miles  ESE.  of  Verona. 
Here  Napoleon  defeated  the  Austrians,  15-17th 
November  1796. 

Arcos  de  la  Fronte'ra,  a  town  on  the  Guada- 
lete,  in  the  Spanish  province  of  Cadiz,  20  miles 
ENE.  of  Xeres.  It  was  so  called  from  its  stand- 
ing on  the  frontiers  of  the  old  Moorish  kingdom 
of  Granada.     Pop.  16,910. 

Arcot  (Aru-Kadu,  '  six  deserts '),  a  city  of 
British  India,  in  the  presidency  of  Madras,  on 
the  Palar,  5  miles  from  Arcot  railway  station, 
and  65  WSW.  of  Madras.  In  1751  Clive  captured 
Arcot ;  and  having  taken  it,  was  in  turn  besieged 
for  seven  Aveeks.    Pop.  12,000. 

Arctic  Ocean.  The  Arctic  Ocean  lies  to  the 
north  of  Europe,  Asia,  and  North  America,  and 
surrounds  the  North  Pole ;  it  is  usually  defined 
as  the  water  area  within  the  Arctic  Circle. 
Physiographically,  the  Norwegian  Sea  and  Green- 
land Sea,  situated  between  Norway  and  Green- 
land, belong  to  the  same  basin  as  the  Arctic 
Ocean.  If  the  Arctic  Ocean  be  regarded  as  lying 
wholly  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  then  it  is  almost 
land-locked  between  that  circle  and  the  parallel 
of  70°  N.  It  comnumicates  with  the  Pacific  by 
Behring  Strait,  and  with  the  Atlantic  through 
Davis  Strait  and  the  wide  sea  between  Norway 
and  Greenland.  The  area  of  the  ocean  is  about 
5,500,000  sq.  m.,  and  into  it  there  drain  about 
8,600,000  sq.  m.  of  land.  The  coasts  of  Europe 
and  Asia  are  low,  and  have  several  deep  indenta- 


d 


ARDAHAN 


tions,  the  principal  being  the  White  Sea  and  Gulf 
of  Obi.  The  shores  of  North  America  are  skirted 
by  a  most  irregular  assemblage  of  islands,  forming 
numerous  gulfs,  bays,  and  channels.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  from  Asia  are  the  Lena,  Yenesei,  and 
Obi ;  from  Europe,  the  Onega,  Dwina,  and 
Petchora;  from  America,  the  Mackenzie.  The 
Arctic  highlands  are  covered  with  an  enormous 
depth  of  snow  and  ice.  In  some  places  this 
results  in  the  formation  of  great  glaciers,  one  of 
the  most  remarkable  of  which  is  the  Humboldt 
Glacier,  in  79°  N.  lat.,  on  the  west  coast  of  Green- 
land. There  are,  however,  no  large,  flat-topped 
tabular  icebergs,  like  those  of  the  southern  hemi- 
sphere, within  the  Arctic  Ocean  ;  and  this  of 
itself  is  good  evidence  that  there  is  no  expanse  of 
land  towards  the  North  Pole.  The  whole  ocean 
is  covered  by  immense  ice-fields  from  5  to  50  feet 
in  thickness.  During  winter  these  are  bound 
together  by  the  severe  frost,  but  these  continuous 
masses  break  up  during  the  summer  months  into 
floes  and  floe-bergs.  Sometimes  vast  spaces  of 
water  and  long  lanes  are  formed  between  the  floes 
and  ice-fields,  and  these  have,  doubtless,  given 
rise  to  the  notions  regarding  an  open  Polar  Sea 
which  at  one  time  prevailed.  When  these  great 
floating  ice-fields  come  together,  the  margins 
where  they  collide  are  piled  up  on  each  other,  and 
thus  is  produced  the  well-known  hummocky  ice- 
floes. When  this  hummocky  ice  is  jammed  against 
a  shallow  shore,  and  becomes  fixed  for  long  periods 
of  time,  the  appearances  are  produced  to  which 
Nares  gave  the  name  of  '  Palasocrystic  Sea.'  In 
the  more  open  parts  of  the  ocean  the  ice  is,  how- 
ever, always  in  motion.  Immense  quantities  of 
field  and  hummocky  ice  pass  down  each  year 
between  Spitzbergen  and  Greenland,  and  Green- 
land and  Iceland.  Parry  reached  a  latitude  of  82° 
45',  Markham  reached  83°  20',  and  Lockwood  (of 
Greely's  expedition,  1882)  83°  24',  the  most 
northerly  point  yet  attained.  In  1850  M'Clure 
entered  Behring  Strait,  and  brought  his  crew  home 
by  Davis  Strait,  thus  discovering  the  North-west 
Passage.  In  1878  and  1879  Nordenskiold  sailed 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  along  the  northern 
shores  of  Europe  and  Asia,  thus  discovering  the 
North-east  Passage.  In  1893  Nansen  set  forth  on 
his  novel  and  adventurous  expedition;  hoping 
that  his  ship  would  be  carried  by  the  current, 
after  being  frozen  in  the  ice,  from  the  shores  of 
Asia  across  or  near  the  North  Pole,  and  ultimately 
out  into  the  open  sea  again  off"  the  coasts  of 
Greenland.  The  ocean  appears  to  be  shallow 
to  the  north  of  Europe  and  Asia,  the  depth 
500  miles  to  the  north  of  the  Lena  being  only  38 
fathoms  ;  but  between  Spitzbergen  and  the  north 
of  Greenland  there  is  a  deep  opening  into  the  frozen 
sea,  where  the  depth  is  2500  fathoms.  Whales, 
seals,  and  walruses  are  now  a  much  less  plentiful 
source  of  wealth  than  they  used  to  be.  In  winter 
the  temperature  of  the  air  is  sometimes  as  low  as 
-  47°  F.,  and  in  summer  is  usually  a  little  above 
the  freezing-point. 

See  books  on  Arctic  exploration  or  special 
expeditions  by  K?ne  (1853),  M'Clintock  (1859), 
Blake  (1874),  Markham  (1874,  1878,  and  1881), 
Payer  (1876),  Nares  (1878),  Nordenskiold  (1881), 
De  Long  (1882),  Gilder  (1883),  Greely  (1886), 
Nansen  (1897),  Peary  (1898),  and  Dittmar  (1901). 

Ardahan,  a  village  of  about  300  houses  in  the 
portion  of  Turkish  Armenia  ceded  in  1878  to 
Russia,  35  miles  NW.  of  Kars. 

Ardalan,  a  province  in  the  west  of  Persia,  em- 
bracing the  basin  of  the  Shirwan  Rud.  Area,  6000 
8(j.  m. ;  pop.  150,000.    Capital,  Kennanshah(q.v.). 


45  AREQUIPA 

Ardchattan,  an  Argyllshire  parish  on  Loch 
Etive,  with  a  ruined  priory  (1231). 

Ardebil,  a  town  of  Persia,  110  miles  E.  of 
Tabriz ;  pop.  16,000. 

Arddche,  a  mountainous  dep.  in  the  south  of 
France,  takes  its  name  from  a  tributary  of  the 
Rhone,  and  includes  part  of  ancient  Languedoc. 
In  the  NW.  of  the  dep.,  the  Cevennes  culminate 
in  the  volcanic  Mont-Mezene  (5752  feet).  Iron, 
coal,  antimony,  lead,  marble,  and  gypsum  are 
wrought.  Area,  2136  sq.  m. ;  pop.  350,000.  The 
capital  is  Privas. 

Ardee',  a  town  in  the  west  of  County  Louth, 
Ireland,  on  the  river  Dee,  12  miles  inland.  The 
ancient  castle,  built  about  the  year  1200,  is  used 
as  the  town-house ;  and  there  is  a  handsome 
convent.     Pop.  1880. 

Ardennes,  an  extensive  hill-country  and  forest, 
occupying  the  SE.  corner  of  Belgium,  between  the 
Moselle  and  the  Meuse,  but  extending  also  into 
France  and  Rhenish  Prussia.  The  average  height 
of  the  hills  is  less  than  1600  feet ;  but  in  the  east 
they  attain  2100.  The  Arduenna  Silva  of  the 
Romans  extended  over  a  still  wider  area.  See  a 
work  by  Lindley  (1887).— Shakespeare's  Forest  of 
Arden  is  a  district  in  Warwickshire,  extending 
from  the  Avon  to  near  Birmingham. 

Ardennes,  a  French  dep.  bordering  on  Belgium. 
Mezi^res  is  the  capital,  but  Sedan  is  the  chief 
town.    Area,  2020  sq.  m. ;  pop.  314,923. 

Ardglass,  a  coast-town  of  County  Down,  6 
miles  SSE.  of  Downpatrick.     Pop.  504. 

Ardlam'ont  Point,  Argyllshire,  at  the  W.  en- 
trance to  the  Kyles  of  Bute.  Ardlamont  House, 
the  old  seat  of  the  Lamonts,  became  famous 
through  a  '  not  proven '  murder  trial  (1893). 

Ardmore',  a  watering-place  in  County  Water- 
ford,  7  miles  ENE.  of  Youghal. 

Ardnamurchan  Point,  a  rugged  headland  of 
Argyllshire,  the  most  westerly  point  of  the  main- 
land, with  a  castle-like  lighthouse  (1849). 

Ardoch,  Perthshire,  12  miles  NNE.  of  Stirling, 
has  a  Roman  camp,  the  most  entire  in  Britain. 

Ardoye,  a  town  of  Belgium,  17  miles  S.  of 
Bruges ;  pop.  6082. 

Ardrisli'aig,  a  seaport  of  Argyllshire,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Crinan  Canal,  2  miles  SSW.  of 
Lochgilphead.    Pop.  1258. 

Ardross'an,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  in 
Ayrshire,  1  mile  WNW.  of  Saltcoats,  and  32  miles 
SW.  of  Glasgow  by  rail.  It  dates  from  1806,  and 
the  harbour  is  one  of  the  safest  and  most  acces- 
sible on  the  west  coast  of  Scotland.  A  new  dock 
was  formed  in  1887-92.  The  chief  exports  are 
coal  and  pig-iron.  On  a  hill  above  the  town 
stands  a  fragment  of  Ardrossan  Castle,  said  to 
have  been  surprised  by  Wallace.  Pop.  (1851) 
2071 ;  (1891)  5294  ;  (1901)  5950. 

Ardvreck  Castle.    See  Assynt. 

Areci'lDO,  a  town  on  the  north  coast  of  the 
Spanish  West  Indian  island  of  Porto  Rico,  45 
miles  W.  of  San  Juan.    Pop.  10,000. 

Arenberg  (Aremherg),  from  1644  till  1820  a 
small  sovereign  duchy  of  Germany,  lying  between 
Jiilich  and  Cologne ;  now  part  of  the  district  of 
Coblenz,  Rhenish  Prussia. 

Ar'endal,  a  town  of  Norway,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Nidelf  in  the  bay  of  Christiania.  It  is  built 
partly  on  piles,  partly  on  rock,  and  has  been 
called  '  Little  Venice.'  Its  bay  forms  an  excellent 
harbour.    Pop.  11,15a 

Arequipa  (Ar-e-kee'pd),  a  name  given  to  a  moun- 


AREZZO 


46 


ARGYLLSHIRE 


tain  in  the  west  Cordillera  of  the  Peruvian  Andes, 
and  then  to  a  city  at  its  foot,  and  to  the  southern 
dep.  of  Peru.  The  mountain,  also  called  Mitsi,  is 
volcanic,  and  has  a  height  of  18,500  feet.  Its  neigh- 
bourhood is  subject  to  earthquakes.  The  city, 
in  a  rich  valley,  7700  feet  above  the  sea,  is  the 
third  largest  in  Peru,  with  35,000  inhabitants. 
The  dep.  has  an  area  of  27,744  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop. 
of  260,282. 

Arezzo  (anc.  Arretium),  the  chief  city  of  an 
Italian  province,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Chiana 
with  the  Arno,  38  miles  ESE.  of  Florence.  The 
Piazza  Grande,  built  by  Vasari,  is  remarkable ; 
and  the  Gothic  cathedral  (begun  1277)  has  a 
splendid  marble  altar  by  Pisano.  The  city  pro- 
duces silk,  and  manufactures  cloth,  combs,  and 
pottery.  Natives  were  Petrarch,  the  poet  Aretino, 
the  painter  Spinello  Aretino ;  Guido  of  Arezzo, 
inventor  of  the  musical  scale ;  the  botanist 
Cesalpino ;  Pope  Julius  III. ;  and  Vasari.  Pop. 
15,816. 

Argaum',  a  village  in  Berar,  India,  between 
Ellichpur  and  Aurungabad.  Near  it,  on  28th 
November  1803,  two  months  after  Assaye,  Wel- 
lesley  again  defeated  the  Mahrattas. 

Argenta  (Ar-jen'ta),  a  town  of  Central  Italy, 
21  miles  SB.  of  Ferrara  by  rail ;  pop.  3000. 

Argentan  (Ar-zhon^kin"),  a  Norman  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Orne,  on  the  river  Orne,  42  miles 
SSE.  of  Caen  by  rail ;  pop.  5728. 

Argenteuil  (Ar-zhon^-hih'yee^),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Seine-et-Oise,  on  the  Seine,  6  m. 
NW.  of  Paris.  Its  ruined  priory  was  founded  in 
656,  and  was  by  Charlemagne  turned  into  a  nun- 
nery, of  which  Heloise  became  abbess.  Pop.  15,799. 

Argentine  Republic,  or  Argentina,  a  federal 
republic  of  South  America,  taking  its  name  from 
the  river  La  Plata  ('  River  of  Silver ').  It  has  an 
area  of  1,125,086  sq.  m.,  including  the  unsettled 
territories  on  the  north  and  the  south,  but  the 
organised  and  settled  provinces  occupy  less  than 
one-half  this  area.  The  whole  country  is  more  than 
ten  times  larger  than  Great  Britain  and  Ireland 
taken  together.  The  republic  is  made  up  of  four- 
teen provinces  and  a  number  of  territories.  On  the 
west,  the  Andes  divide  this  republic  from  Chili ; 
Bolivia  bounds  the  country  on  the  north,  while 
Paraguay,  Brazil,  Uruguay,  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  form  the  eastern  limit.  The  great  island- 
group  of  Fuegia,  on  the  south,  belongs  partly  to 
this  republic  and  partly  to  Chili. 

Except  for  the  sub- Andean  foot-hills,  and  a 
few  other  local  and  unimportant  hilly  or  moun- 
tainous tracts,  nearly  all  the  country  consists 
of  vast  plains  or  pampas.  The  northern  plain 
region  (the  Chaco)  is  in  part  densely  wooded  ;  but 
most  of  the  Pampas  country  is  open,  presenting 
wide  ranges  of  treeless  pasture,  varied  by  patches 
of  huge  thistles  and  other  coarse  plants.  In  the 
Patagonian  region  there  are  extensive  districts 
completely  covered  with  stones  and  shingle, 
interspersed  with  clumps  of  thorny  brushwood, 
and  having  in  the  hollows  many  strongly  saline 
ponds  or  lakes. 

The  climate  in  the  extreme  north  is  very  hot,  for 
it  lies  north  of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn.  The  more 
remote  southern  territories  have  an  extremely 
bleak,  windy,  and  disagreeable  climate,  but  are 
not  really  so  cold  as  might  be  expected  from  their 
relatively  high  latitude.  But  the  country  in 
general  enjoys  an  equable,  temperate,  and  health- 
ful climate.  The  people  of  the  country  are  mostly 
Spanish  in  their  language  and  descent,  although 
there  are  many  Italians,  French,  and  other  Euro- 
pean inimigrants.    The  Gauchos,  or  herdsmen  of 


the  plains,  are  a  hardy  and  spirited,  but  ignorant 
race,  often  of  partial  Indian  descent.  Some  of 
the  Indians  of  the  remote  districts  have  become 
skilled  in  the  rearing  of  flocks  and  herds.  Agri- 
culture has  of  late  been  rapidly  extended.  Wheat, 
maize,  flax,  and  linseed  are  exported ;  but  the 
chief  staples  of  export  are  skins,  hides,  hair, 
bones,  bone-ashes,  horns,  phosphorus,  ostrich- 
feathers,  wool,  tallow,  dried  and  salt  beef,  beef- 
extract,  fresh  meat  (frozen),  and  live  animals. 
The  greater  part  of  the  republic  is  well  watered 
and  highly  fertile,  but  there  are  extensive  regions 
of  waste  land.  Sugar-culture  thrives  in  the  NW. 
and  north.  Wines,  spirits,  and  dried  fruits  are 
extensively  produced  ;  a  valuable  product  of  the 
north  is  vmte,  or  Paraguay  tea.  The  rivers  Parana 
and  Uruguay,  with  their  large  tributaries,  are 
important  channels  of  trade.  The  mineral  re- 
sources of  the  country  are  comparatively  unde- 
veloped. The  principal  seaport  is  Buenos  Ayres, 
the  capital  and  largest  city.  Among  the  other 
large  towns  are  Cordoba,  Rosario,  La  Plata,  Men- 
doza,  Tucuman,  Corrientes,  Salta,  and  Santa  Fe. 
Tlie  commerce  of  tlie  country(iinports£25,000,000; 
exports  £36,000,000)  is  mainly  with  Great  Britain, 
Germany,  the  United  States,  and  France, 

The  population  of  the  country  in  1869  was 
1,736,922 ;  in  1902  it  was  ofticially  estimated  at 
5,025,000  (4-5  to  the  sq.  m.),  of  wliom  500,000 
were  of  Italian  birth,  200,000  Spanish  (very  many 
of  them  Basques),  95,000  French,  22,000  English, 
18,000  German,  and  15,000  Swiss.  Much  of  the  in- 
crease  is  due  to  immigration  (from  60,000  to  90,000 
annually).  The  religion  is  Roman  Catliolic. 
The  government  is  closely  modelled  upon  that 
of  the  United  States.  In  1892  the  length  of 
railway  lines  open  for  traffic  was  7140  miles,  with 
a  projected  extension  across  the  Andes  to  meet 
tlie  Chilian  railways.  The  river  La  Plata  was 
visited  by  the  Spaniards  in  1516,  and  the  country- 
was  colonised  in  1535.  In  1810  the  colonists 
founded  a  local  provisional  government.  A  san- 
guinary war  for  independence  followed,  which 
did  not  cease  till  1824.  Spain  acknowledged  the 
independence  of  the  country  in  1842.  Since 
1890  financial  troubles  and  political  turinoil  have 
seriously  injured  the  well-being  of  what  was 
long  the  best  governed  and  most  prosperous  of 
South  American  states. 

See  Mulhall,  Handbook  of  the  River  Plate  (1884) ; 
M.  F.  Paz  Soldan,  Geografia  Argentina  (1885); 
Lady  F.  Dixie,  Across  Patagonia  (1880);  Rum- 
bold,  The  Great  Silver  River  (2d  ed.  1890) ;  Turner, 
ArgentivM  and  the  Argentines  (1892);  Hudson, 
The  Naturalist  in  La  Plata;  and  the  recent 
British  and  American  Consular  Reports. 

Ar'golis,  the  north-eastern  peninsula  of  the 
Morea  of  Greece,  lying  between  the  Bays  of 
Nauplia  and  ^Egina.  Together  with  Corinth,  it 
forms  one  of  the  thirteen  provinces  of  the  king- 
dom of  Greece,  witli  an  area  of  1442  sq.  m.,  and 
a  pop.  of  160,000.     Its  capital  is  Nauplia. 

Argos'toll,  a  seaport  of  the  Ionian  Islands,  the 
capital  of  Cephalonia,  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
bishop,  and  has  a  good  harbour.  It  was  almost 
destroyed  by  earthquake  in  1867.  Near  it  are 
the  'sea-mills  of  Argostoli,'  two  holes  in  the 
rocky  coast,  into  which  the  sea  pours  with  a 
force  sufficient  to  drive  two  mills.    Pop.  9871. 

Argyll'shire,  a  county  in  the  west  of  Scotland. 
Its  greatest  length  is  115  miles ;  its  greatest 
breadth,  55  ;  and  its  extent  of  coast-line  as  much 
as  2289  miles,  owing  to  the  numerous  sea-lochs. 
Next  to  Inverness,  it  is  the  largest  county  in 
Scotland,  its  area  being  3213  sq.  m.,  of  which 


ARGYROKASTRON 


47 


ARKANSAS 


623  belong  to  the  islands.  The  chief  islands  are 
Mull,  Islay,  Jura,  Tyree,  Coll,  Lismore,  and 
Colonsay,  with  lona  and  Staff'a.  The  chief  peaks 
are  Bideau  nam  Biau  (3766  feet)  and  Ben  Cruachan 
(3689);  the  sea-lochs,  Lochs  Moidart,  Sunart, 
Liunhe  (branching  off  into  Lochs  Leven  and 
Eil),  Fyne,  and  Long  ;  the  streams  are  the  Orchy 
and  Awe ;  the  fresh-water  lakes  are  Lochs  Awe 
and  Lydoch.  Lead  occurs  at  Strontian  (where 
the  mineral  Strontianite  was  discovered),  at  Tyn- 
drum,  and  in  Islay  and  Coll ;  roofing-slates  in 
Easdale  and  Ballachulish ;  coal  near  Campbel- 
town ;  fine  marble  in  Tyree,  &c.  ;  and  excellent 
granite  near  Inveraray.  Tlie  total  percentage  of 
cultivated  area  is  only  5-7.  Sheep  and  cattle 
rearing  is  the  chief  occupation.  Whisky  is  manu- 
factured in  Campbeltown  and  Islay.  Towns 
and  villages  are  Inveraeay,  Campbeltown,  Oban, 
Dunoon,  Lochgilphead,  Tarbert,  and  Tobermory. 
The  county  returns  one  member  .to  parliament. 
Pop.  (1S31)  100,973  ;  (1901)  65,849—34,428  Gaelic- 
speaking. 

Argyrokastron  (the  Turkish  Ergeri),  a  town 
of  Albania,  in  the  province  of  Janina,  near  the 
Dryno,  an  affluent  of  the  Viosa.     Pop.  9000. 

Aria'no  (Arianum),  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy, 
2800  feet  above  the  sea,  and  84  miles  NE.  of 
Naples  by  rail.    Pop.  17,522. 

Ari'ca,  a  seaport  of  Tacna,  the  most  southerly 
department  of  Peru.  It  was  stormed  and  taken 
by  the  Chilians  in  1880,  was  retained  (with  Tacna) 
by  treaty  for  ten  years,  and  was  still  in  Chilian 
hands  in  1905.     Pop.  (once  30,000)  4000. 

Arichat  (A-ree-sMif),  a  seaport  on  the  south 
side  of  Isle  Madame,  Nova  Scotia,  with  a  harbour 
for  the  laigest  vessels.  It  is  the  see  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  bishop.    Pop.  2000. 

Ariege,  a  dep.  in  the  south  of  France,  lying 
along  the  northern  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees.  Area, 
1890  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (decreasing)  200,000.— The  river 
Ariege  rises  in  the  Pyrenees,  and  flows  93  miles 
to  the  Garonne  near  Toulouse, 

Arin'os,  a  river  in  the  south-west  of  Brazil, 
which,  after  a  north-west  course  of  700  miles, 
joins  the  Tapajos,  itself  an  affluent  of  the  Amazon. 

Arizona,  till  1906  a  territory  of  the  United 
States,  bounded  N.  by  Utah,  E.  by  New 
Mexico,  S.  by  the  republic  of  Mexico  (Sonora), 
and  W.  by  California  and  Nevada.  Its  western 
boundary  is  mostly  formed  by  the  Colorado  of 
the  West.  This  river  traverses  the  NW.  part 
of  Arizona  in  a  deep  and  narrow  water-worn 
channel  (the  Grand  Canon),  more  than  300  miles 
long,  and  nowhere  less  than  a  mile  below  the 
surface  of  the  surrounding  country.  Arizona  had 
an  area  of  112,920  sq.  m.  ;  it  was  thus  nearly  as 
large  as  Italy.  It  is  in  general  a  region  of  High 
plateaus,  traversed  by  various  mountain-ranges, 
presenting  abundant  evidence  of  not  remote  vol- 
canic action.  In  the  SW.  the  country  has  a 
desert  character,  and  in  all  parts  the  rainfall  is 
decidedly  limited — 14 "21  inches  annually  at  Fort 
Defiance.  In  various  parts  there  are  extensive 
lava-beds.  The  whole  region  lies  in  the  drainage 
basin  of  the  Colorado,  the  chief  affluents  being 
the  Gila,  the  Bill  Williams,  and  the  Colorado 
Chiquito.  The  water-supply  over  large  areas  of 
Arizona  is  mainly  derived  from  deep  natural 
wells  and  '  water-holes.'  It  is  believed  that  fully 
10,000,000  acres  of  ground  might  be  profitably 
irrigated.  The  country  is  in  general  extremely 
healthful ;  but  in  the  SW.  the  summer  heat  is 
excessive,  and  malarial  fevers  are  not  unknown 
vpoa  the  bottom-lands  of  the  Lower  Colorado. 


Maize,  barley,  and  wheat  are  the  leading  pro- 
ducts. Arizona  is  an  important  seat  of  gold  and 
silver  mining.  Copper  is  also  mined  and  smelted 
very  largely.  Coal  has  been  obtained.  Rock- 
salt,  lead,  and  other  valuable  mineral  deposits 
are  found  in  almost  every  part  of  the  country. 
The  principal  towns  are  Phoenix,  the  capital,  ami 
Tucson.  Some  interesting  old  Indian  towns,  or 
pueblos  (Moquis),  still  remain,  with  their  remark- 
able native  semi-civilisation.  This  region  was 
first  visited  by  Spaniards  in  1570.  After  1821  the 
country  was  a  i)art  of  Mexico  until  1848,  wlien 
most  of  it  passed  to  the  United  States,  the  trans- 
ference being  completed  in  1853  by  the  '  Gadsden 
Purcliase.'  Tlie  territory  was  organised  in  1863. 
In  1870  the  population  was  9658  ;  in  1900,  122,900. 
In  1906,  including  the  adjoining  territory  of  New 
Mexico,  it  was  made  a  state  of  the  Union.  Total 
area,  235,380  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1900)  318,210.  See 
New  Mexico. 
Arkaig.    See  Archaic. 

Arkan'sas  (formerly  pron.  Ar'kansa'w),  a  state 
of  the  American  Union,  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
Missouri,  on  the  E.  by  Missouri,  Tennessee,  and 
Mississippi,  on  the  S.  by  Louisiana,  and  on  the 
W.  by  Texas  and  the  Indian  Territory.  Area, 
53,850  sq.  m. — about  that  of  England  without 
Wales,  of  which  some  800  sq.  m.  is  water-surface. 
The  southern  limit  is  the  parallel  of  30°  N.  lat., 
and  the  northern  boundary  for  the  most  part  is 
on  the  parallel  of  36°  30'.  The  Mississippi  River 
washes  nearly  all  the  eastern  border  of  the  state. 
The  extreme  east  and  west  limits  are  respectively 
89°  40'  and  94°  42*  W.  long.  Nearly  all  the 
country  is  well  timbered.  Along  the  eastern 
border  of  the  state  lies  a  strip  of  rich  alluvial 
and  swampy  land,  limited  westward  by  Crowley's 
Ridge.  A  similar  low  and  wet  tract  is  traversed 
by  the  lower  Arkansas  River.  The  southern  half 
of  the  state  contains  great  areas  of  yellow  and 
loamy  land  of  Tertiary  age,  interspersed  thinly 
with  tracts  of  red  clays  and  liills  of  iron-ore. 
West  of  the  Crowley's  Ridge  region  is  a  con- 
siderable breadth  of  gray  silty  prairies.  In  the 
west  of  the  yellow  Tertiary  loams  are  large 
patches  of  'black  prairie'  of  Cretaceous  age. 
The  west  and  central  portions  of  the  state  form 
a  broken  hill-region  of  Tertiary  origin.  Great 
prairies  of  red  loam  and  clay  soil  prevail  in  the 
W.  and  NW.  Towards  the  north  is  the  Ozark 
mountain-region,  a  broken  country  of  high  hills 
and  ridges.  The  soils,  though  of  extremely  vari- 
ous character,  are  mostly  good  throughout  the 
state.  The  coal-measures  very  extensively  under- 
lie the  surface,  and  coal  crops  out  at  many 
points ;  but  thus  far  it  has  not  been  much 
wrought.  Silver-bearing  galena  and  zinc  appear 
to  be  abundant,  and  iron-ores  exist  in  vast 
amounts.  The  villages  of  Hot  Springs  in  Gar- 
land county,  and  Eureka  Springs  in  the  NW.,  are 
celebrated  health-resorts.  The  novaculite,  or 
hone-stone,  of  this  state  is  extensively  wrought 
and  exported.  The  Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Red, 
White,  St  Francis,  Ouachita,  and  other  navigable 
rivers  afford  cheap  transport.  Agriculture  is  the 
leading  pursuit  in  Arkansas,  and  cotton  is  the 
great  staple  of  production.  Maize  is  also  very 
largely  produced,  and  considerable  quantities  of 
oats  and  wheat  are  harvested.  Live-stock,  wool, 
tobacco,  pork,  fruit,  and  dairy  products  are 
marketed.  Although  malarial  fevers  and  severe 
heat  are  to  be  encountered  in  the  marshy  and 
flat  alluvial  districts,  the  larger  portion  of  the 
country  has  an  agreeable  and  healthful  climate. 
In  quality,  variety,  and  accessibility,  the  tirot>er 


ARKANSAS  CITY 


48 


ARMENIA 


of  this  state  is  hardly  surpassed.  The  mineral 
resources  of  the  state  have  been  but  little  util- 
ised. Lying  outside  the  great  currents  of  immi- 
gration, Arkansas  has,  until  very  recent  years, 
preserved  to  a  remarkable  degree  the  character 
of  a  frontier  country.  Even  the  large  extent  of 
river  navigation  for  a  long  time  served  to  hinder 
the  development  of  the  country,  since  it  dis- 
couraged the  construction  of  railways ;  and  the 
old  system  of  slave  labour  and  of  large  holdings 
of  land  was  not  favourable  to  rapid  material 
development.  This  region  formed  a  part  of  the 
French  colony  of  Louisiana,  and  was  purchased, 
together  with  the  rest  of  that  colony,  by  the 
United  States  in  1803.  The  earliest  French  settle- 
ment was  made  at  Arkansas  Post  in  1685.  Ar- 
kansas was  organised  as  a  territory  in  1819,  and 
became  a  state  in  1836,  and  seceded  in  1861. 

The  principal  towns  are  Little  Rock,  the  state 
capital  (pop.  40,000),  Pine  Bluflf  (12,000),  and 
Fort  Smith  (11,000);  Hot  Springs  (9500)  is  a 
Ileal th-resort.  Pop.  of  Arkansas  (1820)  14,255 ; 
(1860)  435,450  ;  (1880)  802,525  ;  (1890)  1,128,179  ; 
(1900)  1,311,504,  of  whom  upwards  of  366,000  were 
of  African  or  mixed  descent. 

Arkansas  City,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the 
state  of  Kansas,  on  the  Arkansas  River,  51  miles 
by  rail  S.  by  E.  of  Wichita.  Pop.  (1880)  1012 ; 
(1890)  8547  ;  (1900)  6140. 

Arkansas  River,  next  to  tlie  Missouri  the 
Mississippi's  chief  affluent,  is  1514  miles  long 
(800  navigable  for  steamers) ;  rises  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  at  an  altitude  of  10,000  feet,  on  the 
borders  of  Utah,  and  joins  the  '  Father  of  Waters ' 
at  Napoleon,  275  miles  above  New  Orleans.  Its 
chief  tributary  is  the  Canadian  River. 

Arkinholm.    See  Lanoholm. 

Arklow,  a  seaport  of  Wicklow,  49  miles  S.  of 
Dublin,  at  the  mouth  of  the  lovely  Avoca.  There 
are  ruins  of  the  castle  of  the  Ormonds,  destroyed 
by  Cromwell  in  1649,  and  traces  of  an  ancient 
monastery.    Pop.  4000. 

Arko'na,  the  NE.  promontory  of  the  island  of 
Riigen,  in  the  Baltic.  Its  chalk  cliffs,  rising  177 
feet,  are  topped  with  a  lighthouse  (1827),  itself 
78  feet  high.  Here  stood  a  famous  fortification 
long  impregnable,  and  the  temple  of  the  Wend 
deity  Swantewit,  destroyed  by  Waldemar  I.  of 
Denmark  in  1168. 

Arlberg,  a  crystalline  mountain  mass  of  Aus- 
tria amongst  the  Alps,  which  forms  the  boundary 
between  the  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg  ('the  land 
before  or  beyond  the  Arlberg').  The  difficult 
pass  over  this  ridge,  from  Bludenz  to  Landeck 
and  Innsbruck,  is  5300  feet  high  ;  but  a  railway, 
with  a  main  tunnel  6720  yards  long,  through  the 
Arlberg  Alp  was  opened  in  1884. 

Aries  (Roman  Arelate),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Bouches  du  Rhone,  on  the  principal 
branch  of  the  Rhone,  15  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
53  miles  NW.  of  Marseilles.  Its  Roman  remains 
include  baths,  a  palace  of  Constantine,  an  aque- 
duct, and  an  amphitheatre  for  25,000  spectators. 
The  cathedral  (7th  century)  has  a  splendid  door- 
way. Aries  manufactures  silk,  hats,  tobacco, 
brandy,  soap,  glass  bottles,  and  railway  wagons. 
Pop.  13,876. 

Arlon  (Arlon''),  a  town  of  Belgium,  27  miles 
WNW.  of  Luxemburg  by  rail.    Pop.  7684. 

Armadale,  a  police-burgh  of  Linlithgowshire, 
with  chemical  works,  2^  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Bath- 
gate.   Pop.  3990. 

Armagh',  the  capital  of  County  Armagh,  33 
miles  SW.  of  Belfast,  is  situated  on  a  gentle 


eminence,  whence  its  Ard-Magha,  'high  field.* 
The  crucifonn  12th-century  cathedral  occupies 
the  site  of  one  founded  by  St  Patrick  in  the  5th 
century.  A  new  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  (1904) 
occupies  the  principal  height  to  the  north,  and 
the  primate's  palace  that  to  the  south.  There 
are  a  college,  a  celebrated  observatory,  public 
library  (1771),  and  barracks  for  200  men.  The 
chief  manufacture  is  linen-weaving.  Armagh, 
from  495  to  the  9th  century,  was  the  metropolis 
of  Ireland,  renowned  as  a  school  of  theology  and 
literature.  Till  1885  it  returned  one  member. 
Pop.  7500. 

Armagh,  a  small  inland  county  in  Ulster, 
Ireland.  Its  greatest  length  is  32  miles,  and 
breadth  20.  Area,  512^  sq.  m.,  about  one-half 
under  tillage.  Slieve  Gullion,  in  the  SW.,  attains 
1893  feet.  The  country  bordering  upon  Lough 
Neagh  is  low  and  boggy,  and  the  Louth  plain 
extends  into  the  south  end  of  Armagh.  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Callan,  Tynan,  Upper 
Bann,  and  Blackwater.  The  soil  is  fertile,  with 
a  good  deal  of  bog.  Besides  agriculture,  linen 
and  cotton  weaving  are  the  chief  industries.  The 
county  returns  three  members  of  parliament. 
The  chief  towns  are  Armagh,  Lurgan,  Porta- 
down,  and  part  of  Newry.  Pop.  (1841)  233,084 ; 
(1891)  143,056 ;  (1901)  125,392,  of  whom  45  per 
cent,  were  Catholics,  and  32  Episcopalians. 

Armagnac  (Ar-mdn-yac),  a  district  in  the 
south  of  France,  a  part  of  Gascony  now  mostly 
included  in  the  dep.  of  Gers.  The  soil  is  fer- 
tile, and  its  wine  and  brandy  (Eau  d'Annagriac) 
are  well  known. 

Armenia,  a  high  tableland  in  the  upper  valleys 
of  the  Euphrates,  Tigris,  Aras,  and  Kur,  some 
500  miles  long,  by  nearly  the  same  breadth.  In 
ancient  times  an  independent  country,  it  re- 
peatedly recovered  its  independence  down  to  the 
middle  ages,  although  with  varying  boundary. 
It  is  now,  however,  distributed  between  Russia, 
Turkey,  and  Persia,  and  stretches,  in  its  utmost 
extent,  from  Asia  Minor  on  the  W.  to  the  Caspian 
Sea  on  the  E.,  and  from  the  Caucasus  on  the  N. 
to  the  Murad  Su  on  the  S.  The  interior  consists 
mostly  of  pastoral  plateaus,  2700  to  7000  feet 
above  sea-level,  crowned  by  conical  heights  or 
traversed  by  mountain-chains,  and  culminating 
in  Mount  Ararat,  16,969  feet  high.  A  chain  of 
mountains,  stretching  from  Ararat  to  the  con- 
fluence of  the  two  head-waters  of  the  Euphrates, 
divides  Armenia  into  a  northern  half  and  a 
southern  half.  The  mountain-system  of  Armenia 
is  mostly  volcanic,  a  fact  still  evidenced  by  the 
hot  mineral  springs,  such  as  the  sulphur  springs 
of  Tiflis,  and  by  eartliquakes.  The  Murad  Su 
and  the  Kara  Su  form  the  head-waters  of  the 
Euphrates  ;  whilst  the  Shett,  rising  to  the  south 
of  Lake  Van,  and  an  arm  of  the  Diarbekr, 
rising  in  the  Alinjik  Dagh,  constitute  the  head- 
waters of  the  Tigris.  Other  rivers  are  the  Aras, 
the  Kur,  and  the  Tchorak.  Of  lakes,  there  is 
Van  in  Turkish,  Goktcha  or  Sevan  in  Russian, 
and  Urmia  in  Persian  Armenia.  Annenia  is  rich 
in  metals,  possessing  mines  of  silver,  lead,  iron, 
arsenic,  alum,  rock-salt,  and  especially  copper. 
The  climate  is  distinguished  into  a  region  of  rains, 
with  subtropical  climate,  embracing  parts  of  the 
valley  of  the  Kur  and  the  Upper  Tigris  ;  a  region 
of  perpetual  snow,  and  an  intermediate  region 
of  very  various  grades.  The  plateaus— volcanic, 
dry,  and  singularly  bare  of  wood — have  a  very 
severe  climate  ;  the  winters  long  and  inclement, 
and  the  summers  short. 

The  ancients  distinguished  Annenia  Major,  the 


ARMENTI^RES 


49 


ARRAN 


larger  and  eastern  half,  bordering  on  Media  and 
the  Caspian  Sea,  on  Mesopotamia  and  Assyria, 
from  Armenia  Minor  to  the  west  of  the  Euphrates. 
Turkish  Armenia  comprises,  besides  the  old  Ar- 
menia Minor,  the  vilayets  of  Van,  Bitlis,  Darsira, 
Erzerum,  with  parts  of  Diarbel<r  and  Charput. 
The  Sasun  (q.v.)  district  was  the  scene  of 
great  atrocities  by  Kurds  and  Turks  in  1893-94. 
Russian  Armenia,  formerly  Persian,  forms  the 
NE.  part  of  old  Armenia  Major,  and  nicludes 
the  governments  of  Erivan,  Elizabetpol,  and 
Kars,  with  parts  of  Tiflis.  In  this  Russian 
division  of  Armenia  are  situated  the  three  old 
monasteries— Etchmiadzin  (q.v.),  Haghpad,  and 
Sanahine.  Persia  holds  the  SE.  corner  of  Ar- 
menia Major  in  the  province  of  Azerbijan. 

The  Armenians,  whose  national  character  is 
almost  as  strong  as  is  that  of  the  Jews,  belong 
to  the  Iranian  group  of  the  Indo-Germanic  family. 
The  Armenians,  at  the  present  day,  are  to  be 
found  in  almost  all  Turkish  provinces  ;  in  Russia, 
Persia,  and  India  ;  in  the  great  commercial  cities 
of  the  Mediterranean ;  in  the  Austrian  empire ; 
at  London,  Manchester,  and  other  capitals  of 
Western  Europe,  occupying  posts  as  money- 
changers, bankers,  and  merchants,  though  also 
as  artisans  and  porters.  Their  number  in  Armenia 
itself  is  estimated  at  1,000,000  at  the  most ;  in 
Persia  and  adjacent  territories,  100,000  ;  in  Euro- 
pean Turkey,  400,000;  in  Russia,  500,000;  in 
India,  5000;  in  Africa,  5000;  in  Transylvania, 
Hungary,  and  Galicia,  10,000.  Their  total  number 
is  calculated  at  not  more  than  2,500,000.  Among 
the  foreign  invaders  domesticated  in  Armenia  are 
the  Turks,  mostly  engaged  in  agriculture  ;  the 
nomadic  Kurds;  in  the  HE.,  the  Tartars;  Nes- 
torians  occupying  the  mountains  of  the  Persian 
frontier,  and  speaking  a  Syriac  dialect ;  Georgians, 
in  the  north.  Greeks,  Jews,  and  Gypsies  are  also 
scattered  throughout  Armenia.  The  Armenians 
themselves  are  at  home  mostly  shephei'ds  and 
tillers  of  the  soil.  The  Armenian  church  differs 
from  the  Greek  church  in  being  monophysite 
(attributing  one  nature  only  to  Christ).  Some 
Armenians  are  'united'  (i.e.  to  the  Roman 
Catholic  Cliurch). 

See  Curzon,  Armenia (ISdi) ;  Norman,  Arvienia 
(1878);  Tozer,  Turkish  Armenia  (1881);  Creagh, 
Armenians,  Koords,  and  Turks  (1880) ;  Hepworth, 
Through  Armenia  on  Horseback  (1898) ;  H.  F.  B. 
Lynch,  Armenia  (2  vols.  1901)  ;  and  works  named 
at  Ararat. 

ArmentiSres,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Nord,  on  the  Lys,  12  miles  WN  W. 
of  Lille  by  rail.     Pop.  2(5,500. 

Armisticio,  a  territory  of  Venezuela,  with  an 
area  of  7040  sq.  m. ,  bounded  on  the  S.  and  W.  by 
the  United  States  of  Colombia. 

Armor'ica,  an  old  name  of  Brittany  (q.v.). 

Amhem,  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  province  of 
Guelderland,  on  the  Rhine,  38  miles  ESE.  of 
Utrecht.  The  manufactures  include  tobacco, 
AvooUen  and  cotton  goods,  soap,  and  paper.  Sir 
Philip  Sidney  died  here  in  1586 ;  in  1813  the 
town  was  taken  by  the  Prussians.  Pop.  (1891) 
51,105  ;  (1903)  00,150. 

Amhem  Land,  a  name  formerly  applied  to  a 
region  in  northern  Australia  (belonging  to  the 
colony  of  South  Australia),  so  called  from  the 
ship  of  the  Dutch  navigators  who  discovered  it 
in  1618. 

Amo,  next  to  the  Tiber  the  most  considerable 

river  of  Central  Italy,  rises  on  Mount  Falterona, 

an  offset  of  the  Apennines,  at  4444  feet  above 

eea-level,  and  25  miles  N.  of  Arezzo.    It  flows 

D 


140  miles  westward  to  the  sea,  11  miles  below 
Pisa,  where  it  once  had  its  embouchure.  At 
Florence  it  is  400  feet  wide,  but  is  fordable  in 
sunnner.  Of  its  rapid  and  destructive  inunda- 
tions the  most  memorable  were  those  of  1537  and 
1740. 

Arnold,  a  town  of  Notts,  5^  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Nottingham,  with  lace  and  stocking  manu- 
factures.    Bonington  was  a  native.    Pop.  8769. 

Arnsberg,  a  town  of  Westphalia,  on  the  Ruhr, 
36  miles  E.  of  Hagen  by  rail.  Here  were  held 
the  famous  Vehmgerichte.     Pop.  9131. 

Amstadt,  the  chief  town  in  the  principality 
of  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen,  on  the  Gera,  10 
miles  S.  of  Erfurt.  Dating  back  to  704  a.d.,  it 
is  now  a  manufacturing  town,  with  weaving, 
glove-making,  brewing,  &c.    Pop.  14,818. 

Arnswalde,  a  Prussian  town,  41  miles  SE.  of 
Stettin,  between  three  lakes.    Pop.  8378. 

Arokszallas,  a  town  of  Hungary,  44  miles  NE. 
of  Pesth.     Pop.  12,794. 

Arolsen,  the  capital  of  the  principality  of 
Waldeck,  on  the  Aar,  14  miles  SSW.  of  Warburg. 
Its  castle  (1720)  contains  West's  '  Death  of  Wolf«.' 
Tlie  sculptor  Rauch  and  the  painter  Kaulbach 
were  natives.     Pop.  2620. 

Aroo'stook,  a  river  which,  rising  in  the  north 
of  Maine,  falls  into  the  St  John  in  New  Bruns- 
wick, after  a  course  of  about  120  miles. 

Arpi'no  (anc.  Arpimim),  the  birthplace  of 
Cicero  and  Marius,  on  an  eminence  midway 
between  Rome  and  Naples.    Poj).  5145. 

Ar'quk,  an  Italian  village  with  1000  inhabitants, 
12  miles  SW.  of  Padua,  in  the  Euganean  Hills. 
Here  Petrarch  died  (1374). 

Al'rabida,  a  monastery,  cave,  and  place  of 
pilgrimage,  W.  of  Setubal  (q.v.)  in  Portugal. 

Arracan.    See  Arakan. 

Arragon.    See  Aragon. 

Arrah,  a  town  of  Bengal,  320  miles  NW.  of 
Calcutta  by  rail.  Here  in  1857  a  dozen  English- 
men, with  50  Sikhs,  held  out  for  eight  days 
against  3000  sepoys.     Pop.  46,998. 

Arran,  an  island  of  Buteshire,  in  the  mouth  of 
the  Firth  of  Clyde,  5|  miles  SW.  of  Bute,  10  W. 
of  Ayrshire,  and  3  E.  of  Kintyre,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  Kilbrannan  Sound.  It  is  19  miles 
long  and  lOJ  broad,  with  an  area  of  168  sq.  m., 
about  a  seventh  part  being  cultivated.  Pop. 
(1821)  6541 ;  (1901)  4819.  The  general  aspect  of 
Arran  is  mountainous  and  heathy,  and  in  the 
north  the  jagged  peaks  are  singularly  grand. 
All  around  the  coast  is  the  low  platform  of  an 
ancient  sea-margin,  with  lofty  cliff's  on  the  S.  and 
SW.,  from  which  the  country  rises  abruptly. 
The  highest  point  is  Goatfell  (Gaelic  Gaoth 
Bheinn,  '  wind  mountain  '),  which  rises  2866  feet. 
From  its  sides  slope  the  romantic  glens  of  Rosa 
and  Sannox,  and  at  its  base  to  the  SE.  opens 
Brodick  Bay.  South  of  this,  round  a  bluff  head- 
land, is  Lanilash  Bay,  the  chief  harbour  of  Arran, 
and  the  best  on  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  sheltered  by 
Holy  Island,  once  the  seat  of  a  monastery.  A 
picturesque  mass  of  columnar  basalt,  1030  feet 
high,  succeeds.  Farther  south  lies  Whiting  Bay, 
near  which  are  two  cascades  100  and  50  feet  high. 
At  the  SE.  point  of  Arran  is  Kildonan  Castle, 
opposite  which  is  the  small  isle  of  Pladda, 
crowned  by  a  lighthouse.  Large  caverns  occur 
in  the  cliffs  of  the  S.  and  SW.  coast.  In  one  of 
these,  the  'King's  Cave,'  in  the  basaltic  promon* 
tory  of  Drumadoon,  Robert  the  Bruce  hid  hini- 
self.     Shiskine  Vale,  opening  into  Drumadoon 


ARRANMORE  50 

Bay,  is  the  most  fertile  part  of  Arran.  Loch 
Ranza,  a  bay  in  the  north  end  of  Arran,  runs  a 
mile  inland,  and  is  a  herring-fishing  rendezvous. 
There  are  only  rivulets  in  Arran ;  one  of  them 
tumbles  over  a  precipice  300  feet  high.  Almost 
the  whole  island  belongs  to  the  Duke  of  Hamil- 
ton, w^hose  seat  is  Brodick  Castle.  Many  anti- 
quities occur,  such  as  cairns,  standing  stones, 
and  stone  circles.  Lochranza  Castle,  now  in 
ruins,  was  once  a  residence  of  the  Scots  kings. 
See  D.  Landsbo rough's  Arran  (2d  ed.  1875),  and 
J.  Bryce's  Geology  of  Arran  (4th  ed.  1875). 

Arranmore,  or  North  Arran,  a  Donegal  island, 
4  miles  long  by  3  wide,  and  745  feet  high. 

Arras,  the  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of  Pas- 
de-Calais,  on  the  navigable  Scarpe,  120  miles 
N.  of  Paris.  A  fortress  of  the  first  rank,  it  has 
a  cathedral  (1755-1833)  and  a  beautiful  Gothic 
h6tel-de-ville  (1510),  whose  belfry,  246  feet  high, 
was  rebuilt  in  1835.  There  are  manufactures  of 
lace,  hosiery,  beet-sugar,  &c.  ;  and  its  tapestry 
was  formerly  so  famous  that  in  England  the 
name  arras  was  given  to  all  such  hangings. 
Arras  was  the  capital  of  the  Celtic  Atrebates 
(whence  the  name),  and  subsequently  of  Artois. 
It  did  not  finally  become  French  till  1640. 
Robespierre  was  a  native.  Pop.  (1872)  21,447  • 
(1891)  25,701  ;  (1901)  25,850. 

Arrochar,  a  village  at  the  head  of  Loch  Long, 
17  miles  N.  of  Helensburgh  by  rail. 

Arroyo  Molinos,  a  village  in  Estremadura, 
Spain,  where  Lord  Hill  routed  the  French,  28th 
October  1811. 

Arru  Islands,  a  group  of  over  eighty  islands 
in  the  Dutch  East  Indies,  lying  west  of  New 
Guinea,  with  a  united  area  of  2650  sq.  m.,  and  a 
population  of  15,000.  The  largest  island  is 
Tanna-Besar  (77  miles  long  by  60  broad).  The 
surface  is  low,  the  coasts  are  steep  and  inacces- 
sible, on  the  east  side  fringed  with  coral  reefs. 
The  soil  is  covered  with  the  most  luxuriant  vege- 
tation. 

Arsamas,  a  Russian  to^vn,  60  miles  S.  of 
Nijni-Novgorod  ;  pop.  11,497. 

Ars-sur-Moselle.  a  town  of  Alsace-Lorraine, 
on  the  Moselle,  6  miles  SW.  of  Metz  by  rail : 
pop.  4620. 

Arfca  (Turkish  Narda,  the  ancient  Amhracia), 
capital  of  a  division  of  Thessaly,  ceded  to  Greece 
by  Turkey  in  1881  (area,  395  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  31,178). 
The  town  stands  on  the  Arta  (the  ancient  Arac- 
thus),  8  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf  of  Arta 
(the  ancient  Ambracian  Gulf),  an  arm  of  the 
Ionian  Sea  between  Greece  and  Albania.  It  is 
the  see  of  a  Greek  archbishop.    Pop.  7328. 

Arthur's  Seat,  a  lion-shaped  hill,  immediately 
east  of  Edinburgh,  rising  822  feet.  The  ascent  is 
easy,  and  the  prospect  from  the  top  unrivalled. 
Arthur's  Seat  is  supposed  to  derive  its  name 
from  the  British  king. 

Artois  {Ar-twah'),  an  old  province  in  the  north 
of  France,  bounded  by  Flanders  and  Picardy,  and 
almost  corresponding  with  the  modern  dep.  of 
Pas-de-Calais.     Its  capital  was  Arras. 

Artvin,  a  town  of  Russian  Armenia,  on  the 
Charuch,  34  miles  S.  of  Batum  ;  pop.  SOOO. 

Am.    See  Arru. 

Arun,  a  Sussex  river,  flowing  37  miles  to  the 
English  Channel  at  Littlehampton. 

Ar'undel,  an  ancient  municipal  borough  (till 
1867  also  parliamentary)  of  Sussex,  on  the  navi- 
gable Arun,  5  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  10  miles 
E.  of  Chichester.    Arundel  Castle,  the  seat  of 


ASHANTI 

the  Fitzalans,  Earls  of  Arundel,  from  1243  to 
1580,  and  since  then  of  the  Howards,  comprises 
a  circular  Norman  keep,  100  feet  high  and  a 
modern  Gothic  edifice  dating  from  1791. '  It  has 
stood  three  great  sieges,  in  1102,  in  1139,  and  in 
1644.  There  are  a  cruciform  parish  church  (1387) 
and  a  splendid  R.  C.  church  (1873).    Pop.  3644. 

Aruwlml,  an  important  tributary  of  the  Congo, 
entering  the  latter  from  the  north  in  1°  10'  N. 
lat.,  23°  30'  E.  long.  It  was  explored  for  100 
miles  by  Stanley  in  1883,  and  by  it  Stanley 
advanced  to  the  relief  of  Emin  Pasha  in  1887. 

Arve  (Arv),  a  Swiss  stream  rising  in  the  Col  de 
Balme,  one  of  the  Savoy  Alps,  and  flowing  62 
miles  through  the  Vale  of  Chamouni  and  the 
canton  of  Geneva  to  the  Rhone. 

Arveyron,  a  small  tributary  of  the  Arve,  in 
Savoy,  is  the  outlet  of  the  famous  Mer  de  Glace, 
in  the  Vale  of  Chamouni,  from  which  it  issues  in 
a  torrent  through  a  beautiful  grotto  of  ice,  40  to 
150  feet  high. 

Asben.    See  Air. 

Ascension,  a  solitary  island  nearly  in  the 
middle  of  the  South  Atlantic,  685  miles  NW.  of 
St  Helena,  in  7°  57'  S.  lat.,  and  14°  21'  W.  long. 
It  is  said  to  have  received  its  name  from  having 
been  discovered  by  a  Portuguese  navigator  on 
Ascension-day,  1501.  It  is  7^  miles  long,  6  broad, 
and  35  sq.  m.  in  area.  First  occupied  by  the 
English  in  1815,  in  connection  with  Napoleon's 
detention  on  St  Helena,  it  is  now  used  only  as  a 
sanatorium,  having  ceased  since  1887  to  be  a 
coaling  depot.  Like  St  Helena,  it  is  of  volcanic 
origin,  one  of  the  peaks  of  a  submarine  ridge 
which  separates  the  north  and  south  basins  of 
the  Atlantic.  It  rises  in  the  Green  Mountain  to 
a  height  of  2870  feet.  Several  astronomers  and 
savants  have  visited  Ascension,  from  Halley  in 
1677,  to  Darwin,  Sir  Wyville  Thomson,  and  Mr 
Gill.  Pop.,  with  Kroomen,  about  450.  See  Mrs 
Gill's  Six  Months  in  Ascension  (1879). 

Asch,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  14  miles  NW.  of 
Eger,  with  thriving  silk,  cotton,  and  woollen 
manufactures ;  pop.  19,209. 

AschaflFenburg  (Ashajfenboorg'),  a  Bavarian 
town  of  Lower  Franconia,  on  the  Main,  at  the 
Aschafl"s  influx,  25  miles  SE.  of  Frankfort.  The 
castle  of  Johannisburg,  a  Renaissance  pile  of  1605- 
14,  overlooks  the  whole  town.  Paper  is  the  staple 
manufacture.  Pop.  18,630.  The  Romans  built  a 
fortress  at  Aschaff'enburg,  which  in  1814  was 
ceded  to  Bavaria  by  Austria.  Near  it  the  Prus- 
sians defeated  the  Austrians,  July  14,  1866. 

Aschersleben  (Asherslay'ben),  a  town  of  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  on  the  Eine,  32  m.  SW.  of  Magdeburg. 
Population,  28,500,  largely  occupied  in  manufac- 
tures of  woollens,  linens,  sugar,  &c. 

As'coli  (anc.  Asculum  Picenum),  a  city  of  Italy, 
on  the  Tronto,  83  miles  S.  of  Ancona  by  rail.  It 
has  a  fine  cathedral,  and  it  suff"ered  much  from 
an  earthquake  in  1878.  Pop.  15,195.— Ascoli 
(anc.  Ascidum  Apulum)  is  another  episcopal  city, 
19  miles  S.  of  Foggia.  Pop.  6478.  Pyrrhus  here 
defeated  the  Romans,  279  b.c. 

Ascot  Heath,  a  circular  race-course  in  Berk- 
shire, nearly  2  miles  long,  29  miles  WSW.  of 
London,  and  6  SW.  of  Windsor.  The  races,  which 
take  place  early  in  June,  were  instituted  in  1711. 

Ashanti,  or  Ashantee,  a  negro  kingdom  of 
Western  Africa,  included  since  1896  in  the 
British  protectorate,  and  attached  to  the  Gold 
Coast  colony,  behind  which  it  lies.  It  is  a 
hilly  country ;   its  rivers  are  the  Volta,  Prah, 


ASHBOURNE 


51 


ASIA 


and  Assiiiee.  Population  estimated  at  from 
1,000,000  to  3,000,000,  of  whom  a  fifth  are  war- 
riors. The  country  proper  is  one  continuous 
forest;  the  land  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
towns  is  carefully  cultiv?.ted,  and  extremely  fer- 
tile, producing  maize,  millet,  rice,  yams,  tobacco, 
sugar,  cocoa,  the  pine-apple,  gums,  dye-woods, 
and  timber.  Tlie  principal  exports  are  gold-dust 
and  palm-oil.  Tlie  capital  is  Coomassie  (q.v.); 
Kpando,  near  the  Volta,  is  an  important  centre 
of  trade,  and  so  is  Salaga  or  Paraha.  In  1700 
Coomassie  was  made  the  ca])ital  by  Osai  Tutu, 
who  conquered  various  neighbouring  states,  and 
became  a  sort  of  feudal  sovereign  over  a  large 
district.  In  their  course  of  conquest  over  the 
Fantees,  the  Ashantis  became  involved  in  war 
with  the  British  (1807-26),  and  were  finally 
driven  from  the  sea-coast ;  and  in  1873-74  an 
army  under  Wolseley  took  Coomassie.  King 
Prempeh,  after  a  spell  of  raiding,  was  forced  in 
1896  to  accept  the  British  protectorate ;  and  a 
rebellion  was  suppressed  after  a  third  expedition 
to  Coomassie,  which  is  now  connected  by  rail 
with  the  Gold  Coast  ports.  See  works  by 
Bowdich  (1819;  new  ed.  1873),  Brackenbury 
(1874),  Reade  (1874),  Stanley  (1874),  Weitbrecht 
(1875),  Reindorf  (1895),  and  Freeman  (1898). 

Ashbourne,  a  market-town  of  Derbyshire,  13 
miles  NW.  of  Derby.  Its  church  (1241)  has  a 
spire  212  feet  high  ('the  Pride  of  the  Peak ') ;  the 
grammar-school  dates  from  1585.  Prince  Charles 
Edward  was  here  in  1745,  and  here  Moore  wrote 
great  part  of  Lalla  Rookh.     Pop.  4040. 

Ashburnbam,  a  Sussex  parish,  5  miles  W.  of 
Battle,  with  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Ashburnham. 

Ashburton,  a  small  town  in  the  south  of 
Devonshire,  on  the  borders  of  Dartmoor,  9^  miles 
NNW.  of  Totnes  by  rail.  Till  1868  it  returned  a 
member  to  parliament.    Pop.  of  parish,  2662. 

Ashburton  River,  an  unnavigable  stream  of 
Western  Australia,  rising  in  the  mountains  west 
of  the  Great  Desert,  and  flowing  400  miles  north- 
westward into  Exmouth  Gulf.  Its  lower  course 
was  explored  by  Sholl  in  1866,  its  upper  by  Giles 
in  1876. 

Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  a  town  of  Leicestershire, 
18  miles  NW.  of  Leicester.  It  owes  its  suffix  to 
the  Norman  family  of  La  Zouch.  Their  ruined 
castle,  celebrated  in  Scott's  Ivanhoe,  and  rebuilt 
in  1480  by  Sir  William  Hastings,  crowns  a  height 
to  the  south  of  the  town.  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  was  imprisoned  here.  Leather  is  the 
staple  industry.     Pop.  4750. 

Ashdod  (New  Test.  Azotus,  now  Esdud),  a 
village  on  the  Mediterranean,  21  miles  S.  of  Jaffa. 
Once  a  chief  city  of  the  Philistines,  it  is  now  a 
miserable  place  with  a  pop.  of  300. 

Ashdown,  the  seat  of  Lord  Craven,  in  West 
Berkshire,  3^  miles  NW.  of  Lambonrn,  Here,  in 
871,  Ethelred  and  Alfred  gained  the  great  victory 
of  ^scdun  over  the  Danes. 

Ashe,  the  Duke  of  Marlborough's  birthplace, 
8  miles  SW.  of  Axminster,  Devon, 

Asheville,  capital  of  Buncombe  county.  North 
Carolina,  70  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Spartanburg, 
with  a  number  of  tobacco  factories.  Pop.  (1880) 
2616  ;  (1890)  10,235  ;  (1900)  14,694. 

Ashford,  a  market-town  of  Kent,  14  miles  SW. 
of  Canterbury,  and  56  SE.  of  London.  It  is  a 
railway  junction,  and  the  seat  of  the  South- 
eastern Railway  workshops.  Eastwell  Park  lies 
3  miles  N.     Pop.  13,500. 

Ashiestiel,  a   Selkirkshire   mansion,  on    the 


Tweed,    5 J   miles  WSW.    of  Galashiels.    Scott 
lived  here  1804-12. 

Ashlngdon,  a  parish  of  South  Essex,  2i  miles 
N.  of  Rochford.  Here,  in  the  battle  of  Assan- 
dun  (1016),  the  sixth  fought  in  the  year,  Canute 
defeated  Edmund  Ironside. 

Ashland  (l),  a  post-borough  of  Schuylkill 
county,  Pennsylvania,  119  miles  NW.  of  Phila- 
delphia by  rail.  It  depends  principally  upon  its 
rich  mines  of  anthracite  coal ;  but  it  has  also 
foundries,  machine-shops,  and  several  mills.  Pop 
(1890)  7346 ;  (1900)  6438.  (2)  Capital  of  Ashland 
county,  Wisconsin,  on  Lake  Superior,  391  miles 
by  rail  NW.  of  Milwaukee.  It  has  a  busy  trade  in 
lumber,  is  a  terminus  of  five  railways,  and  has 
grown  up  since  1880.     Pop,  13,500.' 

Ashraf,  a  town  in  the  Persian  province  of 
Mazanderan,  near  the  south  coast  of  the  Caspian 
Sea,  56  miles  W.  of  Astrabad.  A  favourite  resi- 
dence of  Shah  Abbas  the  Great,  it  still  contains 
over  800  houses. 

Ashridge  Park,  Earl  Brownlow's  seat,  on  the 
Bucks  and  Herts  border,  ^  miles  N.  of  Berk- 
hampstead. 

Ashtabula,  a  rapidly  increasing  town  of  the 
state  of  Ohio,  U.S.,  on  the  Cleveland  and  Erie 
Railway,  3  miles  from  Lake  Erie,  and  49  miles 
NE.  of  Cleveland.  Pop.  (1880)4445 ;  (1900)  12,950. 
Ashton-in-Makerfield,  a  township  in  South 
Lancashire,  4  miles  S.  of  Wigan.  Pop.  (1881) 
9824  ;  (1891)  13,379  ;  (1901)  18,687. 

Ashton-under-Lyne,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  6J 
miles  E.  of  Manchester.  It  was  enfranchised  in 
1832,  and  returns  one  member.  A  great  seat  of 
the  cotton  manufacture,  it  suffered  severely 
during  the  cotton  famine  (1861-65).  The  popula- 
tion is  also  employed  in  bleaching,  dyeing,  and 
calico-printing,  in  collieries,  and  in  the  manu- 
facture of  machines,  bricks,  &c.  Among  the 
buildings  are  the  town-hall  (1841),  the  infirmary 
(1860),  and  the  old  parish  church,  with  tombs  of 
the  Assheton  family,  from  whom- the  town  got 
its  name.  Pop.  (1851)  29,791 ;  (1901)  51,080,  of 
whom  43,890  were  within  the  municipal  borough. 
Asia,  the  largest  of  the  divisions  of  the  world, 
occupies  the  northern  portion  of  the  eastern 
hemisphere  in  the  form  of  a  massive  continent 
which  extends  beyond  the  Arctic  Circle,  and  by  its 
southern  peninsulas  nearly  reaches  the  equator. 
Apparently  Asia  was  a  local  name  given  to  the 
plains  of  Ephesus,  gradually  extended  to  the 
Anatolian  peninsula,  and  later  on  to  the  whole 
of  the  continent. 

Viewed  in  their  broad  features,  Europe  and 
Asia  constitute  but  one  continent,  extending  from 
west  to  east,  and  having  the  shape  of  an  immense 
triangle,  the  angles  of  which  are  Spain  in  the 
west,  the  peninsula  of  the  Tchuktchis  in  the 
north-east,  and  that  of  Malacca  in  the  south- 
east.  The  Arctic  Ocean  in  the  north,  the  Pacific 
in  the  east,  and  the  Indian  Ocean,  continued  by 
its  narrow  gulf,  the  Red  Sea,  which  nearly 
reaches  the  Mediterranean,  enclose  the  continent 
of  Asia.  This  immense  mass  of  land  touches  the 
latitude  of  77°  34'  N.  in  Cape  Tchelyuskin,  while 
Cape  Burros,  at  the  extremity  of  the  peninsula 
of  Malacca,  and  5350  miles  distant  from  the 
former,  falls  short  by  1°  15'  of  reaching  the 
equator.  Cape  Baba,  in  Asia  Minor,  advances  as 
far  west  as  the  26th  degree  of  longitude,  and  the 
utmost  NE.  extremity  of  Asia— East  Cape,  5990 
miles  distant  from  Cape  Baba — protrudes  to  the 
190th  degree  (12  hours  40  minutes)  to  the  east  of 
Greenwich.    The  area  covered  by  Asia  and  its 


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ASIA 


Islands  is  17,255,890  sq.  ra.— that  is,  almost 
exactly  one-third  of  the  land-surface  of  the  globe 
(32  per  cent.).  It  is  one-half  larger  than  Africa,  and 
more  than  four  times  larger  than  Europe.  Geo- 
graphically, Europe  is  a  mere  appendix  to  Asia, 
and  no  exact  geographical  delimitation  of  the 
two  continents  is  possible.  The  low  Urals  are 
not  even  an  administrative  frontier :  European 
Russia  extends  over  their  eastern  slope.  Caucasus 
is  Asiatic  in  character ;  but,  to  sei)arate  it  from 
Europe,  one  must  resort  to  the  old  dried-up 
channel  of  the  two  Manytch  rivers,  which,  at  a 
geologically  recent  epoch  connected  the  Black 
Sea  with  the  Caspian.  Asia  Minor— also  Asiatic 
in  character— so  closely  approaches  Europe  that 
the  Sea  of  Marmora  and  its  narrow  river-lil<e 
straits  seem  almost  an  artificial  boundary.  The 
line  of  separation  from  Africa  is  better  defined 
by  the  narrow  Red  Sea  ;  but  Arabia  participates 
so  largely  in  the  physical  features  of  Africa  that 
it  is  in  a  sense  intermediate  between  the  two 
continents.  In  the  south-east,  the  numberless 
islands  of  the  Dutch  Indies— relics  of  a  sunken 
continent— appear  as  a  bridge  towards  Australia. 
And  in  the  extreme  north-east,  Asia  sends  out  a 
peninsula  to  meet  one  of  the  Alaskan  peninsulas 
in  America,  from  which  it  is  separated  only  by 
a  shallow  and  narrow  channel,  Beliring  Strait. 
Although  the  coasts  of  Asia  are  much  more 
indented  by  gulfs  and  peninsulas  than  those  of 
Africa  or  America,  still  it  stands  in  this  respect 
mucli  behind  Europe,  and  the  length  of  its  coast- 
line is  reckoned  at  33,000  miles  in  all  (Europe  hav- 
ing one  of  50,000  miles)  ;  besides,  about  one-fifth 
of  its  shores  is  washed  by  the  ice-bound  Arctic 
Ocean,  or  by  the  foggy  and  icy  Sea  of  Okhotsk. 
Its  peninsulas  are  inassive  too,  and,  as  a  rule, 
little  indented.  Three  immense  offsets  continue 
the  continent  of  Asia  into  more  tropical  latitudes 
— ^Arabia,  India,  and  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula. 
Asia  Minor  protrudes  between  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Mediterranean.  In  the  Pacific  there  are  only 
three  large  peninsulas — Corea,  Kamchatka,  and 
that  of  the  Tchuktchis. 

The  islands  of  Asia  are  very  numerous,  and 
cover  an  aggregate  of  no  less  than  1,023,000  sq. 
m.  (nearly  6  per  cent,  of  Asia's  surface).  The 
coasts  of  Asia  Minor  are  dotted  with  islands. 
Cyprus  and  Ceylon  are  important.  In  Eastern 
Asia,  a  narrow  strip  of  islands,  some  large  like 
Sumatra  (177,000  sq.  m.)  and  Java,  others  mere 
reefs,  extend  in  a  wide  semicircle,  under  the 
name  of  Andaman  and  Sunda  Islands,  from 
Burma  to  Australia,  separating  the  Indian  Ocean 
from  the  shallow  Java  Sea  and  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago. This  last — an  immense  volcanic  region 
inhabited  by  the  Malay  race — comprises  the  huge 
Borneo,  the  ramified  Celebes,  and  the  numberless 
small  islands  of  the  Moluccas,  the  Philippines, 
&c.  ;  connected  northward  with  the  Chinese 
coast  by  the  island  of  Formosa,  which,  like 
Hainan,  may  almost  be  considered  part  of  the 
Chinese  mainland.  The  Loo-choo  (Liu-kiu)  Islands 
and  the  Japanese  Archipelago,  the  latter  joining 
Kamchatka  by  the  Kuriles,  continue  farther  NE. 
the  chain  of  islands.  Saghalien  is  close  to  the 
continent.  In  the  Arctic  Ocean  also  are  some 
unimportant  islands. 

Asia  is  at  once  the  largest  and  the  highest  of 
all  continents.  Not  only  has  it  a  number  of 
mountains  which  exceed  by  five  and  six  thousand 
feet  the  loftiest  summits  of  the  Andes ;  it  has 
also  the  highest  and  the  most  extensive  plateaus. 
If  the  whole  mass  of  its  mountains  and  plateaus 
were  uniformly  spread  over  its  surface,  the  con- 
tinent would  rise  no  less  than  2800  to  3000  feet 


above  the  sea.  High  plateaus  are  the  predomi- 
nant  feature  of  Asia's  orographical  structure : 
they  occupy  nearly  two-fifths  of  its  area.  One 
of  them— that  of  Western  Asia,  including  Ana- 
tolia, Armenia,  and  Iran— extends  in  a  south- 
easterly direction  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the 
valley  of  the  Indus  ;  while  the  other — the  high 
plateau  of  Eastern  Asia,  still  loftier  and  much 
more  extensive — stretches  NE.  from  the  Hima- 
layas to  the  north-eastern  extremity  of  Asia. 
These  vast  regions,  mostly  unfit  for  human 
settlement,  and  over  wide  areas  mere  dry  deserts, 
divide  Asia  into  two  parts— the  lowlands  of 
Siberia  and  the  Aral-Caspian  depression  to  the 
north,  and  the  lowlands  of  Mesopotamia,  India, 
and  China  to  the  south.  The  highest  parts  of 
the  East  Asian  plateau  are  in  Tibet,  varying  from 
18,000  feet  to  10,000  feet  in  height.  This  highest 
plateau  of  the  earth  is  girdled  by  the  highest  chain 
of  mountains,  the  Himalayas — a  typical  '  border- 
ridge'  which  has  one  foot  on  the  high  plateau, 
and  the  other  in  valleys  ten  to  fifteen  thousand 
feet  deeper,  where  the  palm  and  vine  grow  freely. 
This  innnense  chain  of  snow-clad  peaks,  which 
in  Europe  would  reach  from  Gibraltar  to  Greece, 
raises  its  lofty  summits  above  20,000  feet ;  its 
lowest  passes  are  15,000  feet  high,  and  Gauri- 
sankar  or  Mount  Everest — the  highest  mountain 
of  the  globe — has  its  snow-cap  at  a  height  of 
29,000  feet,  that  is,  5|  miles  above  the  sea. 

In  the  north-west;  the  Tibet  plateau  joins 
another  much  smaller,  but  very  high  plateau — 
that  of  Pamir  ('  the  roof  of  the  world '),  of  which 
the  Tagarma  peak  reaches  a  height  of  25,800  feet. 
Farther  north  and  north-east  of  the  Pamir  is  a 
wide,  intricate  complex  of  several  high  chains, 
known  under  the  general  name  of  Tian-shan 
(q.v.).  The  great  Khan-tengri  rises  there  to 
24,000  feet. 

On  the  north,  the  plateau  of  Tibet  is  bordered 
by  a  succession  of  lofty  chains  (Kuen-lun,  Altyn- 
tagh,  Nan-shan),  reaching  more  than  20,000  feet 
in  their  highest  parts.  These  chains  separate  it 
from  the  great  central  depression  which  is  occu- 
pied by  Eastern  Turkestan  in  the  west,  and  by 
the  Desert  of  Gobi  in  the  east.  This  great 
depression— including  the  Han-hai,  or  '  dried-up 
sea,'  of  the  basin  of  the  Tarim— has  an  altitude 
of  from  3000  to  4000  feet  in  the  west,  and  2200 
feet  in  its  lowest  part — the  depression  of  Lake 
Lob-nor.  It  has  no  outlet.  The  dry  and  barren 
ridge  called  Eastern  Tian-shan,  and  two  other 
ridges  running  NW.,  separate  the  Han-hai  depres- 
sion of  Central  Asia  from  the  trenches  of  Urumtsi 
and  Urungu,  which  descend  west  to  the  lowlands 
of  Siberia.  Beyond  the  great  depression  the 
plateau  rises  again,  and  reaches  an  average 
height  of  from  4000  to  more  than  5000  feet  in  the 
upper  basin  of  the  Yenisei  and  Selenga.  To 
the  north-west,  the  plateau  is  bordered  by  the 
snow-clad  Sailughem  ridge  of  the  Altai  (8000  to 
9000  feet),  which  is  broken  by  the  depression  in 
which  Lake  Baikal  lies.  A  broad  zone  of  alpine 
tracts  more  than  150  miles  wide  and  2000  miles 
long— the  Altai,  the  Kuznetskiy  Ala-tau,  the 
Baikal,  Lena,  Olekma,  and  Vitim  mountains- 
fringes  this  plateau  in  the  west. 

The  hilly  tracts  of  Asia  are  not  confined  to  the 
plateaus  and  their  border-ridges.  The  Caucasus, 
an  immense  wall  of  snow-clad  mountains, 
stretches  NW.  to  SE.  for  nearly  800  miles  along 
the  border  of  the  Armenian  plateau,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  the  broad  valley  of  the  Kura. 
It  reaches  18,560  feet  in  the  Elborous  (Elburz) 
peak.  The  Urals,  from  2000  to  4000  feet  high, 
which  separate  Europe  from  Asia,  are  a  broad 


ASIA 


63 


AdtA 


belt  of  hilly  tracts,  stretching  as  a  whole  from 
north  to  south. 

The  interior  of  the  Indian  peninsula  is  again 
occupied  by  the  wide  plateau  of  the  Deccan, 
having  an  average  height  of  from  1500  to  3000 
feet,  bordered  in  the  west  by  the  Western  Ghats 
(7870  feet  higli)  and  the  Cardaman  Mountains, 
and  in  the  east  by  the  mucli  lower  and  broader 
Eastern  Ghats.  The  Pedrotallagalla  peak  in 
Ceylon  rises  8330  feet. 

The  whole  of  North-western  Asia  is  occupied 
by  an  immense  lowland— Siberia— which  joins 
in  the  south  the  wide  Aral-Caspian  depression. 
This  lowland,  whose  level  is  less  than  five  or 
six  hundred  feet  high,  does  not  touch  the  alpine 
regions  which  fringe  the  great  plateau  of  East 
Asia.  It  is  separated  from  them  by  a  belt  of 
elevated,  undulating  plains.  On  the  northern 
coast  of  the  Caspian,  the  Aral-Caspian  depression 
descends  even  below  the  level  of  the  sea.  The 
wide  space  between  the  great  plateaus  of  Western 
and  Eastern  Asia  and  that  of  tlie  Deccan,  watered 
by  the  Indus  and  the  Ganges,  is  again  an 
immense  lowland,  covering  no  less  than  400,000 
sq.  m.,  and  supplying  the  means  of  existence  to 
125  millions  of  inhabitants.  Another  wide  low- 
land, Mesopotamia,  or  the  broad  valley  of  the 
Tigris  and  Euphrates,  was  a  cradle  of  civilisation 
from  the  remotest  antiquity.  The  predominant 
feature  of  Asia's  hydrography  is  the  existence  of 
very  wide  areas  having  no  outlet  to  the  sea.  On 
the  great  plateau  of  Eastern  Asia  the  region  of  the 
Han-hai  and  Gobi  is  watered  only  by  the  Tarim, 
which  falls  into  the  rapidly  drying  marshes  of 
Lob-nor.  If  we  add  to  this  wide  area  the  drain- 
age basins  of  Lake  Balkhash  with  its  tributaries, 
the  Hi  and  other  smaller  rivers  ;  the  great  Lake 
Aral,  with  the  Syr-daria  (Jaxartes)  and  Amu- 
daria  (Oxus),  as  also  the  numerous  rivers  which 
flow  towards  it  or  its  tributaries,  but  are  desic- 
cated by  evaporation  before  reaching  them  ;  and 
finally  the  Caspian  with  its  tributaries,  we  find 
an  immense  surface  of  more  than  4,000,000  sq.  m. 
—that  is,  much  larger  than  Europe— which  has 
no  outlet  to  the  ocean.  Four  inland  drainage 
areas  more  must  be  added  to  the  above— ^the 
plateaus  of  Iran  and  Armenia,  two  separate  areas 
in  Arabia,  and  one  in  Asia  Minor. 

The  drainage  area  of  the  Arctic  Ocean  includes 
all  the  lowlands  of  Siberia,  its  plains,  and  large 
portions  of  the  great  plateau.  The  chief  rivers 
flowing  north  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  are  the  Obi, 
with  the  Irtish;  the  Yenisei,  Avith  its  great 
tributary  the  Angara,  which  brings  to  it  the 
waters  of  Lake  Baikal ;  and  finally  the  Lena, 
with  its  great  tributaries,  the  Vitim,  Olekma, 
Vilui,  and  Aldan. 

Three  great  rivers  enter  the  Pacific,  and  all 
three  are  navigable  for  thousands  of  miles  :  the 
Amur,  composed  of  the  Argun  and  Shilka,  and 
receiving  the  Sungari  (a  great  artery  of  naviga- 
tion in  Manchuria),  the  Usuri,  and  tlie  Zeya  ;  the 
Hoang-ho ;  and  the  Yang-tse-kiang,  the  last  two 
taking  their  rise  on  the  plateau  of  Tibet.  The 
Cambodia  or  Mekong,  the  Salwen,  and  the 
Irawadi,  rising  in  the  eastern  parts  of  the  high 
plateau,  water  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula. 
Rising  on  the  same  height,  the  Indus  and  the 
Brahmaputra  flow  through  a  high  valley  in 
opposite  directions  along  the  northern  base  of 
the  Himalayas,  until  both  pierce  the  gigantic 
ridge  at  its  opposite  ends,  and  find  their  way  in 
opposite  directions  to  the  sea.  The  Tigris  and 
Euphrates,  both  rising  in  the  high  plateau  of 
Armenia,  flow  parallel  to  each  other. 

A  succession  of  great  lakes,  or  rather  inland 


seas,  are  situated  all  along  the  northern  slope  of 
the  high  plateaus  of  Western  and  Eastern  Asia. 
The  Caspian,  800  miles  long  and  270  wide,  is  an 
immense  sea,  its  level  now  85  feet  below  the  level 
of  the  ocean  ;  Lake  Aral  has  its  level  157  feet 
above  the  ocean ;  farther  east  we  have  Lake 
Balkhash  (780  feet),  Zaisan  (1200  feet),  and  Lake 
Baikal  (1550  feet).  Three  large  lakes,  Urmia,  Van, 
and  Goktcha,  and  many  smaller  ones,  lie  on  the 
highest  part  of  the  Armenian  plateau. 

Volcanoes  play  an  important  part  in  Asia's 
geology;  more  than  120  active  volcanoes  are 
known  in  Asia,  chiefly  in  the  islands  of  the 
south-east,  the  Philippines,  Japan,  the  Kuriles, 
and  Kamchatka,  and  also  in  a  few  islands  of  the 
Sea  of  Bengal  and  Arabia,  and  of  Western  Asia. 
Numerous  traces  of  volcanic  eruptions  are  found, 
not  only  in  these  same  regions,  but  also  in  Eastern 
Tian-shan,  in  the  north-western  border-ridges  of 
the  high  Siberian  plateau,  and  in  the  south-west 
of  Aigun  in  Manchuria.  Earthquakes  are  fre- 
quent, especially  in  Armenia,  Turkestan,  and 
around  Lake  Baikal. 

Asia  is  exceedingly  rich  in  a  great  variety  of 
mineral  products.  There  are  gold-mines  of  great 
wealth  in  the  Urals,  the  Altai,  and  Eastern 
Siberia  ;  and  auriferous  sands  are  found  in  Corea, 
Sumatra,  Japan,  and  the  Caucasus  Mountains. 
Silver  is  extracted  in  Siberia ;  platinum  in  the 
Urals ;  copper  in  Japan,  India,  and  Siberia ;  tin 
in  Banca  ;  mercury  in  Japan.  Iron  ore  is  found 
in  nearly  all  the  mountainous  regions,  especially 
of  Asia  Minor,  Persia,  Turkestan,  India,  China, 
Japan,  and  Siberia  ;  but  iron  mining  is  still  at  a 
rudimentary  stage.  Immense  coal-beds  are  spread 
over  China  and  the  islands  of  the  Pacific  (Hai- 
nan, Japanese  Archipelago,  Saghalien),  Eastern 
Siberia,  Turkestan,  India,  Persia,  and  Asia  Minor. 
They  cover  no  less  than  half  a  million  square 
miles  in  China  alone  ;  but  the  extraction  of  coal 
is  as  yet  very  limited.  Graphite  is  found  in 
Siberia.  The  diamonds  of  India,  the  sapphires 
of  Ceylon,  the  rubies  of  Burma  and  Turkestan, 
the  topazes,  beryls,  &c.  of  the  Urals  and  Ner- 
tchinsk,  have  a  wide  repute.  Layers  of  rock-salt 
are  widely  spread,  and  still  more  so  the  salt 
lakes  and  springs.  The  petroleum  wells  of  the 
Caspian  shores  rival  those  of  the  United  States. 
Mineral  springs  are  widely  spread  over  Asia; 
those  of  Caucasus  and  Transbaikalia  already 
attract  a  number  of  patients. 

Even  Eastern  Europe  has  quite  a  continental 
climate.  Still  more  continental  is  the  climate 
throughout  Asia,  with  the  exception  of  a  part  of 
its  coast  regions.  On  account  of  the  immense 
area  of  Asia,  great  diff'erences  of  climate  are  met 
with,  and  therefore  the  meteorologists  subdivide 
the  continent  into  several  very  difterent  climatic 
regions,  of  which  Eastern  Siberia,  dry,  and  in 
winter  very  cold,  includes  Verkhoyansk,  the 
coldest  spot  of  the  Eastern  Hemisphere ;  while 
India,  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula,  and  adjoining 
islands  have  a  tropical  climate,  with  abundant 
periodical  rains.  Asia  Minor  has  of  all  Asiatic 
regions  the  most  moderate  and  agreeable  climate. 
During  the  winter,  Asia,  as  a  whole,  with  the 
exception  of  India,  the  Indo-Chinese  Peninsula, 
and  South-western  Arabia,  enjoys  a  temperature 
much  lower  than  that  of  corresponding  latitudes 
elsewhere ;  while  in  July,  throughout  all  Asia, 
except  on  the  coasts  of  the  Kara  Sea,  Kamchatka, 
and  the  Manchurian  littoral,  the  temperature  is 
higher  than  under  the  same  latitudes  elsewhere. 

The  aggregate  population  of  Asia  is  estimated 
at  891  millions,  being  thus  more  than  one-half  of 
the  entire  population  of  the  globe.    This  popula- 


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54 


ASIA 


tion  gives,  however,  only  an  average  of  49  inhabit- 
ants per  sq.  m.  It  is  very  unequally  distributed, 
and  reaches  557  per  sq.  m.  in  some  provinces  of 
China— denser  than  in  England  (540  per  sq.  m.)— 
and  470  in  some  parts  of  North-western  India. 
Nearly  one-tenth  is  almost  quite  uninhabited. 

The  inhabitants  of  Asia  belong  to  five  different 
groups  :  the  so-called  Caucasian  (Fair  type)  in 
Western  Asia  and  India  ;  the  Mongolian  in  Cen- 
tral and  Eastern  Asia,  as  also  in  the  Indo-Chinese 
Peninsula ;  the  Malay  in  Malacca  and  the  Indian 
Archipelago  ;  the  Dravidas  in  South-eastern  India 
and  Ceylon  ;  and  the  Negritos  and  Papuas  in  the 
virgin  forests  of  the  Philippine  Islands  and 
Celebes.  A  sixth  great  division  comprises  the 
stems  which  inhabit  North-eastern  Asia— the 
Hyperboreans.  The  Europeans  reckon  about  six 
millions  (Russians)  in  Caucasus,  Turkestan,  and 
Siberia;  some  100,000  (British)  in  India;  and 
75,000  in  the  Dutch  Indies. 

The  four  great  religions  which  are  professed  by 
the  great  majority  of  mankind — the  Jewish, 
Buddhist,  Christian,  and  Mohammedan — had  their 
origin  in  Asia.  At  pi'esent  the  inhabitants  of 
Asia  belong  chiefly  to  the  Buddhist  religion, 
which — inclusive  of  the  followers  of  Lamaism, 
the  moral  philosophy  of  Confucius,  and  the 
teachings  of  Lao-tse,  who  all  accept  more  or  less 
the  Buddhist  ritual — has  no  less  than  530  to  500 
millions  of  followers — i.e.  nearly  one-third  of 
mankind.  The  old  faith  of  Hinduism  has  no  less 
than  207  millions  of  followers  in  India.  Most  of 
the  inhabitants  of  Western  Asia,  as  also  of  part 
of  Central  Asia,  follow  the  religion  of  Islam  ; 
they  may  number  about  90  millions.  The 
Christians  number  about  20  millions  in  Armenia, 
Caucasus,  Siberia,  and  Turkestan.  Many  of  the 
Ural- Altaians  continue  to  maintain  their  ancient 
faith.  Shamanism.  Jews  are  scattered  mostly  in 
Western  and  Central  Asia.  A  few  fire-worshippers 
— Guebres  or  Parsees— who  are  found  in  the  west 
of  India  and  Persia  are  the  sole  remnant  of  the 
once  wide-spread  religion  of  Zoroaster. 

The  chief  political  divisions  of  Asia,  with  their 
approximate  areas  and  population  (mostly  esti- 
mated), are  as  follows : 

States  and  Territories.  in"^^*m         Population. 

Siberia 4,824,570  6,731 ,552 

Caucasus 182,500  9,251,945 

Transcaspia  (with  Caspian) 400,070  372,193 

Kussian  Turkestan 1,541,500  7,349,481 

Khiva  and  Bokhara 114,600  2,930.000 

Asiatic  Turkey 729,410  16,953,580 

Arabia 968,200  3,741,222 

Persia 636,400  9,000,000 

Afghanistan 240,000  4,000,000 

Kaflristan  and  Hindu  Kush 20,000  1,000,000 

Beluchistan 106,800  840,000 

India  (with  Burma) 1,560,160  295,038,950 

Nepal,  Bhutan,  &c 89,600  3,300,000 

Ceylon 25,360  3,576,990 

French  and  Portuguese  India 1,800  847,484 

Siam 280,650  6,000,0(X) 

Malacca  States 31,500  676,138 

French  Indo-China 225,620  20,000,000 

Chinese  Empire 4,218,400  399,700,000 

Corea 84,250  10,000,000 

Macao 10  75,000 

Hong-kong 30  297,200 

Japan 148,500  46,450,000 

Dutch  East  Indies 568,900  35,200,000 

Philippines,  &c.  (U.S.  and  Ger.)..  116,260  8,342,000 

British  Borneo  and  Labuan 30,150  175,000 

Native  Borneo 62,940  645,000 

Cyprus 3,580  237,022 

17,211,760  891,730,717 

The  amount  of  cereals— rice,  millet,  wheat, 
barley,  oats,  &c.— supplied  by  the  rich  corn- 
fields  of  China,   Indo-China,   Japan,  and  even 


Turkestan— may  be  best  judged  by  the  density 
of  population  in  the  better-watered  parts  of  thesa 
countries,  and  by  the  rapidly  increasing  amounts 
of  corn  exported,  especially  from  India  ;  while  in 
Southern  Siberia,  the  Altai,  and  the  Middle  Amur, 
Russian  settlers  raising  wheat,  rye,  oats,  barley, 
melons,  &c.  on  the  virgin  soil  of  the  prairies  enjoy 
a  welfare  hardly  known  in  Russia.  The  crops 
of  cotton  in  India  and  Asia  Minor  helped  Europe 
to  meet  the  cotton  crisis  of  1863 ;  and  those  of 
Bokhara  and  Transcaucasia  gave  an  impulse  to 
the  growing  cotton  industry  of  Russia.  Tea  is  the 
chief  crop  of  Southern  China,  Assam,  India,  and 
Ceylon ;  and  coffee  is  largely  grown  in  Arabia, 
India,  Ceylon,  and  the  Dutch  colonies.  The  silk- 
worm culture  is  widely  spread  in  Asia  Minor, 
Persia,  Turkestan,  India,  China,  and  Japan. 
The  sugar-cane  is  largely  raised  in  Southern  and 
South-eastern  Asia.  Oleaginous  plants,  indigo 
and  other  dye  plants,  jute,  spices,  the  cinchona- 
tree,  and  opium-producing  plants  are  extensively 
cultivated  ;  as  also  fruit-trees  in  Western  Asia 
and  Turkestan.  Tlie  cocoa-palm,  the  bread-tree, 
and  the  gutta-percha  tree  are  also  grown  in 
tropical  Asia. 

On  the  inland  steppes  and  plateaus  of  Asia, 
numberless  herds  of  horses,  horned  cattle,  and 
sheep  furnish  all  the  necessaries  of  life  to  the 
nomad  or  half-nomad  Mongolian  inhabitants  of 
these  regions,  and  supply  the  European  trade  with 
a  yearly  increasing  amount  of  hides,  wool,  and 
tallow.  The  forests  of  the  far  north  and  north-east 
afford  the  means  of  existence  to  nomad  and 
Russian  hunters.  Both  supply  the  trade  with 
rich  furs ;  while  the  rivers  of  Siberia  and  Man- 
churia provide  food  for  the  nomad  Ostiaks,  Gols, 
and  Ghilyaks.  And  the  Behring  and  Okhotsk 
Seas  of  the  Northern  Pacific,  and  their  islands, 
supply  the  civilised  world  with  some  of  the 
finest  furs. 

The  plateaus,  the  deserts,  and  the  mountainous 
regions  of  Asia,  thickly  clothed  with  impene- 
trable forests  and  intersected  by  deep  gorges  and 
valleys,  are  so  many  obstacles  to  the  communica- 
tion between  different  parts  of  the  continent. 
The  roads  of  Asia,  except  those  of  China  and 
India,  and  a  few  main  lines  elsewhere,  are  mostly 
mere  footpaths  or  tracks  marked  in  the  deserts, 
with  wells  far  apart,  and  bleached  with  the  bones 
of  camels.  Caravans  of  camels  are  therefore  the 
chief  means  of  transport  for  goods  and  travellers 
in  the  interior ;  donkeys,  yaks,  and  even  goats 
and  sheep  are  employed  in  crossing  the  high 
passages  of  the  Himalayas  ;  horses  are  the  usual 
means  of  transport  in  most  parts  of  China  and 
Siberia,  and  in  the  barren  tracts  of  the  north  the 
reindeer,  and  still  farther  north  the  dog,  are 
made  use  of.  Fortunately,  the  great  rivers  of 
Asia  (especially  China  and  Siberia)  provide  water 
communication  over  immense  distances. 

Railways  are  only  beginning  to  make  their 
appearance  in  Asia.  In  India  they  already 
represent  a  total  length  of  26,000  miles.  Russia, 
too,  has  spread  her  railways  right  across  Asia  to 
the  sliores  of  the  Pacific.  China  decided  in  1886 
to  open  its  territory  to  railway-construction,  and 
in  1905  had  nearly  3000  miles  open,  and  con- 
cessions given  for  about  2500  more.  Japan  has 
over  4000  miles  open.  There  are  also  railways  in 
Burma,  Siam,  and  Turkey  in  Asia.  All  the  chief 
ports  in  the  south  and  south-east  of  Asia  ai-e 
already  in  regular  steam  communication  with 
Europe  and  the  United  States. 

Telegraph  communications  are  in  a  much  more 
advanced  state  than  the  roads.  St  Petersburg 
is  connected  by  telegraph  with  the  mouth  of 


ASIAGO 


55 


ASPINWALt 


the  Amur,  Vladivostok,  and  Port  Artlinr ;  while 
anothei"  branch,  crossing  Turkestan  and  Mongolia, 
runs  on  to  Tashkend,  Peking,  and  Shanghai.  Con- 
stantinople is  connected  with  Bombay,  Madras, 
Singapore,  Saigon,  Hong-kong,  and  Nagasaki  in 
Japan  ;  and  Singapore  with  Java,  Australia,  and 
so  with  New  Zealand.  India  has  nearly  60,000 
miles  of  telegraphs;  Cliina,  14,000  n)iles ;  and 
Japan,  17,000  miles,  with  2200  miles  of  sub- 
marine cables. 

Hitherto  Asia  has  supplied  Europe  chiefly  with 
raw  materials— gold,  silver,  petroleum,  teak  and 
a  variety  of  timber-wood,  furs,  raw  cotton,  silk, 
wool,  tallow,  and  so  on ;  with  the  products 
of  her  tea,  coff"ee,  and  spice  plantations  ;  and 
with  a  yearly  increasing  amount  of  wheat  and 
other  grain.  Steam-industry,  although  but  a 
very  few  years  old,  threatens  to  become  a  rival 
to  European  manufacture.  Indian  cottons  of 
European  patterns  and  jute-stuffs  already  com- 
pete with  those  of  Lancashire  and  Dundee.  The 
silks,  printed  cottons,  carpets,  jewellery,  and  cut- 
lery of  particular  districts  in  India,  China,  Japan, 
Asia  Minor,  and  Persia,  far  surpass  in  their 
artistic  taste  many  like  productions  of  Europe  ; 
and  the  export  of  these  articles  is  increasing. 

Central  Asia  is  a  term,  in  its  geographical 
sense,  used  of  the  region  lying  between  the 
Altai  Mountains  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  in- 
cludes part  of  Siberia,  all  Turkestan,  Afghanistan, 
Beluchistan,  and  part  of  Persia.  An  earlier  usage 
—that  of  Humboldt— gave  this  name  to  the  khan- 
ates of  Bokhara  and  Tartary.  In  Russian  official 
language.  Central  Asia  is  an  administrative  divi- 
sion of  the  empire  lying  to  the  SW.  of  Siberia,  and 
comprising,  with  part  of  what  used  to  be  called 
Siberia,  the  recent  Russian  annexations  in  Turkes- 
tan. Russian  Central  Asia  is  divided  into  the 
governments  of  Akmolinsk,  Semipalatinsk,  Tur- 
gai,  Uralsk,  Semirechinsk,  Sir-daria,  Zarafshan, 
Amu-daria,  the  Trans-Caspian  territory,  and  Fer- 
ghana. The  total  area  is  given  at  1,201,000  sq. 
m.,  and  the  pop.  at  4,390,000.  For  the  physical 
geography  of  the  region,  see  Asia  ;  see  also 
Turkestan,  Siberia,  Khokand,  &c. 

Asiago,  a  town  of  North  Italy,  22  miles  N.  of 
Vicenza,  on  a  ridge.     Pop.  2016. 

Asia  Minor  (Asia  the  Less)  is  the  name  usually 
given  to  the  western  peninsular  projection  of 
Asia,  forming  part  of  Turkey  in  Asia.  The  late 
Greek  name  for  Asia  Minor  is  Anatolia — 
AnatoU,  '  the  East,'  whence  is  formed  the  Turkish 
AnadolL  Asia  Minor  includes  the  whole  penin- 
sula, with  an  area  of  220,000  sq.  m.  It  consti- 
tutes the  western  prolongation  of  the  high  table- 
land of  Armenia,  with  its  border  mountain-ranges. 
The  interior  consists  of  a  great  plateau,  or  rather 
series  of  plateaus,  rising  in  gradation  from  3500 
to  4000  feet,  with  bare  steppes,  salt  plains, 
marshes  and  lakes  ;  the  structure  is  volcanic, 
and  there  are  several  conical  mountains,  one  of 
which,  the  Ergish-dagh  (Argaeus),  with  two 
craters,  attains  a  height  of  11,830  feet.  The 
plateau  is  bordered  on  the  north  by  a  long  train 
of  parallel  mountains,  4000  to  6000  feet  high. 
These  mountains  sink  abruptly  down  on  the 
north  side  to  a  narrow  strip  of  coast.  Similar 
is  the  character  of  the  border  ranges  on  the 
south,  the  ancient  Taurus,  only  that  they  are 
more  continuous  and  higher,  being,  to  the  north 
of  the  Bay  of  Skanderoon,  10,000  to  12,000  feet. 
Between  the  highlands  and  the  sea  lie  the  fertile 
coast-lands.  Of  the  rivers  the  largest  is  the 
Kizil  Irmak  (Halys),  which,  like  the  Yeshil 
Innak  (Iris),  and  the  Sakaria  (Sangarius),  flows 


into  the  Black  Sea ;  the  Sarabat  (Hermus)  and 
Meinder  (Meander)  flow  into  the  ^Egean.  Here 
the  forest-trees  and  cultivated  plants  of  Europe 
are  seen  mingled  with  the  forms  characteristic  of 
Persia  and  Syria.  The  central  plateau,  which  is 
barren,  has  the  character  of  an  Asiatic  steppe, 
more  adapted  for  the  flocks  and  herds  of  nomadic 
tribes  than  for  agriculture ;  while  the  coasts, 
rich  in  all  European  products,  fine  fruits,  olives, 
wine,  and  silk,  have  quite  the  character  of  the 
south  of  Europe,  which  on  the  warmer  and  drier 
south  coast  shades  into  that  of  Africa. 

The  inhabitants,  some  7,000,000  in  number, 
comprise  the  dominant  race,  the  Osmanli  Turks, , 
who  number  about  1,200,000  ;  allied  to  these  are ' 
the  Turkomans  and  Yuruks.  There  are  also 
hordes  of  nomadic  Kurds,  with  the  robber  tribes 
of  the  Lazes  in  the  north-east.  The  Greeks  and 
Armenians  are  the  most  progressive  elements  in 
the  population,  and  have  most  of  the  trade ; 
while  the  Greeks  monopolise  the  professions,  the 
ownex'ship  of  the  land  is  largely  passing  into  the 
hands  of  Greeks,  Armenians,  and  Jews. 

Here,  especially  in  Ionia,  was  the  early  seat  of 
Greek  civilisation,  and  here  Alexander  the  Great 
and  the  Romans  successively  contended  for  the 
mastery  of  the  civilised  world.  Since  the  con- 
quest by  the  Turks  (about  1300  a.d.),  the  ancient 
civilisation  of  the  country  and  its  prosperity 
have  been  sadly  brought  to  ruin.  After  the 
Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877  Great  Britain  made 
a  secret  engagement  to  guarantee  the  Asiatic 
dominions  of  the  Porte,  and  to  assume  an  in- 
definite protectorate  over  Asia  Minor. 

Aslrgarh,  a  strong  fortress  in  the  Central 
Provinces,  300  miles  NE.  of  Bombay,  stands  on 
an  isolated  mountain,  850  feet  above  the  base. 

Askabad,  a  town  of  Russian  Turkestan,  the 
political  centre  of  Transcaspia,  situated  on  the 
Transcaspian  Railway,  290  miles  SE.  of  Mikhail- 
ovsk,  the  seaward  terminus,  and  232  WNW.  of 
Merv.     It  was  occupied  by  the  Russians  in  1S81. 

Askeaton,  a  town  in  the  county,  and  15  miles 
WSW.  of  the  town,  of  Limerick.     Pop.  679. 

Askja  (Ask'ya;  'basket'),  the  largest  volcano 
in  Iceland,  rises  near  the  centre  of  the  island. 
Its  vast  circular  crater,  over  23  sq.  m.  in  area,  and 
about  17  miles  in  circumference,  lies  at  a  depth 
of  over  700  feet  within  a  mountain  built  up  to 
a  height  of  4633  feet  above  the  sea.  A  great 
eruption  in  1875  first  called  attention  to  Aslga. 

As'olo,  a  walled  town  35  miles  NW.  of  Venice, 
with  memories  of  Caterina  Cornaro,  queen  of 
Cyprus,  and  Robert  Browning.     Pop.  955. 

Aspatria,  a  Cumberland  village,  with  an  agri- 
cultural college,  7|  miles  NE.  of  Maryport. 

Aspe  (Asp),  a  romantic  valley  (pop.  12,000)  in 
the  Western  Pyrenees,  close  to  the  Spanish  fron- 
tier. It  was  formerly  a  republic  under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  princes  of  Beam.— (2)  A  town  of 
Spain,  25  miles  W.  of  Alicante.     Pop.  7910. 

Aspern,  a  small  village  of  Austria,  on  the 
Danube's  left  bank,  nearly  opposite  Vienna. 
Here  on  May  21-22,  1809,  Napoleon  was  defeated 
by  the  Austrians  under  Archduke  Charles. 

Aspinwall,  or  Colon,  a  seaport  of  the  republic 
of  Panama,  but  practically  a  United  States  colony, 
is  situated  at  the  Atlantic  extremity  of  the 
Panama  Railway  (1849-55),  and  of  the  unfinished 
inter-oceanic  Panama  Canal,  on  the  island  of 
Manzanilla  in  Limon  Bay,  8  miles  NE.  of  the  old 
Spanish  port  of  Chagres,  and  47  NW.  of  Panama 
by  rail.  In  1870  the  Empress  Eugenie  presented 
the  town  with  a  statue  of  Columbus,  after  whom 


ASPROMONTE 


5^ 


ASSYRIA 


it  is  named  officially  Colon.  The  name  Aspin- 
wall  it  derives  from  a  New  York  merchant,  the 
originator  of  the  Panama  Railway  ;  the  company 
having  founded  the  town  in  1850.    Pop.  4500. 

Aspromonte  (As-pro-mon'tay),  a  rugged  moun- 
tain (6907  feet)  of  Italy,  near  Reggio,  overlooking 
the  Strait  of  Messina.  Here  Garibaldi  was  de- 
feated and  captured,  28th  August  1862. 

Assah  Bay,  an  Italian  trading  station  on  the 
west  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  40  miles  NW.  of  the 
Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb.  The  district  around  it 
(area,  243  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1300)  was  sold  in  1870  by 
some  Danakil  chieftains  to  an  Italian  steamship 
company  for  a  coaling  station,  and  in  1880  was 
taken  over  by  the  Italian  government. 

Assal',  a  large  salt-lake,  nearly  600  feet  below 
sea-level,  in  Adal,  East  Africa,  9  miles  from  the 
coast  of  the  Bay  of  Tajurrah. 

Assam',  from  1874  to  1905  a  separate  province 
at  tlie  NE.  extremity  of  British  India,  with  an 
area  of  46,341  sq.  m.  ;  but  in  1905  made  part  of 
tlie  new  joint  i)rovince  of  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam  (see  Bengal).  A  series  of  valleys,  watered 
by  the  Brahmaputra  and  some  sixty  lesser  rivers, 
it  is  very  fertile,  and  abounds  in  wood  ;  the 
tea-plant  is  indigenous.  Since  1840,  when  its 
commercial  cultivation  was  begun,  600.000  acres 
have  been  taken  up  for  tea ;  some  three-fourths 
of  the  tea  grown  in  India  is  the  produce  of 
Assam.  The  other  products  are  rice,  mustard, 
gold,  ivory,  amber,  musk,  iron,  lead,  petroleum, 
and  coal.  Scarcely  a  fourth  of  the  fertile  area  is 
cultivated.  There  is  steamboat  and  railway  com- 
munication with  Calcutta.  In  1826,  at  the  close 
of  the  first  Burmese  war,  Assam  was  ceded  to 
the  British,  but  it  was  only  in  1838  that,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  misgovernment  of  the  native 
rajah,  the  entire  country  was  placed  under  British 
administration.  The  towns  of  any  size  are  Gau- 
hati  (12,000)  and  Sebsagar  (6000).  A  majority  of 
the  people  are  Hindus.  A  striking  feature  of 
Assam  is  the  abundance  of  tigers,  rhinoceroses, 
leopards,  bears,  buffaloes,  and  elephants ;  the 
snakes  are  most  destructive  to  human  life.  Pop. 
(1872)4,124,972;  (1881)4,881,426;  (1891)5,476,833; 
(1901)6,126,343. 

Assa'ye,  an  Indian  village  in  the  extreme 
north-east  of  the  Nizam's  dominions,  43  miles 
NE.  of  Aurungabad.  Here,  on  23d  September 
1803,  Wellesley,  afterwards  Duke  of  Wellington, 
with  4500  men,  defeated  50,000  Mahrattas. 

Assen,  a  town  of  NE.  Holland,  17  miles  S.  of 
Groningen  by  rail.     Pop.  11,200. 

Assinibola,  till  1905  a  Canadian  district  within 
the  limits  of  the  North-west  Territories,  formed 
by  an  order  in  Council  in  18S2.  It  was  bounded 
on  the  south  by  the  United  States  frontier,  on 
the  east  by  Manitoba,  and  on  the  north  by  the 
former  district  of  Saskatchewan,  and  liad  an  area 
of  89,535  sq.  m.  It  contained  the  towns  of  Regina 
(now  the  capital  of  the  new  province  of  Alberta) 
and  Fort  Pelly.  The  climate  is  subject  to  ex- 
tremes, ranging  from  58"  F.  below  zero  in  winter 
to  106°  above  it  in  summer.  In  1905  the  new 
provinces  of  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta  Avere 
formed,  and  A.ssiniboia  was  divided  between  them, 
Saskatchewan  getting  the  greater  portion. 

Assin'iboine,  a  river  of  British  North  America, 
rising  in  51°  40'  N.  lat.  and  105°  E.  long.,  and, 
after  a  course  of  400  miles,  at  Winnipeg  joining 
the  Red  River  (q.v.),  which  discharges  its  waters 
into  Lake  Winnipeg.  Its  tributaries  are  the  Little 
Souris,  Qu'appelle,  Rapid  River  or  Little  Saskat- 
chewan, White  Sand  River,  and  Beaver  Creek. 


Assi'sl,  a  town  of  Central  Italy,  on  a  steef> 
hill,  14  miles  SE.  of  Perugia  by  rail.  It  is  the 
birthplace  of  St  Francis,  who  founded  here  in 
1209  the  mendicant  order  that  bears  his  name. 
The  monastery  (1229)  has  two  Gothic  churches, 
one  surmounting  the  other,  with  frescoes  and 
paintings  by  Cimabue,  Giotto,  &c.  ;  beneath,  in 
a  Doric  crypt  (1818),  are  the  relics  of  St  Francis. 
Assisi  also  i)ossesses  a  cathedral.    Pop.  6705. 

Assiut.    See  Siout. 

Assmannshau'sen,  a  village  on  the  Rhine,  3 
miles  below  Riidesheim,  famous  for  its  red  and 
white  wine. 

Assos,  a  ruined  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Edremid, 
whose  still  imposing  remains  were  successfully 
excavated,  in  1881-83,  by  the  American  Institute 
of  Archaeology. 

Assouan'  (also  Eswan;  the  ancient  Syene)  is 
the  southernmost  city  of  Egypt  proper,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nile,  and  beside  the  first  or 
lowest  cataract.  Near  are  the  islands  of  Philse 
and  Elephantine.  On  the  left  bank  are  cata- 
combs. There  are  some  remains  of  the  ancient 
city.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  the  famous 
syenite  quarries  from  which  so  many  of  the  huge 
obelisks  and  colossal  statues  were  cut  to  adorn 
the  temples  and  palaces  of  ancient  Egypt.  Here 
is  the  great  dam  erected  (1899-1902)  in  connection 
with  Egyptian  irrigation.     Pop.  12,000. 

Assumption.     See  Asuncion. 

As'synt,  Loch,  a  beautiful  fresh-water  lake  of 
Sutherland,  6^  miles  E.  of  Lochinver.  Lying 
215  feet  above  sea-level,  it  measures  6|  miles  by 
I  mile.  To  Ardvreck  Castle,  on  a  north-eastern 
promontory,  the  Marquis  of  Montrose  was 
brought  a  prisoner  in  1650. 

Assyria,  the  northernmost  of  the  three  great 
countries  that  occupied  the  Mesopotamian  plain. 
It  was  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Niphatea 
Mountains  of  Armenia;  on  the  S.  by  Susiana 
and  Babylonia  ;  on  the  E.  by  Media  ;  and  on  the 
W.,  according  to  some,  by  the  Tigris,  but  more 
correctly  by  the  watershed  of  the  Euphrates,  for 
many  Assyrian  ruins  are  found  to  the  west  of  the 
Tigris.  It  was  thus  about  280  miles  long  from  N. 
to  S.,  and  rather  more  than  150  broad  from  E.  to 
W.  This  plain  is  diversified  by  mountain-chains 
on  the  north  and  east,  and  watered  by  the  Tigris 
and  its  affluents,  between  two  of  which — the  Zab 
rivers— lay  the  finest  part  of  the  country,  called 
Adiabene.  As  it  was  the  boundary-land  between 
the  Semitic  people  and  Iran,  it  became  the  scene 
of  important  political  events.  Its  extraordinary 
fertility  enabled  it  to  support  a  large  population. 
The  high  degree  of  prosperity  and  civilisation 
reached  by  its  inhabitants  in  very  early  times  is 
attested  not  only  by  ancient  writers,  but  by  the 
extensive  ruins  of  mighty  cities,  by  the  canals 
and  contrivances  for  irrigation,  and  by  the  numer- 
ous proofs— furnished  by  recent  excavations— of 
an  acquaintance  with  the  arts  and  sciences.  The 
ruins  of  many  cities  are  grouped  around  Nineveh ; 
while  lower  down,  the  Tigris  exhibits  an  almost 
unbroken  line  of  ruins  from  Tekrit  to  Bagdad. 
Under  the  Mohammedans  this  fine  country  is 
now  almost  a  desert.  Nineveh  (q.v.)  was  the 
capital.  There  are  indications  that  this  Semitic 
state  was  founded  as  far  back  as  2330  b.c.  ;  its 
king  was  certainly  powerful  about  1320  b.c.  ; 
Tiglath-pileser  (1140)  was  its  first  great  prince ; 
after  some  centuries  of  decay  the  empire  was 
again  a  great  power  under  Shalmaneser  11.  (858). 
In  the  7th  century  b.c.  the  empire  was  greatly 
decayed,    and    Babylon    independent :    finally 


r 


ASTERABAI) 


hi 


AtHBOV 


Kineveh  was  taken  in  605,  and  Assyria  became  a 
province  of  Media.  The  Assyrian  language  was 
akin  to  Hebrew  and  Phoenician.     On  the  topo- 

§:aphy  and  archeology,  see  books  by  Botta, 
ppert,  Layard,  George  Smith,  Perrot  and 
Cliipiez,  Sayce,  Maspero,  Rogers  (1901). 

Asterabad'.    See  Astrabad. 

Asti  (Asia  rompeia),  a  city  of  Piedmont,  lies 
on  tlie  Tanaro,  35  miles  ESE.  of  Turin,  The  vino 
d'Asti  is  a  kind  of  sweet  muscatel,  effervescing 
like  cliampagne.    Pop.  17,340. 

Aston,  tlie  name  of  upwards  of  60  English 
towns,  villages,  townships,  or  parishes,  the  best 
known  being  beside  Birmingham  (q.v,). 

Astoria,  originally  a  fur-trading  station  in 
Oregon,  U.S.,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Col- 
umbia, founded  by  the  Pacific  Fur  Company 
in  1811,  and  named  from  its  chief  proprietor, 
John  Jacob  Astor.  It  was  a  main  point  in  the 
American  claini  to  the  territory  of  Oregon  (q.v.). 
There  are  upwards  of  50  large  salmon-tinning 
establishments  in  the  neighbourhood.  The 
lumbering  industry  is  also  important.  Pop. 
(1881)  2803  ;  (1891)  6184  ;  (1900)  8381. 

Astrabad',  a  decayed  town  in  the  north  of 
Persia,  at  the  foot  of  the  Elburz  Mountains,  30 
miles  SE.  of  the  Caspian.  Pop.  (1808)  75,000  ; 
(1904)  18,000. 

Astrakhan',  a  barren  government  in  the  SE. 
of  European  Russia,  watered  by  the  Volga,  and 
washed  on  the  SE.  by  the  Caspian  Sea.  Area, 
91,327  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,003,500.— Astrakhan,  the 
cajHtal,  is  situated  on  a  liigli  island  in  the  Volga, 
41  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Caspian  Sea.  The 
Kreml,  or  fortress,  and  the  White  Town  alone 
have  houses  of  stone ;  the  suburbs  contain  wooden 
buildings  only.  Lengthwise  through  the  middle 
of  the  city  runs  a  canal  which  connects  the 
Kutum  arm  of  the  Volga  with  the  main  stream. 
Of  nearly  40  Greek  churches,  the  finest  is  the 
cathedral  (1G96),  on  the  highest  point  in  the 
Kreml.  Pop.  113,710,  consisting  of  Russians, 
Armenians,  Tartars,  and  Persians.  Almost  the 
entire  commerce  with  Persia  and  Transcaucasia 
passes  through  the  city.  Its  great  markets 
attract  every  year  many  thousands  of  merchants, 
and  its  three  bazaars  are  among  the  busiest  marts 
in  Europe  or  Asia.  The  city  is  connected  by 
steamers  with  all  parts  of  the  Caspian,  and  is 
the  principal  harbour  of  that  sea.  The  industries 
are  shipbuilding,  dyeing,  silk  manufacture,  &c.  ; 
the  sturgeon  and  other  fisheries  are  amongst  the 
greatest  in  the  world. 

Astrolabe  Bay,  a  large  inlet  of  the  sea  on  the 
northern  coast  of  the  eastern  portion  of  New 
Guinea,  opposite  the  end  of  New  Britain. 

Astu'rias,  or  Oviedo,  a  northern  province  of 
Spain,  washed  on  the  north  by  the  Bayof  Biscav. 
Area,  4091  .sq.  m.  ;  population,  628,000.  Tlie 
chief  towns  are  Oviedo  (q.v.),  the  capital,  Gijon, 
Aviles,  Llanes,  and  Luarca. 

Asuncion  (Span.  As-soon'-thee-oan^,  capital  of 
the  republic  of  Paraguay,  on  Paraguay  River,  has 
connection  by  steamers  with  Buenos  Ayres,  and 
by  a  railway  of  45  miles  with  Paraguari.  Founded 
in  1537  on  the  Feast  of  the  Assumption,  it  has  a 
cathedral  (1845)  and  a  trade  in  leather,  tobacco, 
sugar,  manioc,  and  mate  or  Paraguay  tea.  Pop. 
(1857)  40,000;  (1886)  24,838  ;  (1901)  51,700. 

Atacama',  a  northern  province  of  Chili,  with 
an  area  of  30,400  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of 
70,000.  Silver  and  copper  are  largely  mined,  and 
gold  is  also  found  in  considerable  quantities. 
Capital,    Copiapo;   pop.   9916.— The   Desert   of 


Atamnm  till  the  war  of  1879  belonged  also 
partly  to  Bolivia.  Its  silver  and  saltpetre  works 
have  to  some  extent  jjeopled  its  solitudes. 

At'bara,  a  tributary  of  the  Nile,  rises  in 
Abyssinia  near  Lake  Tzana,  flows  mainly  north- 
west, and  after  receiving  the  larger  Takazze, 
joins  the  Nile  below  Berber— being  its  only 
tributary  below  the  junction  of  the  White  with 
the  Blue  Nile.  For  some  months  its  course  is 
almost  dry. 

Atchafalay'a,  an  outlet  of  the  Red  River  or 
of  the  Mississippi,  but  receiving  very  little  of 
the  waters  of  the  latter  except  in  time  of  flood. 
It  runs  nearly  southward  to  Chetimaches  Lake, 
and  after  passing  through  it,  reaches  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  by  Atchafalaya  Bay  after  a  course  of 
about  220  miles. 

Atcheen  (also  Acfieen  or  Atchin;  called  by 
the  Dutch  Atjeh),  until  1873  an  independent 
state  in  the  north-west  part  of  Sumatra,  now  a 
province  of  the  Dutch  Indies,  with  an  area  of 
20,501  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  290,700.  The  natives 
in  appearance,  dress,  character,  and  manners,  are 
distinct  from  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants  of 
Sumatra,  being  of  darker  colour  and  lower 
stature,  and  more  active  and  industrious.  The 
capital  is  Kota  Radja  or  Atcheen,  in  the  north- 
western extremity,  on  a  stream  navigable  by 
boats,  4i  miles  from  its  port  Oleh-leh,  with 
which,  since  1876,  it  has  been  connected  by  a 
railway.    Pop.  10,000. 

Atchison,  a  city  of  Kansas,  U.S.,  on  the  Mis- 
souri's left  bank,  333  miles  above  St  Louis.  Nine 
railway  lines  converge  here  ;  and  the  city  has 
flour-mills,  an  iron-foundry,  machine-shops,  manu- 
factures of  furniture,  carriages,  and  wagons.  Pop. 
(1870)  7054  ;  (1880)  15,106  ;  (1900)  15,722. 

Ateshga  ('  place  of  fire '),  a  spot  on  the  penin- 
sula of  Apsheron,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  Caspian 
Sea.  Many  Guebres  or  Persian  Fire- worshippers 
still  visit  it,  and  bow  before  the  holy  flames  which 
issue  from  the  bituminous  soil. 

Ates'sa,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  23  miles  SSB. 
of  Chieti.     Pop.  5086. 

Ath,  or  Aath,  a  fortified  town  in  the  province 
of  Hainault,  Belgium,  on  the  navigable  Dender, 
32  miles  SW.  of  Brussels.     Pop.  11,000. 

Athabas'ca  (locally  La  Biche,  'red -deer  or  elk 
river '),  a  river  and  lake  in  the  North-west  Terri- 
tory of  the  Canadian  Dominion,  forming  i)art  of 
the  great  basin  of  the  Mackenzie.  The  river  rises 
in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  a  little  lake  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Brown,  one  of  the  highest  points 
in  the  range,  and  flows  over  600  miles  NE.  and 
NW.,  until  it  unites  with  the  Peace  River,  from 
beyond  the  Rocky  Mountains,  to  form  the  Slave 
River,  which,  again,  after  passing  through  Great 
Slave  Lake,  takes  the  name  of  tlie  Mackenzie 
(q.v.).  Lake  Athabasca  receives  nearly  all  its 
waters  from,  and  has  its  sole  outlet  in,  the  Atha- 
basca River,  which  traverses  not  its  length  but 
its  breadth,  and  that  not  in  its  middle,  but  at  its 
extremity.  It  is  230  miles  long,  and  from  14  to 
30  broad.  It  was  discovered  in  1771  by  Samuel 
Hearne,  and  named  by  him  Lake  of  the  Hills.— 
Athabasca,  formerly  one  of  the  four  divisions  of 
the  Canadian  Noith-west,  defined  in  1882,  be- 
tween British  Coliiinbia  and  a  line  to  the  east  of 
the  Athabasca  River,  and  between  the  parallels 
55°  and  60°  N.  lat.  In  1905  it  was  about  equally 
diviiled  between  the  newly  formed  provinces  of 
Alberta  and  Saskatchewan. 

Athboy,  a  market- town  of  County  Meath,  on 


AtHELNEY 


58 


ATLANTA 


the  liver  Athboy,  7  miles  NW.  of  Trim.  Pop. 
(513. 

Ath'elney,  Isle  of  ('  island  of  nobles '),  a 
marsh  at  the  junction  of  the  rivers  Tone  and 
Parret,  in  the  middle  of  Somersetshire,  7  miles 
ENE.  of  Taunton,  Here  Alfred  hid  himself  from 
the  Danes  in  878. 

Athenry,  in  County  Galway,  10  miles  NW.  of 
Loughrea.     Pop.  850. 

Athens,  anciently  capital  of  the  Greek  state  of 
Attica  and  centre  of  Greek  culture,  now  capital 
of  the  modern  kingdom  of  Greece,  4^  miles  from 
its  harbour  of  Pirseus,  on  the  Gulf  of  iEgina.  The 
city,  which  takes  its  name  from  Athena,  *  goddess 
of  science,  arts,  and  arms,'  and  its  own  patron 
divinity,  was  originally  built  on  the  Acropolis, 
a  conspicuous  limestone  rock  rising  500  feet  above 
the  Attic  plain,  and  afterwards  spread  out  on 
the  plain  below  ;  while  the  Acropolis  became  the 
citadel  and  subsequently  the  site  of  a  group  of 
beautiful  temples  of  the  time  of  Pericles  (5th 
century,  B.C.).  The  ruins  of  the  Parthenon,  the 
Erechtheum,  the  temple  of  Nike  Apteros  ('  Wing- 
less Victory '),  and  the  Propylisa,  still  remain  to 
testify  to  the  former  glory  of  the  Acropolis.  Of 
the  other  ancient  buildings  the  most  notable  are 
the  Theseum  (also  of  the  Periclean  period,  and 
still  almost  perfect),  and  the  fragments  of  the 
vast  temple  of  Zeus  (begun  in  530  B.C.  and  finished 
by  the  Roman  Emperor  Hadrian),  with  the  theatre 
of  Dionysus,  &c.  Not  far  from  the  Acropolis 
rose  the  hill  Lycabettus  (911  feet),  and  the  hillocks 
or  ridges  of  the  Pnyx  and  the  Areopagus  or  Mars 
Hill.  At  a  greater  distance  the  plain  is  bounded 
by  Hymettus  (3368  feet),  Pentelicus  (3641),  and 
other  ranges.  Athens  was  fabled  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  hero  Cecrops.  The  most  brilliant 
period  of  its  history  was  when,  after  the  Persian 
wars  (5th  century,  b.c),  Athens  took  the  lead 
amongst  the  Greek  states,  became  powerful  by 
land  and  sea,  was  adorned  by  Pericles  with  her 
most  glorious  buildings,  and  brought  Greek  litera- 
ture and  Greek  philosophy  to  their  highest  de- 
velopment. Its  decline  dates  from  the  disastrous 
conclusion  of  the  Peloponnesian  war  (403  b.c). 
It  was  plundered  and  ruined  by  Sulla  in  87  B.C. ; 
and  neither  under  Byzantine  nor  Turkish  rule 
ever  attained  any  prosperity.  In  the  days  of  her 
glory  Athens  had  some  100,000  free  inhabitants 
and  twice  as  many  slaves  ;  when  after  the  libera- 
tion of  Greece  Athens  was  made  the  capital  of 
the  new  kingdom  (1834),  it  was  a  wretched  village 
of  a  few  hundred  houses.  Since  then  it  has  had 
a  prosperous  growth,  looks  like  a  well-built 
German  town,  and  had  in  1904  a  pop.  of  115,000, 
with  a  fine  royal  palace,  many  handsome  private 
residences,  a  university  with  50  professors  and 
more  than  1000  students,  and  a  good  deal  of  mis- 
cellaneous trade  by  way  of  the  Piraeus.  It  is 
connected  by  rail  also  with  Corinth,  and  the 
Athens-Larissa  line  is  to  bring  Greece  into  rail- 
way communication  with  the  rest  of  Europe. 
See,  besides  works  on  Greece,  ancient  and  modern, 
Dyer's  Ancient  Athens  (1873).  ; 

Athens,  a  name  applied  to  more  than  twenty 
places  in  the  United  States.  (1)  In  Georgia,  92 
miles  WNW.  of  Augusta.  It  contains  several 
cotton  factories,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  university 
of  Georgia  (1801).  Population,  above  11,000.— 
(2)  In  the  south  of  Ohio,  on  the  Hocking  River, 
is  the  seat  of  the  Ohio  University  (1804).  Pop. 
3200. 

Atherstone,  a  market-town  of  Warwickshire, 
14  miles  N.  of  Coventry  by  rail.  Drayton  was 
born  close  by.    Pop.  5300. 


Atherton,  a  township  of  Lancashire,  13  miles 
WNW.  of  Manchester.  Pop.  (1871)  7581 ;  (1891) 
15,833  ;  (1901)  16,211. 

Athlone,  a  town  of  Ireland,  on  the  Shannon, 
chiefly  in  Westmeath,  but  partly  in  Roscommon, 
80  miles  W.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  felt-hats,  friezes,  linens,  and  stays. 
The  Shannon  is  crossed  by  a  fine  bowstring  and 
lattice  iron  bridge  of  two  arches,  175  and  40  feet 
span.  Till  1885  Athlone  returned  one  member. 
Its  castle,  founded  in  King  John's  reign,  in  the 
war  of  1688  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  by  Wil- 
liam III,,  but  was  afterwards  taken  by  General 
Ginckell.  The  fortifications  cover  15  acres,  and 
contain  barracks  for  1500  men.    Pop.  6617. 

Ath'ole,  a  district  in  the  north  of  Perthshire, 
occupying  a  great  part  of  the  southern  slopes  of 
the  Grampians, 

A'thos  (Gr,  Hagion  Oros,  'Holy  Hill'),  the 
most  eastern  of  the  three  tongues  of  the  Chalci- 
dice  Peninsula  on  the  ^Egean  Sea,  connected 
with  the  mainland  by  a  low  and  narrow  isthmus, 
about  a  mile  across.  The  length  of  the  peninsula 
is  about  31  miles  ;  its  breadth  varies  from  3  to  6 
miles.  At  the  southern  extremity,  a  solitary 
peak  rises  abruptly  to  a  height  of  6346  feet  above 
the  sea.  Xerxes  cut  a  canal  through  the  isth- 
mus, traces  of  which  still  exist.  This  peninsula 
is  the  seat  of  twenty  large  monasteries,  besides 
numerous  hermitages  and  chapels.  The  entire 
number  of  monks  is  about  6000.  They  enjoy 
complete  autonomy,  subject  to  paying  the  Turk- 
ish government  an  annual  tribute  of  about  £3500. 
Caryes,  the  principal  place  in  the  peninsula,  is 
picturesquely  situated  in  the  midst  of  vineyards 
and  gardens,  and  has  1000  inhabitants.  Here 
the  market  is  held ;  but  no  female,  even  of  the 
lower  animals,  is  permitted  on  Athos.  In  the 
middle  ages,  Athos  was  the  centre  of  Greek  learn- 
ing and  Christian-Byzantine  art.  Now  learning 
is  at  a  very  low  ebb ;  scarcely  more  than  two  or 
three  monks  of  tolerable  education  can  be  found 
in  a  monastery.  The  libraries  are  neglected, 
though  containing  several  beautiful  (but  not 
important)  manuscripts.  See  works  by  Curzon 
(1849 ;  6th  ed.  1881),  Athelstan  Riley  (1887),  and 
Brockhaus  (Leip.  1891). 

Ath/,  the  chief  town  of  County  Kildare,  on 
the  Barrow,  here  joined  by  the  Grand  Canal,  45 
miles  SW.  of  Dublin  by  rail.     Pop.  3000. 

Atitlan,  a  Central  American  lake,  in  Guate- 
mala, 24  miles  long,  and  8  to  10  miles  broad.  It 
seems  to  occupy  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano, 
and  is  of  great  depth.  It  has  no  visible  outlet. 
High  cliffs  surround  it,  and  on  its  southern  bank 
rises  the  volcano  of  Atitlan  (12,538  feet),  at  whose 
foot  lies  the  little  Indian  town  of  Santiago  de 
Atitlan,  with  a  pop.  of  9000. 

Atlanta,  a  flourishing  city  of  the  United 
States,  capital  of  Georgia,  is  situated  1100  feet 
above  sea-level,  294  miles  NW.  of  Savannah,  and 
7  miles  SE.  of  the  Chattahoochee  River.  Seven 
railroads  centre  at  it.  Atlanta  has  an  extensive 
and  rapidly  increasing  trade  in  cotton,  dry  goods, 
horses  and  mules,  and  especially  tobacco.  Public 
buildings  are  the  custom-house,  state-house, 
opera-house,  the  Atlanta  University  for  the  edu- 
cation of  coloured  young  men  and  women,  Clark 
Theological  School  (coloured  Methodist),  and  two 
medical  colleges.  In  September  2,  1864,  the  city 
was  captured  by  the  Union  troops  under  General 
Sherman,  and  the  entire  business  portion  de- 
stroyed by  them  on  leaving  it  a  month  later. 
Since  the  restoration  of  peace,  however,  its  pros- 
perity has  been  uninterrupted  and  its  growth 


ATLANTIC  CITY 


59 


ATTICA 


rapid.  Atlanta  was  settled  in  1840 ;  was  incor- 
porated as  the  village  of  Marthasville  in  1842  ;  as 
Atlanta,  in  1847.  Pop.  (1850)  2572  ;  (1870)  21,879  ; 
(1890)  65,533';  (1900)  89,872. 

Atlantic  City,  a  fashionable  American  health- 
resort,  on  a  narrow,  sandy  island  oft'  the  coast  of 
New  Jersey,  60  miles  SE.  of  Philadelphia  by  rail. 
Pop.  (1870)  1043  ;  (1890)  13,055  ;  (1900)  27,838. 

Atlantic  Ocean  (so  called  either  from  Mount 
Atlas  or  from  the  fabulous  island  of  Atlantis), 
separating  the  Old  from  the  New  World,  Europe 
and  Africa  being  on  the  E.,  and  North  and  South 
America  on  the  W.  Its  greatest  widtli  is  about 
5000  miles,  but  between  Brazil  and  the  African 
coast  the  distance  is  only  about  1600  miles.  It  is 
in  open  communication  with  both  the  Arctic 
Ocean  and  Antarctic  or  Southern  Ocean.  The 
North  Atlantic,  stretching  from  70°  N.  to  the 
equator,  has  an  area  of  14,000,000  sq.  m.  It  com- 
municates with  many  inclosed  or  partially  in- 
closed seas,  such  as  the  Caribbean  Sea,  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  Hudson  Bay  on  the  Avest,  the  Baltic, 
North  Sea,  Mediterranean,  and  Black  Sea  on  the 
east.  The  South  Atlantic  from  the  equator  to 
40°  S.  has  an  area  of  10,100,000  sq.  m.  ;  if  it  be 
supposed  to  extend  through  the  great  Southern 
Ocean  as  far  as  the  Antarctic  circle,  its  area  is 
16,700,000  sq.  m. 

Towards  the  centre  of  the  North  Atlantic,  be- 
tween Africa  and  North  America,  and  in  the 
centre  of  the  South  Atlantic,  between  Africa  and 
South  America,  there  are  anticyclonic  areas  of 
high  atmospheric  pressure  (over  30  inches),  out 
of  which  winds  blow  in  all  directions  to  surround- 
ing regions  where  the  pressure  is  less.  The 
positions  of  these  high-pressure  areas  and  the 
winds  that  blow  out  from  them,  determine  the 
great  oceanic  currents  and  the  positions  of  the 
Sargasso  seas,  for  the  winds  everywhere  deter- 
mine and  control  the  movements  of  the  surface 
waters.  The  SE.  and  NE.  trades  drive  the 
heated  surface  waters  of  the  tropics  before  them, 
and  eventually  produce  the  Equatorial  current, 
which  on  reaching  Cape  St  Roque  bifurcates, 
one  branch  becoming  the  Brazil  current  of  the 
South  Atlantic,  the  other  and  larger  branch 
passing  on  to  the  Caribbean  Sea  and  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  finally  issuing  from  the  latter  by  the 
Strait  of  Florida,  forming  the  Gulf  Stream  (q.v.), 
the  greatest  and  most  important  of  all  oceanic 
currents.  A  cold  Arctic  current  passes  south- 
ward along  the  shores  of  Greenland,  and  unites 
off  Cape  Farewell  Avith  the  Davis  Strait  current, 
forming  the  Labrador  current,  which  passes  along 
the  west  coast  of  America,  and  passes  beneath 
the  Gulf  Stream  to  the  south  of  the  banks  of 
Newfoundland.  Icebergs  are  carried  as  far  south 
as  40°  N.  in  the  northern  and  as  far  north  as  38° 
S.  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  In  the  equatorial 
regions,  the  surface  water  has  generally  a  tem- 
perature ranging  from  70°  to  84°  F. ;  the  tempera- 
ture decreases  as  the  depth  increases.  The  warm 
water  is  a  relatively  thin  stratum,  the  greater 
part  of  ocean  water  having  a  temperature  below 
40°  F.  It  is  ice-cold  in  the  Atlantic  at  the 
bottom  even  b'^neath  the  equator.  The  water  of 
the  Atlantic  contains  the  least  salt  towards  the 
poles  and  in  the  equatorial  belt  of  calms.  The 
saltest  water  (density  over  1*0275)  is  found  in  the 
centre  of  the  trade- wind  regions.  The  salinity  of 
the  deeper  waters  is  considerably  below  the 
average  of  the  surface.  The  average  depth  of 
the  Atlantic  is  between  2  and  3  miles  (2200 
fathoms).  A  low  submarine  ridge  runs  down  the 
centre,  from  north  to  south,  with  an  average 


depth  of  about  1700  fathoms  over  it.  On  either 
side  of  this  ridge  there  are,  both  in  the  North 
and  South  Atlantic,  depths  of  between  3000  and 
4000  fathoms.  The  greatest  depth  yet  met  with 
is  just  north  of  the  Virgin  Islands  (4561  fathoms). 
The  surface  waters  from  equator  to  poles  swarm 
with  all  kinds  of  pelagic  plants  and  animals, 
many  of  which  emit  phosphorescent  light,  pro- 
ducing what  is  known  as  luminosity  of  the  sea. 
In  the  centre  of  the  North  Atlantic,  in  the  so- 
called  Sargasso  Sea,  there  are  enormous  floating 
banks  of  gulf  weed  (Sargassum  b^iccifennn),  on 
which  a  large  number  of  peculiar  animals  live. 
Life  has  been  found  to  exist  at  all  depths  in  the 
Atlantic,  but  it  becomes  less  abundant  as  greater 
depths  and  a  greater  distance  from  continental 
shores  are  reached.  There  are  relatively  few 
oceanic  islands.  Iceland,  the  Azores,  St  Paul's 
Rocks,  Ascension,  and  the  Tristan  da  Cunha 
group  all  rise  from  the  central  elevation,  and  are 
all  of  volcanic  origin.  Jan  Mayen  rises  from  the 
deep  water  of  the  Norwegian  Sea.  The  coral 
group  of  Bermudas  rises  from  the  deep  water  of 
the  Western  North  Atlantic.  Off"  the  west  coast 
of  Africa  are  the  Canaries,  Cape  Verds,  and 
Madeira.  In  the  South  Atlantic,  to  the  west  of 
the  central  ridge,  are  Fernando  Noronha  and 
Trinidad,  and  to  the  east  of  the  central  ridge,  St 
Helena.  There  are  numerous  continental  islands, 
such  as  the  British  Isles,  Newfoundland,  the  West 
Indies,  the  Falklands,  and  others.  The  most 
civilised  nations  of  the  world  inhabit  the  shores 
of  tlie  Atlantic,  and  it  is  the  great  commercial 
highway  of  the  world.  It  has  been  sounded  in 
all  directions,  and  the  nature  of  its  bed  is  so  well 
known  that  telegraph  cables  can  be  laid  across 
it  with  great  certainty  of  success.  In  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  some  continental  shores,  and  around 
some  of  the  volcanic  cones  which  rise  from  the 
floor  of  the  ocean,  there  are  occasionally  very 
steep  slopes  ;  but  as  a  rule,  the  bed  of  the  ocean 
is  a  widespread,  gently  undulating  plain. 

Atlas,  the  great  mountain-system  of  North- 
western Africa,  stretching  north-eastward  from 
Cape  Nun  in  Morocco  to  Cape  Bon  in  Tunis,  a 
distance  of  1400  miles.  It  is  not  properly  a 
mountain-chain,  but  rather  a  very  irregular  moun- 
tainous mass  of  land,  that  attains  its  greatest 
height  (13,000  feet)  in  Miltsin— 27  miles  SE.  of 
the  city  of  Morocco,  whilst  in  Algeria  the  eleva- 
tion is  only  7673  feet,  in  Tunis  4476,  and  in 
Tripoli  3200.  The  slopes  on  the  north,  west, 
and  south  are  covered  with  vast  forests  of  pine, 
oak,  cork,  white  poplar,  wild  olive,  &c.  The 
valleys  are  well  watered  and  capable  of  cultiva- 
tion with  great  profit. 

Atra'to,  a  river  of  Colombia,  rising  on  the 
Western  Cordillera  at  an  altitude  of  10,560  feet, 
and  running  305  miles  northward  through  low 
swampy  country,  till  it  falls  by  several  mouths, 
interrupted  by  bars,  into  the  Gulf  of  Darien.  It 
is  navigable  by  steamers  for  fully  250  miles, 
being  750  to  1000  feet  wide,  and  8  to  70  feet 
deep.  A  route,  surveyed  by  the  United  States 
government  in  1871,  proposed  to  connect  the 
Atrato  and  the  Jurador,  flowing  into  the  Pacific, 
by  a  canal  48  miles  long.  * 

Atrauli  (Atrowli),  a  town  of  British  India,  in 
the  United  Provinces,  16  miles  NE.  of  Aligarh. 
Pop.  18,000. 

Atrek,  a  river  of  Pe/sia,  rising  in  Khorasan, 
and  flowing  nearly  350  miles  westward  to  the 
Caspian  Sea,  from  Shatt  downwards  along  the 
boundary  with  the  Russian  empire. 

At'tica,  one  of  the  political  divisions  or  states 


I 


ATTLEBOROtJaa 


eo 


AtTDE 


of  Hellas  or  ancient  Greece,  of  which  Athens  was 
the  capital.  Its  area  was  about  640  sq.  m.  ; 
rather  smaller  than  that  of  Lanarkshire.  To- 
day Attica  and  Bceotia  together  form  a  nomarchy 
or  government  of  Greece,  with  an  area  of  2472 
sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  315,000. 

Attleborough,  a  market-town  of  Norfolk,  16 
miles  SW.  of  Norwich.  It  had  a  college  of  the 
Holy  Cross  (1387).     Pop.  of  paiish,  2302. 

Attleborough,  a  post- village  in  Massachusetts, 
U.S.,  31  miles  SW.  of  Boston  by  rail.   Pop.  11,350. 

Attock,  a  town  of  the  Punjab,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Indus,  here  spanned  by  a  great  rail- 
way bridge  (1883).  A  fort  was  established  here 
by  the  Emperor  Akbar  in  1581,  to  defend  the 
passage  of  the  river,  but  it  is  no  longer  a  position 
of  strength.  The  situation,  however,  of  Attock 
is  important,  whether  in  a  commercial  or  in  a 
military  view,  it  being  at  the  head  of  the  steam- 
boat navigation  of  the  Indus,  940  miles  from  its 
mouth.     Pop.  4000. 

Attrek.    See  Atrek. 

Aubagne  (O-bdnf),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Bouches-du-Rhone,  on  the  Huveaune,  10^  miles 
E.  of  Marseilles  by  rail.     Pop.  5498. 

Aube  (Oab),  a  dep.  in  the  north-east  of  France, 
occupying  the  southern  part  of  the  old  province 
of  Champagne  and  a  small  portion  of  Burgundy. 
The  western  part  belongs  to  the  basin  of  the 
Seine ;  the  eastern  to  tliat  of  the  Aube,  which 
rises  near  Mount  Saule,  on  the  plateau  of  Lan- 
gres,  and  flows  140  miles  north-westward  by  La 
Ferte,  Bar,  and  Acris,  to  the  Seine.  Area,  2310 
sq.  m.     Pop.  246,000. 

Aubenas  (Oab-na),  a  town  of  SE.  France,  dep. 
Ardeche,  50  miles  NNB.  of  Alais  by  rail.  It  is 
built  on  a  height  rising  688  feet  above  the  river 
Ardeche,  and  has  a  fine  old  castle.     Pop.  5671. 

Aubervilliers  (O-ber-veel-yay'%  in  the  Seine 
dep.,  5  miles  N.  of  Paris.     Pop.  28,000. 

Auburn,  or  Lissoy,  a  Westmeath  village,  7 
miles  NE.  of  Athlone.  Goldsmith's  father  was 
rector  here,  and  it  is  his  '  deserted  village ; '  the 
name  '  Auburn '  was  taken  from  his  poem. 

Auburn,  several  places  in  the  United  States. 
(1)  In  the  state  of  New  York,  173  miles  W.  by 
N.  of  Albany.  The  outlet  of  Owasco  Lake  flows 
through  the  town,  furnishing  a  water-power 
which  is  employed  in  manufactures  of  agricultural 
machinery,  wool,  cotton,  silk,  carpets,  iron,  &c. 
The  state  prison,  founded  here  in  1816,  with  over 
1000  Inmates,  has  since  1823  been  conducted  on 
the  '  silent '  or  '  Auburn '  system.  There  are  also 
a  state  asylum  and  a  state  armoury.  Pop.  (1870) 
17,225 ;  (1880)  21,924  ;  (1900)  30,345.— (2)  A  town 
of  Maine,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Androscoggin 
River,  opposite  Lewiston,  and  35  miles  N.  of 
Portland  by  rail.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton, 
furniture,  and  boots  and  shoes.  Population, 
above  13,000. 

Aubusson  (O-biis-sonO),  a  town  in  tlie  French 
dep.  of  Creuse,  in  the  rocky  gorge  of  the  river 
Creuse,  47  miles  ENB.  of  Limoges.    Pop.  6248. 

Auch.  (OasTi),  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of  Gers, 
on  the  river  Gers,  44  miles  S.  of  Agen  by  rail. 
The  Augusta  Auscorum  of  the  Romans,  it  is  built 
on  a  hill,  whose  sixmmit  is  crowned  by  the 
cathedral  (1489-1662),  rich  in  stained  glass  and 
carved  woodwork.    Pop.  9500. 

Auchendrane,  a  seat  4  miles  S.  of  Ayr,  the 
scene  of  Scott's  Ayrshire  Tragedy. 

Auchenheath,  a  Lanarkshire  collier  village, 
2J  miles  N.  of  Lesmahagow.    Pop.  640. 


Auchensaugh,  a  Lanarkshire  hill,  2J  mile9 
SSE.  of  Douglas,  where  in  1712  the  Cameronians 
founded  the  Reformed  Presbyterian  Church. 

AucMnblae,  a  Kincardineshire  village,  5j  miles 
NNE.  of  Lawrencekirk.    Pop.  450. 

Auchinleck,  an  Ayrshire  village,  15  miles  E. 
of  Ayr  by  rail.  Pop.  2168.  The  i)arish  con- 
tains Auchinleck  House  (locally  called  'Place 
Aflieck '),  the  seat  of  the  Boswells. 

Auchmithie,  a  Forfarshire  fishing-village,  3J 
miles  NNE.  of  Arbroath.  It  is  the  '  Mussel- 
crag  '  of  Scott's  Antiquary.    Pop.  353. 

Auchmuty,  a  Fife  village,  on  the  Leven,  IJ 
mile  W.  of  Markinch.  Pop.,  with  Balbirnie 
Mills,  419. 

Auchterarder,  a  Perthshire  village,  14^  miles 
SW.  of  Perth  by  rail.  Pop.  2276,  largely  em- 
ployed in  the  woollen  manufacture.  The  oppo- 
sition to  the  presentee  to  Auchterarder  parish 
originated  (1834)  the  struggle  which  ended  in  the 
formation  of  the  Free  Church  in  1843. 

Auchtergaven,  a  Perthshire  parish,  7^  miles 
N,  by  W.  of  Perth.  The  poet  Robert  Nicoll  was 
a  native. 

Auchtermuchty,  a  Fife  royal  burgh,  lOJ  miles 
WSW.  of  Cupar.    Pop.  1387. 

Auckland,  the  northern  provincial  district  of 
New  Zealand,  includes  fully  half  of  North  Island, 
and  is  about  400  miles  long  by  200  wide  at  its 
widest.  The  coast-line  of  nearly  1200  miles  is 
very  long  in  proportion  to  the  area.  Volcanic 
action  has  deeply  left  its  mark  on  the  surface  of 
Auckland  ;  and  the  warm  lake  and  geyser  scenery 
of  the  region  about  90  miles  SE.  below  tlie  Bay 
of  Plenty  is  amongst  tlie  most  remarkable  in 
the  world.  The  '  Hot  Lake  '  district  covers  an 
area  120  miles  long  by  10  to  15  wide,  and  includes 
hot  springs,  cisterns  of  hot  water,  and  mud  vol- 
canoes ;  at  Rotorua  is  an  admirably  equipped 
bathing-house  and  sanatorium.  1'lie  other  lakes 
are  Tarawera,  Rotoiti,  and  Rotoinahana.  Tlie 
wonderful  pink  and  white  terraces  near  Tarawera 
Lake  were  destroyed  by  a  volcanic  eruption  in 
1886.  Pop.  (1875)  79,104;  (1881)  99,451;  (1891) 
133,267  ;  (1901)  175,870. 

Auckland,  the  largest  city  in  the  North  Island 
of  New  Zealand,  on  a  peninsula  7  miles  wide  on 
the  Hauraki  Gulf.  It  stands  on  the  south  side 
of  Waitemata  Harbour,  one  of  the  finest  harbours 
in  New  Zealand ;  and  its  splendid  wharves  and 
graving-docks  offer  the  most  complete  facilities 
for  shipping.  Auckland  is  distant  from  Sydney 
1315  miles  ;  from  Melbourne,  1650.  It  possesses 
also  a  harbour  on  the  western  side  of  the  island 
in  Manukau,  only  6  miles  across.  It  has  a  uni- 
versity college  and  ciithedral,  and  the  foundation 
stone  of  a  Free  Library  and  Art  Gallery  was  laid 
in  1885.  Shipbuilding,  sugar- refining,  rope- 
spinning,  and  brick-making  are  among  the 
industries.  Pop.  (1881)  16,675;  (1901)  34,220. 
Founded  in  1840,  and  named  after  Lord  Auck- 
land, governor-general  of  India,  the  town  was 
capital  of  New  Zealand  till  1865. 

Auckland  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  about 
180  miles  to  the  south  of  New  Zealand.  The 
largest  of  them  measures  30  miles  by  15.  It  has 
two  good  harbours,  and  is  covered  with  the  richest 
vegetation.  The  Auckland  Islands  are  valuable 
chiefly  as  a  whaling  station,  but  are  not  peopled. 
They  were  annexed  by  Great  Britain  in  May  1886. 

Aude  (Oad),  a  maritime  dep.  in  S.  France, 
part  formerly  of  Languedoc.  Area,  2438  sq.  m.  ; 
population,  313,500.  The  southern  part  is  occu- 
pied by  spurs  of  the  Pyrenees,  attaining  4037  feet 


AUDENSHAW 


61 


AUSTRALASIA 


In  the  Pay  de  Biigarach  ;  but  the  greater  portion 
belongs  to  the  valley  of  the  lower  Aude  (130 
miles),  falling  into  the  Mediterranean.  The  chief 
town  is  Carcassonne  (q.v.). 

Audenshaw,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  5  miles  B. 
from  Manchester.     Pop.  7220. 

Audh.    See  Oudh. 

Audley,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  5  miles  NW. 
of  Hanley,  with  coal  and  iron  works.    Pop.  13,700. 

Audley  End,  Essex,  1^  mile  S\V.  of  Sailron 
Walden,  the  seat  of  Lord  Braybrooke. 

Auerstadt  (Oiv'er-stet),  a  village  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  10  miles  W.  of  Naumburg.  Here,  in  Octo- 
ber 180(3,  the  French  defeated  the  Prussians. 

Aughnacloy,  a  Tyrone  town,  on  the  Black- 
water,  10  miles  SW.  of  Dungannon.    Pop.  974. 

Aughrim.     See  Aghrim. 

Augsburg,  a  city  of  Bavaria,  capital  of  the 
province  of  Swabia,  is  situated  in  the  angle 
between  the  rivers  Wertach  and  Lech,  37  miles 
WNW.  of  Munich.  It  has  a  noble  street,  the 
Maximilian  Strasse,  adonied  with  three  bronze 
fountains  (1593-1602) ;  and  the  principal  edifices 
are  the  Renaissance  town-house  (1620),  with  its 
splendid  'Golden  Hall;'  the  Perlach  Tower, 
dating  from  the  11th  century ;  the  former  epis- 
copal palace,  where,  on  25th  June  1530,  the 
Protestant  princes  presented  the  Augsburg  Con- 
fession to  Charles  V.  ;  the  grand  old  mansion  of 
the  merchant-princes,  the  Fuggers ;  the  '  Three 
Moors,'  one  of  the  most  interesting  hostel ries 
in  Germany;  and  the  Gothicised  Romanesque 
cathedral  (994-1421),  with  its  bronze  doors  and 
early  glass-paintings.  The  industry  of  Augsburg 
is  once  more  vigorous.  Cotton  is  now  the  staple 
manufacture,  besides  woollens,  paper,  tobacco, 
machinery,  gold  and  silver  wares,  brewing,  print- 
ing, lithography,  and  bookselling.  Pop.  (1871) 
51,270;  (1900)  89,500  ;  of  whom  66  per  cent,  were 
Catholics.  The  Emperor  Augustus  in  12  b.c. 
here  founded  the  '  colony '  of  Augusta  Vindeli- 
corum,  which  in  1276  became  a  free  city  of  the 
empire,  and  which  was  the  centre  of  German  art 
as  represented  by  the  Holbeins,  Burgkmair, 
Altdorfer,  &c.  The  discovery  of  the  Cape  route 
to  India,  and  of  America,  dried  up  the  sources  of 
Augsburg's  prosperity.  It  ceased  to  be  a  free 
city  on  the  abolition  of  the  German  empire  in 
1806,  and  was  taken  possession  of  by  Bavaria. 

Augusta,  or  Agosta,  a  fortified  seaport  of 
Sicily,  11  miles  N.  of  Syracuse  by  rail.  Pop. 
12,210.  Near  it,  in  1676,  the  French  under 
Duquesne  gained  a  great  naval  victory  over  a 
Spanish  and  Dutch  fleet  under  De  Ruyter. 

Augusta  (1),  the  capital  of  Maine,  U.S.,  on  the 
Kennebec,  63  miles  NNB.  of  Portland  by  rail.  A 
dam,  17  feet  high,  affords  considerable  water- 
power  ;  there  are  several  cotton  and  other  mills  ; 
and  in  1886  a  new  system  of  waterworks  was 
introduced.  Augusta  contains  a  U.S.  arsenal ; 
and  at  Togus,  4  miles  distant,  is  one  of  the 
national  institutions  for  disabled  soldiers.  Pop. 
(1880)  8665 ;  (1900)  11,683.  (2)  The  third  city  of 
Georgia,  U.S.,  on  the  Savannah  River,  231  miles 
from  its  mouth,  but  only  132  from  Savannah  by 
rail.  It  is  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation  on 
the  river,  which  is  here  spanned  by  three  bridges, 
connecting  the  town  with  Hamburg,  S.C,  and 
which  is  crossed  by  a  stone  dam,  1720  feet  in 
length,  from  which  a  canal,  8  miles  long  and  150 
feet  wide,  supplies  water  both  for  domestic  use 
and  for  the  cotton  and  other  mills.  Augusta  is 
the  seat  of  the  Medical  College  of  Georgia  (1832). 
Pop.  ClSeO)  12,493  ;  (1880)  21,891 ;  (1900)  39,540. 


Augustenburg,  a  village  of  600  inhabitants 
on  a  bay  of  the  island  of  Alsen  (q.v.).  Its  castle 
(1776)  was  formerly  the  residence  of  the  Dukes  of 
Holstein-Sonderburg- Augustenburg. 

Augusto'vo,  a  town  of  Russian  Poland,  on  the 
Netta,  a  feeder  of  the  Bug,  138  miles  NB.  of 
Warsaw.     Pop.  13,094. 

Augustus,  Fort.    See  Fort  Augustus. 

Aulapolai',  or  Alleppi,  a  seaport,  with  a 
lighthouse,  in  Travancore  state,  Madras,  33  miles 
S.  of  Cochin.     Pop.  25,000. 

Auldearn,  a  Nairnshire  village,  2J  miles  BSE. 
of  Nairn.  Near  it  Montrose  won  his  fourth 
victory,  9th  May  1645.  Pop.  313. 

Aumale  (O-mdV),  an  unimportant  town  of  1966 
inhabitants,  in  the  French  dep.  of  Seine- 
Inferieure,  on  the  Breste.  Since  1547  it  has 
given  the  title  of  duke  to  various  families.— 
Aumale,  a  town  of  Algeria,  57  miles  SB.  of 
Algiers,  is  a  strong  military  post.    Pop.  3706. 

Auray  (P'ray),  a  port  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Morbihan,  20  miles  E.  of  Lorient  by  rail.  Here 
is  a  large  deaf  and  dumb  institute ;  and  2  miles 
north  is  the  famous  place  of  pilgrimage  of  St 
Anne  of  Auray.    Pop.  5517. 

Aurlch  (fivfrihh),  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hanover,  almost  in  the  centre  of  East  Friesland, 
16  miles  NB.  of  Emden  by  rail.    Pop.  6399. 

Aurillac  (O-reel-yac),  capital  of  the  French  dep. 
of  Cantal,  on  the  Jourdanne,  116  miles  SW.  of 
Clermont.    Pop.  14,756. 

Aurora  (1),  a  city  of  Illinois,  U.S.,  on  Fox  River, 
at  the  junction  of  several  railroads,  39  miles 
WSW.  of  Chicago.  It  has  machine-shops,  flour- 
mills,  manufactories  of  woollens,  cottons,  watches, 
corsets,  silver  ware,  carriages,  and  extensive  rail- 
road workshops.  Pop.  (1860)6011 ;  (1880)  11,873 ; 
(1900)  24,147.— (2)  A  city  of  Missouri,  270  miles 
SW.  of  St  Louis,  in  a  mining  region.     Pop.  6500. 

Aurungabad,  the  name  of  at  least  four  places 
in  India,  the  most  important  being  in  the  state 
of  Hyderabad,  on  the  Doodna,  a  tributary  of  the 
Godavery.  It  has  a  ruined  palace  of  Aurungzebe, 
and  the  mausoleum  of  his  daughter.    Pop.  36,850. 

Auskerry,  an  Orkney  Island,  2^  miles  S.  of 
Stronsay.     Pop.  7. 

Aussee,  a  town  in  the  Salzkammergut  of  Styria, 
at  the  confluence  of  three  mountain-streams, 
which  form  the  Traun,  23  miles  SB.  of  Ischl  by 
rail.  Situated  2171  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  it  has  mineral  springs  and  baths  and  pretty 
villas,  and  is  visited  by  some  6000  strangers 
annually.    Pop.  1569. 

Aussig,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Elbe,  here 
joined  by  the  Biela,  66  miles  NNW.  of  Prague. 
It  has  large  chemical  works.    Pop.  37,270. 

Austerlitz  (Czech  Slavkov),  a  town  of  Moravia, 
on  the  Littawa,  12  miles  ESE.  of  Briinn.  Pop. 
3500.  Here,  on  2d  December  1805,  Napoleon 
defeated  the  Russians  and  Austrians. 

Austin,  the  capital  of  Texas,  U.S.,  on  the 
Colorado  River,  166  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Houston. 
It  has  a  State  Capitol  (1887)  and  a  State  Uni- 
versity. Austin  was  named  after  the  founder  of 
the  state  of  Texas.   Pop.  22,500. 

Australa'sia  is  a  term  etyinologically  equal 
to  Southern  Asia,  but  used  to  indicate  Australia 
and  the  adjoining  islands— Tasmania,  New  Zea- 
land, Papua  or  New  Guinea.  New  Caledonia,  the 
New  Hebrides,  New  Ireland,  and  New  Britain. 
The  term  would  thus  exclude  the  Malay  Archi- 
pelago, Micronesia,  and  Polynesia  proper ;  but 
some   authors   include   these   great   groups   of 


AUSTRALIA  ( 

islands  also,  making  the  name  therefore  equi- 
valent to  Oceania.  Popularly,  on  the  other  hand, 
it  means  the  'Australian  Colonies'  of  Great 
Britain,  including  Tasmania,  New  Zealand,  Fiji, 
&c. 

Australia,  by  far  the  largest  island  on  the 
earth's  surface,  and  with  or  without  adjoining 
islands,  reckoned  one  of  the  continents,  lies 
between  10°  39'  and  39°  11^'  S.  lat.,  and  between 
113°  5'  and  153°  16'  E.  long.  It  has  a  length  from 
west  to  east  of  about  2400  miles  ;  and  a  breadth 
from  north  to  south  of  1971  miles  ;  with  a  total 
area  of  2,944,628  sq.  m.,  about  one-fourth  less 
than  that  of  Europe,  or  more  than  twenty-five 
times  that  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  By  the 
shortest  route,  its  nearest  point  is  11,000  miles 
distant  from  England.  It  is  separated  from  New 
Guinea  by  Torres  Strait,  90  miles  broad,  and 
from  Tasmania  by  Bass  Strait,  140  miles  wide ; 
on  the  NW.,  "W.,  and  S.,  it  is  washed  by  the 
Indian  Ocean  ;  and  on  the  E.,  by  the  South 
Pacific.  This  island-continent  is,  above  all  other 
continents,  exceedingly  compact,  with  an  almost 
unbroken  outline  on  the  east  and  west.  Parallel 
with  the  east  coast,  at  a  distance  of  about  60 
miles,  stretches  for  1200  miles  the  Great  Barrier 
Reef.  The  name  Australia  in  its  present  signifi- 
cation was  suggested  by  Captain  Flinders,  and 
came  into  use  about  1817. 

The  island  is  mainly  a  plateau  with  a  pre- 
cipitous face  outwards,  and  at  most  places 
bounded  by  a  strip  of  lower-lying  land  between 
that  face  and  the  sea-coast.  The  eastern  edge 
of  the  plateau  averages  2000  feet  in  height,  the 
western  but  1000  feet ;  while  there  is  in  all 
directions  an  inclination  towards  a  central  de- 
pression somewhat  south  and  east  of  the  actual 
centre  of  the  continent.  One  great  river,  the 
Murray,  Australia's  only  great  river,  drains  by 
means  of  its  many  large  tributaries— Darling, 
Murrumbidgee,  &c.— the  whole  of  the  south 
portion  of  the  eastern  half  of  the  plateau,  most 
of  Victoria,  New  South  Wales,  the  south  of 
Queensland,  and  the  east  of  South  Australia ;  and 
in  the  SB.  corner  is  the  principal  mountain  range, 
the  Australian  Alps  (highest  points  Mount  Town- 
send,  7350  feet,  and  Mount  Kosciusko,  7308) 
continued  northwards  into  New  South  Wales  by 
the  Blue  Mountains,  the  Liverpool  Range,  &c. 
There  is  no  drainage  into  the  interior  in  the 
western  part  of  the  plateau,  which  is  but  slightly 
inclined  :  and  here  the  slight  and  irregular  rain- 
fall collects  in  salt  marshes,  which  sometimes  in 
flood  greatly  extend  their  area.  Next  to  the 
Murray,  the  most  important  rivers  are  the  Fitz- 
roy  and  the  Burdekin  in  Queensland.  By  far  the 
best  part  of  the  continent  for  European  settle- 
ment and  European  agriculture  is  the  south- 
east—Victoria, New  South  Wales,  and  part  of 
South  Australia— both  on  and  outside  of  the 
plateau.  Queensland  is  rich  and  fertile,  but 
tropical  and  sub-tropical.  The  northern  coast 
strip  is  largely  covered  with  tropical  forests.  A 
portion  only  of  Western  Australia  is  available 
for  agriculture  or  pastoral  occupation.  Consid- 
erable areas  of  the  interior  are  hopeless,  irre- 
claimable, almost  impassable  sandy  desert ;  but 
much  of  the  interior  area,  covered  with  scrub  and 
prickly  plants,  might  under  irrigation  become 
available  for  human  occupation. 

The  foundation  of  the  plateau  is  granite,  some- 
times replaced  by  palaeozoic  slates  and  schists 
inclined  so  as  to  stand  almost  on  edge.  Above 
both  are  in  east  and  south-east  coal-bearing  areas, 
of  both  mesozoic  and  palaeozoic  age.  The  central 
depression  is  of  cretaceous   age.     The   higher 


I  AUSTRALIA 

edges  of  the  plateau  are  all  volcanic,  craters, 
asli  cones,  and  ash  beds  being  still  very  con- 
spicuous in  many  places.  Gold,  discovered  in 
New  South  Wales  in  1851,  has  since  been  found 
in  all  the  Australian  colonies,  especially  Vic- 
toria, Queensland,  and  New  South  Wales.  In 
1851-91,  Australia  produced  about  100,000,000  oz. 
valued  at  over  £350,000,000.  Of  late  years  the 
gold  produce  has  much  fallen  off.  There  are 
rich  silver-mines  in  New  South  Wales,  copper- 
mines  in  South  Australia,  and  tin-mines  in 
Queensland.  There  are  great  coal-fields  in  New 
South  Wales  and  Queensland  ;  and  iron  has  been 
found  in  several  colonies.  Lead,  bismuth,  anti- 
mony, diamonds,  and  various  kinds  of  precious 
stones  form  part  of  Australia's  mineral  wealth. 

In  proportion  to  its  size,  Australia,  lying 
mostly  within  the  temperate  zone,  enjoys  on  the 
whole  an  equable  climate,  although  subject  to 
great  occasional  irregularities ;  in  general,  hot 
and  dry,  and  remarkably  salubrious.  Within 
the  tropics,  it  has  its  rainy  season  in  summer 
(November  to  April) ;  south  of  the  tropics,  almost 
exclusively  in  winter.  The  principal  mountains, 
both  for  extent  and  height,  lying  to  the  east 
or  windward  side,  receive  by  far  the  heaviest 
tribute  of  moisture  brought  by  the  winds  from 
the  Pacific  ;  and,  as  a  rule,  the  amount  of  rainfall 
on.  the  east  side  is  in  inverse  proportion  to  the 
distance  from  the  east  coast.  The  west  side  has 
far  less  rain  than  the  east,  and  there  the  rainfall 
is  proportionate  to  the  proximity  to  the  west 
coast.  What  moisture  is  left  in  the  winds  after 
their  passage  across  the  highlands,  the  intense 
heat  rising  from  the  central  plains  tends  to  dis- 
sipate, instead  of  allowing  it  to  condense  into 
rain.  South  Australia,  Victoria,  and  in  a  less 
degree.  New  South  Wales,  are  exposed  to  hot 
winds  from  the  interior  which  rapidly  raise  the 
temperature  of  the  lands  they  visit  to  115°  or 
higher,  and  are  followed  by  an  equally  sudden 
fall.  Melbourne  has  a  mean  temperature  of  58°  ; 
Sydney,  63°;  Adelaide,  a  little  higher;  Perth, 
about  the  same  as  at  Sydney.  Captain  Sturt 
found  the  mean  temperature  of  the  interior  for 
tliree  months  over  101°  F.  in  the  shade,  and  the 
drought  such  as  to  unloosen  the  screws  of  his 
boxes,  split  his  combs  into  thin  laminaj,  make 
the  leads  drop  out  of  his  pencils,  and  his  finger- 
nails become  brittle  as  glass ;  the  season  was, 
however,  an  exceptional  one,  and  good  pastoral 
country  exists  within  a  short  distance  of  what 
he  described  as  the  'Stony  Desert.'  The  east 
highlands  have  a  greater  proportion  of  snow  than 
their  latitude  and  height  would  argue.  At  5000 
feet  of  altitude,  in  certain  situations,  snow  lies 
all  the  year  round,  and  many  of  the  higher 
mountains  are  covered  with  snow  all  the  winter. 

The  worst  feature  in  the  climate  of  Australia 
is  the  total  uncertainty  and  inequality  of  the 
rainfall  in  all  parts  of  the  continent,  menacing 
the  whole  country  with  almost  equally  distress- 
ing alternations  of  drought  and  flood.  '  Droughts 
sometimes  completely  wither  up  vegetation  over 
large  tracts  of  land,  to  the  destruction  of  many 
thousands  of  cattle.  The  ordinary  drought  itself 
renders  almost  all  the  rivers  of  Australia,  with  the 
exception  of  tlie  Murray  proper,  merely  intermit- 
tent ;  shrunk  for  months  together  into  straggling 
water-holes,  with  or  without  some  connecting 
thread  of  stream.  As  rivers,  they  really  cease 
to  exist  for  a  longer  or  shorter  period  every  year. 
Even  the  Murray  is  only  navigable  at  certain 
seasons  of  the  year.  The  rainy  season,  on  the 
other  hand,  swells  these  pools  into  terrific  floods, 
inundating  the  country,  and  often  most  seriously  ^ 


AUSTRALIA 


63 


AUSTRALIA 


destroying  property.  Most  successful  irrigation 
colonies  have  been  established  at  Mildura  in 
Victoria,  and  Renmark  in  South  Australia,  both 
utilising  the  waste  waters  of  the  River  Murray. 
Water  for  the  use  of  stock  in  summer  is  exten- 
sively stored  in  dams,  and  large  tracts  of  country 
with  no  surface-water  have  been  made  available 
for  settlement  by  sinking  wells.  In  some  dis- 
tricts wliere  the  conformation  is  favourable, 
artesian  wells  have  proved  a  success. 

The  vegetation  of  Australia  is  altogether 
unique,  standing  at  a  long  interval  from  that 
of  all  other  quarters  of  the  globe  ;  but  it  is 
exceedingly  abundant  in  species.  These,  it  is 
calculated,  number  about  10,000— considerably 
more  than  are  to  be  found  in  all  Europe.  A 
peculiarity  of  Australian  vegetation  is  the  abund- 
ance of  'scrub'  — the  'mallee,'  'mulga,*  &c. 
The  highlands  are  rich  in  wood,  such  as  that  of 
the  gum-trees  of  the  genus  Eucalyptus,  growing 
to  a  height  of  250  feet,  with  a  girth  of  12  to  20 
feet ;  one  felled  giant  measuring  as  much  as  480 
feet.  Then  in  the  south  and  west,  and  even  a 
little  into  the  interior,  though  less  abundantly 
there,  are  the  valuable  shea-oaks,  beef-woods,  or 
Casuarinas.  The  '  wattles '  or  acacias,  abounding 
everywhere  in  the  country,  and  comprising  over 
300  species,  are  also  a  most  characteristic  feature 
of  Australia,  with  lovely  yellow  blossoms,  and 
generally  fragrant.  Tlie  Australian  bush  is 
fragrant  all  the  year.  Australia  affords  so  wide 
a  variety  of  climate  and  soil  that  most  European 
trees  and  plants  have  been  successfully  intro- 
duced. The  Scotch  thistle  has  become  a  serious 
nuisance. 

The  zoology  of  Australia  is  even  more  peculiar 
than  its  botany.  The  mamnaalia  of  other  lands 
are  totally  wanting  here,  except  some  rats  and 
mice,  and  the  dingo  or  wild  dog,  while  the  mar- 
supials or  pouch-bearing  mammalia  of  Australia 
have  but  the  opossums  of  America  to  represent 
them  in  any  other  part  of  the  world.  The  largest 
of  the  marsupials  are  the  kangaroo,  hare  kangaroo, 
and  rat  kangaroo.  The  fruit-eating  bat,  or  flying- 
fox,  is  found.  Then  there  are  opossums  and 
phalangers.  The  wombat  is  the  largest  of  the 
marsupials,  next  to  the  kangaroo.  The  ant-eater 
of  Western  Australia  is  of  the  size  of  a  squirrel. 
The  ornithorhynchus,  platypus,  duck-mole,  or 
water-mole,  having  no  teeth  or  marsupial  pouch, 
has  broad  webbed  feet,  a  horny  mandible  like 
a  duck-bill,  and  is  oviparous.  Australia  favours 
the  acclimatisation  of  animal  as  well  as  plant 
life,  and  the  rabbit  has  proved  so  prolific  as  to 
require  special  public  efforts  for  its  suppression. 
The  camel  has  done  excellent  service  in  the  work 
of  exploration. 

The  birds,  if  not  quite  so  unique  and  strange  a 
featiire  of  Australia  as  are  its  mammalia,  excel 
those  of  all  other  temperate  lands  for  beauty  of 
plumage  and  fineness  of  form.  Passing  over  the 
splendid  parrots  and  cockatoos,  we  note  for  their 
singularity  of  figure  or  brilliancy  of  feather,  the 
regent-bird,  rifle-bird,  fly-catcher,  and  lyre-bird. 
Notable  are  also  honey-suckers,  brush-turkeys, 
the  bower-birds,  the  emu  and  cassowary,  and  the 
Podargi,  of  enormous  mouth— 'more-porks,'  as 
they  are  called,  from  their  singular  cry.  Alto- 
gether, Australia  has  650  distinct  species  of  birds 
to  muster  against  Europe's  500.  Of  reptiles, 
Australia  has  no  less  than  140  diff'erent  kinds, 
its  largest  lizard  measuring  from  4  to  6  feet. 
Nor  does  Australia  want  for  snakes.  Though 
destitute  of  both  the  vipers  and  pit-vipers,  it 
makes  up  for  this  by  the  Elapida?  (a  family 
including  the  Indian  cobras),  constituting  two- 


thirds  of  the  snakes  of  Australia,  all  poisonous, 
though  only  five  kinds  are  fatally  so.  The  black 
snake  of  Australia  measures  from  5  to  8  feet  long. 
Australia  abounds,  moreover,  in  insects,  beauti- 
ful and  peculiar.  English  singing  and  game 
birds  have  been  largely  introduced.  The  com- 
mon sparrow  has  multiplied  to  such  an  extent 
that  it  has  become  a  pest.  Axis  deer  and  Angora 
goats  have  been  acclimatised. 

Almost  as  much  as  its  botany  and  zoology, 
the  human  natives  of  Australia  are  isolated  and 
peculiar,  separated  by  a  wide  remove  from  the 
Papuans,  the  Malays,  and  the  Negroes.  Of  a 
dark  coffee-brown  complexion,  rather  than 
actually  black,  the  Australian  stands  not  much 
short  of  the  average  European  in  height,  but  is 
altogether  of  much  slimmer  and  feebler  build ; 
his  legs,  in  particular,  are  very  lean  and  destitute 
of  calves  (a  defect  common  to  dark  races).  His 
head  is  long  and  narrow,  with  a  low  brow  promi- 
nent just  above  the  eyes,  but  receding  thence  in 
a  very  marked  degree.  The  nose,  proceeding 
from  a  narrow  base,  broadens  outwardly  to  a 
somewhat  squat  end.  The  face  bulges  into  high 
cheek-bones.  The  mouth  is  big  and  uncouth, 
the  upper  jaw  projecting  over  the  lower,  but 
with  fine  white  teeth.  The  whole  head  and  face, 
and  indeed  the  whole  person,  is  covered  with  a 
profusion  of  hair,  which,  when  freed  of  its 
usually  enclogging  oil  and  dirt,  is  soft  and 
glossy.  The  intellect  of  the  Australian,  directed 
almost  exclusively  to  the  means  of  procuring 
food,  operates  wholly  within  the  range  of  the 
rudest  bodily  senses  ;  but  inside  that  elementary 
sphere,  displays  no  little  nimbleness  and  skill. 
He  is  unsurpassed  in  tracking  and  running  down 
his  prey ;  and  his  weapons,  though  of  the  most 
primitive  kind,  are  well  adapted  to  assist  him 
in  that  purpose,  whilst  his  rude  culinary  and 
domestic  apparatus  manifests  equal  skill.  His 
language,  within  its  very  circumscribed  sensuous 
sphere,  is  fairly  expressive  and  complete ;  and 
in  the  facility  with  which  he  learns  to  chatter 
foreign  languages  is  noteworthy.  Outside  this 
circle,  however,  all  is  blank  to  the  Australian. 
In  summer  the  natives  roam  about  naked,  and 
sense  of  shame  seems  almost  wholly  undeveloped 
in  them.  Morality  is  entirely  reduced  to  the 
notion  of  property,  wives  being  one  item  in  a 
man's  chattels  the  stealing  of  which  has  a  definite 
punishment  attached  to  it.  Yet  the  '  black 
fellows '  are  capable  of  loyal  aflTection  and  grati- 
tude. Without  doubt  they  have  often  murdered 
Europeans,  but  in  many  cases  this  was  but  more 
or  less  legitimate  reprisal  for  prior  atrocities 
committed  by  the  convicts  or  other  reckless 
Europeans.  None  of  them  have  fixed  habita- 
tions ;  caves  may  be  taken  advantage  of,  but 
usually  the  best  habitation  they  have  is  a  screen 
of  twigs  and  bushes,  covered  with  foliage  or  turf; 
sometimes,  however,  logs  of  wood  and  turf  serve 
for  a  few  days'  or  weeks'  shelter.  By  way  of 
food  the  Australian  devours  the  kangaroo,  emu, 
opossum,  wombat,  lizards,  snakes  (of  which  the 
head  is  rejected),  frogs,  larvae,  white  ants,  moths, 
which  are  usually  roasted,  fire  being  produced 
by  rubbing  together  two  pieces  of  stick.  His 
boomerang  is  an  ingenious  throw-stick,  and  is 
skilfully  used  even  for  knocking  down  birds  on 
the  wing.  There  is  no  government  among  this 
people  outside  that  of  the  family,  and  no  laws 
except  traditionary  rules  about  property.  In  the 
way  of  religion  they  have  little  save  their  terror 
of  ghosts  and  demons,  and  some  superstitious 
traditional  rites  applicable  to  certain  epochs  in  a 
man's  life,  more  particularly  at  his  burial.    Their 


AUSTRALIA 


64 


AUSTRALIA 


marriage  customs  are  curious,  the  fundamental 
principle  being  exogamy,  the  custom  which  pro- 
hibits a  man  from  marrying  a  woman  of  his  own 
tribe.  They  cannot  usually  count  beyond  Ave. 
Like  almost  all  other  savages,  the  native  Aus- 
tralians are  rapidly  vanishing  before  the  advance 
of  civilisation.  In  the  settled  districts  some  of 
them  are  usefully  einployed  as  shepherds  and 
stockmen,  but  the  majority  prefer  nomadic  habits. 
The  intermittent  use  of  European  clothing  induces 
consumption,  while  the  diseases  and  vices  they 
acquire  from  Europeans  are  another  potent 
factor  of  their  destruction.  The  lowest  estimate 
of  their  number,  prior  to  European  settlement 
among  them,  gives  over  150,000 ;  they  are  now 
calculated  at  less  than  half  that  figure. 

Some  old  15th  and  16th  century  maps  show, 
where  the  north  of  Australia  is,  a  territory 
of  various  outline  named  Java  Major,  or  Java 
the  Greater ;  and  it  seems  probable  that  after 
Magellan's  death  his  followers  sighted  Western 
Australia  in  1522.  The  present  Torres  Strait 
refers  to  the  presence  of  Torres  there  in  1606. 
Dirk  Hartog  Island  in  the  west  carries  us  back 
to  Dirk  Hartog  and  the  year  1616.  Arnhem 
Peninsula  is  a  reminiscence  of  the  Dutch  vessel 
Arnhem,  which  in  1618  explored  the  coast  of 
that  land.  The  Dutch  ship,  Guldene  Zeepaard, 
in  1627  sighted  a  large  part  of  the  south  coast 
from  Cape  Leeuwin  eastwards.  The  Gulf  of 
Carpentaria  was  named,  probably  by  Tasman, 
after  Carpentier,  governor  of  the  Dutch  Indies, 
1623-27.  All  the  early  explorers  brought  back  a 
forbidding  report  of  desolate  shores  thinly  occu- 
pied by  brutal  savages.  In  1688  Australia  was 
first  seen  by  British  eyes  in  the  person  of 
Dampier,  who  gives  name  to  an  archipelago  in 
the  NW.  Near  a  century  later  (1770)  we  find 
Captain  Cook  at  this  island-continent,  on  his 
course  of  circumnavigation  of  the  globe,  explor- 
ing the  whole  eastern  coast  from  Gipps  Land  on 
the  SE.  (in  Victoria)  to  Cape  York;  and  the 
exploration  of  the  whole  coast  of  Australia  was 
completed  by  the  BeagU  (in  which  Charles 
Darwin  sailed),  1837-43. 

Inland  exploration  began  with  the  first  British 
occupation  of  New  South  Wales  in  1788,  but  for 
the  first  twenty-five  years  was  confined  inside 
the  Blue  Mountains,  to  a  district  of  some  50 
miles  inland.  In  1813,  however,  that  barrier 
was  passed,  and  the  valley  of  the  Fish  River  and 
Bathurst  Plains  were  brought  within  tlie  limits 
of  civilisation.  Two  years  later  (1815)  the  Lach- 
lan  River  (tributary  of  the  Murrumbidgee)  was 
lighted  OH.  Important  later  explorations  were 
those  of  Hume  and  Sturt  (1819-28),  Mitchell 
(1835),  Eyre  (1839-40),  Sturt  (1844-45),  Leichardt 
(1843-46),  M'Donall  Stuart  (1862,  across  the  con- 
tinent from  south  to  north),  Burke  and  Wills 
(disastrous,  same  date),  Gregory  (1861),  Jardine 
(1864).  Later  still,  using  the  trans-continental 
telegraph  of  1872  as  a  basis,  were  the  expeditions 
of  Giles,  Warburton,  and  Forrest ;  and  those  of 
Hodgkinson,  Giles,  Favenc,  Hann,  Crawford, 
Stockdale,  Carrington,  Lindsay,  Tenison- Woods, 
Milman,  and  Tietkins.  These  expeditions  seem 
to  demonstrate  that  much  of  the  interior  of 
Australia,  between  the  west  of  the  overland 
telegraph  line  and  the  east  of  the  narrow  hilly 
border  of  Western  Australia,  is  little  better  than 
desert— unmitigated  sand,  dense  scrub,  or  porcu- 
pine grass.  A  considerable  area  in  the  east  of 
Western  Australia  is  yet  unexplored  ;  as  also  are 
the  adjoining  parts  of  the  Northern  Territory  of 
South  Australia,  and  the  interior  of  Cape  York 
Peninsula. 


The  first  European  settlement  in  Australia  was 
made  in  1788  at  Botany  Bay  under  Captain 
Phillip,  but  was  almost  immediately  transferred 
to  the  adjoining  Port  Jackson,  close  to  where 
Sydney  now  is  ;  it  comprised  in  all  1030  persons, 
of  whom  757  were  convicts.  In  1825  Moreton 
Bay  (now  Queensland)  was  settled  as  a  part  of 
New  South  Wales,  attaining  in  December  1859 
the  position  of  a  separate  colony.  The  settle- 
ment of  Western  Australia  (the  Swan  River  Set- 
tlement, as  it  was  then  called)  dates  from  1829. 
It  continued  to  be  a  penal  settlement  from  1851 
to  1868.  Port  Phillip  (now  Victoria),  then  a  part 
of  New  South  Wales,  was  first  colonised  in  1835, 
and  on  1st  July  1851  was  constituted  an  inde- 
pendent colony.  The  colonisation  of  South  Aus- 
tralia by  British  emigrants  dates  from  1836. 

Especially  after  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1851, 
Australia  advanced  in  all  departments  of  material 
well-being  at  a  rate  surpassing  that  of  any  other 
country  on  the  globe.  In  1801  the  settlement 
at  and  about  Sydney  had  increased  to  5547 
persons  ;  in  1835  the  European  settlers  of  Aus- 
tralia (including  Tasmania)  amounted  to  80,000. 
By  1851  the  population  had  risen  to  350,000, 
The  discovery  in  that  year  of  the  gold-fields 
caused  a  sudden  and  enormous  inrush  of  immi- 
grants from  all  parts  of  the  world ;  now  Aus- 
tralia alone  has  over  3,800,000,  and  Australasia 
4,600,000.  The  population  is,  of  course,  almost 
all  of  European  origin,  the  predominating  ele- 
ment being  British.  The  British-born  are  no 
longer  the  most  numerous  element  in  the  colonial 
populations,  the  native-born  being  now  over  three- 
foiirtlis.  Chinese  and  Germans  number  about 
30,000  and  38,500  respectively ;  there  are  many 
Polynesians  ('Kanakas')  in  Queensland;  not  to 
speak  of  Scandinavians,  Americans,  and  French. 
The  largest  cities  are  Melbourne,  capital  of  Vic- 
toria ;  Sydney,  of  New  South  Wales  ;  Adelaide,  of 
South  Australia ;  Brisbane,  of  Queensland ;  Ball- 
arat,  in  Victoria,  and  Sandhurst,  also  in  Victoria. 

The  Commonwealtli  of  Australia,  comprisingthe 
five  Australian  '  states '  (heretofore  colonies)  and 
Tasmania,  was  sanctioned  by  the  British  Parlia- 
ment on  July  9,  1900,  and  proclaimed  in  Sydney 
on  January  1, 1901.  The  Executive  is  vested  in  the 
Governor- general  (representing  the  sovereign), 
assisted  by  an  Executive  Council  of  seven  minis- 
ters of  state,  wlio  must  be  members  of  tlie 
Federal  Parliament.  The  Legislature  consists  of 
the  Governor-general,  a  Senate,  and  a  House  of 
Representatives.  The  Senate,  corresponding  to 
the  House  of  Lords  in  Britain,  has  36  members 
(6  from  eacli  state)  elected  for  six  years,  half  of 
them  being  renewed  every  three  years ;  in  cer- 
tain circumstances  it  may  be  dissolved  by  the 
Governor-general  and  entirely  re-elected.  The 
House  of  Representatives,  corresponding  to  the 
British  House  of  Commons,  has  75  members 
elected  for  three  years,  and  apportioned  among 
the  separate  states  according  to  population— New 
South  Wales  sending  26 ;  Victoria,  23 ;  Queens- 
land, 9  ;  South  Australia,  7  ;  Western  Australia, 
5 ;  and  Tasmania,  5.  Members  of  both  Houses 
receive  £400  per  annum. 

The  Federal  Parliament  legislates  on  all  matters 
affecting  the  Commonwealth  as  a  whole,  such  as 
commerce,  railways,  shipping,  finance,  defence, 
postal  and  telegraph  services,  emigration,  &c., 
leaving  more  local  matters  to  be  dealt  with  by 
the  state  parliaments.  Each  state  has  a  gover- 
nor, a  Legislative  Council,  and  Legislative 
Assembly.     See  the  separate  articles. 

There  is  no  state  church  in  Australia.  In 
respect  of  numbers,  Episcopacy  is  the  dominant 


AUSTRALIA 


65 


AUSTRALIA 


form  of  religion,  Roman  Catholics  come  second, 
Presbyterians  third,  and  Methodists  fourth.  Edu- 
cation has  of  late  been  rapidly  diffusing  itself. 
In  all  the  colonies  education  is  either  free  and 
compulsory,  or  the  primary  schools  are  all  so 
liberally  endowed  by  the  government  as  to  place 
elementary  instruction  within  the  reach  of  all 
classes ;  while  libraries,  museums,  botanical 
gardens,  schools  of  art,  mechanics'  institutes, 
&c.,  are  multiplying  in  all  the  colonies  under 
the  liberal  patronage  of  the  several  governments. 
There  are  universities  in  Melbourne,  Sydney, 
and  Adelaide,  and  also  well-equipped  astron- 
omical observatories. 

Literary  enterprise  in  Australia  is  mainly  ab- 
sorbed in  journalism,  as  may  well  be  believed 
when  it  is  mentioned  that  in  the  Australasian 
colonies,  including  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand, 
some  800  newspapers,  magazines,  and  periodicals 
are  published,  many  of  them  dailies.  The  current 
book  literature  is  of  course  mainly  that  of  the 
old  country ;  and  of  the  literature  produced  in 
the  colonies,  by  far  the  greater  part  is  still  the 
work  of  men  born  and  bred  in  Britain.  In 
literature  proper,  there  are  but  few  outstanding 
names— those  of  Lindsay  Gordon,  Marcus  Clarke, 
Henry  Kendall,  F.  W.  Hume,  Mrs  Campbell 
Praed,  and  '  Rolfe  Boldrewood,'  being  perhaps 
the  best  known. 

The  chief  and  most  general  staple  produce  of 
Australia,  for  which  the  country  is  peculiarly 
adapted,  and  which  constitutes  its  largest  export, 
is  wool.  Over  all  the  highlands  and  the  river- 
lands  of  the  sea-border— wherever,  in  fact,  there  is 
water — sheep  thrive  remarkably,  except  perhaps 
within  the  tropics,  and  the  wool  is  of  the  finest 
quality,  realising  the  highest  prices  in  the  English 
market.  The  exports  of  wool  from  Australia 
have  an  annual  value  of  from  £16,000,000  to 
£20,000,000  (New  South  Wales  alone  sending  to 
the  amount  of  from  £7,300,000  to  £11,300,000  a 
year  in  1882-91).  The  cereals  of  Europe  and  maize 
have  been  introduced  into  the  island-continent 
with  the  happiest  success.  Potatoes  everywhere 
yield  abundantly.  The  vine  is  extensively  culti- 
vated. Sugar  is  a  very  important  product  of 
Queensland ;  tobacco,  cotton,  arrowroot,  and 
bananas  are  also  largely  grown. 

The  trade  of  Australia  exhibits  a  remarkable 
development,  the  average  of  trade  per  inhabitant 


being  about  five  times  that  of  Europe,  and  nearly 
five  times  that  of  Canada.  The  imports  of  Aus- 
tralia have  risen  from  £35,557,716  in  1874,  to 
£68,129,455  in  1901 ;  the  exports  in  the  same 
period  from  £36,724,866  to  £75,026,787.  It  has 
not  escaped  the  influence  of  the  wave  of  depres- 
sion which  has  affected  the  whole  of  the  civilised 
world  during  recent  years,  followed  by  many 
financial  disasters,  including  the  stoppage  of 
many  of  the  banks.  The  borrowing  powers  of 
the  various  governments  have  been  much  too 
freely  used,  and  many  of  the  public  works  are 
unproductive,  and  the  public  debt  has  become 
burdensome.  The  exports  consist  principally  of 
wool,  frozen  meat,  preserved  meat,  tallow,  skins 
of  all  kinds,  hides,  wheat,  cotton,  sugar,  and 
wine.  New  South  Wales,  alone  of  all  the  divi- 
sions of  Australia,  has  (since  the  governorship 
of  Sir  Hercules  Robinson,  1872-79)  adopted  the 
principle  of  free-trade.  A  heavy  protective  tariff 
prevails  in  Victoria,  and  the  example  of  this 
colony  has  been  followed  by  South  Australia. 

Since  1870,  railways  and  telegraphs  have  been 
increasing  rapidly ;  there  is  railway  connection 
from  Adelaide,  via  Melbourne  and  Sydney,  to 
Brisbane,  commvmication  having  been  completed 
in  1888 ;  and  there  are  shorter  lines  in  the  several 
colonies.  At  the  end  of  1902  the  railway  lines  of  the 
Commonwealth  already  working  measured  13,821 
niiles,and  1065  miles  were  in  course  of  construction. 
Telegraphically,  the  colonies  are  now  all  linked 
together  with  Tasmania  and  New  Zealand,  and 
with  the  mother-country  via  Java  and  India. 

Manufactures  suitable  to  the  country  are  rap- 
idly developing.  Magnificent  lines  of  steamers 
maintain  frequent  communication  with  Europe 
and  America,  between  the  various  colonies,  and 
with  the  Fiji  Islands  and  New  Caledonia.  Mails 
have  been  delivered  in  Adelaide  in  twenty-nine 
days  from  London  vid  Brindisi,  and  the  sea- 
passage  between  Adelaide  and  Plymouth  may  be 
covered  in  about  thirty-five  days.  Mails  have 
been  delivered  at  King  George's  Sound  in  less 
than  twenty-four  days  from  London.  The  length 
of  the  voyage  in  sailing-ships  ranges  generally 
from  severity  to  one  hundred  days. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  statistics  of  the 
Australian  colonies,  as  shown  in  the  official  tables 
for  the  census  year  1901.  For  comparison  those 
of  New  Zealand  are  added. 


Statistics— 1901. 


Colonies. 

Area  in 
Sq.  Miles. 

Pop.  in 

1891. 

Pop.  in 
1901. 

Revenue 
in  1901. 

Public  Debt 
in  1901. 

Imports  in 
1901. 

Exports  in 
1901. 

Acres  under 
crop  in  1901.^ 

Victoria 

New  South  Wales 

Queensland 

South  Australia- 
West  Australia.. 
Tasmania 

Total 

87.884 
310,367 
668,497 
903,690 
975,920 

26,215 

1,140,405 
1,1:52,234 
393,718* 
320,431* 
49,782* 
146,667 

1,201.341 
1,359,133 
496,596* 
362,604* 
184.124* 
172,475 

£ 
7,702,818 
10,805,543 
4,096,290 
2,661,549 
3,142,912 
826,163 

£ 
50,013,5.52 
61,479,662 
38,534,614 
26,448,805 
11,709,430 
9.095,735 

£ 
18,927,340 
26,928,218 
6,376,239 
7,478,288 
6,454,171 
1,965,199 

£ 
18,646,097 
27,351,124 
9,249,366 
8,318,820 
8,515,623 
2,945,757 

2,913,296 

2,567.215 

307,344 

2,188,707 

217,124 

513,719 

2,972,573 
104,471 

3,183,237 
626,658t 

3,776,273 

772,719t 

29,235,275 
6,217,789 

197,281,798 
52,966,447 

68,129,455 
11,817,915 

75,026,787 
12,881,424 

8,707,405 
12.195,542 

New  Zealand .... 
Grand  Total.. 

3,077,044 

3,809,895 

4.548,992 

35,453,064 

250,248,245 

79,947,370 

87,908,211 

20.902,947 

•  Exclusive  of  aborigines.  f  Exclusive  of  Maoris 

See  also  the  articles  Victoria,  New  South 
Wales,  Queensland,  South  Australia,  West- 
ern Australia,  and  those  on  the  great  cities, 
&c.,  of  Australia  ;  the  Australian  Handbook  and 
other  annuals ;  The  Atistratian  Encydopcedia, 
edited  by  G.  C.  Levey,  C.M.G.  (1892) ;  A.  Trollope, 
Australia  and  New  Zealand  (1873) ;  A.  R.  Wallace, 
4%stralasia  (1893) ;  historical  works  by  Bonwick 


(43,143  in  1901).  J  Including  sown  gi-asses  and  hay. 

(1882),  Rusden  (1883),  Allen  (1882),  Sir  Henry 
Parkes  (1892),  and  Greville  Tregarthen  ('  Nations' 
series,  1893) ;  a  history  of  exploration  by  Favenc 
(1888) ;  R.  Wallace,  Rural  Economy  and  Agri- 
culture of  Australia  and  New  Zealand  (1891) ; 
works  on  the  aborigines  by  Dawson  (1881)  and 
Curr  (1888) ;  and  D.  B.  W.  Sladen's  Australian 
Poets  and  A  Century  of  Australian  Song  (1888). 


AUSTRIA 


AUSTRIA 


Austria,  the  usual  name  of  the  great  empire 
now  officially  called  the  Austro  -  Hungarian 
Monarchy,  is  a  Latinised  form  of  the  German 
Oesterreich  (Fr.  Autriclie),  meaning  '  Eastern  King- 
dom.' Since  18G7,  the  empire  is  composed  of  a 
union  of  two  states  under  one  emperor,  but  ad- 
ministratively distinct.  The  one  is  Austria,  or 
Cisleithania  ('  on  this  side  the  Leitha,'  a  tributary 
of  the  Danube  on  the  frontiers  of  the  archduchy 
of  Austria  and  Hungary) ;  the  other,  Hungary 
and  the  lands  of  the  Hungarian  crown,  or  Trans- 
leithania.  The  Austrian  dominions  form  geo- 
graphically a  compact  territory,  with  a  circum- 
ference of  about  5350  miles.  The  total  area, 
240,456  sq.  m.,  is  greater  than  that  of  any  other 
European  state  save  Russia,  and  is  nearly  twice 
the  area  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  body  of 
the  empire  lies  in  the  interior  of  Europe,  though 
it  has  about  500  miles  of  sea-coasb  on  the  Adri- 
atic. Austria  borders  on  Italy,  Switzerland, 
Bavaria,  Saxony,  Prussia,  Russia,  Roumania, 
Servla,  and  Montenegro.  The  nominally  Turkish 
provinces  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  occupied 
and  administered  by  Austria,  are  for  all  practical 
purposes  part  of  the  Austro-Huugarian  monarchy, 
though  not  included  as  such  in  official  statistics. 
The  following  table  shows  the  area  and  popula- 
tion of  the  empire  at  the  censuses  of  1880  and 
1900: 

Area  In  Population  Population 

I.  Austrian  Lands—        sq.  miles.  in  1880.         in  1900. 

Lower  Austria 7,654  2,329,021  3,086.382 

Upper  Austri.a 4,631  760,879         809,918 

Salzburg 2,767  16.3,566         193,247 

Styria 8,670  1,212,367  1,356,058 

Carinthia. 4,005  348,670        367,344 

Camiola 3,8.56  481,176         508,348 

Istria,  Trieste,  iSc 3,084  650,897         7.55,183 

Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg.  ...11,324  911,887        979,878 

Bohemia 19,980  5,557,134  6,318,280 

Moravia 8,583  2,151,619  2,435,081 

Silesia 1,987  565,772        680,529 

Galicia 30,.307  5,951,954  7,295,538 

Bukowina 4,035  569,599         729,921 

Dalmatia 4,940  476,164        591,597 

Total  for  Austria..  115,823      22,130,705    26,107,304 

II.  Lands  of  the  Hungarian  Crown— 

Hungary  &  Transylvania  107,858      13,700,005    16,653,332 

Fiume 8  21,363  38,139 

Croatia  and  Slavonia 16,767       1,889,351      2,512,060 

Total  for  Hungary 124,633      15,610,719    19,203,531 

Total  for  the  Monarchy.240,456      37,741,424    45,310,835 

The  area  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  is  23,179 
sq.  m.,  and  the  pop.  in  1895  was  estimated  at 
1,738,092.  In  1900  the  capital,  Vienna,  had  a 
pop.  of  1,622,269;  and  there  weie  in  the  empire 
seven  other  towns  above  100,000  (Budapest, 
Prague,  Trieste,  Lemberg,  Gratz,  Brlin,  Szegedin), 
and  thirteen  others  above  50,000. 

Three-fourths  of  Austria  is  mountainous  or 
hilly,  being  traversed  by  three  great  mountain- 
chains— the  Alps,  Carpathians,  and  Sudetes, 
whose  chief  ridges  are  of  primitive  rock.  The 
Rhaetian  and  None  Alps  stretch  from  Switzerland 
to  the  Danube,  and  contain  the  highest  points  of 
the  Austrian  territories,  the  Ortler  Spitze  rising 
to  12,814  feet.  The  Carpathian  Chain,  extending 
for  880  miles,  rises  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Danube,  near  Presburg,  and  sweeping  in  a  curve, 
first  east,  and  then  southward  through  Transyl- 
vania, again  meets  the  Danube ;  it  culminates  at 
8517  feet.  The  Sudetes  run  through  the  north- 
east of  Moravia  and  Bohemia,  in  which  last  the 
range  is  known  as  the  Riesengebirge,  or  Giant 
Mountains.      Continuous  with  this   range,   but 


beginning  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  are  the 
Erzgebirge,  or  Ore  Mountains,  on  the  confines 
of  Saxony.  The  chief  plains  of  the  Austrian 
empire  are  the  vast  lowlands  of  Hungary  and 
the  plain  of  Galicia.  The  chief  lakes  are  Lake 
Balaton  (382  sq.  m.)  and  the  Neusiedler  See  (117), 
both  in  Hungary ;  and  remarkable  is  also  the 
Zirknitz  Lake  (q.v.)  in  Illyria. 

The  leading  rivers  are :  the  Danube,  which  has 
a  course  of  850  miles  within  the  Austrian 
dominions,  its  navigable  affluents  being  the  Inn, 
Save,  Drave,  March,  Waag,  and  the  Theiss,  which 
drains  nearly  half  of  Hungary  ;  the  Vistula,  with 
its  tributary  the  Bug  ;  the  Elbe,  with  the  Moldau 
and  Eger  ;  the  Dniester  and  Adige. 

The  climate  of  Austria  varies  much  on  account 
of  the  extent  and  diversity  of  the  surface.  In 
the  warmest  southern  region  between  42°-46°lat., 
rice,  olives,  oranges,  and  lemons  ripen  in  the 
better  localities ;  and  wine  and  maize  are  pro- 
duced everywhere.  In  the  middle  temperate 
region  from  46°-49°,  which  has  the  greatest  extent 
and  diversity  of  surface,  wine  and  maize  still 
thrive  to  perfection.  In  the  northern  region, 
beyond  49°,  except  in  favoured  spots,  neither 
wine  nor  maize  succeeds ;  but  grain,  fruit,  flax, 
and  hemp  thrive  excellently. 

The  mineral  wealth  of  Austria  is  not  surpassed 
in  any  European  country.  Bohemia,  Hungary, 
Styria,  Carinthia,  Salzburg,  and  Tyrol  take  the 
first  place  in  respect  of  mineral  produce.  Ex- 
cept platinum,  none  of  the  useful  metals  is  want- 
ing. The  value  of  their  yearly  produce  is  estim- 
ated at  about  £12,000,000.  Of  this  sum  coal  yields 
about  a  half,  iron  a  fifth,  salt  a  tenth,  and  gold 
and  sih'er  together  one-fourteenth  ;  whilst  copper, 
zinc,  quicksilver,  lead,  iron,  coal,  and  many  other 
minerals,  together  with  precious  stones,  marble, 
gypsum,  &c.,  are  plentiful.  Austria  is  peculiarly 
rich  in  salt.  Rock-salt  exists  in  immense  beds 
on  both  sides  of  the  Carpathians,  chiefly  at 
Wieliczka  (q.v.).  There  are  inexhaustible  de- 
posits of  coal  in  the  monarchy,  the  richest  in 
Moravia  and  Bohemia.  Austria  has  some  ICOO 
mineral  springs,  some  of  them  of  European 
reputation,  as  the  sulphur  baths  of  Baden  in 
Lower  Austria,  the  saline  waters  of  Karlsbad, 
Marienbad,  Franzensbad,  Teplitz,  &c.,  all  in 
Bohemia. 

Although  three-fourths  of  the  surface  is  moun- 
tainous, more  than  five-sixths  is  productive,  being 
used  either  for  tillage,  meadows,  pasture,  or  forest. 
Grain  of  all  kinds  is  cultivated ;  rice  grows 
in  the  Banat ;  potatoes  are  raised  everywhere ; 
fruit  grows  in  profusion ;  for  wine,  Austria  is 
second  only  to  France  ;  and  other  vegetable  pro- 
ducts are  flax  and  hemp,  tobacco,  rape-seed. 
Nearly  a  third  of  the  productive  surface  is  covered 
with  wood. 

Bohemia  takes  the  lead  in  manufacturing  in- 
dustry, then  follow  Austria  Proper,  Moravia  and 
Silesia,  and  Hungary.  Vienna  is  the  chief  seat 
of  manufacture  for  articles  of  luxury ;  Moravia, 
Silesia,  and  Bohemia  for  linen,  woollen,  and  glass 
wares ;  Styria  and  Carinthia,  for  iron  and  steel 
wares.  The  chief  manufactured  articles  of  export 
are  those  of  silk  and  wool ;  the  only  others  of 
consequence  are  linen  twist,  glass  wares,  and 
cotton  goods.  The  yearly  value  of  manufactured 
iron  is  considerable.  The  glass  wares  of  Bohemia 
are  of  special  excellence.  The  manufactures  of 
cotton,  of  silk,  of  hemp  and  flax,  are  very  exten- 
sive. The  manufactui-e  of  tobacco  is  a  state 
monopoly.  Austria  is  not  favourably  situated 
for  foreign  commerce.  High  mountains  oppose 
great  obstacles  on  all  hands  to  communication, 


AUSTRIA 


67 


AUSTRIA 


and  separate  the  producing  districts  from  the 
only  sea  that  touches  the  empire ;  while  the 
chief  navigable  rivers  have  their  mouths  in  other 
countries.  The  total  imports  vary  in  value  from 
£42,000,000  to  £70,000,000  a  year,  some  of  the 
principal  items  being  cotton,  wool,  woollen  yarn, 
cotton  yarn,  coffee,  silk,  coal  and  coke,  machin- 
ery, furs  and  hides,  tobacco.  The  exports  have  an 
annual  value  of  from  £60,000,000  to  £80,000,000, 
half  being  for  agricultural  products— grain,  sugar, 
cattle,  flour,  eggs,  feathers,  &c.  ;  also  timber, 
minerals,  wood-wares. 

Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  whole  commerce  of 
the  empire  is  carried  on  with  Germany.  Its 
next  best  markets  are  Roumania,  Russia,  Italy, 
and  Servia.  The  direct  trade  with  Great  Britain 
is  comparatively  small ;  the  Board  of  Trade 
returns  recognising  only  the  trade  by  way  of 
the  Austrian  seaboard.  Between  1891  and  1902 
the  exports  from  Austria  to  Great  Britain  varied 
from  £1,100,000  to  £1,375,245  ;  and  the  goods  im- 
ported  direct  from  Great  Britain,  from  £1,600,000 
to  £2,516,899.  The  length  of  railways  in  1902 
was  12,750  miles— more  than  half  belonging  to 
state  lines. 

There  are  three  distinct  budgets,  one  for  the 
whole  empire,  another  for  Austria  Proper,  and 
a  third  for  the  kingdom  of  Hungary.  Besides 
their  share  of  the  interest  on  the  national  debt, 
Austria  pays  a  larger  and  Hungary  a  smaller 
sum  towards  the  'common  expenditure  of  the 
empire ; '  the  precise  proportions — to  be  settled 
every  ten  years — have  of  late  been  fiercely 
disputed  by  the  Hungarians,  and,  with  Hun- 
garian liome-rule  demands,  caused  very  strained 
relations  between  Austria  and  Hungary  in 
1904-5.  The  budget  estimates  for  the  imperial 
expenses  for  the  year  1904  showed  a  total  of 
£16,270,500. —Tlie  accounts  of  Austria  Proper 
generally  show  large  deficits.  In  1904  the  revenue 
was,  however,  stated  at  £72,396,250,  and  the 
expenditure  at  £72,282,150.  In  1904  the  general 
debt  of  the  empire  was  £222,212,084,  and  the 
special  debt  of  Austria  £156,904,946.  For  Hun- 
gary in  1903  the  revenue  and  expenditure  nearly 
balanced  at  £45,435,946 ;  the  debt  (largely  for 
railways)  amounted  to  £214,366,540.  Hungary 
also  pays  £2,541,606  annually  to  the  common 
debt  of  the  empire. 

The  population  is  very  unequally  distributed. 
The  most  populous  districts  are  those  of  the 
south-west  and  of  the  north-west.  The  Al- 
pine regions  and  those  of  the  Carpathians  are 
sparsest ;  and  generally  the  density  diminishes 
towards  the  east.  The  population  of  Austria 
embraces  a  greater  number  of  races,  distinct 
in  origin  and  language,  than  that  of  any  other 
European  country  except  Russia.  The  Slavs 
are  the  most  numerous  race,  amounting  to 
nearly  42  per  cent,  of  the  whole  population. 
They  form  the  bulk  of  the  population  of  Bo- 
hemia, Moravia,  Carniola,  Dalmatia,  Croatia, 
Slavonia,  the  Woiwodina,  the  north  of  Hungary, 
and  Galicia.  They  are,  however,  split  up  into 
a  number  of  peoples  or  tribes,  differing  greatly 
in  language,  religion,  culture,  and  manners ;  so 
that  their  seeming  preponderance  in  the  empire 
is  thus  lost.  The  chief  branches  of  the  Slavic 
stem  are,  in  the  north,  the  Czechs  or  Bohemians 
(the  most  numerous  of  all),  Ruthenians,  and 
Poles;  and  in  the  south,  the  Slovenians,  Croats, 
Serbs,  and  Bulgarians.  The  Germans  number 
above  25  per  cent.,  dispersed  everywhere,  but 
mainly  in  the  western  parts  of  the  empire.  The 
Romance  peoples  (speaking  languages  derived 
tXQXa  that  of  ancient  Rome)  aniount  to  fully  9^ 


L 


per  cent.,  and  are  divided  into  western  and  east- 
ern. The  western  consist  of  Italians,  inhabiting 
the  south  of  Tyrol,  Istria,  and  Dalmatia ;  the 
Ladins  (Latins),  in  some  valleys  of  Tyrol ;  and 
the  Friulians  about  Gorz,  north  of  Trieste.  The 
eastern  Romance  people  are  the  Roumanians, 
who  are  found  in  Transylvania,  Hungary,  the 
Woiwodina,  and  the  Bukowina.  The  Magyars,  or 
Hungarians  proper,  number  over  16  per  cent. : 
they  are  located  chiefly  in  Hungary  and  Tran- 
sylvania. The  small  remaining  portion  is  com- 
posed chiefly  of  Jews,  Armenians,  and  Gypsies. 
The  principal  languages  are  German,  Hungarian, 
and  Bohemian ;  but  Polish,  Ruthenian,  and  Croat 
languages  are  also  spoken. 

In  1900  there  were  30,580,192  Roman  Catholics  ; 
4,990,678  Greeks  and  Armenians  united  witli  the 
Roman  Church;  3,423,175  Orthodox  Greeks; 
1,654,396  Lutherans  ;  2,569,699  Calvinists  ;  68,872 
Unitarians ;  2,076,277  Jews.  There  are  nearly  300 
abbeys  and  above  500  convents  in  the  empire. 

Education,  whether  high  or  low,  is  mostly 
gratuitous.  The  primary  schools  in  Austria  are 
to  a  very  large  extent  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy. 
The  law  enforces  compulsory  attendance  at  the 
'  Volks-schulen,'  or  national  schools,  of  all  chil- 
dren between  the  ages  of  six  and  twelve.  There 
is  a  very  great  difference  between  the  Gennan 
provinces  and  the  Slavonic  ones  in  respect  of 
education.  In  Vorarlberg  82  per  cent,  of  the  in- 
habitants read  and  write  ;  in  Bukowina  not  quite 
10  per  cent.  There  are  eleven  universities  in  the 
empire,  at  Vienna,  Prague,  Gratz,  Briinn,  Inns- 
bruck, Pesth  (Budapest),  Cracow,  Klausenburg, 
Lemberg,  and  Czernowitz.  Vienna,  Griitz,  and 
Innsbruck  rank  as  Gennan  universities ;  Prague 
has  since  1880  a  Bohemian  and  a  German  uni- 
versity. There  are  in  the  whole  monarchy  over 
4000  newspapers  and  other  periodicals  (about  380 
newspapers),  of  which  nearly  half  are  in  German. 

Military  service  is  compulsory  on  all  citizens 
capable  of  bearing  arms.  The  term  of  service 
is  twelve  years— three  in  the  standing  army, 
seven  in  the  reserve,  and  two  in  the  landwehr. 
The  army  has  on  a  peace  footing  396,000  men, 
and  on  a  war  footing  2,580,000.  The  navy  com- 
prised 11  ironclads,  15  cruisers,  62  torpedo  boats, 
and  20  vessels  for  coast  defence.  These  are 
manned  by  about  9000  men,  raised  to  14,000  in 
time  of  war. 

Austria  is  a  monarchy  hereditary  in  the  House 
of  Hapsburg-Lorraine.  In  the  case  of  the  reign- 
ing family  dying  out,  the  states  of  Bohemia 
and  of  Hungary  have  the  right  of  choosing  a 
new  king.  Since  the  year  1867  Austria  has 
been  reconstructed  as  a  dual  empire,  consisting 
of  a  German  or  'Cisleithan'  monarchy,  and  a 
Magyar  or  '  Transleithan '  kingdom.  Each  of  the 
two  countries  has  its  own  laws,  parliament, 
ministers,  and  government,  and  deals  with  the 
affairs  exclusively  relating  to  itself.  The  ministers 
for  affairs  common  to  the  whole  empire  (foreign 
affairs,  finance,  army)  are  not  responsible  to  either 
parliament,  but  to  the  Delegations— a  body  form- 
ing a  connecting  link  between  the  two  portions 
of  the  empire.  These  constitute;  a  parliament  of 
120  members  :  the  one-half  is  chosen  by  the  legis- 
lature of  Germanic  Austria,  and  the  other  half 
represents  Hungary.  The  person  of  the  sovereign 
is  another  link  between  the  two  members  of  the 
empire. 

The  Austrian  Reichsrath  consists  of  an  upper 
and  a  lower  house.  The  upper  house  is  com- 
posed of  the  princes  of  the  imperial  family  who 
are  of  age,  of  upwards  of  50  nobles,  10  arch- 
bishops, 7  bishops,  and  105  life-membeys  nomi- 


AUSTRIA 


AVEYRON 


nated  by  the  emperor.  The  lower  house  num- 
bers 353  elected  members.  The  executive  of 
Hungary  is  carried  on  in  the  name  of  '  the  king ' 
by  a  responsible  ministry. 

The  empire  of  Austria  arose  from  the  smallest 
beginnings  at  the  end  of  the  8th  century.  In 
796  a  Margraviate,  called  the  Eastern  Mark  (i.e. 
'March'  or  frontier-land),  was  founded  as  an 
outpost  of  the  empire  of  Charlemagne,  in  the 
country  between  the  Enns  and  the  Raab.  The 
name  Oesterreich  appears  first  in  996.  In  1156  tlie 
mark  was  raised  to  a  duchy ;  and  after  coming 
into  the  possession  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg  in 
1282,  it  rapidly  rose  to  be  a  powerful  state.  The 
princes  of  that  House  extended  their  dominion 
by  marriage,  by  purchase,  and  otherwise,  over  a 
number  of  other  states,  including  the  crowns  of 
Bohemia  and  Hungary ;  and  from  1438  down  to 
the  19th  century,  they  held  almost  without  in- 
terruption the  throne  of  the  German  empire 
(nominally  'the  Holy  Roman  Empire ')—<7ie 
emperor  being  the  most  conspicuous,  if  not 
always  the  most  powerful  personage  amongst  the 
crowned  heads  of  Europe.  In  1804  Francis 
declared  himself  hereditary  Emperor  of  Austria, 
and  two  years  afterwards  resigned  the  dignities 
of  German  Emperor  and  King  of  the  Romans. 
Thenceforward,  especially  during  the  troublous 
times  of  1848-50,  Austria  held  the  pre-eminence 
amongst  German  states  ;  but  after  the  victory  of 
Prussia  at  Koniggratz  (Sadowa),  in  the  short  but 
decisive  Austro-Prussian  war  of  1866,  Austria  was 
excluded  from  Gennany — an  exclusion  made  final 
by  the  reconstruction  of  the  German  empire  with 
the  kings  of  Prussia  as  hereditary  German  em- 
perors. In  1867  Austria  Avas  itself  reconstituted 
on  its  present  footing  as  the  Austro-Hungarian 
monarcliy. 

See  Coxe,  History  of  the  House  of  Austria  (3  vols. 
1847-53;  continued  by  Kelley,  1853);  Leger, 
Histoirede  I'Autriche-Hongrie  (1879) ;  Sidney  Whit- 
man, The  Realm  of  the  Habsburgs  (1893). 

Austria,  Archduchy  of,  the  cradle  and  nucleus 
of  the  Austrian  empire,  lies  on  both  sides  of  the 
Danube,  from  the  mouth  of  the  Inn  to  Presburg, 
on  the  borders  of  Hungary,  and  embraces  an  area 
of  18,052  sq.  m.,  with  a  pop.  (1900)  of  4,089,547. 
It  now  forms  three  of  the  crown-lands,  or  adminis- 
trative provinces  of  the  empire — viz.  Lower  and 
Upper  Austria  (i.e.  Austria  below,  and  Austria 
above,  the  Enns),  and  the  duchy  of  Salzburg. 

Auteull  (O-tuh'yee^),  formerly  a  country  village 
at  the  entrance  of  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  now  en- 
closed within  the  fortifications  of  Paris.  It  was 
the  residence  of  Boileau  and  Moliere. 

Autun  (0-tunO ;  anc.  Augustodumim),  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Saone-et-Loire,  in  the  Burgundian 
district  of  Autunois,  on  the  river  Arroux,  31  miles 
NW.  of  Chalon  by  rail.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral 
(12th  century),  and  many  ruins  of  Roman  temples, 
gates,  triumphal  arches,  and  other  antiquities. 
Cloth,  carpets,  and  velvet  are  manufactured. 
Talleyrand  was  bishop  of  the  diocese,  and  here 
Macmahon  was  born.     Pop.  13,593. 

Auvergne,  a  southern  central  district  of 
France,  was  before  the  Revolution  a  separate 
province,  and  coincided  nearly  with  the  modern 
departments  of  Cantal  and  Puy-de-D6me.  Of 
several  summits  that  have  apparently  been  at 
one  time  volcanoes,  the  highest  is  Mont-Dore 
(6188  feet).  Auvergne  produces  iron,  lead,  copper, 
and  coal,  and  is  rich  in  valuable  mineral  springs, 
both  cold  and  hot.  Many  Auvergnats,  speaking 
their  own  patois,  seek  employment  in  Paris  and 
pelgiuin. 


Auxerre  {0-zerr' ;  anc.  Autissiodorufn),  chief 
town  of  the  French  dep.  of  Yonne,  on  the  Yonne, 
109  miles  SE.  of  Paris.  Its  noble  Gothic  cathedral 
dates  from  1215,  but  was  not  completed  till  tlie 
16th  century.  The  principal  manufactures  are 
wine  (a  light  Burgundy),  candles,  chemicals,  and 
hosiery.    Pop.  15,300. 

Auxonne  (O-^omi').  a  fortified  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Cote  d'Or,  on  the  Saone,  20  miles 
SE.  of  Dijon.    Pop.  5118. 

Ava,  a  niined  city  of  Burma,  of  which  it  was 
the  capital  1364-1740,  and  again  1822-38.  It 
stands  on  the  Irawadi,  6  miles  SW.  of  Amara- 
pura.    On  the  opposite  bank  stands  Sagaing  (q.v). 

Avallon  (anc.  Aballo),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Yonne,  26  miles  SE.  of  Auxerre,  on  a 
steep  hill  of  red  granite,  nearly  surrounded  by 
the  river  Cousin.    Pop.  5571. 

Avalon,  a  peninsula  forming  the  eastern  part 
of  Newfoundland  (q.v.),  in  which  St  John's,  the 
capital,  is  situated. 

Avatcha,  a  bay  on  the  east  coast  of  Kam- 
chatka, by  far  the  best  harbour  of  the  peninsula, 
and  containing  the  smaller  bay  on  which  stands 
the  capital,  Petropaulovsk  (q.v.). 

Avebury,  or  Abury,  a  village  of  Wiltshire,  6J 
miles  W.  of  Marlborough.  It  is  the  site  of  the 
largest  megalithic  structure  in  Britain,  including 
a  large  outer  circle,  330  yards  in  diameter,  and 
two  smaller  stone  circles.  The  stones  that  remain 
are  5  to  20  feet  in  height  above  the  ground,  and 
3  to  12  in  breadth  and  thickness.  From  an  en- 
trance to  the  circle  issued  the  '  Kennet  Avenue,' 
running  1430  yards  south-eastward  in  a  perfectly 
straight  line,  and  17  yards  broad,  with  a  range  of 
blocks  on  either  side  similar  to  those  of  the  circle 
itself.  Of  surrounding  antiquities  may  be  men- 
tioned a  double  circle  on  Hakpen  Hill,  and  a 
large  barrow,  or  lofty  conical  mound  called  Sil- 
bury  Hill,  |  mile  to  the  S.  It  measures  676 
yards  in  circumference,  and  is  130  feet  high. 

Aveiro,  a  town  of  Portugal,  a  bishop's  see,  40 
miles  S.  of  Oporto  by  rail,  on  a  salt  lake  or 
lagoon  joined  to  the  sea  by  a  canal.     Pop.  9167. 

Avelli'no  (anc.  Abellinum),  chief  town  of  an 
Italian  province  at  the  foot  of  Monte  Vergine, 
59  miles  E.  of  Naples  by  rail.  It  has  a  cathedral. 
Pop.  23,790. 

Aventine  Hill.    See  Rome. 

Aver'nus  (Gr.  Aornos,  'birdless;'  now  Lago 
d'Averno),  a  small,  nearly  circular  lake  in  Cam- 
pania, Italy,  situated  between  Cumte,  Puteoli, 
and  Baise.  It  is  1^  mile  in  circumference,  and 
occupies  the  crater  of  an  extinct  volcano.  The 
mephitic  vapours  arising  from  it  were  believed  in 
ancient  times  to  kill  the  birds  that  flew  over  it ; 
hence,  according  to  some,  its  Greek  appellation. 
Owing  to  its  gloomy  and  awful  aspect,  it  became 
the  centre  of  almost  all  the  fables  of  the  ancients 
respecting  the  world  of  shades.  Here  were 
located  Homer's  entrance  to  the  under  world, 
the  Elysian  fields,  the  grove  of  Hecate,  and  the 
grotto  of  the  Cumean  Sibyl. 

Aversa,  a  town  of  Italy,  12^  miles  by  rail  N. 
of  Naples.     Pop.  23,183. 

Avesnes  (A-vehn'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Nord,  13  miles  E.  by  rail  of  Cambrai.    Pop.  5446. 

Aveyron,  a  mountainous  dep.  in  the  south  of 
France,  named  from  the  river  which  runs  90 
miles  westward  through  it  to  the  Tarn,  a  feeder 
of  tlie  Garonne.  Area,  3376  sq.  ni. ;  population, 
382,000.    The  capital  is  Rodez. 


AVEZZANO 


69 


AXHOLMH 


Avezza'no,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  22  miles  S. 
of  Aquila.     Pop.  6166. 

Avlglia'no,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  10  miles 
NW.  of  Poteuza.     Pop.  12,949. 

Avignon  (Avenio),  a  city  of  Provence,  capital 
of  the  French  dep.  of  Vaucluse,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Rhone,  75  miles  NW.  of  Marseilles.  With 
narrow,  crooked  streets,  '  windy  Aviynon '  still 
is  encircled  by  lofty  crenellated  walls  (1349-68), 
except  on  the  north  side,  where  the  Rocher  des 
Doms  rises  steeply  from  the  Rhone  to  a  height 
of  200  feet.  Here  is  the  cathedral,  dating  from 
the  11th  centm-y,  with  its  papal  throne  ;  whilst 
hard  by  towers  the  vast  palace  of  the  popes 
(1339-64).  The  multitude  of  churches  and  con- 
vents made  Rabelais  call  Avignon  la  ville  son- 
nante,  'the  city  of  bells;'  and  churches  there 
still  are  in  plenty,  though  that  of  the  Cordeliers, 
with  the  tomb  of  Petrarch's  Laura,  was  demolished 
in  1791.  Near  the  hotel-de-ville  (1862)  are  the 
quaint  old  Jacquemart  belfry  and  a  statue  of 
Crillon,  Henry  IV.'s  brave  captain ;  Petrarch's 
statue  (1874)  may  also  be  noticed.  The  univer- 
sity (1303)  was  abolished  in  1794.  Avignon  has 
manufactures  of  paper,  leather,  silk,  iron,  &c. 
Pop.  (declining)  now  about  34,000.  Avignon  was 
the  capital  of  the  ancient  Cavares,  and  presents 
many  remains  of  the  times  of  the  Romans.  In 
the  middle  ages  it  formed,  with  the  surrounding 
district,  a  county,  which  the  popes  bought  in 
1348.  They  held  it  till  1790,  when  tlie  city  with 
its  district  was  united  with  France.  Pope 
Clement  V.  and  six  of  his  successors  from  1309 
to  1378  resided  here,  as  also  did  the  French  anti- 
popes  (1378-1418).  A  little  cottage  Avas  long  the 
loved  retreat  of  John  Stuart  Mill,  the  place 
where  he  died  in  1873. 

Av'ila,  capital  of  a  Spanish  province  of  Avila, 
in  Old  Castile,  stands  3000  feet  above  the  sea,  at 
the  base  of  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama,  71  miles 
NW.  of  Madrid  by  rail.  It  has  a  fine  Gothic 
cathedral,  a  Moorish  castle,  and  massive  granite 
walls  42  feet  high  and  14  broad,  with  86  towers 
and  10  gateways.  Its  university  (1482)  was 
reduced  to  a  college  in  1807.  Pop.  11,809.  Here 
St  Teresa  was  born.  The  province  is  mountain- 
ous.    Area,  2981  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  200,500. 

Aviles  (anc.  Flavignavia),  a  seaport  of  Spain, 
close  to  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  19  miles  N.  of  Oviedo. 
Pop.  12,145. 

Avlona  (Ital.  Valona,  anc.  Aulon),  the  best 
seaport  in  Albania,  stands  on  an  eminence  near 
an  inlet  of  the  Adriatic,  protected  by  the  island 
of  Sasseno  (anc.  Saso).  It  carries  on  considerable 
trade  with  Brindisi,  &c.  Pop.  5000.  Valonia, 
imported  hence  to  England  for  tanning,  is  the 
acorn-cup  of  a  kind  of  oak.  Up  to  1691  the  town 
belonged  to  the  Venetians. 

Avo'ca,  or  Ovoca  (Celt,  'meeting  of  the 
waters '),  a  small  river  of  County  Wicklow, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  Avonmore  and  Avon- 
beg.  It  runs  through  a  very  picturesque  vale 
only  J  mile  broad,  with  wooded  banks  300  to 
500  feet  high,  and  after  a  course  of  9  miles 
reaches  the  sea  at  Arklow.     See  Avondale. 

Av'ola  (Abolla),  a  seaport  of  Sicily,  13  miles 
SW.  of  Syracuse.  The  famous  honey  of  Hybla 
comes  from  this  neighbourhood.     Pop.  12,286. 

Avon  (Celt,  'river'  or  'stream'),  the  name 
of  several  of  the  smaller  British  rivers.  (1)  The 
Upper  or  Warwickshire  Avon  rises  at  Naseby 
in  Northamjjtonshire,  runs  96  miles  south-west 
through  Warwickshire  and  Worcestershire,  pass- 
ing Rugby,  Warwick,  Stratford,  and  Evesham, 


and  joins  the  Severn  at  Tewkesbury.  It  receives 
several  tributaries,  including  the  Swift  from 
Lutterworth.— (2)  The  Lower  or  Bristol  Avon 
rises  in  north-west  Wiltshire,  and  runs  70  miles, 
first  south  in  Wiltshire,  and  then  west  and  north- 
west between  Gloucestershire  and  Somerset, 
passing  Bradford,  Bath,  and  Bristol,  to  the 
Bristol  Channel.  It  is  navigable  for  large  vessels 
up  to  Bristol.— (3)  The  Wiltshire  and  Hampshire 
or  East  Avon  rises  in  the  middle  of  Wiltshire, 
and  runs  south  70  miles  through  Wiltshire  and 
Hampshire,  passing  Amesbury,  Salisbury,  and 
Ringwood,  and  entering  the  English  Channel 
at  Christchurch.  It  is  navigable  up  to  Salisbury. 
In  Wales,  two  rivers  named  Avon — one  rising 
in  Monmouthshire,  the  other  in  Glamorganshire 
—fall  into  Swansea  Bay.  In  Scotland  there  are 
several  of  the  same  name,  affluents  of  the  Spey, 
Clyde,  and  Forth.     See  also  A'an. 

Avondale,  the  Wicklow  seat  of  the  late  Mr 
C.  S.  Parnell,  on  the  Avonmore,  1  mile  S.  of 
Rathdrum. 

Avonmouth,  in  Gloucestershire,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Avon,  6  miles  NW.  of  Bristol,  has  a  pier 
and  extensive  docks  (1879),  constructed  at  a  cost 
of  £600,000. 

Avranches  (Av-ron^sh'),  a  French  town  in 
the  dep.  of  Manche,  on  ilie  left  bank  of  the 
See,  near  its  mouth  in  St  Michel's  Bay,  37  miles 
E.  of  St  Malo  by  rail.  Till  1801  a  bishop's  seat, 
its  former  cathedral  was  built  in  the  18th 
century  on  the  site  of  a  cathedral  consecrated 
in  1121,  in  which  Henry  II.  received  absolution 
for  Becket's  murder.     Pop.  7764. 

Awbeg,  a  river  of  Cork,  flowing  30  miles  to 
the  Blackwater. 

Awe,  Loch,  an  Argyllshire  lake,  with  Loch 
Awe  station  and  hotel  near  its  foot,  22  miles  E. 
of  Oban.  Lying  118  feet  above  sea-level,  it 
extends  22|  miles  north-eastward,  is  from  3  fur- 
longs to  3|  miles  broad,  covers  15^  sq.  m.,  and 
has  a  maximum  depth  of  102  feet.  The  scenery 
is  most  striking  at  the  north-east  end— originally 
the  head — of  the  lake,  where  the  water  is  studded 
with  numerous  wooded  islets,  overshadowed  by 
towering  and  rugged  mountains,  the  chief  Ben 
Cruachan  (3689  feet).  On  a  rocky  peninsula, 
in  the  north  end  of  the  lake,  stands  Kilchurn 
Castle,  once  a  fortress  of  great  strength,  built 
about  1440  by  Sir  Colin  Campbell  of  Glenorchy. 
The  waters  of  the  lake  are  carried  off  at  its 
north-west  end  by  the  brawling  river  Awe,  which, 
after  a  course  of  5  miles,  enters  Loch  Etive  at 
Bunawe.  The  magnificent  'Pass  of  Brander,' 
through  which  the  road  and  railway  run  beneath 
the  shoulder  of  Ben  Cruachan,  was  the  scene  of 
a  conflict  in  1308  between  Robert  the  Bruce  and 
the  Macdougals  of  Lorn,  in  which  that  clan  was 
all  but  exterminated.  At  the  north-east  end  of 
the  loch  it  receives  the  waters  of  the  Orchy  and 
Strae. 

Ax,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Ariege,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  74  miles  SSB.  of 
Toulouse.  Pop.  1233.  Its  80  hot  sulphiur-springs 
range  in  temperature  from  77°  to  172"  F. 

Axbridge,  a  Somerset  village,  10  miles  NW.  of 
Wells.    Pop.  of  parish,  732. 

Axe,  two  rivers  of  Somerset  and  of  Dorset  and 
Devon,  flowing  the  one  25  miles  to  the  Bristol 
Channel,  the  other  21  to  the  English  Channel. 

Axholme,  Isle  of,  a  low  level  tract  of  North- 
west Lincolnshire,  cut  off"  by  the  Trent  from  the 
rest  of  the  county.  Measuring  18  by  5  miles,  it 
was  anciently  a  forest,  and  then  a  marsh,  which 


AXim 


70 


AZERBIJAN 


was  drained  into  the  Trent  in  1625  and  succeed- 
ing years  by  Cornelius  Vermuyden,  a  Dutchman, 
at  a  cost  of  £56,000.  Epworth  here  was  the 
home  of  the  Wesleys, 

Axim,  an  important  station  and  port  on  the 
Gold  Coast,  a  little  E.  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Ancobrah  River. 

Ax'minster,  a  town  of  Devonshire,  on  the 
Axe,  27  miles  E.  of  Exeter  by  rail.  From  1755 
till  1835  Axminster  was  famous  for  the  manu- 
facture of  Turkey  and  Persian  carpets.  Dr 
Buckland  was  a  native.  Pop.  of  parish,  2909. 
See  Pulman's  Book  of  tlie  Axe  (1875). 

Axmouth,  a  Devon  fishing  village,  6  miles 
SSW.  of  Axminster.     Pop.  615. 

Axum,  once  capital  of  an  Ethiopian  kingdom, 
is  now  in  the  modern  Abyssinian  province  of 
Tigre,  and  lies  mainly  in  ruins.  Pop.  5000.  See 
a  monograph  on  it  by  J.  T.  Bent  (1893). 

Ayacu'cho  (formerly  Huamanga  or  Guamanga), 
a  town  of  Peru,  220  miles  ESE.  of  Lima.  Founded 
by  Pizarro  in  1539,  it  is  now  a  handsome  and 
thriving  town.  Here,  on  9th  December  1824, 
the  combined  forces  of  Peru  and  Colombia  totally 
defeated  the  last  Spanish  army  that  ever  set 
foot  on  the  continent.  Pop.  20,000.— The  dep.  of 
Ayacucho  has  an  area  of  about  20,000  sq.  m.,  and 
a  pop.  of  upwards  of  300,000. 

Ayamon'te,  a  fortified  town  in  the  Spanish 
province  of  Huelva,  Andalusia,  on  the  Guadiana, 
near  its  mouth.    Pop.  6511. 

Ayasaluk,  a  village  on  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Ephesus  (q.v.). 

Aylesbiiry,  the  chief  town  of  Buckingham- 
shire, in  a  fertile  vale,  on  a  rivulet  flowing  to  the 
Tame,  43^  miles  NW.  of  London.  Among  its 
buildings  are  the  cruciform  parish  church,  finely 
restored  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  (1849-67),  the  corn 
exchange  and  markets  (1865),  and  the  county 
infirmary  (1862).  The  inhabitants  are  engaged 
in  making  bone-lace  and  straw-plait,  in  brewing, 
dairying,  and  rearing  fat  ducks  for  the  London 
markets.  Aylesbury  was  taken  from  the  Britons 
by  the  Saxons  in  571.  Till  1885  it  formed  with 
its  hundred  a  parliamentary  borough,  returning 
two  members.     Pop.  (1841)  5429 ;  (1901)  9244. 

Aylesford,  a  village  near  the  centre  of  Kent, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Medway,  3J  miles  NW. 
of  Maidstone.  Remarkable  ancient  remains  are 
found  here,  including  the  cromlech  called  Kits 
Coity  House  (q.v.).     Pop.  of  parish,  2647. 

Ayr,  the  county  town  of  Ayrshire,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Ayr,  40^  miles  SSW.  of 
Glasgow  by  rail.  The  Town's  Buildings,  with 
a  spire  226  feet  high,  were  erected  in  1828,  and 
greatly  enlarged  in  1881.  The  so-called  '  Wallace 
Tower'  is  a  Gothic  edifice  of  1834,  113  feet  high. 
There  are  also  the  County  Buildings,  modelled 
after  the  temple  of  Isis  in  Rome,  the  Academy 
(founded  1764 ;  new  building,  1880),  and  the 
Carnegie  library  (1893).  Three  bridges  span  the 
river,  and  connect  Ayr  proper  with  Newton- 
upon-Ayr  and  Wallacetown— a  railway  viaduct, 
and  the  'Twa  Brigs'  of  Burns.  Of  these  the 
narrow  four-arched  '  Auld  Brig '  dates  probably 
from  the  end  of  the  15th  century,  and  the  '  New 
Brig'  (1788)  was  rebuilt  in  1879.  There  are 
statues  of  General  Smith  Neill,  the  thirteenth 
Earl  of  Eglinton,  and  Burns.  Part  of  the  tower 
of  the  old  church  of  St  John,  built  in  the  12th 
century,  and  turned  into  a  fort  by  Cromwell,  is 
still  standing,  and  now  forms,  with  additions,  a 
dwelling-house.  Harbour  improvements,  includ- 
ing a  wet  dock  and  slip  dock,  have  been  carried 


out  since  1874  at  a  cost  of  over  £150,000.  Thd 
tonnage  of  vessels  entering  the  port  has  in- 
creased in  seventeen  years  from  140,000  to 
345,000.  The  chief  export  is  coal ;  grain  and 
timber  are  imported  ;  and  there  are  manufactures 
of  lace  and  woollen  fabrics,  carpets,  large  saw- 
mills, &c.  A  splendid  new  water-supply,  drawn 
from  Loch  Fiulas,  20  miles  distant,  was  intro- 
duced in  1887.  William  the  Lion  made  Ayr  a 
royal  burgh  about  1200 ;  and  it  unites  with 
Campbeltown,  Irvine,  Inveraray,  and  Oban  in 
sending  a  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  (1841) 
15,749  ;  (1861)  18,573 ;  (1901)  28,697. 

Ayrshire,  a  large  maritime  county  in  the  SW. 
of  Scotland,  washed  on  the  W.  by  the  Firth  of 
Clyde  and  the  North  Channel.  Its  greatest 
length  is  78  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth,  28  ;  and 
its  area  is  1149  sq.  m.,  it  being  seventh  in  size  of 
the  Scottish  counties.  The  general  aspect  of 
the  county  is  undulating ;  Shalloch  on  Minnoch 
(2520  feet)  in  the  S.  is  the  highest  summit ;  Loch 
Doon  (5|  X I  mile)  is  much  the  largest  of  several 
fresh-water  lakes  ;  and  the  chief  rivers— only  20 
to  38  miles  long— are  the  Ayr,  the  '  bonny '  Doon, 
the  Garnock,  the  Irvine,  the  Girvan,  and  the 
Stinchar  in  the  south,  with  the  first  16  miles  of 
the  Nith.  Ayrshire  is  rich  in  valuable  minerals, 
especially  coal,  ironstone,  limestone,  and  free- 
stone. The  three  ancient  divisions  of  the  county 
are- Carrick,  south  of  the  Doon,  niostly  wild  and 
hilly;  Kyle,  between  the  Doon  and  the  Irvine, 
containing  much  rich  level  land ;  and  Cunning- 
hame,  comprising  all  the  country  north  of  the 
Irvine,  mostly  fertile.  The  percentage  of  culti- 
vated area  is  43-2.  Dairy-husbandry  is  carried 
to  high  perfection.  The  Dunlop  cheese,  almost 
as  celebrated  as  Stilton,  since  1855  has  been 
almost  superseded  by  Cheddar.  Manufactures, 
especially  woollen  and  cotton,  are  largely  carried 
on  to  an  important  extent.  Pop.  (1801)  84,207 ; 
(1881)  217,504;  (1901)  254,468,  Ayrshire  returns 
two  members  to  parliament.  The  chief  towns 
are  Ayr,  Kilmarnock,  Girvan,  Maybole,  Dairy, 
Kilwinning,  Beith,  Irvine,  Stewarton,  Old  Cum- 
nock, Ardrossan,  Saltcoats,  Troon,  Mauchline, 
Galston,  Newmilns,  Kilbirnie,  and  Largs.  Of 
antiquities,  the  most  interesting  are  the  ruins 
of  Crossi-aguel  and  Kilwinning  Abbeys  ;  of  '  Allo- 
way's  haunted  kirk,'  with  the  'auld  clay  biggin,' 
Burns's  birthplace,  hard  by ;  and  of  the  castles 
of  Turnberry  (the  family  seat  of  Bruce),  Dunure, 
Loch  Doon,  Dean,  Dundonald,  &c.  It  contains 
the  battlefields  of  Largs  and  Loudon  Hill ;  and 
during  the  religious  persecutions  of  the  Stuarts, 
it  was  a  stronghold  of  the  Covenanters.  See 
works  by  J.  Paterson  (2  vols.  1847-52),  and  A. 
Millar  (1885). 

Ayton,  a  Benvickshire  village,  7J  miles  NW, 
of  Berwick-upon-Tweed.     Pop.  603. 

Ayuthia,  the  former  capital  of  Siam,  on  the 
Menam,  50  miles  N.  of  Bangkok.  Founded  in 
1357,  it  was  sacked  and  half  destroyed  by  the 
Burmese  in  1767.  Among  its  magnificent  but 
ruinous  buildings  are  Buddhist  temples,  especi- 
ally the  '  Golden  Mount,'  400  feet  high. 

Azamgarli  ('Azam's  Fort'),  a  town  in  tho 
United  Provinces  of  India,  on  the  river  Tons, 
81  miles  N.  of  Benares.  It  was  founded  in  1665 
by  Azam  Klian.     Pop.  19,000. 

Azerbijan',  or  Aderbauan,  the  ancient  Media 
Atropatene,  the  north-western  province  of  Persia, 
has  an  area  of  about  40,100  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of 
2,000,000.  The  surface  is  very  mountainous, 
Savalan  (an  extinct  volcano),  near  Ardebil, 
reaching  over  13,000  feet;  whilst  Mount  Ararat 


A2INC0UR1' 


n 


BABYLONIA 


flses  on  the  north-west  border.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Aras  or  Araxes,  the  Kara  Su,  and  the 
Kizil-Uzen.  The  salt  lake  Urmia  (q.v.),  the 
largest  in  Persia,  is  near  the  western  border. 
Towns  are  Tabriz  (the  capital)  and  Urmia. 

Azincourt.    See  Agincourt. 

Azo'res,  or  Western  Islands,  a  Portuguese 
archipelago  in  the  mid-Atlantic,  in  36°  55' — 
39°  55'  N.  lat.  and  25"  10'— 31°  16'  W.  long. 
Stretching  over  a  distance  of  400  miles,  their 
nine  islands  are  divided  into  three  distinct 
groups — Sta  Maria  and  Sao  Miguel  in  the  SE.  ; 
Terceira,  Sao  Jorge,  Pico,  Graciosa,  and  Fayal  in 
the  middle ;  and  Flores  and  Corvo  in  the  NW. 
Of  these,  Flores  lies  1176  miles  \V.  of  Cape  Rocca 
in  Portugal,  1484  SW.  of  Falmouth,  and  1703 
ESE.  of  Halifax.  In  1431-53  the  Azores  were 
taken  possession  of  by  the  Portuguese.  They 
were  then  uninhabited ;  but  Punic  coins  have 
been  found  on  Corvo.  The  Portuguese  called 
them  Azores,  from  agor  or  azor,  a  hawk  or  kite, 
found  in  numbers  on  the  islands.  Their  total 
area  is  919  sq.  m.,  and  the  pop.  257,000.  The 
area,  population,  and  the  maximum  altitude 
of  the  different  islands  are  as  follows  :  Sta  Maria 
(38  sq.  m.  ;  5880  ;  1889  feet) ;  Sao  Miguel  (299  sq. 
m.  ;  107,000 ;  3854  feet) ;  Teroeira  (164  sq.  m.  ; 
45,391 ;  3435  feet)  ;  Graciosa  (24  sq.  m. ;  8718) ; 
Sao  Jorge  (91  sq.  m.  ;  18,000) ;  Pico  (173  sq.  m.  ; 
27,904 ;  7613  feet) ;  Fayal  (69  sq.  m.  ;  26,264) ; 
Flores  (54  sq.  m.  ;  10,700  ;  3087  feet);  Corvo  (7 
sq.  m. ;  1000).  The  capital  is  Angra,  in  Terceira  ; 
but  Ponta  Delgada,  in  Sao  Miguel,  is  a  larger 
town,  being  counted  '  the  third  city  of  Portugal ' 
(pop.  18,000).  The  Azores  are  of  volcanic  origin, 
and  with  the  exception  of  Corvo,  Flores,  and 
Graciosa,  are  still  liable  to  eruptions  and  violent 
earthquakes,  the  worst  of  twenty-one  shocks 
since  1444  having  been  those  of  1591,  1638,  1719, 
and  1841.  Hot  mineral  springs  are  numerous. 
The  coast  is  generally  steep  and  rugged;  the 


interior  abounds  in  ravines  and  mountains!. 
Oranges  are  the  chief  article  of  export.  The 
climate  is  extremely  moist,  but  equable;  and 
though  the  islands  are  exposed  to  severe  storms 
of  wind  and  rain,  some  of  them  are  visited  as 
winter  health-resorts,  especially  by  Americans. 
The  Azores  are  regarded  as  a  province,  not  a 
colony,  of  Portugal,  and  as  belonging  to  Europe. 
See  works  by  Godman  (1870),  W.  F.  Walker  (1886), 
and  Roundell  (1889). 

Azo'tus.    See  Ashdod. 

Azov,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Russia,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Don,  7  miles  from  its  mouth.  Spite 
of  the  silting  of  the  harbour,  there  is  a  large  export 
of  grain,  with  fishing  and  fish-curing.    Pop.  27,500. 

Azov,  Sea  of,  named  after  the  town,  is  a  large 
gulf  of  the  Black  Sea,  formed  by  the  Crimean 
peninsula,  or  rather  an  inland  lake  connected 
with  the  Black  Sea  by  the  Strait  of  Yenikale  or 
Kertch  (anc.  Bosporus  Cimvierius),  28  miles  long, 
and  barely  4  wide  at  the  narrowest.  The  intri- 
cate Siwash  or  Putrid  Sea,  which  is  just  a  succes- 
sion of  swamps,  is  cut  off  from  the  western 
portion  of  the  Sea  of  Azov  by  the  long  narrow 
slip  of  low  sandy  land  called  the  Peninsula  of 
Arabat.  The  ancient  name  of  the  Sea  of  Azov 
was  Palus  Mceotis  or  'Maeotic  Marsh;'  by  the 
Turks  it  is  called  Balik-Denghis,  or  'Fish  Sea.' 
from  its  abundance  of  fish.  The  water  is  almost 
fresh.  The  whole  sea  is  shallow,  from  3  to  52 
feet  deep ;  and  measuring  235  by  110  miles,  it 
occupies  an  area  of  14,500  sq.  m.  Tho  largest 
river  emptying  into  it  is  the  Don. 

Azpeitia  {Ath-pay' e-te-a),  a  town  in  the  Spanish 
prov.  Guipuzcoa,  on  the  Urola,  18  miles  SW.  of 
San  Sebastian.  A  mile  from  it  is  the  famous  con- 
vent of  Loyola  (1G88),  now  converted  into  a  mus- 
eum. It  comprises  a  tower  of  the  Santa  Casa,  in 
which  St  Ignatius  of  Loyola,  the  great  founder 
of  the  Jesuits,  was  born  in  1491.    Pop.  6548. 


AALBEK,  a  ruined  city  of  Syria,  35 
miles  NNW.  of  Damascus,  and  38  SSE. 
of  Tripoli.  The  name  signifies  '  City 
of  Baal,'  the  Sun-god,  and  was  by  the 
Greeks,  during  the  Seleucide  dynasty, 
converted  into  Heliopolis.  Baalbek  lies  4500 
feet  above  sea-level,  at  the  opening  of  a  small 
valley  into  the  plain  of  El-Buka'a  (Ccele-Syria), 
on  the  lowest  slope  of  Anti-Lebanon.  It  was 
once  the  most  magnificent  of  Syrian  cities,  full 
of  palaces,  fountains,  and  beautiful  monuments  ; 
now  it  is  famous  only  for  the  splendour  of  its 
ruins — the  Great  Temple,  a  Corinthian  edifice, 
surmounting  a  Cyclopean  substruction  or  plat- 
form ;  the  Temple  of  Jupiter,  larger  than  the 
Parthenon  at  Athens ;  and  a  circular  building, 
supported  on  six  granite  columns.  From  the 
earliest  times  a  chief  seat  of  sun-worship,  Baal- 
bek was  completely  pillaged  by  Timur  Beg  in 
1400;  and  its  destruction  was  completed  by  a 
terrible  earthquake  in  1759.  It  is  now  a  wretched 
village,  with  some  few  hundred  inhabitants.  See 
works  by  Wood  and  Dawkins  (1757),  Renan  (1864), 
and  Frauberger  (1891). 

Baba,  Cape  (Gr.  Lecttim),  a  bold  rocky  head- 
land near  the  western  point  of  Anatolia,  12  miles 
from  the  northern  extremity  of  Mitylene.  The 
town  of  Baba  here  has  a  pop.  of  4000. 

Babatag,  or  Babadagh,  a  town  of  7000  inhab- 
itants, in  the  Roumanian  Dobrudja,  2^  miles  W. 
of  Lake  Razira. 


Bab-el-Mandeb  (i.e.  'the  gate  of  tears'),  the 
strait  between  Arabia  and  the  continent  of  Africa, 
by  which  the  Red  Sea  is  connected  with  the  Gvdf 
of  Aden  and  the  Indian  Ocean.  The  Arabian 
peninsula  here  throws  out  a  cape,  bearing  the 
same  name  as  the  strait,  and  865  feet  high,  20 
miles  distant  from  which  the  wall-like  coast  of 
Africa  rises  in  Ras  es  Sean  to  over  400  feet. 
Within  the  straits,  but  nearer  to  Arabia,  lies  the 
bare  rocky  island  of  Perim  (q.v.),  since  1857 
occupied  by  the  British  as  a  fort. 

Bablock  Hythe,  a  ferry  over  the  Isis  or 
Thames,  4  miles  WSW.  of  Oxford. 

Babylonia  (Babilu  in  the  Assyrian  inscrip- 
tions, Bahirush  in  the  Persian)  was  the  name 
given  by  the  Greeks,  and  after  them  the  Romans, 
to  the  low  alluvial  plain  watered  by  the  lower 
streams  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates,  now  form- 
ing the  modern  Arab  province  of  Irak-Arabi.  In 
the  Old  Testament  it  bears  the  various  names  of 
Shinar,  Babel,  and  '  the  land  of  the  Chaldees.' 
For  thousands  of  years  before  the  Christian  era 
it  was  the  seat  of  a  special  type  of  civilisation  ; 
the  earliest  inhabitants  we  know  of  were  Sumeri- 
ans  and  Akkadians,  both  probably  belonging  to 
the  Ugro-Finnic  branch  of  the  Turanian  races. 
Subsequently,  Semitic  tribes  settled  in  the 
country.  After  long  wars  with  the  neighbouring 
power,  Assyria,  Babylonia  was  conquered  in  729 
B.C.  by  the  Assyrians,  and  in  712-705  Babylonia 
became  an  Assyrian   province.     In  625  "Nabo« 


feACCHIGLIONE 


72 


BADEN  BEI  WIEN 


polassar  rebelled  and  became  an  independent 
king,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Nebuchad- 
nezzar, And  henceforward  Babylonia  was  a 
separate  state  till  538,  when  it  was  conquered 
by  Cyrus  and  became  a  Persian  province.  For 
the  site  of  the  city  of  Babylon,  see  Hillah. 

BaccWglione  (Bak-keel-yo'nay),  a  river  of  N. 
Italy,  rising  in  the  Alps,  and  flowing  90  miles 
south-eastward,  to  the  Adriatic  near  Cliioggia. 

Bacharach  (BaM'a-rahh),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  qn  the  Rhine,  30  miles  SE.  of  Coblenz. 
Pop.  1840.  Its  name  is  said  to  be  a  corruption  of 
Bacclii  ara  ('Bacchus'  altar'),  and  the  vine  is 
still  largely  cultivated.  Here  Bliicher  crossed 
the  Rhine,  January  1,  1814. 

Backergunge.    See  Bakerganj. 

Bacolor,  a  town  of  the  island  of  Luzon,  Philip- 
pines, 10  miles  NW.  from  Manila.     Pop.  9737. 

Bactrla,  a  province  of  the  ancient  Persian 
empire,  lying  north  of  the  Paroparaisus  (Hindu 
Kush)  Mountains,  on  the  Upper  Oxus. 

Ba'cup,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  on  the  Spodden 
rivulet,  19i  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Manchester  by  rail. 
Constituted  a  municipal  borough  in  1882,  it  has 
a  mechanics'  institute  (1846,  enlarged  1870),  a 
market-hall  (1867),  a  very  large  co-operative  store 
that  cost  £22,000,  &c.  Cotton-spinning  and 
powerloom-weaving  are  the  staple  industries ; 
and  there  are  also  dye-works,  brass  and  iron 
foundries,  and  neighbouring  coal-pits  and  vast 
stone  quarries.  Pop.  (1798)  1426  ;  (1871)  17,199 ; 
(1881)  25,033  ;  (1891)  23,498  ;  (1901)  22,505. 

Badagry,  a  small  British  port  on  the  Slave 
Coast,  Upper  Guinea,  long  a  gi'eat  slaving  port, 
with  10,000  inhabitants. 

Badajoz  (Bad-a-jozz' ;  Spanish  pron.  Badh-a- 
Jihoath),  capital  of  a  Spanish  province,  is  built 
on  a  slight  hill  crowned  by  a  Moorish  castle, 
on  the  Guadiana,  crossed  here  by  a  stone  bridge 
of  28  arches.  It  is  5  miles  from  the  Port- 
uguese frontier,  174  miles  from  Lisbon,  and  315 
from  Madrid  by  rail.  Badajoz  is  a  fortress  of 
the  first  rank,  and  has  an  old  cathedral  built 
like  a  fortress,  with  a  splendid  organ.  Its  chief 
articles  of  manufacture  are  hats,  soap,  coarse 
woollens,  leather,  and  pottery.  Pop.  (1900) 
80,900.  Badajoz  was  the  Pax  Augusta  of  the 
Romans,  the  Bax  Augos,  Bathaljus  of  the  Moors. 
As  one  of  the  keys  of  Portugal,  it  has  often  been 
besieged — twice  in  vain  by  the  British  in  1811, 
but  was  stormed  by  Wellington  in  1812,  after  a 
most  murderous  resistance  by  the  French,  and 
delivered  up  to  pillage  for  two  days.  The  pro- 
vince has  an  area  of  8687  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of 
(1900)  520,246. 

Badakhshan',  a  territory  of  Central  Asia, 
lying  in  36°— 38°  N.  lat.,  and  69°— 72"  E.  long., 
with  the  chain  of  the  Hindu  Kush  on  the  S.,  and 
the  Oxus,  or  Amu  Darya,  on  the  N.  It  is  drained 
by  the  Kokcha,  a  head-stream  of  that  river,  and 
is  famous  throughout  the  East  as  a  picturesque 
hill-country  diversified  with  woods,  rich  pasture, 
and  fertile,  well-cultivated  valleys,  its  surface 
varying  from  500  to  15,600  feet  above  sea-level. 
Faizabad  (q.v.)  is  the  capital.  The  inhabitants, 
estimated  at  100,000,  are  largely  Tajiks,  an  Aryan 
race  speaking  Persian,  and  Mohammedans. 

See  Yule's  Marco  Polo  (1871) ;  "Wood's  Journey 
to  the  Source  of  the  Oxus  (new  ed.  1872) ;  and  Vam- 
b6ry's  Central  Asia  (1874). 

Badalona,  a  Spanish  seaport,  5  miles  NE.  of 
Barcelona.     Pop.  19,885. 

Baden  (Bdh-den),  a  grand-duchy  in  the  SW. 
corner  of  the  German  empire  between  Alsace- 


Lorraine  and  Wlirtemberg,  separated  from  Swit-- 
zerlaud  by  the  Rhine.  Area,  5824  sq.  m.,  less 
than  Yorkshire  ;  pop.  (1900)  1,867,944,  mainly 
Catholics.  The  Schwarzwald,  or  Black  Forest 
(q.v.),  attains  a  maximum  altitude  of  4903  feet. 
Being  drained  by  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube, 
Baden  belongs  to  the  basins  of  two  ojjposite 
seas  ;  the  sources  of  the  Danube,  however,  drain 
only  some  350  sq.  m.  The  Rhine's  chief  tribu- 
taries are  the  Neckar,  Murg,  and  Elz.  On  the 
north-east  the  Baden  territories  are  bounded  by 
the  Maine.  Except  a  part  of  the  Lake  of  Con- 
stance, Baden  has  no  lake  of  importance.  The 
Rhine  Valley  of  Baden  is  one  of  the  warmest  and 
most  fruitful  districts,  not  only  of  Germany,  but 
of  Europe.  Grain,  vegetables  of  all  sorts,  tobacco, 
hemp,  rape,  opium,  &c.  are  grown,  and  a  large 
quantity  of  wine  is  produced.  The  principal 
minerals  are  the  products  of  the  limestone 
quarries  and  of  the  clay  and  gravel  pits,  and 
gypsum,  largely  used  for  pavements.  Coal,  zinc, 
and  manganese  are  found,  and  the  production  of 
salt  and  soda  is  important.  Baden  is  rich  in 
mineral  springs ;  and  there  are  a  great  number 
of  much-frequented  watering-places,  as  Baden- 
Baden,  Badenweiler,  &c. 

The  manufactures  of  Baden  include  ribbons 
and  cotton  fabrics,  paper,  leather,  rubber  goods, 
chemicals,  machinery,  tobacco,  chicory,  sugar, 
beer,  trinkets,  mirrors,  wooden  clocks,  and  straw- 
plaiting.  Karlsruhe  is  the  residence  of  the 
sovereign  ;  the  capitals  of  the  four  '  circles '  are 
Constance,  Fre.iburg,  Karlsruhe,  and  Mannheim  ; 
and  besides,  there  are  two  towns  each  with  a 
population  above  20,000. 

Baden,  a  town  and  fashionable  watering-place 
in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Aargau,  on  tlie  Linimat, 
14  miles  NW.  of  Ziirich  by  rail.  Its  sulphur- 
baths,  the  Thermce  Helvetica  of  the  Romans, 
yearly  attract  some  20,000  visitors.  Their  tem- 
perature is  as  high  as  117'  F.    Pop.  6692. 

Baden-Baden,  a  town  in  the  grand-duchy  of 
Baden,  situated  in  the  pleasant  valley  of  the  Oos, 
at  the  edge  of  the  Black  Forest,  8  miles  from  the 
Rhine,  and  23  SSW.  of  Karlsruhe  by  rail.  Pop. 
above  16,000 ;  but  its  visitors  during  the  season 
(May — September)  are  often  four  times  the  num- 
ber of  the  settled  population.  Its  thirteen 
medicinal  springs  were  known  to  'the  Romans. 
They  have  a  temperature  of  115°  to  150°  F.,  are 
impregnated  with  iron,  magnesia,  lime,  and  sul- 
I)huric  and  carbonic  acids,  and  are  especially 
recommended  in  chronic  cutaneous  diseases,  gout, 
rheumatism,  and  stomach  complaints.  The  beauty 
of  Baden-Baden  has  been  largely  due  to  its  gam- 
ing-tables, once  the  most  renowned  in  Europe, 
but  closed  in  1872  ;  besides  paying  a  rent  of  over 
£14,000,  they  devoted  a  like  sum  yearly  to  the 
beautifying  of  the  promenades  and  public  gardens. 
The  buildings  include  the  Conversationshaus 
(1824) ;  the  new  Trinkhalle,  or  pump-room  (1842) ; 
the  theatre  (1862) ;  the  Friedrichsbad  (1877) ;  the 
villa  occupied  by  Queen  Victoria  in  1872  and 
1876  ;  the  ruined  '  old  castle '  crowning  the  Schloss- 
berg  ;  and  the  '  new  castle  '  (1479),  destroyed,  like 
the  old,  by  the  French  in  1689,  but  restored,  and 
now  the  summer  residence  of  the  grand- duke. 

Baden  bei  Wien  (i.e.  'Baden  near  Vienna;' 
Bdh-den  bl  Veane),  a  watering-place  of  Austria,  on 
the  Schwechat,  17  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Vienna  by 
rail.  It  was  the  Aquce  Pannonicce  of  the  Romans, 
and  is  still  famous  for  its  warm  mineral  springs, 
which  are  visited  during  the  season  by  upwards 
of  10,000  persons.  They  are  sulphurous,  with 
much  carbonic  acid  gas,  have  a  temperature  of 


feADENOCH  ^3 


BAGSHOT  HEATH 


79°  to  104°  F.,  and  are  good  for  skin  diseases, 
gout,  and  rheumatism.     Pop.  12,500. 

Ba'denoch,  a  Highland  district  in  tlie  south- 
east part  of  Inverness-shire,  45  miles  long  by  19 
broad,  bounded  by  Lochaber,  Atliole,  Braemar, 
and  Moray,  and  traversed  by  the  Spey. 

Badenweiler,  a  Black  Forest  watering-place  in 
the  SW.  corner  of  Baden,  20  miles  NNE.  of  Basel ; 
frequented  yearly  by  some  5000  visitors. 

BadgMs,  a  region  north  of  Herat,  comprising 
the  country  between  the  Murghab  and  the  Hari- 
rud  rivers,  as  far  northward  as  the  edge  of  the 
desert.  It  lies  just  to  the  south  of  the  boundary 
line  between  Afghanistan  and  the  Russian  terri- 
tories, as  defined  in  1887. 

Badminton,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Beaufort, 
in  the  south  of  Gloucestershire,  7  miles  E.  of 
Yate  Junction.  It  is  a  stately  Palladian  edifice 
of  1682,  with  a  fine  park. 

Badrinathi,  a  peak  of  the  main  Himalayan 
range,  Garhwal  district.  North-western  Pro- 
vinces, India,  22,901  feet  above  the  sea.  A  shrine 
of  Vishnu  stands  on  one  of  its  shoulders  at  a 
height  of  10,400  feet,  56  miles  NE.  of  Srinagar. 

Baena,  a  Spanish  town  25  miles  SSE.  of  Cor- 
dova.    Pop.  14,801. 

Baeza,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  the  province  of 
Jaen,  9  miles  from  Baeza  station,  this  being  160 
S.  of  Madrid.  The  Roman  Beatia,  and  the  seat 
of  Moorish  califs,  with  150,000  inhabitants,  it 
never  fairly  recovered  from  its  sack  by  the 
Castilians  in  1228.  Here  are  a  quondam  uni- 
versity (1533)  and  the  oratory  of  St  Philip  de 
Neri.    Pop.  15,430. 

Baffin  Bay,  a  gulf,  or  rather  sea,  on  the  NE. 
coast  of  North  America,  extending  between 
Greenland  and  the  great  islands  NE.  of  Hudson 
Bay  (one  of  which  is  called  Baffin  Island),  in  69" 
to  78°  N.  lat.  It  is  about  800  miles  long,  with  an 
average  breadth  of  280.  The  shores  are  lofty  and 
precipitous,  backed  by  snow-clad  mountains. 
Baffin  Bay  communicates  with  the  Atlantic  by 
Davis  Strait ;  and  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  by 
Smith  and  Lancaster  Sounds.  Discovered  in 
1562,  it  was  first  explored  in  1615  by  "William 
Baffin,  pilot  of  Bylot's  expedition. 

Bagamoyo,  a  village  on  the  coast  of  German 
East  Africa,  opposite  the  island  of  Zanzibar,  a 
frequent  starting  point  of  expeditions  to  the 
interior. 

Bagdad,  or  Baghdad,  the  capital  of  a  pro- 
vince of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  Tigris,  500 
miles  from  its  mouth.  It  is  surrounded  by  a 
brick  wall,  5  miles  in  circumference,  and  40  feet 
high,  but  in  some  places  broken  down,  and  by  a 
deep  dry  ditch  ;  the  river  is  spanned  by  a  bridge 
of  boats,  220  yards  long,  and  the  communication 
is  guarded  by  a  citadel.  There  are  four  gates, 
the  finest  of  which,  bearing  date  1220,  has  re- 
mained closed  since  1638.  Bagdad  has  an  ex- 
tremely picturesque  appearance  from  the  outside, 
being  encircled  and  interspersed  with  groves  of 
date-trees,  through  which  one  may  catch  the 
gleam  of  domes  and  minai-ets ;  but  it  does  not 
improve  on  closer  inspection.  The  bazaars 
exhibit  the  produce  of  both  Turkish  and  Euro- 
pean markets ;  but  commerce  has  greatly  de- 
creased since  Persia  began  to  trade  with  Europe 
by  way  of  Trebizond,  or  of  the  Persian  Gulf  on 
the  south.  Nevertheless  Bagdad  still  carries  on 
a  considerable  traffic  with  Aleppo  and  Damascus, 
and  has  manufactures  of  red  and  yellow  leather. 
Bilks,  and  cotton  stuffs.  Dates,  wool,  grain,  and 
Hmbac  (a  substitute  for  tobacco)  are  exported,  I 


and  a  number  of  horses  are  .sent  into  India.  Of 
the  population,  estimated  at  180,000,  the  greatest 
part  are  Turks  and  Arabs.  In  1831  an  inundation 
destroyed  one-half  of  the  town  and  several 
thousand  lives.  Cholera  visits  it  periodically; 
in  1831,  4000  people  perished  daily  for  several 
days  from  its  ravages.  In  1870-71  Bagdad  also 
suff"ered  severely  from  famine.  Since  1836,  British 
steamers  have  plied  on  the  Tigris  between  Bagdad 
and  Ba.sra  ;  and  here  is  one  of  the  chief  stations 
of  the  Anglo-Indian  telegraph. 

Bagdad  in  the  9th  century  was  greatly  enlarged 
by  Haroun  Al-Raschid,  and  under  his  son,  Al- 
Mamun,  it  became  the  great  seat  of  Arabic  learn- 
ing and  literature.  It  was  conquered  by  the 
sultan,  Murad  IV.,  in  1638,  and  ever  since  has 
been  under  the  sway  of  the  Porte.  The  province 
of  Bagdad,  comprising  great  part  of  the  lower 
basins  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  falls  into  the 
vilayets  of  Bagdad  (pop.  850,000),  Mosul  (350,000), 
and  Basra  (200,000). 

Bagenalstown,  a  market-town  on  the  Barrow, 
in  the  county,  and  10  miles  S.  of  the  town  of 
Carlow.     Pop.  1900. 

Baghal,  or  Bhagul,  a  Puiyab  hill-state  in 
North-west  India,  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Sutlej.    Area,  124  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  24,633. 

Baghelkhand,  the  name  of  five  native  states, 
under  the  political  superintendence  of  the 
governor-general's  agent  for  Central  India,  lying 
to  the  south  of  the  districts  of  Mirzapur  and 
Allahabad.  The  total  area  is  11,324  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  1,562,595. 

Bagheria,  or  Baoaria,  a  town  of  Sicily,  8 
miles  E.  by  S.  of  Palermo  by  rail     Pop.  12,650. 

Baghistan.    See  Behistun. 

Baglrml,  or  Baghermi,  a  country  in  Central 
Africa,  bounded  on  the  W.  by  Bornu  and  a  por- 
tion of  Lake  Tsad.  Its  area  is  estimated  at 
nearly  71,000  sq.  m. ;  its  pop.  at  1,500,000.  The 
capital  is  Masena. 

Bagnacavallo  (Ban-ya-ca-val'lo),  a  cathedral 
city  of  Italy,  11  miles  W.  of  Ravenna.    Pop.  3843. 

Bagnara  (Ban-ydh'ra),  an  Italian  coast-town, 
16  miles  NE.  of  Reggio.     Pop.  9749. 

Bagneres  (Ban-yehr'),  two  watering-places  both 
in  the  Pyrenees,  France. — (1)  Bagneres  de 
BiGORRE,  on  the  Adour,  in  the  dep.  of  Hautes 
Pyrenees,  1820  feet  above  sea-level,  13  miles  SE. 
of  Tarbes  by  rail.  Known  to  the  Romans  as 
Vicus  Aquensis  Balnearice  or  Aquce  Bigerroruvi, 
it  now  is  visited  by  20,000  strangers  yearly,  and 
has  fourteen  baths  and  over  fifty  springs  (90°  to 
135°  F.),  recommended  for  catarrhal  and  nervous 
diseases.  Pop.  6986. — (2)  Bagneres  de  Luchon, 
in  the  dep.  of  Haute  Garonne,  43  miles  by  road 
SE.  of  Bagneres  de  Bigorre,  and  22  by  rail  S. 
of  Montrejeau  Junction.  Its  cold,  tepid,  and 
hot  sulphurous  waters  (up  to  130°  F.)  are  recom- 
mended in  rheumatism,  gout,  cutaneous  dis- 
eases, and  paralysis,  and  attract  10,000  visitors 
annually.     Pop.  3585. 

Bagnl  di  Lucca  (Ban'yee  dee  Look'ka),  a  bath- 
ing-place of  Italy,  17  miles  N.  of  Lucca,  and  has 
hot  springs  of  from  96"  to  136°  F.    Pop.  900. 

Bagno  a  Ripoll  (Ban'yo  dh  Rip'olee),  an  Italian 
village,  5  miles  from  Florence,  containing  baths. 

Bagno  in  Romagna  (Ban'yo  in  Eomdn'ya),  an 
Italian  bathing-place,  on  the  Savio,  35  miles  E. 
by  N.  of  Florence.  It  has  hot  springs  of  tem- 
perature 108°-110'  F.     Pop.  1875. 

Bagsliot  Heath,  near  Windlesham  in  Berk- 


SABAMAS 


14 


BAt&AL 


fehire  and  Surrey,  is  a  tract  of  nearly  50  sq.  m., 
463  feet  above  sea-level. 

Baha'mas,  or  Lucayos  (Span.  Los  Cayos),  a 
chain  of  British  West  Indian  islands,  stretching 
nearly  600  miles  north-westward  from  near  the 
north  coast  of  Hayti  to  the  east  coast  of  Florida. 
The  chain  extends  in  N.  lat.  from  21°  42'  to  27° 
34',  and  in  W.  long,  from  72°  40'  to  79°  5'.  There 
are  20  larger  islands,  653  islets  or  cays,  and  2387 
reefs.  The  chief  members  of  the  group,  if 
reckoned  from  the  NW.,  are :  Great  Bahama, 
Abaco,  Eleuthera,  New  Providence,  Andros,  Cat 
Island,  San  Salvador  or  Watling's  Island,  Exuma, 
Long  Island,  Crooked  Island,  Acklin,  Mariguana, 
Inagua,  Little  Inagua.  The  Caicos  (q.v.)  and 
Turk's  Island,  which  geographically  belong  to 
the  Bahamas,  have  since  1848  been  politically 
annexed  to  Jamaica. 

The  area  is  5390  sq.  m. ;  and  in  1900  the  popula- 
tion was  53,565,  of  whom  about  6500  are  Euro- 
peans. Of  coralline  formation,  the  islands  gener- 
ally are  of  reef-like  shape,  long,  narrow,  and 
low,  the  highest  hill  not  exceeding  230  feet. 
With  very  little  appearance  of  soil,  they  derive 
considerable  fertility  from  the  tendency  of  the 
porous  rock  to  retain  moisture.  Sponges  are 
largely  found  round  the  shores.  Cotton  cultiva- 
tion received  a  great  impulse  during  the  American 
civil  war.  The  sugar-cane,  too,  is  grown  more 
largely  than  formerly  ;  but  the  salt  manufacture 
has  ceased  to  be  remunerative.  The  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  57°  to  113°  F. ;  but  in  the  winter 
the  climate  is  so  delightfully  temperate  as  to  be 
often  recommended  in  the  United  States  to 
sufferers  from  pulmonary  complaints.  The 
annual  rainfall  is  from  43  to  45  inches.  In  1866 
and  1883  the  Bahamas  were  visited  by  furious 
and  destructive  cyclones. 

The  Bahamas,  Columbus's  earliest  discovery 
(1492),  were  occupied  in  1629  by  the  English, 
to  whom,  after  various  vicissitudes  of  fortune 
in  the  wars  with  Spain  and  France,  they  were 
ultimately  secured  by  the  peace  of  Versailles 
(1783).  Nassau,  in  New  Providence,  is  the  seat 
of  government.  During  the  American  civil  war, 
Nassau  became  the  station  for  blockade-runners, 
and  thence  derived  unexampled  prosperity ;  the 
value  of  imports  and  exports  rising  from  £234,029 
and  £157,350  in  1860,  to  £5,346,112  and  £4,672,398 
in  1864.  They  have  greatly  declined  since ;  their 
present  annual  value,  on  a  four  years'  average, 
being  £325,000  and  £200,000.  So  far,  however, 
as  agriculture  is  concerned,  the  impulse  then 
received  has  been  maintained  by  the  Bahamas. 
Both  Baptists  and  Wesleyans  are  nearly  twice 
as  numerous  as  members  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land, which  was  disestablished  in  1869.  See 
works  by  Bacot  (2d  ed.  1871)  and  Powles  (1888). 

Bahar.    See  Behar. 

Bahawalpur,  capital  of  an  Indian  native  state 
in  political  connection  with  the  Punjab,  lies 
near  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej,  which  here  is 
crossed  by  the  fine  '  Empress '  railway  bridge.  It 
has  manufactures  of  scarfs,  turbans,  silks,  and 
chintzes.  Pop.  13,635.  Area  of  the  state,  17,285 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  750,042. 

Bahia  (Bd-ee'a),  capital  of  a  Brazilian  province, 
next  to  Rio  de  Janeiro  the  largest  city  of  the 
republic,  on  a  range  of  hills  along  the  sea-shore. 
The  bay,  which  is  one  of  the  finest  in  America,  is 
defended  by  forts,  with  the  island  of  Itaparica 
sheltering  the  entrance.  Bahia  has  a  university, 
and  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop,  who  is  primate 
of  Brazil.  The  chief  exports  are  sugar,  cotton, 
coflfee,  tobacco,  rice,  &c.    Bahia  is  the  oldest 


city  in  Brazil,  and  till  1763  was  the  capital, 
The  bay  was  discovered  by  Amerigo  Vespucci 
in  1503,  and  the  city  was  fonnded  by  a  Portu- 
guese navigator  named  Correa  in  1510.  Pop. 
180,000.— The  province  has  an  area  of  164,502 
sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  1,950,000. 

Bahia  Blanca,  a  growing  port  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  in  the  province  of  Buenos  Ayres.  It  is 
situated  on  tlie  Naposta  River,  three  miles  from 
its  entrance  into  the  bay  of  Bahia  Blanca,  and 
has  a  good  harbour.     Pop.  about  10,000. 

Bahia  Honda,  a  harbour  on  the  north  coast 
of  Cuba,  60  miles  WSW.  of  Havana,  protected  by 
a  fort.    Pop.  1500. 

Bahr,  an  Arabic  word  signifying  a  large  body 
of  water,  is  applied  both  to  lakes  and  rivers. — 
Bahr-el-Abiad  (the  White  River),  and  Bahr-el- 
Azrak  (the  Blue  River),  are  the  chief  branches 
of  the  Nile  (q.v.).— Bahr-el-Ghazal  is  the  name 
of  the  upper  branch  of  the  Nile,  constituted  by 
the  Bahr-el-Arab  and  many  other  tributaries, 
which  flows  sluggishly  eastward  to  join  the 
Bahr-el-Jebel  and  so  form  the  Bahr-el-Abiad. 
The  Bahr-el-Ghazal  gives  name  to  a  province  in 
the  SW.  of  the  Egyptian  Soudan,  bravely  held  for 
years  by  the  governor,  Frank  Lupton.— Bahr-el- 
Yemen  is  the  Red  Sea  (q.v.),  and  Bahr-Ltit  (Sea 
of  Lot)  the  Dead  Sea  (q.v.). 

Bahraich,  a  town  of  Oudh,  India,  70  miles 
NE.  of  Lucknow.  To  the  shrine  of  MasSdd,  a 
warrior  and  Mussulman  saint,  there  is  a  great 
concourse  of  pilgrims  every  May.     Pop.  27,000. 

Bahrein  Islands,  or  Aval  Islands,  a  group 
of  islands  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  The  most  import- 
ant of  these  is  Bahrein  (pop.  40,000),  33  miles 
long  and  10  broad.  Manama,  the  capital,  has  a 
good  harbour.  The  Bahrein  Islands  are  chiefly 
remarkable  for  their  pearl-ttsheries,  which  em- 
ploy, during  the  season,  from  1000  to  2000  boats, 
each  manned  with  from  8  to  20  men.  The 
annual  value  of  the  pearls  is  estimated  at  up- 
wards of  £300,000.  The  islands  are  inhabited  by 
Arabs,  and  since  1861  have  been  under  English 
protection.     Pop.  70,000. 

Baisa,  a  small  town  of  antiquity,  on  the  coast 
of  Campania,  10  miles  W.  of  Naples  and  opposite 
Puteoli.  The  ruins  still  standing  on  the  desolate 
coast,  or  visible  beneath  the  clear  waters  of  the 
sea,  are  now  the  only  evidence  of  its  former 
magnificence. 

Baikal  (Turkish,  Bei-kul,  '  rich  lake ')  is,  after 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Aral,  the  largest 
lake  of  Asia,  with  an  area  of  13,500  sq.  m.  It 
is  a  fresh-water  lake,  and  is  situated  in  the  south 
of  Siberia,  in  the  government  of  Irkutsk,  in  51° 
20'— 55°  30'  N.  lat.,  and  103°— 110°  E.  long.,  and 
somewhat  resembles  a  sickle  in  shape.  Its 
length  is  330  miles,  and  its  breadth  9J  to  40 
miles ;  height  above  the  sea,  1360  feet ;  mean 
depth  850  feet,  but  in  some  places  as  much  as 
4500  feet,  more  than  3000  feet  below  sea-level. 
Its  waters  are  a  deep  blue,  and  remarkably  clear. 
Its  outlet  is  by  the  Lower  Angara,  a  chief  tribu- 
tary of  the  Yenisei ;  but  the  river  is  inconsider- 
able in  size  compared  with  those  Avhich  flow  into 
the  lake.  It  has  several  islands— the  largest, 
Olkhon,  32  miles  long.  There  are  numerous  hot 
springs  on  its  shores,  and  earthquakes  are  fre- 
quent. Formerly  the  lake — or  rather  sea — seems 
to  have  been  much  more  extensive.  The  diffi- 
cult section  of  the  great  Siberian  railway  passing 
round  the  south  end  of  the  sea  was  not  completed 
till  1904 ;  the  connection  being  till  then  carried  on 
by  steamers  (or  across  the  Baikal  ice  in  winter). 


BAILEir 


BALASIAVA 


The  annual  value  of  its  salmon,  sturgeon,  and 
other  fisheries  is  estimated  at  200,000  roubles. 
The  capture  of  fresh-water  seals  is  a  source  of 
income  to  the  Russian  settlers.  The  surface  of 
the  lake  is  frozen  from  November  to  May,  but 
the  traffic  is  carried  on  over  the  ice. 

Bailen',  or  Baylen,  a  town  of  Andalusia, 
Spain,  22  miles  N.  of  Jaen.  Pop.  7988. .  Here, 
on  July  19,  1808,  the  Spaniards  won  their  first 
and  only  victory  over  the  French,  18,000  of  whom 
laid  down  their  arms. 

Bailiehorough,  a  market-town  of  Cavan 
county,  58  miles  NW.  of  Dublin.     Pop.  1154. 

Bailleul  (Ba-yvl'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Nord,  19  miles  NW.  of  Lille.  The  Baliol  family 
hence  derived  its  name.     Pop.  11, 900. 

Baireuth,  or  Bayreuth  (Bye'roit),  capital  of 
the  Bavarian  province  of  Upper  Franconia,  on 
the  Red  Maine,  43  miles  NNE.  of  Nuremberg  by 
rail.  Its  principal  buildings  are  the  old  palace, 
dating  from  1454  ;  the  new  palace  (1753) ;  the  old 
opera-house  (1748);  and  a  magnificent  'national 
theatre '  (1875)  for  the  performance  of  the  operas 
of  Wagner,  who,  dying  at  Venice,  was  in  1883 
buried  in  the  garden  of  his  villa  here.  Jean 
Paul  Richter  died  here  in  1825,  and  a  monument 
has  been  erected  to  his  memory.  Baireuth's 
chief  articles  of  industry  are  cottons,  woollens, 
linen,  leather,  tobacco,  parchment,  and  porce- 
lain. Population,  30,000,  of  whom  only  about 
15  per  cent,  are  Catholics.  See  Milner-Barry's 
Baireuth  and  the  Franconian  Switzerland  (1887). 

Baitul,  or  Betul  (Bay-tool'),  a  town  of  British 
India,  in  the  hill-country  of  the  Central  Province, 
50  miles  NE.  of  Ellichpur.     Pop.  5700. 

Baja  (Bdh'ya),  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  on 
the  Danube,  90  m.  S.  of  Pesth,  with  a  fine  castle, 
several  convents,  and  brisk  trade.     Pop.  19,941. 

Bajmok  (Bye-mok),  a  village  of  Hungary,  16 
miles  SW.  of  Theresienstadt.     Pop.  6661. 

Bakarganj,  a  British  district  in  the  Dacca 
division  of  India,  under  the  lieutenant-governor 
of  Bengal,  contains  3649  sq.  m.  Barisal,  the 
headquarters,  on  the  Barisal  River,  is  the  only 
town  Avith  over  5000  inhabitants.  Bakarganj, 
the  former  capital,  near  the  junction  of  the 
Krishnakati  and  Khairabad  rivers,  is  now  in 
ruins.     Pop.  2,353,965. 

Bakau  (Ba-kow'),  a  Roumanian  town  on  the 
river  Bistrisza,  187  miles  N.  of  Bucharest  by 
rail.    Pop.  15,000. 

Bakchiserai  (Turkish,  'Garden  Palace'),  a 
town  in  the  Russian  government  of  Taurida,  the 
residence  of  the  ancient  princes  or  khans  of  the 
Crimea,  15  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  the  present 
capital,  Simferopol.  The  palace  (1519)  of  the 
khans  has  been  restored  by  the  Russian  govern- 
ment in  the  oriental  style.     Pop.  15,377. 

Bakel,  a  town  with  a  strong  fort,  in  the  E.  of 
the  French  colony  of  Senegal,  on  the  Senegal 
River.    Pop.  2600. 

Baker,  Mount,  a  volcano  (14,100  feet)  of 
Washington  State,  U.S.,  in  the  Cascade  Range, 
a  continuation  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  20  miles 
from  the  Canadian  frontier.  It  was  very  active 
in  1880. 

Bakewell,  an  ancient  market-town  in  Derbv- 
shire,  on  the  Wye,  25  miles  NNW.  of  Derby,  it 
has  warm  baths  and  a  mineral  spring.   Pop.  2848. 

Bakhmut,  a  town  of  Southern  Russia,  in  the 
government  of  Ekaterinoslav,  on  a  tributary  of 
the  Donetz.    Pop.  19,674. 


Bakhtegan,  or  Niris,  a  shallow  salt-lakd 
(74  X  13i  miles)  in  the  Persian  province  of  Far- 
sistan,  47  miles  E.  of  Shiraz. 

Bakony  Forest,  a  densely  wooded  hill-country 
of  Hungary,  extending  from  Lake  Balaton  north- 
ward to  the  Danube.  Immense  herds  of  swine 
are  annually  driven  hither  to  feed  upon  the 
mast. 

Baku,  an  important  seaport  of  Russian  Trans- 
caucasia, on  the  Apsheron  peninsula,  on  a 
crescent-shaped  bay  in  the  Caspian  Sea.  Since 
1883  it  has  been  connected  by  rail  with  Tiflis, 
and  so  with  Poti  and  Batoum  on  the  Black  Sea, 
561  miles  distant ;  and  since  1887,  by  the  North 
Caucasus  Railway,  with  Novorossiak  on  the 
Black  Sea.  The  whole  soil  around  Baku  is 
impregnated  with  petroleum,  which,  mono- 
polised till  1872,  now  forms  the  staple  branch 
of  its  industry.  Some  of  the  fountains  ignite 
spontaneously,  a  fact  which  caused  Baku  to  be 
esteemed  as  a  holy  city  by  the  Parsees  (see 
Ateshga).  Most  of  the  petroleum  wells  are 
situated  on  the  Balakhani  peninsula,  8  or  9 
miles  to  the  north.  Lines  of  pipe  carry  the 
oil  into  the  '  black  toAvn '  of  Baku,  which  is  full 
of  oil  refineries  emitting  vast  volumes  of  smoke. 
One  well,  tapped  in  1886,  began  to  spout  oil  with 
extraordinary  force,  deluging  the  whole  district, 
till  the  outflow,  on  the  eighth  day,  had  reached 
a  daily  rate  of  11,000  tuns,  or  more  than  the 
entire  produce  of  the  Avorld  at  the  time.  Another 
gigantic  naphtha  fountain  burst  out  in  1887, 
rising  to  a  height  of  350  feet,  and  after  forming 
an  extensive  petroleum  lake,  forced  its  way  into 
the  sea.  How  rapidly  the  industry  grew  may  be 
judged  from  the  fact  that  the  number  of  drilled 
wells  increased  from  1  in  1871  to  400  in  1883. 
Cotton,  silk,  opium,  saffron,  and  salt  are  also 
exported.  The  Arabian  Masudi  is  the  first  who 
mentions  Baku,  about  943,  and  he  gives  an 
account  of  a  great  volcanic  mountain  in  its 
vicinity,  now  extinct.  Baku  was  taken  by 
Russia  from  the  Persians  in  1806.  The  harbour, 
which  is  strongly  fortified,  is  one  of  the  chief 
stations  of  the  Russian  navy  in  the  Caspian. 
The  population— some  16,000  in  1880— was  in  1900 
about  115,000.  Baku  is  capital  of  a  government 
of  Russian  Transcaucasia,  witli  an  area  of  15,516 
sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  810,000.  See  works  by 
Marvin  (1884-86). 

Bala,  a  town  of  Merionethshire,  North  Wales, 
near  the  foot  of  Bala  Lake,  12  miles  SW.  of 
Corwen  by  rail.  Pop.  1622.  Bala  Lake  measures 
4  miles  by  1  mile,  and  sends  off  the  Dee  from  its 
foot.  From  Lake  Vyrnwy  (q.v.),  10  miles  south, 
Liverpool  draws  its  water-supply. 

Balaghat'  ('  above  the  Ghats '),  a  large  tract  of 
elevated  country  in  the  south  of  India,  extend- 
ing from  the  rivers  Toombudra  and  Krishna  in 
the  north  to  the  farthest  extremity  of  Mysore  in 
the  south.  Also  a  British  district  in  the  Central 
Provinces.     Pop.  330,554. 

Balahlssar,  a  village  in  the  south-western 
part  of  the  province  of  Angora,  in  Asia  Minor, 
on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Pessinus,  which  was 
famous  for  its  worship  of  Cybele. 

Balakla'va,  a  small  Greek  fishing- village  with 
700  inhabitants,  in  the  Crimea,  8  miles  SE.  of 
Sebastopol.  The  landlocked  harbour,  which 
affords  secure  anchorage  for  the  largest  ships, 
till  1860  Avas  a  naval  station.  Balaklava  is  the 
Symbolon  Limen  of  Strabo,  and  the  Cembalo  of  the 
Genoese  (1365-1475),  who  were  expelled  by  the 
Turks,  as  these  were  in  turn  by  the  Russians. 
During  1854-56  it  was  the  British  headquarters, 


BALASINOft 


76 


BALLAAftAT 


and  the  famous  charge  of  the  Six  Hundred  (25th 
October  1854)  has  made  the  name  glorious  as 
Thermopylte. 

Balasinor,  a  tributary  state  of  India,  in  the 
province  of  Guzerat,  Bombay.  Area  about  150 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  42,000.— The  chief  town,  Balasinor, 
is  51  miles  N.  of  Baroda.     Pop.  9000. 

Balasor',  a  seaport  of  Bengal,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Burabalang  River,  15  miles  from  its 
mouth.     Pop.  20,865. 

Ba'laton,  Lake  (Ger.  Platten-See),  a  lake,  the 
largest  in  Hungary,  55  miles  SW.  of  Pesth. 
Lying  426  feet  above  sea-level,  it  has  a  length  of 
48  miles,  a  breadth  of  10,  and  an  area  of  245 
sq.  m.  Its  mean  depth  is  20  feet,  but  in  one 
part  it  sinks  to  150.  It  is  fed  by  over  thirty 
streams— the  chief  the  Szala— as  well  as  by 
numerous  springs.  Its  outlet  is  by  the  Sio, 
which  flows  to  the  Sarvitz,  a  feeder  of  the 
Danube.  The  waters  have  a  slightly  brackish 
taste.  Fish  of  various  kinds  abound,  including 
a  kind  of  perch,  weighing  from  10  to  20  pounds, 
and  found  nowhere  else. 

Balbriggan,  a  watering-place  in  Dublin 
county,  21  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Dublin.  It  manu- 
factures linen,  cotton  (especially  cotton  stock- 
ings), and  calico.    Pop.  2233. 

Balcarres,  a  Fife  mansion  near  Colinsburgh, 
where  Lady  Ann  Barnard  wrote  'Aukl  Robin 
Gray.'    It  is  a  seat  now  of  the  Earl  of  Crawford. 

Baldock,  a  town  of  Hertfordshire,  37  miles  N. 
of  London.    Pop.  2057. 

Baldoon',  a  ruin  If  mile  SSW.  of  Wigtown,  the 
true  scene  of  Scott's  Bride  of  Lavimernioor. 

Bale.    See  Basel. 

Balearic  Isles,  a  group  of  islands— Mallorca 
(Majorca),  Minorca,  Iviza,  Formentera,  Cabrera, 
and  several  smaller  islets— lying  off  the  coast  of 
Valencia.  They  formed  from  1220  to  1344  the 
kingdom  of  Mallorca,  which  was  united  in  1349 
with  the  crown  of  Aragon  ;  and  they  now  form  a 
Spanish  province,  with  an  area  of  1935  sq.  m., 
and  a  population  of  312,000.  The  Phoenicians 
visited  the  Balearic  Isles  at  a  very  early  date, 
and  they  were  followed  by  the  Greeks,  the 
Carthaginians,  and  (123  b.c.)  the  Romans.  The 
Baleares  were  famous  slingers.  See  Bidwell's 
Balearic  Isles  (1876). 

Balerno,  a  Midlothian  village,  with  paper- 
works, on  the  Water  of  Leith,  7  miles  SW.  of 
Edinburgh.     Pop.  699. 

Balfron',  a  Stirlingshire  village,  19  miles  NNW. 
of  Glasgow.    Pop.  737. 

BalfrushL'  (more  correctly  Barfunish,  'mart  of 
burdens'),  a  town  in  the  Persian  province  of 
Mazanderan,  on  the  Bhawal,  12  miles  from  its 
mouth  in  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  is  a  centre  of 
trade  between  Russia  and  Persia.     Pop.  30,000. 

Balgovraie.    See  Don  (Aberdeenshire). 

Balham,  part  of  Streatham  (q.v.). 

Bali  (Bdh'lee),  or  Little  Java,  one  of  the  Sunda 
Islands,  lying  east  of  Java.  It  is  75  miles  long, 
50  broad,  and  2800  sq.  m.  in  area ;  pop.  760,000. 
A  chain  of  mountains  crosses  the  island  from 
east  to  west,  rising  in  the  volcanic  peak  of 
Gunungagung  to  12,379  feet.  The  Balinese  are 
a  superior  race,  and  speak  a  language  related  to 
Javanese.  Their  religion  is  Brahmanism  of  an 
ancient  type.  Under  the  Dutch,  the  nine  little 
principalities  of  the  island  are  governed  by  native 
rulers.  Chinese  and  a  few  Europeans  are  the 
chief  traders. 

Balize.    See  Belize,  Honduras. 


Balkans,  a  ridge  or  series  of  ridges  of  moun- 
tains in  south-eastern  Europe  (anc.  Hcemus ; 
Balkan  is  Turkish  for  'mountain').  They  form 
the  boundary  between  Bulgaria  and  Eastern 
Roumelia,  extending  from  Timok,  SE.  of  Sophia, 
eastward  to  the  Black  Sea,  and  accordingly  are 
the  backbone  of  the  joint  principality  of  Bulgaria 
and  Eastern  Roumelia.  The  watershed  between 
the  Danube  and  the  ^gean,  they  have  a  steep 
slope  southwards,  but  northwards  incline  gradu- 
ally towards  the  Danube.  They  are  highest  in 
the  west,  where  the  mean  height  is  6500  feet. 
The  ridge  is  crossed  by  some  30  passes,  of  which 
the  Shipka,  between  Kezanlik  and  Tirnova,  and 
4290  feet  high,  is  the  most  noted  in  history— 
especially  as  the  scene  of  severe  fighting  in  the 
Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78.— The  term  Balkan 
Peninsula,  frequently  occurring  in  connection 
with  the  evergreen  '  Eastern  Question,'  is  a  usual 
name  for  the  peninsula  in  South-eastern  Europe 
running  southwards  between  the  Adriatic  and 
the  ^gean.  The  most  convenient  northern  boun- 
dary is  the  Save  and  the  Lower  Danube  ;  though 
historically  and  politically  Roumania  and  some 
parts  of  the  Austrian  dominions  are  closely 
associated  with  the  regions  south  of  the  Danube. 
Greece  is  a  peninsula  upon  a  peninsula,  but  is 
not  usually  accounted  one  of  the  Balkan  States. 
In  a  general  way  the  Balkan  Peninsula  and 
Balkan  States  cover  the  area  of  Turkey  in  Europe 
and  the  non-Turkish  States  either  now  or  lately 
under  Turkish  suzerainty,  with  the  exception 
of  Roumania  and  Greece.  See  the  articles 
Turkey,  Bulgaria,  Servia,  Montenegro, 
Albania,  and  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina. 

Balkh  (anc.  Bactria),  a  district  of  Afghan 
Turkestan,  the  most  northerly  province  of 
Afghanistan.  Offsets  of  the  Hindu-Kush  traverse 
it  in  a  NW.  direction,  and  slope  down  to  the  low 
steppes  of  Bokhara.  Its  length  is  250  miles  ;  its 
breadth,  120.  The  natives  are  Uzbegs.— Balkh, 
long  the  chief  town,  is  surrounded  by  a  mud 
wall ;  but  though  bearing  the  imposing  title  of 
'  mother  of  cities, '  it  has  not  in  recent  times  had 
any  of  the  grandeur  of  ancient  Bactra,  on  the  site 
of  which  it  is  built.  It  was  twice  destroyed  by 
Genghis  Khan  and  Timur.  A  terrible  outbreak 
of  cholera  in  1877  caused  the  capital  of  Afghan 
Turkestan  to  be  transferred  to  Mazar,  west  of 
Balkh  ;  since  which  Balkh  has  been  an  insignifi- 
cant village. 

Balkhash'  (Kirghiz  Tengis;  Chinese  Sihai),  a 
great  inland  lake  near  the  eastern  borders  of 
Russian  Central  Asia,  between  44°  and  47°  N.  lat., 
and  73°  and  79°  B.  long.  Lying  780  feet  above 
sea-level,  it  extends  323  miles  WSW.  ;  its  breadth 
at  the  west  end  is  50  miles,  at  the  east  from  9  to 
4  miles ;  the  area  is  8400  sq.  m.  The  water  is 
clear,  but  intensely  salt.  Its  principal  feeder  is 
the  river  Hi.     It  has  no  outlet. 

Ballaarat,  or  Ballarat,  a  thriving  town  of 
"Victoria,  100  miles  WNW.  of  Melbourne,  and  68 
NW.  of  Geelong  by  rail.  It  is  next  in  import- 
ance to  Melbourne,  and  owes  its  rise  to  the  dis- 
covery of  the  gold-fields  there  in  June  1851, 
being  the  oldest  of  the  considerable  gold-fields  of 
Victoria,  and  in  fact  the  oldest  but  one  of  all 
the  gold-fields  of  the  colony.  Ballaarat  is  the 
see  of  Protestant  and  Roman  Catholic  bishops. 
Amongst  the  industries  are  iron -founding,  brew- 
ing, distilling,  with  flour  and  woollen  mills. 
When  the  surface  diggings  became  exhausted 
after  the  first  rush  in  1851,  deyjosits  of  gold 
were  found  at  greater  depths,  and  now  there  are 
mines  as  deep  as  some  English  coal-pits,  with 


BALLABGARH 


77 


BALTIC  PROVINCES 


Bteam  pumping  and  all  the  requisite  machinery. 
The  'Welcome  Nugget,'  the  largest  ever  found, 
was  discovered  in  1858  at  Bakery  Hill.  It 
weighed  2217  oz.  16  dwt.,  and  was  sold  for 
£10,500.     Pop.  (1891)  40,849  ;  (1901)  49,414. 

Ballabgarh,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  Punjab, 
21i  miles  S.  of  Delhi.     Pop.  7000. 

Ballachu'lish,  a  village  of  Argyllshire,  on 
the  south  shore  of  salt-water  Loch  Leven,  16^ 
miles  S.  of  Fort-William.  Its  quarries  of  blue 
roofing  clay-slate,  commenced  about  1760,  pro- 
duce in  a  busy  year  17,000,000  roofing-slates, 
weighing  30,000  tons.     Pop.  1045. 

Ballaghaderreen,  a  town  of  County  Mayo,  12 
miles  NW.  of  Castlereagh.    Pop.  1266. 

Ballantrae  (Ballantray'),  a  fishing-village  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Stinchar,  in  the  S.  of  Ayrshire, 
10  miles  WSW.  of  Pin  wherry  station.     Pop.  514. 

Bal'later,  a  village  of  Aberdeenshire,  on  the 
Dee,  44  miles  WSW.  of  Aberdeen  by  rail.  Near 
it  are  the  medicinal  springs  of  Pannanich,  Bal- 
moral Castle  (q.v.),  and  Ballatrich  Farm,  con- 
nected with  Byron's  boyhood.    Pop.  1250. 

Ballenstedt,  a  towni  of  Anhalt,  in  the  Harz 
Mountains,  7  miles  SE.  of  Quedlinburg  by  rail. 
Its  castle  was  a  monastery  940-1525,  and  from 
1765  till  1863  the  residence  of  the  dukes  of 
Anhalt-Bernburg.    Pop.  5S52. 

Balleny  Islands,  five  small  volcanic  islands 
discovered  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  1839,  nearly 
on  the  Antarctic  circle,  and  in  long.  164°  E. 

Ballina',  a  seaport  on  the  confines  of  counties 
Mayo  and  Sligo,  on  the  tidal  Moy,  7  miles  S.  of 
its  entrance  into  Killala  Bay,  and  168  miles  NW. 
of  Dublin  by  rail.  It  has  a  R.  C.  cathedral  (that 
of  the  Bishop  of  Killala).  In  1798  the  French 
landed  and  took  Ballina,  but  were  three  weeks 
afterwards  defeated  at  Killala.    Pop.  4505. 

Ballinakill,  a  town  of  Queen's  county,  63  miles 
SW.  of  Dublin.     Pop.  464. 

Ballinamore,  a  town  of  County  Leitrim,  15 
miles  NE.  of  Carrick-on-Shannon.    Pop.  654. 

Ballinasloe',  a  town  in  Connaught  on  the 
borders  of  counties  Gal  way  and  Kosconuuon, 
on  the  river  Suck,  94  miles  W.  of  Dublin.  At 
the  great  annual  fair  for  five  days  in  October,  as 
many  as  60,000  sheep  and  6000  horned  cattle, 
besides  horses,  have  been  sold.     Pop.  4904. 

Ballincollig,  a  town  of  County  Cork,  on  the 
Bride,  7  miles  W.  of  Cork.    Pop.  740. 

Ballingarry,  a  town  in  the  county,  and  16 
miles  SW.  of  the  town  of  Limerick.    Pop.  540. 

Ballinrobe',  a  town  of  County  Mayo,  on  the 
Robe,  17  miles  SSE.  of  Castlebar.    Pop.  1552. 

Balloch,  a  village  at  the  foot  of  Loch  Lomond, 
20J  miles  NW.  of  Glasgow. 

Ballochmyle,  an  Ayrshire  estate,  near  Mauch- 
line,  rendered  famous  by  Burns. 

Ballybay,  a  town  of  Monaghan,  79  miles  NNW. 
of  Dublin.     Pop.  1208. 

Ballybunnlon,  a  watering-place  of  Kerry,  9 
miles  NW.  of  Listowel. 

Ballycas'tle,  a  seaport  of  County  Antrim,  on 
an  open  bay  opposite  Rathlin  Isle,  68  miles  N. 
of  Belfast  by  rail.  Its  harbour  and  pier  cost 
£150,000,  but  the  former  is  silted  up,  and  the 
sea  has  destroyed  the  latter.     Pop.  1471. 

Ballyclare,  a  town  of  Antrim,  10^  miles  SW. 
of  Lame.     Pop.  2006. 

Ballyconnell,  a  village  in  the  county,  and  14 
miles  NNW.  of  the  town  of  Cavan. 


Ballygawley,  a  Tyrone  village,  11  miles  WSW. 
of  Dungannon. 

Ballyhalbert,  a  fishing-village  of  County 
Down,  13  miles  SE.  of  Newtonards. 

Ballyhooly,  a  village  in  the  county,  and  18 
miles  N.  by  E.  of  the  city  of  Cork. 

Ballyjamesdufif,  a  market-town  in  the  county, 
and  11  miles  SE.  of  the  town  of  Cavan.  Pop. 
652, 

Ballylongford,  a  Kerry  village,  8  miles  N.  of 
Listowel.     Pop.  545. 

Ballymabon,  a  market-town  in  the  county, 
and  12  miles  S.  of  the  town  of  Longford.  Pop. 
713. 

Ballyme'na,  a  town  of  County  Antrim,  on  the 
Braid,  33  miles  NNW.  of  Belfast  by  rail.  It  is 
one  of  the  greatest  linen  and  flax  markets  in 
Ireland,  and  its  vicinity  is  covered  with  extensive 
bleach-fields.     Pop.  (1901)  10,886. 

Ballymoney,  a  market-town  of  County  Antrim, 
53  miles  NNW.  of  Belfast  by  rail.    Pop.  2955. 

Ballymote,  a  town  in  the  county,  and  14  miles 
S.  of  the  town  of  Sligo.    Pop.  997. 

Ballynabinch,  a  market-town  of  County  Down, 
12i  miles  S.  of  Antrim.    Pop.  1542. 

Ballyragget,  a  town  in  the  county,  and  10 
miles  NW.  of  the  town  of  Kilkenny.     Pop.  518. 

Ballyshannon,  a  seaport  of  County  Donegal, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Erne,  on  a  small  inlet 
running  off  from  Donegal  Bay,  157  miles  NW.  of 
Dublin  by  rail.  It  is  celebrated  for  its  salmon- 
fishing.     Pop.  2359. 

Ballywalter,  a  fishing- village  of  County  Down, 
10  miles  SE.  of  Newtonards. 

Balme,  Col  de,  a  mountain  pass  (7200  feet) 
between  Mont  Blanc  and  the  Dent  du  Midi, 
taking  over  the  route  from  Martigny  to  Chamonix. 

Balmer'ino,  a  small  village  of  Fife,  on  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  3^  miles  SW.  of  Dundee  by  water. 
Near  it  are  scanty  remains  of  a  Cistercian  abbey 
(1227).    See  a  work  by  J.  Campbell  (1867). 

Balmo'ral,  a  royal  residence  in  Braemar, 
Aberdeenshire,  9  miles  W.  of  Ballater,  and  52J  of 
Aberdeen.  Standing  926  feet  above  sea-level  on 
a  natural  platform  that  slopes  gently  down  from 
the  base  of  Craig-gowan  (1437  feet)  to  the  Dee,  it 
commands  a  magnificent  prospect  on  every  side. 
The  estate  was  acquired  by  Prince  Albert  in 
1848-52;  and  the  castle  rebuilt  (1853-55)  at  a 
cost  of  £100,000  in  the  Scottish  Baronial  style  of 
architecture. 

BalCiuhi6.6.er(Bal-whidd'er),  a  Perthshire  parish, 
28  miles  NW.  of  Stirling,  with  Rob  Roy's  grave. 

Balrampur,  a  town  of  Oudh,  India,  near  the 
frontier  of  Nepaul.     Pop.  15,000. 

Balta,  a  town  on  the  Kodema,  an  affluent  of 
the  Bug,  in  the  government  of  Podolia,  Russian 
Poland.     Pop.  24,440. 

Baltic  Provinces,  the  five  Russian  govern- 
ments bordering  on  the  Baltic— viz.  Courland, 
Livonia,  Esthonia,  Petersburg,  and  Finland  ;  or 
in  a  restricted  sense  often  the  first  three.  The 
Baltic  provinces  once  belonged  to  Sweden, 
except  Courland,  which  was  a  dependency  of 
Poland.  They  came  into  the  possession  of  Russia 
partly  in  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century, 
through  the  conquests  of  Peter  the  Great,  partly 
under  Alexander  in  1809.  No  pains  have  been 
spared  to  Russianise  them,  and  since  1876-77 
they  have  lost  their  remaining  privileges,  and 
been  thoroughly  incorpgra^ed   in   the    Russian 


BALTIC  SEA 


78 


BAMBERG 


empire.    The  inhabitants  are  mainly  Esths  and 
Letts,  with  many  Germans, 

Baltic  Sea,  the  great  gulf  or  inland  sea  bor- 
dered by  Denmark,  Germany,  Russia,  and  Sweden, 
and  communicating  with  the  Kattegat  and  Nortli 
Sea  by  the  Sound  and  the  Great  and  Little  Belts. 
Its  length  is  from  850  to  900  miles;  breadth, 
from  100  to  200 ;  and  area,  including  the  Gulfs 
of  Bothnia  and  Finland,  184,496  sq.  m.,  of  which 
12,753  are  occupied  by  islands.  Its  mean  depth 
is  44  fathoms,  and  the  greatest  ascertained  depth, 
between  Gottland  and  Courland,  140.  The  group 
of  the  Aland  Islands  divides  the  south  part  of 
the  sea  from  the  north  part  or  Gulf  of  Bothnia 
(q.v.).  The  Gulf  of  P'inland  (q.v.),  branching  off 
eastwards  into  Russia,  separates  Finland  from 
Esthonia.  A  third  gulf  is  that  of  Riga  or  Livonia. 
The  Kuriseh  and  other  HafTs  are  not  gulfs,  but 
fresh-water  lal<es  at  the  mouths  of  rivers.  The 
water  of  the  Baltic  is  colder  and  clearer  than 
that  of  the  ocean,  and  contains  in  most  places 
only  a  fourth  of  the  proportion  of  salt  found  in 
the  Atlantic ;  though  the  salinity  varies  in 
different  parts  and  at  different  seasons.  Ice 
hinders  the  navigation  from  three  to  five  months 
yearly.  Rarely,  as  in  1658  and  1809,  the  wliole 
surface  is  frozen  over.  Tides,  as  in  all  inland 
seas,  are  little  perceptible— at  Copenhagen,  about 
a  foot.  Upwards  of  250  rivers  flow  into  this 
sea,  which,  through  them  and  its  lakes,  drains 
not  much  less  than  oiie-fifth  of  all  Europe, 
its  drainage  area  being  estimated  as  717,000  sq. 
m.  The  chief  of  these  rivers  are  the  Oder, 
Vistula,  Niemen,  Dwina,  Narva,  Neva,  and 
Motala.  The  principal  islands  are  Zealand,  FUnen, 
Bornholni,  Samsoe,  and  Laaland  (Danish) ;  Gott- 
land, Oland,  and,  Hveen  (Swedish) ;  the  Aland 
Islands  (Russian)-;  and  Riigen  (Prussian).  The 
Eider  Canal,  connecting  the  Baltic  near  Kiel 
with  the  North  Sea  at  Tonningen,  facilitates 
the  grain  trade ;  and  the  two  seas  are  also  con- 
nected by  the  Gotha  Canal,  which  joins  the  lakes 
of  South  Sweden.  These  are  navigable  for  boats 
of  light  draught  only ;  but  in  1887-95  a  great 
canal  was  constructed  from  Brunsbiittel,  at  tlie 
mouth  of  the  Elbe,  to  Holtenau  and  Kiel,  to 
allow  the  passage  of  the  largest  vessels,  being  61 
miles  long,  28  feet  deep,  200  wide  at  the  surface, 
and  85  at  the  bottom  ;  and  as  the  voyage  round 
from  the  Elbe  to  Kiel  represents  nearly  600  miles 
of  dangerous  sailing  or  steaming,  th«  canal  must 
prove  of  great  value  to  commerce  and  to  the 
German  navy.  Tlie  cost  was  estimated  at 
£8,000,000,  and  the  yearly  maintenance  at 
£50,000.  Tlie  most  important  harbours  in  the 
Baltic  are  :  in  Denmark,  Copenhagen ;  in  Ger- 
many, Kiel,  Liibeck,  Stralsund,  Stettin,  Danzig, 
Konigsberg,  and  Memel ;  in  Russia,  Riga,  Narva, 
Cronstadt,  and  Sveaborg  ;  and  in  Sweden,  Stock- 
holm and  Karlskrona. 

Baltimore,  a  fishing-village  in  County  Cork, 
on  Baltimore  Bay,  7  miles  S\V.  of  Skibbereen. 
Here  in  1887  the  Baroness  Burdett-Coutts  estab- 
lished a  technical  fishery  school.    Pop.  597. 

Baltimore,  a  port  of  entry  and  the  largest  city 
of  Maryland,  and  the  seventh  city  of  the  United 
States  in  population,  stands  on  the  northern 
bank  of  the  river  Patapsco,  an  arm  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  250  miles  by  ship-channel  froni  the 
ocean,  96  miles  SW.  of  Philadelphia,  and  40  NE. 
of  Washington,  D.C.,  in  39°  17'  N.  lat.,  76°  37' 
W.  long.  Its  site  is  uneven,  and  its  surround- 
ings are  picturesque  and  pleasant.  Tlie  plan  of 
the  streets  is  not  so  strictly  uniform  as  in  many 
American  cities.    The  harbour  is  spacious  arid 


perfectly  secure,  having  a  minimum  depth  of  24 
feet,  and  access  from  the  sea  is  safe  and  easy. 
Baltimore  is  an  important  centre  of  the  traffic 
in  bread-stuffs,  and  is  also  the  seat  of  extensive 
and  varied  industries— cotton  and  woollen  goods, 
flour,  tobacco  and  cigars,  beer,  glassware,  boots 
and  shoes,  iron  and  steel  (including  machinery, 
car-wheels,  iron  bridges,  stoves,  furnaces,  &c.), 
clothing,  pianos,  organs,  and  the  canning  of 
oysters,  employing  over  2000  hands. 

Baltimore  is  noted  for  the  fine  architecture  of 
its  public  and  other  buildings,  among  the  finest 
being  the  chamber  of  commerce,  the  Roman 
Catliolic  archiepiscopal  cathedral,  the  custom- 
house, the  Maryland  Institute,  the  academy  of 
music,  the  city-hall,  the  Johns  Hopkins  Hos- 
pital, the  post-office,  and  tlie  Peabody  Insti- 
tute. The  public  monuments  (the  Washington 
column  is  210  feet  high)  have  given  it  the  name 
of  the  'monumental  city.'  There  are  several 
public  squares  and  parks,  the  beautiful  Druid 
Hill  Park  of  nearly  700  acres,  being  the  most 
celebrated.  The  Johns  Hopkins  University, 
endowed  with  over  $3,500,000  by  a  Quaker  phil- 
anthropist of  that  name  (1795-1873),  was  opened 
in  1876,  and  ranks  as  one  of  the  first  seats  of 
learning  in  the  country.  Founded  in  1729,  the 
city  was  named  in  honour  of  Lord  Baltimore, 
the  founder  of  the  Maryland  colony,  and  in  1796 
was  incorporated  as  a  citv.  Pop.  (1790)  13,503 ; 
(1830)  80,625;  (1860)  212,218;  (1880)  332,313; 
(1890)  434.439;  (1000)  508,957. 

Baltinglass,  a  Wicklow  market-town,  on  the 
Slaney,  10  miles  E.  of  Mageney.     Pop.  1007. 

Baltlstan,  or  Little  Tibet,  an  alpine  region 
of  Kashmir,  through  which  the  Upper  Indus 
flows.  It  contains  Mount  Godwin-Austen,  28,250 
feet  high,  next  to  Everest  the  highest  on  the 
globe. 

Baltjik',  a  Bulgarian  seaport,  on  the  Black 
Sea,  20  miles  NE.  of  Varna.  Near  it  is  ruined 
Tomi,  whither  Ovid  was  exiled.    Pop.  4000. 

Baluchistan.    See  Beluchistan. 

Balwearle,  2  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Kirkcaldy, 
the  ruined  tower  of  the  'wizard'  Sir  Michael 
Scott. 

Bambarra,  one  of  the  Soudan  states  of  Western 
Africa,  lying  (where  5°  W.  long,  and  12°  N.  lat. 
cross  one  another)  on  both  sides  of  the  Upper 
Niger.  The  inhabitants,  a  branch  of  the  Man- 
dingoes,  number  about  2,000,000,  and  are  superior 
to  their  neighbours  in  intelligence.  The  upper 
classes  profess  Mohammedanism,  but  the  lower 
are  pagans.  The  principal  towns  are  Sego,  San- 
sanding,  Yamina,  and  Bammako.  In  1881  a 
French  treaty  with  the  sultan  of  Sego  opened 
the  country,  which  is  now  in  the  French  sphere. 

Bamberg,  a  Bavarian  city,  in  Upper  Fran- 
conia,  on  the  Regnitz,  3  miles  above  its  conflu- 
ence with  the  Main,  and  33  N.  of  Nuremberg  by 
rail.  Set  in  the  midst  of  vineyards,  orchards, 
and  hop-gardens,  and  founded  about  769,  from 
1007  to  1802  it  was  the  seat  of  independent 
prince-bishops.  The  magnificent  Romanesque 
cathedral,  founded  by  the  Emperor  Henry  II.  in 
1004,  has  five  towers,  and  contains  the  elabor- 
ately carved  tomb  of  the  founder  and  his  em- 
press, Cunigunda.  Opposite  it  is  the  palace 
(1702)  of  the  former  prince-bishops,  from  one 
of  whose  windows  Marshal  Berthier  met  his 
death.  St  Michael's  Benedictine  abbey  (1009) 
was  in  1803  converted  into  an  almshouse.  The  - 
ruins  of  the  castle  of  Altenburg  stand  on  an 
erninence  1\  niile  from  the  town.    Pop.  (1871) 


BAMBOROUGH  CASTLE 


79 


BANFFSHIRE 


25,738;  (1900)  41,850,  who  manufacture  beer, 
cotton,  cloth,  gloves,  tobacco,  &c. 

Bamborough  Castle,  an  ancient  fortress  on 
the  Northumbrian  coast,  5  miles  E.  of  Belford, 
and  10^  HE.  of  Berwick.  Crowning  a  basaltic 
roclf,  150  feet  higli,  it  was  founded  about  547 
by  Ida  the  'Flame-bearer,'  first  king  of  North- 
umbria,  and  named  Bebbanbiirh,  after  Bebbe,  his 
queen.  Forfeited  by  Tom  Forster  for  his  share 
in  the  '15,  it  was  purchased  by  Bishop  Crewe, 
and  bequeathed  by  him  in  1721  to  trustees  for 
benevolent  i^urposes.  In  1894  it  was  pui'chased 
from  the  trustees  by  Lord  Armstrong,  and  en- 
dowed as  an  almsliouse  of  cultured  poverty. 
Bamborough  village  was  a  royal  borough  before 
the  Conquest,  and  in  Edward  I.'s  time  returned 
two  members.  Grace  Darling  is  buried  in  the 
churchyard.  See  vol.  i.  of  Bateson's  History  of 
Northumberland  (1893). 

Bambouk,  a  country  of  Senegambia,  Western 
Africa,  lying  in  the  angle  formed  by  tlie  Senegal 
and  Faleme  rivers.  It  has  rich  iron  ore  and 
deposits  of  gold  in  its  rivers,  especially  the 
Faleme.  Faranaba  and  Mandinka  are  the  chief 
towns.  The  inhabitants,  Mandingoes,  are  pro- 
fessedly Mohammedans. 

Bamian,  a  mountain -valley  in  Afghanistan, 
on  the  road  between  Kabul  and  Turkestan,  and 
near  the  northern  base  of  the  Koh-i-baba  range. 
It  lies  8500  feet  above  sea-level,  is  drained  by 
a  feeder  of  the  Oxus.  The  inhabitants  are 
Hazaras.  The  most  notable  feature  of  the  dis- 
trict is  a  nuniber  of  Buddhist  figures  of  enor- 
mous size  carved  in  the  conglomerate  cave- 
pierced  rocks,  200  to  300  feet  high,  which  form 
the  northern  side  of  the  valley.  Of  these  there 
are  live ;  and  the  two  principal  were  described 
by  a  Chinese  Buddhist  monk  about  630  a.d. 
The  largest  is  173  feet  high,  or  3  feet  higher  than 
the  Nelson  Monument  in  Trafalgar  Square. 

Bam'mako,  a  trading  town  of  Bambarra,  on 
the  Upper  Niger,  fortified  by  the  French  in  1883. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Banagher,  a  town  of  King's  county,  on  the 
Shannon,  18  miles  SB.  of  Ballinasloe.    Pop.  1114. 

Banas,  or  Bunas,  three  rivers  of  India.— (1) 
In  Rajputana,  rising  in  the  Aravalli  Mountains, 
and  flowing  300  miles  NE.  and  SE.  to  the  Cham- 
bal.— (2)  A  river  also  rising  in  the  Aravalli 
Mountains,  and  flowing  180  miles  SW.  to  the 
Runn  of  Cutch. — (3)  In  Chutia  Nagpur,  Bengal, 
flowing  70  miles  N\V.  to  the  Son,  near  Rampur. 

Banat,  any  district  or  territory  under  a  Ban 
or  military  frontier  chief,  but  specially  applied 
since  1718  to  a  part  of  Hungary  which  had  no 
separate  ban  or  governor,  and  was  bounded  by 
the  Theiss,  Danube,  and  Maros.  It  was  formed 
into  an  Austrian  crown-land  in  1849,  but  was 
incorporated  with  Hungary  in  1860. 

Banbrldge,  a  town  in  County  Down,  on  the 
Bann,  76  miles  N.  of  Dublin.  It  is  a  seat  of  the 
linen  manufacture  in  all  its  stages.  Pop.  (1881) 
5609  ;  (1891)  4907  ;  (1901)  5006. 

Banbury,  a  town  of  Oxfordshire,  on  the  Oxford 
Canal  and  the  Cherwell,  23  miles  N.  of  Oxford, 
and  78  NW.  of  London  by  rail.  Its  strong  castle 
(c.  1125)  was  demolished  during  the  Great  Re- 
bellion ;  and  in  1469  the  Yorkists  were  defeated 
in  the  vicinity.  The  town  is  still  famous  for  its 
cakes  and  ale  ;  aiid  it  manufactures  webbing  and 
agricultural  implements.  Till  1885  Banbury  re- 
turned a  mejnber  to  parliament ;  and  it  is  a 
municipal  borough,  whose  bpundaries  were  greatly 


extended  in  1889.    Pop.  (1901)  12,967,  barely  one* 
third  being  in  the  town  proper. 

Banca,  an  island  from  8  to  20  miles  broad 
lying  SE.  of  Sumatra,  from  which  it  is  separated 
by  the  Strait  of  Banca.  It  forms  a  Dutch  Resi- 
dency, with  an  area  of  4977  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop. 
of  about  95,000,  one-fourth  Chinese.  Gold,  iron 
ore,  silver,  lead,  and  amber  are  found,  but  tin  is 
the  chief  mineral.  The  once  dense  forests  have 
been  terribly  thinned  for  smelting  purposes. 
The  capital,  Muntok,  in  the  north-west  part  of 
the  island,  has  a  fort  and  3000  inhabitants. 

Banchory,  a  Kincardineshire  village,  on  the 
Dee,  17  miles  WSW.  of  Aberdeen.    Pop.  1470. 

Banda,  chief  town  of  a  district  in  the  United 
Provinces,  India,  on  the  Ken  River,  95  miles 
SW.  of  Allahabad.  It  is  a  great  mart  for  cotton. 
Pop.  22,974. 

Banda  Isles,  12  Dutch  islands  of  the  Moluccas, 
50  miles  to  the  south  of  Ceram.  Area,  17  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  8000  (500  Europeans  and  half-castes).  The 
chief  production  is  the  nutmeg.  An  active 
volcano,  Gunong-Api  (1744  feet),  rises  near  the 
centre  of  the  group,  which  the  Dutch  acquired 
in  1801-14. 

Bandajan',  a  pass  (14,854  feet)  over  tlie  Hima- 
layas, in  Kashmir. 

Banda  Oriental.    See  Uruguay. 

Ban-de-la-Roche,  or  Steinthal,  a  valley  of 
Lower  Alsace,  in  the  Vosges  Mountains,  the  scene 
of  the  labours  of  Oberlin. 

Bandelkhand.    See  Bundelkhand. 

Bandon,  or  Bandonbridge,  a  town  of  County 
Cork,  on  the  Bandon,  20  miles  SW.  of  Cork  by 
rail.  Founded  in  1608  as  a  Protestant  colony,  it 
was  incorporated  by  James  I.,  and  now  belongs 
chiefly  to  the  Duke  of  Devonshire.  Till  1885 
Bandon  returned  one  member  to  the  House  of 
Commons.  Pop.  (1871)  6131 ;  (1901)  2830.— The 
river  Bandon  rises  in  the  Carberry  Mountains, 
and  after  a  course  of  40  miles  (15  navigable)  forms 
at  its  mouth  the  harbour  of  Kinsale. 

Bandong,  a  flourishing  commercial  town  in  the 
western  end  of  Java,  near  the  volcano  Gunong 
Guntour.  Since  1864  it  has  been  the  capital  of  a 
in-ovince,  the  Preanger  Regencies. 

Banff  (pron.  Bamf),  the  capital  of  Banfl'shire, 
on  the  Moray  Firth,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Deveron, 
50  miles  NNW.  of  Aberdeen  by  rail.  On  the 
right  bank  of  the  Deveron,  1\  mile  ENE.,  is  the 
fishing-town  of  Macduff',  included  since  1832  in 
the  parliamentary  burgh.  Scarce  a  fragment 
remains  of  the  old  castle,  in  which  Archbishop 
Sharp  was  born ;  the  present  castle  is  a  plain 
18th-century  edifice.  Duff'  House,  the  seat  of 
the  Duke  of  Fife,  Avas  built  in  1745  by  the  elder 
Adam.  The  jHiblic  buildings  include  a  town- 
house  (1796),  the  county  buildings  (1871),  a 
lunatic  asylum  (1865),  Chalmers's  hospital  (1862), 
and  a  museum,  of  which  Thomas  Edward  (1814- 
86),  the  'Scotch  naturalist,'  was  long  curator. 
The  harbour  of  Banff  is  inferior  to  that  of  Mac- 
duff. With  Elgin,  Cullen,  Inverury,  Kintore,  and 
Peterhead,  Banff  sends  one  member  to  parliament. 
Pop.  (1901)  7148  (nearly  half  in  Macdufl"). 

Banflf,  a  health-resort  among  the  grand  scenery 
of  the  Canadian  Rocky  Mountain  National  Park, 
in  the  south-west  of  Alberta  and  on  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway,  with  a  hot  sulphur  si)ring.  Pop. 
350. 

Banffshire,  a  county  in  the  NE.  of  Scotland, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Moray  Firth.  Its  greatest 
length  is  59  nules,  its  greatest  breadth  31,  and 


BANGALORE 


80 


BANNOCKBURN 


its  area  646  sq.  m.  The  coast  is  rocky,  but  not 
high,  except  to  the  east  of  Banff.  Chief  summits 
are  the  Bin  of  Cullen  (1050  feet),  Ben  Rinnes 
(2755),  and,  on  the  Aberdeenshire  border,  Ben 
Macdhui  (4296).  The  rivers  are  the  Spey,  which 
bounds  a  third  of  the  county  on  the  west ;  and 
the  Deveron,  61  miles  long,  and  mostly  included 
within  the  county.  The  former  ranks  after  the 
Tweed  and  Tay  as  a  salmon-river.  The  southern 
part  of  Banffshire  is  in  the  Highlands,  the  north 
being  purely  Lowland.  Banffshire  is  divided 
into  the  districts  of  Enzie,  Boyne,  Strathisla, 
Strathdeveron,  Balveny,  Glenlivet,  and  Strath- 
avon.  The  chief  towns  and  villages  are  Banff, 
Macduff,  Portsoy,  Keith,  Cullen,  Buckie,  Duff- 
town, and  Tomintoul.  Much  whisky  is  pro- 
duced. The  county  returns  one  member.  The 
battle  of  Glenlivet  (q.v.)  was  fought  in  1594. 
Pop.  (1801)  37,216  ;  (1841)  49,670  ;  (1901)  61,488. 

Bangalore,  a  fortified  town  of  Mysore,  in  a 
district  of  the  same  name,  lies  3000  feet  above 
sea-level,  216  miles  W.  of  Madras  by  ra^il.  When 
Mysore  was  occupied  by  Britain  in  1831,  Banga- 
lore was  made  the  administrative  capital  of  the 
state  ;  and  when  in  1881  Mysore  was  restored  to 
its  maharajah,  the  British  cantonment  of  Banga- 
lore was  specially  exempted.  In  1791  it  was 
stormed  by  Lord  Cornwallis.  Pop.  (1871)  142,513 ; 
(1891)  180,366  ;  (1901)  159,046. 

Bangkok,  the  capital  of  Siam,  stands  on  the 
Menam,  20  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  13°  38'  N. 
lat.  and  100°  34'  E.  long.,  and  stretches  for  some 
6  or  7  miles  along  both  sides  of  the  river,  here  a 
wide  and  noble  stream.  The  pop.  is  about 
600,000,  half  of  whom  are  Chinese,  in  whose 
hands  is  centred  nearly  all  the  trade,  which  is 
large,  the  exports  exceeding  £2,000,000,  and  the 
imports  £3,800,000.  The  approach  to  Bangkok 
by  the  Menam  is  exceedingly  beautiful,  with  its 
temples,  gardens,  noble  trees,  and  palaces.  A 
large  number  of  the  houses  float  on  rafts  moored 
to  the  banks  of  the  river  and  its  many  canals ;  and 
the  ordinary  houses  of  the  city,  which  are  almost 
wholly  of  bamboo  or  other  wood,  are  raised  upon 
piles.  The  internal  traffic  is  chiefly  carried  on 
by  means  of  canals,  there  being  only  a  few 
passable  streets  in  the  whole  city.  Bangkok  is 
the  constant  residence  of  the  king.  The  palace 
is  surrounded  by  high  walls,  and  is  nearly  a  mile 
in  circumferenca  It  includes  temples,  public 
offices,  huge  barracks,  and  a  theatre  ;  the  famous 
white  elephants  have  also  a  place  within  the 
palace.  The  temples  are  innumerable,  and 
decorated  in  the  most  gorgeous  style.  In  the 
neighbourhood  of  Bangkok  are  iron-mines  and 
forests  of  teak-wood.  Among  evidences  of  pro- 
gress, specially  rapid  after  1895,  may  be  men- 
tioned the  promotion  of  educational  institutions, 
the  erection  of  steam-mills,  the  introduction  of 
gas  and  electricity,  regular  mails  (since  1884), 
telegraph  connection  with  Burma  and  Cambodia, 
railways  to  Korat  and  Paknam  (1900).  In  1893 
French  war-ships  forced  their  way,  in  spite  of  an 
ineffective  defence,  to  Bangkok,  and  secured  here 
a  treaty  making  important  concessions  to  France. 
See  Siam. 

Bangor,  a  city  and  seaport  of  Carnarvonshire, 
on  the  Menai  Strait,  60  miles  W.  of  Chester  by 
the  main  railway  route  from  London  to  Dublin 
(1850).  Its  chief  trade  is  derived  from  the  great 
Penrhyn  slate-quarries,  5  miles  distant,  which 
employ  2000  men.  Bangor  unites  with  Car- 
narvon, &c.  in  sending  one  member.  In  525  St 
Deiniol  founded  a  college  here ;  and  in  550  he 
^ecenne  the  first  bishop ;  his  cathedral  was  thrice 


destroyed,  in  1071,  1282,  and  1402.  The  present 
cruciform  edifice  (1496-1532)  was  '  unequalled  in 
meanness,'  until  in  1869-80  it  was  restored  by  Sir 
Gilbert  Scott.  In  1883  Bangor  received  a  muni- 
cipal charter,  and  the  University  College  of  North 
Wales  was  opened  here  in  1884.  Pop.  (1851) 
6338  ;  (1891)  9892  ;  (1901)  11,269. 

Bangor,  a  small  seaport  and  watering-place  in 
County  Down,  on  the  south  side  of  the  entrance 
to  Belfast  Lough,  12  miles  ENE.  of  Belfast.  Pop. 
5903.  St  Cungall  in  555  founded  Bangor  Abbey, 
which  in  the  9th  century  had  3000  inmates.  See 
a  monograph  by  the  Rev.  C.  Scott  (2d  ed.  Bel- 
fast, 1887). 

Bangor,  a  city  and  port  in  the  state  of  Maine, 
246  miles  NE.  of  Boston  by  rail,  on  the  Penob- 
scot, 60  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  at  its  con- 
fluence with  the  Kenduskeag,  which  affords  ex- 
tensive water-power.  At  spring-tides,  here  rising 
17  feet,  the  harbour  is  accessible  for  the  largest 
vessels,  and  as  the  navigation  cannot  go  higher, 
Bangor  is  one  of  the  largest  lumber  depots  in  the 
world.  Under  English  rule  the  place  was  known 
as  Kenduskeag  ;  its  present  name  was  taken  from 
the  well-known  psalm-tune,  a  favourite  of  one  of 
its  ministers,  Seth  Noble.  It  was  incorporated 
as  a  city  in  1834.  Pop.  (1870)  18,289;  (1880) 
16,856  ;  (1890)  19,103  ;  (1900)  21,850. 

Bangor-lsco'ed  ('Bangor  below  the  Wood'), 
a  Welsh  village  on  the  Dee,  in  a  detached  por- 
tion of  Flintshire,  5  miles  SE.  of  Wrexham.  It 
was  once  the  seat  of  one  of  the  largest  monas- 
teries in  Britain,  founded  before  180  a.d.,  and 
containing  2400  monks  in  the  time  of  St  Augus- 
tine.    Pop.  554. 

Bangweo'lO,  or  Bemba,  a  great  Central  African 
lake,  discovered  by  Livingstone  in  1868,  which 
is  150  miles  long  by  75  in  width,  and  3700  feet 
above  the  sea.  The  Chambese,  flowing  into  it, 
and  the  Luapula  issuing  from  it,  constitute  the 
head-stream  of  the  Congo.  The  shores  are  flat, 
and  parts  of  the  lake  are  mere  marsh.  On  its 
south  shore  Livingstone  died. 

Banialu'ka,  a  fortified  town  of  Bosnia,  on  the 
Verbas,  54  miles  SE .  of  Novi  by  rail.     Pop.  15, 357. 

Banjermassin',  a  former  sultanate  on  the 
SE.  of  Borneo,  with  an  area  of  5928  sq.  m.,  and 
a  pop.  of  about  300,000,  chiefly  Mohammedans. 
Tributary  to  Holland  since  1787,  it  was  annexed 
in  1857. — Banjermassin,  the  capital,  is  on  the 
island  of  Tatas  ;  pop.  30,000. 

Bankipur,  an  Indian  civil  station  close  to  Patna 
(q.v.),  since  1905  sub-capital  of  Western  Bengal. 

Banks  Land,  an  island  in  the  west  of  Arctic 
America,  discovered  by  Parry  in  1819,  and  ex- 
plored by  Maclure  in  1850.  There  is  also  a 
Banks  Island  off  the  coast  of  British  Columbia. 

Bank'ura,  a  town,  capital  of  a  district  in 
Bengal,  on  the  Dhalkisor  River.    Pop.  19,000. 

Bann,  two  rivers  in  the  north-east  of  Ireland — 
the  Upper  Bann,  flowing  into,  and  the  Lower 
Bann,  out  of  Lough  Neagh.  The  Upper  Bann, 
rising  in  the  Mourne  Mountains,  runs  25  miles 
NNW.  through  Down  and  Arniagh.  The  Lower 
Bann  flows  40  miles  NNW.,  through  Lough  Beg, 
dividing  the  counties  of  Antrim  and  London- 
derry. It  runs  past  Coleraine,  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  4  miles  SW.  of  Portrush.  It  has  import- 
ant salmon  and  eel  fisheries. 

Bannatyne,  a  Forfarshire  seat,  7z  miles  NW. 
of  Dundee. 

Bannockburn,  a  Stirlingshire  village  of  2444 
jiihabitants,  3  n^iles  SSE.  of  Stirling,  on  th§ 


I 


BANSWARA  81 

Bannock  Burn,  a  little  affluent  of  the  Forth,  It 
is  a  seat  of  the  woollen  manufactures,  especially 
of  carpets  and  tartans.  Here,  on  24th  June 
1314,  Robert  Bruce,  with  30,000  Scotch,  gained 
a  signal  victory  over  Edward  II.,  with  100,000 
English.  Not  far  off  was  fought  the  battle  of 
Sauchieburn  (q.v,).  See  R.  White's  Battle  of 
Bannockburn  (1871). 

Banswara,  a  hilly,  well-wooded  state  in  the 
south-west  of  Rajputana.  It  has  an  area  of  1500 
sq.  m. ,  and  is  peopled  by  wild  and  turbulent 
Bheels.  In  1818  it  passed  voluntarily  under 
British  protection.  Pop.  164,000.— The  capital, 
Banswara,  lies  8  miles  W.  of  the  Mahi  River. 
Pop.  6000. 

Bantam',  a  decayed  seaport,  61  miles  W.  of 
Batavia,  in  a  residency  of  the  same  name,  which 
forms  the  west  end  of  Java.  It  was  the  first 
Dutch  establishment  in  Java  (1595),  and  the  seat 
of  government  of  the  residency,  until  trans- 
ferred to  the  more  salubrious  Serang,  6  miles 
distant,  in  1816. 

Bantry,  a  seaport  in  the  south-west  of  County 
Cork,  at  the  head  of  Bantry  Bay,  and  44  miles 
WSW.  of  Cork.  Pop.  3100.— Bantry  Bay  runs 
25  miles  ENE.,  with  a  breadth  of  4  to  6  miles. 
It  is  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  Europe.  Here 
a  French  force  attempted  to  land  in  1796. 

Banyuls-sur-Mer,  a  watering-place  of  France 
in  the  Pyrenees  Orientales,  21  miles  SE.  of  Per- 
pignan  by  rail.     Pop.  2342. 

Banyu'mas  (Dutch  spelling,  Banjoemas),  a  town 
of  Java,  on  the  Serajo,  22  miles  from  the  south 
coast.     Pop.  9000. 

Banyuwangi,  a  seaport  on  the  east  coast  of 
Java.    Pop.  10,000. 

Banz,  a  former  great  Benedictine  monastery 
(1071-1803)  in  Bavaria,  on  the  Maine,  3  miles 
below  Lichtenfels. 

Bapaume  (Ba-pom&),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 

of  Pas-de-Calais,  12  miles  S.  of  Arras,  scene  of  a 

German  victory  on  2-3d  January  1871.    Pop.  3000. 

Baraba',  a  steppe  of  Siberia,  between  Obi  and 

Irtish. 

Baracoa,  a  decayed  seaport  near  the  east  end 
of  Cuba.     Pop.  4900. 

Barataria,  a  bay  of  Louisiana,  W.  of  the  Missis- 
sippi delta,  haunted  in  1800-14by  a  band  of  pirates. 
Barbacena  (Bar-ha-say'na),  a  town  of  Brazil, 
125  miles  NW.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,     It  lies  3500 
feet  above  the  sea.    Pop.  5000. 

Barba'does,  one  of  the  Windward  Islands,  the 
most  easterly  of  all  the  West  Indies,  lies  78  miles 
E.  of  St  Vincent,  in  13°  4'  N.  lat.,  and  59"  37' 
W.  long.  Its  length  is  21  miles;  its  greatest 
breadth,  14^  miles  ;  and  its  area,  166  sq.  m., 
almost  all  under  cultivation.  At  Bridgetown, 
the  capital,  is  the  open  roadstead  of  Carlisle 
Bay,  the  only  harbour,  the  island  being  almost 
encircled  by  coral-reefs.  The  interior  is  generally 
hilly.  Mount  Hillaby,  the  loftiest  summit,  rising 
1104  feet  above  sea-level.  Tlie  climate  is  fairly 
healthy ;  the  temperature  equable ;  and  the 
average  rainfall  57  inches.  Shocks  of  earth- 
quake are  sometimes  felt,  and  thunderstorms 
are  frequent  and  severe.  But  hurricanes  are 
the  grand  scourge  of  Barbadoes,  two  in  1780 
and  1831  having  destroyed  4326  and  1591  per- 
sons, and  property  to  the  value  of  £1,320,564 
and  £1,602,800.  Barbados  is  the  official  spelling. 
The  area  of  the  island  is  166  square  miles.  In 
1834  the  population  was  102,231 ;  by  1901  it 
had  increased  to  195,588— nearly  1200  iuhabit- 
F 


BARCELONA 

ants  to  every  square  mile.  About  20,000  are 
white,  and  the  rest  coloured.  The  trade  and 
the  revenue  bear  a  similar  testimony  to  the 
benefits  of  emancipation.  Barbadoes  was  made 
the  see  of  a  bishop  in  1824  ;  and  the  bulk  of  the 
population  belong  to  the  Anglican  communion. 
It  was  first  colonised  by  the  English  in  1625, 
having  previously  been  depopulated  by  the 
Spaniards.  See  Schomburgk's  History  of  Bar- 
badoes (1848). 

Bar'bary,  in  Northern  Africa,  comprises  tha 
countries  known  in  modern  times  as  Barca,  Tri- 
poli Proper,  Fezzan,  Tunis,  Algeria,  and  Mor- 
occo ;  and  in  ancient  times  as  Mauritania, 
Numidia,  Africa  Propria,  and  Cyrenaica.  It 
stretches  from  Egypt  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and 
from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Desert  of  Sahara, 
or  between  10'  W.  and  25°  E.  long.,  and  25°  to  37° 
N.  lat.  The  north-west  of  this  region  is  divided 
by  the  Atlas  Mountains  into  two  parts.  The 
histoi'y  of  Barbary  is  a  record  of  successive 
conquests  by  Romans,  Vandals,  Arabs,  Turks, 
and  the  French  (1830),  To  Europe  it  was  chiefly 
known  as  the  home  of  the  dreaded  Barbary 
corsairs.  See  the  articles  on  the  several  coun- 
tries of  Barbary. 

Barbastro,  a  cathedral  city  of  Spain,  on  the 
Vero,  44  miles  NW,  of  Lerida  by  rail.     Pop.  7155, 

Barberton,  a  gold-mining  town  of  the  Trans- 
vaal, 292  miles  N.  of  Durban.    Pop.  5000. 

Barblzon  {Bar-bee-zon"'),  a  village  close  to  the 
Forest  of  Fontainebleau.  It  is  a  great  artists'  re- 
sort, and  was  tlie  liome  and  death-i>lace  of  Millet, 
Corot,  Diaz,  Daubigny,  and  Rousseau  were  other 
members  of  the  '  Barbizon  School '  of  painters. 

Barbu'da,  a  fertile,  densely  wooded  coral 
island,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  30  miles  N. 
of  Antigua,  of  which  it  is  a  dependency.  It  is 
10  miles  long,  8  broad,  and  75  sq.  m.  in  area. 
Pop.  650. 

Barby,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the 
Elbe,  15  miles  SE.  of  Magdeburg.    Pop.  5222. 

Barca,  a  country  extending  along  the  northern 
coast  of  Africa,  between  the  Great  Syrtis  (now 
Gulf  of  Sidra)  and  Egypt.  The  climate  is  healthy 
and  agreeable  in  the  more  elevated  parts,  which 
reach  a  height  of  almost  2000  feet,  and  in  those 
exposed  to  the  sea-breeze.  There  are  none  but 
small  streams,  but  the  narrow  terrace-like  tracts 
of  country  are  extremely  fertile,  realising  all 
that  is  said  of  the  ancient  Cyrenaica,  But  the 
good  soil  extends  over  only  about  a  fourth  of 
Barca  :  the  east  exhibits  only  naked  rocks  and 
loose  sand.  Many  ruins  in  the  north-west  attest 
its  high  state  of  cultivation  in  ancient  times, 
when  its  five  prosperous  cities  bore  the  title  of 
the  Libyan  Pentapolis.  Subject  successively  to 
Egypt,  Rome,  and  the  Byzantine  empire,  it  was 
conquered  by  the  Arabs  in  641,  and  now  forma 
a  dep.  of  Tripoli.  Area,  60,700  sq.  m,  ;  pop. 
500,000.     The  capital  is  Benghazi  (q.v.). 

Barcellona  and  Pozzo  di  Gotto,  two  towns  of 
Sicily,  22  miles  WSW.  of  Messina,  standing  close 
together,  so  as  really  to  form  one  town.  Bar- 
cellona has  sulphur-baths.     Pop.  13,948. 

Barcelona,  the  second  largest  and  the  most 
important  manufacturing  city  in  Spain,  is  beauti- 
fully situated  on  the  Mediterranean  between  the 
mouths  of  the  Llobregat  and  the  Besos,  228  miles 
E,  of  Saragossa  and  439  ENE.  of  Madrid.  The 
castle  of  Montjuich  commands  the  town  from  the 
south,  and  the  arsenals  near  by  comprise  infantry 
and  cavalry  barracks  for  7000  men.  Barcelona  is 
divided  into  two  parts—the  old  town  and  the 


BARCELONA  i 

new— by  the  Rambla  (river-bed),  which  has  been 
formed  into  a  beautiful  promenade.  There  is 
another  fine  promenade,  the  Muralla  del  Mar,  or 
sea-wall,  Barcelona  has  a  cathedral  (1298),  a 
university  (1430 ;  rebuilt  1873)  with  2500  students, 
a  theatre  (the  scene  in  1893  of  an  Anarchist  bomb 
outrage),  and  manufactures  of  silk,  woollens, 
cottons,  lace,  hats,  firearms,  hardware,  &c.  The 
imports  are  raw  cotton,  coff"ee,  sugar,  wheat, 
spirits,  timber,  salt-fish,  hides,  wax,  iron,  and 
coal ;  the  exports  fruits,  vegetables,  wines,  silk, 
oil,  and  salt.  Next  to  Cadiz,  it  is  the  chief  port 
in  Spain ;  in  population  it  is  next  to  Madrid. 
Pop.  (1878)  249,106;  (1900,  after  annexation  of 
suburbs)  533,000. 

Barcelona,  capital  of  the  state  of  Bermudez, 
"Venezuela,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Neveri,  160 
miles  E.  of  Caracas.    Pop.  10,800. 

Bard,  a  village  in  the  Italian  province  of  Turin, 
23  miles  SE.  of  Aosta.  When  the  French  crossed 
the  St  Bernard  in  1800,  Bard  fortress,  manned  by 
400  Austrians,  maintained  an  eight  days'  resist- 
ance to  their  further  advance.    Pop.  450. 

Bardsey,  9  miles  NNB.  of  Leeds,  was  the 
birthplace  of  the  dramatist  Congreve. 

Bardsey  Isle,  an  island,  2  miles  long,  in  Car- 
digan Bay,  with  a  ruined  monastery. 

Bardwan',  or  Burdwan  (correctly  Vardham- 
dna),  a  city  of  Bengal,  67  miles  NNW.  of  Calcutta 
by  rail.  In  point  of  architecture,  it  is  a  miser- 
able place— an  aggregate,  as  it  were,  of  73  villages. 
It  contains  a  palace  of  the  Maharajahs,  and  a 
large  collection  of  temples.    Pop.  35,080. 

Bareges  (Ba-rezW),  a  small  watering-place,  with 
mineral  baths,  in  the  French  dep.  of  Hautes- 
Pyr6nees,  4040  feet  above  sea-level,  and  12  miles 
SB.  of  Pierrefltte  railway  station. 

Bareilly,  or  Bareli,  the  chief  city  of  a  district 
in  Rohilkhand,  North-west  Provinces  of  India, 
on  the  Ramganga,  152  miles  E.  of  Delhi.  Cotton, 
grain,  and  sugar  are  the  staples  of  connnerce ; 
furniture  and  upholstery  the  manufactures. 
Bareilly  is  the  seat  of  a  college  attended  by  over 
300  students.  Population,  132,000.— Bai  Bareilly 
is  a  town  in  Oudh,  near  Lucknow. 

Barfleur  (Bar-fidr'),  a  seaport  in  the  French 
dep.  of  La  Manche,  15  miles  E.  of  Cherbourg. 
Hence,  in  1066,  William  the  Conqueror  set  out 
on  his  invasion  of  England.  On  the  ill-famed 
Pointe  de  Barfleur  stands  the  highest  lighthouse 
in  France,  271  feet  above  the  sea.    Pop.  1185. 

Barfrush.    See  Balfrush. 

Barga  Pass,  a  Himalaya  hill-pass  (15,000  feet) 
in  the  north  of  Bashahr  State,  Punjab. 

Barge,  a  town  of  Piedmont,  30  miles  SW.  of 
Turin.     Pop.  2074. 

Barholm,  a  ruined  tower  (Scott's '  Ellangowan') 
on  the  coast  of  Kirkcudbrightshire,  5|  miles  SB. 
of  Creetown. 

Bari  (Bdh'ree),  capital  of  an  Italian  province,  on 
a  peninsula  in  the  Adriatic,  277  n)iles  SB.  of 
Ancona,  with  a  brisk  export  trade,  an  old  Nor- 
man castle,  the  church  of  San  Nicola  (1087),  and 
the  older  archiepiscopal  catliedral.    Pop.  60,000. 

Baringo,  an  African  lake  lying  NE.  of  the 
Victoria  Nyanza,  and  h  degree  N.  of  the  equator. 
It  is  20  miles  long,  lies  3000  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  has  no  outlet,  though  its  water  is  fresh. 

Barisal,  headquarters  of  Bakarganj  (q.v.),  in 
a  region  of  the  Brahmaputra  delta,  disturbed  by 
mysterious  noises  of  disputed  origin  known  as 
'  Barisal  guns.'    Pop.  16,000. 

Barking,  a   market-town   of  Essex,  on   the 


2  BARNSTAPLE 

Roding,  7  miles  NE.  of  London,  with  market- 
gardens  and  jute-factories.  Its  Benedictine  abbey 
(founded  670),  one  of  the  richest  convents  in  the 
kingdom,  has  left  hardly  a  trace.  Near  Barking 
Creek  is  one  of  the  great  outfalls  into  the  Thames 
of  the  (partially  purified)  London  sewage.  Pop. 
(1851)  5076  ;  (1891)  14,301 ;  (1901)  21,547. 

Barkly,  two  towns  in  Cape  Colony:  Barkly 
East,  in  the  NE.,  85  miles  E.  of  Aliwal  North, 
pop.  2500  ;  Barkly  West,  a  diamond-digging  centre 
in  1870-90,  on  the  Vaal,  40  miles  NE.  of  Kimberley, 
pop.  2000. 

Bar-le-Duc,  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of  Meuse, 
158  miles  E.  of  Paris.  It  manufactures  cottons, 
and  has  the  ruined  castle  of  the  Dukes  of  Bar. 
Pop.  15,634. 

Barletta,  a  seaport  of  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic, 
34  miles  NW.  of  Bari  by  rail.    Pop.  41,994. 

Barmen,  a  busy  town  in  the  district  of  Diissel- 
dorf,  Rhenish  Prussia,  extending  in  the  beautiful 
valley  of  the  Wupper  for  about  4  miles  from  close 
to  Elberfeld  almost  to  Langenfeld.  It  is  the 
principal  seat  of  the  ribbon-manufacture  on  the 
Continent,  and  produces  also  cloth,  stay-laces, 
thread,  soap,  candles,  metal  wares,  buttons, 
machinery,  and  pianofortes.  There  are,  besides, 
in  the  valley,  numerous  bleach-fields  and  Turkey- 
red  dye-works.  Barmen  is  a  great  missionary 
centre,  and  possesses  the  mission-house  and 
seminary  of  foreign  missions  belonging  to  the 
Rhenish  Missionary  Society.     Pop.  (1871)  74,947  ; 

(1890)  116,144  ;  (1900)  141,950. 

Barmouth,  a  watering-place  of  Merioneth- 
shire, Wales,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Maw,  10  miles 
W.  of  Dolgelly.  Opposite,  across  the  river,  is 
Cader  Idris,  2914  feet  high.     Pop.  2219. 

Barnard  Castle,  a  market-town  in  the  county 
of  Durham,  on  the  Tees,  15  miles  W.  of  Dar- 
lington. On  a  rocky  height  are  the  ruins  of  a 
castle  built  in  1112-32  by  Barnard  Baliol.  Near 
it  is  an  art  museum  (1874).    Pop.  (1851)  4357; 

(1891)  4341  ;  (1901)  4421. 

Barnaul,  a  town  of  Western  Siberia,  on  the 
Obi,  290  miles  SSW.  of  Tomsk.  It  is  a  great 
mining  and  smelting  centre.     Pop.  83,529. 

Barnes,  a  Surrey  parish,  on  the  Thames,  7 
miles  WSW.  of  Waterloo  station.  It  has  mem- 
ories of  Cowley,  Fielding,  Handel,  Hoare,  and 
the  '  Kitcat  Club.' 

Barnet,  a  town  of  Hertfordshire,  11  miles  NNW. 
of  London.  It  has  still  large  fairs.  Here,  on 
14th  April  1471,  the  Yorkists  defeated  the  Lan- 
castrians, killing  their  leader,  Warwick,  'the 
king-maker.'  An  obelisk  (1740)  marks  the  spot. 
Pop.  7876. 

Bamsley,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  river  Dearne,  10 
miles  S.  of  Wakefield,  and  15  N.  of  Sheffield  by 
rail.  Standing  high,  in  the  midst  of  a  rich 
mineral  district,  it  has  manufactures  of  linen, 
iron,  steel,  and  glass,  bleaching  and  dye  works, 
&c.  It  was  made  a  municipal  borough  in  1869. 
Pop.  (1851)  13,437  ;  (1891)  35,427  ;  (1901)  41,083. 
'■  Barnstable,  a  port  of  entry,  with  coasting 
and  fishing  trade,  in  Massachusetts,  U.S.,  situ- 
ated on  the  south  side  of  Barnstable  Bay,  65 
miles  SB.  of  Boston.    Pop.  4342. 

Barn'staple,  a  town  of  Devonshire,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  tidal  Taw,  6  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  40  NW.  of  Exeter  by  rail.  Owing 
to  the  silting  up  of  the  river,  much  of  the  trade 
of  Barnstaple  has  been  transferred  to  Bideford. 
It  has  manufactures  of  lace  and  pottery.    Athel- 


BARODA 


83 


BARROW-IN-FURNESS 


stan  built  a  castle  here ;  and  there  are  a  14th- 
century  parish  church,  a  town-hall  (1855),  an 
Albert  memorial  tower  (1863),  &c.  Till  1885 
Barnstaple  returned  two  members.  Pop.  (1861) 
10,743  ;  (1891)  13,058  ;  (1901)  14,137. 

Baro'da,  the  second  city  of  Guzerat,  and  third 
in  the  Presidency  of  Bombay,  capital  of  the 
territory  of  the  Guicowar  (Gaekwar)  of  Baroda, 
is  248  miles  N.  of  Bombay  by  rail.  It  stands 
to  the  east  of  the  Viswamitri,  and  has  several 
palaces  and  a  considerable  trade,  occupying  an 
important  position  between  tlie  coast  and  the 
interior.  Population,  105,000. —  The  Mahratta 
state  of  Baroda,  the  political  control  of  which 
in  1875  was  transferred  from  Bombay  to  the 
government  of  India,  includes  the  territories  of 
the  Guicowar  in  various  parts  of  the  province 
of  Guzerat.  Area  of  these  territories,  8570  sq.  m. 
(larger  than  Wales).     Pop.  2,185,005. 

Barossa.    See  Barrosa. 

Barquislmeto  (Bar-kee-see-may'io),  a  town  of 
Venezuela,  on  an  affluent  of  the  Tocuyo,  in  a 
fertile  and  healthy  plain,  1700  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Founded  in  1522,  it  was  destroyed  in  1812 
by  a  dreadful  earthquake.     Pop.  38,476. 

Barra,  an  island  of  Inverness-shire,  near  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  outer  Hebrides,  42 
miles  W.  of  Ardnamurchan  Point.  It  is  8  miles 
long,  2  to  5  broad,  and  25  sq.  m.  in  area.  A  low 
sandy  isthmus,  over  which  the  sea  nearly  breaks 
at  high  water,  connects  the  two  parts  into  which 
Barra  is  divided.  The  south  or  larger  part  rises 
to  2000  feet.  Pop.  (1841)  1977 ;  (1891)  2131 ;  (1901) 
2362,  Gaelic-speaking,  and  largely  Catholic,  and 
among  the  most  industrious  of  Scottish  fisher- 
men. A  lighthouse  (1833)  on  Barra  Head  is  680 
feet  above  the  sea.  KismuU  Castle  was  the 
ancient  seat  of  the  M'Neills,  who  in  1840  sold 
the  island  to  Colonel  Gordon  of  Cluny. 

Barra,  a  pleasant  suburban  town,  3  miles  E.  of 
Naples ;  pop.  8464. 

Barra,  a  petty  Mandingo  kingdom  of  Western 
Africa,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Gambia,  with  an 
estimated  pop.  of  200,000.  It  borders  on  British 
Gambia  (q.v.). 

Barrackpur,  a  town  of  Bengal,  on  the  E.  bank 
of  the  Hooghly,  15  miles  up  the  stream  from 
Calcutta.  It  is  a  favourite  retreat  for  Europeans 
from  Calcutta  ;  and  to  the  south  is  the  suburban 
residence  of  the  Viceroy.  Pop.,  with  Nawab- 
ganj,  about  20,000. 

Barrafranca,  a  town  of  Sicily,  near  Caltani- 
setta ;  pop.  9052, 

Barra  Head.    See  Bernera. 

Barra  Mansa,  a  town  of  Brazil,  on  the  Para- 
hiba,  70  miles  NW.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  ;  pop.  5000. 

Ba.rra,nqm].la.(Bar-ran-keeryaX  the  chief  port  of 
Colombia,  in  Bolivar  state,  near  the  Magdalena's 
left  bank,  15  miles  from  the  sea.     Pop.  45,000. 

Barren  Island,  a  small  active  volcano  in  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  lying  east  of  the  Andamans, 
about  94°  E.  long. 

Barrhead',  a  town  of  Renfrewshire,  8|  miles 
SW.  of  Glasgow  by  rail.  Founded  about  1773,  it 
has  cotton-mills,  and  bleaching,  dyeing,  and  print 
works.  The  poet  John  Davidson  was  born  here. 
Pop.  (1841)  3492  ;  (1891)  8215  ;  (1901)  9855. 

Barrier  Reef,  an  immense  coral-reef  extend- 
ing along  the  NE.  coast  of  Australia  for  over  1000 
miles,  at  a  distance  from  the  shore  of  from  10 
to  upwards  of  100  miles.  In  many  places  it  rises 
out  of  great  depths.  There  are  several  breaks  or 
passages  in  it,  only  one,  Raines  Inlet,  being  safe 


for  ships,  with  a  lighthouse.    See  Saville-Kent, 
The  Great  Barrier  Reef  (1893). 

Barro'sa,  a  Spanish  village  16  miles  SSE.  of 
Cadiz.  Here,  on  March  5,  1811,  General  Graham 
(Lord  Lynedoch),  with  a  handful  of  British, 
gained  a  glorious  victory  over  the  French. 

Barrow,  a  term  applied  in  honour  of  Sir  John 
Barrow,  to  (1)  Point  Barrow,  on  the  northern 
coast  of  Alaska,  in  71°  23'  N.  lat.  and  156°  31'  W. 
long.,  long  received  as  the  most  northerly  spot 
on  the  American  mainland  (but  see  Bellot 
Strait,  Boothia). — (2)  Cape  Barrow,  on  the 
northern  coast  of  Canada,  or  Coronation  Gulf, 
68°  N.  lat.,  111°  W.  long.— (3)  Barrow  Strait,  the 
earliest  of  Parry's  discoveries,  leading  to  the 
west  out  of  Lancaster  Sound.  Besides  its  main 
course  to  Melville  Sound,  Barrow  Strait  throws 
off  Prince  Regent's  Inlet  to  the  south,  and 
Wellington  Channel  to  the  north.  It  averages 
50  miles  in  breadth,  extending  pretty  nearly 
along  the  parallel  of  74°  N.,  from  85°  to  100°  W. 

Barrow,  a  river  in  the  south-east  of  Ireland, 
rising  in  the  north  of  Queen's  County,  on  the 
north-east  slope  of  the  Slieve  Bloom  Mountains, 
and  flowing  100  miles  E.  and  S.  past  Portarling- 
ton,  Athy,  Carlow,  and  New  Ross,  until,  having 
received  the  Nore  and  the  Suir,  it  forms  the 
large  and  secure  estuary  of  Waterford  harbour, 
9  miles  long.  It  is  navigable  for  ships  of  300 
tons  to  New  Ross,  25  miles  up,  and  for  barges 
to  Athy,  65  miles  up,  whence  the  Grand  Canal 
communicates  with  Dublin. 

Barrow  Falls,  2  miles  S.  of  Keswick,  a  double 
cascade,  122  feet  high. 

Barrow-in-Furness,  a  seaport  and  manufac- 
turing town  of  North  Lancashire,  situated  on  the 
south-western  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Furness, 
By  rail  it  is  36  miles  WNW.  of  Lancaster,  and  268 
NNW.  of  London.  In  1847  it  was  a  fishing- 
village  of  325  inhabitants ;  in  1864  the  population 
had  risen  to  10,608,  in  1871  to  18,245,  in  1891  to 
51,712,  and  in  1901  to  57,584.  This  rapid  increase, 
matched  in  Great  Britain  by  only  Birkenhead 
and  Middlesbrough,  is  owing  to  tlie  discovery 
in  1840  of  extensive  deposits  of  rich  haematite 
ore  at  Park,  near  Barrow ;  to  the  establishment 
both  of  mines  and  smelting-works ;  and  to  the 
opening  of  railway  communication  throughout 
the  district.  Smelting-works  established  in  1859 
were  in  1866  amalgamated  with  the  Bessemer 
Steel  Company,  founded  three  years  before. 
Copper  also  is  obtained  in  considerable  quantity 
in  the  neighbourhood ;  whilst  some  20,000  tons 
of  slate  are  annually  quarried.  The  Dukes  of 
Devonshire  and  Buccleuch  are  the  principal 
landowners,  and  gave  name  to  the  first  two 
docks,  which,  together  covering  66  acres,  were 
opened  by  Mr  Gladstone  in  1867,  The  Ramsden 
and  the  Cavendish  Dock  (1877)  cover  a  respec- 
tive area  of  78  and  200  acres,  and,  like  their 
predecessors,  are  24  feet  deep,  Barrow  Island 
has  since  1871  become  the  seat  of  great  iron 
shipbuilding  yai-ds ;  and  huge  flax  and  jute- 
works  were  erected  in  1872  to  provide  employ- 
ment for  women  and  girls.  There  are  besides 
engineering  works,  a  great  steam-mill,  furnace- 
building  works,  and  iron-founding,  brewing, 
boiler-making,  &c.  There  are  statues  of  the 
first  mayor,  Sir  James  Ramsden  (1872),  and  Lord 
Frederick  Cavendish  (1885);  but  the  great  orna- 
ment of  the  place  is  the  town-hall,  built  in  1887 
at  a  cost  of  £80,000.  The  interesting  ruins  of 
Furness  Abbey  lie  within  2  miles  of  the  town ; 
while  on  Piel  Island  there  are  the  ruins  of  a 
castle  built  by  the  Abbot  of  Furness.    Made  a 


BARROW-ON-SOAR 

municipal  borougli  in  1867,  Barrow  since  1885 
has  returned  one  member.  See  J.  Ricliardson's 
Furness  Past  and  Present  (Barrow,  1880). 

Barrow-on-Soar,  a  village  of  Leicestersliire, 
3  miles  SE.  of  Loughborough. 

Barry,  a  seaport,  with  docks  and  a  tidal  basin, 
in  Glamorgan,  7  miles  SW.  of  Cardiff;  it  exports 
coal,  iron,  and  iron  manufactures.    Pop.  27,000. 

Barry  Links,  in  Forfarshire,  9  miles  ENE.  of 
Dundee,  a  government  camp  of  instruction. 

Bar-sur-Aube  (Bar-sur-Oab),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Aube,  137  miles  ESB.  of  Paris. 
Pop.  4306. 

Bar-sur-Seine  (Bar-sUr-Savn),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  Aube,  21  m.  SE.  of  Troyes.    Pop.  2773. 

Bartfa,  or  Bartfeld,  a  town  of  Hungary,  on 
the  river  Topla,  near  the  borders  of  Galicia, 
with  hot  baths.     Pop.  5884. 

Barth  (Bart),  a  seaport  of  Prussia,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Barth,  21  miles  W.  of  Stralsund.    Pop.  7714. 

Barton-upon-Humber,  an  ancient  town  of 
Lincolnshire,  8  miles  SW.  of  Hull.     Pop.  5671. 

Barton-upon-Irwell,  a  village  and  township  of 
Lancashire,  5J  miles  W.  of  Manchester.  Here 
was  built  in  1770  Brindley's  famous  aqueduct, 
carrying  the  Bridgewater  Canal  across  the  Irwell, 
superseded  in  1890-93  by  a  swing  bridge  of  novel 
and  ingenious  construction,  crossing  the  Manches- 
ter Ship  Canal.    Pop.  of  rural  district  (1901)  8065. 

Bas.    See  Batz. 

Basel  (BdJi'zel;  Fr.  Bdle;  old  Fr.  Basle),  a 
Swiss  city  and  canton.  The  canton  Avas  divided 
in  1833  into  two  independent  half-cantons,  called 
Basel-town  and  Basel-country.  The  urban  half- 
canton  consists  only  of  the  city,  with  its  pre- 
cincts, and  three  villages  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhine  ;  the  remainder  forms  the  half-canton 
of  Basel-country,  which  borders  on  Alsace- 
Lorraine  and  Baden,  and  has  an  area  of  178  sq. 
m. — but  little  larger  than  Rutlandshire.  The 
Roman  BasiUa,  after  1032  it  formed  part  of  the 
German  empire,  but  joined  the  Swiss  Confederacy 
in  1501,  having  in  1431-43  been  the  scene  of  a 
famous  church  council.  The  Rhine,  here  spanned 
by  three  bridges,  200  yards  long,  divides  the  city 
into  two  parts — Great  Basel  on  the  south  side, 
and  Little  Basel  on  the  north.  The  minster,  a 
cathedral  till  1528,  was  built  between  1010  and 
1500.  It  has  two  conspicuous  towers,  218  feet 
high.  Other  buildings  are  the  town-hall  (1508) ; 
the  university  (1460) ;  a  museum,  with  thirty-two 
pictures  by  the  younger  Holbein,  who  lived  thir- 
teen years  in  Basel ;  and  a  public  university 
library  of  160,000  volumes  and  4000  manuscripts. 
During  the  Reformation,  the  university  was  a  cen- 
tral point  of  spiritual  life,  and  it  has  numbered 
among  its  professors  Erasmus  and  CEcolampadius, 
both  of  whom  died  here,  and  the  mathematicians 
Euler  and  Bernouilli,  who  were  natives.  It  has 
now  some  70  professors  and  lecturers,  and  about 
300  students.  Pop.,  mainly  Protestant  and  Ger- 
man-speaking, of  Basel-country,  70,000  ;  of  Basel- 
town  (1850)  29,555  ;  (1900)  112,250. 

Bashahr,  one  of  the  Punjab  Hill-states,  on  the 
lower  slopes  of  the  Himalayas,  traversed  by  the 
Sutlej.     Area,  3320  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  74,345. 

Bashan,  a  country  of  North-eastern  Palestine, 
situated  to  the  east  of  the  Jordan.  A  volcanic 
plateau  rising  in  the  Jebel-ed-Druz  to  6000  feet, 
it  extends  60  miles  north  and  south,  and  about 
40  miles  east  and  west.  It  is  covered  with  the 
ruins  of  the  so-called  'giant  cities,'  which,  how- 
ever, according  to  Major  Conder,  date  only  from 


84  BASS  ROCK 

the  early  Christian  centuries  ;  their  roofs,  doors, 
stairs,  and  windows  are  of  stone,  some  of  them 
as  perfect  as  when  first  built.  See  Dr  Porter's 
Giant  Cities  of  Bashan  (1865). 

BasM,  or  Batanes  Islands,  the  most  north- 
erly small  cluster  of  islets  in  the  Pliilippine 
chain  of  islands,  lying  between  Luzon  and  For- 
mosa. Tliey  consist  of  three  larger  (Bayal, 
Batan,  and  Saptang)  and  many  smaller  islets. 
Area,  127  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  8250. 

Basim,  or  Bassim,  a  town  of  India,  in  the 
province  of  Berar,  413  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Bombay. 
Pop.  12,576. 

Basingstoke,  a  town  in  the  north  of  Hamp- 
shire, 48  miles  WSW.  of  London.  It  is  a  busy 
road  and  railway  centre,  and  has  a  trade  in  corn, 
malt,  coal,  and  timber.  Basing  House  (Marquis 
of  Winchester),  IJ  mile  E.,  for  two  years  with- 
stood the  Roundheads  ;  but  Cromwell  at  last  took 
it  by  storm,  and  burned  it  to  the  ground,  in  1645. 
Pop.  (1871)  5574  ;  (1901,  mun.  borough)  9793. 

Basle.    See  Basel. 

Basra  (also  Bassora  or  Bnssora),  a  town  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Euph- 
rates, 56  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Persian 
Gulf.  The  river,  navigable  up  to  Basra  for  ships 
of  500  tons,  is  there  divided  into  a  number  of 
channels,  and  by  evaporation  and  frequent  over- 
flowing makes  the  climate  very  unhealthy.  The 
population,  once  150,000,  had  sunk  in  1854  to 
5000,  but  the  establishment  of  the  English  Tigris 
and  Euphrates  Steamship  Company  altogether 
changed  the  prospects  of  Basra,  and  now  it  prob- 
ably contains  at  least  40,000  inhabitants.  Basra 
was  founded  in  636  by  the  Calif  Omar,  and  soon 
became  one  of  the  most  famous  cities  of  the  East. 

Bass.     See  Bass  Rock. 

Bassadore,  the  principal  station  for  British 
ships  in  the  Persian  Gulf,  situated  at  the  west 
end  of  the  island  of  Ki  shift. 

Bassa'no,  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy,  on  the 
Brenta,  30  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Padua.  Near  it 
Napoleon  defeated  the  Austrians  in  1796.  Pop. 
8086. 

Bassas,  dangerous  ledges  of  rocks  to  the  SE. 
of  Ceylon,  in  6°  11'— 6°  22'  N.  lat.,  and  in  81°  28' 
—81°  43'  E.  long.     On  both  are  lighthouses. 

Bassein',  (l)  a  town  in  Burma,  on  the  Bassein 
River,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Irawadi,  75  miles 
from  the  sea,  but  accessible  to  the  largest  ships. 
It  is  an  important  centre  of  the  rice  trade.  It 
was  captured  by  the  British  in  1852.  Pop. 
30,147.— (2)  A  decayed  town,  28  miles  N.  of 
Bombay.  Ceded  to  the  Portuguese  in  1534,  it 
was  taken  by  the  Mahrattas  in  1765,  and  in  1780 
surrendered  to  the  British.  Pop.  (1720)  60,499 ; 
(1901)11,000. 

Bassenthwaite,  a  Cumberland  lake,  3  miles 
NNW.  of  Keswick.  It  is  4  miles  long,  f  mile 
wide,  78  feet  deep,  and  226  feet  above  sea-level. 
Skiddaw  towers  above  it. 

Basse-terre  (Fr.,  'lowland'),  three  places  in 
the  West  Indies.--<1)  The  capital  of  St  Chris- 
topher's or  St  Kitt's,  on  the  west  coast ;  pop. 
9000.  —(2)  Capital  of  the  French  island  of  Guade- 
loupe ;  pop.  9500.— (3)  The  chief  town  of  Marie 
Galante,  a  dependency  of  Guadeloupe,  which  is 
about  12  miles  to  the  NW. 

Bassora.     See  Basra. 

Bass  Rock,  an  island-rock  of  Haddingtonshire, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  2  miles 
from  Canty  Bay,  and  3i  miles  ENE.  of  North 
Berwick.    Confronted  by  the  ruins  of  Tantallon 


BASS  STRAIT 


85 


BATHGATE 


f 


Gastle,  and  composed  of  volcanic  greenstone  and 
trap  tuff,  it  is  1  mile  in  circumference,  and  313 
feet  high,  is  inaccessible  on  all  sides  but  the 
Bouth,  and  is  denizened  by  myriads  of  solan 
geese  and  other  birds,  which  give  it  a  snowy 
appearance  in  the  distance.  In  756  St  Baldred 
died  in  a  hermitage  on  the  Bass  Rock  ;  in  1671 
Charles  II.  purchased  it  for  £4000,  and  within  its 
dreary  dungeons  many  Covenanters  were  con- 
fined. Four  young  Jacobite  prisoners  captured, 
and,  with  twelve  more  who  joined  them,  held  it 
for  King  James,  from  June  1691  till  April  1694. 
In  1701  the  fortifications  were  demolished,  and 
five  years  afterwards  the  Bass  passed  into  the 
possession  of  the  Dalrymples.  See  an  interesting 
volume  by  Hugh  Miller  and  four  others  (1848). 

Bass  Strait,  the  isleted  channel  separating 
Tasmania  from  Australia.  It  runs  ISO  miles 
almost  due  east  and  west,  and  has  an  average 
breadth  of  140  miles.  It  was  named  after  George 
Bass,  surgeon  of  H.M.S.  Jieliance,  who  in  1798 
proved  the  existence  of  the  channel. 

Bastla  (Basiee'a),  a  seaport  of  Corsica,  95  miles 
NNE.  of  Ajaccio  by  rail.  It  was  founded  in  1383 
by  the  Genoese,  and  till  1811  was  the  cajjital  of 
Corsica.     Pop.  23,000. 

Basutoland,  a  British  possession  in  South 
Africa,  lying  between  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  and 
the  Orange  River  Colony,  with  an  area  of  10,300 
.sq.  m.— nearly  as  large  as  Belgium— Avith  a  popu- 
lation of  650  Europeans  and  265,000  Basutos,  a 
people  either  belonging  to  the  Bechuana  stock 
or  closely  allied  thereto.  The  country  is  one 
continuous  rugged  plateau,  has  the  best  grain 
land  in  South  Africa,  and  admirable  pasture ; 
the  climate  is  perfect,  and  the  scenery  beautiful. 
Basutoland  was  annexed  to  the  Cape  Colony  in 
1868,  but  separated  from  it  in  1884  ;  it  is  governed 
by  a  resident  commissioner  under  the  High  Com- 
missioner for  South  Africa. 

Batangas,  a  seaport  of  the  Philippine  island 
of  Luzon,  50  miles  S.  of  Manilla,  on  an  extensive 
bay  opening  into  the  Strait  of  Mindoro.  It  was 
founded  in  1581.  Pop.  of  town  and  district, 
40,000. 

Bata'via,  properly  the  name  of  the  island 
occupied  by  the  ancient  Batavi,  became  at  a 
later  date  the  Latin  name  for  Holland  and  the 
whole  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  The  name 
Batavian  Republic  was  borne  by  the  Netherlands 
from  1795  till  1806. 

Batavia,  the  capital  of  the  Dutch  East  Indian 
possessions,  stands  on  the  NW.  coast  of  Java, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Tjiliwong.  That  small 
and  shallow  river  is  connected  with  a  network  of 
canals  which  intersect  the  town  ;  and  the  influ- 
ence of  a  vertical  sun  on  the  canals  made  Batavia 
proverbial  as  the  grave  of  Europeans.  The 
temperature,  though  not  extreme,  is  oppressive 
from  its  uniformity,  the  mean  of  winter  being 
78-1°  F.,  and  that  of  summer  only  78-6°. 
Latterly,  the  climate  has  been  improved  by 
draining,  and  most  of  the  merchants  live  in  the 
healthier  suburbs,  farther  inland.  The  old  town 
now  contains  mainly  shops,  stores,  offices,  and 
the  houses  of  natives  and  Chinese.  During  the 
day,  however,  it  is  a  busy  place  ;  and  in  it  are 
still  the  town-house,  the  exchange,  the  great 
poorhouse,  a  hospital,  &c.  The  bay  is  spacious, 
but  very  shallow  towards  the  shore.  Batavia  is 
accessible  only  to  boats;  and  since  1880  the 
government  has  constructed  a  great  harbour 
some  distance  to  the  eastward  at  Tanjong  Priong, 
connected  with  the  capital  by  road,  rail,  and 
caual.    To  seaward  the  bay  is  protected  by  a 


range  of  i-slands  and  .sandbanks.  Its  markets 
present  at  once  all  the  productions  of  Asia  and 
all  the  manufactures  of  Europe.  The  exports 
include  coffee,  rice,  indigo,  hides,  arrack,  sugar, 
tin,  pepper,  teak,  tea,  and  tamarinds;  the  im- 
ports, cottons,  woollens,  silks,  machinery,  iron 
goods,  and  wine.  In  1811,  while  Holland  was 
under  France,  Batavia  was  taken  by  the  English, 
but  was  restored  to  its  former  owners  in  1816. 
The  Dutch  government  has  laid  a  telegraphic 
cable  of  600  miles  from  Batavia  to  Singapore. 
Population,  120,000. 

Batavia,  a  post-village  of  Western  New  York, 
on  Tonawanda  Creek,  36  miles  NB.  of  Buffalo  by 
rail.     Pop.  10,000. 

Batchian.    See  Moluccas. 

Bath,  the  chief  city  of  Somerset,  is  beautifully 
situated  in  the  wooded  valley  of  the  sinuous 
Avon,  12  miles  ESE.  of  Bristol,  and  107  W.  of 
London.  Its  houses  are  built  wholly  of  white 
freestone— '  Bath  oolite,'  worked  in  the  neigh- 
bouring quarries.  Set  in  a  natural  amphitheatre, 
with  Lansdown  Hill  (813  feet)  to  the  north,  the 
city  has  a  finer  appearance  than  any  other  in 
England.  The  beauty  and  sheltered  character  of 
its  situation,  the  mildness  of  its  climate,  and 
especially  the  curative  eflicacy  of  its  hot  chaly- 
beate springs,  have  long  rendered  it  a  favourite 
fashionable  resort.  The  springs  were  known  to 
the  Romans,  who  here  in  the  1st  century  a.d. 
built  baths,  of  which  extensive  remains  have 
been  discovered.  The  temperature  of  the  springs 
varies  from  97°  to  120°  F.  The  water  is  most 
useful  in  bilious,  nervous,  and  scrofulous  com- 
plaints, palsy,  rheumatism,  gout,  and  cutaneous 
diseases.  Besides  a  beautiful  park  (1830),  Bath 
has  the  Assembly  Rooms  (1771),  the  Guild-hall 
(1766),  the  Pump-room  (1797),  the  Mineral  Water 
Hospital  (1737-1861),  and  the  new  baths  (1887). 
The  Abbey  Church  (1499-1616)  is  a  cruciform 
Late  Perpendicular  structure,  with  a  fine  fan- 
tracery  ceiling  in  the  style  of  Henry  VII. 's 
chapel,  and  a  central  tower  162  feet  high.  On 
Lansdown  Hill  is  Beckford's  Tower,  130  feet 
high,  built  by  the  eccentric  author  of  Vathek. 
South  of  the  city  is  Prior  Park,  built  in  1743  by 
Ralph  Allen,  Fielding's  friend,  and  now  a 
Catholic  college.  There  are  several  other  edu- 
cational establishments.  Bath  returns  two  mem- 
bers to  parliament,  and  conjointly  with  Wells  is 
the  seat  of  a  diocese.  It  has  no  manufactures  of 
importance  ;  but  it  has  given  name  to  a  kind  of 
bun,  to  wheeled  invalid  chairs,  and  to  'bricks' 
(made  of  very  fine  sand  from  the  Parrel  River) 
used  for  cleaning  metal.  Coal  is  found  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Pop.  (1881)  51,814 ;  (1901) 
49,817.  Traditionally  founded  by  a  British 
prince,  Bladud  (863  B.C.),  Bath  is  really  of  great 
antiquity.  It  was  a  Roman  station  called  Aquce 
Solis,  at  the  intersection  of  the  great  Roman 
ways  from  London  to  Wales,  and  fiom  Lincoln 
to  the  south  coast  of  England.  Richard  I. 
granted  Bath  its  earliest  extant  charter.  It 
figures  frequently  in  literature,  in  the  works  of 
Smollett,  Fielding,  Anstey,  Madame  D'Arblay, 
Miss  Austen,  Dickens,  &c.  See  works  by  Warner 
(1800),  Scarth  (1864),  Sir  G.  Jackson  (1873),  Peach 
(1873-86),  King  and  Watts  (1885),  Meehan  (1897). 

Bath,  a  city  and  port  of  entry,  Maine,  U.S., 
on  the  Kennebec  River,  35  miles  S.  of  Augusta. 
Shipbuilding  is  the  chief  industry.  Bath  was 
incorporated  as  a  town  in  1780,  and  as  a  city  in 
1850.     Pop.  11,000. 

Bathgate,  a  town  of  Linlithgowshire,  20  miles 
W.  by  S.  of  Edinburgh.    Freestone,  coal,  carbon- 


BATHtJRST 


86 


MVARiA 


iferous  limestone,  and  bituminous  shale  have 
been  extensively  wrought  in  the  vicinity— the 
last  since  1852.  There  are  also  large  paraffin  and 
paper  works,  a  distillery,  &c.  In  1S24  the  town 
was  constituted  a  free  burgh  of  barony,  in  1865  a 
police-burgh.  Sir  James  Simpson  was  a  native. 
Pop.  5331. 

Batli'urst,  a  name  applied  to  various  localities 
in  honour  of  Earl  Bathurst,  Colonial  Secretary 
(1812-28).— (1)  Bathurst  in  New  South  Wales, 
the  first  county  settled  beyond  the  Blue  Moun- 
tains, is  bounded  NE.  by  the  Macquarie,  and 
SW.  by  the  Lachlan.  Besides  its  gold-fields 
(discovered  in  1851),  it  has  also  slate-quarries, 
copper-mines,  and  silver-mines.  The  chief  town, 
Bathurst,  on  the  Macquarie  River,  144  miles  W. 
of  Sydney  by  rail,  is  now  the  third  in  New  South 
"Wales.  Erected  into  a  municipality  in  1862,  it 
contains  a  government  railway  workshop,  and 
has  manufactures  of  soap,  candles,  glue,  boots, 
leather,  beer,  &c.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican 
and  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  Pop.  9870.— (2) 
Bathurst  Island,  off  North  Australia,  close  to 
the  much  larger  Melville  Island. —(3)  Bathurst, 
the  principal  settlement  of  the  British  colony  on 
the  Gambia  (q.v.).  It  is  situated  on  St  Mary's 
Isle,  a  sandbank  at  the  inouth  of  the  river.  Pop. 
8000.— (4)  An  island  in  the  Arctic  Ocean,  inter- 
sected by  the  100th  meridian,  and  situated  im- 
mediately beyond  the  75th  parallel. — (5)  Bath- 
urst Inlet,  an  arm  of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  pro- 
jecting due  south  for  75  miles  into  the  North 
American  continent,  just  touching  the  Arctic 
circle  and  110°  west  longitude.— (6)  A  division 
in  the  east  of  Cape  Colony. 

BatignoUes,  a  northern  suburb  of  Paris. 

Batjan.    See  Moluccas. 

Batley,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  8  miles  SW.  of  Leeds  ;  since 
1868  a  municipal  borough,  associated  for  parlia- 
mentary purposes  with  Dewsbury,  1  mile  distant. 
Batley  is  a  chief  seat  of  the  shoddy  and  heavy 
woollen  manufactures — army  cloths,  flushings, 
pilots,  druggets,  &c.  It  has  a  town-hall  (1864- 
74),  a  free  grammar-school  (1612  ;  reconstituted 
1874),  waterworks  (1871-78),  &c.  Pop.  (1851) 
9308 ;  (1871)  20,871 ;  (1901,  mun.  borough)  30,321. 

Batn-el-Hajar  ('  Womb  of  Rocks '),  a  stony 
district  of  Nubia,  stretching  along  the  Nile  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  third  cataract. 

Baton  Rouge,  a  city  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  129  miles  above  New  Orleans,  from 
1847  to  1862,  and  again  since  1880,  the  capital  of 
the  state  of  Louisiana.  It  has  a  national  arsenal 
and  barracks,  a  military  hospital,  a  deaf  and 
dumb  asylum,  an  elegant  state-house,  &c.  Pop. 
12,000. 

Batoum',  a  town  of  Bussian  Transcaucasia,  on 
the  Black  Sea,  201  miles  W.  of  Tiflis,  and  575  of 
Baku,  by  a  railway  (1883).  The  Berlin  Congress 
of  1878,  in  sanctioning  the  cession  of  Batoum  by 
Turkey  to  Russia,  stipulated  that  it  should  not 
be  made  into  a  naval  station  ;  but  the  Russians 
have  rendered  it  a  second  Sebastopol,  and  in  18S6 
withdrew  its  privileges  as  a  free  port.  The 
harbour  is  one  of  the  best  on  the  east  coast  of 
the  Black  Sea.  Pop.  30,000,  mostly  Russians. 
Batoum  was  founded  as  Petra  by  one  of  Jus- 
tinian's generals  early  in  the  6th  century  a.d., 
and  figures  as  Vati  in  the  middle  ages. 

Batshlan.     See  Moluccas. 

Battersea,  a  SW.  suburb  of  London,  on  the 
Surrey  side  of  the  Thames,  here  crossed  by  the 
Chelsea,  Albert,  and  Battersea  bridges.    In  the 


parish  church  (1777)  is  a  monument  to  Lord 
Bolingbroke,  who  was  born  and  died  in  a  house 
close  by.  Battersea  Park,  185  acres  in  area,  was 
laid  out  in  1852-58  at  a  cost  of  £318,000.  It  is 
now  one  of  the  London  metropolitan  boroughs. 
Pop.  (1901)  168,896.  The  parliamentary  division 
returns  one  member. 

Battle,  a  town  in  Sussex,  6  miles  NW.  of 
Hastings.  An  uninhabited  heathland  then, 
Senlac  by  name,  it  received  its  present  name 
from  the  battle  of  Hastings,  fought  here  on 
14th  October  1066,  when  William  the  Conqueror 
overthrew  King  Harold.  To  commemorate  his 
victory,  he  founded  in  1007,  on  the  spot  where 
Harold  fell,  a  splendid  Benedictine  abbey.  The 
so-called  Battle  Abbey  Roll,  generally  assumed 
to  have  been  a  list  of  William's  followers,  but 
probably  of  Edward  I.'s  tune  or  later,  is  sup- 
posed to  have  perished  in  the  burning  of  Cow- 
dray  House,  near  Midhurst,  in  1793 ;  and  the 
ten  copies  of  it  extant  have  all  been  grossly 
tampered  with.  The  abbey,  two-thirds  a  ruin, 
was  bought  in  1857  by  Lord  Harry  Vane,  after- 
ward Duke  of  Cleveland.  Pop.  2996.  See  works 
by  J.  B.  Burke  (1848),  Mackenzie  Walcott  (2d  ed. 
1867),  and  the  Duchess  of  Cleveland  (1889). 

Battle  Creek,  a  thriving  town  of  Michigan, 
on  the  Kalamazoo  River,  45  miles  SW.  of  Lan- 
sing. It  has  flour-mills,  iron-foundries,  machine- 
shops,  &c.     Pop.  (1880)  7063 ;  (1900)  18,503. 

Battlefield,  3  miles  NE.  of  Shrewsbury,  the 
scene  of  the  battle  of  Shrewsbury  (1403),  in  which 
Hotspur  was  defeated  and  slain. 

Battleford,  in  Saskatchewan,  Canada,  at  the 
junction  of  the  Battle  River  with  the  Saskat- 
chewan, 175  miles  to  the  north  of  the  Canadian 
Pacific  Railway.  It  was  capital  of  the  North- 
west in  1876-83. 

Batum.    See  Batoum. 

Baturin',  a  town  of  South-west  Russia,  on  the 
Seim,  50  miles  SSW.  of  Novgorod.    Pop.  6850. 

Batz,  or  Bas,  a  small  island  in  the  English 
Channel,  belonging  to  France,  and  situated  off 
the  north  coast  of  the  dep.  of  Finistere.  Its 
length  is  about  2J  miles,  and  its  breadth  about 
1^  mile.  It  has  three  villages ;  a  fine  haven, 
that  of  Kernoc,  and  a  lighthouse.    Pop.  1184. 

Bautzen  (Boiut'zcn;  Wendish  Budissin),  a 
town  in  Saxony,  on  the  Spree,  35  miles  W.  of 
Gbrlitz.  The  chief  buildings  are  a  former  cath- 
edral (1497),  and  the  castle  of  Ortenburg,  dating 
from  958,  a  frequent  residence  of  the  kings  of 
Bohemia.  The  manufactures  include  woollens, 
fustian,  linen,  hosiery,  leather,  and  gunpowder. 
Pop.  (1871)  13,165  ;  (1900)  26,025.  Here  Napoleon 
won  a  barren  victory  over  the  Russians  and 
Prussians,  May  20-21,  1813. 

Bavaria  (Ger.  Bayern),  the  second  state  of  the 
German  empire.  It  is  divided  into  two  unequal 
parts,  separated  by  Baden  and  Hesse-Darmstadt, 
of  which  the  eastern  comprises  eleven-twelfths 
of  the  whole.  Its  frontiers  touch  also  on  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  Prussia,  Bohemia,  Austria,  and  the 
Tyrol— the  divisions  are  Bavaria  upper  and 
lower,  the  Palatinate  upper  and  lower,  the  three 
divisions  of  Franconia,  and  Swabia.  The  area, 
29,375  sq.  m.,  is  a  little  less  than  that  of  Scot- 
land. In  1900  tlie  pop.  was  6,176,057 ;  Munich,  the 
capital, had  all  but  500,000  inhabitants,  and  Nurem- 
berg over  261,000.  There  are  close  on  4,500,000 
Catliolics  to  1,750,000  Protestants  and  55,000  Jews. 
Bavaria  is  walled  in  on  the  SB.,  NE.,  and  NW. 
by  mountains  ranging  from  3000  feet  to  close  on 
.10,000  feet  in  height— highest  elevation  the  Zug- 


1 


BAWTRY 


87 


B£ACHY  HEAD 


spitz  in  the  Noric  Alps,  96C5  feet  high.  The 
interior  is  intersected  in  several  directions  by 
various  less  elevated  ranges,  alternating  with 
extensive  plains  and  fertile  valleys.  The  country 
is  rich  in  wood,  nearly  one-third  of  its  surface 
being  covered  with  forests,  mostly  of  pine  and 
fir.  The  Rhine  flows  along  the  eastern  boundary 
of  the  Palatinate ;  the  Danube  has  a  navigable 
course  of  270  miles  ia  Bavaria  ;  the  north  part  of 
the  state  is  in  the  basin  of  the  Main.  The  soil  is 
very  fertile,  and  the  wealth  of  the  country  con- 
sists almost  wholly  of  its  agricultural  produce, 
including  wine  and  cattle.  The  chief  minerals 
are  salt — a  government  monopoly — coal,  and 
iron,  which  is  worked  almost  everywhere.  Beer, 
coarse  linens,  and  woollens  are  the  most  im- 
portant manufactures.  The  growth  of  the 
population  of  Bavaria  has  been  much  checked 
by  the  law  that  no  marriage  can  take  place 
until  the  guardians  of  the  poor  are  satisfied 
that  the  persons  wishing  to  marry  have  adequate 
means  to  support  a  wife  and  family — a  law 
which  has  tended  to  increase  inordinately  the 
number  of  illegitimate  children.  The  three 
Bavarian  universities  are  at  Munich,  Wurzburg, 
and  Erlangen,  the  last  being  Protestant.  Bavaria 
is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  the  throne  heredi- 
tary in  the  male  line.  When  Bavaria  in  1870 
became  one  of  the  states  of  the  German  empire, 
she  still  retained  certain  privileges,  including 
the  control  of  her  home  affairs,  of  her  postal 
system,  and  of  her  army  in  time  of  peace.  The 
army  forms  two  corps  of  the  imperial  army, 
under  the  command  of  the  king  of  Bavaria  in 
time  of  peace,  but  controlled  by  the  emperor 
of  Germany  in  war.  The  legislature  consists  of 
a  chamber  of  senators  and  one  of  deputies. 
The  revenue  of  Bavaria  is  about  £24,000,000, 
which  is  more  than  enough  to  cover  the  total 
expenditure.  The  public  debt  in  1892  was 
£87,000,000,  about  two-thirds  of  it  having  been 
contracted  for  railways. 

Held  successively  "  by  the  Celtic  Boii,  the 
Ostrogoths,  and  the  Franks,  Bavaria  was  con- 
stituted first  a  margraviate,  then  a  dukedom  by 
Charlemagne  and  his  successors  ;  and  in  1180 
the  crown  was  bestowed  on  a  duke  of  the  House 
of  Wittelsbach,  ancestor  of  the  still  reigning 
dynasty.  The  Rhenish  Palatinate  was  added  to 
the  ducal  dominions  in  1216  :  in  1805  the  duke 
was,  for  services  rendered,  made  a  king  by 
Napoleon  I.  The  Bavarians  sided  with  Austria 
in  1866,  and  took  an  active  share  in  the  Franco- 
German  war  of  1870-71. 

Bawtry,  a  village  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 8  miles  SE.  of  Doncaster.  Pop.  of  parish, 
947. 

Baya'mo,  or  San  Sai-vadob,  a  town  in  the 
east  of  Cuba,  on  the  northern  slope  of  the  Sierra 
Maestra.  It  is  connected  by  railway  with  Man- 
zanilla.     Pop.  7500. 

Bayana,  or  Biana,  a  town  of  India,  in  the 
Rajput  state  of  Bhurtpur,  50  miles  SW.  of  Agra. 
Pop.  8758. 

Bayazid',  a  town  of  Turkish  Armenia,  in  the 
province  of  Erzerum,  on  a  spur  of  Ala  Dagh, 
15  miles  SW.  of  the  foot  of  Mount  Ararat.  From 
15,000  prior  to  1829  its  pop.  has  dwindled  to  5000. 
In  1877  it  was  seized  by  the  Russians,  but  was 
restored  by  the  Berlin  Congress  of  1878. 

Bay  City,  the  fourth  town  of  Michigan,  U.S., 
on  the  Saginaw  River,  4  miles  from  Saginaw 
Bay,  and  108  miles  NNW.  of  Detroit.  It  is  an 
important  railway  centre,  with  a  large  trade  in 
timber  and  salt,  and  some  shipbuilding.     Pop. 


(1860)  1583  ;  (1890)  27,839  ;  (1900)  27,628.  On  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  river  are  the  consolidated 
villages  of  Salzburg,  Wenona,  and  Banks,  known 
as  West  Bay  City,  with  a  pop.  of  12,981 ;  and 
the  village  of  Essex  (2000)  adjoins  the  north  end 
of  the  city.  An  act  of  the  state  legislature  of 
1887  provided  for  the  consolidation  of  these  with 
Bay  City  in  1891. 

Bayem.    See  Bavaria. 

Bayeux  (Bah-yuh'),  a  city  of  Normandy,  in  the 
French  dep.  Calvados,  on  the  Aure,  15  miles 
NW.  of  Caen.  In  its  public  library  is  the  famous 
'Bayeux  Tapestry ;'  and  its  cathedral  was  rebuilt 
after  a  fire  by  William  the  Conqueror  in  1077,  ' 
though  the  present  edifice  dates  mainly  from 
1106  to  the  13th  century.     Pop.  7583. 

Bay  Islands,  a  small  group  in  the  Bay  of 
Honduras,  150  miles  SE.  of  Balize.  The  cluster 
was  proclaimed  a  British  colony  in  1852,  but  in 
1859  was  ceded  to  Honduras.  The  chief  of  the 
six  islands  is  Roatan  (30  by  9  miles;  900  feet 
high).     Pop.  5000. 

Bay  of  Islands,  a  safe  and  extensive  harbour 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  northernmost  portion  of 
the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand.  It  is  11  miles 
across,  and  nearly  a  hundred  islands  stud  its 
surface.  Russell,  a  considerable  port,  is  on  the 
south  side  of  the  bay. 

Bayonne,  a  strongly  fortified  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Basses-Pyrenees,  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Adour  and  Nive,  4  miles  from  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  and  63  miles  WNW.  of  Pan  by 
rail.  Population  (declining),  23,000.  Spanish 
in  aspect,  yet  with  a  strong  Basque  admixture, 
it  has  a  13th-century  cathedral,  an  inviolate 
citadel,  one  of  Van  ban's  masterpieces ;  and  manu- 
factures of  brandy,  liquorice,  chocolate,  bottles, 
&c.  Bayonne  belonged  to  the  duchy  of  Aqui- 
taine,  then  to  Gascony,  and  to  the  English  from 
1152  to  1451.  In  1814  it  was  besieged  in  vain  by 
the  British  and  Spanish  allies. 

Bayonne,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  U.S.,  6  miles 
SW.  of  New  York  by  rail,  on  the  narrow  pen- 
insula to  the  south  of  Jersey  City,  between 
New  York  and  Newark  Bays.  It  has  a  large 
coal-dock,  and  chemical  and  other  works.  Pop. 
(1880)  9372  ;  (1890)  19,033  ;  (1900)  32,722. 

Bayreutli.    See  Baireuth. 

Bayswater,  a  NW.  suburb  of  London. 

Baza  (Roman  Bastia),  a  town  of  Spain,  50 
miles  ENE.  of  Granada.    Pop.  11,828. 

Bazardjik,  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  26  miles  N.  of 
Varna.  Pop.  9545.— Tatar-Bazardjik,  a  town 
of  Eastern  Roumelia,  on  the  Upper  Maritza,  23 
miles  W.  of  Philippopolis  by  rail,  with  warm 
baths,  and  15,659  inhabitants,  having  greatly  in- 
creased since  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78. 

Bazeilles  (Ba-zeVye),  a  village  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Ardennes,  near  the  Meuse,  4  miles  SSE.  of 
Sedan.  A  pretty,  well-to-do  place,  it  was  burnt 
to  the  ground  by  the  Bavarians  on  the  day  of 
Sedan  (1st  Sept.  1870),  but  was  rebuilt,  in  great 
measure  with  British  contributions.     Pop.  1391. 

Beachy  Head,  the  loftiest  headland  on  the 
south  coast  of  England,  projecting  into  the 
English  Channel,  3^  miles  SSW.  of  Eastbourne, 
Sussex.  It  consists  of  perpendicular  chalk-cliff's, 
575  feet  high,  forming  the  east  end  of  the  South 
Downs.  The  Belle  Toute  Lighthouse  (1831),  2i 
miles  to  the  west,  is  285  feet  aTjove  the  sea,  and 
is  seen  above  20  miles  off".  Olf  Beachy  Head,  a 
French  fleet  beat  the  combined  English  and 
Dutch  fleets,  30th  June  1690. 


BEACONSFIELD 


BECHUANALANi) 


Beaconsfield,  a  quiet  little  market-town  of 
Buckinghamsliire,  10  miles  N.  of  Windsor.  It 
is  noteworthy  as  the  home  and  the  burial-place 
of  tlie  poet  Waller  and  of  Edmund  Burke,  and 
as  haviug  given  his  earl's  title  to  Benjamin  Dis- 
raeli.    Pop.  1750. 

Beaminster,  a  Dorset  market-town,  on  the 
Birt,  6  miles  NNE.  of  Bridport.     Pop.  2000. 

Bearhaven.    See  Casti-ktown  Bearhaven. 

Bear  Island,  County  Cork,  in  Bantry  Bay, 
measures  6^  by  1^  miles. 

Bear  Lake,  Great,  in  the  north-west  of 
Canada,  in  e5°-67°  N.  lat.,  and  117°-123°  W.  long. 
Lying  246  feet  above  sea-level,  Great  Bear  Lake 
is  irregular  in  shape,  with  an  area  of  7012  sq.  m., 
or  not  much  smaller  than  Wales.  It  sends  forth 
a  river  of  its  own  name  to  the  Mackenzie. 

Bearn,  one  of  the  thirty-two  old  French  pro- 
vinces now  forming;  the  greatest  portion  of  the 
dep.  of  Basses-Pyrenees.  The  inhabitants  are 
chiefly  Gascons  with  a  strong  Basque  infusion, 
and  they  speak  the  purest  Gascon  dialect.  Bearn 
virtually  became  a  part  of  France  on  Henry  IV. 's 
accession  (1593),  but  was  only  formally  incorpor- 
ated with  it  in  1620. 

Bear  River,  a  stream  of  Utah,  U.S.,  which 
rises  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  flows  NW.  into 
Idaho,  then  bends  round  and  again  returns  into 
Utah,  falling  into  Great  Salt  Lake. 

BeSs,  one  of  the  '  Five  Rivers '  of  the  Punjab, 
rises  in  the  Snowy  Mountains  of  Kiilu,  at  13,320 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  flows  290  miles  SW.  to 
the  Sutlej,  30  miles  above  Ferozpur. 

Beatrice,  capital  of  Gage  county,  Nebraska, 
on  the  Big  Blue  River,  40  miles  by  rail  S.  of 
Lincoln,  with  limestone  quarries,  cement  works, 
flour  and  lumber  mills,  &c.  Pop.  (1880)  2447 ; 
(1900)  7875. 

Beattock,  the  junction  for  Moffat  (q.v.). 

Beaucaire  (Bo-'kayr'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Gard,  on  the  Rhone,  opposite  Tarascon,  14  m. 
SSW.  of  Avignon.  Vessels  enter  its  harbour  by 
a  canal  from  the  Mediterranean.  A  July  fair, 
once  attended  by  300,000  strangers,  still  does  a 
brisk  trade  in  silks,  wines,  oil,  &c.     Pop.  8906. 

Beauce  (Boass),  a  fertile  district  of  France, 
partly  in  the  deps.  of  Loir-et-Cher  and  Eure-et- 
Loire,  of  which  the  capital  is  Chartres.— Also  a 
SE.  county  of  Quebec  province,  Canada. 

Beaufort  (Bo-forr'),  an  Angevin  town  of  4317 
inhabitants,  in  the  French  dep.  of  Maine-et- 
Loire,  19  miles  E.  of  Angers.  Its  ancient  castle 
came  into  the  hands  of  the  Lancaster  family  at 
the  end  of  the  14th  century,  and  gave  name  to 
the  natural  sons  of  John  of  Gaunt. 

Beaufort  (Bo'fort),  a  port,  N.  Carolina,  U.S., 
at  the  mouth  of  Newport  River.  Pop.  2500.— 
Also  a  port  and  watering-place  of  S.  Carolina,  on 
Port  Royal  Island,  and  terminus  of  Port  Royal 
Railroad,  14  miles  from  the  ocean.     Pop.  5000. 

Beaufort,  West,  a  town  of  Cape  Colony,  near 
the  foot  of  the  Nieuwveld  Mountains,  338  miles 
NW.  of  Capetown  by  rail.     Pop.  2600. 

Beaugency  {Bo-zlion^-see'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Loiret,  on  the  Loire,  16  miles  SW.  of 
Orleans  by  rail.  Here  the  Germans  defeated  the 
French,  December  7-10,  1870.     Pop.  3775. 

Beaujolais  {Bo-zlio-lay'),  a  subdivision  of  the 
old  French  province  of  Lyonnais,  now  forming 
the  northern  part  of  the  dep.  of  Rhone,  and  a 
small  part  of  Loire. 

Beaulieu  (Bewley),  a  village  of  Hampshire, 
at  the  head  of  a  creek,  on  the  verge  of  the 


New  Forest,  6  miles  NE.  of  Lymington.    King 
John  here  founded  a  Cistercian  abbey  in  1204. 

Beauly  (pron.  Beiuley),  a  village,  10  miles  W. 
of  Inverness,  with  remains  of  a  priory  founded 
in  1232.  Beauly  Firth  (7  by  2  miles)  is  the  upper 
basin  of  the  Moray  Firth,  and  receives  the  river 
Beauly,  winding  10  miles  NE.    Pop.  859. 

Beauma'rls,  a  seaport,  watering-place,  and 
chief  town  of  Anglesey,  North  Wales,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  picturesque  bay  of  Beaumaris, 
near  the  north  entrance  to  the  Menai  Strait, 
3  jniles  N.  of  Bangor,  and  239  miles  NW.  of 
London.  It  has  the  ivy-covered  remains  of  a 
castle  erected  by  Edward  I.,  and  a  free  grammar- 
school.  Till  1885  it  united  with  Amlwch,  Holy- 
head,  and  Llangefni  in  returning  one  member. 
Pop.  (1871)  2291 ;  (1901)  2310. 

Beaune  (Boane),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
Cote  d'Or,  23  miles  SSW.  of  Dijon  by  rail,  with  a 
fine  13th-century  church,  a  splendid  hospital, 
founded  in  1443  by  Nicholas  RoUin  ;  and  a  bronze 
statue  (1849)  of  Monge  the  mathematician.  It 
manufactures  serges,  woollen  cloth,  and  cutlery, 
and  gives  name  to  one  of  the  best  Burgundy 
wines.     Pop.  12,755. 

Beauvais,  the  capital  of  the  French  dep.  Oise, 
situated  in  the  valley  of  the  Therain,  55  miles 
NNW.  of  Paris.  Of  its  unfinished  cathedral, 
begun  in  1225,  the  choir,  153  feet  high,  is  the 
loftiest  as  Avell  as  one  of  the  finest  specimens 
of  Gothic  in  France.  The  industries  include  the 
weaving  of  Gobelins  tapestries  (since  1664),  and 
the  manufacture  of  cotton,  woollen  cloths,  sliawls, 
and  carpets.  Population,  17,500.  Beauvais  was 
known  by  the  Romans  as  CoRsarmnagu?,  after- 
wards as  Bellovacum.  In  1472  it  was  besieged 
by  Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  with  80,000 
men,  when  the  women  of  Beauvais,  under  Jeanne 
Hachette,  displayed  remarkable  valour. 

Beaver  Dam,  a  city  at  the  outlet  of  Beaver 
Lake,  Wisconsin,  U.S.,  61  miles  NW,  of  Mil- 
waukee, on  the  Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  St  Paul 
Railway.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  fertile  district, 
and  has  a  university,  various  factories,  and  flour- 
mills.     Pop.  5222. 

Beaver  Falls,  a  village  of  Pennsylvania,  U.S., 
near  the  Beaver  River's  junction  with  the  Ohio, 
34  miles  NW.  of  Pittsburgh.  Tlie  'Harmony' 
society  of  economy  controls  most  of  the  factories 
here.     Pop.  12,000. 

Bebek,  a  lovely  bay  on  the  European  side  of 
the  Bosphorus,  with  a  palace  (built  1725). 

Beccles,  a  Suffolk  market-town  and  municipal 
borough,  on  the  Waveney,  8  miles  W.  of  Lowes- 
toft. It  has  a  flue  church  with  a  detached 
belfry,  a  good  grammar-school,  and  large  print- 
ing-works.    Pop.  7000. 

Bechuanaland  (Betclwoah'naland),  a  tract  of 
South  Africa,  inhabited  by  the  Becluianas,  extend- 
ing from  the  Zambesi  to  the  Transvaal  border. 
Tlie  Bechuanas,  who  speak  a  Bantu  language,  also 
occupy  a  considerable  portion  of  tlie  Transvaal. 
British  protection  extends  over  Bechuanaland  as 
far  north  as  22'  S.  lat.  since  1884.  South  of  the 
river  Molopo  a  territory  was  proclaimed  a  crown 
colony  in  1885  ;  its  area  is  51,000  sq.  m.,  and  its 
population  is  about  70,000,  of  whom  some  10,000 
only  are  whites.  The  protectorate  of  Bechuana- 
land outside  the  crown  colony  is  in  extent  about 
380,000  sq.  ni.— more  than  thrice  as  large  as  the 
Transvaal  or  the  United  Kingdom— Avith  a  popu- 
lation of  some  130,000.  (For  Rliodesia  and  tlie 
British  area  farther  north,  see  Rhodesia,  Zam- 
BEsiA,  Matabeleland,  Mashonaland.)    Bechu- 


BECKENHAM 


89 


BEDLINGTON 


analand  is  a  portion  of  an  elevated  plateau  4000 
to  5000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  though  so  near 
the  tropics,  is  suitable  for  the  British  race. 
In  winter  there  are  sharp  frosts,  and  snow  falls 
in  some  years.  The  rains  fall  in  summer,  and 
then  only  the  rivers  are  full.  It  is  an  excellent 
country  for  cattle ;  sheep  thrive  in  some  parts, 
and  there  are  extensive  tracts  available  for  corn- 
lands.  There  are  extensive  forests  to  the  north- 
east, and  to  the  west  the  Kalahari  Desert,  which 
only  requires  wells  dug  to  make  it  habitable. 
The  enormous  quantities  of  buck  which  roam 
over  the  land  attest  the  productiveness  of  the 
soil.  Gold  has  been  found  near  Sitlagoli,  and 
diamonds  were  discovered  at  Vryburg  in  1887. 
The  province  of  Stellaland  is  principally  inhab- 
ited by  Boers,  and  the  rest  of  the  country  by 
Bechuanas,  speaking  a  Bantu  language.  Their 
ancestors  are  said  to  have  come  from  the  north. 
They  have  since  1832  been  at  enmity  with  the 
Matabele,  and  in  later  years  the  Transvaal 
Boers  endeavoured  to  occupy  their  country. 
During  the  native  risings  in  1878,  the  Bechuanas 
invaded  Griqualand  West,  and  were  in  turn  sub- 
dued by  British  volunteers  as  far  as  the  Molopo. 
When  the  British  government  withdrew  from 
Bechuanaland  in  1880,  the  natives,  being  help- 
less, were  left  to  the  mercy  of  the  Boers  of  the 
Transvaal,  whose  harsh  treatment  in  1882  and 
1883  led  to  the  Bechimnaland  expedition  in  1884. 
The  administration  of  the  protectorate  was  left 
to  three  cliiefs  (Khama,  Sebele,  Bathoen)  under 
British  protection,  represented  by  a  resident 
commissioner  under  the  High  Connnissioner  for 
South  Africa.  The  colony  of  Bechuanaland  was 
incorporated  with  Cape  Colony  in  1895. 

Beckenham,  a  town  of  Kent,  7  miles  S.  by  E. 
of  Loudon.     Pop.  27,000. 

Becse,  Old,  a  Hungarian  town,  on  the  Tlieiss. 
Pop.  19,000.— New  Becse,  on  the  E.  bank,  348 
miles  SSE.  of  Pesth,  has  a  pop.  of  7000. 

Becskerek,  a  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Bega 
canal,  368  miles  SSE.  of  Pesth  by  rail.  Pop. 
22,100. 

Bedarieux  (Jiay-dar-yuh'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Herault,  on  the  Orb,  27  miles  NNW.  of 
Beziers  by  rail.     Pop.  6046. 

Beddgelert,  a  Carnarvonshire  village,  a  great 
tourist  centre,  near  Aberglaslyn  Pass,  12  miles 
SE.  of  Carnarvon.  '  Gelert's  Grave '  is  marked 
by  a  few  stones. 

Bedford,  the  county  town  of  Bedfordshire,  on 
the  navigable  Ouse,  49  miles  NNW.  of  London 
by  rail.  The  Ouse  is  spanned  here  by  two 
bridges — a  stone  one  of  five  arches,  306  feet 
long,  built  in  1811  at  a  cost  of  £15,000,  and  an 
iron  one,  built  in  1888  at  a  cost  of  £6000.  The 
charitable  and  educational  institutions  are  mostly 
due  to  Sir  W.  Harper,  Lord  Mayor  of  London 
(c.  1496-1573).  He  in  1566  founded  a  free  school, 
and  endowed  it  with  13  acres  of  land  in  Holborn. 
The  enormously  increased  value  of  the  property 
(from  £150  to  £15,000  a  year)  enables  the  trustees 
to  maintain  grammar,  modern,  and  preparatory 
schools  for  boys,  the  same  class  of  schools  for 
girls,  and  almshouses.  The  chief  manufacture 
is  that  of  agricultural  implements.  Lace-making 
is  also  carried  on  ;  straw-plaiting  has  declined. 
An  embankment  beside  the  Ouse  forms  a  pretty 
promenade  ;  and  a  people's  park  of  60  acres  was 
opened  in  1888.  Bedford  returns  one  niember 
(till  1885  two)  to  parliament.  Pop.  (1851)  12,693  ; 
(1901)  35,144.  Bedford  (Bedican-fortha)  Avas  the 
scene  of  a  battle  between  the  Britons  and  Saxons 
in  571.    The  Danes  burned  it  in  1010.    Bunyan, 


who  was  bom  at  Elstow,  near  Bedford,  was  tot 
twelve  years  a  prisoner  in  Bedford  jail,  and 
ministered  to  the  Nonconformist  congregation 
in  Mill  Lane  from  1672  to  his  death  in  1688. 
His  chapel  has  been  twice  rebuilt,  in  1707  and 
1849 ;  but  his  chair  and  other  relics  of  hiin  are 
preserved ;  whilst  a  colossal  bronze  statue  of  him 
by  Boehm  was  erected  at  the  cost  of  the  Duke  of 
Bedford  in  1874. 

Bedford  Level,  an  extensive  tract  of  flat  land 
in  the  east  of  England,  embracing  nearly  all 
the  marshy  district  called  the  Fens.  It  extends 
inland  around  the  Wash  into  the  six  counties 
of  Northampton,  Huntingdon,  Cambridge,  Lin- 
coln, Norfolk,  and  Suffolk,  and  has  an  area  of 
about  750,000  acres.  Its  inland  boundary  forms 
a  horseshoe  of  high  lands,  and  reaches  the  towns 
or  villages  of  Brandon,  Milton  (near  Cambridge), 
Earith,  Peterborough,  and  Bolingbroke.  Of  the 
three  divisions,  the  north  level  lies  between 
the  rivers  Welland  and  Nene ;  the  middle,  between 
the  Nene  and  the  Old  Bedford  River;  and  the 
south  extends  to  Stoke,  Feltwell,  and  Milden- 
hall.  Intersected  by  many  artificial  channels, 
as  well  as  by  the  lower  parts  of  the  rivers  Nene, 
Cam,  Ouse  (Great  and  Little),  Welland,  Glen, 
Lark,  and  Stoke,  it  receives  the  waters  of  the 
whole  or  parts  of  nine  counties.  A  great  forest 
at  the  coming  of  the  Romans,  and  by  them 
rendered  a  fertile  inhabited  region,  this  district, 
owing  to  incursions  of  the  sea,  became  a  morass 
in  the  13th  century,  but  has  been  drained  since 
1634,  mainly  by  the  enterprise  of  Francis,  Earl  of 
Bedford,  the  principal  landholder — whence  the 
name.  See  Heathcote's  Reminiscences  of  Fen  and 
Mere  (1876). 

Bedfordshire,  a  midland  county,  the  37th  of 
the  40  English  counties  in  size,  and  36th  in 
population.  Extreme  length,  31  miles  ;  breadth, 
25 ;  area,  461  sq.  ni.  The  general  surface  is 
level,  with  gentle  undulations.  In  the  south, 
a  range  of  chalk-hills,  branching  from  the 
Chiltei'ns,  crosses  Bedfordshire  in  a  north-east 
direction  from  Dunstable,  and  another  parallel 
range  runs  from  Ampthill  to  near  the  junction 
of  the  Ivel  with  the  Ouse.  Between  the  lattei 
ridge  and  the  north-west  part  of  the  county, 
where  the  land  is  also  somewhat  hilly,  lies  the 
corn  vale  of  Bedford.  No  hill  much  exceeds 
500  feet  in  height.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Ouse  (running  through  the  centre  of  the  county, 
17  miles  in  a  direct  line,  but  45  by  its  windings), 
navigable  to  Bedford  ;  and  its  tributary,  the 
Ivel,  navigable  to  Sheflbrd.  There  are  extensive 
market-gardens,  especially  on  the  rich  deep 
loams.  Bedfordshire  is  the  most  exclusively 
agricultural  county  in  England,  its  cultivated 
area  being  88'1  per  cent.,  against  79-3  for  the 
whole  kingdom.  Pop.  (1801)  63,393;  (1841) 
107,936 ;  (1901)  171,249.  The  principal  proprietor 
is  the  Duke  of  Bedford  ;  and  his  seat,  Woburn 
Abbey,  is  the  chief  mansion.  Lace-making  and 
straw-plaiting  are  leading  industries,  carried  on 
almost  entirely  by  women.  Bedfordshire  is 
divided  into  nine  hundreds  and  122  parishes. 
Two  members  of  parliament  are  returned  for 
the  county,  one  for  the  Biggleswade,  and  one 
for  the  Luton  division.  Many  British  and 
Roman  antiquities  exist,  as  well  as  the  ruins 
of  several  monasteries.  Three  Roman  roads 
crossed  the  county,  and  several  earthwork  camps 
remain. 

Bedlington,  a  Northumberland  township,  5 
miles  SE.  of  Morpeth.  Here  about  1800  Mr 
Aynsley  bred  the  famous  Bedlington  terriers. 


fiEDNOR 


90 


BELFAST 


Bednor',  Bednur,  or  Nagar,  a  decayed  city, 
now  a  village,  of  Mysore,  India,  150  miles  NW. 
of  Seringapatam.  It  was  at  one  time  the  seat 
of  government  of  a  rajah,  and  its  pop.  exceeded 
100,000.  In  1763  it  was  taken  by  Hyder  Ali, 
who  pillaged  it  of  property  to  the  estimated 
value  of  £12,000,000. 

Bedwellty,  a  mining  urban  district  of  Mon- 
mouthsliire,  with  ironworks,  7  miles  from  Ponty- 
pool.     Pop.  10,000. 

Bedwln,  a  Wiltshire  town,  5  miles  SW.  of 
Huiigerford.     Pop.  of  parish,  1627. 

Bedworth,  a  market-town  of  Warwickshire,  3 
miles  S.  of  Nuneaton.     Pop.  of  parisli,  74S5. 

Beer,  a  Devon  fishing-village,  1|  mile  SW.  of 
Axmouth. 

Beeston,  an  urban  district  of  Notts,  3  miles 
from  Nottingham.     Pop.  8960. 

Beeston  Rock,  a  steep  eminence  (366  feet)  in 
Cheshire,  2  miles  S.  of  Tarporley,  with  a  ruined 
castle  (1220). 

Begharmi.    See  Bagirmi. 

Bugles,  a  town  of  France,  in  the  department 
Gironde,  2  miles  S.  from  Bordeaux.  Pop.  (1901) 
12,061. 

Beg-Sh6hr,  or  Kkreli  Gol,  a  mountain  lake 
in  Asia  Minor,  44  miles  SW.  of  Konia.  Lying 
almost  3700  feet  above  the  sea,  it  is  over  30 
miles  long,  from  5  to  10  miles  broad,  and  contains 
several  islands.  On  its  east  and  north  shores 
are  the  towns  of  Begshehr  and  Kereli. 

Behar,  or  Bahar  (also  Bihar),  once  one  of 
the  three  provinces  under  the  Nawab  of  Bengal, 
now  one  of  the  four  great  provinces  of  Bengal, 
occupying  part  of  the  valley  of  the  Ganges,  com- 
prising the  two  divisions  of  Patna  and  Bhagal- 
pur,  and  subdivided  into  12  administrative  dis- 
tricts. Area,  44,200  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1901)  24,241,395. 
The  Ganges  divides  the  province  almost  into 
two  equal  parts  ;  it  is  watered  besides  by  several 
of  its  important  tributaries.— if oocft  Behar  is  a 
native  state  near  Bhotan,  under  the  lieutenant- 
governor  of  Bengal ;  area,  1307  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
578,863.  Its  capital  is  also  Kooch  Behar,  or 
Kuch  Behar. 

Behar,  or  Bahar,  a  town  of  Bengal,  54  miles 
SE.  by  S.  of  Patna.  The  original  city  is  nearly 
deserted,  and  the  present  town  consists  of  houses 
scattered  about  its  remains,  and  interspersed 
with  fields,  gardens,  and  groves.  Silk,  cotton 
cloths,  and  muslin  are  manufactured  here.  Pop. 
45,000. 

Behistun,  or  Bisutun  (anc.  Baghistan),  the 
site  of  an  ancient  Persian  city,  22  miles  E.  of  the 
city  of  Kirmanshahan.  It  is  noted  for  its  famous 
precipitous  rock,  which  on  one  side  rises  per- 
pendicularly to  the  height  of  1700  feet,  and 
which  bears  cuneiform  inscriptions  of  Darius 
Hystaspes  about  515  b.c. 

Behring  Strait  separates  Asia  from  America, 
and  connects  the  Pacific  Avith  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
The  proof  that  the  two  continents  were  not  con- 
nected was  given  by  a  Cossack  named  Deschnev, 
who  in  1648  sailed  from  a  harbour  in  Siberia,  in 
the  Polar  Ocean,  into  the  Sea  of  Kamchatka. 
But  his  voyage  was  regarded  by  Europeans 
as  a  fable,  until  Behring's  expedition  in  1728. 
The  strait  was  explored  and  accurately  described 
by  Cook  in  1778.  The  narrowest  part  is  near  66° 
lat.,  between  East  Cape  in  Asia,  and  Cape  Prince 
of  Wales  in  America,  where  the  capes  approach 
within  36  miles ;  about  inidway  are  three  unin- 
habited islands.    The  greatest  depth  is  some  30 


fathoms.— Behring  Sea,  called  also  the  Sea  of 
Kamchatka,  is  that  part  of  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean  to  the  S.  of  Behring  Strait.  The  right 
of  sealing  in  Behring  Sea,  long  a  source  of  difli- 
culty  between  Britain  and  the  United  States, 
was  settled  by  arbitration  in  1893.— Behring 
Island,  the  most  westerly  of  the  Aleutian 
Islands,  has  an  area  of  30  sq.  m.,  and  was  the 
place  where  Vitus  Behring,  or  Bering,  the  dis- 
coverer, was  wrecked  and  died  in  1741. 

Bellan',  a  pass  in  the  northern  extremity  of 
Syria,  on  the  east  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Scanderoon, 
runs  across  the  mountain-range  of  Amanus.  It 
is  the  common  route  from  Cilicia  into  Syria. 
The  town  of  Beilan  (pop.  5000)  is  situated  near 
the  summit-level  of  the  pass,  1584  feet  above  the 
Mediterranean. 

Beira  (Bai/ee-ra),  a  Portuguese  province ;  area 
about  9222  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  1,517,432.  The 
surface  is  mountainous ;  the  rivers  are  the  Douro 
and  Tagus.  It  is  divided  into  the  districts  of 
Aveiro,  Castello  Branco,  Coimbra,  Guarda,  and 
Vizeu.    The  capital  is  Coimbra. 

Beira,  a  small  town  (pop.  5000)  in  Portuguese 
East  Africa,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Pungwe 
River,  12  miles  from  the  point  whence  the  rail- 
way towards  Mashonaland  starts. 

Beiram.    See  Bairam. 

Beit-el-Fakih,  a  town  of  Yemen,  Arabia,  near 
the  Red  Sea,  87  miles  N.  of  Mocha.  Hodeida,  on 
the  Red  Sea,  is  the  port.    Pop.  8000. 

Beith,  a  small  town  of  North  Ayrshire,  on  the 
borders  of  Renfrewshire,  18  miles  SW.  of  Glasgow 
by  rail.  It  has  large  cabinet-works  and  the 
Speir  School  (1887),  resembling  the  old  college 
at  Glasgow.    Pop.  4963. 

Beja  (Bay'zha;  Roman  Pax  Julia),  a  town  in 
the  province  of  Alemtejo,  Portugal,  101  miles 
SE.  of  Lisbon  by  rail.  It  has  a  castle  and  a 
cathedral.     Pop.  8887. 

Bejapur.    See  Bijapur. 

Bejar,  a  town  of  Spain,  45  miles  S.  of  Sala- 
manca.     Pop.  9500. 

Bekaa.    See  Ccele-Syria. 

Bekes,  or  Bekesvar,  a  town  of  Hungary,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Black  and  White  KOros, 
113  miles  SE.  of  Pesth.     Pop.  25,700. 

Bekes  Csaba,  a  town  of  Hungary,  7  miles  S.  of 
Bekes  by  rail.     Pop.  37,243. 

Belbeis  (anc.  B^ibastis  Agria),  a  town  on  the 
east  arm  of  the  Nile,  Lower  Egypt,  28  miles 
NNE .  of  Cairo.     Pop.  1 1 ,  500. 

Belchi'te,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Aguas,  22 
miles  SSE.  of  Saragossa.  Here,  on  June  18, 
1809,  the  French  completely  routed  the  Spanish, 
Pop.  3279. 

Belem'.    See  Lisbon. 

Belem',  or  Para',  capital  of  the  Brazilian 
province  of  Para  (q.v.). 

Belfast',  the  largest  and  most  prosperous  city 
in  Ireland,  since  1S9S  a  county  apart  from  Antrim, 
is  situated  mainly  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lagan, 
at  its  entrance  to  Belfast  Lough  (12  x  3  miles). 
It  is  12  miles  from  the  Irish  Sea,  101  N.  of 
Dublin,  130  SW.  of  Glasgow,  and  156  NW,  of 
Liverpool.  On  the  Antrim  side  the  picturesque 
hills,  rising  almost  to  the  dignity  of  mountains, 
have  an  impressive  effect,  and  the  general  aspect 
of  the  town  is  bright  and  animated.  Though  the 
seat  of  the  linen  industry,  with  a  number  of 
mills  and  manufactures  of  several  kinds,  Belfast 
has  a  much  more  pleasant  appearance  than  most 


SfeLFAST 


91 


BELGIUM 


British  manufacturing  towns.  On  each  side  of 
the  spacious  lough,  which  resembles  in  some 
respects  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  are  a  number  of 
pleasant  villas,  whilst  in  the  higher  suburb  of 
Malone,  and  along  the  Lisburn  Road,  handsome 
edifices  of  a  similar  character  have  sprung  up. 
A  fine  large  new  street  called  Royal  Avenue  was 
in  1884  driven  through  the  centre  of  the  town 
from  York  Street  to  Donegal  Place,  It  contains 
the  new  post-office,  the  Ulster  Reform  Club,  the 
offices  of  the  Water  Commissioners,  and  the  free 
library,  which,  with  many  fine  shops,  form  a 
very  imposing  thoroughfare.  The  Queen's  College, 
a  handsome  brick  building,  was  opened  in  1849. 
The  Presbyterian  College  in  1881  had,  in  con- 
junction with  the  Magee  College  of  Londonderry, 
the  power  conferred  on  it  of  granting  theological 
degrees.  The  Catholics  and  Methodists  have 
colleges  of  their  own,  while  a  Royal  Academical 
Institution  and  the  Belfast  Academy,  with  other 
institutions  of  a  similar  character,  supply  great 
educational  facilities.  Simultaneously  with  drain- 
age and  other  improvements  in  the  town,  the 
Harbour  Commissioners  have  been  engaged  in 
greatly  improving  the  quays  and  the  harbour. 
With  this  object  they  had  already  expended 
£500,000  when,  under  an  Act  of  1883,  they 
obtained  power  authorising  an  additional  ex- 
penditure of  about  a  million  of  money  more. 
Recent  improvements  are  a  through  channel  and 
a  deep-water  quay,  new  parks,  new  liospitals, 
and  a  Protestant  cathedral  (1899-1904).  The 
linen  trade  is  by  iio  means  the  sole  staple, 
several  industries  having  since  1855  greatly  de- 
veloped, notably  shipbuilding ;  others  are  rope- 
making,  the  manufacture  of  aerated  waters, 
and  the  whisky  trade.  At  intervals  there  have 
been  serious  riots  between  the  lowest  classes  of 
Protestants  and  Catholics.  Belfast  is  a  town  of 
great  energy,  steadily  growing,  and  handsome 
beyond  most  large  commercial  and  manufactur- 
ing towns.  Amongst  famous  natives  are  the 
physicists  Thomas  Andrews,  Lord  Kelvin,  and 
his  brother,  Professor  James  Thomson  ;  Sir  J. 
Emerson  Tennant ;  Sir  Samuel  Ferguson  ;  and 
the  painter  Lavery.  In  1888  it  became  a  city,  in 
1892  its  mayor  became  Lord  Mayor,  and  in  1898, 
much  extended  in  area,  it  was  made  '  the  county 
of  the  city  of  Belfast.'  Pop.  (1821)  37,117  ;  (1851) 
102,103;  (1881)  208,122;  (1891)  255,950;  (1901) 
349,180.  See  George  Benn's  History  of  Belfast 
(1877). 

Bel' fast,  a  port  of  entry  in  Maine,  U.S.,  on 
the  west  side  of  Penobscot  Bay.     Pop.  4294. 

Belford,  a  town  of  Northumberland,  15  miles 
SSE.  of  Berwick-on-Tweed.  Pop.  of  parish, 
854. 

Belfort  (Bel-forr'),  capital  of  the  French  remnant 
ot  the  dep.  of  Haut-Rhin,  117  m.  BNE.  of  Dijon 
by  rail.  From  1870  this  remnant  (235  sq.  m.), 
taking  its  name  from  the  town,  has  been  called 
the  Territoire  de  Belfort  (or,  alternatively,  Haut- 
Rhin),  and  consists  of  tliose  portions  of  Haut- 
Rhin  which,  seized  by  the  Germans  during  the 
Franco-German  war,  were  restored  to  France  in 
1871.  The  strategical  importance  of  Belfort  was 
recognised  by  France  on  its  cession  by  Austria 
in  1648,  and  it  was  fortified  by  Vauban.  A 
fortress  of  the  first  rank,  it  maintained,  froin  3d 
December  1870  till  16th  February  1871,  a  gallant 
defence  against  the  Germans.  It  then  capitu- 
lated, the  defenders  marching  out  with  all  the 
honours  of  war.  The  fortifications  have  been 
enonnously  strengthened  since  1874.  Pop.  (1872) 
8014 ;  (1901)  32,570 ;  of  territory  (1901)  92,304. 


Belgard,  a  Prussian  town  of  Pomerania,  on  the 
Persante,  16  miles  SSW.  of  Koslin.     Pop.  7617. 

Belgaum',  or  Belgam,  the  chief  city  of  a  dis- 
trict in  the  presidency  of  Bombay,  situated  to  the 
B.  of  the  dividing  ridge  of  the  West  Ghats,  at  a 
height  of  2500  feet  above  the  sea,  55  miles  NE.  of 
Goa.  Its  fort  in  1818  was  taken  from  the  Peishwa 
by  the  British.  The  chief  articles  of  commerce 
are  dry  fish,  salt,  dates,  cocoa-nuts,  coir.  Cotton 
cloth  is  manufactured  here.     Pop.  36,800. 

Belglojoso  (Bel-ji-o-yo'zo),  a  town  of  Lombardy, 
North  Italy,  9  miles  E.  of  Pavia.    Pop.  3168. 

Belgium  (Fr.  Belgique),  one  of  the  smaller 
European  states,  consists  of  the  southern  portion 
of  the  former  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  (as 
created  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna),  lying  be- 
tween France  and  Holland,  the  North  Sea  and 
Rhenish  Prussia.  Its  greatest  length  from  north- 
west to  south-east  is  173  miles ;  and  its  greatest 
breadth  from  north  to  south,  105  miles.  The 
area  is  11,373  sq.  m.,  not  a  third  of  that  of 
Ireland.  Pop.  (1880)  5,520,009;  (1901)  6,693,548. 
There  are  nine  provinces — Antwerp,  West  Flan- 
ders, East  Flanders,  Hainault,  Li^ge,  Brabant, 
Limburg,  Luxemburg,  and  Namur,  of  which 
Luxemburg  is  the  largest  and  Limburg  the 
smallest.  Brussels,  the  capital,  is,  with  its 
suburbs,  the  largest  town  (pop.  565,000) ;  Antwerp 
is  half  its  size  ;  Liege  and  Ghent  have  more  than 
150,000  inhabitants  ;  and  there  are  twenty  other 
towns  with  over  20,000.  The  population  of 
Belgium  is  of  partly  Germanic,  partly  Celtic 
origin.  The  Flemings  (of  Teutonic  stock)  and 
Walloons  (Celtic  in  origin)  speak  each  their  own 
dialects  of  Dutch  and  French ;  there  are  also  num- 
bers of  Germans,  Dutch,  and  French.  East  and 
West  Flanders,  Antwerp,  and  Limburg  are  almost 
wholly  Flemish;  and  Brabant  mainly  so.  The 
line  between  the  Flemish  and  Walloon  districts 
is  sharply  defined,  the  Flemish  part  being  the 
richest  and  most  cultivated.  The  French  lan- 
guage has  gained  the  ascendency  in  educated 
society  and  in  the  offices  of  government ;  but 
the  Flemish  dialect  prevails  numerically  in  the 
proportion  of  nine  to  eight.  Belgium  is  next  to 
England  the  most  densely  peopled  country  in 
Europe,  the  population  being  589  to  the  sq.  m., 
as  compared  with  558  in  England,  without  Wales 
(150  in  Scotland,  136  in  Ireland).  In  Brabant 
the  density  is  close  on  1000  per  sq.  m. 

Belgium  is,  on  the  whole,  a  level,  and  even  low- 
lying  country  ;  diversified,  however,  by  hilly  dis- 
tricts. In  the  south-east,  a  western  branch  of 
the  Ardennes  highlands  (2000  feet)  separates  the 
basin  of  the  Maas  from  that  of  the  Moselle.  The 
unfertile  Campine,  composed  of  marshes  and 
barren  heaths,  extends  along  the  Dutch  frontier. 
In  Flanders  dykes  have  been  raised  to  check  the 
encroachments  of  the  sea.  The  abundant  water- 
system  of  Belgium  is  chiefly  supplied  by  the 
great  navigable  rivers  Scheldt  and  Maas,  both  of 
which  rise  in  France,  and  have  their  embouchures 
in  Holland.  These  rivers  have  numerous  and 
important  tributaries,  and  there  are  some  40 
canals  (563  miles).  Of  the  total  area,  almost 
two-thirds  are  in  ordinary  cultivation,  more 
than  one-eighth  is  meadow  and  pasture,  one- 
sixth  is  under  wood,  and  less  than  600,000 
acres  are  waste  or  water.  Good  pasturage  is 
found  on  the  slopes  and  in  the  valleys  of  the 
hilly  districts,  and  in  the  rich  meadows  of  the 
low  provinces.  Beet  is  largely  grown  ;  and  the 
level  provinces  raise  wheat,  rye,  oats,  and  barley, 
leguminous  plants,  hemp,  flax,  colza,  tobacco, 
hops,  dye-plants,  chicory,  and  a  little  wine.    It 


BELGIUM 


Belize 


has  been  said  that  the  agriculture  of  Belgium 
is  gardening  on  a  large  scale,  so  carefully  and 
laboriously  is  every  inch  of  soil  cultivated  by 
the  farmers,  the  vast  majority  of  whom  are  small 
holders  owning  less  than  one  hectai'e  (about  2^ 
acres)  of  land.  The  spade  is  still  the  jnincipal 
implement  used.  Belgium  is  famous  for  its 
horses.  In  the  Campine,  honey,  silk,  and  fine 
butter  are  produced.  There  are  valuable  fisheries 
on  the  coast.  Belgium  is  rich  in  minerals,  which 
yield  great  quantities  of  coal  and  iron,  with 
lead,  copper,  zinc,  calamine,  manganese,  alum, 
peat,  marble,  limestone,  granite,  and  slate. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  linen,  woollens 
(with  carpets),  cotton,  silk,  lace,  leather,  metals 
(especially  iron  and  iron  goods),  paper,  glass, 
porcelain,  and  beet-sugar.  Among  the  principal 
articles  of  export  are  coal,  flax,  linen,  woollen 
and  cotton  goods,  glass,  firearms,  and  nails. 
More  than  a  third  of  the  whole  is  consigned  to 
France,  and  most  of  the  remainder  to  Germany, 
England,  and  Holland.  The  chief  imports  are 
cereals  and  flour,  raw  textiles,  vegetable  sub- 
stances, chemicals,  minerals,  timber,  resin  and 
bitumen,  hides,  tissues,  coffee,  animals,  meat, 
yarns,  wines.  The  sea-borne  trade  is  almost 
entirely  in  British  hands.  In  1902  the  imports 
-were  valued  at  over  £94,227,000,  and  the  exports 
at  over  £77,000,000.  These  sums  exclude  the 
value  of  'goods  in  transit,'  which  may  amount 
to  some  £70,000,000  more.  The  commercial  in- 
tercourse of  Belgium  with  Great  Britaiji  in  1902 
amounted  to  £26,550,000  for  exports  from  Bel- 
gium, and  £12,620,000  for  imports  into  it.  In  the 
middle  of  the  13th  century,  Flanders,  with  Bruges 
as  Its  chief  seat  of  manufactures,  had  surpassed 
all  its  neighbours  in  industry.  After  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  Antwerp  took  the  place  of 
Bruges.  The  unhappy  period  of  Spanish  oppres- 
sion and  the  war  in  the  Netherlands  deeply 
depressed  Flemish  commerce.  But  Belgium  has 
long  been  again  a  busy  and  prosperous  com- 
mercial country,  the  separation  from  Holland 
having  been  indirectly  favourable  to  the  develop- 
ment of  Belgian  resources.  Belgium  employs  the 
French  decimal  system  of  weights,  measures,  and 
moneys. 

The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  dominant  religion. 
Although  full  liberty  of  worship  is  guaranteed  to 
all,  and  the  ministers  of  each  denomination  are 
paid  by  the  state,  almost  the  entire  population 
are  Roman  Catholics,  the  number  of  Protestants 
being  set  down  at  10,000,  of  Jews  at  400a  There 
are  over  1200  conventual  houses,  inhabited  by 
4000  monks  and  21,000  nuns.  Diversity  of  dia- 
lects has  retarded  the  formation  of  an  independ- 
ent national  litei-ature  to  act  as  the  bond  of 
national  unity.  The  Flemish  element — the  most 
important — has  done  much  of  late  to  foster  the 
Flemish  tongue,  and  if  possible  secure  its  pre- 
dominance. Painting  and  architecture  formerly 
flourished  in  the  wealthy  old  towns  of  Flanders  ; 
and  in  modern  times  a  revival  of  art  has  taken 
place.  There  are  universities  at  Ghent,  Li^ge, 
Brussels,  and  Louvain,  and  an  elaborate  school 
system,  partly  secular,  partly  Catholic. 

Military  service  is  by  conscription,  all  males 
above  19  being  liable  ;  but  substitution  is  per- 
mitted. The  army,  on  a  peace  footing,  numbers 
48,841  officers  and  men ;  in  war  time,  154,780, 
besides  the  garde  civique,  of  43,647  men.  The 
importance  of  Belgium  in  a  military  point  of 
view  affords  a  reason  for  the  maintenance  of 
fortifications  at  Antwerp,  Dendermonde,  Namur, 
Diest,  Liege,  and  other  places.  The  chief  arsenal 
is  at  Antwerp.     In    1902  the   revenue  of   Bel- 


gium was  £20,031,000,  leaving  a  margin  over  the 
expenditure,  £19,901,000 ;  wliile  the  national  debt 
was  under  £112,000,000.  Tlie  interest  is  more  than 
covered  by  the  revenue  from  the  railways,  for 
which  the  debt  wa.s  almf)st  entirely  contracted. 

The  Gallia  Belgica  of  the  Romans  passed  under 
the  sway  of  the  Franks,  and  fell  later  to  the 
Burgundian  princes.  On  the  death  of  Charles 
the  Bold  in  1477  it  passed  by  marriage  to  the 
House  of  Hapsburg.  The  Spanish  Netherlands 
remained  (unlike  the  northern  provinces  which 
rebelled  against  Spain  and  became  a  Protestant 
republic)  under  the  Spanish  branch  of  the  Haps- 
burgs,  till  in  1713  they  were  transferred  to 
Austria.  From  1794  Belgium  was  under  French 
sway,  but  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon  was  united 
with  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands.  It  re- 
belled in  1830,  and  since  then  has  had  a  separate 
career  as  a  limited  constitutional  monarchy. 
The  legislative  body  consists  of  two  chambers— 
the  Senate,  and  the  Chaniber  of  Representatives, 
non-resident  members  of  the  latter  body  being 
paid  a  small  salary  during  the  session.  Both  are 
elective  bodies. 

See  descriptive  works  on  Belgium  by  Genon- 
ceaux  (1879),  Hymans  (1880),  Wauters  (1882),  and 
Scudamore  (1901) ;  and  histories  by  Juste  (1868), 
Moke  (1881),  Hymans  (1884),  and  Boulger  (1902). 

Belgorod'  (Russian  Bjelgorod,  '  white  town '),  a 
town  in  the  Russian  government  of  Kursk,  on 
the  Donetz,  412  miles  S.  of  Moscow  by  rail.  It 
is  an  archbishop's  see,  and  has  manufactures  of 
leather,  soap,  and  woollens,  and  three  important 
fairs.     Pop.  26,097. 

Belgrade'  (Serb.  Bielgorod,  '  white  town '),  the 
capital  of  Servia,  lies  opposite  Semlin,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Save  and  Danube,  215  miles 
SSB.  of  Pesth,  and  234  miles  NNW.  of  Vranja,  by 
rail.  The  walls  have  disappeared  since  1862  ;  the 
last  and  finest  of  the  five  gates  was  demolished 
in  1868 ;  and  the  citadel  is  hardly  up  to  the 
requirements  of  modern  warfare.  Year  by  year 
the  town  is  losing  its  old  Turkish  aspect,  becom- 
ing more  modern,  more  European.  The  royal 
palace,  the  residence  of  the  metropolitan,  the 
national  theatre  (1871),  and  the  public  offices  are 
the  principal  buildings.  Opposite  the  theatre  is 
a  bronze  monument  (1882)  to  the  murdered 
Prince  Michael  III.  Belgrade  has  but  trifling 
manufactures  of  arms,  cutlery,  saddlery,  silk 
goods,  carpets,  &c.  It  is,  however,  the  entrepot 
of  the  trade  between  Turkey  and  Austria.  Pop. 
(1872)  26,674;  (1900)  69,100.  Belgrade  is  the 
S I  ngldunum  of 'Ptolemj.  Its  position  has  made 
it  the  chief  point  of  communication  between 
Constantinople  and  Vienna,  and  the  key  to 
Hungary  on  the  south-east.  The  Greeks  held  it 
until  1073,  after  which  it  passed  through  the 
hands  of  Hungarians,  Greeks  again,  Bulgarians, 
Bosnians,  and  Servians,  who  sold  it  in  1426  to 
the  Emperor  Sigismund.  In  1440  it  was  un- 
successfully besieged  by  the  Turks ;  and  when 
stormed  (1456),  was  retaken  from  the  Turks  by 
the  heroism  of  Hunyadi  and  Capistrano.  Of 
seven  more  sieges  between  1522  and  1789  the 
chief  was  in  1717,  when  the  citadel  surrendered 
to  Prince  Eugene,  after  he  had  defeated  200,000 
Turks,  with  a  loss  to  them  of  20,000  men.  In 
1862,  after  a  wanton  bombardment  from  the 
citadel,  it  was  made  the  capital  of  Servia, 
though  the  citadel  remained  with  the  Turks  till 
1867. 

Belgravla,  a  district  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  West  End  of  London. 

Belize   (Be-leeze'),    or   British    Honduras,    a 


BELLA 


British  colony  washed  on  the  E.  by  the  Bay  of 
Honduras,  in  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  elsewhere 
surrounded  by  Guatemala  and  Mexico.  It  forms 
the  south-east  part  of  Yucatan,  and  measuring 
180  by  60  miles,  has  an  area  of  7560  sq.  m.,  or  a 
little  larger  than  Wales.  In  1901  the  poimlation 
was  37,480,  of  whom  less  than  2000  were  whites. 
The  river  Belize  traverses  the  middle  of  the 
country,  and  the  Ilio  Hondo  and  the  Sarstoon 
form  respectively  its  north-western  and  its 
southern  boundary.  The  Cockscomb  Mountains 
(4000  feet)  are  the  highest  eminences,  the  land 
all  along  the  coast  being  low  and  swampy.  The 
country  has  a  general  tropical  fertility  ;  its  chief 
exports  are  mahogany  and  logwood,  besides 
sugar,  coffee,  cotton,  sarsaparilla,  bananas,  plan- 
tains, and  india-rubber.  The  name  Belize  is 
probably  a  Spanish  corruption  of  the  name 
Wallis,  one  of  the  early  British  settlers  ;  other- 
wise it  is  usually  referred  to  the  Fr.  lalise,  'a 
beacon."  Those  early  settlers,  buccaneers  at 
starting,  then  logwood-cutters,  were  frequently 
attacked  by  the  Spaniards  ;  but  after  1798,  when 
they  repulsed  a  fleet  and  a  land-force  of  2000 
men,  their  occupation  was  formally  acquiesced 
in.  Since  1862  Belize  has  ranked  as  a  British 
colony,  with  a  lieutenant-governor,  whose  rank 
was  raised  in  1884  to  that  of  governor.  Belize, 
the  capital,  is  a  depot  for  British  goods  for 
Central  America,  and  has  a  pop.  of  about  6600. 
See  A.  R.  Gibbs's  British  Honduras  (1883). 

Bella,  a  town  of  Italy,  17  miles  S.  of  Melfi. 
Pop.  5830. 

Bellaggio  (Bellad'jo),  an  Italian  village  on  the 
spit  between  the  arms  of  Lake  Como.    Pop.  966. 

Bellaire,  a  town  of  Ohio,  U.S.,  on  the  Ohio 
River,  5  miles  below  Wheeling,  with  manufac- 
tures of  glass,  nails,  pig-iron,  &c.     Pop.  9984. 

Bella'ry,  the  chief  town  of  a  district,  305  miles 
NW.  of  Madras  by  rail.  One  of  the  principal 
military  stations  in  the  presidency  of  Madras, 
its  fort  crowns  a  high  rock.     Pop.  58,250. 

Belleek,  on  the  Erne  in  Fermauagli,  from  its 
own  clay  formerly  manufactured  fine  porcelain 
(Belleek  ware)  and  pottery. 

Bellegarde  (Bel-gard'),  a  second-class  fortress 
of  France,  in  the  dep.  of  Pyrenees-Orientales, 
built  by  Louis  XIV.  in  1679.  It  is  situated  on 
the  Spanish  confines  on  the  road  leading  over 
the  Col  de  Pertuis  from  Perpignan  to  Figueras. 

Belle  Isle,  a  British  island  in  the  Atlantic, 
21  miles  in  circumference,  midway  between  New- 
foundland and  Labrador.  It  gives  name  to  the 
strait  on  the  south-west,  70  miles  long,  and  11 
miles  wide  at  the  widest.— There  is  another  small 
island  of  the  same  name  in  the  Bay  of  Concep- 
tion, Newfoundland. 

Belleisle-en-Mer,  an  island  of  the  French  dep. 
of  Morbihan,  8  miles  S.  of  Quiberon  Point.  It  is 
11  miles  by  7,  and  has  an  area  of  830  sq.  m.  Pop. 
10,117,  chiefly  engaged  in  fishing,  and  2967  in  the 
fortified  seaport  of  Le  Palais. 

Belleville,  an  eastern  suburb  of  Paris,  now 
enclosed  by  the  line  of  fortifications. 

Belleville,  a  toAvn  in  the  province  of  Ontario, 
Canada,  on  the  Bay  of  Quinte,  Lake  Ontario,  48 
miles  W.  of  Kingston  by  rail.  Here  is  Albert 
University  (1857).    Pop.  9516. 

Belleville,  a  city  of  Illinois,  U.S.,  16  miles 
SE.  of  St  Louis.  It  has  manufactures  of  iron 
goods,  thrashing-machines,  and  flour.  Pop. 
(1871)  8146  ;  (1901)  17,484. 

Belley,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Aiu,  40 
miles  E.  of  Lyons.    It  has  a  cathedral  dating 


93  BELUCHISTAN 

from  889,  and  fine  lithographic  stones  are  pro- 
cured in  the  neighbourhood.    Pop.  6385. 

Bellingham,  a  Northumberland  village,  on  the 
North  Tyne,  16  miles  NNW.  of  Hexham.  Pop. 
of  parish,  1268. 

Bellinzo'na,  or  Bellenz,  the  chief  town  of 
the  Swiss  canton  of  Ticino,  on  tlie  river  Ticino, 
109  miles  SSE.  of  Lucerne  by  rail.  It  still  has 
its  three  old  castles.     Pop.  5436. 

Bellot  Strait,  the  passage  on  the  north  coast 
of  North  America,  which  separates  North  Somer- 
set from  Boothia  Felix,  and  connects  Prince 
Regent  Inlet  with  Franklin  Channel.  Its  east 
entrance  was  discovered  in  1852  by  Lieutenant 
Bellot.  It  is  20  miles  long,  and,  at  its  narrowest 
part,  about  1  mile  wide,  running  pretty  nearly 
on  the  parallel  of  72°,  between  granite  shores 
which  rise  here  and  there  to  1500  feet.  A  point 
on  the  south  shore,  71°  55'  N.,  95°  W.,  is  the 
most  northerly  point  of  the  North  American 
continent. 

Bell  Rock,  or  Inchcape,  a  reef  of  old  red 
sandstone  rocks  in  the  German  Ocean,  12  miles 
SE.  of  Arbroath,  and  nearly  opposite  the  mouth 
of  the  Tay.  It  is  2000  feet  long ;  at  high  water 
of  spring-tides  it  is  covered  to  a  depth  of  16  feet, 
at  low  water  is  partly  uncovered  to  a  height  of  4 
feet ;  and  for  100  yards  around,  the  sea  is  only  3 
fathoms  deep.  A  lighthouse,  120  feet  high,  de- 
signed by  Robert  Stevenson  and  Rennie,  was 
erected  in  1807-10,  at  a  cost  of  £61,331. 

Bellshill,  a  Lanarkshire  mining  town,  9  miles 
ESE.  of  Glasgow.     Pop.  8786. 

Bellu'no,  a  cathedral  city  of  Northern  Italy, 
on  the  Piave,  42  miles  N.  of  Treviso.  Pop.  18,650. 

BelmuUet,  a  Mayo  fishing-village,  49  miles 
NW.  of  Ballina.     Pop.  652. 

Beloit,  a  city  of  Wisconsin,  U.S.,  on  Rock 
River,  75  miles  SW.  of  Milwaukee.  It  has  a  col- 
lege (1847),  foundries,  &c.    Pop.  10,500. 

Belper,  a  market-town  of  Derbyshire,  on  the 
Derwent,  7^  miles  N.  of  Derby.  It  owes  its 
prosperity  to  the  cotton-works  of  Messrs  Strutt, 
one  of  whom  was  in  1856  created  Lord  Belper. 
The  manufacture  of  silk  and  cotton  hosiery  is 
also  largely  carried  on ;  but  nail-making  has 
declined.    Pop.  (1851)  10,082  ;  (1901)  10,934. 

Belt,  the  name  given  to  two  straits,  the  Great 
and  the  Little  Belt,  which,  with  the  Sound, 
connect  the  Baltic  with  the  Cattegat.  The 
Great  Belt,  nearly  40  miles  long,  and  10  to 
nearly  20  miles  broad,  divides  the  Danish  islands, 
Zealand  and  Laaland,  from  Flinen  and  Lange- 
land.  The  Little  Belt  divides  Fiinen  from  Jut- 
land. It  is  as  long  as  the  Great  Belt,  but  narrows 
from  10  miles  to  less  than  a  mile.  Both  the 
Belts  are  dangerous  to  navigation. 

Belturbet,  an  Irish  town,  on  the  Erne,  9  miles 
NW.  of  Cavan.     Pop.  1675. 

Beluchistan,  or  Baluchistan  (Belootch'istan), 
a  country  of  Asia,  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Afghan- 
istan, on  the  E.  by  Sind,  on  the  S.  by  the  Arabian 
Sea,  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Persian  province  of 
Kerman.  The  frontier  towards  Afghanistan  is 
seldom  anywhere  clearly  defined.  Beluchistan, 
which  has  a  coast-line  of  over  500  miles,  corre- 
sponds in  general  with  the  ancient  Gedrosia. 
The  area  is  about  133,000  sq.  m.,  and  the  pop. 
is  estimated  at  some  1,050,000.  Until  1810  Belu- 
chistan was  almost  entirely  a  terra  incognita  to 
Europeans.  Most  of  the  country  indeed  is  still 
unknown,  but  it  has  been  crossed  by  several  trav- 
ellers ;  the  laying  of  the  Indo- Afghan  Railway 


BELUCHISTAN 


94 


BENARES 


^y  Quetta  to  Kandahar,  1885-94)  through  the 
desert  in  the  north-east,  and  the  surveys  of  the 
Indo-European  Telegraph  Company  in  the  south, 
have  established  its  general  features.  The  surface 
is  generally  mountainous,  more  especially  towards 
the  north,  vs^here  branches  of  the  great  Suliman 
Range,  running  north  and  south,  rise  to  a  height 
of  12,000  feet.  The  ranges  in  the  south  generally 
run  east  and  west,  parallel  with  the  coast,  and 
the  longitudinal  valleys  between  form  the  prin- 
cipal thoroughfares,  there  being  no  regular  routes 
in  the  country  except  those  through  the  Bolan 
and  Mula  passes  to  Quetta  and  Kelat.  Even  the 
bottoms  of  some  of  the  valleys  have  an  elevation 
of  5700  feet ;  and  the  capital,  Kelat,  situated  on 
the  side  of  one  of  them,  is  6783  feet  above  the 
level  of  the  sea.  Large  deserts,  rendered  im- 
passable in  summer  by  sand-storms,  and  swept 
in  winter  by  benumbing,  piercing  winds,  occupy 
hundreds  of  square  miles  of  the  country ;  and 
the  rivers— unless  after  heavy  rains,  when  those 
in  the  north-east  frequently  inundate  great  tracts 
of  country — are  inconsiderable,  few  of  the  streams 
in  the  south  appearing  to  be  perennial  at  all. 
The  west  is  largely  a  land  of  drought,  with 
stretches  of  sand  varied  by  bare  hills  and  treeless 
valleys.  The  temperature  is  one  of  striking  and 
sudden  extremes,  125°  F.  in  the  shade  having 
been  registered  on  the  coast  even  in  March, 
although  at  Kelat,  in  February,  water  has  been 
observed  to  freeze  as  it  was  poured  on  the  ground. 
There  are  few  cattle  ;  sheep,  mountain  goats,  and 
antelopes  are  numerous.  The  camel  is  the 
ordinary  beast  of  burden  ;  but  in  the  north-west 
serviceable  horses  are  bred.  The  wild  animals 
include  the  tiger,  leopard,  wolf,  hyena,  ape,  wild 
ass,  &c.,  and  flsh  in  great  quantities  are  caught 
off  the  coast.  Wherever  there  is  a  sufficiency  of 
water  the  soil  is  productive— the  lowlands  yield- 
ing rice,  sugar,  cotton,  indigo,  and  tobacco ;  and 
the  higher  grounds,  wheat,  barley,  madder, 
maize,  and  pulse.  The  minerals  are  gold,  silver, 
copper,  lead,  antimony,  iron,  tin,  sulphur,  alum, 
and  sal-ammoniac,  and  in  1887  valuable  petroleum 
wells  were  discovered  in  the  north.  The  only 
nameworthy  towns  are  the  capital,  Kelat  (q.v.), 
and  Quetta.  Gwadar,  on  the  coast,  is  a  fort  and 
a  telegraph  station. 

The  inhabitants  belong  to  the  distinct  races  of 
Brahui  and  Beluchis.  The  former  are  the  domi- 
nant as  well  as  the  aboriginal  race,  and  are 
hospitable  and  generous ;  the  latter,  a  hungry, 
needy,  greedy  people,  are  largely  nomadic.  The 
Brahui  are  usually  referred,  though  doubtfully, 
to  the  Dravidian  stock.  In  appearance  they  are 
short,  sturdy,  and  strongly  built,  with  round, 
flat  faces,  and  brown  hair.  Their  dress  is  a 
coarse  calico  tunic,  with  trousers  fastened  at  the 
ankles,  and  a  skull-cap  with  sash  of  the  same 
colour.  The  Beluchis  are  of  Iranian  descent, 
with  a  mingling  of  Tartar  blood,  and  their  lan- 
guage closely  resembles  the  modern  Persian ; 
they  are  both  numerically  smaller  and  a  more 
recent  element  than  the  Brahui.  They  are  tall, 
with  longer  and  more  prominent  features,  and 
are  brave,  but  restless  and  prone  to  predatory 
warfare,  in  which  they  frequently  show  them- 
selves senselessly  cruel.  Both  races  are  Moham- 
medans of  the  Sunni  sect.  Besides  these  two 
races,  there  are  colonies  of  Persian  descent 
called  Dehwars  ('  villagers '),  and  scattered  faini- 
lies  of  Luri,  a  sort  of  Gjrpsies  of  possibly  Indian 
origin.  Beluchistan  is,  in  a  somewhat  indefinite 
manner,  under  the  authority  of  the  khan  of 
Kelat,  who,  with  a  revenue  of  about  £30,000, 
maintains  an  army  of  3000  men.    For  his  hos- 


tility, his  capital  was  held  (1839-41)  by  a  British 
force.  In  1877  England  obtained  by  treaty  with 
the  khan  the  right  of  permanently  occupying 
Quetta  (which  was  annexed,  with  his  consent,  in 
1887),  and  of  having  a  political  agent  at  Kelat ; 
and  the  khan  practically  became  a  feudatory  of 
the  Indian  empire,  and  placed  his  territory  at 
the  disposal  of  the  British  government  for  all 
military  and  strategical  purposes.  With  Kelat 
may  be  reckoned  the  Las  Bela.  The  semi-inde- 
pendent Marri  and  Bugti  tribes  are  administered 
from  Sibi.— British  Beluchistan  is  a  chief-com- 
inissionership  of  British  India,  so  constituted  in 
1887,  out  of  the  districts  of  Pishin,  Thai  Chotiali, 
and  Sibi,  in  south-eastern  Afghanistan ;  with 
Khe trail,  the  Zhob  Valley,  and  the  Gumal  Pass 
added  later.  British  Beluchistan,  some  46,000 
square  miles  in  area,  has  310,000  inhabitants. 

See  Bellew's  From  the  Indus  to  the  Tigris  (1874), 
works  on  Beluchistan  by  Hughes  (1877),  Mac- 
gregor  (1882),  Floyer  (1882),  and  Oliver  (1891), 
and  Thornton's  Life  of  Sir  R.  Sandeman  (1895). 

Belvolr  Castle  (pron.  Beever),  Leicestershire, 
7  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Grantham,  the  magnificent 
seat  of  the  Duke  of  Rutland. 

Bembato'ka,  a  bay  on  the  NW.  coast  of 
Madagascar. 

Bembridge,  a  village  near  the  east  corner  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  5  miles  SE.  of  Ryde,  giving 
name  to  a  division  of  the  Tertiary  formation. 
Pop.  1100. 

Bemersydo,  Berwickshire,  on  the  Tweed,  2J 
miles  NE.  of  St  Boswells,  the  seat  of  the  Haigs. 

Bemerton,  a  Wiltshire  parish,  IJ  mile  W.  by 
N.  of  Salisbury,  the  scene  of  George  Herbert's 
ministry. 

Benares  (Be-ndh'rez),  or  Varanasi,  the  most 
sacred  city  of  the  Hindus,  and  one  of  the  chief 
towns  of  North  India,  situated  on  the  northern 
bank  of  the  Ganges,  420  miles  from  Cal- 
cutta. In  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra  and 
Oudh,  It  is  seventh  in  size  of  Indian  cities.  It 
skirts  the  crescent-like  Ganges  for  3  miles,  and 
the  high  bank  is  lined  continuously  with  broad 
flights  of  ghats  or  stairs,  leading  to  the  innumer- 
able temples  and  large  substantial  houses,  which 
present  towards  the  river  an  imposing  array  of 
towers  and  pinnacles  and  richly  carved  facades. 
Benares,  however,  is  disappointing  internally, 
the  streets  being  mere  narrow  lanes  between 
lines  of  tall,  dismal  houses.  Among  the  chief 
buildings  are  the  Nepal  ese  Temple ;  Aurungzebe's 
mosque,  with  its  two  minarets  147  feet  high ; 
Raja  Jai  Singh's  observatory  ;  the  Gopal  Mandir, 
wealthiest  of  all  the  temples ;  the  Bisheswar  or 
Golden  Temple  of  Siva,  the  holiest  of  all ;  and 
the  famous  Monkey  Temple,  in  the  suburbs. 
Other  points  of  special  interest  are  the  well  of 
Mani  Karniki,  formed  of  Vishnu's  sweat;  the 
Juana-vapi,  or  'pool  of  knowledge  ;'  and  the  Lat 
Bhairo,  a  portion,  it  is  believed,  of  one  of  Asoka's 
pillars.  At  the  Burning  Ghat  the  bodies  of 
Hindus  are  reduced  to  ashes.  The  city  counts 
1450  Hindu  temples  or  shrines,  most  of  them 
small,  and  272  Mohammedan  mosques.  In  the 
European  quarter  there  is  the  Government  College, 
a  large  freestone  structure,  with  700  students; 
the  Prince  of  Wales's  Hospital ;  and  a  town-hall. 
By  far  the  most  important  European  work  is 
the  Dufferin  railway  bridge  over  the  Ganges, 
opened  in  1887,  and  3518  feet  long.  Benares 
draws  immense  revenues  from  the  thousands  of 
pilgrims  who  visit  it  from  all  parts  of  India.  It 
has  a  considerable  trade,  not  only  in  country 
produce,  but  in  English  goods,  jewellery,  and 


BENAVENTE 


95 


BENGAL 


precious  stones.  Its  brass-ware,  gold-cloth,  and 
lacquered  toys  are  famous.  Pop.  (1901)  209,350. 
A  city  of  great  antiquity,  Benares  (Sanslc  Vdrd- 
nasi)  was  for  800  years  the  headquarters  of  Bud- 
dhism. In  the  4th  century  b.c.  it  reverted  to 
Brahminism,  the  ancient  faith,  of  which  it  has 
ever  since  been  the  metropolis.  It  has  been  in 
the  hands  of  many  temporal  rulers — the  Rajput 
princes,  the  Mogul  emperors,  the  Oudh  nawabs— 
being  ceded  by  the  latter  to  the  British  in  1775. 

Benaven'te,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Esla,  34 
miles  N.  from  Zamora.  Here  Moore's  retreat  com- 
menced, 28th  December  1808.    Pop.  4518. 

Benbec'ula,  one  of  the  Hebrides,  between 
North  and  South  Uist,  20  miles  W.  of  Skye, 
belongs  to  Inverness-shire.  Measuring  6  or  7 
miles  either  way,  it  is  nearly  36  sq.  m.  in  area, 
low  and  flat,  and  consists  chiefly  of  bog,  sand, 
and  lake,  with  a  very  broken  coast-line.  Nearly 
three-fourths  of  the  area  are  under  crofts  and 
farms.     Pop.  1434. 

Bencoo'len,  capital  of  a  Dutch  residency  on 
the  SW.  coast  of  Sumatra.  Owing  to  the  surf 
and  coral  reefs,  landing  is  difficult ;  the  site  is 
low  and  swampy,  and  the  houses  are  mostly  built 
on  bamboo  piles.  Pepper  and  camphor  are  the 
chief  exports,  but  trade  has  declined.  Bencoolen 
was  founded  by  the  English  (1686),  but  was  ceded 
to  the  Dutch  in  1825.    Pop.  10,000. 

Bender,  a  strongly  fortified  town,  in  the 
Russian  province  of  Bessarabia,  on  the  Dniester, 
82  miles  NW.  of  Odessa  by  rail.  The  principal 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of  bricks,  stone- 
ware, paper,  and  leather,  with  agriculture,  fishing, 
and  mining.  It  was  captured  by  the  Russians 
from  the  Turks  in  1770,  1789,  1806,  and  1811, 
and  ceded  to  Russia  in  1812.  Pop.  44,684.— 
Bender- Abbas  is  also  another  name  for  the  town 
of  Gombroon  (q.v.). 

Ben'digo  (for  some  time  renamed  Sandhurst), 
a  town  of  Victoria,  on  Bendigo  Creek,  101  miles 
by  rail  NNW.  of  Melbourne,  in  the  centre  of  a 
rich  auriferous  country.  It  owes  its  rise  to  the 
discovery  of  gold  here  in  1851.  The  mines  employ 
4500  miners,  and  yield  about  150,000  oz.  per 
annum.  Bendigo  was  proclaimed  a  municipality 
in  1855,  a  borough  in  1863,  and  a  city  in  1871. 
Pop.  (1881)  28,662;  (1891)  26,774  ;  (1901)  41,900. 

Beneven'to  (anc.  Beneventum),  a  city  of  Italy, 
on  a  hill  near  the  confluence  of  the  Galore  and 
Sabato,  61  miles  NE.  of  Naples  by  rail.  It  has 
a  citadel,  a  fine  old  archiepiscopal  cathedral,  and 
a  magnificent  arch,  erected  in  114  a.d.  to  the 
honour  of  the  Emperor  Trajan.  From  1053,  when 
it  was  given  to  the  pope  by  the  Emperor  Henry 
III.,  until  1860,  when  it  was  united  with  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  Benevento  was  governed 
through  a  resident  cardinal  with  the  title  of 
Legate.     Pop.  25,000. 

Benfieldside,  a  Durham  township,  13  miles 
SW.  of  Gateshead.    Pop.  7259. 

Bengal'  (old  Bangdid),  a  name  given  to  part  of 
British  India,  but  variously  signifying— (1)  the  old 
historical  presidency  which,  in  pre-mutiny  times, 
comprised  the  greater  portion  of  Northern  India  ; 
(2)  the  modern  military  division,  corresponding 
in  extent  to  the  old  presidency  ;  (3)  the  province 
as  it  was  till  1905,  also  called  Lower  Bengal 
comprising  Bengal  Proper  (the  division  of  Cal- 
cutta and  four  other  districts),  Behar,  Orissa, 
and  Chota  Nagpore  ;  (4)  Bengal  as  divided  in  1905 
from  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam,  witli  141,580 
square  miles  and  fifty-four  millions  of  inhabit- 
ants ;  while  Eastern  Bengal  (Chittagong,  Dacca, 


and  Rajshahi  divisions)  and  Assam  has  106,540 
square  miles  and  thirty-one  millions.  The 
undivided  province  before  1905  had  an  area  of 
151,000  square  miles  and  seventy-five  millions— 
with  the  native  slates,  eighty  millions,  or  more 
than  the  United  States  of  America.  Only  some 
11,000  were  British-born.  Bengal  comprises  the 
low-lying  deltas  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra, 
and  the  alluvial  plains  stretching  along  their 
lower  courses;  hemmed  in  on  the  N.  by  the 
Himalayan  ramparts.  The  distinctive  features 
of  Bengal  are  its  immense  network  of  rivers,  the 
magnificent  range  of  the  Himalayas,  the  luxuri- 
ant but  fever-haunted  Terai  at  the  base  of  the 
great  mountain-chain,  and  the  trackless  forests 
and  jungles  of  the  Sundarbans  (Sunderbunds), 
on  the  sea-face  of  the  delta — the  almost  undis- 
puted home  of  the  tiger  and  rhinoceros.  As  com- 
pared with  Northern  India,  Bengal  has  few  very 
large  cities.  Calcutta,  the  capital,  is  one  of  the 
largest  cities  in  the  world,  having,  with  suburbs, 
a  pop.  of  a  million  and  a  quarter;  the  next 
largest  in  the  province  being  Patna,  with  150,000. 

The  climate  of  the  plains  is  similar  to  that  of 
the  Indian  seaboard  everywhere— hot  and  humid. 
But  inland  in  Behar  it  is  much  drier,  with  hot 
winds  in  summer ;  while  in  ascending  the  hills, 
every  variety  of  climate  is  met  with,  till  the 
perpetual  snow-line  is  reached.  The  ordinary 
range  of  temperature  in  the  plains  is  from  about 
52°  F.  in  the  cold  season,  to  103°  in  the  shade  in 
summer.  The  people  are  mostly  employed  in 
agriculture,  and  among  the  chief  products  are 
indigo,  jute,  the  opium  poppy,  oil-seeds,  many 
varieties  of  rice,  cinchona,  tea,  tunneric,  pepper, 
the  silk  mulberry,  cotton,  sugar,  and  innumer- 
able grains,  spices,  and  drugs.  Opium  is  a 
government  monopoly ;  and  cinchona  is  chiefly 
grown  at  the  government  plantation  at  Darjil- 
ing.  Bengal  has  considerable  mineral  wealth ;  in 
Burdwan,  coal,  iron,  and  copper  are  worked. 
The  jute  and  cotton  mills  round  Calcutta  employ 
over  40,000  hands.  Standing  far  in  advance  of 
the  rest  of  India  in  education,  the  enlightened 
classes  in  Bengal  are  largely  employed  in  govern- 
ment service.  The  province  has  five  colleges 
afl[iliated  to  the  university  of  Calcutta,  besides 
nearly  30  '  institutions '  catalogued  as  giving 
university  education,  besides  higher  and  lower 
schools,  engineering,  nonnal,  and  industrial 
schools. 

Within  the  province  there  is  a  great  variety  of 
race,  language,  religion,  and  degrees  of  civilisa- 
tion. A  large  proportion  of  the  people  are 
descended  from  the  Aryan  stock ;  but  no  sharp 
line  can  be  drawn  between  those  called  Hindus 
and  those  reckoned  aborigines  or  non-Aryan,  as 
many  low-caste  Hindus  are  wholly  aboriginal  in 
blood.  Bengal  in  1905  had  25^  million  Moslem 
inhabitants  (mostly  in  the  upper  classes),  while 
about  3  millions  are  semi-savage  tribesmen,  and 
280,000  are  returned  as  Christian  converts. 
Bengalis  speaking  Bengali  number  40  millions; 
Hindustani  speakers,  26  millions.  As  divided  in 
1905,  Bengal  contains  42  millions  of  Hindus  and 
9  of  Mohammedans ;  while  Eastern  Bengal  and 
Assam  has  18  millions  of  Mohammedans  and  12 
of  Hindus.  In  Bengal  Proper  the  Santals  are  the 
most  notable  aboriginal  stock  ;  in  the  feudatory 
states  are  the  Kolarian  or  Dravidian  Gonds,  Kols, 
and  Bhuiyas,  with  Indo-Chinese  tribes.  The  Mo- 
hammedan conquest  dates  from  1200.    See  India. 

Bengal,  Bay  of,  a  triangular  portion  of  the 
Indian  Ocean,  between  India  and  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula.  The  bay  receives  many  large 
rivers— the  Ganges,  Brahmaputra,  Irawadi,  Mah- 


BEN6AZI 


96 


BERBERAH 


anacli,  Godavery,  Krishna,  and  Cauvery.  On 
the  west  coast  there  is  hardly  anything  worthy 
of  the  name  of  harbour ;  on  the  east  there  are 
many  good  ports— Akyab,  Gwa,  Mauhnain,  Tavoy 
River.  The  numerous  islands  include  the  Anda- 
man, Nicobar,  and  Mergui  groups. 

Benga'zi  (anc.  Hesperis),  a  North  African  sea- 
port, capital  of  the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Barca,  on 
the  coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Sidra.     Pop.  7000. 

Benguela  {Ben-gay'la\  a  country  of  W.  Africa, 
bordering  on  the  Atlantic,  between  Angola  on  the 
N.  and  Mossamedes  on  the  S.,  and  lying  roughly 
between  10°  and  15°  S.  lat.  and  12°  and  17°  E. 
long.  Its  surface  is  generally  mountainous,  rising 
from  the  coast-line  inland  in  a  series  of  terraces. 
Sulphur,  copper,  and  petroleum  are  found  in  the 
mountains,  and  also  gold  and  silver  in  small  quan- 
tities.—Sao  Felipe  de  Benguela,  the  Portuguese 
capital  of  the  above  region,  on  a  level  plain  near 
the  sea,  in  12°  33'  S.  lat.,  was  once  a  great  slave- 
station.  Pop.  2000  natives  and  a  garrison  of  100 
men.  The  harbour  is  good,  though  difficult  of 
entrance.  See  From  Benguella  to  Yacca,  by 
Capello  and  Ivens  (1883). 

Benhar,  East,  a  Linlithgowshire  mining  vil- 
lage, 1^  mile  NNW.  of  Fauldhouse.     Pop.  57a 

Beni',  an  impetuous  river  of  South  America, 
in  the  state  of  Bolivia,  rises  in  the  La  Paz 
Cordillera  of  the  Andes,  at  a  height  of  almost 
12,000  feet,  and  joins  the  Mamore,  after  a  course 
of  over  1000  miles,  to  form  the  Madeira,  one  of 
the  largest  affluents  of  the  Amazon. 

Benicar'lo,  a  town  of  Spain,  84  miles  SW.  of 
Tarragona.     Pop.  7913. 

Benicia,  capital  of  Solano  county,  California, 
and  formerly  capital  of  the  state,  on  the  Car- 
quinez  Strait,  30  miles  NE.  of  San  Francisco. 
It  has  a  commodious  harbour,  and  is  the  seat  of 
the  U.S.  Pacific  arsenal.     Pop.  2794. 

Beni-Hassan,  a  village  of  Upper  Egypt,  on 
the  east  bank  of  the  Nile,  remarkable  for  its 
catacombs. 

Benin',  a  country  of  "Western  Africa,  lying 
between  the  lower  Niger  and  Dahomey.  Once  a 
powerful  kingdom,  it  is  now  broken  up  into 
several  small  states,  whilst  all  the  coast-line  is 
British,  included  either  in  Lagos,  or  in  the  Niger 
protectorate,  which  are  separated  by  the  Benin 
River.  The  pop.  is  dense.  The  capital,  Benin, 
73  miles  inland  from  the  mouth  of  the  Benin 
River,  has  a  pop.  of  above  15,000.  Gato  is  a 
centre  for  the  palm-oil  trade.  The  river  Benin  is 
2  miles  wide  at  its  mouth,  but  has  a  troublesome 
bar  of  mud.  Benin  was  discovered  by  the  Portu- 
guese Alfonso  de  Aveiro  (1486). 

Benin,  Bight  of,  that  portion  of  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea  (q.v.)  extending  from  Cape  Formosa  to 
Cape  St  Paul,  with  a  coast-line  of  460  miles. 

Beni-Souef ,  a  town  of  Central  Egypt,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Nile,  70  miles  SSW.  of  Cairo. 
A  branch  line  of  railway  has  been  constructed 
westward  to  Medinet  el  Fayum,  and  the  town 
Is  the  entrepot  of  the  fertile  Fayum,  and  has 
cotton-mills  and  alabaster  quarries.  Pop. 
11,085. 

Ben  Lawyers,  a  Perthshire  mountain,  flanking 
the  NW.  shore  of  Loch  Tay,  and  attaining  3984 
feet,  or  with  the  cairn  at  the  top  (rebuilt  in 
1878),  4004. 

Ben  Ledl  (Leddy),  a  mountain  (2875  feet)  of 
Perthshire,  4^  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Callander.  A 
jubilee  cairn  was  erected  on  it  in  1887. 

Ben  Lomond,  a  Scottish  mountain  (3192  feet) 


in  the  NW.  of  Stirlingshire,  on  the  east  side  of 
Loch  Lomond,  13J  miles  N.  of  Dumbarton. 

Ben  Macdhu'i,  a  mountain  (4296  feet)  of 
South-west  Aberdeenshire,  one  of  the  Cairn- 
gorms, 18  miles  WNW.  of  Castletown-of-Braemar. 

Benmore,  the  name  of  several  Scottish  moun- 
tains.—(1)  Perthshire,  10  miles  SW.  of  Killin, 
3843  feet ;  (2)  in  Assynt  parish,  Sutherland,  3234 
feet ;  (3)  in  Mull  island,  3185  feet,  &c. 

Ben  Nevis,  a  mountain  of  Inverness-shire,  7 
miles  SE.  of  Fort  William,  by  a  carriage-road 
opened  in  1880.  The  loftiest  summit  in  Great 
Britain,  it  has  a  height  of  4406  feet,  with  a  tre- 
mendous precipice  of  1500  feet  on  the  north-east 
side.  Till  a  road  to  the  top  was  made  in  1883, 
the  ascent  was  difficult.  A  meteorological  obser- 
vatory was  erected  on  the  summit  in  1883,  and 
beside  it  is  now  a  shelter  for  travellers. 

Ben-Rhydding,  a  hydropathic  establishment 
(1846),  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the 
Wliarfe,  12  miles  NW.  of  Leeds.  The  name  is  a 
modern  coinage. 

Ben  Rinnes,  a  Banffshire  mountain  (2755  feet). 

Bentham,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, on  the  Wenning,  12  miles  WNW.  of  Settle. 
Pop.  of  parish,  2273. 

Bentley  Priory,  a  seat  in  Harrow  parish,  3 
miles  WNW.  of  Edgware.  Queen  Adelaide  died 
here. 

Be'nue  (spelt  also  Binue  and  Benuwe),  an  im- 
portant river  of  Central  Africa,  forming  the  great 
eastern  affluent  of  the  Niger,  which  it  joins  230 
miles  above  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea. 
Flowing  through  wide  tracts  of  fertile  territory, 
and  navigable  for  700  miles,  it  is  a  highway  into 
the  heart  of  the  Soudan.  Dr  Barth  describes  it 
as  800  yards  wide,  with  a  general  depth  in  its 
channel  of  11  feet,  and,' a  liability  to  rise  under 
ordinary  circumstances  at  least  30,  or  even  at 
times  50,  feet  higher.'  The  Benue  was  explored 
by  Dr  Baikie  (1854  and  1862),  and  by  Mr  Flegel 
(1879-83),  who  reached  its  sources,  in  the  Adam- 
awa  country,  in  7°  30'  N.  lat.  and  13°  E.  long. 

Ben  Venue  (Fenoo'),  a  Perthshire  mountain 
(2393  feet)  flanking  Loch  Katrine. 

Ben  Wyvis  (Wee' vis  or  Wl'vis),  a  lumpish  moun- 
tain (3429  feet)  of  Ross-shire,  8  m.  NW.  of  Dingwall. 

Benzerta.    See  Bizerta. 

Berar',  a  commissionership  of  India  till  1902 
under  the  resident  of  Hyderabad,  and  called 
'Hyderabad  Assigned  Districts,'  but  now  in  the 
Central  Provinces.  It  is  bounded  by  Bombay 
and  the  Nizam's  dominions.  Its  length  from 
east  to  west  is  about  150  miles ;  area,  17,710  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  2,754,000.  Berar  consists  of  six  districts, 
assigned  to  Britain  under  the  treaties  of  1853 
and  1861  with  the  bankrupt  Nizam  of  Hyder- 
abad, but  leased  in  perpetuity  in  1902.  Mainly 
a  broad  and  fertile  valley  running  east  and  west, 
between  the  Satpura  and  Ajanta  ranges,  it  is  tra- 
versed by  the  Purna,  a  tributary  of  the  Tapti. 
Ellichpur  was  the  capital  of  the  old  kingdom. 

Berat',  a  town  of  Albania,  Turkey,  30  miles 
NE.  of  the  seaport  of  Avlona.     Pop.  12,000. 

Berber,  a  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Nile, 
below  the  confluence  of  the  Atbara.    Pop.  8000. 

Ber'berah,  a  seaport  of  British  Somaliland, 
with  a  good  harbour,  on  a  bay  of  tlie  Gulf  of 
Aden.  It  was  conquered  by  Egypt  in  1875,  but 
in  July  1884  the  British  government  took  posses- 
sion of  it.  A  fair  here  brings  over  30,000  people 
together. 


BERBICE 

Berbice  (Ber-beess^),  the  E.  division  of  British 
Guiana  (q.v.),  bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  Coreiityn 
and  Dutch  Guiana.  Area,  21,000  sq.  m.  The 
Berbice  River  is  navigable  for  small  vessels  175 
miles  from  its  mouth.  An  important  affluent 
is  the  Ca)ije.  New  Amsterdam,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Berbice  River  (pop.  9000),  is  the 
chief  town  and  port. 

Berchtesgaden  (Berhh-tez-gdh'den),  a  village  of 
Bavaria,  on  a  mountain-slope,  15  miles  S.  of  Salz- 
burg. It  has  a  royal  castle  (once  an  abbey)  and 
huge  government  salt-mines.     Pop.  1901. 

Berck-sur-mer,  a  harbour  and  bathing  resort 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Pas-de-Calais,  22  miles  S. 
of  Boulogne.     Pop.  5752. 

Berdlansk',  a  seaport  of  southern  Russia,  in 
the  government  of  Taurida,  on  the  NW.  coast  of 
the  Sea  of  Azov.     Pop.  28,180. 

Berdltchef ,  a  town  of  Russia,  108  miles  WSW. 
of  Kiev,  with  five  annual  fairs.     Pop.  55,000. 
Berehaven.    See  Castleton  Berkiiavkn. 
Bere  Regis,  a  Dorset  town,  8  miles  SSW.  of 
Blandford.     Pop.  of  parish,  1144. 

Bereslna  (Ber-e-zee'na),  a  river  of  Russia,  rising 
in  the  N.  of  the  Litliuanian  government  of  Minsk, 
and  flowing  350  miles  S.  (over  200  navigable) 
to  the  Dnieper.  It  is  memorable  on  account  of 
the  disastrous  passage  of  the  French  army, 
November  1812,  during  the  retreat  from  Moscow. 
Bereslav,  a  town  in  the  Russian  government 
of  Kherson,  on  the  Dnieper.    Pop.  11,093. 

Berezna,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  Tchernigov,  on 
a  tributary  of  the  Desna.     Pop.  10,827. 

Berezov',  a  town  of  Siberia,  in  the  government 
of  Tobolsk,  on  a  branch  of  the  Obi.     Pop.  2000. 

Berezovsk,  a  village  in  the  Russian  province 
of  Perm,  near  Ekaterinburg,  gives  name  to  a 
famous  gold-field,  wrought  since  1744. 

Berg,  a  former  German  duchy  on  the  Rhine's" 
right  bank,  now  incorporated  with  the  Prussian 
dominions,  between  Diisseldorf  and  Cologne. 

Berga,  a  town  of  Catalonia,  Spain,  52  miles 
NNW.  of  Barcelona.     Pop.  4735. 

Ber'gama  (anc.  Pergumos),  a  city  of  Asia  Minor, 
40  miles  N.  of  Smyrna.    Pop.  6000. 

Ber'gamo  (anc.  Bergotmim),  a  fortified  town  of 
Lombardy,  84  miles  NE.  of  Milan  by  rail.  It 
has  a  castle,  a  cathedral,  and  manufactures  of 
silk,  cotton,  linen,  woollens,  and  iron  goods. 
Tiraboschi  and  Donizetti  were  natives.  Pop. 
43,819. 

Bergedorf  (Ber'gay-dorf),  a  town  of  Germany, 
10  miles  SE.  of  Hamburg.     Pop.  9209. 

Bergen  (Ber'gen  ;  g  hard),  a  seaport  in  the  west 
of  Norway,  and  the  second  city  of  the  kingdom, 
situated  on  a  promontory  at  the  head  of  a  deep 
bay.  The  harbour  is  safe  and  commodious,  and 
around  it  the  town  is  built,  presenting  a  pictur- 
esque appearance  from  the  sea,  with  its  cathe- 
dral and  wooden  houses  of  various  colours.  It 
has  manufactures  of  gloves,  tobacco,  porcelain, 
leather,  soap,  and  cordage,  besides  distilleries 
and  shipbuilding  yards.  Its  principal  trade, 
however,  is  the  export  of  stockfish,  herrings,  and 
fish-oil  and  roe.  Since  18S3  Bergen  has  been 
connected  by  railway  with  the  north  of  the  Har- 
dangerfjord.  The  chief  imports  are  brandy,  wine, 
corn,  cotton,  woollens,  hemp,  sugar,  tobacco, 
coffee,  &c.  Bergen,  formerly  called  Bjorgvin  ('  the 
pasture  betwixt  the  mountains '),  was  founded 
about  1070  by  Olaf  Kyrre.  Often  devastated  by 
fire  between  1189  and  1855,  it  was  long  the 
G 


97 


BERKSHIRE 


most  important  trading  town  of  Norway,  but 
has  been  recently  surpassed  by  Christiania.  The 
castle  of  Bergenhns  was  till  1397  the  residence 
of  the  Norwegian  kings.  Bergen  was  the  birth- 
place of  Holberg,  Dahl,  Welhaven,  and  Ole  BulL 
Pop.  (1872)  30,252  ;  (1901)  72,251. 

Bergen-op-Zoom  {Ber-gen-op-Zoam' ;  g  hard),  a 
town  of  Holland,  21  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Antwerp, 
staTids  on  the  little  river  Zoom,  at  its  entrance 
into  the  east  branch  of  the  Scheldt.  It  has  a 
harbour,  manufactures  of  brick  and  earthen- 
wares, and  a  large  trade  in  anchovies.  Strongly 
fortified  until  1707,  Bergen-op-Zoom  was  repeat- 
edly besieged  by  the  Spaniards,  French,  and 
English  between  1581  and  1814.     Pop.  14,419. 

Bergerac  (Berzh'erak),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Dordogne,  on  the  Dordogne,  60  miles  E.  of 
Bordeaux  by  rail.  Most  of  its  inhabitants  are 
employed  in  the  surrounding  ironworks  and  paper- 
mills.     Its  wines  are  esteemed.     Pop.  15,485. 

Bergholt,  East,  a  Suffolk  parish,  Constable's 
birthplace,  on  the  Stour,  9  miles  SSW.  of  Ips- 
wich. 

Bergues  (Berg),  a  town  and  fortress  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Nord,  on  the  Colme,  5  miles  SSE. 
of  Dunkirk.     Pop.  5380. 

Berhampur,  two  towns  in  British  India.— (1) 
in  Madras,  a  military  station,  18  miles  SW.  of 
Ganjam,  and  but  9  from  the  coast.  Pop.  25,653. 
—(2)  in  Bengal,  on  the  Bhagirathi,  5  miles  below 
Murshidabad.  It  was  long  one  of  the  principal 
military  stations  in  British  India,  and  in  1857 
was  the  scene  of  the  first  open  act  of  mutiny. 
Pop.  24,515. 

Berl,  (1)  a  town  of  India,  in  the  British  district 
of  Rohtak,  Punjab,  36  miles  W.  by  N.  from 
Delhi.  Pop.  9695.— <2)  A  state  in  Bundelkhand. 
Area,  30  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  4985. 

Berja,  a  town  of  Spain,  22  miles  W.  of  Almeria, 
with  lead-mines.    Pop.  13,493. 

Berkeley,  a  town  of  Gloucestershire,  on  the 
Avon,  17i  miles  SW.  of  Gloucester  by  rail.  It 
lies  in  the  Vale  of  Berkeley,  which  consists  of 
rich  meadow  pasture-land,  and  is  celebrated  for 
its  '  Double  Gloucester '  cheese.  Berkeley  Castle, 
on  an  eminence  to  the  south-east,  about  1162 
was  granted  by  Henry  II.  to  Robert  Fitzhardinge, 
with  whose  descendants  it  has  since  continued, 
they  having  held  the  title  of  Baron  Berkeley 
from  1295,  and  of  earl  and  viscount  from  1679. 
Here  Edward  II.  was  murdered  in  1327.  Dr 
Jenner,  the  discoverer  of  vaccination,  was  a 
native,  and  is  buried  in  the  parish  church.  Pop. 
of  parish,  890.  See  Smyth's  Lives  of  the  Berkeleys 
(1884). 

Berkeley,  a  town  of  Almeda  connty,  Cali- 
fornia, overlooking  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco,  la 
the  seat  of  the  state  university.    Pop.  13,500. 

Berkeley  Sound,  an  inlet  of  the  East  Falk- 
land Island,  near  its  north-eastern  extremity. 

Berkhamstead,  a  market-town  of  Hertford- 
shire, on  the  Bulburn,  28  miles  NW.  of  London. 
Straw-plaiting  is  carried  on,  and  manufactures  of 
wooden  articles  and  chemicals.  Cowper  was  a 
native.     Pop.  of  parish,  6034. 

Berkovltza,  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  40  miles  NNW. 
of  Sofia,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Danube.    Pop.  5445. 

Berkshire  (Bark'shir),  a  midland  county, 
bounded  by  Gloucester,  Oxford,  Bucks,  Surrey, 
Hampshire,  and  Wiltshire.  Its  greatest  length 
is  53  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth,  30 ;  and  the 
area,  705  sq.  m.,  or  451,210  acres,  nearly  one- 
half  of  which  is  under  tillage,  one-fourth  in  pas- 


BERLAD 


98 


BERMUDAS 


ture,  and  one-sixteenth  in  Avood.  Berkshire, 
which  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  the  English 
counties,  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Thames,  and 
has  an  undulating  surface,  rising  in  some  parts 
into  hills,  of  which  White  Horse  Hill  attains  893 
feet.  The  Thames  winds  100  miles  along  the 
northern  border  of  the  county,  whose  otlier 
rivers  are  its  tributaries— the  Kennet,  Loddon, 
and  Ock.  The  Kennet  is  navigable  for  30  miles. 
The  country  between  the  fertile  vales  of  Kennet 
and  the  White  Horse  consists  chiefly  of  sheep- 
walks  ;  and  along  the  Thames,  and  to  the  west  of 
the  Ridge  Way,  or  Downs,  it  is  principally  dairy 
and  pasture  land.  The  chief  crops  are  oats  and 
wheat.  '  Double  Gloucester '  and  '  pine-apple ' 
cheese  are  sent  in  large  quantities  to  London. 
Swine  are  extensively  reared.  Berkshire  is 
divided  into  20  hundreds,  151  parishes,  and  12 
poor-law  unions.  It  returns  five  members  to 
parliament,  one  for  each  of  the  three  divisions 
(Abingdon,  Newbury,  Wokingham),  one  for  Read- 
ing (the  county  town),  and  one  for  Windsor.  The 
county  contains  besides,  the  municipal  boroughs 
of  Newbury  and  Maidenhead,  and  the  market- 
towns  of  Faringdon,  Hungerford,  Wantage,  Wok- 
ingham, East  Ilsley,  and  Lambourn.  British 
and  Roman  remains  are  numerous ;  of  the  old 
castles,  the  principal  is  Windsor;  of  monastic 
establishments,  the  abbeys  of  Abingdon  and 
Reading.  There  are  many  Norman  churches, 
erected  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries.  In  1836 
Berkshire  was  transferred  from  the  diocese  of 
Salisbury  to  that  of  Oxford.  Pop.  (1801)  110,480 ; 
(1841)  161,7.59;  (1901)  256,509.  See  Lieut. -Col. 
Cooper- King's  History  of  Berkshire  (1887). 

Berlad  (Bdrladu),  a  town  of  Lower  Moldavia, 
84  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Galatz.     Pop.  24,008. 

Berlen'gas,  a  group  of  rocky  islands  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  off  the  west  coast  of  the  Portu- 
guese province  of  Estremadura. 

Berlin',  the  capital  of  Prussia,  and  since  1871, 
of  the  German  empire,  and  the  third  largest  city 
of  Europe,  is  situated  on  a  flat  sandy  plain,  in 
52°  30'  N.  lat.,  13°  24'  E.  long.,  and  is  divided 
into  two  nearly  equal  parts  by  the  sluggish 
Spree.  The  inconvenience  of  its  low-lying  situa- 
tion in  the  midst  of  the  sandy  flats  of  Branden- 
burg is  more  than  made  up  for  by  the  great 
geographical  advantages  of  its  position  in  the 
heart  of  Northern  Germany.  By  rail  it  is  177 
miles  SE.  of  Hamburg,  101  NNB.  of  Leipzig, 
and  362  ENE.  of  Cologne ;  whilst  from  London 
it  can  be  reached  in  25  hours,  Paris  in  23^,  and 
Vienna  in  15.  The  advance  of  the  city  has  been 
extraordinary.  In  1804  the  pop.  was  182,157  ;  in 
1871  it  was  826,341 ;  in  1880,  1,122,330 ;  and  in 
1900,  1,888,848.  It  was  not  till  the  time  of  the 
'  Great  Elector,'  Frederick- William  (1640-88),  that 
the  town  became  of  consequence.  In  the  17th 
century  it  received  many  French  and  Bohemian 
religious  refugees.  Under  Frederick  the  Great, 
it  continued  to  prosper.  Since  the  peace  of  1815, 
Berlin  has  increased  with  extraordinary  rapidity  ; 
by  reason  of  the  high  rents,  a  tenth  of  the  popula- 
tion are  driven  to  take  up  their  abode  in  cellars 
underground.  At  the  centre  of  the  city  is  the  old 
royal  palace,  with  nearly  700  apartments.  Near 
this  are  the  emperor's  palace,  the  imperial  resi- 
dence :  the  royal  library,  which  contains  upwards 
of  1,300,000  volumes  and  30,000  manuscripts  ;  the 
old  and  new  museums,  the  national  gallery,  the 
arsenal,  the  royal  theatre,  the  opera-house,  the 
guard-house,  and  the  university.  These  are  all 
situated  between  the  Spree  and  the  east  end  of 
the  street  '  Unter  den  Linden '  (so  called  from  its 


double  avenue  of  limes).  The  city  is  adorned 
throughout  with  numerous  statues  of  national 
heroes,  the  Great  Elector,  Frederick  the  Great, 
and  many  others.  There  are  more  than  20  theatres 
in  Berlin.  The  university,  established  in  1809, 
has  400  professors  and  lecturers  and  6000  students, 
with  museums,  institutes,  and  library.  Famous 
profes.sors  have  been  Fichte,  Hegel,  Sclielling, 
Sclileiermacher,  Eichhorn,  De  Wette,  Neander, 
Wolff",  Savigny,  Niebuhr,  the  brotliers  Grimm, 
Raiike,  Monimsen,  Curtius,  Lepsius,  Dorner, 
Treitsclilce,  Sybel,  Dove,  Gneist,  Virchow,  Helm- 
holtz,Vant'Hoff,  andHarnack.  Other  institutions 
are  the  Academy  of  Sciences ;  the  Military 
Academy;  the  Academy  of  Architecture;  the 
Academic  High  School  (of  art) ;  the  School  of 
Mines  ;  the  School  of  Agriculture  ;  the  Artillery, 
Technical,  and  Engineering  Colleges ;  the  In- 
dustrial (1881),  Ethnological  (1886),  and  other 
museums;  theAcademy  of  Music;  and  the  Obser- 
vatory. About  88  per  cent,  of  the  pop.  are 
Protestants,  7  per  cent.  Roman  Catholics,  and 
6  per  cent.  Jews.  Berlin  has  a  cathedral, 
rebuilt  in  1893-95,  100  Protestant  and  15 
Catholic  churches.  Of  these,  the  Nicolaikirche 
(restored  in  1880),  Marienkirche  (with  a  spire 
295  feet  high),  and  Klosterkirche,  all  of  the  13th 
century,  are  the  oldest ;  the  Petrikirche  (with  a 
tower  315  feet  high)  is  the  loftiest ;  and  the 
Michaelskirche  (Catholic),  Thomaskirche,  Zions- 
kirche,  Dankeskirclie  (1884),  and  Heiligekreuz- 
kirche  (1887),  are  more  recent.  The  New  Syna- 
gogue (1866)  has  seats  for  3000  persons. 

The  Old  Museum  contains  antiquarian  speci- 
mens, a  collection  of  90,000  coins,  a  gallery  of 
ancient  sculpture,  and  a  picture-gallery  with 
about  1300  paintings.  The  New  Museum  con- 
tains six  magnificent  mural  paintings  by  Kaul- 
bach  in  the  grand  staircase,  a  very  valuable 
collection  of  casts,  the  Egyptian  museum,  and 
500,000  engravings.  The  National  Gallery  in- 
cludes about  700  works  by  modern  artists.  The 
celebrated  Brandenburg  Gate  leads  to  the  Thier- 
garten.  To  the  south-west  of  this  lies  the 
Zoological  Garden.  The  Botanical  Garden  (at 
Schoneberg)  contains  25,000  species.  Noteworthy 
also  are  the  Rathliaus,  the  royal  chateau  of 
Monbijou,  the  Ruhmeshalle  in  the  arsenal,  the 
Gothic  monument  on  the  Kreuzberg,  the  Column 
of  Peace  in  the  Belle- Alliance-Platz,  the  Warriors' 
Monument,  the  Column  of  Victory,  the  War  Office, 
the  new  building  for  the  Reichstag,  the  Ex- 
change, and  the  Reichsbank.  Berlin  now  ranks 
among  the  most  important  mercantile  places  of 
continental  Europe,  and  has  large  manufacturing 
industries. 

See,  besides  the  guidebooks,  Vizetelly,  Berlin 
under  the  Neiu  Empire  (1879),  and  histories  (in 
German)  by  Wilken  (1826),  Fidicin  (1852),  Schwe- 
bel  (1882),  &c. 

Berlin,  a  town  of  Ontario,  Canada,  62  miles 
SW.  of  Toronto  by  rail.     Pop.  10,000. 

Berlin,  the  name  of  forty  different  towns, 
villages,  hamlets,  and  townships  in  the  United 
States.  The  largest  is  a  city  of  Coos  county. 
New  Hampshire,  on  the  Androscoggin  River,  15 
miles  from  Mount  Washington.    Pop.  10,000. 

Ber'mondsey,  a  south-east  suburb  of  London, 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Thames,  and  (since  1899) 
one  of  the  metropolitan  boroughs.     Pop.  130,760. 

Bennu'das,  or  Somers'  Islands,  British  pos- 
sessions in  Mid-Atlantic,  2900  miles  from  Liver- 
pool, and  677  from  New  York.  They  were  so 
named  from  Bermudas,  a  Spaniard,  who  first 
sighted  them  in  1515,  and  from  Sir  George  Somers, 


BERMUDEZ 


99 


BERWICK-ON-TWEED 


an  Englishman,  whose  shipwreck  here  in  1609 
was  the  immediate  occasion  of  their  colonisation 
from  Virginia  in  1611.  This  low  and  lonely- 
archipelago  is  a  mere  group  of  specks ;  for  though 
it  numbers  perhaps  100  islets  and  more  than 
twice  that  number  of  rocks,  yet  it  measures 
only  19  sq.  m.  in  all,  the  whole  occupying  a 
space  of  about  14  miles  in  length  by  little  more 
tlian  5  in  breadth.  The  islands  are  composed 
of  blown  coral  sand,  and  are  surrounded  by  a 
living,  growing  reef  of  coral — the  most  northerly 
of  atolls.  The  great  value  of  this  natural  for- 
tress as  a  British  naval  station,  defended  by  its 
extensive  barrier  of  reefs  and  rocks,  with  only 
one  or  two  intricate  channels,  arises  from  its 
situation.  In  32'  15' N.  lat.,  and  64°  51'  W.  long., 
the  Bermudas  occupy,  connnercially  and  politi- 
cally, a  singularly  commanding  position.  In  the 
principal  or  Main  Island  is  the  seat  of  govern- 
ment, Hamilton,  on  a  deep  inlet  running  2  or  3 
miles  into  the  land.  St  George's  contains  the 
picturesque  town  of  the  same  name,  and  a  land- 
locked and  fortified  harbour.  Ireland  Island  is 
occupied  by  a  dockyard  and  other  naval  establish- 
ments ;  and  Boaz  and  Watford  Islands  have  the 
military  depots  and  garrisons.  At  Ireland  Island 
also  is  the  celebrated  Bermuda  Floating  Dock, 
towed  out  from  England  in  1869.  The  minor 
islands  of  St  David,  Cooper,  Smith,  Nonsuch, 
Godet,  and  others,  form  numerous  picturesque 
and  deep  creeks  and  bays.  The  group  forms  an 
almost  continuous  chain,  and  with  one  break 
there  is  uninterrupted  communication  by  roads, 
causeways,  and  bridges  for  22  miles  ;  but  from 
the  shape  of  most  of  the  islands,  and  the  number 
of  lagoons,  the  communications  are  largely  by 
water.  The  climate  is  tempered  by  an  almost 
constant  sea-breeze,  and  the  air  is  moist  at  all 
seasons.  The  thermometer  never  falls  below  40° 
F.,  and  seldom  rises  above  85°.  Tlie  islands  are 
becoming  a  popular  holiday  and  winter  resort, 
especially  for  Americans.  The  soil  is  poor  in 
quality,  and  not  more  than  a  fourth  is  cultiv- 
able at  all ;  still  the  raising  of  early  vegetables 
for  New  York  is  a  great  industry.  Besides  being 
useful  as  a  naval  station,  Bermuda  was  formerly 
an  important  convict  depot,  but  since  1862  it  has 
ceased  to  be  so.  The  colony  has  a  very  complete 
telegraph  system.  Pop.  (1871)  12,121;  (1901) 
17,535,  almost  two-thirds  of  them  coloured,  and 
more  than  half  are  members  of  the  Church  of 
England.  See  works  by  Lefroy  (1882),  Ogilvy 
(1883),  Dorr  (New  York,  1884),  and  Heilprin 
(Phil.  1890). 

Bermudez,  a  state  in  the  NE.  of  Venezuela, 
between  the  Orinoco  and  the  Caribbean  Sea. 

Bern,  or  Berne,  a  Swiss  canton,  bounded  on 
the  N.  by  France.  It  is  the  most  populous,  and 
next  to  the  Orisons  the  largest  canton  of  Switzer- 
land ;  its  area  being  2650  sq.  m.,  and  its  pop. 
(1900)  589,433— more  than  one-sixth  of  the  total 
inhabitants  of  Switzerland.  Most  of  these  are 
Protestant  and  German-speaking.— Bern,  the 
capital  of  the  canton,  and  since  1849  of  Switzer- 
land, 68  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Basel,  is  situated 
on  a  lofty  sandstone  i)romontory  formed  by  the 
winding  Aar,  which  surrounds  it  on  three  sides. 
It  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  regularly  built 
towns  in  Europe,  as  it  is  the  finest  in  Switzer- 
land. The  houses  are  massive  structures  of  free- 
stone, resting  upon  shop-lined  arcades.  Rills  of 
water  flow  through  the  streets.  The  view  of  the 
Alpine  peaks  from  the  city  is  magnificent.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  a  Gothic  cathedral 
(1421-1573);    the    magnificent    Federal    Council 


Hall  (1857),  the  mint,  the  hospital,  and  the 
university.  Bern  has  an  interesting  museum, 
and  a  valuable  public  library  of  50,000  volumes. 
Population,  65,000.  Bern  was  founded  in  1191, 
was  made  a  free  imperial  city  in  1218,  under 
Frederick  II.;  and  between  1288  and  1339  success- 
fully resisted  the  attacks  of  Rudolf  of  Hapsburg, 
Albert  his  son,  and  Louis  of  Bavaria.  The 
'  Disputation  of  Bern '  between  Catholics  and 
Reformers  in  1528  (January  6-27)  prepared  the 
way  for  the  acceptance  of  the  reformed  doctrine. 
On  account  of  the  traditionary  derivation  of  its 
name  (Swabian  bern,  'a  bear'),  bears  are  main- 
tained in  a  public  bear-pit. 

Bernalda,  a  town  in  South  Italy,  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Potenza.     Pop.  G976. 

Bernard,  Great  St.    See  St  Bernard. 

Bernay,  a  French  town  in  the  dep.  of  Eure, 
25  miles  WNW.  of  Evreux.    Pop.  6964. 

Bernburg,  a  town  in  the  German  duchy  of 
Anhalt,  till  1863  capital  of  Anhalt-Bernburg,  on 
the  Saale,  23  miles  S.  of  Magdeburg.  It  manu- 
factures machinery,  sugar,  spirits,  porcelain, 
&c.     Pop.  (1871)  15,709 ;  (1900)  34,500. 

Berne.    See  Bern. 

Ber'nera,  (l)  a  Ross-shire  island,  23  miles  W.  of 
Stornoway,  on  the  coast  of  Lewis.  It  measures 
5"i  by  34  miles,  and  attains  223  feet.  Pop.  585.— 
(2)  An  Inverness-shire  island,  1  mile  N.  of  North 
Uist,  measuring  5J  by  2  miles.     Pop.  521. 

Ber'neray,  an  Inverness-shire  island,  14  miles 
SSW.  of  Barra.     Pop.  17. 

Berni'na,  a  mountain  of  the  Rhsetian  Alps, 
13,290  feet  high,  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Orisons. 
Its  summit  was  first  attained  in  1850.  The  Ber- 
nina  Pass  (7642  feet),  with  a  carriage-road  (1864), 
leads  from  Pontresina  to  Poschiavo. 

Berre,  Etang  de,  a  lagoon  of  France,  dep. 
Bouches-du-Rhone,  45  miles  in  circumference, 
with  salt-works  and  eel-fisheries. 

Berri,  or  Berry,  a  former  province  of  Central 
France,  now  forming  Indre  and  Cher  deps. 

Bervle,  a  seaport  and  one  of  the  Montrose 
burghs  in  Kincardineshire,  near  the  mouth  of 
Bervie  Water,  13  miles  NE.  of  Montrose  by  rail. 
Pop.  1207. 

Berwick,  North.    See  North  Berwick. 

Berwick-on-Tweed  (Ber'rick),  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Tweed,  58  miles  ESB.  of  Edinburgh,  and  67 
N.  by  W.  of  Newcastle.  The  liberties  of  the 
borough,  called  '  Berwick  Bounds,'  have  an  area 
of  8  sq.  m.,  and  with  Spittal  and  Tweedmouth, 
form  the  '  county  of  the  borough  of  Berwick-on- 
Tweed.'  Though  long  boasting  to  be  neither 
in  England  nor  Scotland,  and  still  possessing 
separate  quarter-sessions  and  commission  of  the 
peace,  it  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  part  of 
the  county  of  Northumberland  (the  adjoining 
parts  of  which  formed  till  1844  a  detached 
portion  of  Durham);  especially  since  by  the 
Redistribution  Act  of  1885  Berwick  ceased  to 
return  two  members,  and  was  for  election  pur- 
poses merged  in  Northumberland.  The  town  is 
engirt  with  ramparts  of  Elizabeth's  time,  and  has 
large  barracks  (1719).  Tweedmouth  and  Spittal 
(the  latter  a  favourite  watering-place),  on  the 
south  side  of  the  Tweed,  have  since  1835  both 
been  included  within  the  mimicipality.  They 
are  reached  by  a  narrow  stone  bridge  (1609-34)  of 
fifteen  arches  ;  and  the  river  is  also  spanned  by 
Robert  Stephenson's  magnificent  viaduct  (1850) 
of  28  arches,  136  feet  high  and  2160  long.  The 
public  buildings  include  the  town-hall  (1760), 


BERWICKSHIRE 


100 


BETHLEHEM 


with  a  belfry  150  feet  high,  the  corn  exchange 
(1858),  and  several  churches,  Presbyterian  out- 
numbering the  Anglican,  The  harbour  has  been 
improved  by  the  construction  of  a  wet-dock 
(1873-76),  at  a  cost  of  £40,000 ;  there  is  a  con- 
siderable coasting  trade,  but  the  salmon-fisliing  ^ 
has  fallen  off.  For  the  manufacture  of  agri- 
cultural implements  Berwiclc  stands  higli,  and 
in  Spittal  there  are  several  large  artifi- 
cial-manure works.  Pop.  (1S41)  12,689;  (1901) 
13,437.  Berwick,  in  tlie  12th  century,  was 
the  chief  seaport  of  Scotland ;  was  captured  by 
Edward  I.  in  1296,  was  annexed  to  England  in 
1333,  after  the  battle  of  Halidon  Hill,  and  was 
finally  ceded  by  Scotland  in  1482.  See  J.  Scott's 
History  of  Berwick  (1888). 

Berwickshire  (Berrickshir),  a  Border  county 
of  south-east  Scotland,  bounded  by  Haddington- 
shire, the  German  Ocean,  Berwick-on-Tweed, 
Northumberland,  Roxburghshire,  and  Mid- 
lothian. It  extends  from  east  to  west  29  miles, 
from  north  to  south  21  miles,  and  has  an  area 
of  464  sq.  m.,  or  297,161  acres.  Berwickshire  is 
divided  into  three  districts— the  fertile  Merse, 
the  Lainmermoors,  and  Lauderdale.  The  coast, 
19  miles  in  length,  is  rocky  and  bold,  rising  at  St 
Abb's  Head  and  other  points  to  heights  of  from 
177  to  528  feet  above  sea-level,  and  having  only 
two  bays,  at  Eyemouth  and  Coldingham.  The 
Lammermoors,  whose  highest  point  in  Berwick- 
shire is  Seenes  Law  (1683  feet),  besides  seventeen 
other  summits  exceeding  1240,  consist  of  Silurian 
strata,  stretching  to  St  Abb's  Head.  The  streams 
— Blackadder,  Whitadder,  and  Leader  Waters — 
are  all  tributaries  of  the  Tweed,  the  Eye  alone 
flowing  direct  to  the  sea.  Pop.  (1801)  30.206; 
(1841)  34,438;  (1861)  36,613;  (1901)  30,816. 
Berwickshire  returns  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment. Agriculturally,  Berwickshire  occupies  a 
prominent  position,  65 '4  per  cent,  of  the  entire 
area  being  in  cultivation,  it  has  suffered  pro- 
portionally from  the  recent  agricultural  depres- 
sion. The  Earlston  ginghams  excepted,  there 
are  no  manufactures  worth  naming.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Duns,  Greenlaw,  Lauder,  Eye- 
mouth, Coldstream,  and  Earlston.  The  county 
contains  some  very  interesting  examples,  though 
on  a  comparatively  small  scale,  of  Norman  or 
Pointed  architecture,  at  Coldingham,  Dryburgh, 
&c.  There  are  also  the  remains  or  sites  of  Fast, 
Hume,  and  Cranshaws  castles,  and  of  British  and 
Roman  camps  and  barrows,  besides  remains  of  a 
curious  broch-like  structure  at  Edinshall,  near 
Duns. 

Berwyn  Mountains,  a  range  (2716  feet)  on  the 
border  of  Merioneth  and  Montgomery  shires. 

Besangon  (Be-son^son^),  a  fortified  French  city, 
the  capital  now  of  the  dep.  of  Doubs,  and  formerly 
of  Franche-Comte,  on  the  river  Doubs,  57  miles 
E.  of  Dijon.  It  was  the  ancient  Vesontio  or 
Besontium;  in  58  b.c.  Csesar  expelled  the  Sequani 
hence,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  gained  a  victory 
over  Ariovistus.  It  finally  came  into  the  posses- 
sion of  France  in  1674.  Several  streets  still  bear 
old  Roman  names ;  and  in  the  neighbourhood 
are  ruins  of  a  triumphal  arch,  an  aqueduct,  an 
amphitheatre,  and  a  large  theatre.  Among  later 
structures  are  the  12th-century  cathedral,  the 
Palais  de  Justice  (1749),  and  the  half-Gothic, 
half- Renaissance  palace  (1534)  of  Cardinal  Gran- 
vella.  Besancon  makes  a  large  percentage  of  the 
watches  made  in  France,  and  15,000  of  its  inhab- 
itants are  engaged  in  this  industry,  introduced 
from  Switzerland  about  1818.  Otlier  manufac- 
tures are  porcelain,  carpets,  iron-wire,  Seltzer- 


water,  and  beer.  Abel  Remusat  and  Victor  Hugo 
were  natives.     Pop.  51,000. 

Besika  Bay  (Be-zee'ka),  a  bay  on  the  north- 
west coast  of  Asia  Minor,  to  the  south  of  the 
entrance  of  the  Dardanelles.  The  English  fleet 
was  stationed  here  during  crises  in  the  Eastern 
Question,  in  1853-54  and  1877-78. 

Bessarabia,  a  government  in  the  south-west 
of  Russia,  on  the  Roumanian  frontier.  Area, 
17,627  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,932,175.  The  Dniester 
flows  along  the  whole  of  its  northern  and  eastern 
boundaries ;  the  Pruth  separates  it  from  Mol- 
davia  on  the  west ;  and  it  has  the  Danube  on  the 
south.  In  the  north-west  the  country  is  traversed 
by  well- wooded  ofi'shoots  of  the  Carpathian  Moun- 
tains ;  generally,  however,  Bessarabia  is  flat  and 
fertile.  Bessarabia,  which  fell  under  the  power 
of  the  Turks  in  1503,  was  ceded  to  Russia  in  1812. 
By  the  Treaty  of  Paris  the  portions  lying  along 
the  Pruth  and  Danube— 3578  sq.  m.,  with  some 
200,000  inhabitants — were  assigned  to  Moldavia, 
but  by  the  Berlin  Congress  of  1878  were  again 
transferred  to  Russia. 

Bessbrook,  an  Armagh  market-town,  2  miles 
NW.  of  Newry.     Pop.  2977. 

Besseges  (Bes-sezh'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Gard,  21  miles  N.  of  Alais.    Pop,  9068. 

Betanzos  (Betan'thoas),  a  Spanish  town,  10 
miles  SE.  of  Corunna.     Pop.  8101. 

Beth'any  ('  house  of  dates '),  by  the  natives  of 
Palestine  called  '  El'  Azariyeh '  or  '  Lazariyeh ' 
('town  of  Lazarus'),  is  situated  on  the  southern 
slope  of  the  Mount  of  Olives,  2208  feet  above  the 
sea,  2  miles  ESE.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  the 
home  of  Lazarus  and  his  sisters,  often  visited  by 
the  Saviour,  and  the  scene  of  his  ascension.  It 
is  now  a  poor  place  of  some  200  inhabitants,  with 
nothing  remarkable  except  the  reputed  house  of 
Martha  and  Mary,  and  the  cave  or  grave  of 
Lazarus  shown  by  the  monks. — Bethany  is  also 
the  name  of  three  German  mission  stations  in 
South  Africa ;  one  in  Great  Namaqualand,  one  in 
the  Orange  Free  State,  and  one  in  the  Transvaal. 

Bethel  ('house  of  God'),  now  called  Beitin, 
11  miles  N.  of  Jerusalem,  mentioned  in  Scripture 
as  the  scene  of  Jacob's  dream.  The  old  name  of 
the  place  was  Luz.  Here  Abraham  pitched  his 
tent ;  at  a  later  date  it  was  a  resting-place  of  the 
ark,  a  royal  residence,  and  a  seat  of  idolatrous 
worship.     It  is  a  laeap  of  ruins. 

Bethesda,  a  small  town  of  Carnarvonshire  (so 
named  from  its  Nonconformist  chapel),  4|  miles 
SE.  of  Bangor.  Its  inhabitants  are  mostly  em- 
ployed in  the  neighbouring  Penrhyn  slate- 
quarries.     Pop.  (1861)  7346  ;  (1901)  5281. 

Bethlehem  ('  house  of  bread '),  the  birthplace 
of  Jesus  Christ  and  of  King  David,  and  the 
Ephratah  of  the  history  of  Jacob,  is  now  a  small 
unwalled  village  of  white  stone  houses,  6  miles 
S.  of  Jerusalem.  The  population,  about  3000 
souls,  is  wholly  Christian— Latin,  Greek,  and 
Armenian.  The  Convent  of  the  Nativity,  a  large 
square  building,  resembling  a  fortress,  was  built 
by  the  Empress  Helena,  327  a.d.,  but  destroyed 
by  the  Moslems  in  1236,  and,  it  is  supposed, 
restored  by  the  Crusaders.  Within  it  is  the 
Church  of  the  Nativity,  with  a  crypt  below, 
where  the  blessed  Virgin  is  said  to  have  been 
delivered. 

Bethlehem,  a  post-borough  of  Northampton 
county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Lehigh  River,  55 
miles  N.  of  Philadelphia  by  rail,  is  the  principal 
settlement  in  America  of  the  Moravians,  by 
whom  it  was  founded  in  1741.    It  has  silk,  paint, 


BETHNAL  GREEN 


101 


BHAGIRATHt 


and  flour  mills,  and  is  noted  for  its  excellent 
schools.  Two  bridges  connect  it  with  South 
Bethlehem,  the  seat  of  Lehigh  University  (1866) 
and  other  Episcopal  institutions,  and  possessing 
iron  and  steel  works.  Another  borough.  West 
Bethlehem,  separated  from  Bethlehem  by  Mono- 
cacy  Creek,  contaius  silk  and  planing  mills, 
machine-shops,  and  dye-works.    Pop.  7762. 

Bethnal  Green,  an  eastern  suburb  of  London, 
since  1SS5  a  parliamentary  borough  witli  two 
divisions,  and  since  1899  one  of  the  metropolitan 
boroughs.  It  is  largely  peopled  by  silk-weavers, 
an  oftshoot  of  the  Huguenot  settlement  in  Spital- 
fields.  Its  museum  is  a  branch  of  the  one  at 
South  Kensington.    Pop.  (1901)  129,680. 

Bethsaida,  a  village  on  the  western  shore  of 
the  Lake  of  Galilee,  the  birthplace  of  Peter  and 
Andrew  and  Philip.  Its  site  has  been  identified 
with  a  heap  of  grass-grown  ruins. — At  the  north- 
eastern extremity  of  the  lake  was  another  Beth- 
saida, a  village,  near  which  the  five  thousand 
were  fed. 

Bethune  (Bay-tun'),  a  town  in  the  dep.  of  Pas- 
de-Calais,  on  a  rock  overlooking  the  river  Brette, 
16  miles  NNW.  of  Arras,  with  old  fortifications  by 
Vauban,  It  has  bleaching-works  and  manufac- 
tures of  soap.  It  belonged  in  the  middle  ages 
to  Flanders,  but  was  ceded  to  France  by  the 
Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.    Pop.  11,398. 

Bettia,  a  municipal  town  in  the  north-west 
corner  of  Behar,  India,  on  the  line  of  the  Tirhut 
state  railway.     Pop.  22,780. 

Bettws-y-Coed  (Bettus-ee-Ko'ed),  a  tourist  centre 
!n  Carnarvonshire,  North  Wales,  at  the  Llugwy's 
influx  to  the  Conway,  15  miles  S.  of  Llandudno 
Junction  by  rail.     Pop.  of  parish,  840. 

Betwa,  a  river  in  Bundelkhand,  North-west 
Provinces,  India,  which  flows  360  miles  north- 
east to  the  Jumna. 

Beulah  Spa,  l  mile  S.  of  Upper  Norwood,  was 
much  resorted  to  once,  but  is  now  built  over. 

Beuthen  (Boy'ten),  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia, 
121  miles  SB.  of  Breslau.  It  lies  in  a  mining 
district,  and  manufactures  woollen  cloths  and 
earthenware.    Pop.  52,500. 

Bev'eland,  North  and  South,  two  Dutch 
islands  in  the  Scheldt's  estuary.  South  Beveland 
is  the  largest  and  most  fertile  of  the  Zeeland 
islands,  with  a  pop.  of  23,000.  North  Beveland 
is  low  and  marshy. 

Beveren,  a  town  of  Belgium,  5 J  miles  W.  by 
S.  of  Antwerp.  Lace-inaking  is  the  principal 
industry.    Pop.  8023. 

Beverley,  the  chief  town  of  the  East  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  1  mile  W.  of  the  river  Hull,  with 
which  it  communicates  by  canal,  and  8  miles 
NNW.  of  the  city  of  Hull.  Its  trade  consists 
in  corn  and  coal ;  and  tanning  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  agricultural  implements  are  the  staple 
industries.  The  superb  Gothic  minster  is  334 
feet  long  and  167  across  the  transept ;  the  western 
towers  are  200  feet  high.  The  14th-century  North 
Bar  is  the  sole  survivor  of  four  old  gates.  Bever- 
ley arose  out  of  a  priory  founded  by  St  John  of 
Beverley  (d.  721).  The  name  is  a  corruption  of 
Beverlac,  '  lake  of  beavers.'  Incorporated  in  1573, 
Beverley  till  1870  returned  two  members.  Pop. 
(1851)  10,058  ;  (1891)  12,539  ;  (1901)  13,183. 

Beverloo',  a  village  of  Belgium,  12  miles  NW, 
of  Hasselt.    Pop.  1097. 

Beverly,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  on  an  arm 
of  the  Atlantic,  opposite  Salem,  and  18  miles 


NE.  of  Boston  by  rail.  It  has  a  good  harbour. 
Pop.  13,821. 

Bewcastle,  a  village  of  East  Cumberland,  10 
miles  NE.  of  Brampton.  A  headless  stone  cross 
in  the  churchyard,  14^  feet  high,  bears  an  Anglo- 
Saxon  runic  inscription  of  the  year  670.  Pop. 
of  parish,  800. 

Bewdley  (formerly  BeauUeu,  from  its  pleasant 
situation),  a  town  of  Worcestershire,  on  the 
Severn,  3  miles  WSW.  of  Kidderminster.  A 
municipal  borough  since  1472,  it  returned  one 
member  till  1885.  Pop.  2866.  See  Burton's  His- 
tory of  Bewdley  (1883). 

Bex,  a  village  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Vaud, 
26  miles  BE.  of  Lausanne,  with  great  salt-mines, 
salt-works,  and  sulphur-baths.    Pop.  3958. 

Bexar.    See  San  Antonio, 

Bexhill-on-Sea,  a  Sussex  watering-place  and 
municipal  borough  (1902),  5  miles  WSW.  of 
Hastings.     Pop.  12,500. 

Bexley,  a  town  of  Kent,  on  the  Cray,  3  miles 
W.  of  Dartford.    Pop.  13,000. 

Beyerland,  an  island-district,  15  miles  long, 
of  South  Holland,  between  the  Maas  and  the 
Hollandsche  Diep. 

Beypur'.  a  seaport  of  Western  India,  in  Mala- 
bar district,  Madras,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Beypur  River,  6  miles  S.  of  Calicut.  Since  1858 
it  is  the  terminus  of  a  railway  across  India  from 
Madras  via  Coimbatore.    Pop.  6739. 

Beyrout,  or  BeibOt  (Bay-roof ;  Old  Test.  Ber- 
othai  or  BerotMh ;  anc.  Berytus),  a  flourishing 
town,  on  the  coast  of  Syria,  and  at  the  foot  of 
Lebanon,  55  miles  from  Damascus,  and  147  from 
Jerusalem.  It  is  a  great  seaport  and  emporium 
of  most  of  the  trade  with  the  shores  of  Syria, 
Palestine,  and  Cilicia,  with  a  regular  service  of 
Egyptian,  French,  British,  and  other  steamers. 
The  roadstead  is  full  of  sand-banks,  and  large 
ships  cannot  approach  within  half  a  mile  of  the 
shore,  but  shelter  is  found  during  stormy  weather 
in  the  Beyrout  River,  about  3  miles  from  the 
town.  Commerce  has  trebled  within  the  last 
fifty  years.  About  half  the  total  imports  are 
from  Great  Britain.  In  1859  a  line  of  omnibuses 
was  established  here,  and  a  French  company 
completed  in  1863  a  good  road  to  Damascus,  and 
in  1895  a  railway  (across  Lebanon)  to  Damascus 
was  completed ;  in  1886  gas  was  introduced.  Bey- 
rout is  an  episcopal  see  of  Greeks  and  Maronites, 
and  has  Catholic  and  Protestant  missions,  with 
an  American  college.  Of  120,000  inhabitants  only 
30  per  cent,  are  Mohammedans,  and  some  5000 
are  Europeans. 

Bezdan,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  on  the 
canal  joining  Theiss  and  Danube.     Pop.  10,000. 

Beziers  (Bayz-yay'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Herault,  49  miles  SW.  of  Montpellier,  with 
pre-Roman  remains,  a  noble  Gothic  cathedral,  a 
bishop's  palace,  and  manufactures  of  silks  and 
woollens.     Pop.  50,000. 

Bezwada,  a  town  in  Madras,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Kistna,  of  growing  importance.  Pop. 
25,000. 

Bhagalpur',  or  Boglipoor,  a  town  of  Bengal, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges  (7  miles  wide), 
265  miles  NW.  of  Calcutta.    Pop,  76,000. 

Bhagirathi  (Bageerut'tee),  a  branching  arm  of 
the  lower  Ganges,  divides  the  Murshidabad  dis- 
trict into  two  portions,  forms  the  boundary  line 
between  Nadiya  and  Bardwan  districts,  and  joins 
the  Jalangi  at  Nadiya  town  to  form  the  Hooghly 
(q.v.).— Also  a  head-stream  of  the  Ganges,  rising 


BHAMO 


102 


BIELEFELD 


in  Gangotri  Peak,  Garhwal,  North-west  Provinces, 

which  joins  the  Alaknanda  at  Deoprayag. 
Bhamo',  a  town  of  Burma,  at  the  head  of  the 

navigation  of  the  Upper  Irawadi,  40  miles  W. 

of  the  Chinese  frontier,  and  300  NNE.  of  Man- 

dalay.     Pop.  7500. 
Bhandara,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  Central 

Provinces,  40  miles  E.  of  Nagpur,     Pop.  13,150. 
Bhanpura,  or  Bhampura,  a  walled  town  of 

Central  India,  in  Indore  state,  on  the  Rewa,  60 

miles  S.  of  Kotah.    Pop.  13,400. 
Bhartpur',  or  Bhurtpore',  the  capital  of  a 

protected  state  in  India,  35  miles  W.  of  Agra  by 

rail.     Lord    Combermere    captured    it  in    1827. 

Pop.  about  50,000.    Area  of  state,  1974  sq.  in. ; 

pop.  645,540,  mostly  Jats. 
Bhatgaon,  a  town  of  Nepaul,  8  miles  SE.  of 

Khatmandu.    Pop.  30,000. 
Bhaunagar,  the  capital  of  a  Bombay  native 

state,  on  the  Gulf  of  Cambay,  60  miles  NW.  of 

Surat.    Pop.  57,653.    Area  of  state,  2860  sq.  tn. : 

pop.  400,323. 
Bhilsa,  a  town  of  India,  in  Gwalior  state,  on 

the  Betwa,  26  miles  NE.  of  Bhopal.     Pop.  7070. 
Bhiwani  (Bee-wah'iiee),  a  town  of  the  Punjab, 

37  miles  SE.  of  Hissar  by  rail.     Pop.  35,487. 

Bhopal,  the  capital  of  a  native  state  in  Central 
India,  325  miles  SW,  of  Allahabad.  Population, 
77,000.— The  state  was  founded  in  1723  by  Dost 
Mohammed  Khan,  and  a  treaty  of  dependence 
was  concluded  with  Britain  in  1818.  Area,  13,000 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,500,000. 

Bhuj  (Boodj),  the  capital  of  Cutch  (q.v.),  180 
miles  SE.  of  Hyderabad.    Pop.  26,421. 

Bhutan  (Boo-tan'),  a  native  state  in  the  eastern 
Himalayas,  bounded  by  Tibet,  Assam,  and  Sik- 
kim.  It  is  divided  into  East  and  West  Bhutan ; 
and  before  the  British  annexation  in  1841  and 
1865  of  the  eighteen  Dwars  or  passes  which  lead 
from  the  plains  to  the  lofty  terraces  of  Bhutan, 
the  area  was  estimated  a^t  20,000  sq.  m.  ;  since, 
it  has  been  estimated  at  17,000  sq.  m.  The  whole 
surface  is  mountainous,  with  summits  exceeding 
24,000  feet.  The  central  regions,  at  an  elevation 
of  8000  or  10,000  feet  above  the  sea,  are  covered 
with  the  finest  forests  of  oak  and  pine,  with 
beech,  ash,  birch,  and  maple.  The  Manas,  a 
tributary  of  the  Brahmaputra,  is  the  chief  river. 
The  nominal  religion  is  Buddhism.  The  govern- 
ment, almost  purely  ecclesiastical,  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  rapacious  oligarchy.  The  Dharm  Rajah, 
the  nominal  head,  is  treated  rather  as  a  god  than 
as  a  sovereign  ;  while  the  Deb  Rajah,  the  actual 
head,  is  elected  every  three  years  by  the  chiefs 
from  amongst  themselves.  Polygamy  and  poly- 
andry are  common.  The  Bhutias  are  neat  joiners, 
and  their  houses  have  the  appearance  of  Swiss 
chalets.  The  winter  capital  is  Punakha,  on  the 
Bugui  River,  96  miles  NE.  of  Darjeeling.  The 
summer  capital  is  Tasichozong  (Tassisudon),  on  the 
Gudada  River,  a  centre  of  Lamaism.  The  original 
inhabitants,  believed  to  be  from  Kuch  Behar, 
were  called  Tephu ;  they  were  subdued  by  a  band 
of  Tibetan  soldiers  200  years  ago,  who  settled  in 
Bhutan.  The  Bhutias  speak  a  dialect  of  Tibetan. 
In  1772  the  rajah  of  Kuch  Behar  received  assist- 
ance from  the  British  government  against  their 
invasions.  Later  raids  led  to  the  treaty  of  1865, 
when  the  eighteen  Dwars  or  passes  of  Bengal 
and  Assam  were  ceded  to  the  British  govern- 
ment in  return  for  a  yearly  subvention.  Pop. 
variously  estimated  at  from  20,000  to  200,000. 
Bia'fra,  Bight  of,  a  large  bay  on  the  west 


coast  of  Africa,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
between  Capes  Formosa  and  Lopez.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  flowing  into  it  are  the  Niger  (q.v.), 
the  New  and  Old  Calabar  rivers,  the  Rio  del  Rey, 
the  Cameroon,  and  the  Gaboon;  its  islands  are 
Fernando  Po  (Spanish),  and  St  Thomas'  and 
Prince's  Islands  (Portuguese).  Opiwsite  Fer- 
nando Po  are  the  Caineroons  (q.v.). 

Bial'ystok,  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the  Biala,  55 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Moscow  by  rail.  Over  thirty 
factories  produce  woollen  stuffs.    Pop.  59,926. 

Blana.    See  Bayana. 

Biancavilla,  a  town  of  Sicily,  on  the  south- 
west declivity  of  Mount  Etna,  24  miles  NW.  of 
Catania.    Pop.  13,021. 

Biarritz  {Bee'ar-reets),  a  watering-place  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Basses-Pyrenees,  on  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  6  miles  SW.  of  Bayonne.  Here,  in  1855, 
Louis  Napoleon  built  the  Villa  Eugenie  for  the 
empress,  who  already,  as  Countess  de  Teba,  had 
been  a  frequent  visitor.  During  the  season  (July- 
September)  the  place  is  often  visited  by  6000 
guests.    Tliere  is  a  good  golf  course.    Pop.  13,000. 

Biberacll  (Bee'ber-ahh),  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg, 
on  the  Reiss,  23  miles  SSW.  of  Ulm.  There  are 
manufactures  of  machinery,  artificial  flowers,  &c. 
Here  the  Austrians  were  defeated  by  Moreau  in 
1796,  and  in  ISOO  by  Saint  Cyr.     Pop.  8938. 

Biberich.    See  Biebrich. 

Bicester  (Bitter),  a  market-town  of  Oxford- 
shire,  12  miles  NNE.  of  Oxford.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  rope,  clothing,  sacking,  and  pale  ale. 
The  ruins  of  Alia  Castra,  or  Alcester,  lie  1^  mile 
to  the  south-west,  on  the  ancient  Roman  Akeman 
Street.    Pop.  3043. 

fiicton  Park,  a  Devonshire  seat,  4  miles  WSW. 
of  Sidmouth,  with  splendid  grounds. 

Bidar  (Bee'dar),  a  town  in  the  Nizam's  Domin- 
ions, near  the  right  bank  of  the  Manjera,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Godavery,  75  miles  NW.  of  Hyderabad. 
Pop.  13,000. 

Bldasso'a,  a  river  which,  rising  in  Spain, 
bounds  that  country  and  France,  and,  after  a 
course  of  33  miles,  falls  into  the  Bay  of  Biscay 
at  Fuenterabia. 

Biddeford,  a  town  of  Maine,  U.S.,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Saco  River,  6  jniles  from  its  mouth 
in  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  93  miles  NNE.  of 
Boston  by  rail.  It  has  manufactures  of  cotton 
and  woollen  goods  and  machinery,  and  there  is  a 
large  trade  in  timber.     Pop,  16,500. 

Bid'eford,  a  'little  white  seaport  town'  and 
municipal  borough  of  North  Devon,  on  the  Tor- 
ridge,  3i  miles  above  its  confluence  with  the 
Taw's  estuary,  and  9  miles  SW.  of  Barnstaple. 
The  name  signifies  'by-the-ford,'  and  is  pro- 
nounced Bid-de-ford,  like  that  of  its  American 
daughter.  The  old  bridge  of  24  arches  and  226 
yards  long,  which  unites  the  two  divisions  of 
Bideford,  was  widened  in  1864.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  ropes,  sails,  earthenware,  and  leather. 
Vessels  of  500  tons  can  get  up  to  the  quay.  Sir 
Richard  Grenville  was  a  native.  Population. 
8750. 

Biebrich  (Bee'brihh),  a  town  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Rhine,  2^  miles  S.  of  Wiesbaden.  It  has 
the  castle  of  the  dukes  of  Nassau.    Pop.  12,500. 

Biel  (Beat),  a  beautiful  Haddingtonshire  seat, 
4  miles  SW.  of  Dunbar. 

Biel.     See  Bienne. 

Bielefeld  (Bee'leh-felt),  a  town  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Westphalia,  picturesquely  situated  on 


l^IELEf'F 


i03 


BILLINGSGATE 


the  little  Lutter,  at  the  foot  of  the  Teutoburger- 
Wald,  28  miles  SW.  of  Minden.  It  is  the  centre 
of  the  Westphalian  linen-trade,  and  has  exten- 
sive bleaching-grounds,  manufactures  of  woollen 
thread,  soap,  leather,  and  its  meerschaum  pipes 
are  celebrated.     Pop.  65,000. 

Bieleff',  an  ancient  town  of  Russia,  on  the  Oka, 
160  miles  SSW.  of  Moscow.    Pop.  9171. 

Bielitz,  a  town  of  Austrian  Silesia,  on  the 
Biala,  60  miles  SW.  of  Cracow.     Pop.  17,060. 

Biella,  a  town  of  North  Italy,  56  miles  NE.  of 
Turin  by  rail.     Pop.  15,662. 

Bielo-oz'ero  ('White  Lake'),  a  lake  in  the 
government  of  Novgorod,  Russia,  25  miles  long, 
20  broad,  and  432  sq.  m.  in  area.  It  discharges 
into  the  Volga.— Bielozeesk  is  an  old  wooden 
town  on  the  south  shore.     Pop.  4286. 

Bielo'pol,  a  town  of  Russia,  106  miles  NW.  of 
Kharkov,  with  brandy  distilleries.     Pop.  15,178. 

Bielshohle,  a  stalactite  cavern,  230  yards  long, 
in  the  Harz  Mountains,  was  discovered  in  1672. 

Bielsk',  a  town  of  Russia,  112  miles  NE.  of 
Warsaw.    Pop.  9763. 

Bienne  (Bee-cnn' ;  Ger.  Biel),  a  town  in  the  can- 
ton of  Bern,  56  miles  SW.  of  Basel  by  rail,  beauti- 
fully situated  at  the  base  of  the  vine-clad  Jura, 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  Lake  of  Bienne.  Popu- 
lation, 22,500,  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of 
watches,  leather,  cotton,  &c.— The  Lake  of 
Bienne,  lying  1424  feet  above  sea-level,  and  252 
feet  deep,  is  9  miles  long  by  3  broad.  It  receives 
the  surplus  waters  of  Lake  Neuchatel  by  the 
Thiel,  by  which  river  it  again  discharges  its 
own.  Towards  its  head  is  the  lie  St  Pierre,  to 
which  Rousseau  retired  for  two  months  in  1765. 

Bies-Bosch  (Bees' -bosk'),  a  marshy  sheet  of  water 
of  the  Netherlands,  77  sq.  m.  in  area,  between 
the  provinces  of  N.  Brabant  and  S.  Holland. 

Biggar,  a  town  of  Lanarkshire,  28  miles 
SW.  of  Edinburgh.  The  collegiate  church  was 
founded  in  1545  ;  of  Boghall  Castle,  the  seat  of 
the  Flemings,  hardly  a  vestige  remains.  Dr 
John  Brown,  author  of  Eab  and  his  Friends,  was 
born  here;  and  John  Gladstones  (1693-1756), 
great-grandsire  of  W.  B,  Gladstone,  is  buried  in 
the  churchyard.  Pop.  1366.  See  Unntev's  Biggar 
and  the  House  of  Fleming  (2d  ed.  1867). 

Biggleswade,  a  market-town  of  Bedfordshire, 
41  miles  NW.  of  London  by  rail,  with  a  great 
corn-market.    Pop.  of  urban  district,  5120. 

Big  Horn,  a  navigable  river  of  the  United 
States,  and  the  largest  affluent  of  the  Yellow- 
stone, rises  near  Fremont's  Peak  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  the  NW.  of  Wyoming  territory, 
and  flows  350  miles  north-eastward. 

Bigorre,  a  mountainous  district  of  south-west 
France,  mainly  in  the  dep.  of  Hautes-Pyrenees. 
Tarbes  is  the  chief  town. 

Big  Sandy  River,  also  called  Chatterawah,  a 
navigable  affluent  of  the  Ohio,  formed  by  the 
junction  of  two  branches  which  rise  in  Virginia. 

Bihacz    (Bihatch),   a    strong    fortress-town  of 
North-west  Bosnia,  on  the  Una,  near  the  Croatian 
frontier.     Pop.  4506. 
Bihar.    See  Behar. 

Blhe,  a  fruitful  district  of  South  Africa,  E.  of 
Benguela,  and  under  Portuguese  influence.  It 
is  an  important  caravan  centre,  being  traversed 
by  the  only  trans-continental  route  south  of  the 
Congo.  Area,  2500  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  95,000.  Kag- 
nwnba,  the  king's  capital,  is  over  8  miles  in 


circumference.    See  Major  Pinto's  How  I  Crossed 
Africa  (1881). 

Bijanaghur.  See  Vijayanagae. 
Bijapur  (Beejapoor'),  a  decayed  city  in  the 
Bombay  Presidency,  160  miles  SE.  of  Poona.  It 
was  for  centuries  the  capital  of  a  powerful  king- 
dom ;  in  1686  was  captured  by  Aurungzebe,  in 
the  18th  century  passed  to  the  Mahrattas,  and 
became  British  in  1848.  Now  lofty  walls  of  hewn 
stone  enclose  the  desolate  fragments  of  a  once 
vast  and  populous  city.  The  ruins  are  almost  all 
Mohammedan,  and  consist  of  beautiful  mosques, 
colossal  tombs,  a  fort,  &c.    Pop.  23,800. 

Bijawar,  a  petty  native  state  in  the  Bundel* 
khand  Agency.     Area,  974  sq.  m. ;  pop.  123,285. 
Bijbharu',  or  Bijbahar,  a  town  of  Kashmir, 
India,  on  the  Jhelum,  25  miles  SE.  of  Srinagar. 

Bijnaur',  a  town  of  the  United  Provinces, 
3  miles  E.  of  the  Ganges.  Sugar,  Brahnianlcal 
threads,  and  cotton  cloth  are  manufactured. 
Pop.  16,147.— The  district  of  Bijnaur,  in  the  N. 
of  the  Rohilkharid  division,  contains  more  than 
a  dozen  towns  with  a  population  of  over  5000. 

Bikaner',  the  capital  of  a  Rajput  state,  lies 
in  a  desolate  tract,  250  miles  WSW.  of  Delhi. 
It  is  surrounded  by  a  battlemented  wall  of  3^ 
miles  in  circuit,  and  from  a  distance  presents  a 
magnificent  appearance  ;  but  many  of  its  carved 
buildings  are  in  narrow  and  dirty  lanes.  Pottery, 
stone-cutting  and  carving,  the  making  of  a  white 
candy  and  of  blankets,  are  amongst  the  industries. 
Pop.  54,000.— The  state  contains  23,340  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  585,000,  mainly  Jats. 

Bllba'o  (Span.  Beel-bdh'o),  a  town  of  Spain,  the 
capital  of  the  province  of  Vizcaya  (Biscay),  in  a 
mountain  gorge  on  the  Nervion,  8  miles  SE.  of 
its  mouth  at  Portugalete,  and  63  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Miranda  by  rail.  Four  bridges  span  the  river, 
which  divides  the  old  town  from  the  new.  The 
city  is  purely  commercial.  There  are  docks  for 
building  merchant-vessels,  and  in  the  vicinity 
are  iron  and  copper  mines.  The  canalisation  of 
the  river  in  1886  has  since  enabled  steamers  of 
700  to  800  tons  to  come  up  to  the  town  ;  but  the 
narrow  channel  and  the  heavy  sea  on  the  bar 
still  render  th^  port  equally  difficult  to  enter  or 
leave.  Nevertheless,  the  annual  amount  of  British 
tonnage  entering  Bilbao  largely  exceeds  that  of 
any  other  foreign  port  in  Europe,  except  Ant- 
werp. The  chief  imports  are  coal,  coke,  codfish, 
timber,  petroleum,  tin,  sugar,  coflee,  and  colonial 
goods.  The  exports,  which  include  red  wines 
and  wool,  are  numerous  and  unimportant,  with 
the  exception  of  iron-ore,  on  which  the  pros- 
perity of  the  port  depends.  Population,  75,000. 
Bilbao  was  founded  in  1300  under  the  name  of 
Belvao— i.e.  'the  fine  fort'— and  soon  attained 
great  prosperity.  It  sufi"ered  severely  in  the 
wars  with  France,  first  in  1795,  and  again  m 
1808.  During  the  Carlist  struggles  it  stood  two 
great  sieges,  Ziunalacarreguy  here  receiving  his 
death-wound  in  1835,  whilst  in  1874  it  was  vainly 
besieged  and  bombarded  by  Don  Carlos  for  four 
months. 
Bil'toilis.  See  Calatayud. 
Bilin',  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Bila,  5  miles 
SW.  of  Teplitz.  Its  mineral  springs,  rich  in 
native  carbonate  of  soda,  are  largely  sought  by 
sufferers  from  gastric,  catarrhal,  or  scrofulous 
complaints.    Pop.  7604. 

Billericay,  an  Essex  market-town,  4  miles  E. 
of  Brentwood.    Pop.  1394. 
Billingsgate,    a   fish-market   a   little    belo\V 


SlLLlfONf 


104 


BIRMINGHAM 


London  Bridge.  It  was  opened  in  1558  as  a 
landing-place  for  provisions ;  and  in  1699  was 
made  'a  free  and  open  market  for  all  sorts  of 
fish.'  The  present  handsome  stone  building  was 
finished  in  1874. 

Bil'liton,  or  Blitono,  an  island  in  the  Dutch 
East  Indies,  between  the  SE.  of  Banca  and  the 
8W.  of  Borneo.  It  is  about  50  miles  in  length 
by  45  broad,  1855  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  in  the  north 
3000  feet  high.  Tandjong  is  the  harbour,  Pan- 
dang  the  chief  town.    Pop.  48,779. 

Billom  (Bee-yon^'),  a  decayed  town  of  Auvergne, 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Puy-de-D6ine,  14  miles 
ESE.  of  Clermont.     Pop.  3930. 

Bill  Quay,  on  the  Tyne,  in  Durham,  3  miles  E. 
of  Gateshead,  the  seat  of  shipbuilding  yards, 
bottle-works,  &c. 

Bilma,  a  town  of  the  Sahara,  Central  Africa, 
situated  in  18"  40'  N.  lat.,  14°  E.  long.,  on  an 
oasis  called  the  Wady  Kawar. 

Bilston,  a  town  in  South  Staffordshire,  2J  miles 
SE.  of  Wolverhampton,  and  within  its  parlia- 
mentary borough.  The  centre  of  the  hardware 
trade,  it  has  extensive  iron  and  coal  mines, 
iron-smelting  works,  iron-foundries  for  making 
machinery,  besides  works  for  tin-plate  goods, 
japanned  and  enamelled  wares,  nails,  wire,  screws, 
and  coarse  pottery.     Pop.  25,000. 

BilucMstan.    See  Beluchistan. 

Bima,  a  seaport  of  Sumbawa,  one  of  the  Sunda 
Isles,  on  the  north  coast,  100  miles  E.  of  Sumbawa. 

Bimbla,  an  African  district  on  the  south  slope 
of  the  Cameroon  Mountains,  and  on  the  river 
Bimbia,  since  1884  part  of  the  German  protec- 
torate.   See  Cameroons. 

Binche  {Banish),  a  town  of  Belgium,  10  miles 
E.  of  Mons.     Pop.  10,100. 

Bingen  (Bing'en),  a  town  of  Hesse,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  39  miles  SE.  of  Coblenz. 
Below  the  town  is  the  Bingerloch,  formerly  danger- 
ous to  navigation,  but  in  1834  the  sunken  rocks 
were  blown  up.  In  mid-river  stands  the  Mjiuse- 
turin  of  Bishop  Hatto.  Nearly  opposite  Bingen, 
in  the  Niederwald,  is  the  colossal  statue  Ger- 
VMiiia,  erected  1877-83  to  commemorate  the  war 
of  1870-71.     Pop.  9215. 

Bingham,  a  town  in  the  county,  and  8J  miles 
E.  of  the  town  of  Nottingham.  Lord  Sherbrooke 
was  a  native.     Pop.  of  parish,  1687. 

Bingham  ton,  a  flourishing  city  of  New  York, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Chenango  and  Susquehanna 
rivers,  215  miles  NW.  of  New  York  City.  It  is  an 
important  railway  centre,  and  manufactures  flour, 
engines,  carriages,  leather,  and  cigars.  Pop. 
41,000. 

Bingley,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 5^  miles  NW.  of  Bradford,  It  has  worsted, 
woollen,  cotton,  and  paper  manufactures.  Pop. 
18,500. 

Bintang,  a  Dutch  East  Indian  island,  40  miles 
SE.  of  Singapore.     Area,  454  sq.  m. ;  pop.  18,000, 

Binue.    See  Benue. 

Biobio,  the  largest  river  of  Chili,  flows  220 
miles  (100  navigable)  WNW.  from  near  the  volcano 
of  Antuco  in  tlie  Andes  to  Concepcion  on  the 
Pacific  Ocean.     It  is  2  miles  wide  at  its  mouth. 

Bir,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  Euph- 
rates, 80  miles  NE.  of  Aleppo.     Pop.  9000. 

Birbhum,  a  district  in  the  Bard  wan  division 
of  Bengal,  with  an  area  of  1756  sq.  m.  It  is  one 
of  the  greatest  copper-fields  of  the  world,  though 
practically  untapped  as  yet. 


Birchington,  a  Kentish  coast  village,  3i  miles 
W.  by  S.  of  Margate.     Pop.  of  jjarish,  2122. 

Birkenfeld,  a  German  principality  belonging 
to  Oldenburg  (q.v.),  but  surrounded  by  the 
Prussian  Rhine  Province.  Area,  194  sq.  in.  ; 
population,  43,500.  The  capital,  Birkenfeld,  has 
a  pop.  of  2500. 

Birkenhead,  a  market- town,  seaport,  municipal, 
parliamentary,  and  county  borough  of  Cheshire, 
lies  opposite  liiverpool,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Mersey.  Birkenhead  owes  its  origin  to  the  Bene- 
dictine Priory  of  Byrkhed,  founded  in  the  11th 
century.  The  crypt  and  other  portions  of  the 
priory  still  remain.  Birkenhead  has  only  of  late 
risen  from  comparative  obscurity  to  its  i)resent 
important  position.  In  1836  it  received  the 
grant  of  a  market,  in  1861  obtained  the  privi- 
lege of  returning  a  member  to  parliament,  in 
1877  was  created  a  municipal  borough,  and  in 
1888  a  county  borough.  The  main  streets  are 
laid  out  with  great  regularity,  crossing  each 
other  at  right  angles,  and  about  20  yards  wide  ; 
but  the  back  streets  are  narrow  and  the  houses 
mean.  The  park,  180  acres  in  extent,  was  laid 
out  at  a  cost  of  £140,000 ;  and  there  is  another 
Ijark  in  Tranmere,  called  Mersey  Park,  of  29 
acres  and  £.33,000  cost,  opened  in  1885.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  market-hall, 
the  new  town-hall,  the  new  sessions  and  police 
courts,  the  borough  hospital,  the  free  library, 
and  the  public  baths.  A  railway  bridge  over  the 
Mersey  at  Runcorn,  opened  for  traffic  in  1869, 
shortened  by  10  miles  the  distance  between  the 
Liverpool  and  Birkenhead  docks  ;  and  the  Mersey 
railway  tunnel,  1230  yards  long,  was  opened  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1886.  There  is  also  com- 
munication with  Liverpool  by  ferry-steamers. 
The  idea  of  constructing  docks  here  was  due  to 
the  Messrs  Laird,  who  in  1824  purchased  from 
the  Liverpool  corporation,  at  a  very  low  price, 
a  large  piece  of  ground  on  the  borders  of  the 
Wallasey  Pool  The  first  dock,  however,  was  not 
opened  till  1847.  In  1857  the  Birkenhead  docks 
were  amalgamated  with  those  of  Liverpool,  and 
vested  in  one  public  trust,  called  'The  Mersey 
Docks  and  Harbour  Board.'  Including  the  Great 
Float,  an  immense  harbour,  constructed  on  the 
site  of  Wallasey  Pool,  with  an  area  of  over  140 
acres,  they  extend  from  Woodside  to  Seacombe, 
a  distance  of  about  a  mile,  the  total  area  being 
about  170  acres,  with  9^  miles  of  quayage.  The 
corn-warehouses  at  Seacombe  constitute  a  vast 
pile  of  buildings,  and  a  great  deal  of  coal 
is  shipped  from  the  port.  IBirkenhead  is  cele- 
brated for  its  shipbuilding  yards,  some  of  the 
largest  iron  ships  afloat  having  been  built  here. 
In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  docks  are  the  Canada 
Works  for  the  construction  of  gigantic  bridges, 
the  Britannia  Machinery  Works,  the  Birkenhead 
Forge,  &c.  There  are  also  oil-cake  mills,  exten- 
sive flour-mills,  wagon-works,  and  several  smaller 
engineering  works.  St  Aidan's  College,  an  An- 
glican theological  college,  is  in  the  suburb  of 
Claughton.  Pop.  (1821)  236 ;  (1861)  54,649  ;  (1891) 
99,857  ;  (1901)  110,915. 

Birket-el-Hadjl  ('lake  of  the  pilgrims'),  a 
small  lake  10  miles  NE.  of  Cairo,  where  the  Mecca 
pilgrims  assemble  and  separate. 

Birmah.    See  Burma. 

Birmingham,  a  city  and  a  municipal,  parlia- 
mentary, and  county  borough,  the  chief  town  of 
the  Midlands,  is  celebrated  for  its  metallic  manu- 
factures throughout  the  world.  It  stands  near 
the  centre  of  England,  in  the  north-west  of  War- 
wickshire,  with  suburbs  extending  into  Stafford- 


BIRMINGHAM 


106 


felSCHOFf 


shire  and  Worcestershire,  112^  miles  NW.  of 
London.  It  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  east 
slope  of  three  undulating  hills,  on  the  Rea  and 
the  Tame,  and  though  rather  irregularly  built, 
has  been  greatly  improved  in  this  respect  within 
recent  years,  while  its  water-supply  and  sanitary 
arrangements  are  admirable.  There  are  seven 
public  parks  in  the  suburbs.  The  public  build- 
ings include  the  Corinthian  town-hall  (1832-52), 
the  scene  of  triennial  nmsical  festivals  and  great 
political  meetings  ;  the  market-hall,  dating  from 
1838 ;  the  Italian  municipal  buildings  (1874-78), 
at  a  cost  of  nearly  £200,009  ;  the  corn  exchange 
(1847) ;  the  Gothic  exchange  buildings  (1863-65) ; 
and  the  post-office.  Queen's  College  (1807)  and 
tlie  Mason  Science  College,  founded  in  1875  by 
Sir  Josiah  Mason,  were  incorporated  in  Birming- 
ham University  in  1900.  Other  institutions  are 
the  Birniingliam  and  Midland  Institute,  the 
museum  and  art  gallery,  the  school  of  art,  the 
technical  school,  tlie  libraries,  King  Edward  VI.'s 
grammar-schools,  and  the  blue-coat  school.  Bir- 
mingham became  the  see  of  a  bishop  in  1904. 
Its  mayor  has  been  a  Lord  Mayor  since  1896. 
There  are  more  than  a  dozen  statues  or  memorials  of 
Birmingham  worthies  (including  Watt,  Priestley, 
Bright,  Chamberlain,  Mason,  Dawson),  and  other 
eminent  men.  The  parish  church  of  St  Martins, 
erected  in  1873  at  a  cost  of  nearly  £30,000,  stands 
on  the  site  of  the  old  building,  dating  from  the 
13th  century ;  and  the  Catholic  cathedral  of  St 
Chad  (Birmingham  being  the  seat  of  a  Catholic 
see)  was  erected  from  the  designs  of  Pugin,  at  a 
cost  of  over  £30,000. 

In  Leland's  Itinerary  (1538)  Birmingham  is  re- 
ferred to  as  the  abode  of  'smiths  and  cutlers.' 
In  cutlery  goods  it  has  been  completely  super- 
seded by  Sheffield,  but  in  all  other  kinds  of  the 
finer  metal  manufactures  it  is  unrivalled  by  any 
other  town  in  the  world.  Iron  and  brass  found- 
ing are  carried  on,  and  steam-engines  and  various 
kinds  of  machinery  are  made  ;  but  the  principal 
manufactures  are  the  finer  kinds  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  brass,  steel,  mixed  metal,  plated  metal, 
glass,  papier-mache,  japanned  and  electrotyped 
articles,  including  firearms,  ammunition,  swords, 
metal  ornaments,  toys,  jewellery,  coins,  buttons, 
buckles,  lamps,  pins,  steel-pens,  tools,  arms,  and 
locks.  Over  560,000  gun-barrels  were  manufac- 
tured in  1891 ;  and  other  specialties,  of  which  an 
enormous  quantity  are  manufactured,  are  steel- 
pens,  buttons,  nails,  and  screws.  '  Brummagenr ' 
is  colloquially  used  to  denote  anything  sham  or 
fictitious,  such  as  cheap  jewellery,  now  no  longer 
made  here  so  much  as  in  London  and  in 
Germany.  Near  Handsworth,  a  little  to  the 
north  of  Birmingham,  were  the  famous  Soho 
Works,  founded  by  Watt  and  Boulton.  The 
Benningeham  of  Domesday  was  later  known  as 
Bromwychham  (whence  Brummagem).  During 
the  Civil  War  the  town  supplied  the  Parliament- 
arians with  swords,  but  it  was  taken  by  Prince 
Rupert  in  1643.  It  suffered  severely  from  the 
plague  in  1665-66.  The  celebration  by  a  number 
of  Radicals,  14th  July  1791,  of  the  capture  of 
the  Bastille,  was  the  occasion  of  a  serious  riot  by 
the  upholders  of  church  and  king,  who  attacked 
Dr  Priestley's  house,  and  destroyed  his  library. 
Subsequently  Birmingham  was  prominently  as- 
sociated with  the  reformers  of  1832  and  the 
Chartists,  and  it  was  the  famous  headquarters  of 
what  was  known  as  the  Liberal  '  caucus.' 

Baskerville,  the  printer,  carried  on  his  business 
in  Birmingham.  Wilmore  and  Pye,  the  engravers, 
David  Cox,  and  Burne-Jones  were  Birniingham 
men.    Dr  Joseph  Priestley  was  a  Unitarian  min- 


ister in  Birmingham ;  here,  too,  was  the  chapel 
of  the  brilliant  lecturer  George  Dawson.  Bir- 
mingham, which,  Mr  Joseph  Chamberlain  claims, 
is  the  best-governed  city  in  the  world,  was  incor- 
porated in  1838,  and  became  a  county  borough 
and  a  city  in  1888.  In  1867  the  number  of  par- 
liamentary representatives  was  increased  from 
two  to  three,  and  in  1885  it  was  divided  into 
seven  parliamentary  districts,  each  returning  one 
member.  The  population  in  1770  was  30,806, 
which  by  1801  had  increased  to  60,822,  by  1851 
to  232,841,  by  1871  to  343,787,  bv  1881  to 
400,774,  by  1891  to  478,113,  by  1901  to  533,040. 

See  Hutton's  History  of  Birmingham  (1781), 
and  Bunce's  History  of  the  Corporation  (1885) ; 
Langford's  Century  of  Birmingham  Life  (2  vols. 
1868) ;  and  Dent's  Old  and  Neiv  Birmingham  (2 
vols.  1879-80),  and  The  Making  of  Birmingham 
(1894). 

Birmingham,  the  capital  of  Jefferson  county, 
Alabama,  and  the  most  important  seat  of  the 
iron  industry  of  the  southern  states,  is  situated 
at  the  junction  of  several  railways,  95  miles 
NNW.  of  Montgomery.  It  has  numerous  found- 
ries, mills,  factories,  and  machine-shops  ;  and  the 
development  of  the  iron  interests  of  its  inmae- 
diate  vicinity  has  caused  a  marvellous  growth 
of  the  city.    Pop.  40,000. 

Birnam,  a  Perthshire  hill,  1324  feet  high,  near 
Dunkeld.  Birnam  Wood,  forming  part  of  an 
ancient  royal  forest,  is  immortalised  by  Shake- 
speare in  Macbeth.  Opposite  Dunkeld  is  the 
pretty  village  of  Birnam  ;  pop.  394. 

Bimi,  a  ruinous  town,  the  former  capital  of 
Bornu  (q.v.),  100  miles  W.  of  Lake  Chad. 

Birr.    See  Parsonstown. 

Birrenswark.    See  Brunswark. 

Birstal,  a  woollen  manufacturing  town  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  7  miles  SSW.  of  Leeds. 
Dr  Priestley  was  born  hard  by.    Pop.  6558. 

Biru',  a  kingdom  of  Soudan,  Western  Africa, 
bounded  on  the  E .  by  the  Niger. 

Bisaccia  (Bisat'clia),  a  town  of  Italy,  60  miles 
E.  of  Naples.     Pop.  6189. 

Bisacquino  (Bisaquee'no),  a  town  of  Sicily,  27 
miles  S.  of  Palermo.     Pop.  9588. 

Bisalnag'ar,  a  town  of  India,  in  Baroda,  220 
miles  NW.  of  Mhow.    Pop.  21,000. 

Bisalpur',  a  town  of  India,  in  the  United 
Provinces,  24  miles  E.  of  Bareli.     Pop.  10,000. 

Bis'cay,  or  Vizcaya,  the  most  northerly  of  the 
Basque  Provinces  of  Spain,  is  bounded  N.  by  the 
Bay  of  Biscay.  Area,  833  sq.  m.  ;  population, 
312,000.     Chief  town,  Bilbao  (q.  v.). 

Biscay,  Bay  of  (Fr.  Golfe  de  Gascogne),  that 
portion  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean  which  sweeps  in 
along  the  northern  shores  of  the  Spanish  penin- 
sula from  Cape  Ortegal  to  St  Jean  de  Luz,  at  the 
western  foot  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  thence  curves 
northward  along  the  west  shores  of  France  to 
the  island  of  Ushant.  The  depth  of  water  varies 
from  20  to  200  fathoms.  The  whole  of  the  south 
coast  is  bold  and  rocky,  but  great  parts  of  the 
French  shores  are  low  and  sandy.  Navigation 
of  'the  bay'  is  frequently  rendered  dangerous 
by  the  prevalence  of  strong  winds,  especially 
westerly  ones.  Rennel's  Current  sweeps  in  from 
the  ocean  round  the  north  coast  of  Spain. 

Bisceglia  (Bishel'ya),  an  Italian  seaport,  on  the 
Adriatic,  21  miles  NW.  of  Bari.    Pop.  31,675. 

Bischoff,  Mount,  a  post-town  of  Tasmania,  60 
miles  W.  of  Lauuceston.    Here  were  discovered 


I 


BISCBtWElLER 


106 


BLACK  COtJNT^Y 


fn  1872  some  of  the  richest  tin-mines  in  the 
world,  the  yield  of  pure  tin  from  the  ore  being 
from  70  to  80  per  cent.  The  mount  takes  its 
name  from  the  chairman  of  a  land  company 
(1828).  There  is  railway  communication  with 
Emu  Bay,  45  miles  distant.     Pop,  1420. 

Bischweiler  (Bislivl'ler),  a  town  of  Alsace,  on 
the  Moder,  17  miles  N.  of  Strasburg.     Pop.  7810. 

Bisham  Abbey,  a  Tudor  mansion,  in  Berk- 
shire, on  the  Thames,  opposite  Great  Marlow. 
Elizabeth  resided  here  in  Mary's  reign. 

Bishop-Auckland,  a  town  in  the  county,  and 
9^  miles  SW.  of  the  city,  of  Durham,  stands  on 
an  eminence  140  feet  above  the  confluent  Wear 
and  Gaunless.  Its  abbey-like  palace  of  the 
bishops  of  Durham  was  founded  about  1300  by 
Bishop  Antony  Bek,  and  rebuilt  by  Bishop  Cosin 
about  1665.  There  are  a  fine  town-hall  of  1863 
with  a  spire  100  feet  high,  engineering-works, 
and  large  neighbouring  collieries.  Pop.  (1851) 
4400  ;  (1891)  10,527  ;  (1901)  11,969. 

Bishop's  Castle,  a  municipal  borough  (incor- 
porated 1885)  of  Shropshire,  9^  miles  WNW.  of 
Craven  Arms  junction  by  a  branch  line  (1865). 
Till  1832  it  returned  two  members.  The  bishops 
of  Hereford  had  a  castle  here.    Pop.  1386. 

Bishop-Stortford,  a  town  of  Hertfordshire,  on 
the  Stort,  12  miles  ENE.  of  Hertford.  In  Saxon 
times  it  was  the  property  of  the  bishops  of 
London.    Pop.  7150. 

Bishop's  Waltham,  a  town  of  Hampshire,  9^ 
miles  SE.  of  Winchester.  It  has  been  imme- 
morially  the  property  of  the  bishops  of  Win- 
chester. There  are  remains  of  their  castle  (1135). 
Pop.  of  parish,  2309. 

Bishopwearmouth.    See  Sunderland. 

Bislgna'no,  a  catliedral  city  of  South  Italy, 
10  miles  N.  of  Cosenza  by  rail.     Pop.  4255. 

Biskra,  a  town  of  Algeria,  150  miles  S.  of 
Constantine  by  rail,  in  an  oasis  watered  by  the 
Wady  Biskra  and  by  springs.  The  Roman  Zaba, 
under  the  Moors  it  became  a  large  town— 71,000 
people  died  of  the  plague  in  1663.    Pop.  8609. 

Bisley,  (1)  a  market-town  of  Gloucestershire, 
3  miles  E.  of  Stroud.  Population,  2500.— (2)  A 
common  in  Surrey,  3^  miles  WNW.  of  Woking,  the 
successor  in  1890  to  Wimbledon  as  the  meeting- 
place  of  the  National  Rifle  Association. 

Bismarck,  a  thriving  town,  since  1889  capital 
of  North  Dakota,  U.S.,  stands  in  the  centre  of 
the  state  on  the  east  side  of  the  Missouri,  here 
crossed  by  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway  on  an 
iron  bridge  which  cost  $1,000,000.     Pop.  3500.' 

Bismarck  Archipelago,  the  official  name  for 
New  Britain,  New  Ireland,  New  Hanover,  and 
several  smaller  adjoining  islands  in  the  South 
Pacific,  since  in  1884  they  became  a  German 
dependency.    See  New  Britain,  &c. 

Bismark,  a  Prussian  town  of  2599  inhabitants, 
35  miles  N.  of  Magdeburg. 

Bissa'gos,  or  Buuja  Islands,  a  group  of  thirty 
small  volcanic  islands,  off  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  opposite  the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Grande. 
Thickly  wooded,  and  many  of  them  densely 
peopled,  they  have  several  fine  ports,  but  the 
climate  is  excessively  dangerous  for  Europeans. 
The  principal  islands  belong  to  the  Portuguese. 

Bissao,  an  island  and  Portuguese  station  closer 
to  the  African  coast  than  the  Bissagos. 

Bistritz,  a  Transylvanian  town  on  the  Bistritza 
River,  50  miles  NE.  of  Klauseuburg.  Pop.  9063. 
.  Bisutun.    SeeBEHisTUN. 


Bitche  (Ger.  Bitsdi),  a  German  town  of  LoN 
raine,  in  a  wild  and  wooded  pass  of  the  Vosges, 
49  miles  NNW.  of  Strasburg.  Its  citadel  crowns 
a  precipitous  rock  in  the  middle  of  the  town. 
The  Prussians  tried  vainly  to  surprise  it  in  1793 ; 
it  resisted  the  Germans  for  seven  weeks  in  1815, 
and  only  surrendered  three  weeks  after  the  close 
of  the  war  of  1870-71.     Pop.  3849. 

Bithur',  a  town  in  India  on  the  Ganges,  12 
miles  NW.  of  Cawnpore.     Pop.  6685. 

Bithynia,  an  ancient  division  of  Asia  Minor, 
separated  from  Europe  by  the  Propontis  (Sea  of 
Marmora)  and  the  Bosphorus. 

Bitlis,  a  town  of  Turkish  Armenia,  120  miles 
SE.  of  Erzerum.  It  lies  5470  feet  above  the  sea, 
in  a  deep  ravine  traversed  by  the  river  Bitlis, 
a  head-stream  of  the  Tigris.     Pop.  35,000. 

Bitonto,  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy,  5  miles  from 
the  sea,  and  10  WSW.  of  Bari.  Near  it  the 
Spaniards  defeated  the  Austrians,  25th  May  1734. 
Pop.  32,726. 

Bitter  Root  Mountains,  a  range  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  between  Idaho  and  Montana. 

Blzerta,  or  Benzerta,  a  seaport  of  Tunis,  at 
the  head  of  a  bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  is  the 
most  northerly  town  in  Africa,  being  38  miles 
NW.  of  Tunis.  Pop.  10,000.  The  ancient  Hippo 
Diarrhytus  or  Zaritus,  Bizerta  since  1881  has 
been  held  by  the  French,  who  have  strongly 
fortified  it,  and  made  it  a  great  naval  station. 

Bjela,  a  town  in  the  Polish  government  of 
Siedlce,  on  the  Krzna  River.     Pop.  10,500. 

Blackadder,  a  Berwickshire  stream,  flowing  20 
miles  to  the  Whitadder. 

Blackburn,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  21  miles 
NNW.  of  Manchester,  and  9  E.  of  Preston,  stands 
on  a  stream  from  which  it  appears  to  derive  its 
name,  a  branch  of  the  Ribble.  It  had  acquired 
some  importance  as  a  market-town  in  the  16th 
century,  and  in  the  middle  of  the  17th  it  was 
noted  for  its  Blackburn  Checks,  a  kind  of  linsey- 
woolsey,  afterwards  superseded  by  the  Blackburn 
Grays,  so  called  from  their  being  printed  un- 
bleached. During  the  18th  century  the  cotton 
manufacture  became  the  cliief  industry  of  the 
place,  which  is  now  the  largest  and  most  import- 
ant cotton  manufacturing  town  in  the  world, 
the  number  of  cotton-factories  being  very  great, 
and  many  of  them  employing  from  1000  to  2000 
operatives.  Great  improvements  in  machineiy 
for  the  cotton  manufacture  have  been  made  in 
Blackburn — e.g.  the  invention  of  the  spinning- 
jenny  by  James  Hargreaves,  a  native  of  the 
town,  in  1767.  The  chief  public  buildings  are 
the  town-hall  (1856),  an  Italian  edifice  built  at 
a  cost  of  £30,000 ;  the  Gothic  exchange  (1865) ; 
the  infirmary  (1862);  and  St  Mary's  Church,  of 
very  ancient  foundation,  but  almost  entirely 
rebuilt  (1826-57).  There  is  a  corporation  park 
of  50  acres,  part  of  which  is  700  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  commands  a  wide  view  ;  a  new  Queen's 
Park  of  35  acres  was  opened  on  Jubilee  day, 
1887.  The  grammar-school  was  established  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  1567  ;  in  1888  the  Prince  of 
Wales  laid  the  foundation-stone  of  the  technical 
school.  Mr  John  Morley  was  born  here.  Black- 
burn has  returned  two  members  since  1832 ;  it 
received  its  municipal  charter  in  1851,  and  in 
1888  became  a  county  borough.  Pop.  (1831) 
36,629;  (1891)  120,064;  (1901)  129,216.  See 
Abram's  History  of  Blackburn  (1878). 

Black  Country,  a  region  of  mines  and  works 
on  the  border  of  Staff'ord  and  Warwick  shires, 
between  Wolverhampton  and  Birmingham. 


BLACK  DOWU 


107 


BUDEKSBUl^G 


Black  Down,  (1)  the  highest  part  (1067  feet)  of 
the  Mendip  Hills,  in  Somerset ;  (2)  a  hill-ridge 
(900  feet)  on  the  border  of  Somerset  and  Devon, 
near  Wellington,  crowned  by  a  Wellington 
obelisk  ;  (3)  a  hill-ridge  (817  feet)  of  NW.  Dorset, 
near  Portishani,  with  a  column  to  Nelson's 
Hardy. 

Black  Forest  (Ger.  Schwarzucdd),  a  wooded 
mountain-chain  in  Baden  and  Wlirtemberg,  run- 
ning parallel  with  the  course  of  the  Rhine  after 
its  great  bend  near  Basel,  often  only  a  few  miles 
distant  from  it,  and  also  bounded  by  the  Rhine 
upon  the  south.  The  chief  rivers  rising  in  the 
Black  Forest  are  the  Danube,  Neckar,  Murg, 
Kinzig,  Elz,  Enz,  and  Wiessen.  The  chain 
attains  its  greatest  elevation  in  the  bare  and 
round-topped  Feldberg  (4903  feet).  The  great 
mass  called  the  Kaiserstuhl  (Emperor's  Chair), 
situated  near  Breisach,  is  quite  isolated.  Silver, 
copper,  cobalt,  lead,  and  iron  are  found  in 
greater  or  less  quantity  in  the  principal  chain, 
which  is  luxuriantly  wooded,  its  name  Schwarz- 
wald  being  derived  from  the  dark-tinted  folia,ge 
and  innnense  number  of  its  fir-trees.  The  district 
is  also  rich  in  mineral  waters — e.g.  the  baths  of 
Baden-Baden  (q.v.)  and  Wildbad  (q.v.).  On  the 
Rhine  side  the  descent  is  precipitous,  but  to- 
wards the  Danube  and  the  Neckar  it  is  gradual. 
Among  its  numerous  valleys,  the  Murgthal  is 
the  most  famous  for  its  natural  beauties ;  but, 
indeed,  the  whole  of  the  country  is  here  rich  in 
picturesque  scenery,  gemmed  with  cascades  and 
deep  mountain-lakes,  around  which  cluster  the 
legends  of  many  centuries.  The  rearing  of  cattle, 
and  the  manufacture  of  wooden  clocks  and  other 
articles,  form  the  chief  industry  of  the  inhabit- 
ants.   See  Seguin's  Black  Forest  (2d  ed.  1886). 

Blackheath,  a  high-lying  open  common  of  70 
acres,  in  the  county  of  Kent,  7  miles  SE.  of 
London,  near  Greenwich  Park.  It  is  a  favourite 
holiday  resort  for  Londoners.  Blackheath  Avas 
the  first  place  in  England  where  the  ancient 
Scottish  game  of  golf  was  introduced,  most  likely 
in  1608.  On  it  stands  Morden  College,  founded 
in  1695  by  Sir  John  Morden  for  decayed  Turkey 
merchants.  Of  schools  innumerable,  the  chief  is 
the  Proprietary  (1830).  Blackheath  was  formerly 
the  scene  of  several  insurrections,  including  those 
of  Wat  Tyler  (1381),  Jack  Cade  (1450),  and  the 
Cornishmen  under  Lord  Audley  (1497). 

Black  Isle,  the  peninsula  in  Easter  Ross  lying 
between  the  Beauly  and  Moray  Firths  and 
Cromarty  Firth. 

Black  Mountains,  a  range  (2631  feet)  in  South 
Wales,  between  Brecknock  and  Carmarthen 
shires. 

Blackness  Castle,  Linlithgowshire,  on  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  3i  miles  ESE.  of  Bo'ness,  was 
once  a  state  prison,  and  since  1874  has  been  the 
central  Scotch  ammunition  depot. 

Blackpool,  a  flonrisliing  watering-place  of 
Lancashire,  on  the  Irish  Sea,  between  More- 
cambe  Bay  and  the  estuary  of  the  Ribble,  18 
miles  WNW.  of  Preston.  The  population  has 
risen  from  1664  in  1851  to  23,846  in  1891,  and 
47,348  in  1901 ;  but  the  numbers  who  resort  here 
during  the  bathing-season  far  exceed  the  perma- 
nent residents,  for  Blackpool  is  one  of  the  most 
frequented  watering-places  in  the  west  of  Eng- 
land, the  sands  being  excellent,  the  views  delight- 
ful, and  the  climate  bracing.  There  are  three 
fine  piers,  one  of  them  with  a  splendid  pavilion  ; 
a  promenade  3  miles  long,  with  electric  trams ; 
an  Eiffel-like  tower  (1895),  500  feet  high  ;  winter- 
gardens,  an  aquarium,  a  free  library,  theatres, 


and  several  large  hotels.  Blackpool  was  consti- 
tuted a  municipal  borough  in  1876. 

Blackrod,  a  Lancashire  town,  with  cotton- 
mills  and  collieries,  5  miles  SSE.  of  Chorley. 
Pop.  3875. 

Black  Sea,  or  Euxine  (anc.  Pontus  Euxinus), 
is  an  inland  sea  lying  between  Europe  and  Asia, 
extending  from  41°  to  46°  38'  N.  lat.,  and  from 
27°  30'  to  41°  50'  B.  long.  Its  greatest  length 
from  east  to  west  is  720  miles ;  its  greatest 
breadth,  near  the  west  end,  380  miles  ;  and  its 
area,  exclusive  of  the  Sea  of  Azov,  is  163,711 
sq.  m.  On  the  south-western  extremity  it  com- 
municates by  the  Bosphorus,  the  Sea  of  Marmora, 
and  the  Dardanelles,  with  the  Mediterranean, 
and  on  the  north-east  by  the  Strait  of  Kertch, 
or  Yenikale,  with  the  Sea  of  Azov.  The  Black 
Sea  drains  nearly  one-fourth  of  the  surface  of 
Europe,  and  also  about  114,000  sq.  m.  of  Asia. 
Throughout  its  whole  extent  it  has  but  one 
island,  and  that  a  small  one,  lying  opposite  the 
mouths  of  the  Danube,  called  Adassi,  or  Isle  of 
Serpents,  on  which  is  a  lighthouse.  In  the  centre 
its  depth  ranges  between  1000  and  1070  fathoms. 
AH  the  coasts  are  high,  with  good  harbours, 
except  between  the  mouths  of  the  Danube  and 
the  Crimea  ;  there  the  land  is  low,  and  the  danger 
of  navigation  greatly  increased  in  winter  by  the 
presence  of  floating  ice  ;  for,  from  the  many 
large  rivers  which  flow  into  this  sea  and  that  of 
Azov  (Danube,  Dniester,  Bug,  Dnieper,  Don, 
Kuban,  and  Rion,  in  Europe ;  and  the  Kizil- 
Irniak  and  Sakaria,  in  Asia),  the  waters  are 
fresher  than  those  of  the  Mediterranean,  and 
consequently  easily  frozen.  There  is  no  tide  in 
this  sea,  but  the  large  rivers  flowing  into  it  give 
rise  to  currents,  which  are  particularly  strong  in 
spring  when  the  snows  melt.  There  is  a  strong 
flow  out  through  the  Bosphorus. 

From  the  fall  of  Constantinople  (1453),  all  but 
Turkish  vessels  were  excluded  from  its  waters, 
until  the  treaty  of  Kainardji  (1774),  when  the 
Russians  obtained  the  right  to  trade  in  it.  Ten 
years  after,  Austrian  ships  were  privileged  to 
trade  here ;  and  by  the  Peace  of  Amiens  in  1802 
British  and  French  ships  were  admitted.  By 
the  Treaty  of  Paris  (1856)  it  was  opened  to  the 
commerce  of  all  nations,  and  closed  to  ships  of 
war,  while  the  erection  of  arsenals  was  forbidden ; 
but  this  article  was  repudiated  by  Russia  in  1870, 
and  in  the  following  March,  at  a  conference  in 
London,  the  neutralisation  of  the  sea  was  abro- 
gated. The  Bosphorus  and  Dardanelles  are  still 
closed  to  ships  of  war  other  than  Turkish  and 
Russian,  but  the  sultan  can  open  them  at  need 
to  allies. 

Blackstairs,  a  range  (2610  feet)  between  Car- 
low  and  Wexford  counties. 

Blackwall,  a  suburb  of  London,  in  Middlesex, 
at  the  junction  of  the  Lee  with  the  Thames,  3i 
miles  ESE.  of  St  Paul's. 

Blackwater,  the  name  of  numerous  rivers  and 
rivulets  in  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  of  which 
the  longest  are :  (1)  The  Blackwater  of  Munster, 
100  miles  in  length,  which  enters  the  sea  at 
Youghal  harbour ;  (2)  the  Blackwater  of  Ulster, 
50  miles  long,  falling  into  the  south-west  corner 
of  Lough  Neagh ;  (3)  the  Blackwater  of  Essex, 
40  miles  long,  falling  into  the  North  Sea. 

Blackwood,  Nithsdale,  Dumfriesshire,  6  miles 
SSE.  of  Thoruhill,  the  birthplace  of  Allan 
Cunningham. 

Bladenoch,  a  large  distillery  near  WigtoAvn. 

Bladensburg,  a  village  of  Maryland,  on  the 


BliAENAVON 


108 


iBLOOMINGtON 


east  branch  of  the  Potomac,  6  miles  NE.  of 
Washington.  Here  the  British  won  the  battle 
deciding  the  fate  of  the  capital,  August  24,  1814. 

Blaenavon,  a  town  of  Monmouthshire,  with 
ironworks,  6  miles  NNW.  of  Poutypool.  Pop. 
10,869. 

Blagovestschensk,  a  town  of  the  Amur  province 
of  Russian  Asia,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Amur  and 
Beja  rivers.    Pop.  (1880)  8000  ;  (1900)  33,000. 

Blairadam,  a  seat  in  Kinross-shire,  near  Loch- 
leven. 

Blair-Athole,  a  Perthshire  village,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Garry  and  Tilt,  20  miles  NNW.  of 
Dunkeld.  Blair  Castle  (Duke  of  Athole)  dates 
from  the  13th  century,  and  as  restored  in  1872 
is  a  fine  baronial  structure.  Claverhouse  was 
buried  in  the  old  church  of  Blair.     Pop.  366. 

Blairgowrie,  a  Perthshire  town,  on  the  Ericht's 
right  bank,  20  miles  NNE.  of  Perth  by  a  branch 
line  (1855).  It  has  flax  spinning  and  weaving 
factories.    Pop.  3378. 

Blakesware,  a  vanished  Hertfordshire  mansion 
(Lamb's  '  Biakesmoor '),  4  miles  E.  of  Ware. 

Blanc,  Le,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  Indre,  68 
miles  SSE.  of  Tours.    Pop.  6065. 

Blanc,  Mont.    See  Mont  Blanc. 

Blanco,  Cape,  a  remarkable  headland  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  in  20"  47'  N.  lat.,  and  16° 
58'  W.  long.,  the  extremity  of  a  rocky  ridge  which 
projecting  westward,  and  then  bending  south- 
ward, forms  a  commodious  harbour,  the  Great 
Bay.  It  was  first  discovered  by  the  Portuguese 
in  1441.— Cape  Blanco  (i.e.  '  white  cape ')  is  also 
the  name  of  headlands  in  Spain,  Greece,  America, 
and  the  Philippines. 

Blandford,  a  town  in  Dorsetshire,  on  the 
Stour,  10  miles  NW.  of  Wiraborne.  It  suffered 
much  in  1579,  1077,  1713,  and  1731,  from  fire,  only 
twenty-six  houses  escaping  on  the  last  occasion. 
It  is  built  of  brick,  and  is  neat  and  regular  ;  its 
chief  charm  is  Bryanston  Park,  Lord  Portman's 
seat.  It  was  formerly  famed  for  its  bandstrings 
and  lace ;  now  shirt-buttons  are  made  here. 
Pop.  of  municipal  borough,  3700. 

Blankenberghe,  a  summer  resort  on  the  coast 
of  West  Flanders,  9  miles  N.  of  Bruges  by  rail. 
Pop.  4328. 

Blankenburg,  (1)  a  town,  37  miles  SSE.  of 
Brunswick,  on  the  borders  of  the  Harz  Moun- 
tains. Pop.  10,300.— (2)  A  watering-place  in  the 
Rudolstadt  division  of  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, 
25  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Weimar.     Pop.  2120. 

Blan'tyre,  or  High  Blantyre,  a  village  of 
Lanarkshire,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Rotten 
Calder,  SJ  miles  SE.  of  Glasgow  by  rail,  in  a 
coal  and  iron  mining  district.  Pop.,  Avith 
Auchenwraith  and  Causewaystones,  (1901)  2521. 
Low  Blantyre,  or  Blantyre  Works,  1|  mile  NE., 
has  dyeworks,  and  a  weaving  factory  where 
young  David  Livingstone,  a  native  of  the  place, 
worked  as  a  '  piecer  ; '  here  also  are  his  memorial 
church  and  statue.  Pop.  1505.— Also  the  name 
of  a  Scottish  mission-station  founded  in  1876,  to 
the  south  of  Lake  Nyassa,  Central  Africa.  It  is 
situated  on  the  heights  between  the  Upper  Shire 
and  Lake  Shirwa,  in  a  well-wooded  district. 

Blarney  Castle,  a  ruined  tower,  4  miles  NW. 
of  Cork,  with  a  stone,  difficult  of  access,  to  kiss 
which  endows  one  with  eloquence. 

Blaydon,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Durham, 
on  the  Tyne,  5  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Newcastle. 
Pop.  19.371. 

Blaye  (anc.  Blavla),  a  river-port  in  the  French 


dep.  of  Gironde,  20  miles  NNW.  of  Bordeaux. 
It  lies  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gironde,  here  2^ 
miles  broad,  at  the  base  of  a  rocky  eminence 
crowned  with  Vauban's  citadel  (1652).   Pop.  4157. 

Bleiberg,  an  Austrian  village  in  Carinthia,  8 
miles  W.  of  Villach,  in  the  valley  of  the  Drave, 
near  the  Bleiberg  (Lead  Mountain).     Pop.  3500. 

Blekinge  (Blay'king-eh)  is  a  province  in  Sweden, 
also  called  after  Carlskrona  (q.v.). 

Bleneau  (Blay-no'),  a  village  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Yonne,  29  miles  WSW.  of  Auxerre.  Here 
Turenne  defeated  Conde  in  1652. 

Blenheim  (Ger.  Bllndheim),  a  village  of  Bavaria, 
23  miles  NNW.  of  Augsburg.  It  gives  name  to 
the  great  victory  of  Marlborough  and  Prince 
Eugene  over  the  French  and  Bavarians,  August 
13,  1704.  The  battle,  however,  really  took  place 
at  the  neighbouring  village  of  Hbchstadt,  and  to 
the  Germans  is  so  known. 

Blenheim,  capital  of  Marlborough  district. 
New  Zealand,  on  the  Wairau  River,  near  the 
coast,  20  miles  S.  of  Picton  by  rail.  Population, 
about  5000. 

Blenheim  Park,  near  Woodstock,  Oxford- 
shire, the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  was 
designed  by  Vanbrugh,  and  gifted  by  the  nation 
to  the  victor  of  Blenheim.  It  stands  in  a  park 
12  miles  round. 

Blessington,  a  market-town  of  Wicklow,  on 
the  Lifley,  18  miles  SW.  of  Dublin.     Pop.  302. 

Bletchingley,  an  ancient  town  of  Surrey,  5 
miles  NE.  of  Reigate.  Till  1832  it  returned  two 
members.     Pop.  of  parish^  2128. 

Bletchley,  a  railway  i  unction  in  Buckingham- 
shire, 47  miles  NW.  of  London,  31  NE.  of  Oxford, 
and  45  SW.  of  Cambridge. 

Blewfields.    See  Bluefields, 

Blida  (Blee-da),  a  thriving  town  of  Algeria,  32 
miles  SW.  of  Algiers  by  rail,  with  orange  orchards. 
Pop.  16,628. 

Block  Island,  formerly  called  Manisees,  is 
situated  in  the  Atlantic,  9  miles  S.  from  Rhode 
Island,  United  States,  to  which  it  belongs.  It  is 
8  miles  long,  and  contains  the  township  of  New 
Shoreham,  a  summer  resort.  A  breakwater  on 
the  east  side  of  the  island  forms  a  harbour  of 
refuge.    Pop.  1447. 

Bloemfontein  (Bloomfon'tine),  capital  of  the 
Orange  River  Colony,  on  the  Modder,  200  miles 
W.  by  N.  of  Durban.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican 
bishopric  and  of  a  college.    Pop.  (1904)  33,890. 

Blois  (Bhvali),  capital  of  the  French  dep.  Loir- 
et-Cher,  on  the  Loire,  here  spanned  by  a  bridge 
(1717)  1000  feet  long,  is  36  miles  SW.  of  Orleans. 
It  has  an  archiepiscopal  cathedral,  and  an  old 
castle,  the  scene  of  many  historical  events. 
After  1814  it  was  used  as  a  barrack ;  but  since 
1845,  especially  in  1880-87,  a  great  par-t  of  it  has 
been  restored  at  great  cost.  Natives  have  been 
King  Stephen  of  England,  Louis  XVL,  and  the 
physicist  Papin,  of  whom  a  statue  has  been 
erected.  Blois  has  manufactures  of  porcelain 
and  gloves,  with  a  trade  in  brandy,  wine,  and 
wood.    Pop.  23,500. 

Bloomington,  (1)  capital  of  M'Lean  county, 
Illinois,  126  miles  SSW.  of  Chicago,  is  an  im- 
portant railway  centre,  and  has  a  brisk  trade  and 
large  railway-works,  with  foundries,  furnaces, 
and  coal-mines.  There  is  a  Wesleyan  university 
in  the  town ;  and  near  it  is  the  Illinois  Normal 
University.  The  population  is  over  25,000.— (2) 
A  town  in  Indiana,  seat  of  the  state  university, 


BLUEFIELDS 


109 


BOHEMIA 


between  the  branches  of  the  White  River,  60 
miles  SSW.  of  Indianapolis.     Pop,  7018. 

Bluefields,  Escondida,  or  Rio  del  Desastre, 
a  river  of  Nicaragua  flowing  eastward  to  the 
Caribbean  Sea.  Here  is  a  small  town  of  the  same 
name. 

Blue  Mountains,  (1)  a  branch  of  the  Dividing 
Range,  New  South  Wales,  running  very  nearly 
parallel  with  the  coast,  about  80  miles  inland. 
Their  highest  point,  Mount  Beemarang,  is  4100 
feet  high.  See  Jenolan  Caves.— (2)  Tlxe  Blue 
Mountains,  in  the  centre  of  Jamaica,  attain  in 
the  West  Peak  7105  feet. 

Blumenau,  a  German  colony  in  the  Brazilian 
state  of  Santa  Catliariua  (q.v.),  50  miles  inland 
of  the  capital,  Desterro.  The  population  in  1905 
was  40,000,  mainly  German ;  the  township  of 
Blumenau  has  7000  inhabitants. 

Blyth  (BlUh),  a  seaport  of  Northumberland,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  river  Blyth,  9  miles  SB.  of 
Morpeth.    Pop.  5553. 

BobbiO,  a  Lombard  town,  3  miles  SSE.  of 
Pavia,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Bobbio  and  the 
Trebbia.  Here  Columbanus  founded  a  monas- 
tery in  612.  Since  1014  it  has  been  the  seat 
of  a  bishopric.     Pop.  4635. 

Bobruisk,  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the  Beresina, 
87  miles  SE.  of  Minsk  by  rail.    Pop.  30,079. 

Boca  Tigre,  the  Portuguese  translation  of  the 
Chinese  name  Hn-mun,  'tiger's  mouth,'  given  to 
the  upper  portion  of  the  estuary  of  the  Canton 
River  (q.v.). 

Bochnla,  a  town  of  Austrian  Galicia,  24  miles 
ESE.  of  Cracow  by  rail,  with  rock-salt  mines. 
Pop.  11,000. 

Booholt  (Boh' holt),  a  town  of  Prussia,  on  the 
Aa,  13  miles  N.  of  Wesel  by  rail,  with  manu- 
factures of  cotton  and  machinery.     Pop.  20,576. 

Bochum  (Boh'hoovi),  a  Prussian  town,  35  m.  NE. 
of  Diisseldorf  by  rail.  Besides  great  steel  and  iron 
works,  it  has  manufactures  of  carpets,  &c.,  with 
coal-mines  near.     Pop.  70,000. 

Boddam,  a  fishing- village  of  Aberdeenshire,  3^ 
miles  S.  of  Peterhead.     Pop.  SOO. 

Boden-See.     See  Constance,  Lake  of. 

Bodmin,  the  county  town  of  Cornwall,  in  the 
middle  of  the  county,  30  miles  NNW.  of  Plymouth. 
It  arose  out  of  a  priory,  founded  in  936  or 
earlier ;  and  till  1868  returned  two  members,  then 
till  1885  one.     Pop.  5500. 

Bodyke,  an  estate  in  County  Clare,  16  miles 
N.  of  Limerick,  well  known  through  its  evictions 
(1887). 

Body's  Island,  a  long,  narrow  strip  of  sand,  off 
North  Carolina,  with  a  lighthouse  (150  feet),  the 
highest  in  the  United  States. 

BcBOtla,  an  ancient  political  division  of  Greece, 
now  forming  with  Attica  a  province  of  the 
modern  kingdom,  with  an  area  of  2472  sq.  ra., 
and  a  joint  pop.  of  314,000. 

Boghaz-Keui  (ar.c.  Pteria),  a  village  of  Asia 
Minor,  in  Angora  province,  150  miles  S.  of 
Sinope.     In  its  vicinity  is  a  vast  ruined  temple. 

Bognor,  a  Sussex  watering-place,  9J  miles  SE. 
of  Chichester  by  rail.  Founded  in  "1786  by  a 
London  hatter.  Sir  K.  Hotham,  it  has  an  iron 
pier  (1865)  1000  feet  long,  and  a  good  esplanade. 
Pop.  C200. 

Bogodukhof,  a  cathedral  town  of  Russia,  43 
miles  NW.  of  Kliarkoff.     Pop.  10,904. 

Bogota,    under    Spanish    rule    Santa    fe    de 


Bogota,  in  South  America,  the  federal  capital 
of  the  United  States  of  Colombia.  It  is  on  a 
tableland  400  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  8694  feet 
above  the  sea,  which  separates  the  basin  of  the 
Magdalena  from  that  of  the  Orinoco,  is  bounded 
on  all  sides  by  mountains,  lofty  enough  to  give 
shelter,  yet  below  the  line  of  perpetual  snow. 
This  extensive  plain— a  temperate  zone  on  the 
verge  of  the  equator,  with  a  salubrious  climate 
and  a  mean  temperature  of  60°  P.— is  exceedingly 
fertile,  being  as  rich  in  pasture  as  in  gi'ain.  The 
greater  number  of  its  people,  however,  are  sunk 
in  poverty.  This  is  largely  due  to  the  difficulty 
of  transport.  Bogota  is  65  miles  from  its  port, 
Honda,  the  head  of  navigation  on  tlie  Magda- 
lena ;  and  from  this  point  goods  must  be  con- 
veyed over  the  mountains  in  packages  of  not 
more  than  125  lb.  The  few  manufactures  of  the 
place  include  soap,  leather,  cloth,  and  articles 
made  from  the  precious  metals.  Bogota  was 
founded  in  1538,  and  in  1598  became  the  capital 
of  the  Spanish  vice-royalty  of  New  Granada  ; 
since  1554  it  has  been  the  seat  of  an  archbishop. 
It  is  regularly  and  handsomely  built,  teems  Avith 
churches,  and  has  likewise  an  imfinished  capitol, 
a  mint,  a  university,  &c.  Pop.  (1800)  21,464 ; 
(1897)  100,000.— The  river  Bogota,  otherwise 
called  the  Funcha,  is  the  single  outlet  of  the 
waters  of  the  tableland,  having  found  a  passage 
for  itself  towards  the  Magdalena.  At  the  cataract 
of  Tequendama  the  waters  plunge  over  a  preci- 
pice 625  feet  high. 

Boguslav,  a  town  of  Russia,  70  miles  SSE.  of 
Kieff.     Pop.  9030. 

Bohemia  (Ger.  Bdhmen),  formerly  one  of  the 
kingdoms  of  Europe,  now  forms  the  most  northern 
province  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  monarchy. 
It  has  an  area  of  19,980  sq.  m.,  or  about  two- 
thirds  that  of  Scotland  ;  pop.  (1880)  6,560,819  ; 
(1900)  6,318,697.  Prague,  the  capital  of  the  king- 
dom, and  third  city  of  the  empire,  has  over 
200,000  inhabitants ;  Pilsen  has  about  70,000, 
Budweis  40,000,  and  Reichenberg  35,000.  The 
country  is  suiTounded  on  all  sides  by  lofty 
mountain-ranges,  the  principal  of  which  are 
the  Riesengebirge  on  the  north-east,  dividing 
Bohemia  from  Silesia,  highest  peak  the  Schnee- 
koppe  (5330  feet) ;  on  the  north-west,  the  Erzge- 
birge  (4182) ;  on  the  south-west,  the  Bbhmerwald 
(4783).  The  country  belongs  to  the  upper  basin 
of  the  Elbe,  and  is  well  watered  by  its  many 
aflluents,  the  Moldan,  Eger,  Iser,  &c.  The  climate 
is  mild  and  pleasant  in  the  valleys,  but  raw  and 
cold  in  the  mountainous  regions.  A  remnant  of 
volcanic  action  still  continues  in  the  eruptions 
of  carbonic  acid  gas  which  have  established  so 
many  mineral  springs  of  deserved  repute,  at 
Carlsbad,  Eger,  Marienbad,  Teplitz,  and  else- 
where. The  mineral  wealth  is  varied  and  exten- 
sive, consisting  of  silver,  tin,  copper,  lead, 
iron,  cobalt,  bismuth,  antimony,  alum,  sulphur, 
graphite,  and  porcelain  clay,  with  some  precious 
and  ornamental  stones.  More  coal  is  produced 
than  in  all  the  rest  of  the  Austrian  empire. 

The  soil  is  generally  fertile ;  more  than  one- 
half  of  the  area  is  arable  land,  and  forests  cover 
nearly  a  third.  Flax  and  hops  are  plentiful,  and 
much  fruit  is  exported.  Some  wine  is  produced 
near  the  Moldau  and  the  Elbe.  Bohemia  is  a 
great  centre  of  dyeing  and  calico-printing,  of  linen 
and  woollen  manufactures.  Other  important 
branches  of  industry  are  the  manufacture  of 
paper,  ribbons,  lace,  chemicals,  porcelain-ware, 
and  the  Turkish  fez.  The  glass-works  of  Bohemia 
are  celebrated,  and  afford  employment  to  some 


BOIS-DE-BOULOGNE 


no 


BOKHARA 


27,000  persons,  and  there  are  many  ironworks. 
Beet-root  sugar  is  manufactured  extensively,  and 
so  are  beer  and  brandy.  Its  position  secures 
Bohemia  a  large  transit-trade. 

The  bulk  of  the  people  are  Czechs,  a  Slavonic 
race,  speaking  their  own  Czech  tongue,  which 
has  an  old  and  varied  literature.  They  dwell 
chiefly  in  the  centre  and  east  of  the  country,  and 
number  4J  millions.  The  German  population, 
amounting  to  over  2  millions,  reside  mainly  in 
the  north-east,  and  in  the  cities  ;  their  influence 
on  industry,  trade,  and  commerce  is  great  in 
proportion  to  their  numbers.  The  distinction 
between  Czech  and  German  is  very  sharply  drawn, 
and  the  demand  of  the  Czechs  for  fuller  Home 
Rule  than  the  provincial  diet  and  administration 
aff"ord,  and  for  the  restoration  of  the  crown- 
rights  of  the  Bohemian  kingdom,  has  maintained 
a  long  standing  political  controversy  with  the 
Austrian  government.  There  are  about  100,000 
Jews.  The  vast  majority  of  the  population  be- 
long to  the  R.  C.  Church ;  of  the  120,000  Pro- 
testants most  are  Calvinists.  Education  is  much 
more  widely  diff'used  than  in  any  other  Austrian 
province.  Since  1882  the  university  of  Prague 
is  divided  into  a  German  and  a  Czech  university. 
The  number  of  students  is  over  4000,  of  whom 
1200  attend  the  German  lectures.  Bohemia 
sends  110  members— more  than  a  fourth  of  the 
total— to  the  Lower  House  of  the  Austrian 
Reichsrath. 

The  country  derives  its  name  from  the  Celtic 
Boii,  who  were  expelled  about  the  Christian  era 
by  the  Germanic  Marcomanni ;  and  by  the  5th 
century,  we  find  the  country  peopled  by  the 
Slavonic  Czechs.  In  1086  the  dukes  of  Prague 
were  made  kings  by  the  emperor,  and  Bohemia 
became  a  state  of  the  German  empire.  In  the  15th 
century  took  place  the  religious  movement  of  John 
Huss  and  Jerome  of  Prague.  In  1458,  after  a  long 
war,  the  kingdom  became  elective,  and  the  Hussite 
George  of  Podiebrad  was  chosen  king.  His  suc- 
cessor, the  Polish  Ladislaus,  became  also  king  of 
Hungary  (1490);  and  on  his  son's  death  at  the 
battle  of  Mohacz  (1526),  the  crowns  of  both 
kingdoms  passed  to  Ferdinand  of  Austria,  and 
the  history  of  Bohemia  merges  in  that  of  Austria. 
The  withdrawal  of  religious  liberty  in  1608  led 
to  the  troubles  which  ended  in  the  election  of 
the  Protestant  Frederick  V.  of  the  Palatinate  to 
be  king  of  Bohemia,  and  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
in  which  Bohemia  suffered  so  severely,  the  Haps- 
burgs  being  restored,  and  Protestantism  stamped 
out  in  blood.  There  are  histories  in  German  by 
Pelzel  (1817),  Palacky  (1836),  Tomek  (1882),  and 
others. 

Bois-de-Boulogne.    See  Boulogne, 

Boise  (pron.  Boiz;  formerly  called  Boise  City), 
the  capital  of  Idaho,  U.S.,  and  a  centre  of  tlie 
silver  industry,  near  the  Boise  River,  520  miles 
NE.  of  San  Francisco.    Pop.  7311. 

Bois-le-Duc  (Bwah-leh-Dilk' ;  Dutch  's  Hertogen- 
bosch,  '  Duke's  Forest '),  a  Dutch  city,  capital  of  N. 
Brabant,  at  the  junction  of  the  Dommel  and  the 
Aa,  28  miles  SSE.  of  Utrecht  by  rail.  Strongly 
fortified  till  1876,  it  is  the  seat  of  a  Catholic 
archbishop,  and  has  a  very  fine  cathedral  (1312- 
1498),  arsenal,  &c.  Iron-founding,  book-printing, 
the  making  of  beer,  spirits,  woollens,  cigars, 
jewellery,  linen-thread,  ribbons,  and  cutlery  are 
industries.  Bois-le-Duc  was  founded  in  1184  by 
Godfrey  III.,  Duke  of  Brabant,  in  a  wood,  hence 
its  name.  Surrendered  to  the  Dutch  in  1629,  in 
1794  it  was  taken  by  the  French,  in  1814  by  the 
Prussians.    Pop.  35,000. 


Bojador  (Bo-ya-dor'),  Cape,  a  headland  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  in  26°  7'  N.  lat.,  14°  29'  W. 
long.    The  Portuguese  doubled  this  cape  in  1432. 

Bojano  (Bo-yah'no),  an  Italian  cathedral  city, 
13  miles  SW.  of  Campobasso.     Pop.  3506. 

Bokhara  (BoTc-lidh'ra  or  Bo-liah'ra),  the  portion 
of  Turkestan  under  the  rule  of  the  khan  (or  emir) 
of  Bokhara,  nominally  independent,  but  prac- 
tically a  vassal  state  of  Russia.  It  lies  between 
Russian  Turkestan  on  the  N.,  the  Pamir  on  the 
E.,  Afghanistan  on  the  S.,  and  the  Kara-kiun 
desert  on  the  W.  Area,  90,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
1,800,000.  Only  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
rivers  is  cultivation  possible.  The  rest  of  the 
soil  is  composed  of  a  stiff"  arid  clay,  interspersed 
with  low  sand-hills.  Bokhara  has  only  three 
rivers  of  any  importance — the  Amu-Daria  or 
Oxus,  the  Zarafshan,  and  the  Karshi,  of  which 
the  first  reaches  the  Sea  of  Aral,  the  other  two 
are  absorbed  in  the  desert  sands.  Outlying  pro- 
vinces of  Bokhara,  separated  by  mountains,  are 
Darwaz,  Karategin,  Hissar,  and  Kulab,  The 
climate  is  healthy,  but  subject  to  great  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold.  The  sands  of  the  Oxus  yield 
gold,  and  salt,  alum,  sulphur,  and  sal-ammoniac 
are  found.  The  other  products  include  rice  and 
cotton,  wheat,  barley,  beet-root,  vegetables, 
hemp  for  making  hhang,  silk,  fruits  in  immense 
abundance,  tobacco,  and  the  sweet  gum  or  manna 
of  the  camel's  thorn.  The  industry  includes  the 
manufacture  of  silk-stuff's,  cotton-thread,  slia- 
green,  jewellery,  cutlery,  and  firearms.  Its  geo- 
graphical position  secures  Bokhara  the  transit- 
trade  between  Russia  and  the  south  of  Asia  ;  and 
the  Transcaspian  Railway  has  increased  its  pros- 
perity. The  population  consists  chiefly  of  the 
aboriginal  Tajiks  of  Persian,  and  of  the  dominant 
Uzbegs  and  Turkomans  of  Turkish  origin.  Persian 
slaves  are  numerous.  The  army  numbers  30,000, 
since  1885  drilled  by  Russian  officers. 

Bokhara,  corresponding  in  the  main  to  the 
ancient  Sogdiana,  was  conquered  in  the  beginning 
of  the  8th  century  by  the  Arabs,  who  were  dis- 
possessed of  it  in  1232  by  Genghis  Khan.  It  fell 
into  the  hands  of  Timur  in  1403,  and  in  1505  was 
taken  by  the  Uzbegs,  its  present  masters.  "With 
the  accession  of  the  Khan  Nasrullah  (1826)  the 
country  became  an  object  of  rivalry  to  Britain 
and  Russia,  who  in  vain  sent  envoys  to  cultivate 
his  friendship.  After  the  capture  of  Tashkend 
by  the  Russians  in  1865,  the  khan  was  compelled 
to  oppose  them,  but  was  utterly  defeated  at  the 
battle  of  Irdjar,  May  20,  1866  ;  and  in  July  1868 
a  peace  was  concluded  by  which  Samarkand  was 
ceded  to  the  czar.  During  the  invasion  of  Khiva 
in  1873  the  khan  assisted  the  Russians,  and  was 
rewarded  by  a  large  addition  to  his  territory 
from  the  Khivan  possessions.  In  1882  a  Russian 
political  agent  was  appointed. 

Bokhara,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  a  plain 
a  few  miles  from  the  Zarafshan,  in  the  midst  of 
trees  and  gardens.  It  is  between  8  and  9  miles 
in  circumference,  and  surrounded  by  embattled 
mild  walls  about  24  feet  high,  and  pierced  by 
eleven  gates.  The  houses  are  built  of  stm- 
biirned  bricks  on  a  wooden  framework.  The 
palace  of  the  khan  occupies  an  eminence  over 
200  feet  in  height  in  the  centre  of  the  city. 
The  mosques,  which  are  said  (fabulously)  to  be 
365  in  number,  form  one  of  the  greatest  features 
of  Bokhara,  which  is  the  centre  of  religious  life 
in  Central  Asia.  The  city  has  long  been  cele- 
brated as  a  seat  of  learning,  and  contains  about 
80  colleges,  said  to  be  attended  by  some  5000 
students.     Bokhara  is  stiU  the  n^ost  important 


BOLAN  PASS 


111 


BOLIVIA 


commercial  town  in  Central  Asia,  although  the 
gradual  drying  up  of  the  Zarafshan,  through  the 
llussian  irrigation-works  at  Samarkand,  has 
lessened  the  population  by  about  a  half.  Silks, 
woollens,  and  swords  are  manufactured,  and 
large  slave-markets  are  held ;  but  the  most 
striking  feature  of  the  town  is  its  numerous 
bazaars,  filled  with  the  richest  wares  of  Europe 
and  of  Asia.  Bokhara  was  in  1888  connected  by 
the  Transcaspian  Railway  with  Merv,  and  so 
with  the  Caspian  ports.  The  pop.  is  estimated 
at  70,000.  See  Turkestan  ;  the  History  of  Bok- 
hara, by  Vambery ;  Wollf  s  Narrative  of  a  Mission 
to  Bokhara  (1845) ;  and  works  on  Central  Asia,  by 
Vambery  (1874-85),  Boulger  (1879),  Von  Hellwald 
(1874),  Lansdell  (1885),  and  Curzon  (1888). 

Bolan'  Pass,  a  narrow,  precipitous  gorge, 
ascending  nearly  55  miles  north-westward  to  the 
broad  plateau  of  Dasht-i-Bidaulat,  in  Beluchistan, 
and  lying  pretty  directly  between  Sind  and  Kan- 
dahar. Its  entrance  and  its  outlet  are  respec- 
tively 800  and  5800  feet  above  the  sea,  it  thus 
having  an  average  gradient  of  fully  90  feet  to 
the  mile.  Down  the  pass  pours  a  torrent,  now 
at  many  points  bridged  by  a  good  military  road  ; 
and  in  1885-86  a  military  railway  was  laid.  In 
parts  of  it  there  are  three  rails,  the  central  one 
being  toothed  to  catch  a  cogwheel  on  the  engine. 
The  route  is  highly  defensible,  and  is  commanded 
by  the  fortress  at  Quetta  (since  1877  British),  25 
miles  from  the  upper  end.  It  is  overhung  by 
eminences  attaining  a  height  of  800  feet. 

Bolhec,  a  busy  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Seine-Inferieure,  19  miles  BNE.  of  Havre  by  rail. 
It  manufactures  woollens,  linen,  cotton,  and 
chemicals.    Pop.  12,000. 

Bolchov.     See  Bolkhov,  ^ 

Bolgary,  a  village  of  150  houses  in  the  Russian 
government  of  Kazan,  near  the  Volga.  It  occu- 
pies the  site  of  Bolgar,  the  old  Bulgarian  capital. 

Bolgrad,  a  town  in  the  Russian  province  of 
Bessarabia,  28  miles  NW.  of  Ismail,  at  the  head 
of  Lake  Yapuch.    Pop.  13,000. 

Boll,  an  ancient  town  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  river  Boli,  136  miles  E.  by  S.  of 
Constantinople.     Pop.  5000. 

Bolinghroke,  a  ruined  castle,  Lincolnshire,  3J 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Spilsby.  Henry  IV.  was  born 
here. 

Bolivar  (Bolee'var),  the  name  of  several  states 
of  South  America.--(1)  A  state  of  Colombia, 
W.  of  the  Magdalena.  Area,  21,345  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
300,000.  Capital,  Cartagena ;  chief  port,  Barran- 
quilla.— (2)  A  state  of  Venezuela  ;  pop.  50,289. 

Bolivia,  a  republic  on  the  west  side  of  South 
America,  deriving  its  name  from  the  liberator 
Bolivar,  and  formed  in  1825,  till  which  year,  as 
Upper  Pern,  it  had  formed  part  of  the  vice- 
royalty  of  Buenos  Ayres.  It  is  enclosed  by 
Peru,  Brazil,  Paraguay,  the  Argentine  Republic, 
and  Chili.  Its  coast  provinces  Bolivia  lost  to 
Chili  through  the  war  carried  on  by  Bolivia  and 
Peru  against  Chili  in  1879-83.  The  area  of  the 
republic  is  now  536,000  sq.  m.,  and  the  popu- 
lation is  probably  under  1,800,000,  though  some 
estimates  give  2,300,000.  Bolivia  contains  the 
greater  part  of.  the  loftiest  and  most  moun- 
tainous district  of  America,  as  comprising  a  sec- 
tion of  the  Andes  system  at  its  broadest  exten- 
sion. The  lofty  plateau  of  Ornro,  with  an  aver- 
age height  of  13,000  feet,  and  about  150  miles 
broad,  is  enclosed  between  the  Andes  proper 
(now  the  western  boundary  of  Bolivia),  and  the 
Cordillera  Real,  to  the  east.    There  are  also  inter- 


mediate ranges  and  isolated  groups  ;  of  the  vol- 
canoes,  all  the  western  region,  Sahama,  Illampu, 
and  Illimani,  are  over  21,000  feet  high.  The 
great  plateai;  falls  into  two  parts,  of  which  the 
northern  is  the  more  inhabited,  as  containing  the 
Lake  of  Titicaca  and  many  well-watered  valleys 
round  it.  The  southern  and  lower  tableland  is 
chiefly  a  desert.  The  Cordillera  Real  system 
descends  abruptly,  on  the  north,  to  the  plain  of 
the  Amazon  :  but  its  eastern  edge  is  a  series  of 
terraces,  sinking  gently  to  the  plains  of  eastern 
Bolivia,  which  in  the  north  belong  to  the  Amazon 
basin,  and  in  the  south  to  the  pampas  of  the 
Plata. 

Although  situated  entirely  within  the  tropics, 
Bolivia,  from  its  varied  elevation,  possesses  a 
v/ide  range  of  climate  and  productions.  In  the 
ptmas  (over  11,000  feet  high)  the  climate  is  cold 
and  dry,  and  the  vegetation  scanty.  The  valleys 
of  the  eastern  terraces,  between  9500  and  11,000 
feet,  have  a  temperate  climate,  and  wheat  and 
maize  are  produced ;  in  those  betAveen  5000  and 
9500  feet,  tropical  fruits  flourish.  East  of  the 
inner  Cordillera  lie  the  plains  under  the  5000 
feet  limit.  This  district,  with  its  numerous 
streams,  its  luxuriant  tropical  vegetation,  its 
rich  forests  of  valuable  trees  in  the  north,  and 
its  immense  open  savannahs  in  the  south,  sur- 
passes most  countries  of  South  America  in  fertility 
and  resources.  Coff"ee,  rice,  cacao,  coca,  pine- 
apples, bananas,  tobacco,  cotton,  and  the  valu- 
able cinchona  are  cultivated  ;  and  among  other 
important  plants  are  the  copal  and  caoutchouc 
trees.  In  the  punas  are  found  the  guanaco, 
llama,  alpaca,  vicuna,  and  the  chinchilla ;  in  the 
east,  jaguars  and  tapirs.  Mining  is  the  most 
important  industry  of  the  country  ;  for  its  gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  tin  ores  have  long  been  famous, 
in  spite  of  the  excessive  cost  of  transport.  The 
mines  of  Potosi  are  estimated  to  have  produced 
since  1545  over  £600,000,000  sterling  of  silver. 
Potosi,  Oruro,  and  the  ricihest  mine,  Huanchaca, 
still  produce  large  quantities  annually.  From  the 
landlocked  position  of  the  republic,  its  foreign 
trade  labours  under  heavy  disadvantages,  for  its 
great  rivers,  flowing  mainly  by  the  Madeira  to 
the  Amazon,  and  by  the  Pilcomayo  to  the  Parana, 
are  rendered  unnavigable  by  rapids.  More  is  to 
be  hoped  for  from  the  railways,  which  have 
reached  Bolivia  from  Chili,  Peru,  and  Argentina  ; 
telegraphs  also  connect  Bolivia  with  the  outer 
world.  The  exports  are  stated  to  have  an  annual 
value  of  £1,800,000— two-thirds  silver,  and  the 
imports  £1,200,000.  The  exports  to  Great  Britain 
vary  from  £140,000  to  £200,000;  the  iinports 
from  thence  from  £45,000  to  £100,000,  being 
chiefly  iron,  cotton,  woollen,  and  manufactured 
goods. 

The  population  of  Bolivia  is  a  mixture  of  half- 
caste  Spaniards  and  Indians,  and  a  few  negroes. 
The  Indians  are  partly  civilised  (Quichuas  and 
Aymara.s),  partly  semi-civilised  (Chiquitos  and 
Moxos),  and  partly  wild.  The  religion  of  the 
country  is  Roman  Catholic,  but  others  are  toler- 
ated. There  are  five  universities  ;  but  only  5  per 
cent,  of  the  children  of  school  age  attend  the 
schools. 

The  executive  is  vested  in  a  president,  with 
two  vice-presidents,  and  a  ministry  divided  into 
five  departments ;  while  the  legislature  consists 
of  a  congress  of  two  chambers,  the  Senate  and 
the  House  of  Representatives,  both  elected  by 
universal  suff'rage.  The  public  revenue,  between 
£700,000  and  £800,000,  is  usually  greatly  exceeded 
by  the  expenditure.  The  public  debt  is  set 
down  at  about  £2,000,000.    The  seat  of  the  execu- 


BOLKHOV 


112 


BOMBAY 


tive  government,  formerly  La  Paz,  was  trans- 
ferred in  1869  to  Oruro,  and  now  changes  between 
Oruro  and  Sucre.  The  chief  towns  are  La  Paz 
(45,000),  Cochabamba  (14,705),  Chuquisaca  or 
Sucre  (12,000),  and  Potosi  (11,000).  Bolivia  de- 
clared its  independence  6th  August  1825.  Its 
history  has  been  largely  a  series  of  restless  and 
purposeless  revolutions.  Slavery  was  abolished 
in  1836.  In  1879  a  war  broke  out  between  Chili 
and  Bolivia  allied  with  Peru,  of  which  the  issue 
was  disastrous  to  the  allies. 

See,  besides  books  of  travel  in  German  or  French 
by  Tschudi  (1856),  D'Ursel  (1879),  and  Wiener 
(1880),  works  on  Bolivia  by  Church  (1873), 
Mathews  (1879),  and  Child  (New  York,  1894). 

Bolkhov,  a  cathedral  city  of  Russia,  on  the 
river  Nugra,  37  miles  N.  of  Orel.     Pop.  26,395. 

BoUington,  a  Cheshire  town,  3  miles  N.  by 
E.  of  Macclesfield,  with  cotton  and  silk  factories. 
Pop.  5913. 

Bologna  (Bolon'ya),  one  of  the  most  ancient 
cities  of  Italy,  beautifully  situated  on  a  fertile 
plain  at  the  foot  of  the  lower  slopes  of  the  Apen- 
nines, 82  m.  N.  of  Florence,  and  135  SE.  of  Milan 
by  rail.  An  irregular  hexagon,  it  is  enclosed  by  a 
high  brick  wall,  5  to  6  miles  in  extent,  with 
twelve  gates,  and  is  intersected  by  the  canal  of 
Reno.  It  has  many  fine  palaces  of  the  nobility  ; 
over  70  churches,  Including  the  cathedral  and 
San  Domenico,  with  the  tomb  of  St  Dominic, 
richly  ornamented  by  Michael  Angelo ;  and  two 
remarkable  leaning  towers  (c.  1100)— the  Asinella, 
with  a  height  of  274  feet,  and  a  lean  of  3jt  feet, 
and  the  Garisenda,  with  a  height  of  137  feet,  and 
a  lean  of  8^  feet.  The  university  of  Bologna,  the 
oldest  in  Europe,  celebrated  its  eighth  centenary 
in  1888.  Medicine  has  long  superseded  law  as  the 
principal  study,  and  the  discovery  of  Galvanism 
by  one  of  its  professors  has  shed  a  lustre  on 
the  university,  which  was  the  earliest  school  for 
the  practice  of  dissection  of  the  human  body. 
For  centuries  learned  female  professors  have  pre- 
lected within  its  walls.  The  number  of  students, 
stated  at  10,000  in  1262,  now  is  only  about  1400. 
Bologna  also  possesses  an  academy  of  music 
(1805),  at  which  Rossini  studied.  The  university 
library  contains  160,000  vols,  and  6000  MSS.,  and 
there  is  besides  a  city  library  of  120,000  vols. 
The  Accademia  delle  Belle  Arti  is  particularly 
rich  in  the  works  of  those  native  artists  who 
founded  the  Bolognese  school  of  painting.  Bo- 
logna has  given  eight  popes  and  more  than  200 
cardinals  to  the  Church.  There  are  some  manu- 
factures, including  silk  goods,  velvet,  crape,  wax 
candles,  musical  instruments,  chemical  products, 
paper,  cards,  and  '  polony '  sausages.  Pop.  (1872) 
115,957  ;  (1901)  152,000.  The  Etruscan  Felsina, 
and  afterwards  as  Bononia  the  chief  town  of 
the  Boii,  Bologna  in  180  B.C.  was  made  a 
Roman  colony.  After  the  fall  of  the  Roman 
empire,  it  passed  into  the  hands  of  the  Longo- 
bards  and  Franks ;  by  Charlemagne  was  made 
a  free  city,  but  in  1506  came  under  the  papal 
supremacy. 

Bolor-Tagh,  a  lofty  border-ridge  of  the  Pamir 
plateau,  ranging  SW.  toNE.,  which  falls  abruptly 
to  Kashgaria. 

Bolsena  (Bolsay'na ;  anc.  Volsinii),  a  town  on 
the  north  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Bolsena  {Lacus 
Volsiniensis),  20  miles  NNW.  of  Viterbo.  It  now 
has  only  2214  inhabitants ;  but  prior  to  280  B.C. 
it  was  one  of  the  twelve  Etruscan  cities. — The 
lake,  about  10  miles  long  and  8  broad,  occupies 
a  volcanic  hollow. 

Bol'sover,  a  village  of  Derbyshire,  6  miles  E.  of 


Chesterfield.  Bolsover  Castle  belongs  to  the 
Duke  of  Portland.     Pop.  of  urban  district,  6844. 

Bolsward,  an  old  town  of  Friesland,  15  miles 
SW.  of  Leeuwarden.     Pop.  6939. 

Bolton,  or  Bolton-Le-Moors,  an  important 
manufacturing  town  and  parliamentary,  muni- 
cipal, and  county  borough  in  South  Lancashire, 
on  the  Croal,  11  miles  NW.  of  Manchester.  It 
was  celebrated  as  far  back  as  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  for  its  cotton  and  its  woollen  manufactures, 
introduced  by  Flemish  clothiers  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury. Emigrants  from  France  and  the  Rhenish 
Palatinate  subsequently  introduced  new  branches 
of  manufacture  ;  and  the  improvements  in  cotton- 
spinning  of  the  middle  of  the  18th  century 
rapidly  increased  the  trade  of  the  town.  Though 
Arkwright  was  at  one  time  a  resident,  and 
Crompton  lived  all  his  life  in  Bolton  parish,  the 
opposition  of  the  working-classes  long  retarded 
the  adoption,  in  the  town,  of  their  inventions — 
the  spinning-frame  and  the  mule.  Bolton,  con- 
taining more  than  100  cotton-mills,  with  about  4 
million  of  spindles,  is  now  one  of  the  principal 
seats  of  the  cotton  manufacture  in  Lancashire. 
Muslins,  fine  calicoes,  quiltings,  counterpanes, 
dimities,  &c.,  are  manufactured.  There  are  also 
extensive  foundries  and  ironworks,  bleaching- 
mills,  chemical  works,  paper-mills,  and  dyeworks, 
with  many  neighbouring  coal-mines.  Bolton  has 
public  libraries  and  a  museum,  a  public  park 
and  recreation  grounds,  a  town-hall  (1873),  wliich 
cost  £170,250,  market-hall,  fish-market,  exchange, 
mechanics'  institute,  &c.,  and  a  water-supply 
from  Entwisle  Moor,  5  miles  away.  Bolton  was 
the  birthplace  of  the  daily  evening  press.  During 
the  Civil  War  the  Parliament  garrisoned  Bolton  ; 
in  1644  it  was  stormed  by  the  Earl  of  Derby,  who 
was  beheaded  here  in  1651  on  a  spot  now  marked 
by  his  statue.  Since  1832  it  has  returned  two 
members.  Pop.  (1871)  92,655;  (1881)  105,973; 
(1891)  115,002  ;  (1901)  168,215. 

Bolton  Abbey,  Yorkshire,  on  the  river  Wharfe, 
6  miles  E.  of  Skipton,  and  21  NW.  of  Leeds. 
Founded  for  Augustinian  canons  about  1150,  it 
is  celebrated  in  Wordsworth's  White  Doe  of 
Bylstone  and  T?ie  Force  of  Prayer.  The  remains 
range  from  Early  English  to  Perpendicular  ;  and 
the  nave  of  the  church  has  been  restored  for 
service.  The  gateway,  familiar  through  Land- 
seer's  picture,  has  been  incorporated  in  Bolton 
Hall,  a  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Devonshire. 

Boma,  the  capital  of  the  Congo  State  (q.v.). 

Bo'marsund,  a  Russian  fortress  on  Aland 
Island,  commanding  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  In 
1854  it  was  destroyed  by  an  Anglo-French  force, 
after  a  six  days'  bombardment.  The  Treaty  of 
Paris  bound  Russia  not  to  restore  it. 

Bombay,  the  western  province  of  India.  In- 
cluding Sind  and  Aden  (q.v.),  it  comprises  26 
British  districts  and  19  native  or  feudatory 
states,  and  contains  194,189  sq.  m.,  of  which 
69,045  are  in  native  states.  The  Nerbudda  River 
divides  the  'presidency'  into  two  portions:  in 
the  north  is  Guzerat,  chiefly  consisting  of  alluvial 
plains,  with  the  Cutch  and  Kathiawar  penin- 
sulas ;  to  the  south  is  the  Mahratta  country, 
which  includes  parts  of  the  Deccan,  Carnatic,  and 
Konkan  or  coast-districts.  The  small  territories 
of  the  Portuguese— Goa,  Daman,  and  Din— have 
an  area  of  1062  sq.  m.  The  coast-line  is  irregular, 
broken  by  the  gulfs  of  Cambay  and  Cutch,  with 
several  fine  natural  harbours,  Bombay  and  Kar- 
achi (Kurrachee)  being  the  most  important ;  in 
the  north  are  the  Khirtar,  in  the  south-east  ara 


BOMBAY  CITY 


113 


BO'NESS 


the  western  Aravalli  mountains ;  the  Sahyadris 
or  Western  Ghats  run  ahnost  parallel  with  the 
coast ;  the  Satpura  range  runs  east,  and  forms 
the  watershed  between  the  Tapti  and  Nerbudda. 
Sind  is  fertilised  throughout  by  the  Indus ;  the 
Subarmati  and  Mahi  flow  through  North  Guzerat ; 
the  Nerbudda  pursues  a  western  course  into  the 
Gulf  of  Cambay.  The  Tapti  flows  through  Khan- 
desh,  entering  the  sea  above  Surat.  The  Runn 
of  Cutch  (q.v.),  in  the  west  of  Guzerat,  covers 
about  8000  sq.  in.,  and  is  the  great  source  of  salt- 
supply.  There  are  few  minerals,  and  no  coal ; 
iron  is  mined  at  Teagar  in  Dharvar,  and  there  is 
gold  amongst  the  quartz.  Good  building-stone  is 
abundant,  with  limestone  and  slate.  In  the  dry 
sandy  districts  of  Sind,  the  thermometer  has 
reached  130°  in  the  shade  ;  the  mean  temperature 
in  Lower  Sind,  during  the  hottest  months,  is 
98°  in  the  shade.  The  coast-districts  are  hot  and 
moist,  with  a  heavy  rainfall  during  the  monsoon. 
The  tableland  of  the  Deccan  has  an  agreeable 
climate,  except  during  the  hot  months. 

Of  late  years,  manufacturing  industries  have 
been  extremely  active  in  Bombay,  which  com- 
mands the  richest  cotton-fields  in  India.  The 
stoppage  of  the  American  cotton-supi)ly  dur- 
ing the  civil  war  gave  a  grand  impulse  to  the 
trade  of  Bombay,  where  the  first  mill  had  been 
started  in  1854,  the  exports  of  cotton  during  the 
five  years  1861-66  averaging  in  value  £21,582,847 
a  year.  The  wealth  poured  into  Bombay  at  this 
period  led  to  a  vast  extension  of  the  trade,  which 
partly  continued  after  the  period  of  inflation  had 
passed.  Not  only  does  Bombay  now  compete 
with  Manchester  in  the  Indian  market ;  it  exports 
its  own  manufactures.  After  cotton,  the  other 
great  staples  are  opium,  wheat,  and  seeds.  The 
trade  in  opium  is  worth  nearly  five  millions 
sterling  annually,  two  millions  being  the  clear 
revenue  derived  by  government  from  a  i)ass  duty 
of  550  rupees  a  chest.  Although  of  recent  origin, 
the  wheat  trade  has  assumed  large  proportions. 
Other  principal  exports  are  sugar,  tea,  raw  wool, 
woollen  shawls,  fibres,  and  drugs ;  while  among 
the  imports  are  machinery,  metals,  oils,  coal,  and 
liquors.  There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  Arab 
horses.  Silk-weaving  is  carried  on  at  Ahmedabad, 
Surat,  Nasik,  Yeola,  and  Poona  ;  carpets  are  made 
at  Ahmediiagar ;  cutlery,  armour,  and  gold  and 
silver  work  in  Cutch.  Pop.  (1891)  of  native 
states,  8,059,298;  of  British  territory,  18,901,123 
— reduced  by  1901  by  famine  and  plague  to 
6,908,648  and  18,559,561  respectively. 

Bomhay  City  occupies  the  entire  breadth  of 
SE.   end  of  Bombay  Island  or   Peninsula, 

ordering  at  once  on  the  harbour  inside,  and  on 
[Back  Bay  outside.    The  island,  now  permanently 

jnnected  by  causeways  and  breakwaters  with 

ilsette  Island  and  the  mainland,  is  over  11  miles 
)ng  by  from  3  to  4  broad.    The  island-studded 

irbour  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world ;  the 

aace  available  for  shipping  being  about  14  miles 
In  length  by  5  broad.  Bombay  is  the  most  Euro- 
)ean  in  appearance  of  all  the  cities  in  India.  In 
fche  business  part  there  are  several  streets  con- 
"inuously  lined  with  splendid  buildings;  while 
the  bazaars,  which  extend  from  the  fort  towards 
"lazagaon,  are  traversed  by  fairly  wide  streets, 

rtensive  lines  of  tramways  passing  through  even 

le  most  crowded  parts.  Many  of  the  private 
[louses  of  European  residents  are  built  on  the 

iburb  of  Malabar  Hill,  the  ridge  running  into 
bhe  sea  forming  the  west  of  Back  Bay ;  and  at 
Breach  Candy  looking  seaward.  On  the  espla- 
nade, facing  Back  Bay,  are  the  secretariat,  the 
university,  senate-hall,  high  court,  offices  of 
H 


public  works,  sailors'  home,  and  statue  of  the 
Queen.  In  the  neighbourhood  of  the  fort  are 
the  town-hall,  the  mint,  cathedral,  and  custom- 
house. The  terminus  of  the  Great  Indian  Penin- 
sular Railway,  opened  in  1876,  cost  upwards  of 
£300,000.  The  harbour  is  defended  by  batteries 
and  ironclads.  It  has  an  extensive  system  of 
quays,  wharves,  and  docks,  extended  in  1904-11 
at  a  cost  of  35,000,000  rupees.  Mazagaon  Bay, 
the  centre  of  shipping  activity,  is  at  the  head  of 
the  harbour.  The  city  water-supply,  equal  to 
100,000,000  gallons  a  day,  has  since  1892  been 
drawn  from  the  Tansa  valley,  65  miles  N.  Always 
favourably  situated  for  foreign  trade,  Bombay 
has  profited  largely  by  being  the  first  important 
port  reached  by  vessels  from  Europe,  and  by 
being  the  terminus  of  the  mail  line  to  India  by 
Suez  and  Aden,  so  that  it  stands  next  to  Cal- 
cutta in  amount  of  trade.  The  chief  articles  of 
export  are  cotton,  wheat,  shawls,  opium,  coffee, 
pepper,  ivory,  and  gums  ;  the  chief  imports,  piece- 
goods,  thread,  yarn,  metals,  wine,  beer,  tea,  and 
silk.  The  chief  industries  of  the  city  are  dye- 
ing, tanning,  and  working  in  metal.  The  imports 
of  the  province  of  Bombay  in  the  period  1885- 
1903  varied  in  annual  value  from  £20,000,000  to 
£30,000,000;  the  exports  from  £23,000,000  to 
£31,000,000.  With  60  large  steam-mills,  Bombay 
in  one  aspect  resembles  a  city  in  Lancashire. 
Pop.  (1881)  773,196  ;  (1891)  821,764 ;  (1901,  after 
famine  and  plague)  776,000.  In  1509,  about  a 
year  before  the  capture  of  Goa,  the  Portuguese 
visited  the  island  ;  and  by  1532  they  had  made  it 
their  own.  In  1661  they  ceded  it  to  Charles  II. 
of  England,  as  part  of  Catharine  of  Braganza's 
dowry,  and  in  1668  lie  granted  it  for  an  annual 
payment  of  £10  to  the  East  India  Company, 
which  in  1685  transferred  what  was  then  its  prin- 
cipal presidency  to  Bombay  from  Snrat.  Bombay 
was  the  birthplace  of  Dean  Farrar,  Sir  Monier 
Williams,  and  Riulyard  Kipling.  See  Sir  W. 
Hunter's  Bombay  (1892). 

Bommel,  a  town  of  Holland,  on  the  Waal,  20 
miles  SSE.  of  Utrecht.  Pop.  3835.— The  Bom- 
melerwaard  is  a  fertile  island-district  (16  by  6 
miles),  formed  by  the  Waal  and  Maas. 

Bona  (Fr.  Bone),  a  seaport  of  Algeria,  on  a  bay 
of  the  Mediterranean,  near  the  mouth  of  the 
Sebus,  220  miles  W.  of  Tunis  by  rail.  It  has 
good  bazaars,  manufactures  of  tapestry,  saddlery, 
and  native  clothing  ;  and  a  trade  in  wool,  hides, 
com,  &c.  The  exposed  roadstead  has  been  made 
into  a  fair  harbour.  There  are  iron  and  copper 
mines  near  Bona,  and  some  scanty  remains  of 
Hippo  Regius,  St  Augustine's  episcopal  seat, 
destroyed  by  Calif  Osman  in  646.     Pop.  32,500. 

Bonaire.    See  Buen-Ayre. 

Bonar,  a  Sutherland  village,  at  the  head  of 
Dornoch  Firth,  14  miles  WNW.  of  Tain.  Pop. 
366.  Telford's  bridge  (1812)  here  was  destroyed 
in  1892,  but  has  been  rebuilt. 

Bona  Vista,  a  bay,  cape,  and  seaport  (pop. 
2500)  on  the  east  coast  of  Newfoundland. 

Bonchurch,  a  village.  Isle  of  Wight,  1  mile  B. 
of  Ventnor. 

Bondu,  a  country  of  French  Senegambia, 
Africa,  to  the  W.  of  Bambouk,  on  the  lower 
Senegal  and  Faleme  rivers,  lying  between  14 -- 
15°  N.  lat.  and  12°— 13°  W.  long.  The  Fulah 
inhabitants  are  Mohammedans.  Pop.  variously 
estimated  at  from  30,000  to  100,000. 

Bo'ness,  or  Borkowstounness,  a  seaport  in 
Linlithgowshire,  on  the  Firth  of  Forth,  23  miles 
WNW.  of  Edinburgh.  It  has  a  wet-dock  of  7i 
acres  (1881),  a  large  shipping  trade  in  coal,  and 


BONHILL 


114 


BORDEATTX 


manufactures  of  salt,  soap,  malt,  vitriol,  iron, 
earthenware,  &c.  Graham's  Dyke,  otherwise 
Antoninus'  Wall,  traverses  the  parish.  Dugald 
Stewart  spent  his  last  twenty  years  at  Kinneil 
House  (Duke  of  Hamilton's)  in  the  neighbour- 
hood.    Pop.  (1851)  2645  ;  (1901)  9306. 

Bonhill,  a  Dumbartonshire  town,  with  dye- 
works,  on  the  Leven's  left  bank,  opposite  Alex- 
andria, and  4  miles  N.  of  Dumbarton.  Bonhill 
was  the  seat  of  the  Smolletts.    Pop.  3343. 

Bonl,  a  small  state  in  the  south-west  penin- 
sula of  Celebes,  now  practically  Dutch,  with  an 
area  of  935  sq.  m.  The  inhabitants,  called  Bugis, 
have  an  allied  language  to  the  Macassars,  and  as 
enterprising  merchants  and  sailors  are  found  in 
every  port  of  the  East  Indian  Archipelago.  The 
pop.  by  some  estimates  amounts  to  200,000.  Tlie 
capital,  Boni,  stands  on  the  east  coast  of  the 
peninsula.— The  Gulf  of  Boni,  200  miles  long, 
and  40-80  broad,  separates  the  south-east  and 
south-west  peninsulas  of  Celebes. 

Bonifacio,  Strait  of  (Boneefat'cho),  the  strait 
between  Corsica  and  Sardinia,  only  7  miles  wide 
at  the  narrowest.  It  is  named  from  the  Corsican 
seaport  of  Bonifacio  ;  pop.  3397. 

Bonillo  (Boneel'yo),  a  town  of  Spain,  34  miles 
WNW.  of  Albacete.    Pop.  4996. 

Benin',  or  (Japanese)  Ogasawara  Islands,  a 
volcanic  group  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  700  miles 
SSE.  of  Japan,  where  27°  N.  lat.  crosses  142°  E. 
long.  Area,  30  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1500.  Discovered  by 
Quast  and  Tasman  in  1639,  they  were  taken 
possession  of  by  Britain  in  1827 ;  but  in  1878 
the  Japanese  reasserted  their  sovereignty,  with 
the  view  of  making  them  a  penal  settlement. 
The  harbour  is  Port  Lloyd. 

Bonn  (anc.  Bonna),  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
beautifully  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Rhine  (here  600  yards  wide),  21  miles  SSE.  of 
Cologne  by  rail.  The  Minster,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  the  Empress  Helena  in  320,  but 
dating  chiefly  from  the  11th  and  13th  centuries, 
has  five  towers,  tlie  middle  one  311  feet  high. 
Near  it  is  a  monument  to  Beethoven,  who  was 
born  in  the  Rheingasse ;  and  at  Bonn  are  buried 
Niebuhr,  Bunsen,  and  Schumann.  The  uni- 
versity, founded  in  1777-86,  in  1802  was  trans- 
formed into  a  lyceum,  but  was  re-established  in 
1818,  receiving  from  goverinnent  the  beautiful 
electoral  palace  (1717-30)  and  other  buildings, 
with  an  annual  revenue  of  nearly  £15,000  sterling. 
It  has  126  professors  and  lecturers,  and  over  1200 
students.  Among  its  professors  have  been  Nie- 
buhr, A.  W.  Schlegel,  Arndt,  Welcker,  Dahlmann, 
Hermes,  and  Simrock;  Prince  Albert  was  a 
student  here.  It  has  a  library  of  above  250,000 
volumes,  a  splendid  laboratory  (1868),  an  art 
museum  (1884),  a  botanic  garden,  &c.  The 
manufactures— jute,  soap,  chemicals,  &c. — are 
unimportant.  Pop.  (1871)  26,030  ;  (1890)  38,805  ; 
(1900)  50,737,  chiefly  Catliolic. 

Bonny,  or  Boni,  a  town  and  a  river  of  Guinea, 
now  in  the  British  Niger  protectorate.  The  river 
forms  an  eastern  debouchure  of  the  Niger,  and 
falls  into  the  Bight  of  Biafra.  On  the  east  side, 
near  its  mouth,  is  the  town  of  Bonny,  notorious 
from  the  16th  to  the  19th  century  as  the  rendez- 
vous of  slave-trading  ships. 

Bonnyrigg,  a  Midlothian  town,  7  miles  S.  of 
Edinburgh.     Pop.  2924. 

Bonyhad,  a  market- town  of  Hungary,  150  miles 
S.  of  Budapest.     Pop.  5970. 

Bonsall,  a  Derbyshire  villajge,  2  miles  SW.  of 
Matlock.    Pop.  of  urban  district,  1360, 


Booby  Island,  a  level  rock  in  Torres  Strait,  in 
10°  36'  S.  lat.,  and  141°  53'  E.  long.,  3  feet  above 
high  water,  and  \  mile  in  diameter. 
Boodroom.    See  Budrun. 
Boom,  a  town  of  Belgium,  10  miles  S.  of  Ant- 
werp, with  great  brick  and  tile  works,  breweries, 
tanneries,    rope-walks,    sailcloth   manufactures, 
salt-works,  &c.    Pop.  16,239. 
Boondee.    See  Bundi. 

Boone,  a  city  of  Iowa,  43  miles  NW.  of  Des 
Moines,  in  a  coal-mining  district,  with  flour- 
mills,  potteries,  and  tile-works.     Pop.  10,000. 

Booneville,  a  city  of  Missouri,  on  the  Missouri 
River,  40  miles  NW.  of  Jefferson  City.    Pop.  5000. 
Beetan.    See  Bhutan. 

Boothia  Felix,  a  peninsula  on  the  north  coast 
of  North  America,  in  which  is  the  most  northern 
part  of  the  continent,  Murchison  Point,  73°  54' 
N.  lat.  It  was  discovered  by  Sir  John  Ross 
(1829-33),  and  named,  like  the  neighbouring 
Boothia  Isthmus  and  Boothia  Gulf,  after  Sir 
Felix  Booth  (1775-1850),  a  London  distiller,  who 
had  funiished  £17,000  for  the  expedition.  Here, 
on  the  western  coast,  near  Cape  Adelaide,  Ross 
discovered  the  magnetic  pole,  70°  5'  17"  N.  lat., 
and  96°  46'  45"  W.  long. 

Bootle,  a  municipal  (1868)  and  county  borough 
of  Lancashire,  to  the  nortli  of  and  adjoining 
Liverpool,  which  includes  a  large  portion  of  the 
Mersey  dock  system.  It  has  a  nuuiicipal  techni- 
cal college  (1900).  Pop.  (1861)  G500 ;  (ISSl)  27,112 ; 
(1891)  49,217  ;  (1901)  58,556. 

Booten,  or  Bouton,  an  island  off"  the  coast  of 
the  south-eastern  ray  of  Celebes.  The  people  are 
Malays.  The  sultan,  who  resides  at  Bolio,  is  in 
allegiance  to  the  Dutch.  Area,  1700  miles ;  pop. 
17,000. 

Boppard  (anc.  Bauddbriga),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  10  miles 
S.  of  Coblenz.    Pop.  5894. 

Bordeaux  (Bor-do'),  the  third  seaport  of  France, 
and  chief  town  in  the  dep.  of  Gironde,  is  beauti- 
fully situated  in  a  plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Garonne,  about  60  miles  from  its  moutli  in  the 
Atlantic,  and  359  miles  SSW.  of  Paris  by  rail. 
Transatlantic  steamers  can  easily  ascend  with  the 
flood  to  Bordeaux,  which  is  accessible  at  all  times 
to  vessels  of  600  tons.  The  commerce  both  by 
the  Garonne  and  by  railways  is  very  extensive, 
and  the  long  and  crescent-shaped  harbour,  pro- 
viding anchorage  for  1200  ships,  has  a  singularly 
noble  appearance.  The  river  is  crossed  by  a 
bridge  532  yards  long,  erected  in  1811-21.  The 
archiepiscopal  cathedral  of  St  Andr6,  consecrated 
in  1096,  is  remarkable  for  its  beautiful  towers, 
designed  and  built  by  English  architects  during 
the  English  occupation.  Bordeaux  contains  a 
faculty  of  science  and  letters  (rebuilt  in  1885-87, 
and  constituting  part  of  the  university  of  France, 
witli  1500  students),  schools  of  tlieology,  medi- 
cine, art,  and  navigation,  an  academy  of  arts 
and  sciences,  a  valuable  gallery  of  paintings,  a 
museum,  and  an  observatory.  The  Grand  Thefttre 
is  one  of  the  largest  and  finest  buildings  of  its 
kind  in  France.  The  public  library  has  upwards 
of  160,000  volumes.  Pop.  (1872)  190,682 ;  (1891) 
247,890 ;  (1901)  257,638. 

The  principal  branches  of  industry  are  the  pro- 
duction  or  preparation  of  sugar,  brandy,  liqueurs, 
vinegar,  tobacco,  printed  calicoes,  woollen  goods, 
casks,  paper,  earthenware,  glass  bottles,  capsules, 
labels,  and  chemical  products.  There  are  large 
dockyards,  but  little  shipbuilding.  The  old 
Canal  du  Midi  connects  Bordeaux  with  the  Medi- 


J 


BOBDELAIS 


115 


terranean.  Except  those  of  Champagne,  no 
French  wines  have  been  so  much  exported  to 
foreign  countries  as  those  grown  in  the  dep.  of 
Gironde,  especially  the  Medoc,  and  known  as 
Bordeaux  wines.  Some  of  them  are  red  (known 
in  England  as  Claret),  others  white.  Brandy, 
vinegar,  fruit,  fish,  lace,  jewellery,  ready-made 
clothing,  and  skins  are  also  among  the  principal 
exports,  the  largest  trade  being  with  England 
and  South  America.  Bordeaux  is  an  important 
centre  of  the  French  cod-fishing  ships  for  New- 
foundland and  elsewhere. 

Remains  of  the  Roman  Burdigala,  which  was 
made  by  Hadrian  the  capital  of  Aquitania  Secunda, 
are  the  so-called  'palace  of  Gallienus,'  really  the 
ruins  of  a  large  amphitheatre.  Having  suffered 
successively  from  Vandals,  Goths,  Franks,  and 
Moors,  Bordeaux  was  taken  by  Charles  Martel 
in  735 ;  as  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Guienne, 
in  1152  passed,  by  the  marriage  of  Eleanor  of 
Guienne  with  the  future  Henry  II.  of  England, 
under  English  domiirion ;  and  was  finally  restored 
to  France  in  1451.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  the 
poet  Ausonius,  Richard  II.  of  England,  and  Rosa 
Bonheur. 

Bordelals  {Bordelay'),  the  country  round  about 
Bordeaux,  was  a  recognised  division  of  Guienne. 
Bordentown,  a  town  of  New  Jersey,  on  the 
Delaware,  28  niiles  ENE.  of  Philadelphia.  It 
has  iron-foundries,  machine-shops,  shirt-factories, 
and  shipyards.    Pop.  4232. 

Borders,  the  tract  of  country  lying  immediately 
on  both  sides  of  the  frontier  line  between  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  which  runs  diagonally  north- 
east or  south-west,  between  the  head  of  the 
Solway  Firth  at  the  latter  extremity,  and  a  point 
a  little  north  of  the  mouth  of  the  Tweed  at  the 
other  extremity ;  the  counties  touching  upon  this 
line  being  Cumberland  and  Northumberland  on 
the  English  side,  and  Dumfries,  Roxburgh,  and 
Berwick  on  the  Scottish  side.  The  distance 
between  the  two  extremities  is  nearly  70  miles 
as  the  crow  flies  ;  but,  following  the  frontier  line 
in  its  irregularities,  about  110  miles.  The  line  of 
division  is  for  the  most  part  a  natural  one.  The 
middle  portion,  extending  35  miles,  is  fonned  by 
the  high  barrier  of  the  Cheviot  range.  Leaving 
the  Cheviots  in  the  south-west,  the  line  descends 
for  nearly  22  miles  by  Kershope  Burn,  and  the 
waters  of  the  Liddel,  Esk,  and  Sark,  to  the  Sol- 
way  Firth.  From  the  north-east  extremity  of 
the  Cheviots,  the  windings  of  the  Tweed,  for 
about  13  miles  eastward,  form,  the  natural 
boundary.  But  at  a  point  about  5  miles  from 
the  mouth  of  that  river,  the  line  strikes  out 
semicircularly  in  a  north-easterly  direction,  till 
it  reaches  the  east  coast  a  few  miles  north  of  the 
town  of  Berwick-on-Tweed  ;  the  space  thus  en- 
closed, embracing  within  it  what  are  known  as 
the  '  Liberties '  of  that  town,  having  been  at  one 
time  regarded  as  neutral  territory  between  the 
two  kingdoms.  On  the  western  Border,  near 
Hie  Solway,  was  a  corresponding  tract  of  country 
claimed  by  both  kingdoms,  and  hence  called  the 
*  Debateable  Land.'  For  the  history,  traditions, 
minstrelsy,  &c.,  of  the  Border  country,  see  works 
by  Ridpath  (1776),  Scott  (1803),  Veitch  (1878),  and 
Groome  (1887),  with  others  upon  the  counties. 

Bordighera  (Bordigay'ra),  a  winter-resort  in  the 
Italian  Riviera,  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  Mediter- 
ranean, 7  miles  WSW.  of  San  Remo  by  rail.  It 
was  founded  in  1470,  but  its  modern  progress 
dates  from  the  opening  of  the  Cornice  road  in 
1823,  and  of  railway  communication.  Pop.  4556. 
Bor'eray,  a  Hebridean  island,  Inverness-shire,  | 


BORNEO 

3  miles  W.  of  North  Uist. 


1  sq.  m.   in  area. 
Pop.  112. 

Borgerhout,  an  Antwerp  suburb,  on  the  Schyn, 
has  tapestry  and  tobacco  factories,  and  dye  and 
bleaching  works.    Pop.  36,388, 

Borgo,  a  name  given  to  a  number  of  towns 
and  villages  in  Italy  and  Southern  Tyrol  and 
mdicating  the  growth  of  the  town  or  villaee 
around  a  castle  or  castellated  rock,  the  original 
Borgo.  Thus  there  are  the  Borgo,  the  north  part 
of  Rome,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tiber ;  Borgo- 
Mamro,  an  Italian  town  in  the  province  of 
Novara,  with  4821  inhabitants ;  Borgo  San  Don- 
nino,  in  the  province  of  Parma,  with  4493,  &c. 

Borgu,  or  Bussanga,  a  country  in  the  basin 
of  the  middle  Niger  (right  bank),  of  which  the 
western  (and  larger)  part  is  now  French  and  the 
eastern  is  a  province  of  (British)  Northern  Nigeria 
At  Boussa  or  Bussang  (now  British)  on  the  Niger 
Miiiigo  Park  lost  his  life  in  1805. 

Borissov,  a  town  in  the  Russian  government 
of  Minsk,  on  the  Beresina,  418  miles  WSW.  of 
Moscow  by  rail.     Pop.  14,235. 

Borkum,  an  East  Frisian  island,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Ems,  25  miles  NW.  of  Emden.  Pop.  684, 
increased  in  summer  by  over  2000  visitors. 

Bormlo,  an  Italian  village  with  eight  hot  sul- 
phur-baths, on  the  borders  of  Tyrol,  27  miles 
NNE.  ofTirano.    Pop.  1744. 

Boma,  a  town  of  Saxony,  on  the  Wyhra,  17 
miles  SSE.  of  Leipzig  by  rail.     Pop.  8350. 

Borneo,  next  to  Australia  and  New  Guinea  the 
largest  island  in  the  world,  is  situated  in  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  in  7°  3'  N.— 4°  10'  S.  lat.,  and 
108°  53'— 119°  22'  E.  long.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
E.  by  the  Sea  of  Celebes  and  the  Macassar  Strait, 
S.  by  the  Sea  of  Java,  W.  and  N.  by  the  Gulf  of 
Siam  and  the  China  Sea.  Its  length  is  about 
800  miles,  with  a  breadth  of  700,  and  an  area  of 
about  284,000  sq.  m.  The  population  is  estimated 
at  1,875,000.  In  the  far  north  rises  the  magni- 
ficent mass  of  Kinabalu  (13,698  feet  high),  the 
culminating  peak  of  the  Indian  Archipelago. 
Throughout  the  narrow  northern  portion  of  the 
island  there  runs  a  kind  of  central  ridge  in  a 
general  south-west  direction,  with  highest  points 
ranging  from  4000  to  8000  feet ;  and  this  can  be 
traced  far  to  the  south-west.  Of  modern  vol- 
canic activity  there  is  in  Borneo  no  trace.  Many 
of  the  rivers  are  navigable  far  inland  for  boats 
of  considerable  burden,  but  their  value  as  water- 
ways is  lessened  by  the  bars  which  usually  pre- 
vent the  entrance  of  sea-going  vessels,  and  in 
their  upper  reaches  by  frequent  rapids  and  occa- 
sional waterfalls.  There  are  many  lakes.  The 
climate  in  the  low  grounds  is  humid,  hot,  and 
unhealthy  for  Europeans ;  but  in  the  higher  parts 
towards  the  north  the  temperature  is  generally 
moderate,  the  thermometer  at  noon  varying 
from  81°  to  91°  F.  Vegetation  is  extremely  luxu- 
riant. The  forests  produce  ironwood,  bilian, 
teak,  ebony,  sandalwood,  gutta-percha,  dye- 
woods,  benzoin,  wax,  dragon's  blood,  sago,  cam- 
phor, various  resins,  vegetable  oils,  and  gums. 
Nutmegs,  cloves,  cinnamon,  pepper,  betel,  gin- 
ger, rice,  millet,  sweet  potatoes,  yams,  cotton, 
sugar,  indigo,  tobacco,  coflee,  pine-apples,  coco- 
nuts, &c.,  are  cultivated.  The  mountains  and 
forests  contain  many  monkeys,  among  them 
the  orang-outang.  Tapirs,  a  small  kind  of  tiger, 
small  Malay  bears,  swine,  wild  oxen  or  banteng, 
and  various  kinds  of  deer  abound.  The  elephant 
is  found  in  the  north,  and  the  rhinoceros  in  the 
north-west.    The  few  domesticated  animals  are 


BORNHOLM 


116 


BORROWSTOUNNESS 


buflfaloes,  sheep,  goats,  dogs,  and  cats ;  horses 
are  seen  in  Banjermassin.  Among  the  birds 
are  eagles,  vultures,  Argus-pheasants,  peacocks, 
flamingos,  pigeons,  parrots,  and  the  swallows 
which  construct  the  edible  nests  prized  by 
the  Chinese  for  making  soup.  The  rivers,  lakes, 
and  lagoons  swarm  with  crocodiles,  and  many 
kinds  of  snakes,  frogs,  lizards,  and  leeches.  Fish 
are  plentiful,  and  the  coasts  are  rich  in  tortoises, 
pearl-nmssels,  oysters,  and  trepang.  Brilliant 
butterflies  and  moths  are  in  great  variety.  Among 
the  mineral  products  are  coal,  gold,  and  copper ; 
antimony,  iron,  tin,  platina,  nickel,  diamonds 
and  other  precious  stones,  rock-crystals,  porce- 
lain-clay, petroleum,  and  sulphur. 

The  population  consists  of  the  aboriginal 
heathen  Dayaks  or  Dyaks,  who  constitute  the 
great  bulk  of  the  population  ;  the  Mohammedans 
or  'Malays;'  and  the  Chinese.  The  Dyaks  live 
chiefly  in  the  interior.  The  Malays  on  the  coasts 
are  traders  and  bold  sailors.  The  Chinese  engage 
in  trade  and  mining,  and  are  unwearied  in  their 
efforts  to  make  money  and  then  return  to  their 
native  country.  They  have  always  endeavoured 
to  live  as  independent  republics  under  chiefs 
chosen  by  themselves.  The  principal  exports  are 
gold,  gold-dust,  diamonds,  coal,  ratans,  gutta- 
percha, edible  nests,  cotton,  wax,  timber,  dye- 
woods,  mats,  resins,  sandalwood,  camphor,  &c.  ; 
the  imports,  earthenware,  iron,  steel,  and  copper 
work,  piece-goods,  yarns,  woollen  and  silk  fabrics, 
medicines,  provisions,  wines,  spirits,  rice,  sugar, 
tea,  tobacco,  opium,  gambir,  gunpowder,  &c. 

Borneo  has  never  formed  a  political  unity,  and 
there  is  no  native  designation  for  the  island  as 
a  whole.  The  name  Borneo  (Burnei  or  Brunei) 
originally  applied  to  nearly  the  whole  of  the 
north-west  of  the  island,  under  a  sultan  with 
absolute  authority.  The  capital,  Brunei,  20  miles 
from  the  coast,  on  the  river  of  the  same  name, 
has  at  most  20,000  inhabitants  ;  the  total  popula- 
tion of  Borneo  proper  or  Brunei  may  now  be 
stated  at  125,000.  Its  area  was  reduced  by  the 
erection  of  Sarawak  (q.v.)  into  a  practically 
independent  principality  by  Sir  James  Brooke 
(1841-68),  and  by  the  establishment  of  the  British 
North  Borneo  Company  under  the  charter  of 
1881.  The  company  has  been  successful  in 
appropriating  and  developing  its  territory,  which, 
with  an  area  of  31,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  coast-line  of 
900  miles,  is  divided  into  nine  provinces,  and  has 
its  capital  at  Elopura  or  Sandakan  (pop.  5000). 
The  population  of  the  territory  is  estimated  at 
200,000.  Since  1888  both  Brunei  and  Sarawak 
have  been  under  British  protection ;  and  since 
1891  Labuan  is  administered  by  the  company. 
But  by  far  the  largest  part  of  the  island  is  ruled 
directly  or  indirectly  by  the  Dutch,  who  have 
divided  it  into  the  Residency  of  the  Western 
Division  of  Borneo,  and  that  of  the  Southern  and 
Eastern,  the  former  having  Pontianak  (q.v.)  as 
the  seat  of  government,  the  latter  Banjermassin 
(q.v.).  The  population  of  the  Dutch  portion  of 
the  island  is  about  1,200,000,  of  whom  800  are 
Europeans,  and  32,000  Chinese.  The  chief  towns 
in  Borneo  are  Sambas  (10,000),  Pontianak  (9000), 
Banjermassin  (30,000),  Brunei  (20,000),  and 
Kuching  (12,000). 

See  Wallace,  Malay  Archipelago  (1869);  Bur- 
bidge.  Garden  of  the  Sun  (1880);  Bock,  Head- 
hunters  of  Borneo  (1881) ;  Frank  Hatton,  North 
Borneo  (1885);  the  Handbook  of  British  North 
Borneo  (periodical) ;  and  Posewitz,  Borneo  (1889 ; 
Bng.  trans.  1892). 

Bombolm  (I  pronounced),  a  rock-bound  Danish 
island  in  the  Baltic,  90  miles  E.  of  Zealand.    Area, 


226  sq.  m.  It  is  traversed  by  a  hill-ridge  (511 
feet).  The  capital  is  Ronne  or  Rottum,  on  the 
west  coast,  with  7000  inhabitants.     Pop.  45,364. 

Bomu,  or  BoRNORO,  a  powerful  but  declining 
state  of  Central  Africa,  somewhat  larger  in  ex- 
tent than  England,  bounded  on  the  E.  by  Lake 
Chad,  and  N.  by  the  Sahara.  By  treaty  with 
France  of  1890  it  is  within  the  British  sphere  of 
influence.  The  greater  part  of  the  country  is 
perfectly  level,  and  much  of  it  is  liable  to  be 
overflowed  in  the  rainy  season,  which  lasts  from 
October  to  April.  The  heat  from  March  to  June 
is  excessive,  ranging  from  104°  to  107°  F.  The 
two  principal  rivers  are  the  Shari  and  the 
Komaduga  Yaobe,  both  of  which  fall  into  Lake 
Chad.  The  soil  is  fertile,  yielding  plentiful 
crops  of  maize,  millet,  and  other  tropical  pro- 
duce. Wild  beasts  are  very  numerous.  The 
population,  which  is  estiinated  at  about  five 
millions,  is  mostly  of  negro  race,  and  called 
Bornuese  or  Kanuri.  The  ruling  race,  called 
Shuwas,  are  of  Arab  descent  and  bigoted  Moham- 
medans ;  but  many  traces  of  fetichism  remain 
among  the  masses.  Whatever  they  have  of  civil- 
isation is  derived  from  the  Arabs.  The  slave- 
trade  is  eagerly  prosecuted  in  Bornu.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  19th  century,  Bornu  was  con- 
quered by  the  Fellatahs,  whose  yoke,  however, 
was  soon  shaken  off.  Dr  Nachtigal,  who  visited 
Bornu  in  1870,  described  it  as  rapidly  decaying. 
The  ruins  of  Birni,  the  old  capital,  on  the  Yaobe, 
may  still  be  seen.  Kuka  or  Kukawa,  the  present 
capital,  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Chad,  has  a 
pop.  of  about  60,000.  Gornu,  to  the  south-east, 
is  still  more  populous,  and  has  one  of  the  most 
important  markets  of  Central  Africa. 

Boro  Budor  ('the  great  Buddha'),  the  ruin  of 
a  splendid  Buddhist  temple  in  Java,  near  the 
junction  of  the  Ello  and  Progo.  Built  probably 
between  600  and  1430  a.d.,  it  is  a  pyramid  520 
feet  square,  and  118  high. 

Borodino  (Borodee'no),  a  village  of  Russia,  70 
miles  W.  of  Moscow.  It  is  on  the  Kaluga,  an 
affluent  of  the  Moskwa,  and  gave  name  to  the 
great  but  indecisive  battle  between  Napoleon  and 
the  Russians,  7th  September  1812.  The  French 
name  the  battle  from  the  Moskwa. 

Boroughbrldge,  a  market-town  of  Yorkshire, 
on  the  Ure,  22  miles  NW.  of  York.  Edward  II., 
in  1322,  defeated  the  Earl  of  Lancaster  here. 
Hard  by  are  three  great  monoliths,  the  '  Devil's 
Arrows,'  16  to  22  feet  high.     Pop.  824. 

Borovitchl,  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the  river 
Msta,  98  miles  E.  of  Novgorod.    Pop.  10,375. 

Borovsk,  a  town  of  Russia,  49  miles  NNE.  of 
Kaluga.    Pop.  9505. 

Borris,  a  village  17  miles  S.  of  Carlow.  Pop. 
518. 

Borrodale,  an  Inverness-shire  estate,  on  Loch- 
na-Nuagh,  35  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Fort  William. 
Prince  Charles  Edward  landed  here  (1745). 

Borrome'an  Islands,  a  group  of  four  small 
lovely  islands  in  the  western  arm  of  Lago  Mag- 
giore,  Northern  Italy.  They  are  named  after  the 
ancient  family  of  Borromeo. 

Borrowdale,  a  beautiful  valley  of  Cumberland, 
5  miles  S.  of  Keswick,  ascending  from  the  head 
of  Derwentwater  towards  the  Honister  Pass. 
Here  is  the  Bowder  Stone,  89  feet  in  circumfer- 
ence, and  1971  tons  in  weight.  The  famous 
plumbago  mine  at  Seathwaite  in  Borrowdale  was 
closed  in  1850. 

Borrowstounness.    See  Bo'ness. 


BORSAD 


117 


BOSTON 


Borsad,  a  town  of  northern  Bombay  ;  pop. 
13,000. 

Borstal,  a  suburb  of  Rochester,  with  a  reform- 
atory for  'juvenile-adult'  criminals. 

Berth,  a  Cardiganshire  watering-place,  8  miles 
N.  of  Aberystwith. 

Borthwlck,  a  peel-tower  with  memories  of 
Queen  Mary,  13^  miles  SSE.  of  Edinburgh. 

Bosa,  a  cathedral  city  on    the   W.   coast  of 
Sardinia,  85  miles  NNW.  of  Cagliari.     Pop.  6690. 
Boscastle,  a  Cornish  coast- village,  20  miles  W. 
of  Launceston. 

Bos'cobel,  on  the  eastern  verge  of  Shropshire, 
37  miles  N.  of  Worcester,  was,  after  the  defeat  of 
Worcester  (3d  September  1651),  for  two  days 
the  hiding-place  of  Charles  II.  His  'Royal 
Oak  '  is  represented  by  a  tree  grown  from  one  of 
its  acorns  ;  but  Boscobel  House  still  stands. 

BOSCO  Reale  (Re-ah'leh),  an  Italian  village,  10 
miles  ESE.  of  Naples.  Pop.  8190. 
Bosna-Seral.  See  Sarajevo. 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  a  province  lying  be- 
tween Dalmatia  and  Slavonia,  which  has  made 
rapid  progress  in  prosperity  since  the  Berlin 
Treaty  of  1878  transferred  it  froin  Turkey  to 
Austria.  (Herzegovi' na,  locally  pron.  Hertzegov'ina, 
is  a  Slav  word  for  '  duchy '  formed  from  the  German 
Herzog.)  Although  not  formally  incorporated  by 
treaty,  these  provinces  form  virtually  a  portion 
of  the  empire-monarchy,  and  enjoy  the  advan- 
tages of  a  settled  government.  Area,  19,725 
sq.  m.,  of  which  16,197  belong  to  Bosnia,  and 
3528  to  Herzegovina  ;  population,  1,650,000.  The 
Dinaric  Alps,  here  attaining  a  maximum  altitude 
of  7663  feet,  form  the  water-parting  between  the 
Adriatic  and  Danube  basins  ;  and  four  rivers — 
the  Unna,  the  Vrbas,  the  Bosna  (from  which 
Bosnia  takes  its  name),  and  the  Drina— flow 
northwards  to  the  Save.  Flocks  and  herds  are 
largely  reared.  The  commerce  is  largely  In  the 
hands  of  Jews,  the  majority  of  whom  reside  in 
Sarajevo,  the  capital,  which  is  now  connected  by 
rail  both  with  Budapest  and  the  Adriatic.  With 
the  exception  of  the  Jews,  Gypsies,  and  some 
Osmanli  who  live  in  the  larger  towns  of  Bosnia, 
all  the  inhabitants  of  the  lUyrian  Alps  are  Slavs, 
and  in  Herzegovina  their  characteristics  are  most 
strongly  marked.  The  Bosnians  themselves, 
though  united  by  race,  are  divided  by  religion, 
Mussulman  against  Christian,  Greek-Orthodox 
against  Roman  Catholic.  Hence,  in  spite  of 
every  natural  advantage,  they  were,  unlike  their 
Servian  brethren,  unable  to  emancipate  them- 
selves from  the  Turkish  yoke.  Although  they 
form  little  over  a  third  of  the  population,  the 
Mussulmans  possess  more  than  their  share  of 
landed  property.  The  original  population  were 
doubtless  of  Illyrian  (Albanian)  stock,  but  were 
partly  extruded,  partly  Slavonised,  during  the 
great  Slav  migrations  of  the  early  Christian  cen- 
turies. The  country  was  long  dependent  on 
Hungary,  but  became  a  kingdom  some  thirty 
years  before  the  first  Turkish  invasion  (1401). 
Soon  after  1463  Bosnia  Avas  permanently  con- 
quered by  the  Turks,  and  thousands  of  the 
inhabitants  were  carried  off  as  slaves,  the  boys 
were  trained  to  be  janissaries;  the  most  obsti- 
nate Christians  emigrated,  and  the  bulk  of  the  re- 
mainder accepted  Islam  more  or  less  completely. 
Rebellions  against  the  Osmanli  power  have  been 
frequent,  the  Christian  element  became  more 
powerful,  and  in  1878  the  time  for  an  Austrian 
occupation  (bitterly  resisted  by  the  Mohammedan 
natives)  seemed  to  have  come. 


See  Evans,  Through  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina  oil 
Foot  (1876);  Asboth's  work  (Eng.  trans.  1889); 
Laveleye's  (trans.  1887)  and  Miller's  (1896)  on  the 
Balkans  ;  and  Munro's  Bosnia  (2d  ed.  1900). 

Bos'phonis,  or  Bosporus  (Latinised  forms  of 
a  Greek  word  meaning  '  ox- ford '),  the  ancient 
name  of  the  channel  which  separates  Europe 
from  Asia,  and  coimects  the  Black  Sea  (Euxine) 
with  the  Sea  of  Marmora  (Propontis).  It  was 
so  called,  according  to  the  legend,  from  lo,  who 
swam  across  in  the  form  of  a  cow.  Afterwards, 
as  the  same  name  was  bestowed  upon  other  straits, 
this  was  designated  the  Thracian  Bosporus.  Its 
shores  are  elevated,  and  throughout  its  length 
the  strait  has  on  either  side  seven  bays  or  gulfs, 
with  corresponding  promontories  on  the  opposite 
side.  One  of  these  gulfs  forms  the  harbour  of 
Constantinople,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the 
Golden  Horn.  Across  the  Golden  Horn  is  Pera, 
and  opposite  the  imperial  city,  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Bosphorus,  is  Scutari.  The  length  of  the 
Bosphorus  is  about  17  miles,  with  a  breadth  of 
from  little  more  than  \  mile  to  2  miles,  and  its 
average  depth  is  about  80  fathoms.  None  but 
Turkish  war-ships  may  navigate  it  without  con- 
sent of  the  Sublime  Porte.  See  Black  Sea  and 
Kertch. 

Bostan'  (El),  'the  Garden,' a  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  on  the  Sihun,  40  miles  NW.  of  Marash, 
Pop.  8500. 

Boston,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough 
and  seaport  in  Lincolnshire,  on  the  Witham,  30 
miles  SE.  of  Lincoln  and  107  miles  NE.  of  London 
by  rail.  Its  name  is  a  contraction  of  '  Botolph's 
town,'  and  it  is  supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of 
the  Benedictine  abbey  founded  on  the  Witham 
by  St  Botolijh  in  654,  and  destroyed  in  870  by 
the  Danes.  Under  the  Normans,  Boston  became 
a  place  of  importance,  in  1204  paying  the  largest 
dues  (£780)  of  any  English  port  but  London 
(£836).  In  Edward  III.'s  reign  many  foreign 
traders  settled,  and  the  merchants  of  the  Han- 
seatic  League  established  a  guild  in  Boston. 
After  their  departure,  the  town  declined,  and 
the  suppression  of  the  monasteries  by  Henry 
VIII.  further  injured  it;  but  his  grant  of  a 
charter  of  incorporation,  and  Mary's  subsequent 
grant  of  extensive  lands,  partly  compensated  for 
this.  The  parish  church  measures  283  by  99  feet, 
and  is  one  of  the  largest  without  transepts  in 
England.  The  Perpendicular  tower  ('Boston 
Stump')  is  263  feet  high,  and  terminates  in  an 
octagonal  lantern,  doubtless  intended  for  a  light- 
house by  land  and  by  sea.  The  clearing  of  the 
river  of  silt,  the  formation  of  a  new  channel  in 
1881,  and  the  opening  of  a  new  dock  in  1884, 
have  greatly  promoted  the  trade  of  Boston,  for 
ships  of  2000  tons  can  now  reach  the  heart  of 
the  town.  The  chief  exports  are  coal,  machinery, 
corn,  and  wool ;  and  the  imports  consist  of  tim- 
ber, maize,  cotton-seed,  and  general  merchandise, 
Boston  is  a  great  market  for  cattle  and  sheep, 
and  has  manufactures  of  canvas,  sail-cloth,  ropes, 
sacking,  beer,  iron,  brass,  leather,  bricks,  whit- 
ing, and  hats,  with  some  shipbuilding.  Fox  the 
martyrologist,  Conington,  Jean  Ingelow,  J. 
Westland  Marston,  and  H.  Ingram  (founder 
of  the  Ilhistrated  London  News)  were  natives. 
Since  1885  Boston  returns  only  one  member  to 
parliament.  Pop.  (1851)  14,733;  (1901)  15,667 
(parliamentary  borough,  20,456). 

Boston,  capital  of  Massachusetts,  and  fifth  in 
size  of  the  cities  of  the  United  States,  is  situated 
on  an  inlet  of  Massachusetts  Bay,  called  Boston 
Harbour,  at   the  mouths  of  the   Charles  and 


BOSTON 


lis 


fiOtlFA^Ilt 


Mystic  rivers,  234  miles  NE.  of  New  York  by 
rail.  It  is  connected  with  Cambridge,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  Charles,  by  several  bridges. 
Boston  possesses  an  excellent  harbour,  protected 
by  several  forts,  and  covering  75  sq.  m.,  with  a 
minimum  depth  of  23  feet  at  low  tide  ;  it  has 
four  fine  lighthouses,  and  is  dotted  with  more 
than  fifty  islands.  Eight  lines  of  railway  con- 
verge here.  Boston  is  reputed  to  be  the  wealth- 
iest city  of  America  in  proportion  to  its  popula- 
tion. The  chief  imports  are  sugar,  wool,  hides 
(for  its  large  boot  and  shoe  manufactories), 
chemicals,  flax,  and  cotton  goods  ;  the  principal 
exports,  meat  and  dairy  products,  cattle,  bread- 
stuffs,  cotton,  and  tobacco.  Its  manufactures 
are  very  varied  ;  and  its  wool  market  comes  next 
after  that  of  London  in  importance.  The  Charles- 
town  government  navy  yard  is  within  the  present 
limits  of  Boston,  and  the  city,  besides  being  the 
seat  of  many  varied  local  manufactories,  is  the 
headquarters  of  heavy  railroad,  mining,  and 
insurance  interests.  Boston  is  exposed  to  east 
winds,  and  pulmonary  complaints  are  very  preva- 
lent; but  otherwise  its  climate  is  healthy.  It 
is  one  of  the  best  built  cities  in  the  United  States, 
prominent  among  its  specimens  of  elaborate 
architecture  being  Trinity  Church  and  the  R.  C. 
cathedral,  the  former  erected  at  a  cost  of  $750,000. 
The  older  buildings  include  the  State-house  (1795), 
with  a  conspicuous  gilded  dome,  the  Old  State- 
house  (1712),  Christ  Church  (1723),  Faneuil  Hall 
(1743),  afterwards  termed  'The  Cradle  of  Liberty,' 
and  King's  Chapel  (1754).  Among  later  public 
buildings  and  institutions  may  be  noted  Tremont 
Temple,  the  headquarters  of  New  England  Bap- 
tists, containing  an  audience-hall ;  the  Free 
Public  Library ;  the  Post-office  and  Sub-treasury 
building,  of  granite,  erected  at  a  cost  of  about 
66,000,000 ;  the  Lowell  Institute,  for  the  support 
of  free  public  lectures  ;  besides  hospitals,  homes, 
asylums,  orphanages,  dispensaries,  &c.  Among 
the  higher  institutions  of  learning  are  the  Boston 
College  (Catholic) ;  the  Boston  University(Metho- 
dist) ;  schools  of  technology  and  industrial  sci- 
ence ;  two  conservatories  of  music,  schools  of 
law  and  divinity ;  and  the  Massachusetts  Medical 
College,  connected  with  Harvard  University, 
which,  though  located  in  Cambridge,  is  virtually 
a  Boston  institution.  The  '  Hub  of  the  Universe ' 
has  long  been  noted  for  the  interest  taken  by  its 
citizens  in  literature,  science,  and  art.  It  has 
been  the  birthplace  of  many  famous  men,  includ- 
ing Franklin,  J.  S.  Copley  the  painter,  and  his 
son  Lord  Lyndhurst,  Chancellor  of  England, 
E.  A.  Poe,  Emerson,  Ticknor,  Sumner  and  Park- 
man,  as  Cambridge  was  of  Holmes  and  Lowell ; 
while  associated  with  it  and  Cambridge  have 
been  Hawthorne,  Longfellow,  Agassiz,  Whittier, 
Motley,  Bancroft,  Prescott,  Channing,  T.  Parker, 
Dana,  Margaret  Fuller,  Thoreau,  Aldrich,  the 
Alcotts,  the  Jameses,  and  Howells.  The  city 
possesses  some  250  literary,  musical,  and  kin- 
dred associations.  The  number  of  newspapers 
and  periodicals  (including  the  Atlantic  Monthly) 
here  published  is  about  250.  Originally  founded 
in  1630  as  Trimountain  (from  three  hills  on 
Avhich  it  was  built),  upon  the  Shawmut  penin- 
sula, it  was  afterwards  named  Boston,  after 
Boston  in  Lincolnshire,  the  native  place  of 
some  of  its  colonists.  The  city  now  comprises 
What  were  formerly  the  separate  towns  of  Rox- 
bury  (annexed  in  1867),  Dorchester  (1869),  and 
Charlestown,  West  Roxbury,  and  Brighton  (1873). 
The  conspicuous  part  borne  by  the  toAvn  in  the 
early  troubles  with  England  brought  about  the 
'Boston   Massacre'   of  1770,   in   which  several 


people  were  killed  by  the  fire  of  the  soldiery ; 
and  after  the  destruction  of  the  British-taxed 
tea  in  the  harbour  (1773),  the  port  was  practically 
closed,  and  the  town  occupied  by  a  British  force, 
which,  in  March  1776,  was  finally  compelled  to 
evacuate  the  place  (see  Bunker  Hill).  From 
1830  to  1860  Boston  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
movement  for  the  suppression  of  slavery.  The 
city  has  suffered  from  several  destructive  confla- 
grations, notably  that  of  1872.  Pop.  (1800)  24,937 ; 
(1840)93,383;  (1860)177,840;  (1880)362,839;  (1890) 
448,447  ;  (1900)  560,892.  See  Winsor's  History  of 
Boston  (4  vols.  1880-82). 

Boston  Spa,  a  pretty  watering-place  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Wharfe,  3J  miles 
NW.  of  Tadcaster. 

Bosworth,  or  Market  Bosworth,  a  market- 
town,  Leicestershire,  12  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Leicester.  On  a  moor  2  miles  S.  Richard  III. 
was  defeated  and  slain  (1485).    Pop.  of  parish,  836. 

Boszor'meny,  a  town  of  Hungary,  10  miles 
NNW.  of  Debreczin.     Pop.  25,238. 

Botany  Bay,  a  shallow  inlet  of  New  South 
Wales,  5  miles  S.  of  Sydney,  discovered  by  Cook 
in  1770,  and  named  by  him  from  the  number  of 
new  plants  in  its  vicinity.  In  1787  Botany  Bay 
received  England's  first  penal  colony  in  the  east ; 
and  though  it  was  supplanted  next  year  by  Port 
Jackson,  a  better  harbour  to  the  north,  it  long 
continued  to  be  the  popular  designation  of  the 
Australian  convict  settlements  generally. 

Bothnia,  Gulf  of,  that  part  of  the  Baltic 
Sea  (q.v.)  which  lies  to  the  north  of  the  Aland 
Islands,  having  on  its  eastern  shore  Finland,  on 
the  western  and  northern  Sweden  and  Lapland. 
It  extends  from  60°  to  66°  N.  lat.  and  17°  to  25° 
35'  E.  long.,  its  greatest  length  being  415  miles, 
and  its  average  breadth  100  miles.  Its  depth 
varies  from  20  to  50  fathoms,  but  both  along  its 
shores  and  in  the  middle  are  many  islets,  sand- 
banks, &c.,  which  render  the  navigation  difficult. 
In  winter  it  is  usually  so  hard  frozen  that  it  can 
be  crossed  by  sledges, 

Bothwell,  a  Lanarkshire  village,  on  the  Clyde's 
right  bank,  8  miles  SE.  of  Glasgow.  Bothwell 
Brig  here  was  the  scene  of  Monmouth's  bloody 
defeat  of  the  Covenanters  in  1679 ;  and  a  mile 
from  the  village  are  the  stately  ruins  of  Both- 
well  Castle,  at  whose  base  the  Clyde  washes 
the  fair  scenery  of  'Bothwell  Bank,'  famous  for 
centuries  in  Scottish  song.  Held  before  that  by 
Olifards  and  Murrays,  Bothwell  Castle  Avas  pos- 
sessed by  the  Douglases  from  1365  till  1455  ;  and 
to  them  it  reverted  in  1492,  being  now  owned  by 
their  representative,  the  Earl  of  Home,  Both- 
wellhaugh,  2  miles  ESE.,  gave  designation  to 
James  Hamilton,  assassin  of  the  Regent  Moray. 
Joanna  Baillie  was  a  native  of  Bothwell.  Pop. 
3015. 

Botoshani,  a  town  of  Moldavia,  on  the  Shiska, 
62  miles  NW.  of  Jassy.    Pop.  31,024, 

Botzen,  or  Bozen  (Ital.  Bolzano),  an  important 
trading  town  of  the  Austrian  Tyrol,  on  the  Eisach, 
35  miles  NNE,  of  Trent  by  the  Brenner  Railway. 
It  manufactures  silk,  linen,  hosiery,  leather,  &c. 
Pop.  13,641. 

Bouches-du-Rhone  (Boosh-dP-Ron  ;  '  mouths  of 
the  Rhone '),  a  dep.  in  the  south-east  of  France, 
formerly  a  part  of  Provence,  with  an  area  of  1971 
sq.  m.  It  is  divided  into  the  three  arrondisse- 
ments  of  Marseilles,  Aix,  and  Aries.  Pop.  (1872) 
554,911  ;  (1891)  630,622;  (1901)  734,347. 

Boufarik,  a  town  of  Algeria,  23  miles  S.  of 
Algiers  by  rail.    Pop.  5275. 


fiouaiB 


iw 


BOURNEMOUTfi 


fiougie,  a  port  of  Algeria,  on  the  Bay  of 
Bougie,  120  miles  E.  of  Algiers.  The  Saldce  of 
the  Romans,  and  the  '  Little  Mecca '  of  the 
Arabs,  it  had  sunk  to  a  small  village  in  1833, 
when  the  French  captured  the  place.  Their 
extensive  works  have  since  rendered  it  a  strong 
fortress  and  a  commercial  centre.     Pop.  12,500. 

Bouillon,  a  duchy,  originally  German,  now 
part  of  Belgian  Luxemburg,  consists  of  a  woody 
and  hilly  district  in  the  Ardennes,  about  145  sq. 
m.  in  extent.  It  was  the  possession  of  the  famous 
crusader,  Godfrey  do  Bouillon.  The  principal 
town  is  Bouillon,  between  steep  hills  on  the 
Semoy,  9  miles  NNE.  of  Sedan.    Pop.  2765. 

Boulak,  or  Bulak,  a  town  of  Egypt,  on  the 
Nile,  opposite  an  island  of  the  same  name,  1  mile 
N\V.  of  Cairo,  of  which  it  forms  a  suburb  and  the 
port.    Pop.  20,000. 

Boulge,  a  Suffolk  parish,  3  miles  NNW.  of 
Woodbridge.     Edward  FitzGerald  is  buried  here. 

Boulogne  (Boo-lon'),  a  SW.  suburb  of  Paris, 
on  the  Seine's  right  bank.  It  has  numerous 
villas,  and  over  400  wash-houses  on  the  river, 
which  is  here  crossed  by  a  fine  stone  bridge  of 
twelve  arches.  Population,  37,500.  The  Bois  de 
Boulogne,  the  Parisian's  favourite  place  of  recrea- 
tion, is  traversed  by  many  walks  and  drives  (see 
LoNGCHAMP).  At  the  entrance  of  tlie  wood  lies 
Auteuil  (q.v.).  During  the  Revolution  tlie  trees 
of  the  older  walks  were  mostly  cut  down  ;  but 
when  Napoleon  chose  St  Cloud  for  his  summer 
residence,  new  walks  were  planted  and  laid  off. 
All  traces  of  the  injuries  inflicted  during  the 
siege  of  1870-71  have  now  disappeared. 

Boulogne-sur-Mer,  a  fortified  seaport  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Pas-de-Calais,  situated  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Liane  in  the  English  Channel,  27 
miles  SW.  of  Calais,  and  158  N.  by  W.  of  Paris  by 
rail.  The  toAvn  consists  of  two  parts— Upper 
and  Lower  Boulogne.  The  upper  town,  formerly 
strongly  fortified,  contains  the  hotel-de-ville,  on 
the  site  of  the  castle  where  Godfrey  de  Bouillon 
was  born  in  1061,  and  the  former  cathedral, 
rebuilt  (1827-66)  in  the  Italian  style,  with  a  dome 
300  feet  high,  and  with  a  miraculous  image  of 
the  Virgin.  The  lower  town,  the  seaport  proper, 
is  newer,  inore  populous,  and  more  lively,  in- 
habited chiefly  by  merchants,  mariners,  and  fisher- 
men. Boulogne  has  extensive  and  excellent  salt- 
water baths ;  and,  on  account  of  its  fine  sands,  it 
is  a  favourite,  tliough  somewhat  expensive  resort 
for  sea-bathing.  The  English  residents  have 
recently  become  much  less  numerous.  Pop. 
(1872)  39,700 ;  (1901)  44,416,  actively  engaged  in 
the  manufacture  of  linen,  cordage,  iron,  steel 
pens  and  buttons,  oil,  soap,  and  chemical  pro- 
ducts. Boulogne  is  the  chief  station  in  France 
of  the  North  Sea  fisheries.  It  has  an  active 
coasting  trade,  and  ranks  with  Calais  as  one  of 
the  nearest  and  most  frequented  places  of  passage 
between  France  and  England,  steamers  plying 
daily  to  London,  and  twice  a  day  to  P'olkestone. 
Paris  is  reached  by  railway  in  4^  hours.  About 
5000  vessels,  most  of  them  English,  of  over 
1,000,000  tons  burden,  enter  or  clear  the  port 
annually.  The  principal  imports  are  woollen, 
cotton,  and  silk  material ;  the  exports'  are  manu- 
factured fabrics,  leather,  and  wine.  A  new  and 
vast  deep-sea  harbour  was  constructed  in 
lSSO-1904.  The  works  include  outer  moles 
or  breakwaters  with  a  length  of  over  4400  yards, 
and  an  inner  mole  or  traverse,  1200  yards  long 
and  200  wide,  alongside  which  steamships  may 
lie  at  all  states  of  the  tide.  The  Portus  Gesoriaciis 
of  the  Romans,  and  later  Bononia  or  Bolonia, 


Boulogne  in  1435  came  into  the  possession  of  thd 
Duke  of  Burgundy,  and  was  united  with  the 
crown  of  France  by  Louis  XI.  in  1477.  It  was 
taken  by  the  English  in  1544,  and  restored  to 
the  French  in  1550.  Here,  in  1S04,  Napoleon 
encamped  180,000  men  and  collected  2400  trans- 
ports, ready  at  any  favourable  moment  to  swoop 
down  on  Britain,  The  poets  Churchill  and  Camp- 
bell, and  Lo  Sage,  the  author  of  GU  Bias,  died 
here. 

Bourljon,  Isle  de.    See  Reunion. 

Bourbonnais  (Boorbonnai/),  in  the  centre  of 
France,  from  1327  to  1523  formed  the  duchy  of 
Bourbon,  and  afterwards,  as  a  crown  domain, 
formed  a  province.  It  now  constitutes  the  dep.  of 
Allier  and  part  of  Cher.     The  capital  was  Moulins. 

Bourbonne-les- Bains  (Boorhonn'-leh-Ban^,  a 
town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Haute-Marne,  29  miles 
ENE.  of  Langres.  Its  saline  springs  reach  a 
temperature  of  over  130'  F.    Pop.  4766. 

Bourboule,  a  bathing-resort  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Puy-de-D6me,  on  the  Dordogne,  with  hot 
mineral  springs  of  88"'-129°  F.    Pop.  2161. 

Bourgas.    See  Burgas. 

Bourg-en-Bresse  (Boorg-on^-Bress),  the  chief 
town  of  the  French  dep.  of  Ain,  on  the  Reyssouze. 
37  miles  NE.  of  Lyons.  The  church  of  Brou 
here,  built  by  Margaret  of  Austria  in  1505-36, 
contains  a  superb  monument  to  Philibert  of 
Savoy.  Bourg  manufactures  mineral  waters  and 
pottery.    Pop.  18,500. 

Bourges  (Boorzh;  anc.  Avaricum),  capital  of 
the  French  dep.  of  Cher,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Auron  and  the  Yevre,  144  miles  S.  of  Paris,  and 
69  SSE.  of  Orleans.  Its  houses  are  antique,  and 
its  streets  crooked  and  dirty.  The  cathedral 
(1220-1538)  is  a  splendid  Gothic  edifice,  the  in- 
terior one  of  the  noblest  in  France,  being  405  feet 
long  and  117  high.  A  university  (1465)  was  sup- 
pressed at  the  Revolution.  The  hotel-de-ville 
dates  from  1443.  Brewing  is  carried  on,  and 
there  are  nurseries.  Chosen  in  1861  to  be  an 
arsenal,  Bourges  has  a  cannon  foundry,  and  has 
greatly  increased  in  strategical  importance  since 
the  loss  of  Metz.  Louis  XL  and  Bourdaloue 
were  natives.     Pop.  47,500. 

Bourget,  Le  (Boorzhay'),  a  village  6i  miles 
NE.  of  Paris,  during  the  siege  in  1870  the  scene 
of  a  series  of  bloody  struggles  disastrous  to  the 
French. — The  Lac  t>v  Bourget,  the  largest 
wholly  French  lake,  in  Savoie  dep.,  lies  780  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  measures  7^  by  3  miles. 

Bourne,  a  town  of  Lincolnshire,  9J  miles  W.  of 
Spalding.  Lord  Burghley,  Dr  Dodd,  and  Worth 
'  of  Paris  '  were  natives.    Pop.  4500. 

Boumemoutli,  a  favourite  Hampshire  health 
resort,  on  Poole  Bay,  37  miles  SW.  of  South- 
ampton, and  116  of  London.  It  is  included 
within  the  parliamentary  borough  of  Christ- 
church,  from  which  it  is  4  miles  distant,  and  in 
1890  it  was  made  a  municipal  borough.  Its  rise 
has  been' rapid  ;  until  1838  it  consisted  of  but  a 
few  fishermen's  huts  and  a  coastguard  station. 
It  is  situated  for  the  most  part  in  the  pine-clad 
valley  of  the  Bourne  Brook,  the  banks  of  which 
are  laid  out  as  public  gardens.  The  sands  extend 
for  3  miles.  The  climate  is  fine,  the  air  soft 
without  being  relaxing,  and  the  country  around 
is  beautiful.  Two  piers,  one  800,  the  other  840 
feet  long,  were  erected  in  1861  and  1879.  Of 
several  churches  the  finest  is  St  Peter's  (1864), 
with  memorial  windows  to  Keble,  who  died  at 
Bournemouth :  in  its  churchyard  are  the  graves 
of  Godwin,    Mary    Wollstouecraft,    and    Mary 


BOURNEVILLE 


120 


BRADFORD 


Shelley.  Pop.  (1861)  1940  ;  (1871)  5906 ;  (1881) 
18,607  ;  (1901)  47,100. 

Bonrneville,  a  Worcestershire  suburb  of  Bir- 
mingham, built  since  1879  as  a  garden  city  by 
Mr  George  Cad  bury  for  the  employees  in  liis 
great  cocoa-works,  admirably  equipped  for  family 
and  social  life.     Pop.  4000. 

Boussa,  or  Bussang,  a  Availed  town  of  (British) 
Northern  Nigeria,  off  an  island  in  the  Niger,  lu 
10"  2<y  N.  lat.  Mungo  Park  perished  here  in  1805. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Bouvines  (Boo-vean'),  a  village  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Nord,  8  miles  SE.  of  Lille,  the  scene  of 
Philip  Augustus's  victory  over  Otho  IV.  in  1214, 
and  of  struggles  in  1794  between  the  Austrians 
and  the  victorious  French  army  of  the  north. 

Bovlno  (Bovee'no),  a  cathedral  city  of  South 
Italy,  20  m.  SSW.  of  Foggia.  Pop.  7388.  The 
imperialists  defeated  the  Spaniards  here  in  1734. 

Bowdon  Downs.    See  Altrincham. 

Bowling,  a  Dumbartonshire  village,  on  the 
Clyde,  3^  miles  ESE.  of  Dumbarton.     Pop.  1018. 

Bowling  Green,  a  town  of  Kentucky,  114  miles 
S.  by  W.  of  Louisville  by  rail.     Pop.  8803. 

Bowmore,  a  seaport  of  Islay  island,  Argyll- 
shire.   Pop.  748. 

Bowness,  (l)  a  town  of  Westmorland,  on  the 
east  side  of  Lake  Windermere,  8  miles  NW.  of 
Kendal.  Pop.  2662.— (2)  A  seaport  of  Cumber- 
land, on  the  Solway  Firth,  12  miles  WNW.  of 
Carlisle.     Pop.  of  parish,  1322. 

Box  Hill.    See  Dorking. 

Boxtel,  a  town  of  Holland,  38  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
Utrecht.  An  Anglo-Dutch  army  Avas  here  de- 
feated by  the  French  in  1794.    Pop.  6703. 

Box  Tunnel,  3195  yards  long,  on  the  Great 
Western  Railway,  5  miles  NE.  of  Bath. 

Boyacd,  a  dep.  of  Colombia,  touching  "Vene- 
zuela. Area,  33,351  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  650,000. 
Capital,  Tunja,  6000  inhabitants. 

Boyle,  a  town  in  County  Roscommon,  on  the 
river  Boyle,  above  its  expansion  into  Lough  Key, 
108  miles  NW.  of  Dublin  by  rail.     Pop.  2474. 

Boyne,  a  river  of  Ireland,  rises  in  the  Bog  of 
Allen,  and  flows  80  miles  through  Kildare,  King's 
County,  Meath,  and  Louth,  past  Trim,  Navan, 
and  Slane,  and  enters  the  Irish  Sea  4  miles  below 
Drogheda.  It  receives  the  Mattock  and  Black- 
water,  and  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  250  tons  to 
Drogheda,  for  barges  of  70  tons  to  Navan.  In  the 
battle  of  the  Boyne,  fought  on  its  banks,  3  miles 
W.  of  Drogheda,  on  1st  July  1690,  William  III. 
defeated  James  II. 

Bozen.    See  Botzen. 

Bozrah.  (mod.  el-Busairch),  a  toAvn  of  Edom,  in 
the  mountain  district  to  the  south-east  of  the 
Dead  Sea,  about  300  b.c.  capital  of  the  Naba- 
tseans,  but  now  an  unimportant  village. 

Bozzolo  (Bot'zolo),  a  town  of  North  Italy,  14 
miles  WSW.  of  Mantua.    Pop.  4154. 

Bra,  a  town  of  North  Italy,  31  miles  SSE.  of 
Turin  by  rail.     Pop.  9856. 

Brabant'  was  the  name  formerly  given  to  an 
important  province  of  the  Low  Countries,  extend- 
ing from  the  left  bank  of  the  Waal  to  the  sources 
of  the  Dyle,  and  from  the  Maas  and  the  plain  of 
Limburg  to  the  Lower  Scheldt.  After  many 
changes,  Brabant  Avas  made  a  part  of  the  kingdom 
of  Holland,  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna;  birt  since 
the  revolution  of  1830,  the  three  provinces  of 
Brabant  have  been  divided  as  foUoAvs  :  North  or 


Dutch  Brabant,  the  Belgian  province  of  Antwerp, 
and  South  Brabant,  also  Belgian. 

Braboume,  a  parish  of  Kent,  6  miles  E.  of 
Ashford. 

Brackley,  a  market-toAvn  of  Northamptonshire, 
on  the  Ouse,  7  miles  WNW.  of  Buckingham.  It 
is  a  nuuiicipal  borough,  reincorporated  in  1886, 
and  till  1832  returned  two  members.    Pop.  2500. 

Braddock,  a  borough  of  Pennsyh^ania,  on  tho 
Monongahela,  10  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Pittsburgh, 
Avith  steel  and  car  Avorks.  Here  General  Brad- 
dock  fell  in  1755.     Pop.  16,500. 

Bradfield,  in  Berkshire,  7J  miles  W.  of  Reading, 
the  seat  of  a  public  school,  St  Andrew's  College 
(1850).     Pop.  of  parish,  1458. 

Bradford,  an  important  manufacturing  toAvn 
in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  a  tributary 
of  the  Aire,  at  the  meeting  of  three  vales,  9  miles 
W.  of  Leeds,  34  SW.  of  York,  and  191  NNW.  of 
London  by  rail.  Bradford  in  1832  was  created 
a  parliamentary  borough,  in  1847  a  municipality, 
in  1888  a  county,  and  in  1897  a  city.  Municipal 
and  parliamentary  boroughs  were  made  conter- 
minous in  1885  ;  in  1899  the  municipal  (county  and 
city)  was  extended  to  include  Idle.  For  parlia- 
mentary purposes  it  falls  into  3  districts,  each 
returning  one  member.  Bradford  is  the  chief 
seat  in  England  of  the  spinning  and  Aveaving  of 
Avorsted  yarn,  and  the  great  mart  for  the  long 
Avools  used  in  worsted  fabrics.  It  has  developed 
of  late  Avorsted  coating,  velvet,  and  plush  in- 
dustries. The  first  mill  Avas  built  in  1798  ;  there 
are  now  more  than  300.  Coal  and  iron  mines 
occur  near  Bradford,  and  the  ironworks  at  Bow- 
ling and  Lowmoor  are  very  large  and  important ; 
the  making  of  machinery  is  a  considerable  indus- 
try ;  and  there  are  neighbouring  stone  quarries. 
The  parish  church  of  St  Peter  is  a  fine  Perpen- 
dicular building,  with  a  toAver  of  later  date,  and 
a  number  of  interesting  monuments.  Bradford 
has  also  a  toAvn-hall  (1873)  of  medieval  design, 
Avhich  cost  over  £100,000,  with  campanile  and 
carillon ;  mechanics'  institute  (1870) ;  St  George's 
Hall  (1853);  exchange  (1867) ;  extensive  wholesale 
and  retail  markets,  which  have  cost  £150,000 ; 
grammar-school ;  technical  college  (1882) ;  free 
library  (1872) ;  post-office,  a  fine  building  in  the 
Italian  style  (1887) ;  &c.  Of  its  seven  parks  the 
older  are  Peel  Park  (56  acres).  Lister  or  Man- 
ningham  Park  (56  acres),  Horton  Park  (39  acres). 
Bowling  Park  (53  acres),  and  Bradford  Moor 
Park  (15  acres).  In  the  civil  Avars,  the  people 
of  Bradford  took  the  parliament  side,  and  tAvice 
defeated  the  royalists,  but  were  afterwards  them- 
selves defeated  by  the  Earl  of  Newcastle.  The 
Avorsted  trade,  introduced  to  Bradford  at  the  end 
of  the  17th  century,  made  rapid  progress  after  the 
invention  of  the  steam-engine.  In  a  riot  at  Brad- 
ford against  the  introduction  of  worsted  power- 
looms  in  1826,  tAvo  of  the  rioters  were  shot  dead 
by  the  defenders  of  the  mill  which  contained 
the  obnoxious  machinery,  and  many  more  Avere 
Avounded.  In  1825  a  strike  for  increased  wages, 
in  Avhich  20,000  persons  were  concerned,  lasted 
six  months.  Its  trade  suffered  severely  owing  to 
the  McKinley  tariff  in  the  United  States.  This 
town  is  the  seat  of  the  first  English  temperance 
society  (1830).  There  are  statues  of  Sir  Robert 
Peel,  Richard  Oastler,  Sir  Titus  Salt,  S.  C.  Lister, 
and  W.  E.  Forster.  Pop.  (1851)  103,778;  (1881) 
194,495  ;  (1891)  216,361  ;  (1901)  of  pari,  borough, 
216,375,  and  ofmun.  and  county  borough,  279,767. 
See  James's  History  of  Bradford  (2  vols.  1841-66). 

Bradford,  a  Pennsylvanian  town,  65  miles  S. 


BRADFORD-ON-AVON 


121 


feRANDOlt 


of  Buffalo,  with  oil-wells  and  sawmills.  Pop. 
15,514. 

Bradford-on-Avon  (Sax,  Bradanford,  'broad 
ford '),  a  town  of  Wiltshire,  on  the  Avon,  and  on 
the  Kennet  and  Avon  Canal,  9  miles  SB.  of  Bath. 
Formerly  it  was  the  seat  of  important  woollen 
manufactures,  and  kerseymeres  were  first  made 
here.  The  tiny  church  (38  feet  long)  of  St 
Lawrence,  built  by  St  Aldhelm  between  675  and 
709,  is  the  only  perfect  building  of  pre-Norman 
times  now  remaining  in  England.  It  had  been 
used  for  two  centuries  as  a  school  and  dwelling- 
house,  when  in  1856  it  was  rescued  from  profana- 
tion. On  the  summit  of  Torr  Hill  are  the  ruins 
of  a  14th-century  chapel  of  the  Virgin  ;  and  the 
town  bridge  retains  its  desecrated  chapel.  At 
Bradford,  Cenwalh,  king  of  the  West  Saxons, 
gained  a  great  victory  over  the  Welsh  in  652. 
Pop.  4557. 

Brading,  a  small  but  ancient  town,  once  a 
parliamentary  borough,  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  4 
miles  S.  of  Ryde  by  rail.  In  its  churchyard  is 
buried  the  'Dairyman's  Daughter;'  and  in  1880 
the  remains  of  a  Roman  villa,  Avith  a  tesselated 
floor,  were  unearthed  near  the  town.    Pop.  1994. 

Braemar',  a  Highland  district  occupying  the 
south-west  corner  of  Aberdeenshire  (q.v.),  in  the 
heart  of  the  Grampian  Mountains,  and  traversed 
by  the  upper  waters  of  the  Dee.  In  the  east 
part  is  Balmoral ;  and  near  its  centre,  61  miles 
W.  by  S.  from  Aberdeen,  is  the  small  village  of 
Castleton  of  Braemar,  where  in  1715  the  Earl  of 
Mar  raised  the  Pretender's  standard.     Pop.  516. 

Braeriach  (Brmj-ree'ahh),  a  summit  (4248  feet) 
of  the  Cairngorms,  on  the  border  of  Aberdeen 
and  Inverness  shires. 

Braga,  the  capital  of  the  Portuguese  province 
of  Minho,  34  miles  NB.  of  Oporto  by  rail.  It 
has  the  palace  of  the  primate  of  Portugal,  a 
fine  Gothic  cathedral  (12th  century),  and  manu- 
factures of  linen,  hats,  cutlery,  firearms,  jewel- 
lery, &c.  The  Bracara  Arigusta  of  the  Romans,  it 
retains  ruins  of  a  temple,  an  amphitheatre,  and 
an  aqueduct.  Near  it  is  a  celebrated  place  of  pil- 
grimage.   Pop.  24,755. 

Bragan9a,  two  considerable  towns  in  Brazil.— 

(1)  A  seaport,  100  miles  NB.  of  Para,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Caite,     Pop.  of  town  and  district,  6000.— 

(2)  An  inland  citv  of  10,000  inhabitants,  50  miles 
NB.  of  Sao  Paulo. 

Braganza,  or  Bragan^a,  capital  of  the  Portu- 
guese province  Traz-os-Montes,  on  the  Ferven^a, 
26  miles  NW.  of  Miranda.  It  is  the  see  of  a 
bishop,  and  gives  name  to  the  ruling  House  of 
Braganza.     Pop.  5495. 

Brahmanbaria,  a  toAvn  of  India,  Tipperah 
district,  in  the  presidency  of  Bengal,  on  the  Titas 
River.     Pop.  17,438. 

Brahmaputra  ('  son  of  Brahma '),  one  of  the 
largest  rivers  of  India,  rises  in  Tibet,  and,  after 
partially  mingling  with  the  Ganges,  flows  into 
the  Bay  of  Bengal.  From  explorations  (1878-82) 
by  one  of  the  Asiatics  attached  to  the  Indian 
Survey,  it  was  rendered  certain  that  the  Sanpo 
is  the  highest  source  of  the  Brahmaputra  (and 
not,  as  had  been  sometimes  said,  of  the  Irawadi). 
Tlie  Sanpo  has  its  rise  in  Lake  Manasowar  in 
Western  Tibet,  in  an  elevated  tableland,  from 
which  also  spring  the  Sutlej  and  the  Indus  ;  flows 
eastward  for  1000  miles  on  the  plateau  of  Tibet ; 
then,  turning  SB.,  it  pierces  the  Himalayas  to 
descend  to  the  valleys  of  Assam.  Here  known 
as  Dihong,  it  unites  with  the  Dibong  and  the 
Brahmakunda,  the  three  rivers  forming  the  Brah- 


maputra, which  flows  SW.  and  S.  The  entire 
length  from  the  latter  source  exceeds  900  miles  ; 
from  the  former  1800  miles.  The  united  stream 
bears  along  a  vast  body  of  water,  broken  by 
many  islands,  and  throwing  off  branches ;  it  flows 
from  NE.  to  SSW.  for  about  450  miles,  leaves 
Assam  near  Dhoobri ;  flows  S.  round  the  Garo 
Hills;  for  180  miles  its  course  is  through  the 
plain  of  East  Bengal,  till  it  joins  the  Padma,  or 
main  stream  of  the  Ganges,  at  Goalanda.  Here 
the  conjoint  delta  of  these  rivers  begins  ;  the 
great  body  of  its  waters  flowing  SB.  reaches  the 
sea  by  the  estuary  known  as  the  Meghna.  During 
the  rains  the  Brahmaputra  floods  hundreds  of 
sq.  m.  of  country,  reaching  a  height  of  30  to  40 
feet  above  its  usual  level.  This  supersedes  arti- 
ficial irrigation,  and  the  plains  so  watered  yield 
abundantly  rice,  jute,  and  mustard.  The  Brah- 
maputra is  navigable  for  steamers  to  Dibrugarh, 
800  miles  from  the  sea. 

Brahul.    See  Beluchistan, 

Braidwood,  a  Lanarkshire  village,  7  miles 
WNW.  of  Carstairs  Junction.     Pop.  587. 

Braila,  or  Brahilov,  a  river-port  of  Roumania, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  10  miles  above 
Galatz,  and  142  NB.  of  Bucharest  by  rail.  The 
seat  of  a  Greek  cathedral,  it  was  a  free  port  till 
1883,  has  new  docks  (1886-92),  and  exports  large 
quantities  of  corn  and  other  products.  Braila 
was  burned  by  the  Russians  in  1711,  and  Gort- 
schakoff  crossed  here  in  1854.     Pop.  56,715, 

Braine-le-Oomte  (Brain-le-ConH),  a  town  of  the 
Belgian  province  of  Hainaut,  on  the  Senne,  19 
miles  SSW.  of  Brussels.    Pop.  8176, 

Bralntree,  a  market-town  of  Essex,  45  miles 
NE.  of  London  by  rail.  It  has  manufactures  of 
silk,  crape,  straw-plait,  &c.    Pop.  5333, 

Brambanan,  a  district  of  the  province  of  Sura- 
karta,  Java,  rich  in  remains  of  Buddhist  temples. 

Bramber,  a  Sussex  village,  on  the  Adur,  4^ 
miles  NNW,  of  New  Shoreham.  It  has  a  ruined 
castle,  and  till  1832  returned  two  members, 

Brambletye  House,  a  ruined  Jacobean  mansion, 
in  Sussex,  near  East  Grimstead, 

Brampton,  a  very  ancient  town  of  Cumber- 
land, 9  miles  ENE.  of  Carlisle  by  rail,  once  a  great 
centre  of  hand-loom  weaving.  The  moot-hall  is  a 
magistrate's  office.  Near  it  is  Lanercost  Abbey 
(q.v.).     Pop.  of  parish,  2790. 

Bran,  a  feeder  of  the  Tay,  with  fine  falls,  near 
Dunkeld. 

Branco,  Rio,  a  river  of  Northern  Brazil,  rising 
in  the  Parima  Mountains,  and  flowing  400  miles 
southward  to  the  Rio  Negro,  of  which  it  is  the 
principal  tributary,  on  its  way  to  the  Amazon, 

Brandenburg  (u  as  oo),  a  central  province  of 
Prussia,  formed  the  luicleus  of  the  present  mon- 
archy, and  almost  all  a  low  plain.  Area,  15,410 
sq.  m. ;  population,  3,200,000.— The  toum  of  Bran- 
denburg (anc.  Brennibor  of  the  Wends),  on  the 
Havel,  38  miles  WSW,  of  Berlin,  has  a  castle  and 
a  cathedral  (14th  century),  with  a  fine  crypt,  on 
an  island  in  the  river.     Pop.  50,000. 

Brandenburg,  Neu,    See  Neubrandenbttrq. 

Brandeston,  a  Suffolk  parish,  on  the  Deben, 
3^  miles  SW.  of  Framlingham.  It  was  the  resi- 
dence of  the  great  lawyer,  Charles  Austin. 

Brandon,  a  quaint  old  market-town,  mostly 
on  the  Suffolk  side  of  t>lie  Little  Ouse,  7^  miles 
NW,  of  Thetford,  and  86  NE.  of  London  by  rail. 
In  the  neighbourhood  are  Neolithic  flint-work- 
ings known  as  the  Grimes  Graves.    Gun-flints  are 


BRANDON 


122 


BRA2IL 


still  made  here,  chiefly  for  the  African  market ; 
and  the  continuity  of  this  industry  can  be  traced 
at  Brandon  in  unbroken  sequence  to  an  early 
prehistoric  period.     Pop.  of  parish,  2334. 

Brandon,  a  town  of  Manitoba,  Canada,  on  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  below  the  junction  of 
the  Assiniboine  and  Little  Saskatchewan  rivers, 
in  a  prolific  wheat-growing  district.  It  was 
founded  in  1881,  and  in  the  following  year  had 
over  1500  houses.     Pop.  7000. 

Brandywine  Creek,  a  stream  rising  in  Chester 
county,  Pennsylvania,  flowing  south-eastward 
into  Delaware,  and  emptying  into  Christiana 
Creek  at  Wilmington.  Here,  September  11, 
1777,  13,000  Americans,  under  Washington,  were 
defeated  by  18,000  British,  under  Lord  Howe. 

Brantford,  a  town  on  the  Grand  River,  Ontario, 
24  miles  SW.  of  Hamilton  by  rail.    Pop.  18,000. 
Brantwood.     See  Coniston  Lake. 
Branxholm,  a  quondam  Border  castle,  Rox- 
burghshire, 3  miles  SW.  of  Hawick. 
Brass  River,  a  deltaic  arm  of  the  Niger  (q.v.). 
Brattleboro,  in  Windham  county,  Vermont,  on 
the  Connecticut  River,  110  miles  S.  of  Mont- 
pelier.    Pop.  6000. 

Braunsberg,  a  town  of  East  Prussia,  on  the 
navigable  Passarge,  8  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
38  SW.  of  Kdnigsberg  by  rail.  It  manufactures 
machinery,  felt,  and  leather  goods.  Pop.  12,759. 
Bray,  (1)  a  Berkshire  parish,  on  the  Thames,  1^ 
mile  S.  by  E.  of  Maidenhead.  The  'Vicar  of 
Bray '  was  Simon  Aleyn,  from  1540  to  1588,  during 
the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.,  Edward  VI.,  Mary,  and 
Elizabeth.— (2)  A  seaside  town,  partly  in  Dublin 
county,  but  chiefly  in  Wicklow,  13  miles  SE. 
of  Dublin  by  rail.  The  beauty  of  its  situation 
has  raised  it  from  a  small  fishing-village  to  a 
watering-place,  popularly  known  as  the  'Irish 
Brighton.'    Pop.  7500— doubled  in  the  season. 

Bray  is  a  district  of  Normandy,  now  the  south- 
eastern part  of  Seine-Inferieure,  famous  for  its 
cattle  and  dairy  produce. 

Brazil',  the  largest  state  of  South  America, 
covering  nearly  half  of  the  South  American 
continent,  is  little  less  in  area  than  the  whole 
of  Europe ;  even  if  it  be  found  that  the  esti- 
mated area,  3,288,000  sq.  m.,  should  be  reduced  to 
3,219,000.  It  has  a  length  of  2660  miles,  and  a 
breadth  of  2705  miles  between  extreme  points. 
It  borders  on  every  state  in  South  America  except 
Chili.  The  name  was  given  by  early  explorers 
from  thinking  that  tlie  red  dyewood  (Brazil-wood) 
found  here  was  identical  with  the  East  Indian 
dyewood  known  to  them  as  Brasil.  Brazil  is  a 
triangular-shaped  country,  occupying  the  eastern 
angle  of  the  continent.  It  lies  almost  wholly 
within  the  tropics,  and  is  still  in  great  part  un- 
explored and  unsettled.  On  the  north  and  west 
are  the  great  depressions  of  the  Amazon  and 
Paraguay  rivers,  which  comprise  large  areas  of 
flood-plains  and  swamps,  heavily  wooded,  and 
almost  uninhabitable.  The  northern  coast  is 
bordered  by  low,  alluvial  bottom-lands  and  sandy 
plains,  full  of  lakes,  and  in  places  very  sterile ; 
while  the  southern  angle  of  the  country  is  roll- 
ing campo  land,  bordered  by  a  low  sandy  coast. 
Above  its  eastern  angle  a  large  area  of  coast- 
lands  and  neighbouring  plateau  is  subject  to 
periodical  devastating  droughts.  The  interior  of 
the  country,  however,  is  a  high  plateau,  with  a 
general  elevation  of  1000  to  3000  feet,  irregularly 
ridged  by  mountains  and  deeply  cut  by  large 
rivers.  The  mountainous  ranges  of  the  maritime 
gystem  form  the  eastern  margin  of  this  plateau, 


the  easternmost  of  which  is  known  as  the  Serra 
do  Mar.  This  range  plays  an  ijnportant  part 
in  the  development  of  Brazil,  for  it  is  a  costly 
barrier  to  communication  with  the  interior,  and 
turns  nearly  all  the  great  rivers  inland  to  find  out- 
lets through  the  distant  Amazon  and  La  Plata, 
The  mountains  are  composed  almost  exclusively 
of  uplifted  strata  of  great  geological  age,  gneiss 
and  metamorphic  schists,  with  granite  and  other 
eruptive  rocks.  The  great  elevated  plains  are 
composed  of  horizontal  strata  dating  from  the 
Silurian  age.  Brazil  possesses  three  great  river- 
systems— the  Amazon,  La  Plata,  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. The  Amazon  and  its  tributaries  drain  fully 
a  half  of  the  country.  To  the  east  of  the  Madeira 
these  tributaries  are  tableland  rivers,  broken  by 
rapids  and  freely  navigable  for  comparatively 
short  distances.  West  of  the  Madeira  they  are 
lowland  rivers,  sluggish,  bordered  by  extensive 
flood-plains,  and  aft"ord  free  navigation  for  long 
distances.  The  La  Plata  system  drains  nearly 
one-fifth  of  the  country  through  its  three  branches 
—the  Paraguay,  Parand,  and  Uruguay.  The  first 
of  these  is  a  lowland  river,  freely  navigable  for  a 
long  distance,  while  the  other  two  are  tableland 
rivers,  full  of  obstructions,  and  without  free  out- 
lets for  their  upper-level  navigation.  The  San 
Francisco  is  a  tableland  river,  flowing  north-east 
between  the  Goyaz  and  maritime  mountains,  and 
then,  breaking  through  the  latter,  south-east  to 
the  Atlantic.  It  is  not  freely  navigable  because 
of  the  Paulo  Affbnso  Falls.  The  other  coast- 
rivers  are  generally  short.  The  climate  of  Brazil 
varies  greatly— the  lowlands  of  the  Amazon  and 
a  great  part  of  the  coast  being  hot,  humid,  and 
unhealthy,  while  the  tablelands  and  some  dis- 
tricts of  the  coast  swept  by  the  trade-winds  are 
temperate  and  healthy.  The  vegetation  of  Brazil 
is  luxuriant  and  varied.  The  vast  forests  of  the 
Amazon  contain  hundreds  of  species  of  trees, 
draped  and  festooned  by  climbing  plants,  lianas, 
orchids,  &c.  Rosewood,  Brazil-wood,  and  others 
supply  valuable  timber;  whilst  tropical  fruits 
are  abundant.  The  number  of  species  of  animals 
is  also  very  large,  but  the  individuals  in  each 
are  comparatively  few.  Beasts  of  prey  are  the 
jaguar,  puma,  tiger-cat,  and  ocelot;  the  other 
animals  include  the  monkey,  tapir,  capybara, 
peccary,  ant-eater,  sloth,  and  boa-constrictor. 
Alligators,  turtles,  porpoises,  and  manatees  swarm 
in  the  Amazon ;  and  among  birds  the  parrots  and 
humming-birds  are  especially  numerous.  The 
population  of  Brazil,  according  to  an  official  esti- 
mate of  1900,  was  14,500,000,  of  whom  some 
2,000,000  were  negroes,  400,000  Indians,  and  the 
remainder  pretty  equally  divided  between  whites 
and  half-breeds.  In  the  coast-towns  the  whites 
predominate.  The  proportion  of  non-producers 
is  very  large,  the  natural  conditions  of  the 
country  rendering  labour  but  slightly  necessary 
to  meet  the  ordinary  requirements  of  life.  The 
institution  of  slavery  has  had  much  to  do  with 
this  state  of  things.  The  African  slave-trade 
was  prohibited  in  1831,  but  did  not  actually 
cease  until  1854.  In  1871  a  gradual  emancipa- 
tion law  was  adopted,  and  in  1885  a  more  thorough 
one ;  and  finally,  by  the  law  of  13th  May  1888, 
immediate  and  unconditional  emancipation  was 
decreed.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  established 
religion,  and  is  supported  by  the  state ;  but  all 
other  sects  are  tolerated.  There  are,  however, 
less  than  30,000  non-Catholics  in  the  country. 
Education  is  still  in  a  very  backward  condition. 
The  language  is  Portuguese,  with  dialectal  varie- 
ties. 
Since  the  revolution  of  1889,  Brazil,  as  the 


B^A2IL 


123 


BRECKNOCKSHIRE 


'  United  States  of  Brazil,'  is  a  federative  repub- 
lic :  each  of  the  old  provinces,  also  the  federal 
district  around  the  capital,  Rio  Janeiro,  is  a 
state,  and  is  administered  by  its  own  authorities 
at  its  own  expense :  while  defence,  customs, 
postage,  banking,  &c.,  are  the  concern  of  the 
union.  The  central  executive  authority  consists 
of  the  president,  a  vice-president,  and  a  ministry. 
The  legislative  authority  resides  in  a  national 
congress  of  two  chambers,  the  chamber  of  depu- 
ties and  the  senate.  Each  state  has  its  own 
administrative,  legislative,  and  judicial  authori- 
ties. The  army  is  raised  by  obligatory  military 
service,  and  consists  of  about  30,000  men,  besides 
15,000  gendarmerie.  The  navy  comprises  3  sea- 
going and  6  coast  defence  armour-clads,  14  torpedo 
boats,  besides  unarmoured  cruisers,  corvettes, 
gunboats,  and  transports,  manned  in  all  by  7000 
officers  and  men.  The  revenue  has  since  1900 
varied  from  £15,000,000  to  £25,000,000 ;  the  ex- 
penditure  has  of  late  years  been— nominally  at 
least— covered  by  the  revenue.  The  debt,  exter- 
nal, internal,  and  floating,  is  about  £110,000,000. 

The  industries  of  Brazil  are  confined  almost 
exclusively  to  agriculture,  mining,  and  forest 
products.  Stock-raising  has  totally  failed  to 
keep  pace  with  the  domestic  consumption  of 
jerked-beef,  which  is  largely  imported.  The 
coast  fisheries  have  also  been  neglected,  although 
Brazil  is  a  large  consumer  of  codfish.  The  forest 
products  are  rubber,  mate,  nuts,  cocoa,  medicinal 
plants,  cabinet  and  dye  woods,  &c. — the  first 
ranking  third  in  importance  as  an  article  of  ex- 
port. Of  agricultural  products,  coffee  occupies 
the  first  place,  and  furnishes  about  two-thirds 
of  the  total  exports  of  the  whole  empire.  Sugar 
ranks  second.  The  production  of  cotton  and 
tobacco  has  considerably  decreased,  and  that  of 
tapioca  has  nearly  disappeared.  Rice,  maize,  and 
many  other  products  are  easily  grown,  but  have 
been  overshadowed  by  coffee  and  sugar,  and  to 
some  extent  discouraged  by  the  high  cost  of 
internal  transportation.  In  colonial  times  the 
mining  industries  yielded  large  results ;  they  are 
now  comparatively  unimportant.  Gold  and  dia- 
monds are  found  in  Minas  Geraes,  ParanS,  and 
Bahia,  but  the  annual  production  at  present  is 
not  large.  Iron  ores  of  superior  quality  exist  in 
several  provinces,  but  the  absence  of  coal  is  a 
eerious  obstacle.  The  total  exports  varied  in 
1900-3  from  £35,000,000  to  £44,000,000  a  year,  the 
imports  from  £22,000,000  to  £24,000,000.  The 
annual  exports  to  Great  Britain  vary  from 
£4,000,000  to  £5,000,000;  the  imports  (which 
have  declined)  have  a  like  range.  Tlie  in- 
habitants of  the  southern  provinces  of  the  empire 
are  broadly  distinguished  by  their  energy  from 
the  more  indolent  northerners.  It  is  in  the 
southern  provinces  that  the  numerous  German 
colonies  (comprising  some  220,000  Germans)  are 
mostly  established.  Steani  communication  with 
Europe  was  opened  in  1850,  and  telegraphic  com- 
munication in  1874.  The  first  railway  Avas  opened 
in  1854  ;  Brazil  now  possesses  some  9800  miles  of 
railway  and  17,400  miles  of  telegraph.  The 
milreis,  the  unit  of  the  monetary  system,  fluctu- 
ates very  much  in  value— from  2s.  3d.  (1890)  to 
ll|d.  (1902). 

Brazil  was  discovered  by  Pinzon  in  1500,  and 
taken  possession  of,  for  Portugal,  by  an  ex- 
pedition under  Cabral  in  the  same  year.  In  1808 
the  royal  family  of  Portugal  expelled  by  the 
French  took  refuge  in  the  colony,  which  became 
a  kingdom  in  1815,  an  empire  in  1822.  The 
emperor  Dom  Pedro  II.  was  expelled  in  1889, 
ftnd  a  republic  established,  which  has  been  much 


perturbed  by  rebellions.  Since  1891  civil  war 
had  been  going  on  desultorily  in  some  parts  of 
the  republic,  especially  around  Rio  Janeiro,  in 
the  province  of  Rio  Grande,  and  in  Minas  Geraes, 
which  in  1892  declared  itself  a  separate  state. 
In  1893  the  capital  was  bombarded  by  the  navy  in 
rebel  hands,  but  in  1894  the  rebellion  collapsed. 
There  was  a  minor  rising  in  1897  under  a  religious 
fanatic ;  and  a  inore  important  plot  against  the 
government  in  the  same  year  was  frustrated. 

See  works  on  Brazil  or  the  Amazon  valley  by 
Southey  (history,  1819),  Agassiz  (1870),  Hartt 
(1870),  A.  R.  Wallace  (1870),  Bates  (1873),  Mulhall 
(1877),  Fletcher  and  Kidder  (frequently  reprinted, 
Phila.),  H.  H.  Smith  (1880),  and  Wells  (1886). 

Brazos,  a  river  of  Texas,  U.S.,  rising  in  a 
tableland  called  the  Staked  Plain,  in  the  NW.  of 
the  state,  and  running  950  miles  south-eastward 
to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  40  miles  SW.  of  Galveston. 

Brazza,  the  largest  and  most  populous  of  the 
Dalmatian  islands  of  the  Adriatic,  with  an  area 
of  152  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  25,000.  It  rises  to 
2578  feet,  and  is  richly  wooded.  San  Pietro  is 
the  chief  town. 

Breadal'bane,  a  district  of  NW.  Perthshire, 
among  the  Grampians,  giving  the  title  of  earl 
to  a  branch  of  the  Campbells. 

Brechin  (Bree'hhin),  a  town  of  Forfarshire,  on 
the  South  Esk,  8^  miles  W.  of  Montrose.  With 
Montrose,  &c.  it  returns  one  member.  Linen 
and  paper  are  manufactured,  with  bleaching, 
distilling,  and  brewing.  David  I,  founded  a 
bishopric  here  about  1150.  Part  of  the  cathedral 
is  now  the  parish  church,  at  whose  south-west 
angle  rises  the  Round  Tower  (c.  983,  87  feet  high) 
of  a  Culdee  college,  similar  to  the  Irish  ones,  and 
to  the  one  at  Abernethy,  the  only  other  example 
in  Scotland.  Brechin  Castle,  the  ancient  seat  of 
the  Maules,  and  now  of  the  Earls  of  Dalhousie, 
was  taken  by  Edward  I.  in  1303  after  a  twenty 
days'  siege.  The  town  itself  was  burned  by 
Montrose  in  1645 ;  and  near  it  Huntly  defeated 
the  rebellious  Crawfords  in  1452.  Dr  Guthrie 
was  a  native.     Pop.  (1851)  6638  ;  (1901)  8941. 

Brecknock,  or  Brecon,  the  capital  of  Breck- 
nockshire, at  the  confluence  of  the  Usk  and 
Houddu,  183  miles  W.  by  N.  of  London  by  rail, 
and  40  NE.  of  Swansea.  It  lies  in  the  midst  of 
fine  mountain  scenery,  and  has  beautiful  public 
walks,  the  triple-peaked  Brecon  Beacons  (2910 
feet)  rising  to  the  south.  From  1536  to  1885 
Brecon  returned  one  member  to  parliament. 
Flannels,  coarse  woollens,  and  hats  are  manu- 
factured. Bernard  de  Newmarch  founded  the 
town,  and  built  a  castle  here  in  1094.  Henry 
VIII.  in  1541  converted  a  Dominican  friary  into 
a  college,  Avhich  was  rebuilt  in  1864  ;  the  priory, 
now  the  parish  church,  was  restored  in  1862. 
Mrs  Siddons  was  a  native.  Pop.  (1881)  6372; 
(1901)  5875. 

Brecknockshire,  or  Brecon,  an  inland  county 
of  South  Wales.  The  maximum  length  is  39 
miles ;  its  breadth  ranges  between  11^  and  30 
miles;  and  its  area  is  719  sq.  m.,  of  which  only 
43  per  cent,  is  cultivated.  Brecknockshire  is 
one  of  the  most  mountainous  counties  in  South 
Wales,  and  has  deep,  beautiful,  and  fertile  valleys. 
Two  principal  mountain-chains,  the  highest  in 
South  Wales,  culminating  in  the  Brecon  Beacons 
at  2910  feet,  intersect  the  county  in  the  north 
and  south,  and  occupy,  with  their  offshoots,  a 
great  part  of  the  surface.  The  chief  rivers  are 
the  Wye  and  Usk ;  and  Llangorse  Lake  covers 
nearly  1800  acres.  The  agriculture,  though  still 
defective,  especially  in  the  higher  districts,  has 


SREBA 


1^4 


BRENTFORO 


been  greatly  improved  by  the  Brecknockshire 
Agricultural  Society,  Instituted  in  1775.  The 
mineral  produce  is  small,  consisting  of  iron, 
especially  along  the  south  border ;  coal  and  lime- 
stone are  also  found  in  the  south  and  west.  The 
Brecon  Canal  connects  the  county  with  the 
Bristol  Channel.  There  are  several  small  fac- 
tories of  woollens  and  worsted  hosiery ;  also 
several  important  ironworks,  but  the  ore  is 
chiefly  obtained  from  adjoining  counties.  Breck- 
nockshire returns  one  member  to  parliament. 
Pop.  (1801)  32,325  ;  (1871)  61,627 ;  (1901)  54,213, 
The  chief  towns  are  Brecon  (the  county  town), 
Builth,  Crickhowell,  Hay,  and  Llanelly.  There 
are  many  remains  of  British  and  Roman  camps, 
Roman  roads,  cairns,  cromlechs,  mounds,  and 
castles,  throughout  the  county.  The  Normans 
wrested  the  county  from  the  Welsh  princes  in 
1092.  Llewelyn,  the  last  British  prince  of  Wales, 
was  killed  at  Llanafanfechan,  near  Builth,  in 
1282.  Welsh  is  still  the  language  of  the  middle- 
class  and  the  peasantry.  See  Jones's  History  of 
Brecknockshire  (2  vols.  1805-9). 

Breda,  a  town  of  Holland,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  navigable  Mark  and  Aa,  60  miles  ENB. 
of  Flushing  by  rail,  and  30  NNE.  of  Antwerp. 
Its  Gothic  cathedral  (1510)  has  an  octagonal 
steeple  311  feet  high;  whilst  the  castle  (1350) 
received  its  present  shape  from  William  III. 
(1696),  and  in  1828  was  converted  into  a  military 
academy.  There  are  manufactures  of  carpets, 
linen,  hats,  soap,  leather,  &c.,  and  dyeworks, 
breweries,  and  rope-walks.  Tlie  population  is 
about  30,000.  Fortified  until  1876,  Breda  was 
captured  by  the  Spaniards  (1581),  by  the  Dutch 
under  Maurice  of  Orange  (1590),  by  Spinola  (1625), 
again  by  the  Dutch  (1632),  and  twice  by  the 
French  (1793-95),  who  were  finally  driven  out 
in  1813. 

Bredfield,  a  Suff'olk  parish,  Edward  Fitz- 
Gerald's  birthplace,  3  miles  N.  of  Woodbridge. 

Breede  (Bray'deh),  a  river  in  Cape  Colony,  flow- 
ing  SE.  to  the  Indian  Ocean  at  St  Sebastian's 
Bay,  60  miles  NE.  of  Cape  Agulhas.  It  is  navig- 
able for  vessels  drawing  not  more  than  10  feet 
of  water  to  a  distance  of  40  miles. 

Bregenz  (Bray-gentz' ;  anc.  Brigantium),  a  town 
of  Austria,  capital  of  the  Vorarlberg,  on  the  east 
shore  of  the  Lake  of  Constance ;  it  is  the  ter- 
minus of  the  Arlberg  railway  (from  Innsbruck), 
with  a  great  tunnel,  opened  1884.     Pop.  7736. 

Breisach,  Alt  (Brl-sahh ;  anc.  Mons  Brisiacus), 
a  town  of  I3aden,  situated  on  an  isolated  basalt 
hill  (804  feet)  on  the  right  side  of  the  Rhine, 
14  miles  W.  of  Freiburg.  The  minster  is  a  13th- 
century  structure.     Pop.  3506. 

Breisgau  (Brlse'gow),  a  German  district  extend- 
ing along  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  from  the 
episcopal  territory  of  Strasburg  to  Basel,  ejn- 
bracing  Freiburg  and  the  southern  Black  Forest. 
Since  1810  it  has  been  part  of  Baden. 

Breitenfeld  (Brl'tenfelt),  a  Saxon  village,  5 
miles  N.  of  Leipzig.  In  the  first  of  three  battles 
here  (17th  September  1631),  Gustavus  Adolphus 
defeated  the  imperialists  under  Tilly  ;  the  second 
(2d  November  1642)  was  also  a  victory  of  the 
Swedes  over  the  imperial  forces  ;  and  the  third 
was  one  act  of  the  great  '  Battle  of  the  Nations ' 
at  Leipzig,  16th  October  1813. 

Bremen  (Bray'men),  a  free  city  of  Germany,  on 
the  Weser,  39  miles  by  rail  SSB.  of  Bremerhaven, 
and  76  NW.  of  Hanover.  Pop.  (1875)  102,177; 
(1900)  163,297.  Bremen  is  divided  into  the  Old 
and  the  New  Town— the  former  on  the  right,  the 


latter  (dating  from  1620)  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
river,  which  is  spanned  by  four  bridges.  The 
ramparts  and  bastions  round  the  old  town  have 
been  formed  into  public  promenades.  Among 
the  principal  buildings  are  the  cathedral  (1043- 
70 ;  reconstructed  13th  to  17th  centuries),  tho 
Gothic  town-hall  (1409),  with  its  famous  wine- 
cellar,  the  'Schlitting'  or  guildhall  (1537),  the 
exchange,  the  museum,  the  post-otfice,  and  the 
observatory  of  Dr  Olbers,  who  here  discovered 
the  planets  Pallas  and  Vesta.  Bremen  is  a 
very  thriving  place,  and  now  ranks  as  the  second 
commercial  city  in  Germany.  Large  vessels  stop 
at  Bremerhaven.  Bremen  carries  on  an  exten- 
sive commerce  with  Great  Britain,  North  and 
South  America,  the  West  Indies,  Africa,  the  East 
Indies,  and  China ;  its  great  foreign  trade,  how- 
ever, is  with  the  United  States.  Bremen  ships 
about  50  per  cent,  of  all  emigrants  sailing  from 
Germany,  principally  to  the  United  States.  The 
chief  imports  are  tobacco,  coffee,  sugar,  cotton, 
rice,  skins,  dyewoods,  wines,  petroleum,  timber, 
and  hemp.  The  exports  consist  of  woollen  goods, 
linens,  glass,  rags,  wool,  hemp,  hides,  oil-cake, 
colours,  and  wooden  toys.  Large  quantities  of 
tobacco  are  re-exported.  There  are  manufactures 
of  woollens  and  cottons,  cigars,  paper,  and  starch, 
and  breweries,  distilleries,  rice-mills,  and  sugar- 
refineries.  Bremen  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
North  German  Lloyd  Steamship  Company  (1857). 

Bremen  first  became  of  historical  note  in  the 
8th  century,  when  it  was  erected  into  a  bishopric 
by  Charlemagne.  It  soon  attained  considerable 
commercial  importance,  and  became  one  of  the 
principal  cities  of  the  Hanseatic  League.  In  1810 
it  was  incorporated  with  the  French  empire,  but 
recovered  its  independence  in  1813,  and  by  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  was  admitted  in  1815  as  one 
of  the  Hanse  towns  into  the  Germanic  confedera- 
tion. In  1867  it  became  a  member  of  the  North 
German  confederation,  and  now  it  forms  part  of 
the  German  empire.  The  area  of  the  territory  is 
99  sq.  m.  ;  pop.,  including  the  town  of  Bremen 
(1900)  224,882. 

Bremerhaven  (Bray merhdh' fen),  the  port  of 
Bremen,  on  the  Weser  estuary,  nearly  10  miles 
from  the  open  sea,  and  39  NNW.  of  Bremen.  It 
was  founded  by  Bremen  in  1827,  and  rapidly 
became  a  thriving  place.  A  second  dock  was 
opened  in  1866,  a  third  in  1874;  and  in  1888  a 
great  port,  with  docks,  was  undertaken  atNorden- 
ham,  on  the  opposite  bank.  The  Geeste  sepa- 
rates itf rom  Geestemlinde  (q. v.).  The  population 
has  risen  from  3500  in  1850  to  over  21,000. 

Brenner  Pass,  a  pass  (4588  feet)  in  the  Central 
Tyrol  Alps,  on  the  road  between  Innsbruck  and 
Botzen,  connecting  Germany  with  north-east 
Italy.  Open  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  it  is  the 
lowest  pass  over  the  main  chain  of  the  Alps. 
In  1867  a  railway  through  the  pass  was  opened. 
The  distance  from  Innsbruck  to  Botzen  in  a 
direct  line  is  only  52  miles,  but  frequent  wind- 
ings extend  the  railway  to  78  miles.  It  passes 
over  numerous  viaducts  and  bridges,  and  through 
twenty-seven  tunnels,  one  of  them  935  yards  long. 

Brenta  (Medoacus  Major),  a  river  of  North 
Italy,  issuing  from  a  small  lake  in  the  Tyrol,  and 
flowing  120  miles  southward  and  eastward  to  the 
Gulf  of  Venice  at  the  haven  of  Brondolo. 

Brentford,  the  county  town  of  Middlesex,  10 
miles  W.  of  Paddington  station,  at  the  influx  of 
the  Brent  to  the  Thames,  Avhich  is  crossed  here 
by  a  bridge  leading  to  Kew.  Consisting  chiefly 
of  one  long  irregular  street,  it  has  gin-distilleries, 
a  brewery,   sawmills,  a  soap-work,  the   Grand 


BRENTWOOD 


125 


BRIDGE  OF  EARN 


Junction  Water-works,  &c.  There  are  many 
market-gardens  in  tlie  vicinity.  Here  Edmund 
Ironside  defeated  the  Danes  in  1016  ;  in  1558  six 
martyrs  were  burned  at  the  stake ;  and  in  1642 
Prince  Rupert  defeated  the  Parliamentarians. 
Pop.  15,500. 

Brentwood,  a  market-town  in  Essex,  10  miles 
SW.  of  Chelmsford  by  rail.  It  has  a  richly 
endowed  grammar-school  (1567).  Population, 
4932. 

Brescia  (Bresh'ya ;  anc.  Brixia),  a  city  of  Lom- 
bardy,  on  the  rivers  Mella  and  Garza,  51  miles 
E:  of  Milan  by  rail.  It  has  two  cathedrals— the 
old  (dating  from  the  7th  century),  and  the  new 
(1604-1825);  the  Tosi  Gallery  or  Town  Museum, 
adorned  with  frescoes ;  the  12th-century  Broletto 
Palace ;  the  Biblioteca  Quiriniana,  with  40,000 
volumes,  founded  in  1750  by  Cardinal  Quirini ; 
and  the  Temple  of  Hercules,  which,  built  by  Ves- 
pasian, and  excavated  in  1822,  forms  a  repository 
for  classical  antiquities.  The  cemetery  (1810)  is 
regarded  as  the  finest  in  Italy.  A  statue  of 
Arnold  of  Brescia  was  unveiled  in  1882.  Brescia 
manufactures  woollens,  silk,  leather,  paper,  arms, 
cutlery,  &c.,  and  its  wine  is  of  good  quality. 
Pop.  71,000. 

Breslau  {Brez'low),  capital  of  Prussian  Silesia, 
150  m.  SB.  of  Frankfort-on-Oder  by  rail,  is  situated 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Ohlau  and  Oder.  It  has 
a  university  founded  by  the  Emperor  Leopold  I. 
in  1702,  with  over  1200  students,  and  a  library  of 
300,000  volumes;  a  cathedral  (1148-1680);  and 
the  Protestant  church  of  St  Elizabeth,  with  a 
steeple  298  feet  in  height,  and  a  splendid  organ. 
Linen  fairs  are  held,  and  Breslau  is  a  great 
wool-mart.  It  has  manufactures  of  linens, 
woollens,  cotton,  silks,  lace,  jewellery,  machines, 
earthenware,  soap,  alum,  starch,  &c.,  with  many 
distilleries.  Breslau  is  a  city  of  Slavonic  origin, 
and  was  for  many  centuries  occupied  alternately 
by  the  Poles  and  the  Bohemians.  It  afterwards 
passed  to  Austria,  from  which  it  was  taken  by 
Frederick  II.  of  Prussia  in  1741.  Six  years  after- 
wards it  was  captured  by  tlie  Austrians  after  a 
bloody  battle,  but  retaken  by  Frederick  in  about 
a  month.  It  was  often  besieged  from  that  time 
imtil  1814,  when  its  fortifications  were  completely 
demolished ;  since  1890,  however,  it  has  again 
been  made  a  first-class  fortress.  Pop.  (1870) 
207,997  ;  (1900)  422,800. 

Bressay,  one  of  the  Shetland  Isles,  separated 
from  Lerwick  by  Bressay  Sound.  It  is  6  miles 
long,  1  to  3  broad,  and  10|  sq.  m.  in  area.  The 
coast  is  rocky,  there  are  several  caverns,  and  the 
highest  point  is  724  feet  above  sea-level.  Pop. 
699,  chiefly  fishermen.  Bressay  Sound  is  one  of 
the  finest  natural  harbours  in  the  world.  In  its 
west  centre  is  the  harbour  of  Lerwick  with  light- 
house. East  of  Bressay,  with  a  narrow  and 
dangerous  sound  between,  is  a  rocky  isle,  Noss, 
6  miles  in  circuit,  rising  abruptly  from  the  sea  to 
a  height  of  nearly  600  feet,  with  a  flattish  top. 
A  detached  rock  or  holm,  on  the  south-east  side, 
in  former  years  communicated  with  Noss  by 
means  of  a  cradle  or  wooden  chair  run  on  strong 
ropes  stretched  across  a  yawning  gulf. 

Brest,  a  strongly  fortified  city  in  the  dep.  of 
Finist^re,  one  of  the  chief  naval  stations  of 
France,  is  situated  389  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Paris, 
on  the  north  side  of  the  Bay  or  Road  of  Brest. 
One  of  the  finest  harbours  in  Europe,  the  road- 
stead is  formed  by  the  promontory  of  Finistdre 
on  the  north  and  Kelerun  on  the  south,  and  is 
broken  up  into  various  bays  formed  by  the 
mouths  of  streams  as  they  enter  the  bay.    The 


only  entrance  to  the  bay  is  by  a  narrow  channel 
called  Le  Goulet,  which  is  scarcely  a  mile  wide, 
and  is  strongly  defended  by  batteries ;  the  diffi- 
culty and  danger  of  access  to  hostile  ships  being 
increased  by  rocks  in  the  middle  of  the  channel. 
The  roadstead  from  this  entrance  to  the  mouth 
of  the  Elon  is  about  6  miles  in  length.  Under 
Napoleon  III.  £600,000  was  expended  on  harbour 
and  fortification  works,  and  a  further  sum  of 
£1,500,000  between  1883  and  1894.  The  small 
river  Penfeld  flows  through  the  town ;  on  its 
left  bank  is  the  town  proper,  on  its  right  the 
suburb  of  Itecouvrance,  connected  by  a  splendid 
iron  swing-bridge  (1861),  65  feet  high,  and  34? 
long.  The  manufactures  include  leather,  wax- 
cloth, paper,  and  rope ;  the  exports  are  chiefly 
beer,  grain,  brandy,  and  fish.  Brest  has  exten- 
sive shipbuilding  yards,  rope-walks,  storehouses, 
quays,  arsenals,  and  dry-docks ;  its  industry  Is 
chiefly  confined  to  the  equipment  of  the  navy  in 
its  various  branches.  The  splendid  position  of 
Brest  made  it  an  object  of  contention  to  French, 
English,  and  Spaniards.  In  1631  Cardinal  Riche- 
lieu resolved  to  make  it  a  naval  station,  and 
commenced  the  fortifications,  which  were  com- 
pleted by  Vauban,  but  have  since  been  greatly 
extended.  In  1694  the  English  under  Lord 
Berkeley  were  repulsed  here  with  great  loss  ; 
in  1794  the  French  fleet  was  defeated  off  Brest 
by  the  English  fleet  under  Howe.  Pop.  (1872) 
66,272  ;  (1891)  75,854;  (1901)  84,285. 

Brest  Litovsk  (Polish  Brzesc),  a  strongly  forti- 
fied town  of  Russian  Poland,  on  the  Bug,  132 
miles  ESE.  of  Warsaw,  and  682  WSW.  of  Moscow. 
It  has  vast  magazines  and  military  stores,  and 
an  extensive  trade  in  its  cloth  manufactures, 
Russian  leather,  soap,  and  wood.    Pop.  47,981. 

Bretagne.    See  Brittany. 

Bretigny  (Breteenyee'),  a  village  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Eure-et-Loir,  20  miles  S.  of  Paris  by  rail. 
Here,  in  1360,  Edward  III.  concluded  a  peace 
with  France. 

Bretten,  a  town  of  Baden,  the  birthplace  of 
Melanclithoh,  16  miles  ENE.  of  Karlsruhe  by 
rail.     Pop.  4932. 

Brezowa  (Brez'ova),  a  market- town  of  Hungary, 
20  miles  NW.  of  Leopoldstadt.    Pop.  5549. 

BrianQon  {Breeon^son"' ;  anc.  Brigantium),  a 
town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Hautes-Alpes,  162 
miles  NNE.  of  Marseilles  by  rail,  on  the  Durance. 
It  is  the  highest  town  in  France— 4380  feet  above 
sea-level.  As  the  principal  arsenal  and  depot 
of  the  French  Alps,  it  is  so  strongly  fortified  as 
to  be  deemed  impregnable.     Pop.  5638. 

Briansk  (Bree-ansk),  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the 
Desna,  77  miles  W.  of  Orel  by  rail.     Pop.  26,403. 

Briare  (Breedhr'),  a  town  in  the  dep.  of  Loiret, 
on  the  Loire,  102  miles  SSE.  of  Paris  by  rail. 
The  Canal  de  Briare  (35  miles  long),  uniting  the 
Loire  and  Seine,  was  the  first  constructed  in 
France  (1642).    Pop.  5651. 

Bridgend,  a  market-town  of  Glamorganshire, 
17  miles  W.  of  Cardiff",  with  ironworks  and 
collieries.    Pop.  6062. 

Bridgenorth.    See  Bridgnorth. 

Bridge  of  Allan,  a  beautiful  village  on  Allan 
Water,  3  miles  N.  of  Stirling  by  tram.  Sheltered 
by  the  Ochils,  it  owes  its  prosperity  partly  to 
the  mineral  saline  wells  of  Airthrey,  and  partly 
to  its  delightful  situation  and  mild  climate.  Pop. 
(1861)  1803  ;  (1901)  3240. 

Bridge  of  Earn,  a  village  of  Perthshire,  on  the 
Earn,  4  miles  SSE.  of  Perth.     Pop.  365. 


BRIDGE  OF  WEIR 


126 


BRIENNE-LE-CHATEAU 


Bridge  of  Weir,  a  Renfrewshire  village,  on  the 
Gryfe,  7  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Paisley.    Pop.  2242. 

Bridgeport,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Con- 
necticut, U.S.,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Pequan- 
nock  into  an  inlet  of  Long  Island  Sound.  It  is 
53  miles  SW.  of  Hartford,  and  57  NE.  of  New 
York.  It  has  a  safe  harbour  for  small  vessels, 
a  considerable  coasting  trade,  several  fine  public 
parks,  and  a  system  of  street  railways.  Golden 
Hill,  commanding  fine  views  of  the  sound  and 
shore,  is  covered  with  good  residences,  many 
of  the  inhabitants  belonging  to  New  York. 
The  manufactures  are  extensive,  particularly  of 
carriages,  harness,  machinery,  metallic  cart- 
ridges, and  sewing-machines.  Pop.  (1870)  18,8G9; 
(1880)  27,643  ;  (1890)  48,866 ;  (1900)  70,996. 

Bridgeton,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  in  New 
Jersey,  U.S.,  on  Cohansey  Creek,  38  miles  S.  of 
Philadelphia.  It  lias  the  West  Jersey  Academy, 
South  Jersey  Institute  (1870),  a  public  library, 
and  manufactures  of  woollen  goods,  iron,  leather, 
carriages,  machinery,  and  canned  fruits.  Pop. 
15,000. 

Bridgetown,  the  capital  of  Barbadoes  (q.v.), 
is  situated  on  the  west  coast  of  the  island  along 
the  north  side  of  Carlisle  Bay,  which  forms  its 
roadstead.  The  inner  harbour  is  protected  by  a 
breakwater  known  as  tlie  Mole  Head.  Founded 
in  1628,  the  town  took  the  name  Indian  Bridge, 
and  later  its  present  appellation,  from  a  rude 
aboriginal  structure  which  spanned  a  neighbour- 
ing creek.  It  suffered  much  from  fire  in  1666, 
1766,  and  1845;  in  1831  from  a  hurricane.  A 
railway  of  23  miles  in  length  to  the  parish  of 
St  Andrew  was  comi)leted  in  1882.  Population, 
about  35,000. 

Brldgewater  Canal,  a  canal  in  Lancashire  and 
Cheshire,  42  miles  long,  uniting  Worsley  with 
Runcorn  and  Manchester.  It  was  formed  in 
1762-72  by  the  Duke  of  Bridgewater  and  Brindley, 
and  bought  (1888)  by  the  Manchester  Ship  Canal 
Company.  It  is  carried  over  the  Manchester 
Ship  Canal  at  Barton-upon-Irwell  (q.v.)  by  a 
great  swing-bridge. 

Bridgnorth,  a  municipal  borough  of  Shrop- 
shire, 19  miles  SB.  of  Shrewsbury.  The  Severn 
divides  it  into  the  upper  or  'High  Town,'  and 
lower  or 'Low  Town,"  the  two  connected  by  an 
inclined  railway  (1892)  with  a  vertical  rise  of 
111  feet.  The  High  Town  is  built  on  a  red  sand- 
stone rock  rising  180  feet  above  the  right  bank 
of  the  river.  This  rock  was  formerly  crowned 
by  a  royal  fortress,  a  huge  leaning  fragment 
being  all  now  left  of  the  keep.  Bridgnorth  has 
a  grammar-school  existing  in  Henry  VIIL's  reign, 
carpet,  worsted,  and  tanning  industries,  and  agri- 
cultural trade.  Until  1868  it  returned  two 
members,  and  until  1885  one.  The  Danes 
wintered  here  in  896,  and  the  site  of  a  Saxon 
castle,  built  by  the  princess  Ethelfleda,  is  still 
distinctly  marked.  Robert  de  Belesme  (a  kins- 
man of  the  Conqueror)  built  the  Norman  castle, 
and  unsuccessfully  defended  it  against  Henry  I. 
It  was  also  besieged  by  Henry  II.  and  Edward 
II.  The  castle  was  demolished  by  the  Parlia- 
mentarians after  a  three-weeks'  siege,  during 
which  the  'High  Town'  was  destroyed  by  fire, 
one  of  the  few  houses  surviving  being  the  fine 
old  Tudor  mansion,  still  standing,  in  which, 
Bishop  Percy  was  afterwards  born  (1728).  Baxter 
began  his  ministry  here.  The  population  is  over 
6000. 

Bridgwater,  a  municipal  borough  and  river- 
port  of  Somersetshire,  on  the  Parret,  6  miles  in 
a  direct  line,  and  12  by  the  river,  from  the  I 


Bristol  Channel,  and  29  miles  SW.  of  Bristol. 
It  stands  on  the  border  of  a  plain  between  the 
Mendip  and  Quantock  Hills,  in  a  well-wooded 
country.  The  Parret,  which  admits  vessels  of 
700  tons  up  to  the  town,  rises  36  feet  at  spring- 
tides, and  is  subject  to  a  bore,  6  or  8  feet  high ; 
a  canal  gives  water  communication  with  Taunton. 
Bath  or  scouring  bricks,  of  which  Bridgwater 
has  a  monopoly,  are  made  here  of  a  mixture  of 
sand  and  clay  found  in  the  river,  and  there  are 
carriage-works  and  potteries.  The  Conqueror 
granted  the  manor  to  one  Walter  de  Douay,  and 
its  name  thereupon  became  Burgh-Walter,  of 
which  Bridgwater  is  a  mere  corruption.  A  castle 
was  built  here  in  the  reign  of  John,  and  an 
Augustinian  abbey  about  1230.  Admiral  Blake 
was  a  native  of  Bridgwater,  which  in  the  great 
rebellion  was  forced  by  Fairfax  to  surrender,  the 
castle  being  dismantled.  The  battle  of  Sedgemoor 
(q.v.)  was  fought  in  1685  near  Bridgwater,  whose 
corporation  had  proclaimed  Monmouth  as  king. 
Bridgwater  formerly  returned  two  members,  but 
was  disfranchised  in  1870.  Pop.  (1851)  10,317; 
(1901)  15,209.  See  the  history  of  the  town  by 
S.  J.  Jarman  (1889). 

Bridlington,  or  Burlington,  a  town  in  the 
East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  6  miles  SW.  of  Flam- 
borough  Head,  and  23  SSE.  of  Scarborough.  An 
old-fashioned  place,  with  narrow  irregular  streets, 
it  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  site  of  a  Roman 
station.  An  Augustinian  priory  of  immense 
wealth,  founded  in  Henry  I.'s  reign,  is  repre- 
sented by  the  nave  of  its  splendid  church,  mixed 
Early  English  and  Perpendicular  in  style.  On 
Bridlington  Bay,  1  mile  SE.,  is  Bridlington  Quay, 
the  port  of  the  town,  which  has  risen  into  repute 
as  a  watering-place,  with  fine  sands,  a  parade, 
ornamental  gardens,  a  chalybeate  mineral  spring, 
and  hot  and  cold  baths.  The  bay  has  good 
anchorage,  and  the  harbour  is  enclosed  by  stone 
piers.  In  1643  Henrietta  Maria  landed  here  from 
Holland  with  arms  and  ammunition  bought  with 
the  crown-jewels,  when  Bridlington  was  cannon- 
aded for  giving  her  refuge.  In  1899  it  became  a 
municipality.    Pop.  13,000. 

Bridport,  a  municipal  borough  of  Dorsetshire, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Asker  and  the  Brit,  2 
miles  from  the  English  Channel,  and  16^  W.  of 
Dorchester  by  rail.  It  stands  on  an  eminence 
surrounded  by  hills,  and  has  a  town-hall  (1785), 
and  a  good  cruciform  parish  church.  Till  1867 
Bridport  returned  two  members  to  parliament ; 
and  till  1885,  one.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
ropes  and  cordage  (a  '  Bridport  dagger '  was  pro- 
verbial for  a  halter  in  Leland's  day),  besides 
twine,  shoe-thread,  fishing-nets,  and  sailcloth. 
Vessels  of  250  tons  can  enter  the  harbour,  which 
is  li  mile  below  the  town.  The  population  is 
about  COOO. 

Brieg  (Breeg),  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on 
the  Oder,  27  miles  SE.  of  Breslau  by  rail.  The 
13th-century  church  of  St  Nicholas  has  a  splendid 
organ,  and  towers  added  in  1884-85.  Brieg  manu- 
factures machinery,  ironwares,  sugar,  leather, 
tobacco,  &c.    Pop.  25,000. 

Briel  (Breal),  or  Brielle,  sometimes  The 
Brill,  a  fortified  seaport  town  of  South  Holland, 
situated  on  the  north  side  of  the  island  of  Voome, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Maas.  Pop.  4562,  chiefly 
pilots  and  fishermen.  Briel  may  be  considered 
as  the  nucleus  of  the  Dutch  republic,  having 
been  taken  from  the  Spaniards  in  1572.  De  Witt 
and  Tromp  were  natives. 

Brienne-le-CMteau  (Bree-enn'-le-Shdhto'),  a 
town  (pop.  1680)  in  the  dep.  of  Aube,  on  the 


BRIENZ 


127 


BRINDISI 


Aube,  85  miles  ENE.  of  Troyes.  At  the  mili- 
tary school  here  (suppressed  in  1790)  the  great 
Napoleon  spent  five  years.  Here,  too,  he  was 
defeated  by  the  allies  in  January  1814. 

Brienz  (Bree-entz'),  a  Swiss  town  at  the  foot  of 
the  Bernese  Alps,  on  the  NE.  shore  of  the  lake  of 
Brienz,  30  miles  ESB.  of  Bern.  Pop.  2758.— The 
lake,  8|  miles  long  and  1^  broad,  is  an  expansion 
of  the  river  Aar,  and  is  believed  to  have  been  at 
one  time  united  with  Lake  Thun.  It  lies  1857 
feet  above  the  sea,  is  859  feet  deep  at  one  point, 
and  is  surrounded  by  lofty  mountains.  The 
Giessbach  Cascades,  a  series  of  fine  falls,  are 
accessible  by  a  cable  tramway. 

Brierfield,  an  urban  district,  Lancashire,  2J 
miles  NE.  of  Burnley.    Pop.  7500. 

Brierley  Hill,  a  town  of  Staff'ordshire,  2^  miles 
NE.  of  Stourbridge,  It  has  numerous  collieries, 
large  ironworks,  glassworks,  brickworks,  and 
potteries.    Pop.  13,000. 

Brlgg,  a  market-town  of  Lincolnshire,  24  miles 
N.  of  Lincoln.     Pop.  3500. 

Brighouse,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  4  miles  ESE.  of  Halifax, 
a  municipal  borough  since  1893.     Pop.  22,500. 

Brlghtllngsea,  an  Essex  seaport,  on  the  Colne's 
estuary,  8  miles  SE.  of  Colchester.  It  has  oyster 
fisheries.    Pop.  5000. 

Brighton,  a  parliamentary,  municipal,  and 
county  borough  and  fashionable  watering-place 
in  Sussex,  50j  miles  S.  of  London  by  rail  (IJ 
hour).  Its  fonner  name,  Briglitlielmstone  (1252- 
1810),  was  superseded  about  1800  by  Brighton, 
which  occurs,  however,  as  early  as  1660.  The 
town  is  built  on  a  slope  ascending  eastward  to 
a  range  of  high  chalk-cliffs ;  to  the  west,  these 
hills  recede  from  the  coast ;  and  the  nearest 
point  of  the  South  Downs  is  the  Devil's  Dyke, 
5  miles  distant.  Ancient  Brighthelmstone  was 
a  mere  fishing-village  on  a  level  under  the  cliff. 
It  suffered  miich  at  the  hands  of  French,  Flem- 
ings, and  Spaniards,  and  still  more  from  the  sea, 
whose  inroads  in  1699,  1703,  and  1706  under- 
mined the  cliffs  and  destroyed  many  houses. 
Further  inroads  are  prevented  by  a  sea-wall  of 
great  strength  (60  feet  high  and  23  feet  thick  at 
the  base),  extending  along  the  east  cliffs,  and 
built  between  1827  and  1838  at  a  cost  of  £100,000. 
The  writings  of  Dr  Richard  Russell,  a  celebrated 
physician,  first  drew  public  attention  about  1753 
to  Brighton  as  an  eligible  watering-place,  and 
the  discovery  of  a  chalybeate  spring  in  the 
vicinity  increased  its  popularity.  The  visit  of 
the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1782,  and  his  subsequent 
yearly  residence  there,  finally  opened  the  eyes 
of  the  fashionable  Avorld  to  Brighton's  immense 
attractions,  and  it  thenceforth  became  the 
crowded  resort  of  a  health-seeking  population, 
in  which  the  opening  of  the  Brighton  Railway 
in  1841  greatly  assisted.  It  was  made  a  parlia- 
mentary borough  (returning  two  members)  in 
1832,  a  municipal  one  in  1854 ;  its  progress  has 
been  very  rapid,  and  the  town  is  still  steadily 
increasing.  A.3  becomes  a  favoured  retreat  of 
wealth  and  aristocracy,  Brighton  is  for  the  most 
part  extremely  well  built,  consisting  of  new  and 
elegant  streets,  squares,  and  terraces.  The  pub- 
lic hotels  are  magnificent ;  besides  these  there 
are  the  boarding-houses  and  nearly  1000  lodging- 
house  keepers.  A  range  of  splendid  houses  fronts 
the  sea  for  upwards  of  3  miles,  the  promenade — 
asphalted  from  end  to  end,  and  exceptionally 
well  lighted— being  almost  on  a  dead  level,  within 
a  few  feet  of  the  sea,  for  the  greater  part  of  its 


length,  but  rising  at  the  east  end  of  the  town  to 
a  height  of  60  feet,  on  the  top  of  the  sea-wall 
already  referred  to.  Beneath  this  is  the  Madeira 
Road,  a  fine  drive  and  promenade  a  mile  in 
length,  and  sheltered  effectually  from  the  north 
wind.  The  population  is  greatly  increased  during 
the  fashionable  seasons  (especially  in  late  summer 
and  autumn)  by  the  influx  of  visitors,  the  average 
number  being  50,000,  chiefly  from  London,  for 
which  reason  it  is  sometimes  called  London-super- 
Mare.  Of  over  twenty  churches,  St  Nicholas, 
dating  from  the  time  of  Henry  VII.,  is  the  only 
ancient  one ;  Holy  Trinity  Church  has  been 
rendered  famous  from  the  ministry  of  P.  W. 
Robertson.  The  public  buildings  include  the 
town-hall,  the  town-hall  in  the  adjoining  town- 
ship of  Hove  (part  of  the  parliamentary  borough, 
but  not  included  for  municipal  purposes),  the 
unrivalled  aquarium  (1872),  museum  of  British 
birds,  school  of  science  and  art,  Brighton  college, 
theatre,  and  the  Sussex  county  hospital.  At 
Queen's  Park,  in  the  east  of  the  town,  is  the 
Gennan  Spa  establishment,  and  at  St  Anne's 
well  and  wild  gardens  in  the  west  is  a  chaly- 
beate spring.  In  the  north  of  the  town  is  the 
Preston  public  park  of  62  acres  (1884),  which  cost 
£50,000,  the  money  being  left  to  the  town  by  the 
'leviathan '  bookmaker,  Mr  W.  E.  Davies (1819-79). 

Near  the  centre  of  the  town  is  the  Royal 
Pavilion  or  Marine  Palace,  a  fantastic  oriental 
or  Chinese  structure,  with  domes,  minarets,  and 
pinnacles,  and  Moorish  stables,  begun  for  the 
Prince  of  Wales  in  1784,  and  finished  in  1827. 
It  was  purchased  in  1850  for  £53,000  by  the 
corporation,  and  with  its  fine  pleasure-grounds 
it  is  devoted  to  the  recreation  of  the  inhabitants. 
The  concert-hall  known  as  the  'Dome,'  formerly 
the  royal  stables,  can  accommodate  3000  people. 
Adjoining  are  the  public  library  and  museum 
and  picture-gallery.  The  famous  chain  pier 
(1823),  1136  feet  in  length,  was  destroyed  in  a  storm 
in  1896 ;  the  much  wider  '  West  Pier '  (1866)  is 
1115  feet  long;  and  the  New  Pier  and  Marine 
Palace  (1900)  is  1700  feet  long.  Pop.  (1801)  7389 ; 
(1821)  24,429  ;  (1841)  46,661 ;  (1861)  77,693  ;  (1881) 
107,546;  (1891)  115,873  ;  (1901)  123,478  ;  of  parlia- 
mentary borougli,  two  members  (1901),  153,386. 
See  works  by  Erredge  (1862),  J.  Bishop  (1875-80), 
Sawyer  (1878),  Sala  (1895),  and  on  the  '  Brighton 
Road  •  by  C.  G.  Harper  (1892). 

Biignoles  (Breen-yoW),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Var,  42  m.  ESE.  of  Aix  by  rail.    Pop.  4298. 

Brlhuega  (Bree-way'ga),  a  town  of  New  Castile, 
Spain,  on  the  Tajuna,  20  miles  ENE.  of  Guad- 
alajara. Pop.  3700.  Here,  in  1710,  the  English 
general  Stanhope  was  defeated  by  the  Due  de 
Vendome,  and  compelled  to  surrender. 

Brlndaban,  or  Bindraban,  a  town  of  the 
North-west  Provinces,  on  the  Jumna,  6  miles  N. 
of  Muttra.  It  is  one  of  the  holiest  cities  of  the 
Hindus  ;  and  through  the  munificence  of  wealthy 
devotees  there  are  a  large  number  of  costly 
temples  and  shrines.  Here,  as  at  Benares,  the 
immediate  margin  of  the  river  is  occupied  by 
flights  of  steps,  or  ghauts.    Pop.  22,717. 

Brln'dlsi  (anc.  Brundisium  or  Brundusium),  a 
seaport  town  of  Southern  Italy,  on  a  small  pro- 
montory in  a  bay  of  the  Adriatic,  346  miles  SE, 
of  Ancona  by  rail.  It  was  the  principal  naval 
station  of  the  Romans  in  the  Adriatic,  with  a 
pop.  of  100,000.  Horace  has  made  a  journey  to 
Brundisium  the  subject  of  one  of  his  satires  (Sat. 
i.  5),  and  Virgil  died  here  (19  B.C.)  on  his  return 
from  Greece.  With  the  decline  of  the  crusades 
it  sank  into  insignificance,  and  subsequently  it 


BRIOUDE 


128 


BRISTOL 


suffered  greatly  from  wars  and  earthquakes. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  archiepiscopal 
cathedral  (1150),  now  in  a  somewhat  ruinous 
state  ;  and  the  castle,  commenced  by  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II.,  and  finished  by  Charles  V,  Since 
the  establishment  of  the  Overland  Route  to 
India,  Brindisi  has  greatly  increased,  and  as  the 
terminus  of  the  Mont  Cenis  and  other  railway 
routes,  it  has  become  a  great  point  of  departure 
for  passengers  for  the  East.  It  is  about  60  hours 
from  London  by  rail ;  and  the  weekly  steamers 
to  Alexandria  make  the  passage  in  three  days. 
The  extensive  and  well-sheltered  harbour  has 
undergone  great  improvement ;  and  mail  steamers 
can  now  lie  alongside  the  quays  in  26  feet  of 
water.    Pop.  24,508. 

Brioude  (Bree-ood'),  a  town  in  the  dep.  of  Haute- 
Loire,  44  miles  SSE.  of  Clermont.    Pop.  4832. 

Brisbane,  the  capital  of  Queensland,  a  sea- 
port and  chief  seat  of  trade  in  the  colony,  is 
situated  about  500  miles  N.  of  Sydney,  and  25 
miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Brisbane  River, 
which  falls  into  Moreton  Bay.  Pop.  (1876)  26,911 ; 
(1881)  31,109  ;  (1891)  48,738  ;  (1901,  within  a  five- 
mile  radius)  119,428.  North  and  South  Brisbane 
are  connected  by  an  iron  bridge,  1080  feet  long, 
destroyed  in  1893  and  rebuilt  in  1897.  Notable 
buildings  are  the  Parliament  Houses,  Government 
House,  museum,  supreme  court,  post-office, 
custom-house,  Anglican  and  Catholic  cathe- 
drals, and  some  of  the  banks.  There  are  several 
parks  and  botanic  gardens.  The  export  trade, 
which  is  large,  includes  gold,  wool,  cotton,  sugar, 
tallow,  and  hides  ;  and  the  imports,  most  of  the 
articles  in  use  among  a  thriving  comnumity. 
Regular  steam  communication  is  kept  up  with 
the  other  Australian  ports,  as  well  as  with 
London  (11,295  miles).  The  channel  of  the  river 
has  been  deepened,  and  admits  of  large  vessels 
coming  up  to  Brisbane.  Brisbane  is  the  terminus 
of  several  local  railways,  and  since  1888  it  has 
had  through  railway  connection  with  Sydney, 
Melbourne,  and  Adelaide — the  last  link  being  the 
bridge  over  the  Hawkesbury  River.  Brisbane 
was  settled  as  a  penal  station  in  1825  by  Sir  T. 
Brisbane,  governor  of  New  South  Wales.  In 
1839  the  convict  settlement  was  broken  iip.  The 
era  of  progress  began  in  1842,  when  the  colony 
was  opened  to  free  settlers.  At  first  an  appanage 
of  New  South  Wales,  the  Moreton  Bay  district 
was  erected  into  an  independent  colony  in  1859, 
when  the  city  was  incorporated.— The  Brisbane 
River  rises  in  the  Burnett  Range,  and  receives 
the  Bremer  and  other  rivers  before  its  entrance 
into  Moreton  Bay,  below  the  town  of  Brisbane. 
Its  floods  in  February  1893  did  tremendous 
damage  to  the  city,  South  Brisbane  being  prac- 
tically laid  in  ruins. 

Bristol,  a  mercantile  city,  118  miles  W.  of 
London,  and  6  from  the  mouth  of  the  Avon,  at 
its  junction  with  the  Frome,  is  locally  partly  in 
Gloucestershire  and  partly  in  Somerset,  but  since 
1373  has  been  itself  a  county.  The  castle,  rebuilt 
with  a  vast  keep  by  Robert,  Earl  of  Gloucester 
(died  1147),  fell  into  decay,  and  was  demolished 
in  1654.  The  cathedral  was  formerly  a  church 
of  Augustinian  canons  (1148);  the  nave  and 
aisles,  pulled  down  for  rebuilding  in  15th  cen- 
tury, were  rebuilt  in  1877 ;  the  choir  is  good 
14th-century  work ;  fine  Norman  chapter-house 
and  gateway  remain.  Bristol,  originally  in  the 
diocese  of  Worcester,  was  created  a  see  and  a 
city  in  1540,  with  the  abbey-church  of  St  Augus- 
tine's as  cathedral,  and  was  united  to  the  see  of 
Gloucester  in  1836 ;  its  re-erection  as  a  separate 


see  took  place  in  1897.  Of  its  other  churches  the 
most  noteworthy  is  St  Mary  Redcliff,  justly 
declared  by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  be  the  'fairest 
and  most  famous  parish  church  in  England.' 
Mainly  rebuilt  by  William  Canynges,  merchant 
(c.  1470),  it  is  vaulted  throughout,  and  is  a 
magnificent  specimen  of  Perpendicular.  The 
truncated  spire  was  completed,  280  feet  from 
ground,  and  170  feet  from  top  of  tower,  in  1872. 
In  the  muniment-room  is  the  chest  in  which 
Chattertou  (1752-70)  pretended  to  have  found  the 
Rowley  poems.  Among  the  ancient  houses  of 
the  town  are  Canynges'  house,  Redcliff  Street, 
Spicer's  (or  Back)  Hall,  and  St  Peter's  Hospital. 
The  principal  educational  institutions  are  Uni- 
versity College  (1876),  Clifton  College  (1862),  and 
the  grammar-school  (1531);  and  the  charitable 
foundations,  Queen  Elizabeth's  Hospital  (1586), 
the  Red  Maids'  School  (1621),  and  Colston's  School 
(1704),  now  removed  to  Stapleton,  Gloucester- 
shire. The  City  Library  (free)  dates  from  1613. 
Bristol,  which  derived  its  early  wealth  from  ex- 
porting slaves  to  Ireland,  received  its  first  charter 
from  Henry  II.,  who  also  (1171)  gave  Dublin  to 
the  men  of  Bristol.  One  of  the  '  staple '  towns 
(1353),  Bristol  took  a  prominent  part  in  discovery 
and  colonisation.  In  1497  John  Cabot  sailed  from 
the  port,  and  was  the  first  to  discover  North 
America  ;  his  son  Sebastian  declared  that  he  was 
born  in  Bristol,  and  sailed  thence  on  his  voyage 
of  1498.  The  city  was  taken  by  Prince  Rupert 
in  1643,  and  by  Fairfax  in  1645.  Colston  the 
jjhilanthropist  (1636-1721)  founded  many  chari- 
ties, and  his  'day'  is  annually  kept  in  Bristol. 
In  the  18th  century  privateering  was  largely 
carried  on.  Southey  was  a  native  of  Bristol, 
and  he  and  Coleridge  were  much  there  in  their 
younger  days.  Burke  sat  for  the  city,  one  of 
his  chief  supporters  being  Champion  (1743-91), 
maker  of  the  famous  Bristol  china.  The  Reform 
riots  of  1831  occasioned  great  loss  of  life  and 
property.  The  first  transatlantic  steam-ship,  the 
Great  Western,  was  built  in  the  port  in  1838. 
Strenuous  efforts  have  been  made  to  improve 
the  dock  accommodation ;  in  1809  the  Avon  for 
about  3  miles  was  turned  into  a  floating  harbour, 
and  in  1883  the  corporation  purchased  large 
docks  at  Avonmouth  and  Portishead.  The  prin- 
cipal imports  are  grain,  provisions,  oils,  hides, 
tallow,  sugar,  and  petroleum ;  the  exports  coal, 
salt,  tin-plates,  cotton  piece-goods,  chemical  pro- 
ducts, manufactured  oils,  and  sundries.  In  1885 
the  immber  of  its  members  of  parliament  was 
raised  from  two  to  four.  Pop.  within  mun. 
boundaries  (1801)  61,153 ;  (1841)  125,148 ;  (1871) 
182,552  ;  (1881)  206,503 ;  (1901)  328,842 ;  of  pari, 
borough  (1901)  321,908.  The  Hotwell,  noticed  by 
the  Bristol  chronicler,  William  Worcester  (died 
c.  1491),  enjoyed  some  reputation  as  a  fashionable 
resort  during  the  later  half  of  the  18th  century  ; 
it  is  now  deserted  and  decayed.  Clifton,  how- 
ever, the  parish  to  which  it  belongs,  has  thriven. 
It  is  mentioned  in  Domesday,  but  has  little  history 
till  it  appears  as  a  '  beautiful  village '  in  1760  ;  it 
is  now  a  large  and  handsome  suburb  of  Bristol, 
of  which  it  forms  part  for  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary purposes.  It  stands  above  St  Vincent's 
Rocks,  which  rise  majestically  from  the  Avon. 
The  river  is  spanned  245  feet  above  high-water 
by  a  suspension  bridge  (1864).  Clifton  has  a 
zoological  garden  (1836),  fine  arts  academy  (1858), 
museum  and  library,  and  other  public  buildings. 
In  the  neighbourhood  are  the  remains  of  some 
Roman  camps.  See  works  by  Barrett  (1789), 
Seyer  (1823),  Nicholl  and  Taylor  (1881),  Hunt 
(1887),  and  Latimer  (1887-93). 


BRISTOL 


129 


BROCKVILLE 


I 


Bristol,  (1)  a  town  of  Bucks  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, on  the  Delaware  River,  20  miles  NNE. 
of  Philadelphia.  It  has  manufactures  of  iron, 
machinery,  flour,  felt,  worsted,  and  furniture. 
Pop.  7553.— (2)  A  port  of  entry,  and  capital  of 
Bristol  county,  Rhode  Island,  on  Narragansett 
Bay,  15  miles  SSE.  of  Providence  by  rail,  with 
shipbuilding  and  sugar-refining,  and  manufac- 
tures of  cotton  and  rubber  goods.    Pop.  647S. 

Bristol  Bay,  an  arm  of  Behring  Sea,  lying 
immediately  to  the  north  of  the  peninsula  of 
Aliaska. 

Bristol  Channel,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  between  South  Wales  on  the  north,  and 
Devon  and  Somerset  shires  on  the  south  ;  or  it 
may  be  regarded  as  an  extension  of  the  estuary 
of  the  river  Severn.  It  is  about  80  miles  long, 
and  5  to  43  miles  broad ;  the  depth  ranging  from 
5  to  40  fathoms.  It  is  the  largest  inlet  or  estuary 
in  Britain,  having  a  very  irregular  coast-line  of 
220  miles.  The  chief  rivers  which  flow  into  it 
are  the  Towy,  Taff",  Usk,  Wye,  Severn,  Avon, 
Axe,  Parret,  Taw,  and  Torridge.  The  tides  in 
it  rise  to  an  extraordinary  height— 35  to  47  feet. 
The  chief  bays  and  harbours  are  Caermarthen 
and  Swansea  Bays,  Cardiff  Roads,  on  the  north, 
and  Bideford  or  Barnstaple,  Ilfracombe,  Mine- 
head,  Porlock,  and  Bridgwater,  on  the  south. 

Britain.     See  Great  Britain,  New  Britain. 

Britannia  Bridge.    See  Menai  Strait. 

British  Columbia,  Guiana,  New  Guinea,  North 
Borneo.  See  Columbia,  Guiana,  New  Guinea, 
Borneo.— For  British  East,  Central,  and  South 
Africa,  see  Ibea,  Nyassa,  Rhodesia,  Zambesia. 

Briton  Ferry,  the  port  of  Neath  in  South 
Wales.     Pop.  6000. 

Brittany  (Fr.  Bretagne;  anc.  Armorica),  the 
great  north-western  peninsula  of  France,  extend- 
ing in  triangular  form  into  the  sea,  its  base  rest- 
ing on  Normandy,  Maine,  Anjou,  and  Poitou, 
its  sides  washed  by  the  Channel  and  the  Atlantic 
Ocean.  In  earlier  times  it  formed,  with  the 
name  of  duchy,  one  of  the  provinces  of  France ; 
now  it  forms  the  five  deps.  of  Finistere,  Cotes- 
du-Nord,  Morbihan,  Ille-et-Vilaine,  and  Loire- 
Inferieure,  with  a  total  area  of  13,130  sq.  m., 
and  a  population  of  3,250,000,  more  than  one- 
third  of  wliom  speak  Breton,  belonging  to  the 
Cymric  or  southern  group  of  the  Celtic  languages. 

Brive-la-Gaillarde  (Breev' -la-Ga-yard'),  a  town 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Correze,  55  miles  SSE.  of 
Limoges  by  rail.    Pop.  13,445. 

Brixen,  a  town  of  Tyrol,  on  the  Brenner 
Railway,  57  miles  SSE,  of  Munich.     Pop.  5842. 

Brixham,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of 
Devonshire,  on  Tor  Bay,  25  miles  S.  of  Exeter 
(32|  by  rail).  It  is  an  irregular  place,  sprinkled 
over  three  valleys  and  four  hillsides ;  pictur- 
esque, and  fishy  as  even  few  fishing-towns. 
There  are  iron-mines,  limestone  quarries,  min- 
eral-paint works,  and  a  bone  cave  on  Windmill 
Hill,  discovered  in  1858.  William  of  Orange 
landed  here,  November  4,  1688.  Population, 
above  8000. 

Brixton  is  a  district  of  London  (SW.),  in 
Lambeth  parish. 

Broach,  Baroach,  or  Bharuch,  a  town  of 
Guzerat,  Bombay  Presidency,  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Nerbudda,  228  miles  N.  of  Bombay  by 
rail.  Anciently  one  of  the  chief  ports  of  Western 
India,  and  in  the  16th  century  '  a  town  of  weavers 
making  the  finest  cloth  in  the  world,'  Broach 
w^s   taken   by  the   British  in   1772,  ceded   to 


Sindhla  in  1783,  and  again  retaken  by  the  British 
in  1803.  It  carries  on  a  small  coasting  trade, 
the  principal  exports  being  raw  cotton,  grain, 
and  seeds.  Pop.  42,168,  including  many  Parsees 
and  Jains. 

Broadford,  a  coast-village  of  Skye,  8  miles 
WSW.  of  Kyle  Akin  ferry. 

Broadhaven,  a  watering-place  of  Pembroke- 
shire, 6  miles  WSW.  of  Haverfordwest. 

Broadlands.    See  Romsey. 

Broadmoor,  in  SE.  Berkshire,  2  miles  from 
Wellington  College  Station,  is  the  state  asylum 
for  500  criminal  lunatics.  It  is  a  large  brick 
building,  opened  in  1863. 

Broads,  The  Norfolk,  a  series  of  inland  lakes 
usually  said  to  be  formed  by  the  widening  or 
'  broadening '  out  of  the  rivers.  More  probably 
their  origin  is  due  to  a  change  in  the  general 
level  of  the  land  surface  of  the  county ;  for 
even  within  historic  times  the  river  Yare  was 
an  estuary  of  the  sea,  in  which  herrings  were 
caught  at  the  time  of  Domesday.  The  broads 
par  excellence  are  those  up  the  Bure  or  North 
River  (which  empties  itself  into  the  sea  at  Yar- 
mouth), and  its  tributaries  the  Ant  and  the 
Thurne.  On  the  Bure  are  the  well-known  broads 
of  Wroxham,  Salhouse,  Hoveton,  Horning,  and 
Ranworth  ;  on  the  Ant  those  of  Barton  and 
Sutton ;  on  the  Thurne  those  of  Hickling,  Mar- 
tham,  and  Horsey.  The  three  fine  broads  of 
Ormesby,  Rollesby,  and  Filby,  though  connected 
and  forming  a  chain,  have  no  practicable  outlet 
to  the  river  ;  the  Yare  or  Norwich  River  has  no 
broads  on  which  sailing  is  possible,  but  those  at 
Surlingham,  Strumpshaw,  and  Rockland  are  well 
worthy  a  visit,  and  very  accessible  by  rail ;  near 
Lowestoft,  on  the  Waveney,  is  Oulton  Broad. 
The  broads  have  grown  greatly  in  favour  with 
holiday-makers,  so  that  now  on  a  Saturday,  dur- 
ing 'August  and  September,  perhaps  a  hundred 
yachts  may  be  seen  at  once.  See  works  by 
Davies  (1884),  Rye  (18S7),  Suflling  (1891),  Emer- 
son (1893),  and  Dutt  (1903). 

Broadstairs,  a  Kentish  watering-place  If  mile 
NE.  of  Ramsgate,  so  named  fron  the  breadth 
of  the  sea-gate  or  stair,  which  was  formerly 
defended  by  a  gate  or  archway.  Near  it  is  a 
noble  orphanage,  founded  by  Mrs  Tait.  Dickens 
was  a  frequent  visitor.    Pop.  6266. 

Broadway,  an  old-fashioned  Worcestershire 
village,  a  great  artists'  haunt,  5J  miles  SE.  of 
Evesham.     Pop.  of  parish,  1436. 

Brocken  (Mons  Bructcnis  of  the  Romans  ;  pop- 
ularly Bloclcsberg),  the  highest  summit  (3740  feet) 
of  the  Harz  Mountains,  in  Prussian  Saxony,  20 
miles  WSW.  of  Halberstadt.  It  holds  an  im- 
portant place  in  folklore  as  the  witches'  meeting- 
place  on  Walpurgis  night,  and  for  the  optical 
illusion  known  as  the  '  Spectre  of  the  Brocken.' 

Brockenhurst,  a  New  Forest  village,  Hamp- 
shire, 4^  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Lymington. 

Brocket  Hall,  Herts,  on  the  Lea,  2i  miles  N. 
of  Hatfield,  has  been  the  seat  of  Lord  Melbourne, 
Lord  Palmerston,  and  Earl  Cowper. 

Brockton,  formerly  called  North  Bridgewater, 
a  town  of  Massachusetts,  U.S.,  20  miles  S.  of 
Boston.  It  manufactures  boots.  Pop.  (1880) 
13,608  ;  (1890)  27,294  ;  (1900)  40,063. 

Brockville,  a  town  of  Ontario,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  St  Lawrence,  125  miles  SW.  of 
Montreal.  It  is  on  the  Grand  Trunk  and  the 
Brockville  and  Ottawa  railways,  and  a  port  of 
call  for  steamers.     It  took  its  nanie  from  Sir 


BRODICK 


130 


BROUSSA 


Isaac  Brock  (1769-1812),  who  fell  in  the  battle  of 
Queenstown.     Pop.  9609. 

Brodick,  a  coast-village  of  Arran,  14  miles 
WSW.  of  Ardrossan. 

Brody,  a  town  of  Galicia,  89  miles  ENE.  of 
Lemberg  by  rail.  A  free  town  from  1779  to  1870, 
it  has  leather  and  flax  manufactures,  breweries, 
refineries,  &c.  The  trade  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
Jews,  who  form  three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants 
of  this  'German  Jerusalem.'    Pop.  17,534. 

Broek  (rhyming  with  Luke),  4J  miles  NE. 
of  Amsterdam,  was  formerly  the  show  'clean 
village '  of  Holland.     Pop.  1553. 

Bromberg,  a  town  of  Posen,  6  miles  from  the 
Vistula,  and  99  SSW.  of  Danzig.  It  has  iron- 
foundries,  machine-shops,  cloth  and  paper  mills, 
distilleries,  breweries,  and  corn-mills.  The  Brom- 
berg Canal,  17  miles  long,  by  uniting  the  Netz 
and  Brahe,  connects  the  Oder  and  Elbe  with  the 
Vistula.     Pop.  (1843)  8878  ;  (1900)  52,160. 

Bromley,  a  market-town  of  Kent,  on  the 
Ravensbourne,  10  miles  SE.  of  London.  Long 
the  residence  of  the  bishops  of  Rochester,  it  has 
a  church,  with  the  grave  of  Dr  Johnson's  wife. 
Pop.   80,000. 

Brompton  is  a  district  of  London  in  the  parish 
of  Kensington,  SW.  Once  specially  a  quarter  for 
artists,  it  contains  a  fine  consumption  hospital 
and  the  Oratory. 

Brom'sebro,  a  village  and  castle  of  Sweden, 
27  miles  S.  of  Kalmar. 

Bromsgrove,  a  market-town  of  Worcestershire, 
in  a  richly  wooded  valley,  near  the  small  river 
Salwarp,  12  miles  NNE,  of  Worcester.  It  has  a 
grammar-school  (1553  ;  refounded  16'.)3),  and  a  fine 
old  church  with  a  spire  189  feet  high.  The  linen 
manufacture  has  been  superseded  by  nail  and 
button  making.     Pop.  8500. 

Bromwicli.    See  West  Bromwich. 

Bromyard,  a  market-town  of  Herefordshire, 
on  the  Frome,  14  miles  NE.  of  Hereford.  Pop. 
of  parish,  1660. 

Bronl,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  with  mineral 
springs,  11  miles  SE.  of  Pavia.    Pop.  5147. 

Bron'te,  a  town  of  Sicily,  at  the  western  base 
of  Mount  Etna,  33  miles  NW.  of  Catania.  Nelson 
was  created  Duke  of  Bronte  by  the  Neapolitan 
government  in  1799.     Pop.  19,427. 

Brook  Farm,  an  abortive  community  estab- 
lished in  1840  on  Fourier's  principles,  8  miles 
SW.  of  Boston,  U.S. 

Brookline,  a  suburban  town  4  miles  SW.  of 
Boston,  U.S.,  with  numerous  handsome  villas 
and  parks,  and  manufactories  of  philosophical 
instruments,  &c.     Pop.  25,000. 

Brooklyn,  since  1898  a  borough  in  the  enlarged 
New  York  City,  and  capital  of  King's  county.  New 
York,  is  on  the  west  end  of  Long  Island,  opposite 
(old)  New  York,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
a  strait  called  East  River,  nearly  a  mile  wide, 
running  from  Long  Island  Sound  to  New  York 
Bay,  and  with  which  it  is  connected  by  steam- 
ferries,  and  a  magnificent  suspension  bridge  (fin- 
ished 1883),  5989  feet  in  length  by  85  in  breadth, 
and  with  a  river  span  of  1595^  feet,  intended  for 
foot-passage,  carriages,  and  railways.  Two  lines 
of  elevated  railways  and  numerous  lines  of  horse- 
cars  traverse  the  streets  of  Brooklyn,  making 
easy  communication  between  the  suburban  sec- 
tions and  the  ferries.  Though  it  is  not  a  port 
of  entry,  the  amount  of  foreign  and  domestic 
freight  that  comes  to  its  warehouses  is  enormous. 
Some  of  these  docks  are  among  the  most  exten- 


sive in  the  United  States,  covering  from  40  to 
60  acres  each,  and  are  lined  with  immense  store- 
houses for  grain  and  other  freight.  At  the  south- 
east extremity  of  the  city,  upon  a  high  ridge 
overlooking  New  York  Bay  and  its  environs,  is 
the  beautiful  Greenwood  Cemetery,  covering  400 
acres ;  and  near  at  hand  are  the  Ridgewood 
reservoir  and  Prospect  Park,  a  public  pleasure- 
ground  of  540  acres,  which  has  cost,  including 
two  noble  boulevards  connected  with  it,  extend- 
ing respectively  3  and  2J  miles  to  Coney  Island 
and  East  New  York,  nearly  $12,000,000.  The 
borough  possesses  a  water  front  of  10  miles,  and 
within  its  area  of  25  sq.  m.  are  carried  on  the 
refining  of  sugar  and  petroleum,  the  manufacture 
of  glass,  chandlery,  clothing,  carpets,  chemicals, 
paints,  oilcloth,  metallic  wares,  tobacco,  steam- 
boilers,  lace,  hats,  buttons,  paper,  felt  goods, 
&c.,  and  shipbuilding.  The  public  buildings 
include  the  court-house,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
$543,000 ;  the  hall  of  records,  costing  $328,000 ; 
the  jnunicipal  building,  costing  $200,000 ;  an 
academy  of  music,  seated  for  2400  persons, 
&c.  There  is  a  fine  government  post-office,  and 
a  U.  S.  navy  yard,  which  occupies  40  acres,  with 
extensive  ship-houses,  workshops,  and  military 
stores,  and  a  dry-dock  which  cost  about  $1,000,000. 
P'irst  settled  in  1636,  the  town  was  organised  by 
the  Dutch  governor  of  New  Amsterdam  in  1646, 
and  named  Breukelen  from  a  place  of  the  same 
name  in  the  Netherlands,  8  miles  NW.  of  Utrecht. 
It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1834,  to  which 
Williamsburg  and  Bush  wick  were  added  in  1855, 
and  in  1886  the  town  of  New  Lots  (East  New 
York).  In  1898  it  became  part  of  the  larger  New 
York.  Po]).  (1810)  4402;  (1850)  96,838;  (1880) 
560,603;  (1890)806,343;  (1900)1,166,582. 

Broom,  Loch.     See  Summer  Isles. 

Broomhall,  the  Earl  of  Elgin's  seat,  Fife,  2J 
miles  S.  by  W.  of  Dunfermline. 

Brora,  a  coast-village  of  Sutherland,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Brora  River,  4J  miles  NE.  of 
Golspie.     Pop.  540. 

Broseley,  a  Sliropshire  town,  on  the  Severn, 
15  miles  SE.  of  Shrewsbury,  now  a  ward  divi- 
sion of  the  municipal  borough  of  Wonlock. 

Brou.     See  Bourg-en-Bresse. 

Brough  (Bniff),  a  Westmorland  town,  5  miles 
NNE.  of  Kirkby  Stephen.     Pop.  656. 

Brougham  (Broom),  a  Westmorland  parish,  2 
miles  SE.  of  Penrith,  with  the  fine  ruin  of 
Brougham  Castle,  the  seat  of  the  Cliffords,  and 
with  Brougham  Hall,  the  seat  of  Lord  Brougham 
and  Vaux. 

Broughton-ln-Fumess,  a  market-town  of  Lan- 
cashire, at  the  head  of  the  Duddon  estuary,  9 
miles  NW.  of  Ulverston.    Pop.  1159. 

Broughty-Ferry,  a  town  of  Forfarshire,  on  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  3^  miles  B.  of  Dundee.  Many 
Dundee  merchants  occupy  fine  villas  at  Broughty- 
Ferry,  which  has  all  the  amenities  of  a  favourite 
watering-yjlace.  Its  castle  (1498)  was  held  by  the 
English  1547-50,  and  in  1860-61  was  repaired  as 
a  Tay  defence.     Pop.  (1861)  3513  ;  (1901)  10,484. 

Broussa,  Brusa,  or  Boursa,  the  ancient  Prusa, 
where  the  kings  of  Bithynia  usually  resided, 
situated  in  Asiatic  Turkey,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Olympus,  in  Asia  Minor,  13  miles  S.  of  the  Sea 
of  Marmora.  The  old  citadel  stands  on  a  rock 
in  the  centre  of  the  town.  Both  Greeks  and 
Armenians  have  an  archbishop  here.  The  silks 
of  Broussa  are  much  esteemed,  but  the  produc- 
tion of  the  silk-factories,  many  of  which  are  in 
the  hands  of  Europeans,  has  fallen  off".     Wine  is 


BROWN 


131 


BRUNSWICK 


largely  produced  by  the  Greeks,  and  fruit  is 
exported ;  carpets  and  tapestry  are  also  made ; 
and  meerschaum  clay  is  obtained  from  a  hill  in 
the  vicinity.  In  ancient  times  Broussa  was 
famous  for  its  sulphurous  thermal  batlis,  which 
during  the  terrible  earthquakes  of  1855  ceased  for 
a  time  to  flow,  but  soon  returned  with  a  fuller 
current  than  before.  The  mosques  (one  of  which, 
'the  Magnificent,'  has  a  large  dome  adorned  with 
beautiful  coloured  tiles)  suffered  severely  from 
the  same  earthquakes.  The  sultan  Othman  be- 
sieged Broussa  in  1317 ;  and  in  1327  his  son 
Orkhan,  the  second  emperor  of  Turkey,  captured 
it,  and  made  it  the  capital  of  his  empire,  and  it 
continued  so  until  the  taking  of  Constantinople 
by  Mohammed  II.  in  1453.  The  first  six  Ottoman 
sultans  are  buried  here.     Pop.  77,000. 

Brown,  Mount,  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  near 
the  source  of  the  Columbia  River,  and  on  the 
borders  of  British  Columbia  and  Alberta,  is  not, 
as  was  thought,  16,000,  but  9000  feet  high. 

Brbwnliills,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  5  miles 
N.  of  Walsall.     Pop.  15,703. 

Brownsville,  a  port  of  entry,  Texas,  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Rio  Grande,  opposite  Mata- 
moros,  35  miles  from  the  river's  mouth  in  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  In  May  1846  the  town  was 
occupied  by  a  few  U.  S.  troops,  who  maintained 
their  position  in  the  face  of  a  bombardment  that 
lasted  a  week.    Pop.  (5500. 

Broxburn,  a  mining  and  manufacturing  town 
of  Linlithgowshire,  on  the  Union  Canal,  12  miles 
W.  of  Edinburgh.  It  is  chiefly  notable  for  its 
shale-oil  works.     Pop.  6250. 

Bruar,  a  Perthshire  stream,  with  fine  falls,  3 
miles  W.  of  Blair  Athole. 

Bruchsal  (Brook'sal),  a  town  of  Baden,  on  the 
Saalbach,  12  miles  NE.  of  Karlsruhe.  The  prince- 
bishops  of  Spires  resided  here  from  the  16th  cen- 
tury. Macliinery,  cigars,  paper,  and  soap  are 
manufactured.    Pop.  14,000. 

Bruck  (Brook),  (1)  a  walled  town  of  Austria, 
on  the  Leitha,  26  miles  SE.  of  Vienna  by  rail. 
Pop.  4836.  —(2)  A  town  of  Upper  Styria,  on  the 
Mur,  108  miles  SW.  of  Vienna  by  rail.  Pop. 
7795.— <3)  A  market-town  of  Bavaria,  15  miles 
W.  of  Munich  by  rail.     Pop.  3418. 

Briickenau  {Briilc'en-ow'),  a  town  of  Bavaria, 
on  the  Sinn,  17  miles  NW.  of  Kissingen.  Near 
it  are  warm  springs.     Pop.  1592. 

Bruff,  a  Limerick  village,  6  miles  N.  of  Kil- 
mallock.     Pop.  798. 

Bruges  {Brilzh;  Flem.  Brugge,  'the  bridges*), 
a  city  of  Belgium,  8  miles  from  the  sea,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  the  three  canals  from 
Ghent,  Sluys,  and  Ostend,  all  much  inferior  to 
the  direct  sliip-canal  from  Heyst  (Zeebrugge),  26 
feet  wide  (made  1896-1903).  By  rail  it  is  14  miles 
E.  of  Ostend,  and  62  WNW.  of  Brussels.  Among 
the  most  interesting  buildings  are  Les  Halles 
(1364),  a  cloth  and  flesh  market,  with  the  famous 
belfry,  353  feet  high ;  the  Gothic  hotel-de-ville 
(1377),  with  a  library  of  100,000  volumes;  the 
church  of  Notre  Dame,  with  a  spire  442  feet  high, 
a  statue  of  the  Virgin  (said  to  be  by  Michael 
Angelo),  and  monuments  of  Charles  the  Bold  and 
'  his  daughter  Mary,  wife  of  the  Emperor  Maxi- 
milian ;  the  cathedral  of  St  Sauveur,  with  an 
ugly  brick  exterior,  but  a  fine  interior,  containing 
the  stalls  of  the  knights  of  the  Golden  Fleece ; 
and  St  John's  Hospital,  with  Hans  Memling's 
masterpieces  adorning  the  reliquary  of  St  Ursula's 
arm.  Bruges  has  manufactures  of  lace,  woollens, 
linen,  cotton,  leather,  soap,  starch,  and  tobacco ; 


and  distilleries,  sugar  and  salt  refineries,  and 
shipbuilding  yards.  Pop.  (1901)  53,100,  of  whom 
very  many  are  poverty-.stricken.  Dating  from 
the  3d  century,  Bruges  by  1200  was  the  central 
mart  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  by  1300  had 
become  the  metropolis  of  tlie  world's  commerce, 
its  population  then  amounting  to  over  200,000, 
In  1488  the  citizens  rose  in  insurrection,  and  im- 
prisoned the  Archduke  Maximilian,  and  with  the 
harsh  measures  of  repression  which  ensued  com- 
menced the  commercial  decline  of  Bruges.  Many 
of  the  traders  and  manufacturers,  driven  forth 
from  their  own  country  by  the  religious  persecu- 
tions of  the  following  century,  settled  in  Eng- 
land ;  in  the  16th  century,  however,  the  tapestry 
of  Bruges  was  still  celebrated.  Taken  by  the 
French  in  1794,  in  1815  the  city  became  a  part  of 
the  kingdom  of  the  United  Netherlands,  and  in 
1830  of  the  Belgian  monarchy.  At  Bruges  lived 
John  van  Eyck  (1428-41),  Caxton  (1446-76),  and 
Memling  (1477-94).  See  James  Weale,  Bruges  et 
ses  Environs  (4th  ed.  1887). 

Brugg  (Broogg),  a  town  in  the  Swiss  canton  of 
Aargau,  on  the  Aar,  36  miles  ESE.  of  Basel  by 
rail.  Near  it  is  the  site  of  Vindonissa,  the  chief 
Roman  station  in  Helvetia ;  and  it  was  also  the 
cradle  of  the  Hapsburgs,  whose  ruined  castle 
(1020)  crowns  a  wooded  height  2  miles  distant. 
Zinimermann  was  a  native.     Pop.  2435. 

Briihl  (nearly  Breal),  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
8  miles  SSW.  of  Cologne  by  rail.  It  has  a  splen- 
did 18tli-century  castle.     Pop.  7030. 

Brunei,  a  Moliammedan  sultanate  under  British 
protection  (since  1888)  in  the  NW.  of  Borneo, 
whose  sultan  was  formerly  overlord  of  the  whole 
island.  Area,  4000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  perhaps  25,000 
or  30,000.  The  capital,  Brunei,  on  a  river  of  the 
same  name,  is  a  miserable,  dirty  town,  built  on 
piles,  with  10,000  inhabitants. 

Brunlg,  a  Swiss  pass  (3396  feet),  forming  the 
shortest  and  easiest  route  between  the  '  Forest 
Cantons '  and  the  Bernese  Oberland.  A  road  was 
formed  in  1857-62,  and  in  1888  a  Brunig  branch 
of  the  Berne-Lucerne  Railway  was  opened. 

Bruni  Island  (North  and  South)  lies  off  the 
south  part  of  the  east  coast  of  Tasmania,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  D'Entrecasteaux  Channel. 
It  is  32  miles  long,  1  to  11  miles  wide,  and  160 
sq.  m.  in  area.    Coal  is  mined. 

Briinn,  a  city  of  the  Austrian  empire,  the 
capital  of  Moravia,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Schwarzawa  and  the  Zwittawa,  93  miles  N.  of 
Vienna  by  rail.  Behind  the  city,  on  an  eminence 
(984  feet),  rises  the  castle  of  Spielberg,  where 
Silvio  Pellico  was  confined  1822-30.  Briinn  has 
a  steam-tramway,  a  cathedral,  St  James's  Church, 
with  a  tower  305  feet  high,  and  important  manu- 
factures of  woollens,  machinery,  linen,  leather, 
chemicals,  &c.  Pop.  (1881)  82,660 ;  (1900)  110,000, 
40  per  cent,  of  whom  were  Czechs. 

Brunnen  (Broon'nen),  the  port  of  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Schwyz,  on  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  17 
miles  by  water,  but  28J  by  rail  ESE.  of  Lucerne. 
Here  in  1315,  after  the  battle  of  Morgarten,  the 
deputies  of  the  Forest  Cantons  formed  a  league. 

Brunswark,  a  conspicuous  hill  (920  feet)  of  S. 
Dumfriesshire,  with  Roman  camps. 

Brunswick,  Duchy  of  (Ger.  Braunschweig),  a 
state  of  Northern  Gennany,  consisting  of  three 
larger  and  five  smaller  distinct  parts,  with  a  total 
area  of  1423  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1875)  327,493  ;  (1900) 
464,333,  mostly  Lutherans,  and  (in  the  country) 
speakers  of  Platt-Deutsch.  Of  the  three  larger 
parts,  the  principal  one,  forming  the  circle  of 


BRUNSWICK 


132 


BRZEZANY 


Wolfenbiittel,  and  including  the  capital,  lies 
between  Prussia  and  Hanover;  the  second,  ex- 
tending westward  from  Prussia  to  the  Weser, 
divides  Hanover  into  two  parts ;  and  the  third, 
forming  the  Blankenburg  district,  lies  to  the  south- 
east, between  Hanover,  Anhalt,  and  Prussia. 
Brunswick  belongs  mostly  to  the  basin  of  the 
Weser,  which  serves  as  a  boundary  on  the  west. 
Its  surface  is  mostly  mountainous,  particularly 
in  the  southern  portions  of  the  country,  but  it 
has  nevertheless  level  tracts  of  considerable 
extent.  The  climate  in  the  lowlands  resembles 
the  general  climate  of  Northern  Germany ;  but  in 
the  Harz  district  it  is  so  much  colder  that  harvest 
is  generally  a  month  later  than  in  the  plains. 
Brunswick  in  1235,  with  Luneburg,  was  made  a 
duchy.  In  1884,  at  the  death  of  the  childless 
Duke  William,  the  succession  passed  to  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland,  son  of  George  V.,  the 
dethroned  king  of  Hanover.  As  he  refused  to 
recognise  the  new  constitution  of  the  German 
empire,  the  imperial  government  declined  to 
allow  the  succession  to  take  place,  and  an  in- 
terregnum occuiTed. 

Brunswick,  the  capital,  stands  on  the  Oker, 
143  miles  WSW.  of  Berlin.  In  the  13th  century 
Brunswick  became  a  member  of  the  Hanseatic 
League,  and  soon  attained  considerable  com- 
mercial prosperity,  but  its  importance  declined 
with  the  decay  of  the  League.  Most  irregularly 
built,  with  narrow  and  crooked  streets,  it  has  a 
cathedral  (1173-1469),  the  church  of  St  Andrew 
with  a  steeple  341  feet  high,  and  a  fine  Gothic 
Rathhaus.  The  manufactures  include  jute, 
woollen  and  linen,  leather,  sewing-machines,  &c. 
A  fine  avenue  of  linden-trees  leads  to  the  ducal 
palace,  which,  destroyed  by  fire  in  1830  and  1865, 
is  now  an  imposing  edifice  of  1869.  Pop.  (1871) 
57,833 ;  (1900)  128,226- 

Brunswick,  (1)  a  port  of  entry,  Georgia,  on 
St  Simon  Sound,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  186 
miles  SE.  of  Macon  by  rail.  Population,  about 
10,000.— (2)  A  town  of  Maine,  29  miles  NB. 
of  Portland  by  rail,  at  the  head  of  navigation 
on  the  Androscoggin  River,  whose  falls  or  rapids 
supply  water-power  for  cotton,  paper,  and  other 
mills.  It  is  the  seat  of  Bowdoin  College  (1794), 
a  Congregational  institution  of  high  standing, 
at  which  Nathaniel  Hawthorne  and  Longfellow 
graduated.    Pop.  7012. 

Brunswick,  New.    See  New  Brunswick. 

Brussels  (Fr.  Bruxelles),  the  capital  of  Belgium, 
is  situated  in  a  fertile  plain  on  the  ditch-like 
Senne,  27  miles  S.  of  Antwerp,  and  193  NE.  of 
Paris.  It  has  a  circumference  of  about  5  miles, 
and  is  built  partly  on  the  side  of  a  hill ;  though 
some  of  the  streets  are  so  steep  that  they  can 
be  ascended  only  by  means  of  stairs,  Brussels 
may  on  the  whole  be  pronounced  one  of  the 
finest  cities  in  Europe.  The  fashionable  Upper 
Town,  in  which  are  the  royal  palace,  public 
offices,  chief  hotels,  &c.,  is  much  more  healthy 
than  the  older  Lower  Town,  which  is  greatly 
subject  to  fogs,  owing  to  its  intersection  by- 
canals  and  the  Senne,  although  the  stream  now 
passes  under  an  arched  covering,  which  sup- 
ports a  new  boulevard.  But  the  closely  built 
old  streets,  with  their  numerous  handsome  build- 
ings, formerly  belonging  to  the  Brabant  nobility, 
but  now  occupied  by  merchants  and  traders, 
have  a  fine  picturesque  appearance,  while  some 
of  the  public  edifices  are  unrivalled  as  specimens 
of  Gothic  architecture.  French  is  spoken  in  the 
upper  division ;  but  in  the  lower  Flemish  is 
the  current  language  prevalent,  and  by  many  the 


Walloon  dialect  is  spoken.  The  walls  which 
formerly  surrounded  Brussels  have  been  removed, 
and  their  place  is  now  occupied  by  pleasant 
boulevards  extending  all  around  the  old  town, 
and  sliaded  by  alleys  of  limes.  The  Allee  Verte— 
a  double  avenue  along  the  Scheldt  Canal— forms 
a  splendid  promenade,  and  leads  toward  the 
country  palace  of  Laeken,  3  miles  north  of  the 
city.  Besides  the  fine  park  of  32  acres,  in  the 
Upper  Town,  ornamented  with  fountains  and 
statues,  and  surrounded  by  the  palace  and  other 
state  buildings,  Brussels  has  several  other  squares 
or  places,  among  which  are:  the  Place  Royale, 
with  its  colossal  monument  of  Godfrey  of 
Bouillon ;  the  Grand  Place,  in  which  is  the 
hotel-de-ville,  a  splendid  Gothic  structure  of  the 
15th  century,  with  a  spire  of  open  stonework 
364  feet  high ;  and  tlie  Place  des  Martyrs,  where 
a  memorial  has  been  erected  to  those  who  fell 
here  in  the  revolution  of  1830.  The  statue  group 
of  the  Counts  Egmont  and  Horn  is  notable. 
The  cathedral  of  St  Gudule,  dating  froTU  the  13th 
century,  has  many  riclily  painted  windows,  and 
a  pulpit  considered  to  be  the  masterpiece  of 
Verbruggen.  In  the  Palais  des  Beaux  Arts  is  the 
picture-gallery,  containing  the  finest  specimens 
of  the  Flemish  school  of  painting ;  a  valuable 
museum;  and  the  public  library,  with  234,000 
volumes  and  22,000  MSS.,  many  of  the  latter 
being  beautifully  illuminated.  The  new  Palais 
de  Justice,  built  in  1866-83  at  a  cost  of  more  than 
£2,000,000,  is  one  of  the  most  magnificent  build- 
ings in  Europe.  The  royal  palace  and  the 
national  palace  (for  the  chambers)  are  important 
buildings.  The  university  (1834)  has  over  1300 
students.  There  are  schools  of  painting  and 
sculpture,  and  a  conservatorium.  There  is  a 
museum  of  paintings  by  the  artist  Wiertz,  many 
of  them  on  painful  and  repulsive  subjects. 
Brussels  lace  is  particularly  famous.  Of  the  so- 
called  Brussels  carpets  only  a  few  are  manu- 
factured here,  most  of  those  of  Belgian  make 
being  produced  at  Tournai,  There  are  also  manu- 
factures of  damask,  linen,  ribbons,  embroidery, 
paper,  jewellery,  hats,  soap,  porcelain,  carriages, 
&c.  Pop.  (1846)  123,874;  (1866)  157,905;  (1901) 
212,500,  or,  Avith  its  eight  suburbs,  565,000. 

Dating  from  at  least  the  8th  century,  Brussels 
under  Charles  V.  was  made  the  court-residence 
in  the  Netherlands,  and  became  afterwards, 
under  Philip  II.,  the  chief  arena  of  the  atrocities 
committed  by  Alva  and  the  Inquisition.  It 
suffered  greatly  in  the  war  of  Spain  against 
Louis  XIV. — in  whose  reign  it  was  bombarded 
by  Marshal  Villeroi,  and  upwards  of  4000  build- 
ings destroyed — and  in  that  of  Austria  against 
Louis  XV.  ;  but  still  more  from  the  continual 
prevalence  of  party  animosities  caused  by  the 
policy  of  Austria.  Under  the  mild  rule  of  Maria 
Theresa,  it  flourished  greatly,  and  in  this  time 
many  of  its  best  institutions  ~nd  public  build- 
ings were  founded.  In  1792  Brussels  fell  into 
the  hands  of  the  French.  It  was  incorporated 
with  the  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands  in  1815 ; 
in  1830  it  became  the  capital  of  Belgium. 

Briix,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Biela,  78 
miles  NW.  of  Prague  by  rail.  In  its  vicinity  are 
coal-mines,  and  the  famous  mineral  springs  of 
Piillna  and  Seidlitz.    Pop.  20,136. 

Brynmawr,  an  iron-working  town  of  Breck- 
nock, 8  miles  WSW.  of  Abergavenny  ;  pop.  7000. 
—The  American  Bryn  Mawr,  with  its  college  for 
women  (1885),  is  10  miles  NW.  of  Philadelphia. 

Brzezany,  in  Galicia,  52  miles  SE.  of  Lemberg  ; 
pop.  11,500. 


BUACHAILLE  ETIVE 


133 


BUDLEIGH  SALTERTON 


Buachaille  Etive,  two  mountains  (3345  and 
3129  feet)  of  Ardchattan  parish,  Argyllshire. 

Bubastis  (the  Pi-beseth  of  Ezek.  xxx.  17 ;  now 
Tel  Bast),  a  ruined  city  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the 
eastern  main-arm  of  the  Nile,  near  Zagazig. 
Under  the  25tli  dynasty  (725-G86  B.c.)  the  city 
was  a  royal  residence,  but  after  the  Persian  con- 
quest it  gradually  lost  its  importance.  Tlie  ruins 
of  its  great  temple  were  discovered  by  M.  Naville 
in  1887. 

Bucaramanga,  capital  of  the  dep.  of  Santander 
in  the  NE.  of  Colombia,  on  the  Lebrija  River, 
3200  feet  above  sea-level.     Pop.  20,000. 

Buc'cari,  or  Bakar,  a  free  port  of  Croatia,  on 
an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  Quarnero,  5  miles  by  rail 
ESE.  of  Fiume.    Pop.  2000. 

Buccleucli  {Buk-cUw'),  a  small  Selkirkshire 
glen,  18  miles  SW.  of  Selkirk,  with  tlie  site  of 
a  stronghold  of  the  Scotts,  who  hence  took  the 
title  of  earl  (1619)  and  duke  (1063). 

Buchan  (Buhh'an),  the  NE.  district  of  Aber- 
deenshire, between  the  Ytlian  and  the  Deveron. 
It  rises  in  Mormond  Hill  to  769  feet ;  portions 
of  the  coast  are  bold  and  precipitous,  and  6 
miles  south  of  Peterhead  are  the  famous  Bullers 
of  Buchan,  a  huge  vertical  well  in  the  granite 
margin  of  the  sea,  50  feet  in  diameter  and  100 
feet  deep,  into  whose  bottom  the  sea  rushes  by 
a  natural  archway.  Buchan  contains  the  towns 
of  Peterhead,  Fraserburgh,  Macduff,  and  Turriff. 
Buchan  Ness  is  the  easternmost  promontory  of 
Scotland,  3  miles  S.  of  Peterhead.  See  Pratt's 
History  of  Buchan  (1859). 

Bucharest  {Bucuresci),  the  capital  of  the  former 

Jrincipality  of  Wallachia  and  of  the  present 
ingdom  of  Roumania,  stands  265  feet  above  sea- 
level,  in  the  fertile  but  treeless  plain  of  the  small 
sluggish  Dambovitza.  By  rail  it  is  716  miles  SE. 
of  Vienna,  40  N.  of  Giurgevo  on  the  Danube,  and 
179  NW.  of  Varna  on  the  Black  Sea.  A  strange 
meeting-point  of  East  and  West,  the  town  as  a 
whole  is  but  meanly  built,  but  the  streets  are  now 
mostly  paved,  and  lighted  with  gas.  An  elaborate 
system  of  fortification  was  undertaken  in  1885. 
The  royal  palace  was  rebuilt  in  1885;  and  the 
Catholic  cathedral  is  a  fine  edifice  of  1875-84. 
The  number  of  cafes  and  gambling-tables  is 
excessive ;  and  altogether  Bucharest  has  the 
unenviable  reputation  of  being  the  most  disso- 
lute capital  in  Europe,  with  all  the  vices  but 
few  of  the  refinements  of  Paris.  There  is,  how- 
ever, a  university  (1864).  The  corso,  or  public 
promenade,  is  a  miniature  Hyde  Park.  Bucha- 
rest is  the  entrepot  for  the  trade  between  Austria 
and  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  the  chief  articles  of 
commerce  being  textile  fabrics,  grain,  hides, 
metal,  coal,  timber,  and  cattle.  Bucharest  has 
been  several  times  besieged ;  and  between  1793 
and  1812  suffered  twice  from  eartliquakes,  twice 
from  inundations,  once  from  fire,  and  twice  from 
pestilence.    Pop.  (1866)  141,754  ;  (1901)  282,100. 

Buckau  (Book'koiv),  a  manufacturing  town  of 
Prussian  Saxony,  in  1887  incorporated  with  Mag- 
deburg (q.v.). 

Buckhaven,  a  fishing-village  of  Fife,  on  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  5^  miles  E.  of  Thornton  Junction. 
Pop.  5000. 

Buckie,  a  fishing-town  of  Banffshire,  13  miles 
ENE.  of  Elgin  by  rail.  Its  harbour  (1874-80), 
constructed  of  concrete  at  a  cost  of  £60,000, 
consists  of  an  outer  and  inner  basin,  with  an 
area  of  9  acres.     Pop.  6600. 

Buckingham,  the  county  town  of  Bucking- 
hariishire,  stands,  almost  encircled  by  the  Ouse, 


61  miles  NW.  of  London.  An  ancient  place  forti- 
fied by  Edward  the  Elder  (918),  it  yet  has  no 
antiquities,  owing  to  a  great  fire  in  1725.  Since 
1848  Aylesbury  has  superseded  it  as  the  assize 
town,  and  it  lost  its  last  member  in  1885.  The 
grammar-school  was  founded  in  1548.  The  bob- 
bin-lace manufacture  has  declined.  Pop  (1851) 
4020  ;  (1891)  3364  ;  (1901)  8150. 

Buckinghamshire,  or  Bucks,  a  south-midland 
county  of  England,  surrounded  by  Bedfordshire, 
Herts,  Middlesex,  Surrey,  Berks,  Oxfordshire, 
and  Northamptonsliire.  Thirty-third  in  size  of 
the  English  counties,  it  has  a  maximum  length 
of  57  miles,  a  varying  breadth  of  8^  and  27  miles, 
and  an  area  of  730  sq.  m.,  or  466,932  acres.  It 
is  finely  diversified  with  hill  and  dale,  wood  and 
water.  To  the  south  is  the  Chiltern  range  of 
chalk-hills,  which,  entering  from  Oxfordshire 
and  stretching  across  the  county  in  a  north- 
easterly direction,  are  partly  covered  with  heath 
and  wood,  and  rise  near  Wendover  to  a  height  of 
905  feet  above  sea-level.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Thames,  bordering  the  county  on  the  south-west, 
the  Ouse,  Ousel,  Colne,  and  Thame,  the  last  two 
falling  into  the  Thames.  Buckinghamshire  is 
eminently  an  agricultural  county,  87  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  area  being  in  cultivation.  The 
chief  dairy  product  is  butter  for  the  London 
market ;  in  the  fertile  vale  of  Aylesbury,  fatten- 
ing of  cattle  is  extensively  carried  on  ;  the  sheep 
are  noted  for  their  fine  and  heavy  fleeces  ;  and 
large  numbers  of  ducks  are  reared.  Nearly  40 
sq.  m.  are  under  woods  and  plantations,  beech 
and  oak  being  the  chief  timber-trees.  The  chief 
manufactvu-es  are  paper,  straw-plait,  and  thread- 
lace.  The  county  returns  three  members  to 
parliament ;  Aylesbury,  Buckingham,  Marlow, 
and  Wycombe  having  ceased  in  1885  to  be  parlia- 
mentary boroughs.  It  contains  some  Roman  and 
British  remains,  as  traces  of  Watling,  Icknield, 
and  Akeman  Streets  or  Ways ;  remains  of  the 
religious  houses  of  Missenden,  Notley,  Burnham, 
Medmenham,  and  Ivinghoe;  and  vestiges  of 
Lavendon  and  Whitchurch  Castles.  Bucks  is 
rich  too  in  scenes  of  historic  or  biographical 
interest,  as  Chalfont  St  Giles,  Horton,  Hampden, 
Milton,  Stoke  Poges,  Olney,  Slough,  Stowe, 
Aston  Sandford,  Beaconsfield,  Gregories,  Barden- 
ham,  and  Hughenden.  Pop.  (1801)  108,132 ;  (1841) 
150,439 ;  (1901)  197,064.  See  county  histories  by 
Lipscomb  (1847),  Sheahan  (1S02),  and  Page(1905-6). 

Bucklyvie,  a  Stirlingshire  village,  15J  miles 
W.  of  Stirling.     Pop.  383. 

Buck  of  Oahrach,  an  Aberdeenshire  mountain 
(2368  feet),  13  miles  SW.  of  Huntly. 

Buczacz,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  Galicia,  on  the 
Stripa,  an  affluent  of  the  Dniester,  47  miles  ENE. 
of  Stanislau  by  rail.     Pop.  9970. 

Bu'dapest,  the  official  designation  of  the 
capital  of  Hungary,  which  consists  of  Buda  (Ger. 
Ofen)  on  the  right  and  Pest  or  Pesth  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Danube,  the  two  cities  having  formed 
a  single  municipality  since  1872.     See  Pesth. 

Budaun,  a  town  of  India,  140  miles  NW.  of 
Lucknow.     Pop.  39,372. 

Buddon  Ness,  the  promontory,  95  feet  high, 
on  the  north  or  Forfarshire  side  of  the  entrance 
to  the  Firth  of  Tay. 

Bude,  a  watering-place  on  the  north  coast  of 
Cornwall,  17  miles  NNW.  of  Launceston.  Pop. 
1057. 

Budleigh  Salterton,  a  sheltered  Devon  water- 
ing-place, at  the  mouth  of  the  Otter,  6  miles  E. 
ofExmouth.    Pop.  1870. 


BUDRUl? 


134 


tm 


Budnm  (Boodroon),  a  seaport  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
on  the  north  shore  of  tlie  Gulf  of  Kos,  96  miles 
S.  of  Smyrna.  It  is  the  site  of  the  ancient 
Halicarnassus,  the  birthplace  of  Herodotus  and 
Dionysius.     Pop.  6000. 

BudweiS  (Bood'vice;  Czech  JSw(Zejo vice),  a  cathe- 
dral city  of  Bohemia,  on  the  navigable  Moldau, 
133  miles  NW.  of  Vienna  by  rail.  It  manufactures 
machines,  stoneware,  lead-pencils,  saltpetre,  &c. 
Population,  40,000.  Neatr  it  is  Schloss  Frauen- 
berg  (1847),  Prince  Schwarzenberg's  seat. 

Buenaventura  (Bway'naventoo'ra),  a  town  on 
the  Pacific  coast  of  Colombia.    Pop.  5000. 

Buena  Vista.  (Bwm/rui  Veesta),  a  village  of  Mex- 
ico, 7  miles  S.  of  Saltillo,  where  in  February  1847, 
some  5000  U.  S.  troops  defeated  20,000  Mexicans. 

Buen-Ayre  (Span.  Bwayn-Ireh),  Fr.  Bonaire,  a 
West  Indian  Island,  60  miles  froin  the  coast  of 
Venezuela,  and  30  E.  of  Curasao,  like  which  it  be- 
longs to  the  Dutch.    Area,  127  sq.  m. ;  pop.  4043. 

Buenos   Ayres   (Biuaynos   I'rez;    Eng.    pron. 
usu.  Bonos  Ai'rez),  the  largest  province  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  extending  along  the  Atlantic, 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Plata   to  that  of   the 
Rio  Negro  ;  on  the  NE.  it  is  washed  by  the  Plata 
and  the  Parana.     In  administration  the  province 
is  independent  of  the  -central  government.     Its 
area  is  about  118,000  scj.  m.  (close  on  that  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland),  with  a  pop.  (excluding 
the  city,  a  province  by  itself)  of  1,210,000.— Tlie 
city  of  Buenos  Ayres,  the  federal  capital  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Plata,  which  here,  at  a  distance  of  150  miles 
from  the  open  sea,  is  28  miles  across,  but  so 
shallow  that  ships  drawing  15  feet  of  water  are 
obliged  to  anchor  7  or  8  miles  from  the  shore, 
Monte  Video,  on  the  opposite  shore,  possesses  a 
better  harbour ;  but  Buenos  Ayres  has  greater 
facilities  in  carrying  on  an  inland  trade,   and 
undertook,  moreover,  in  1887,  a  system  of  har- 
bour works  to  connect  two  channels  of  the  Plata, 
and  so  bring  the  largest  vessels  up  to  the  wharfs. 
The  city  is  partitioned  into  blocks  of  about  150 
yards  square,  with  muddy,  uneven  roads ;  still, 
new  houses,  generally  of  brick  faced  with  marble 
or  stucco,  are  everywhere  taking  the  place  of  the 
old  comfortless  Spanish- American  erections,  and 
the  value  of  property  has  enormously  increased 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  second 
in  South  America  to  that  of  Lima  alone,  the 
chapel  of  Santa  Felicitas,  with  elaborate  frescoes, 
Anglican,  Lutheran,  Methodist,  and  Presbyterian 
churches,  the  university,  a  military  college,  the 
new  post-office,  the  mint  and  government  offices, 
and  some  of  the  palatial  railway  depots.     There 
are  also  printing  establishments ;  manufactories 
of  cigars,  carpets,  cloth,  furniture,  and  boots  and 
shoes  ;  some  small  dockyards  ;  and  an  Emigrants' 
Home.     The  city  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop- 
ric, and  possesses  several  public  libraries  and 
museums,  eleven  hospitals,  and  numerous  other 
charitable    institutions.     The    terminus    of   six 
railways,  it  has  some  150  miles  of  tramway  lines  ; 
there  is  cable  communication  with  Europe  and 
the  United  States,  and  a  good  telephone  service. 
The  drainage  is  well  planned,  and  the  water  and 
gas    supply  excellent;    the    climate    is    not    so 
exceptionally  fine  as  the  name  of  the  town  ('  good 
airs  or  breezes ')  would  imply.    The  exports  (one- 
sixth  to  England)  and  imports  (about  one-half 
British)  are  practically  those  of  the  Argentme 
Republic ;  but  there  is  also  a  river-trade  averaging 
£3,500,000.     Pop.  (1902)  865,500.     Buenos  Ayres 
was  founded  in  1535,  but  was  subsequently  twice 
destroyed  by  the  Indians.   In  1806  a  British  force, 


which  had  just  captured  the  city,  was  obliged  to 
surrender ;  and  in  1807  another,  which  attempted 
to  recover  the  place,  was  repulsed  with  heavy 
loss  ;  and  these  successes  over  so  formidable  a  foe 
emboldened  the  colonists,  three  years  afterwards, 
to  throw  off  the  yoke  of  Spain.  In  the  insurrec- 
tion of  1892  the  city  was  bombarded. 

Buflfalo,  a  city  of  New  York  state,  capital  of 
Erie  county,  is  at  the  east  end  of  Lake  Erie,  and 
at  the  head  of  Niagara  River.     It  is  295  miles 
NW.  of  New  York  City  in  a  direct  line,  but  423 
by  the  Erie  Railroad  ;  the  distance  from  Chicago 
is  539  miles.    In  population  and  wealth,  Buffalo 
ranks  third  among  the  cities  of  New  York.     It 
has  a  capacious  hai-bour,  admitting  vessels  of  17 
feet  draught,  and  with  an  outer  breakwater  4000 
feet   long,    besides    other    breakwaters,    piers, 
basins,  and  canals.    The  harbour  is  guarded  by 
Fort  Porter,  which  stands  two  miles  out  from 
the  heart  of  the  city ;  close  by  is  the  old  fort, 
built  in  1812,  but  now  in  ruins.    The  water  front 
of  the  city  extends  8  miles  along  the  lake  and 
river,   while  Buffalo  Creek  has    been  rendered 
navigable  for  over  a  mile.    The  commercial  im- 
portance of  Buffalo  dates  from  the  completion  of 
the  Erie  Canal  in  1825 ;  but  since  1862  the  lake 
commerce  has  yielded  to  the  competition  of  the 
railroads.     The  chief  business  is  the  receiving, 
transferring,   and  storing  of  grain,   the  annual 
amount  of  which  (including  flour)  received  by 
lake  and  railroad  is  from  70,000,000  to  90,000,000 
bushels.     The  live-stock  trade  is  scarcely  second 
in  importance ;  the  iron  and  steel  works  rank 
next  to  those  of  Pittsburgh ;  and  the  shipments 
of  Pennsylvania  coal,  which  finds  a  depot  here, 
have  greatly  increased  of  late  years.    The  lumber 
trade  is  also  large,  but  has  been  partly  diverted 
to  Tonawanda,  10  miles  below  Buffalo,   where 
more  room  is  afforded.     The    industrial  works 
comprise  four  blast-furnaces,  large  rolling-mills, 
machine-shops,  car-shops,  iron  shipyards,  stove- 
foundries,  tanneries,  breweries,  flour-mills,  and 
manufactories  of  agricultural  implements.  Buffalo 
is  connected  with  the  Niagara  Utilisation  Com- 
pany's works  for  electric  lighting  and  motor  power. 
The  navigation  of  Lake  Erie  usually  opens  about 
the  middle  of  April,  the  extreme  dates  being  a 
month  earlier  and  a  month  later.     Buffalo  has 
wide  streets,  well  paved  and  lighted,  and  gener- 
ally lined  with  trees.     It  has  excellent  sewerage, 
and  extensive  water-works  supplied  from  Niagara 
River;  and  its  healthfulness  is  attested  by  the 
low  death-rate  of  14  per  1000.    There  are  five 
public  squares,  and  the  magnificent  park  consists 
of  three  sections,  connected  by  boulevards,  which 
encircle  the  city.     The  city  and  county  hall  is  an 
imposing  structure  of  Maine  granite,  in  the  form 
of  a  double  Roman  cross,  with  a  tower  245  feet 
high,  surmounted  by  four  statues.    The  other 
prominent  buildings  are  the  U.  S.  custom-house 
and    post-office,   the    public    library,   the    state 
arsenal,   the  county  penitentiary,  and   a   state 
asylum  for  the  insane  (in  North  Buffalo).     Of  the 
two  finest  of  its  100  churches,  St  Joseph's  Cathe- 
dral (Roman  Catholic)  is  a  gray  Gothic  structure ; 
and  St  Paul's  (Episcopal)  has  been  rebuilt  since 
its  burning  in  1888.      Founded  in  1801,  Buffalo 
was  burned  in  1813  by  British  and  Indians.     lb 
was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1832,  and  had  then 
a  population  of  15,000,  which  had  increased  in 
1800  to  81,130 ;  in  1880  to  155,137 ;  in  1890  to 
255,664;  in  1900  to  352,387. 

Bug  {Boog\  the  name  of  two  Russian  rivers. 
The  Western  Bug  rises  in  Austrian  Galicia,  and 
after  a  course  of  470  in.,  mostly  along  the  eastern 


^ttQIS 


135 


BUNZLAU 


frontier  of  Poland,  it  joins  the  Vistula  near  War- 
saw.   The  Eastern  Bug  (anc.  Hypanis)  rises  in 
Podolia,  and  flows  520  miles  south-east  into  the 
Dnieper's  estuary. 
Bugls.    See  Boni. 

Bugulma  (Boogoohna),  a  town  in  the  Russian 
goverinnent  of  Samara,  on  the  Bugulminka,  a 
tributary  of  the  Kama.     Pop.  13,74(5. 

Buguruslan  (Boogoorooslan),  a  town  in  the 
Russian  government  of  Samara,  on  the  Kinel, 
in  the  Volga  steppe.     Pop.  19,390. 

Bulldwas  (Blld'was),  a  Shropshire  parish,  on 
the  Severn,  4  miles  N.  of  Much  Weulock,  with 
a  ruined  Cistercian  abbey  (1135). 

Builth  (Bilth),  a  town  of  Brecknockshire,  on 
the  Wye,  14  m.  N.  of  Brecon.  Pop.  1805.  Builth 
Wells,  1  mile  NW.,  have  mineral  properties. 

Buitenzorg  (Bl'tenzorg),  a  town  in  Java,  35 
miles  S.  of  Batavia  by  rail,  stands  in  mountainous 
country,  and  has  so  tine  a  climate  that  it  is  a 
favourite  sunnner-resort.     Pop.  25,000. 

Bujalance  (Boo-Jm-lan'thay),  a  city  of  Andal- 
usia, Spain,  25  miles  E.  of  Cordova.     Pop.  11,250. 
Bukkur,   a  fortified  island  of  the  Indus,   in 
Sind,  between  the  towns  of  llohri  and  Sukkur. 

Bukowlna  (Booko,  '  beechland '),  an  eastern 
province  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  empire, 
surrounded  by  Galicia,  Russia,  Moldavia,  and 
Hungary.  Area,  4035  sq.  in. ;  pop.  (1869)  513,404 ; 
(1900)730,195,  of  whom  42  per  cent,  are  Ruthen- 
ians,  33  Moldavians,  and  12  Jews,  while  71  per 
cent,  belong  to  the  Greek  Church.  It  is  tra- 
versed by  offsets  of  the  Carpathians,  culminating 
at  6077  feet ;  gives  rise  to  many  rivers  flowing 
towards  the  Black  Sea ;  and  abounds  in  wood, 
cattle,  horses,  and  minerals.  Capital,  Czernowitz. 
Bulacan,  a  port  of  Luzon,  Philippines,  20  miles 
NW.  of  Manila.  Pop.  14,000. 
Bulak.    See  Boulak. 

Bulandshahr,  a  town  in  the  Meerut  division  of 
the  United  Provinces  of  India.     Pop.  17,500. 

Bulawayo,  the  old  capital  of  Matabeleland,  and 
now  chief  commercial  place  in  Southern  Rhodesia, 
is  290  miles  SAV.  of  Salisbury,  and  is  connected  by 
rail  both  with  Beira  (1900)  and  with  Capetown 
(1897).     Pop.  7000  (4000  whites). 

Bulgaria,  a  principality  in  the  Balkan  Penin- 
sula, between  the  Danube  and  the  Balkans.  It 
was  created  by  the  Treaty  of  Berlin  (1878),  and 
since  1885  Eastern  Roumelia,  lying  to  the  S.,  has 
been  practically  incorporated  witli  it.  The  area 
of  Bulgaria  is  24,500  sq.  in.  ;  that  of  Eastern 
Roumelia,  13,700;  and  their  united  population 
in  1903  was  3,310,715— over  three-fourths  Bul- 
garians, 530,000  Turks,  90,000  Gypsies,  72,000 
Roumanians.  70,000  Greeks,  and  34,000  Jews. 
The  north  or  Bulgaria  is  fertile  plain  and  hilly 
country  ;  the  south  is  wooded  and  mountainous. 
A  fine  waterway  as  her  northern  boundary  and 
an  outlet  to  the  Black  Sea,  a  seaboard,  a  mild 
climate,  a  purely  agricultural  country  capable  of 
great  development,  free  institutions  and  about 
the  most  liberal  constitution  in  Europe,  a  peas- 
antry possessing  the  solid  qualities  and  persever- 
ing industry  of  northern  races— with  these  ele- 
ments for  her  economic  development,  her  right 
to  a  national  existence  cannot  be  disputed.  Tlie 
physical  aspects  of  Eastern  Roumelia  are  very 
varied,  the  surface  in  the  west  being  broken  up 
by  the  offshoots  of  the  Albanian  ranges,  and  in 
the  north  and  north-east  by  the  Balkans  and 
their  spurs.  The  principal  exports  are  cereals, 
and  the  imports  live-stock;  but  there  are  im- 


portant manufactures  of  woollens  and  attar  of 
roses,  and  the  production  of  wine  and  tobacco 
receives  considerable  attention.  Sofia  is  the 
capital,  the  other  principal  towns  being  Varna, 
Shuinla,  Rustchuk,  Widin,  Razgrad,  Sistova, 
Tirnova,  and  Plevna ;  Philippopolis  is  the  chief 
town  of  Eastern  Roumelia.  The  Bulgarians  be- 
longed originally  to  the  Ural-Altaic  stock,  but 
have  adopted  a  Slavonic  dialect.  First  crossing 
the  Danube  in  the  6th  century  a.d.,  by  1186  they 
had  split  up  into  three  principalities,  and  from 
1393  fell  under  the  domination  of  the  Turks. 
The  Bulgarians  now  extend  far  beyond  the 
boundaries  of  the  two  Bulgarian  states,  into 
Macedonia,  Bessarabia,  &c.,  their  total  number 
being  estimated  at  seven  millions.  See  Samuel- 
son,  Bulgaria  (1888) ;  Dicey,  The  Peasant  State 
(1894) ;  Miller,  The  Balkans  (1896). 

Bullers  of  Buchan.    See  Buchan. 

Bull  Run,  a  small  stream  separating  Fairfax 
and  Prince  William  counties  in  Virginia,  25  miles 
W.  by  S.  of  Washington.  It  gives  name  to  a 
battlefield,  where  on  July  21,  1861,  and  August 
29,  1862,  the  Confederates  gained  two  victories. 

Bulsar,  a  seaport  of  India,  on  the  estuary  of 
the  river  Bulsar,  115  miles  N.  of  Bombay  by 
rail.     Pop.  14,229. 

Bulstrode  Park,  Bucks,  2J  miles  ESE.  of 
Beaconsfield,  a  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Somerset. 

Bultfontein  (Booltfontayn),  a  place  with  dia- 
mond mines  in  Griquuland  West,  E.  of  Kimberley. 

Bulti  (Booltee),  part  of  Cashmere  (q.v.). 

Buncombe,  the  county  of  North  Carolina  whose 
tedious  representative  in  congress  (1819-21)  ex- 
plained when  interrupted  that  he  was  'speaking 
for  Buncombe'— hence  'bunkum.' 

Buncrana  (Bun-krah'na),  a  Donegal  town,  on 
Lough  Swiliy,  12  m.  from  Londonderry.  Pop.  1316. 

Bundaberg,  a  sugar  port  of  Queensland,  272 
miles  N.  of  Brisbane.    Pop.  5000. 

Bu.nd.elk.h.a,n6.(Boo7ideWmnd),  a  region  of  Upper 
India,  between  the  Chambal  and  the  Jumna.  It 
includes  five  districts  of  the  British  NW.  Provinces 
(Banda,  Jalaun,  Jhaiisi,  Lalitpur,  and  Hamirpur) ; 
also  the  '  Bundelkhand  Agency,'  a  subdivision  of 
the  Central  Indian  Agency,  which  is  a  group  of 
30  native  states.  Principal  towns— Kalpi,  Jhansi, 
Kalinjar,  Banda,  Jalaun,  Chhatarpur,  Datia. 

Bundi,  a  native  state  of  Rajputana  ;  area,  2225 
sq.  in.  ;  population,  180,000,  nearly  all  Hindus 
Chief  town,  Bundi  (pop.  20,000). 

Bundo'ran,  a  watering-place  on  Donegal  Bay, 
4  miles  SW.  of  Ballyshannon.     Pop.  896., 

Bungay,  a  market-town  of  Suffolk]  on  the 
Waveney,  6  miles  W.  of  Beccles.  It  grew  up 
around  the  12th-century  castle  of  the  Bigods, 
Earls  of  Norfolk,  some  ruins  of  which  still  re- 
main ;  but  mostly  it  is  later  than  the  great  fire 
of  1688.  It  has  a  large  printing  establishment. 
Pop.  3560. 

Bunker  Hill,  an  elevation  (112  feet)  on  the 
peninsula  of  Charlestown,  now  part  of  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  connected  by  a  ridge,  700  yards 
long,  with  Breed's  Hill  (75  feet).  The  two  heights 
were  the  scene  of  the  first  hard-fought  battle  of 
the  American  Revolution  (June  17,  1775),  in 
which  the  Americans  repulsed  two  attacks  by 
General  Gage's  forces,  and  were  dislodged  only 
after  reinforcements  had  been  brought  up,  and 
their  ammunition  was  spent.  A  granite  obelisk, 
221  feet  high,  marks  the  site  of  the  redoubt. 

Bunzlau  {BoontzHow),  a  town  of  Prussian 
Silesia,  25  miles  WNW.  of  Liegnitz  by  rail.    It 


BUNZLAU 


136 


BURMA 


Manufactures  earthenware,  woollens,  glass,  &c. 
Pop.  14,532. 

Bunzlau,  Jung  (Czech  Mladd  Boleslav),  a  town 
of  Bohemia,  on  the  Iser,  32  miles  NB.  of  Prague 
by  rail.    Pop.  14,250. 

Burano  (Boo-rdh'no),  an  island  and  town,  5  m. 
NE,  of  Venice.  Its  lace  niauufacture,  once  fam- 
ous, has  been  revived.     Pop.  8300. 

Burdekin,  a  river  of  Queensland,  draining  tlie 
district  of  North  Kennedy.  It  rises  not  far  from 
the  coast,  and  after  an  irregular  course  forms  a 
delta  emptying  into  Bowling  Green  and  Upstart 
bays.  It  was  discovered  by  Leichhardt  in  1845, 
anil  explored  by  Dalrymple  and  Smith  in  1859-60. 

Burford,  a  toAvn  of  Oxfordshire,  on  the  Wind- 
rush,  18  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Oxford.  Pop.  of 
parish,  1346. 

Burg  (Boorg),  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  15 
miles  NB.  of  Magdeburg  by  rail.  It  manufactures 
woollens,  leather,  tobacco,  &c.     Pop.  22,414. 

Burgas  (Boorgas),  a  port  of  Eastern  Roumelia, 
on  the  Gulf  of  Burgas,  in  the  Black  Sea,  76  miles 
NE.  of  Adrianople.     Pop.  9000. 

Burgdorf  (Boorg-dorf ;  Fr.  Berthond),  a  Swiss 
town,  14  miles  NE.  of  Bern  by  rail.  In  the  old 
castle  here  Pestalozzi  established  his  famous 
school  (1798-1804).     Pop.  85S1. 

Burgess  Hill,  a  town  of  Sussex,  8J  miles  N.  of 
Brighton.    Pop.  4SS8. 

Burgh-by-Sands,  a  Cumberland  parish,  5  miles 
NNW.  of  Carlisle.  An  obelisk  marks  the  death- 
place  of  Edward  I. 

Burgh  Castle,  a  Suflfolk  parish,  4  miles  WSW. 
of  Yarmouth,  witli  a  most  perfect  Roman  camp. 

Burghead,  a  fishing-town  of  Elginshire,  on  the 
Moray  Firth,  11  miles  NW.  of  Elgin.     Pop.  1531. 

Burghley  House,  'by  Stamford  town,'  in 
Northamptonshire,  on  the  Welland,  the  splendid 
Renaissance  mansion  of  the  Marquis  of  Exeter, 
was  commenced  in  1575  by  Lord  Burghley,  and 
has  a  noble  park,  carvings  by  Grinling  Gibbons, 
and  a  great  collection  of  pictures. 

BUrglen,  a  village  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Uri, 
about  a  mile  from  Altorf,  is  the  traditional 
birthplace  of  William  Tell.  The  supposed  site  of 
his  house  is  now  occupied  by  a  chapel  (1522),  on 
whose  walls  are  represented  scenes  from  his  his- 
tory.    Pop.  1778. 

Burgos  (Boor'gos),  a  city  of  Spain,  the  ancient 
capital  of  Old  Castile,  on  the  river  Arlanzon, 
225  miles  N.  of  Madrid  by  rail.  Founded  in 
884,  it  has  a  castle,  in  which  our  Edward  I.  was 
wedded,  and  Pedro  the  Cruel  born,  and  an  archi- 
episcopal  cathedral  (1221),  which  ranks  with 
those  of  Toledo  and  Leon  as  one  of  the  three 
great  Spanish  churches  of  the  Early  Pointed 
period.  It  is  a  glorious  building,  with  its  twin- 
spired  western  facade,  its  exquisite  lantern,  and 
its  fifteen  chapels  so  rich  in  fine  sculpture  and 
tombs.  Burgos  was  the  birthplace  of  the  Cid, 
Avhose  bones  are  preserved  at  the  town-hall.  It 
has  manufactures  of  woollens  and  linens.  The 
university  (1550)  is  now  extinct,  but  there  is  a 
college  with  twenty-one  professors.  The  city 
formerly  had  50,000  inhabitants ;  but  on  the 
removal  of  the  court  to  Madrid  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury, it  began  to  decline  in  importance.  It  was 
further  greatly  injured  in  1808  by  the  French. 
In  1812  the  castle  was  four  times  unsuccessfully 
besieged  by  Wellington,  who,  however,  took  it  in 
the  ]iext  year,  when  the  P'rench  blew  it  up,  and 
tihe  fortifications.     Pop.  30,250. 


Burgundy,  till  1477  an  independent  princi- 
pality of  widely  varying  area  in  the  east  and 
south-east  of  what  is  now  France,  and  later  a 
French  province  (Fr.  Bourgogne),  which  comprised 
the  present  departments  of  Ain,  Cote-d'Or,  Saone- 
et-Loire,  and  Yonne,  with  parts  of  adjoining  deps. 
Among  its  towns  were  Dijon,  Macon,  Autun, 
Chalon-sur-Saone,  and  Bourg.  The  white  and 
red  wines  of  Burgundy  have  a  great  celebrity. 

Burhanpur,  a  town  of  the  Central  Provinces, 
India,  on  the  Tapti,  280  miles  NE.  of  Bom- 
bay. The  remains  of  buildings  show  that  the 
town  extended  over  an  area  of  5  sq.  m.  when 
under  the  Moguls.  The  city  was  taken  by 
General  Wellesley  in  1803,  but  it  was  only  in 
1860  that  Burhanpur  came  completely  under 
control  of  the  British  government.  The  town 
contains  a  palace  built  by  Akbar,  and  a  mosque 
built  by  Aurungzebe.    Pop.  33,017. 

Burley-in- Wharf e dale,  a  village  and  town- 
ship in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the 
Wharfe,  10  miles  N.  of  Bradford.    Pop.  3310. 

Burlington,  three  cities  in  the  United  States  : 
(1)  The  capital  of  Des  Moines  county,  Iowa,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi  (here  crossed 
by  a  railway  bridge),  207  miles  WSW.  of  Chicago. 
Laid  out  in  1834,  it  is  the  seat  of  a  Baptist 
college,  and  has  manufactures  of  machinery, 
farming  implements,  flour,  carriages,  &c.  Pop. 
(1870)  14,930  ;  (1900)  23,200.  —(2)  A  port  of  entry 
of  Burlington  county,  New  Jersey,  on  the  Dela- 
ware, 7  miles  above  Philadelphia.  It  possesses 
an  Episcopalian  college  (1846),  and  large  manu- 
factories of  shoes,  ironware,  and  thread.  Pop. 
7264.— <3)  A  port  of  entry  and  capital  of  Chitten- 
den county,  Vermont,  and  the  most  populous 
city  in  the  state,  beautifully  situated  on  the 
eastern  shore  of  Lake  Champlain,  40  miles  WNW. 
of  Montpelier  by  rail.  It  has  a  good  harbour, 
with  a  breakwater  and  lighthouse,  and  has  access 
by  canals  and  the  Richelieu  River  to  the  Hudson 
and  St  Lawrence.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  State 
Agricultural  College  (1865),  and  of  Vermont  Uni- 
versity (1800) ;  has  cotton,  flour,  and  planing 
mills,  machine-shops,  and  manufactures  of  furni- 
ture, &c.  ;  and  is  one  of  the  largest  lumber 
markets  in  the  States.  Pop.  (1870)  14,387  ;  (1880) 
11,365  ;  (1900)  18,640. 

Burlington.    See  Bridlington. 

Burma,  once  the  chief  state  in  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula,  is  now  the  largest  of  all  the 
provinces  of  the  Indian  empire.  It  stretches 
from  28°  lat.,  on  the  confines  of  Tibet,  southward 
for  1100  miles,  to  10°  lat.,  far  down  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  and  from  103°  long.,  on  the  Chinese 
border,  for  700  miles  westward  to  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  It  is  conterminous  with  China  and 
Siain  on  the  east ;  and  for  the  rest  it  is  bounded 
by  the  Indian  provinces  of  Bengal  and  Assam, 
and  by  the  ocean.  Its  total  area  is  236,738 
square  miles,  of  which  81,160  belong  to  the  old 
province  of  Lower  Burma,  87,390  to  Upper  Burma, 
and  68,188  to  tlie  Shan  States.  The  country 
consists  of  the  great  basin  of  the  Irawadi  and 
its  affluents  ;  the  rugged  country  drained  by  the 
Salween  and  Sittang  rivers,  on  the  upper  waters 
of  which  are  situate  the  Shan  States ;  and  the 
narrow  maritime  provinces  of  Arakan  and  Tenas- 
serim.  The  deltas  of  the  Irawadi,  Salween, 
Sittang,  and  Koladan  rivers  are  flat  plains,  and 
there  are  smaller  areas  of  level  land  at  the 
mouths  and  on  the  banks  of  some  of  the  feeders 
of  the  Irawadi.  The  level  cultivable  plains  prob- 
ably do  not  exceed  50,000  sq.  m.  in  all.  The  re.st 
Of  Burma  is  hilly  broken  country,  covered  for  the 


BURMA 


13? 


BURNTISLANfi 


thost  part  with  forest.  The  China  hills  in  the 
north-east  reach  a  height  of  15,000  feet.  The 
Shan  States  occupy  a  vast  upland,  cleft  by  deep 
chasms,  in  which  llow  the  Salween  and  the  Cam- 
bodia rivers  and  their  feeders.  The  chief  river 
of  Burma  is  the  Irawadi,  1100  miles  in  length, 
which  is  navigable  all  the  year  round  by  river- 
steamers  to  Bhamo,  700  miles  from  the  sea,  and 
50  miles  from  the  Chinese  border.  The  rivers 
are  the  chief  highways  of  the  country  ;  but  dur- 
ing the  dry  season  all,  except  the  very  largest 
and  the  tidal  channels,  are  too  low  for  naviga- 
tion. Sometimes  the  flood-waters  of  the  Irawadi 
submerge  the  country  for  10  or  15  miles  on  either 
side  to  a  depth  of  4  to  14  feet.  The  inundated 
villages,  however,  do  not  suffer,  as  the  houses 
are  all  built  on  piles.  The  rainfall  varies  widely 
in  different  parts  of  Burma,  from  200  to  42  inches. 
In  the  delta  and  along  the  coast  the  rainy  season 
lasts  for  five,  six,  or  sometimes  even  seven  months. 
From  February  to  the  end  of  April  the  climate 
of  the  delta  is  dry  and  hot  (occasionally  100°  in 
the  shade).  Higher  up  the  Irawadi  valley  the 
climate  is  much  hotter  and  dryer  in  the  summer, 
but  cooler  in  the  winter  months.  The  climate 
of  Burma  is  more  trying  to  Europeans  than  that 
of  the  plains  of  India.  The  forests  of  Burma 
contain  an  abundance  of  useful  and  beautiful 
trees,  including  teak,  bamboo,  and  trees  produc- 
ing valuable  fibre,  wood-oil,  varnish,  tannin,  and 
gums.  Among  the  wild  animals  of  Burma  may 
be  mentioned  the  elephant,  three  species  of  rhin- 
oceros, tapir,  buffalo,  bison,  many  kinds  of  deer, 
small  wild  cattle,  hog,  tiger,  leopard,  bear,  and 
wild  dog.  Among  domestic  animals,  the  buffalo, 
oxen,  elephants,  and  ponies  are  all  good.  No 
horses  are  bred,  and  sheep  and  goats  are  rare. 
Pythons  and  cobras  abound.  The  variety  of 
birds  and  of  fish  is  immense.  Gold  is  found  in 
small  quantities  by  washing  river-sand  ;  silver 
is  extracted  at  lead-workings  in  the  Shan  States. 
Iron,  copper,  lead,  and  tin  exist  in  great  quantity, 
petroleum  is  found  in  several  districts.  Jade  and 
amber  are  worked.  Coal  exists  at  several  places 
in  Upper  Burma.  The  coal  found  as  yet  in  Lower 
Burma  has  proved  of  poor  quality  and  scanty  in 
quantity.  The  ruby-mines  north  of  Mandalay 
yield  the  best  rubies  in  the  world. 

At  the  census  of  1901  the  population  of  Lower 
Burma  was  5,389,897,  and  of  Upper  Burma 
3,849,833,  and  1,250,894  in  the  Shan  depen- 
dencies, showing  a  total  population  of  10,490,624. 
Of  these  some  7,000,000  are  Burmans,  800,000 
Karens,  the.  rest  being  mainly  other  liill  tribes 
(Chins,  Kachins,  Singphos,  Paloungs,  &c.).  The 
Burmans  are  a  short-statured,  flat-featured, 
thick-set  people.  They  are  excitable  and  fond 
of  fun  and  laughter ;  much  given  to  dramas, 
dances,  and  shows ;  and  callous  to  suffering  in 
others.  Dacoity  or  robbery  with  violence  by 
gangs  is  common.  Burmese  women  are  well 
treated.  Burmans  are  Buddhists  by  religion ; 
the  most  respected  class  are  the  Buddhist  monks, 
whose  function  is  to  set  an  example  of  a  correct 
life,  and  to  instruct  the  young.  They  observe 
the  vows  of  celibacy  and  poverty,  but  can  return 
to  the  world  when  they  please.  They  shave  their 
heads,  wear  yellow  robes,  and  live  in  monasteries. 
The  Shans  resemble  the  Burmans ;  but  being 
highlanders,  are  poorer,  hardier,  and  more  cour- 
ageous. The  Karens  are  less  clever,  but  more 
persevering  and  methodical  than  Burmans.  There 
are  over  500  parishes  of  Christian  (American 
Baptist)  Karens,  containing  nearly  200,000  souls. 
The  Burmese  language  is  monosyllabic ;  it  is 
written  from  left  to  right,  the  shape  of  the  letters 


being  circular.  The  classical  language  of  Burma 
is  Pali.  The  name  Burma  is,  according  to  Yule 
in  Hobson-Jobson,  an  Englished  form  of  Mram-ma, 
pronounced  by  the  people  Bam-md.  The  primary 
schools  of  the  country  are  the  Buddhist  monas- 
teries, in  which  every  Burman  lad  must  be  taught 
to  read  and  write.  Over  60  per  cent,  of  the  males 
in  Lower  Bunna  above  the  age  of  twelve  can  read 
and  write. 

The  external  sea-borne  trade  of  Lower  Burma 
is  valued  at  over  twenty  millions  sterling.  Most 
of  this  trade  centres  in  Rangoon.  The  chief 
export  items  are  rice,  teak  timber,  cutch,  hides, 
cotton  ;  while  the  chief  import  items  are  cotton 
piece-goods  and  yarns,  silk  goods,  coal,  hardware, 
salt,  and  metals.  Several  railways  are  in  opera- 
tion, including  that  from  Rangoon  to  Mandalay. 
Extensions  are  in  progress  in  several  directions ; 
and  possible  railway  communication  between 
Burma  and  China  has  been  much  discussed.  The 
commercial  and  financial  development  of  Lower 
Burma  under  British  rule  has  been  great  and  rapid. 
The  arts  in  which  Burmese  excel  are  wood-carving, 
silver  repousse  work,  woven  silk  fabrics  of  many 
colours,  and  lacquer-ware.  Burma  is  governed 
under  the  Viceroy  of  India,  by  a  chief-commis- 
sioner. A  Buddhist  Bunnan  dynasty  was  estab- 
lished on  the  Irawadi  at  least  as  early  as  the 
11th  century.  It  was  not  till  1820  that  the 
Burmese  came  directly  into  contact  with  the 
British  power  in  Assam,  then  Burmese.  In  con- 
sequence of  Burmese  aggression  followed  by  war, 
Arakan  and  Tenasserim  were  ceded  in  1826,  Pegu 
in  1854  ;  and  in  1886  Upper  Burma  was  incorpor- 
ated with  British  India.  See  works  by  Forbes 
(1876),  Fytche  (1878),  Scott  ('Shway  Yoe,'  1882 
and  1886),  Phayre  (1888) ;  and  for  the  Burmese, 
Siam,  and  China  Railway,  works  by  Colquhoun 
and  Holt  Hallett. 

Burnham,  a  Somerset  watering-place,  on 
Bridgwater  Bay,  7^  miles  N.  of  Bridgwater. 
Pop.,  2897. 

Burnham  Beeches,  in  Bucks,  near  Maiden- 
head, and  25  miles  W.  of  London,  the  remains  of 
an  ancient  forest,  purchased  in  1879  by  the 
London  Corporation.    See  a  work  by  Heath  (1880). 

Burnham  Thorpe,  a  Norfolk  parish,  4J  miles 
W.  by  S.  of  Wells.  Lord  Nelson  was  born  in  the 
former  rectory. 

Burnley,  a  thriving  town  of  Lancashire,  in  a 
narrow  vale  on  the  banks  of  the  Brun,  near  its 
influx  to  the  Calder,  21  miles  E.  of  Preston,  and 
27  N.  of  Manchester.  Roman  remains  have  been 
found,  but  it  is  a  modern-looking  place,  a  great 
seat  of  the  woollen  and  then  of  the  cotton  manu- 
facture, with  a  literary  institute  and  exchange 
(1855),  a  market-hall  (1868),  the  Victoria  Hospital 
(1886),  a  grammar-school  {tem'p.  Edward  VI.),  and 
an  ancient  parish  church,  restored  in  1856. 
It  manufactures  looms  and  other  machinery, 
has  cotton-mills,  calico-printing  works,  iron  and 
brass  foundries,  breweries,  tanneries,  and  rope- 
works.  There  are  collieries  in  the  vicinity.  Bum- 
ley  was  created  a  municipal  borough  in  1861  (the 
boundary  being  extended  in  1889),  a  parliamen- 
tary borough  (returning  one  member)  in  1867, 
and  a  county  borough  in  1888.  Pop.  (1871) 
44,320  ;  (1891)  87,016  ;  (1901)  97,050. 

Bummouth,  a  Berwickshire  fishing-village,  5J 
miles  NNW.  of  Berwick-upon-Tweed. 

Burntisland,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of 
Fife,  on  the  Firth  of  Forth,  5  miles  N.  of  Granton 
by  steam-ferry  (1848).  Backed  by  the  Bin,  632 
feet  high,  it  has  a  quaint  parish  church  (1594), 


BURRA 


138 


BURY  ST  EDMUNDS 


and  the  old  castle  of  Rossend,  where  Chastelard 
incurred  his  doom.  The  harbour  has  been  nuich 
improved,  and  coal  is  shipped  in  large  quantities. 
Burntisland  is  one  of  the  four  Kirkcaldy  burghs. 
Pop.  (1841)  1959  ;  (1901)  4846. 

Burra,  East  and  West,  two  Shetland  Isles, 
10^  miles  SW.  of  Lerwick.     Pop.  203  and  612. 

Burra  Burra,  a  famous  copper-mine  in  South 
Australia,  101  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Adelaide.  It 
was  discovered  in  1844. 

Burrard.  Inlet,  a  narrow  inlet,  9  miles  long,  at 
the  SW.  corner  of  British  Columbia,  a  little  north 
of  the  mouth  of  the  Fraser  Iliver.  It  forms  one 
of  the  finest  harbours  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and 
has  become  of  much  importance  by  the  opening 
of  the  Canada  Pacific  Railway,  whose  terminus  is 
at  Vancouver  here. 

Burray,  an  Orkney  island,  between  Pomona 
and  South  Ronaldshay.    Area,  4  sq.  m. ;  pop.  671. 

Burriana,  a  Spanish  town,  34  miles  N.  of 
Valencia.     Pop.  10,179. 

Burrow  Head,  a  promontory,  150  feet  high, 
the  SE.  extremity  of  Wigtownshire. 

Burscheid,  a  town  of  Prussia,  on  the  Wupper, 
20  miles  SE.  of  DUsseldorf.     Pop.  7828. 

Burslem,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  within  the 
parliamentary  borough  of  Hanley,  20  miles  N.  by 
W.  of  Stafford.  It  is  known  as  tlie  'mother  of 
the  potteries,'  the  pottery  manufacture  liaving 
been  established  here  about  1644.  Porcelain  and 
pottery  of  all  kinds  are  produced  on  a  large  scale, 
as  well  as  encaustic  tiles.  There  is  also  a  glass 
manufactory.  A  fine  town-hall.  Renaissance  in 
style,  with  a  lofty  clock-tower,  was  erected  in 
1865.  Burslem  was  the  birthplace  of  Josiah 
Wedgwood  (1730-95)  ;  and  a  Wedgwood  Memorial 
Institute  was  opened  in  1870  to  serve  as  a  school 
of  art,  free  library,  and  museum.  Burslem  was 
made  a  municipal  borough  in  1878,  the  boundary 
being  enlarged  in  1891.  Pop.  (1851)  16,954  ;  (1891) 
32,000 ;  (1901)  38,850. 

Burton-on-Trent,  a  municipal  borough  (since 
1878)  of  East  Staffordshire  and  South  Derbysliire, 
25  miles  E.  of  Stafford,  on  the  river  Trent,  the 
ancient  bridge  over  which  was  superseded  in  1864 
by  one  470  yards  long.  Burton-on-Trent  owes  its 
rapid  extension  to  the  brewing  of  ale,  the  staple 
of  the  place.  The  opening  of  the  Midland  Rail- 
way in  1839  paved  the  way  for  future  progress. 
Cotton-spinning  was  at  first  the  chief  industry, 
but  this  has  been  discontinued  since  1849.  Its 
rise  and  progress  as  a  brewing  centre  has  beeii 
largely  due  to  the  suitability  of  the  water  for  this 
purpose.  There  was  some  small  local  trade  in 
beer  in  the  16th  century  here  ;  Burton  ale  had  a 
repute  in  London  in  1630 ;  and  a  considerable 
export  trade  had  been  established  with  the  Baltic 
ports  by  the  middle  of  the  18th  century.  In  1791 
there  were  nine  breweries,  in  1851  sixteen,  and 
now  there  are  nearly  twice  that  number,  some  of 
tliem — e.g.  those  of  Bass  and  Allsopp,  being  on  a 
scale  of  luiparalleled  magnitude.  Tliere  are,  of 
course,  extensive  cooperages,  and  also  iron- 
foundries.  A  church  or  monastery  was  erected 
by  the  Trent  in  the  9th  century  ;  Burton  Abbey 
was  founded  and  endowed  by  Wulfric,  Earl  of 
Mercia,  in  1002.  The  town  suffered  in  the  Great 
Rebellion,  and  has  suffered  repeatedly  by  floods, 
the  water  standing  4  or  5  feet  deep  on  some 
streets  in  1875.    Pop.  (1851)  7944 ;  (1901)  50,386. 

Burtscheid,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  J  mile 
from  Aix-la-Chapelle,  has  manufactures  of  woollen 
cloths  and  cassimeres,  and  celebrated  sulphur 


springs  and  baths,  with  a  temperature  of  106°  to 
155°  F.    Pop.  16,139. 

Buru,  or  Boeroe,  an  island  of  the  Malay 
Archipelago,  in  the  residency  of  Amboyna,  from 
whicli  it  lies  40  miles  to  the  W.  Marshy  along 
the  coast,  and  most  of  it  densely  wooded,  it 
attains  in  one  peak  10,320  feet.  Area,  3360  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  40,000  to  50,000. 

Bury,  a  flourisliing  manufacturing  town  of 
South-east  Lancashire,  on  a  rising  ground  backed 
by  hills  on  the  nortli  and  east,  between  the  Irwell 
and  the  Roche,  10  miles  NNW.  of  Manchester. 
The  woollen  manufacture  introduced  by  Flemings 
in  the  14th  century  attained  its  zenith  under 
Elizabeth,  but  had  greatly  declined  by  1738, 
when  Bury  was  merely  'a  little  market-town,' 
and  it  has  long  been  all  but  eclij^sed  by  the 
cotton  industry.  Besides  spinning  and  weaving 
factories,  there  are  important  paper,  print, 
bleach,  and  dye  works,  and  some  large  foundries 
and  engine  manufactories.  In  the  vicinity  are 
excellent  freestone  quarries,  and  abundant  coal- 
mines. Some  improvements  in  the  cotton  manu- 
facture arose  here— notably,  the  invention  by 
John  Kay  of  the  fly-shuttle.  Sir  Robert  Peel 
(1788-1850)  was  born  at  Bury  in  a  cottage  near 
Chamber  Hall,  his  father  being  a  great  calico 
manufacturer.  In  1852  a  bronze  statue  of  hiju 
was  erected  in  the  market-square.  Bury  was 
made  a  parliamentary  borough  (returning  one 
member)  in  1832,  a  jnunicipal  borough  in  1876 
(the  boundary  was  extended  in  1885),  and  a 
county  borough  in  1888.  Pop.  (1851)  31,262; 
(1891)  57,212  ;  (1901)  58,030. 

Bury  St  Edmunds,  or  St  Edmundsbury,  a 
clean,  well-built  town  of  West  Suffolk,  on  the 
little  river  Lark,  26  miles  NW.  of  Ipswich,  and  76 
NNE.  of  London.  It  was  named  after  Ednumd 
the  Martyr,  who  on  Christmas-day  856  was 
crowned  here  king  of  the  East  Angles,  and  who 
in  870  was  shot  to  death  at  Hoxne  by  the  Danes. 
His  relics  were  translated  hither  in  903,  and  in 
1020  Canute  reared  a  Benedictine  abbey  in  his 
honour,  which  in  time  became  the  richest  and 
most  important  in  England,  Glastonbury  only 
excepted.  Little  now  remains  but  the  noble 
Abbey  Gate  (1327-77),  Decorated  in  style,  and  62 
feet  high ;  and  the  Norman  Tower  or  Church 
Gate  (c.  1090),  a  quadrangular  tower  of  massiA^e 
simplicity,  86  feet  high.  The  cruciform  church 
itself,  which  measured  512  by  212  feet,  is  repre- 
sented only  by  the  west  front  and  the  piers  of 
the  central  tower,  one  of  which  bears  the  inscrip- 
tion :  '  Near  this  spot,  on  20th  November  1214, 
Cardinal  Langton  and  the  Barons  swore  at  St 
Edmund's  altar  that  they  would  obtain  from 
King  John  the  ratification  of  Magna  Charta.' 
St  Saviour's  Hospital  was  founded  by  that  notable 
abbot,  Samson,  whose  life  and  actions,  as  recorded 
by  Jocelin  de  Brakelonde,  Carlyle  has  so  vividly 
recalled  in  his  Past  and  Present.  Tlie  poet  Lyd- 
gate  was  a  monlc  of  Bury  St  Edmunds ;  and 
Bishops  Gardiner  and  Bloinfteld,  Sir  Nicholas 
Bacon,  and  Crabb  Robinson  were  natives.  St 
Mary's  and  St  James's  churches  are  both  fine 
Gothic  edifices  of  the  15th  century ;  in  the 
former  is  the  tomb  of  Mary  Tudor,  the  widow 
of  Louis  XII.  of  France.  The  grammar-school 
(1550)  was  rebuilt  on  a  new  site  in  1883  in  Queen 
Anne  style  at  a  cost  of  £12,000.  Donaldson  was 
one  of  its  head-masters,  and  amongst  its  scholars 
have  been  the  Norths,  Bancroft,  Cumberland, 
Blomfield,  J.  M.  Kemble,  FitzGerald,  and  Sped- 
ding.  Defoe,  Wollaston,  '  Mr  Pickwick,'  '  Ouida,' 
and  F.  W.  Robertson  were  residents.    Since  1883 


BttSACHIlTO 


13d 


CABOU^G 


Bury  St  Edmunds  has  returned  only  one  member 
to  parliament.  Pop.  (1801)  7655;  (1841)  12,538; 
(1901)  16,250.  See  works  by  Gillingwater  (1804) 
and  Thomas  Arnold  (1893). 

BusacMno.    See  Bisacquino. 

Busaco  (Boo-sah'ko),  a  Portuguese  ridge  north 
of  the  river  Mondego,  16  miles  NNB.  of  Coimbra. 
Here,  in  1810,  Wellington  repulsed  Massena. 

Busby,  a  town  with  cotton-mills  and  print- 
works, 7  miles  S.  of  Glasgow.     Pop.  1786. 

Bushey,  a  small  village  in  the  south  of  Hert- 
fordshire, IJ  mile  S.  of  Walford. — Bushey  Park, 
a  royal  park,  close  to  Hampton  Court,  is  in 
Middlesex,  14  miles  SW.  of  London. 

Bushire  (500-8/166/;  properly  Abushehr,  '  father 
of  cities,'  also  written  Bushahr),  a  principal 
port  of  Persia,  on  a  sandy  peninsula  on  the  east 
shore  of  the  Persian  Gulf,  in  tlie  province  of  Fars. 
The  district  is  liable  to  be  devastated  by  earth- 
quakes and  the  simoom,  and  is  deflcient  in  water  ; 
but  the  situation  is  highly  favourable  for  com- 
merce. It  is  the  land  terminus  of  the  Indo- 
European  telegraph  line,  and  a  chief  station  of 
the  British  Indian  Steam-navigation  Company ; 
and  has  a  large  trade  both  in  imports  and  exports. 
Pop.  20,000. 

Bushmills,  an  Antrim  market-town,  on  the 
river  Bush,  8  miles  NE.  of  Coleraine.     Pop.  979. 

Busiu,  BusEO,  BuzEO,  or  Buzau,  a  Roumanian 
town,  in  Wallachia,  60  miles  NE.  of  Bucharest, 
with  a  cathedral  and  nuich  trade.     Pop.  23,000. 

Bussanga.    See  Borgu. 

Bussorah.     See  Basra. 

Busto-Arsizio,  a  town  of  Italy,  20  miles  NW. 
of  Milan.     Pop.  9891. 

Bute,  an  island  in  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  separated 
from  Argyllshire  by  the  winding  Kyles  of  Bute, 
mostly  under  a  mile  wide,  and  about  6  miles 
distant  from  Ayrshire,  8  NE.  of  Arran.  It  is  15^ 
miles  long,  IJ  to  6J  broad,  and  49  sq.  m.  in  area. 
The  surface  to  the  north  is  high,  rugged,  and 
barren,  attaining  875  feet  in  Kames  Hill ;  in  the 
centre  and  south  it  is  low  and  undulating,  and 
comparatively  fertile.  Of  six  small  lakes,  the 
largest  is  Loch  Fad  (2^  by  J  mile),  in  a  cottage 
on  whose  west  shore  lived  Kean  and  Sheridan 
Knowles.  The  climate  is  milder  than  in  any 
other  part  of  Scotland,  and  though  moist,  less  so 
than  on  the  west  coast  generally  ;  hence,  Bute  is 
much  resorted  to  by  invalids.  The  principal 
town  is  Rothesay  (q.v.).  Most  of  the  island 
belongs  to  the  Marquis  of  Bute,  whose  beautiful 
seat,  Mount-Stuart,  5  miles  SSE.  of  Rothesay, 
has  been  rebuilt  since  the  lire  of  1S77  at  a  cost  of 
nearly  £20,000.  Among  the  antiquities  of  Bute 
are  Rothesay  Castle,  Kam.es  Castle  (John  Ster- 
ling's birthplace),  Kilmorie  Castle,  St  Blano's 
Chapel,  and  Dungyle,  a  remarkable  vitrified  fort 
on  a  high  crag  on  the  south-west  coast.  From 
an  early  period  till  1266  Bute  was  more  or  less 
subject  to  the  Norwegians.  Pop.  (1801)  6106 ; 
(1841)  9499  ;  (1891)  11,735  ;  (1901)  12,180. 

Buteshire,  a  county  comprising  the  isles  of 
Bute,  Arran,  the  Cumbraes,  Holy  Isle,  Pladda, 


Inchmarnock,  and  other  smaller  islands.  The 
area  of  the  whole  is  225  sq.  m.,  or  143,977  statute 
acres.  Pop.  (1871)  16,977  ;  (1901)  18,787.  Bute- 
shire returns  one  member  to  x»arliament.  The 
county  town  is  Rothesay,  in  Bute. 

Butler,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Coneque- 
nessing  Creek,  30  miles  N.  of  Pittsburgh  (45  by 
rail).  It  has  woollen,  flour,  and  planing  mills, 
and  plate-glass  and  carriage  factories.  The  neigh- 
bourhood is  rich  in  natural  gas,  petroleum,  and 
coal  and  iron  fields.  Tlie  population  is  now  well 
over  11,000. 

Butte  (Bewt),  capital  of  Silver  Bow  county,* 
Montana,  72  miles  by  rail  8.  by  W.  of  Helena, 
with  silver-miiios,  quartz-mills,  smelters,  &c. 
Pop.  (350  in  1870)  now  31,000. 

Butterley,  a  seat  of  ironworks  and  collieries,  in 
Derbyshire,  10  miles  NNE.  of  Derby.  Sir  James 
Outraiu  was  born  at  Butterley  Hall. 

Buttermere,  a  Cumberland  lake,  9  miles  SW. 
of  Keswick.  Lying  247  feet  above  sea-level,  it  is 
li  mile  long,  if  mile  wide,  and  90  feet  deep,  and 
is  united  by  a  short  stream  to  Crunnnock  Water 
(240  ft.,  2J  m.  by  f  m.,  130  ft.  deep),  which  dis- 
charges to  the  Cocker. 

But'tevant,  a  market-town  on  the  Awbeg,  27 
miles  N.  of  Cork.     Pop.  979. 

Buxar,  or  Baxar,  a  town  of  Bengal,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Ganges,  411  miles  NW.  of 
Calcutta  by  rail.  Here  in  1764  Sir  Hector  Munro 
defeated  Mir  Kasim.    Pop.  18,498. 

Buxton,  a  town  in  Derbyshire,  37  miles  NW. 
of  Derby,  and  25  SSE.  of  Manchester.  It  lies 
1025  feet  above  sea-level,  in  a  deep  valley  sur- 
rounded by  hills  and  moors,  which  have  been 
tastefully  planted ;  and  the  only  approach  is  a 
narrow  ravine,  by  which  the  Wye  flows  into  the 
Derwent.  Buxton  has  long  been  famous  for  its 
calcareous  springs,  tepid  (82°  F.)  and  cold  (dis- 
charging 120  gallons  of  water  per  minute),  and 
its  chalybeate  springs.  They  were  probably 
known  to  the  Romans,  and  in  1572  were  cele- 
brated by  one  Dr  John  Jones  as  'the  ancient 
baths  of  Buckstones.'  The  town  is  visited 
annually,  from  June  to  October,  by  8000  to  12,000 
persons,  the  waters  being  taken  for  indigestion, 
gout,  rheumatism,  and  nervous  and  cutaneous 
diseases.  Near  Buxton  is  the  Diamond  Hill, 
famous  for  its  crystals  ;  and  Poole's  Hole,  a  gas- 
lit  stalactite  cavern  770  yards  long.  Pop.  (1871) 
3717  ;  (1891)  7424  ;  (1901)  10,185. 

Buyuk'dereh,  a  village  on  the  Bosphorus,  10 
miles  NNE.  of  Constantinople,  is  the  summer 
residence  of  many  of  the  ambassadors. 

Byblos,  an  ancient  city  of  Phoenicia,  now  a 
village  of  600  inhabitants,  called  Jubeil,  on  a 
shallow  bay  at  the  base  of  the  lower  range  of  the 
Libanus,  midway  between  Tripoli  and  Beyrout. 

Byland  Abbey,  a  ruined  Cistercian  monastery 
in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  founded  1137, 
and  chiefly  represented  by  its  noble  Norman  and 
Early  English  church,  328  feet  long. 

Bytown,  till  1854  the  name  of  Ottawa  (q.v.). 

Byzantium.     See  Constantinople. 


^ABATUAN,  a  town  in  the  island  of 
Panay  in  the  Philippines,  province 
Iloilo.     Pop.  18,000. 

Cabes,  or  Khabs,  a  port  of  Tunis,  at 
the  head  of  its  own  gulf.     Pop.  10,000. 
Cabinda,  a  small  Portuguese  territory  on  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  north  of  the  mouth  of  the 


Congo,  and  bounded  on  the  E.  by  the  Congo  State. 
It  was  delimited  in  1886.  The  capital,  Cabinda, 
was  formerly  a  noted  slave  port ;  pop.  8000. 

Cabot  Strait,  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  the 
St  Lawrence,  between  Newfoundland  and  Cape 
Breton. 

Cabourg,  a  village  in  the  French  dep.  of  Cal- 


dABEA 


140 


dAdLiAiat 


vados,  on  the  Dives,  11  miles  SW.  of  Trouville  by 
rail.    Pop.  1056. 

Cabra,  a  town  of  Spain,  37  miles  SE.  of  Cor- 
dova.   Pop.  13,160. 

Cabracli.    See  Buck  of  Cabrach. 

Cabrera,  one  of  the  Balearic  Isles  (q.v.). 

Cabul.    See  Kabul. 

Cac'camo,  a  town  of  Sicily,  5  miles  SW.  of 
Termini.     Pop.  7964. 

Caceres  (Kah'the-rez),  a  province  of  Spain,  in 
the  north  of  Estremadura.  Area,  8014  sq.  m.  ; 
population,  355,000.— The  capital.  Caceres  (auc. 
Castra  Ccecilia),  45  miles  N.  of  Merida  by  rail,  is 
famous  for  its  bacon  and  sausages.  Here  the 
allied  forces  defeated  the  Duke  of  Berwick's  rear- 
guard, 7th  April  1706.     Pop.  16,749. 

Cachar  Plains,  a  district  of  British  India  in 
the  chief-commissionership  of  Assam,  bordering 
on  Manipur.  Area,  2472  sq.  m. ;  pop.  367,542. 
Silchar  (pop.  6567)  is  the  headquarters. 

Cacongo,  or  Kakonuo,  a  district  of  West 
Africa,  immediately  N.  of  the  mouth  of  the 
Congo.  Cabinda  (q.v.)  is  part  of  it ;  the  rest 
has  been  absorbed  in  the  Congo  Free  State. 

Cadenabbia,  a  health-resort,  beautifully  situ- 
ated among  orange  and  citron  groves,  on  the  west 
shore  of  Lake  Como.  Its  famous  Villa  Carlotta 
contains  works  by  Canova  and  Thorwaldsen. 

Cad'er  Idris  ('  Chair  of  Idris,'  a  reputed  giant), 
a  picturesque  mountain  (2914  feet)  in  Merioneth- 
shire, Wales,  5  miles  SW.  of  Dolgelly.  It  con- 
sists of  an  immense  ridge  of  broken  precipices, 
10  miles  long,  and  1  to  3  miles  broad. 

Cadiz  (Kay'diz;  Span.  pron.  Kdh'deeth),  a  great 
Spanish  port,  capital  of  a  province  in  Andalusia, 
is  situated  on  the  Atlantic  at  the  extremity  of  a 
narrow  tongue  of  land  projecting  5  miles  NW. 
from  the  Isle  of  Leon,  95  miles  SSW.  of  Seville 
by  rail.  A  small  channel,  with  a  drawbridge  and 
a  railway  bridge,  separates  the  island  from  the 
mainland ;  at  its  northern  outlet  stands  the 
arsenal  of  La  Carraca,  with  large  docks,  4  miles 
ESE.  of  the  city.  The  town,  which  is  walled 
and  defended  from  the  sea  both  by  a  series  of 
forts  and  by  low  shelving  rocks,  is  about  2  miles 
in  circuit,  and  presents  a  remarkably  bright 
appearance,  with  its  shining  granite  ramparts, 
and  its  whitewashed  houses  crowned  with  terraces 
and  overhanging  turrets.  It  has  few  public  build- 
ings of  note  :  its  two  cathedrals  being  indifferent 
specimens  of  architecture,  though  possessing 
some  excellent  Murillos.  Cadiz  reached  its 
highest  prosperity  after  the  discovery  of  America, 
when  it  became  the  depot  of  all  the  commerce 
with  the  New  World,  but  declined  greatly  as  a 
commercial  city  after  the  emancipation  of  the 
Spanish  colonies  in  South  America.  The  exports 
consist  of  salt,  cork,  lead,  wine,  tunny-fish,  olive- 
oil,  and  fruits.  The  manufactures  are  glass, 
woollen  cloth,  leather,  soap,  hats,  gloves,  fans, 
&c.  Pop.  (1887)  63,277  ;  (1897)  70,180.  Built  by 
the  Phoenicians,  under  the  name  of  Gaddir 
('fortress'),  about  1100  B.C.,  Cadiz  afterwards 
passed  to  the  Carthaginians ;  was  captured  by 
the  Romans,  who  named  it  Gades,  and  under 
them  soon  became  a  city  of  vast  wealth  and 
importance.  In  1587  Drake  destroyed  the  Spanish 
fleet  in  the  bay ;  nine  years  later,  Cadiz  was 
pillaged  and  burned  by  Essex. 

Cadore  {Kah-do'ray ;  also  Fieve  di  Cadore),  the 
birthplace  of  Titian,  is  a  small  village  of  Venetia,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Alps,  and  22  miles  NE.  of  Belluno. 

Cadzow  {Kad'yoo).     See  Hamilton. 


Caen  (Kons),  chief  town  of  the  French  dep.  of 
Calvados,  and  the  former  capital  of  Lower  Nor- 
mandy, is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  navi- 
gable Orne,  here  joined  by  the  Odon,  9  miles 
from  its  mouth,  149  W.  by  N.  of  Paris,  and  83 
ESE.  of  Cherbourg.  Among  its  fifteen  churches 
are  St  Etienne  and  La  Sainte  Trinite,  both 
founded  in  1066  by  William  the  Conqueror  and 
his  queen  Matilda,  and  containing  their  graves, 
which  the  Huguenots  violated  in  1562 ;  and  St 
Pierre  (1303-1521),  with  an  exquisite  spire  242 
feet  high.  The  Conqueror's  castle,  finished  by 
Henry  I.  of  England,  was  dismantled  in  1793, 
and  now  serves  as  a  barrack.  The  faculty  or 
university  (1809)  is  successor  to  one  founded  by 
our  Henry  VI.  in  1436  ;  and  in  the  Hotel  de  Ville 
is  a  library  of  80,000  volumes  and  a  fine  collec- 
tion of  paintings.  The  chief  manufacture  is  lace. 
Trade  is  facilitated  by  a  maritime  canal  connect- 
ing the  port  with  the  sea.  In  1346,  and  again 
in  1417,  Caen  was  taken  by  the  English,  who  held 
it  till  1450.  Malherbe,  Marot,  Huet,  and  Auber 
were  natives  (a  marble  statue  of  the  last  was 
unveiled  in  1883) ;  Charlotte  Corday  lived  here ; 
and  Beau  Brummell  died  in  the  lunatic  asylum. 
Pop.  (1872)  39,415 ;  (1901)  41,530. 

CaergWTle  (Ka-er-goor'leh),  one  of  the  Flint 
boroughs,  5  miles  NNW.  of  Wrexham,   Pop.  1328. 

Caerla'verock,  a  splendid  mined  castle  near 
the  Nith's  mouth,  7  miles  SSE.  of  Dumfries. 
For  over  four  centuries  the  seat  of  the  Max- 
wells, earls  of  Nithsdale  (1620-1716),  and  still 
owned  by  their  representative,  Lord  Herries,  it  was 
captured  by  Edward  I.  in  1300.  Robert  Paterson, 
Scott's  '  Old  Mortality,'  is  buried  in  the  church- 
yard.    See  Eraser's  Book  of  Caerlaverock  (1873). 

Caer'leon  ('castle  of  the  legion;'  Lat.  Isca 
Silurum),  a  town  of  Monmouthshire,  on  the  Usk, 
2J  miles  NE.  of  Newport.  It  was  very  early  the 
seat  of  a  see— the  only  one,  it  seems,  in  all  Wales 
— which  was  transferred  to  St  David's  in  the  6th 
century.  A  Cistercian  abbey  existed  here  before 
the  Reformation.  M^ny  Roman  relics  have  been 
found ;  and  there  are  also  remains  of  an  amphi- 
theatre, measuring  222  by  192  feet,  and  known  as 
King  Arthur's  Round  Table.  Pop.  1410.  See 
Lee's  Isea  Silurum  (1845). 

Caermartlien,  Caernarvon.  See  Carmarthen, 
Carnarvon. 

Caerphilly,  a  town  of  Glamorganshire,  7i 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  Cardiff.  It  has  a  fine  ruined 
castle,  ironworks,  and  collieries.     Pop.  15,830. 

Caerwys,  one  of  the  Flint  boroughs,  7^  miles 
E.  of  St  Asaph.     Pop.  550. 

CsBSare'a  (now  Kaisarieh),  a  once  splendid  sea- 
port on  the  coast  of  Syria,  30  iniles  N.  of  Joppa, 
built  by  Herod  about  22  b.c,  and  named  in  honour 
of  Csesar  Augustus.  It  is  now  a  heap  of  half- 
buried  ruins,  with  a  few  fishermen's  huts. — 
C^sarea  Philippi,  95  miles  N.  of  Jerusalem, 
near  the  source  of  the  Jordan,  received  its  suffix 
in  honour  of  Philip  the  Tetrarch.  It  is  now  a 
heap  of  ruins,  with  the  small  village  of  Paneas,  or 
Banias,  on  its  site. 

Caffraria.    See  Kaffraria. 

Oagliari(pron.  Cal'yari),  the  capital  of  Sardinia, 
at  the  head  of  a  spacious  bay,  on  the  south  coast 
of  the  island.  By  steamboat  it  is  34  hours  from 
Leghorn  and  27  from  Naples,  by  rail  174  miles  S. 
of  Porto  Torres.  With  a  lagoon  on  either  hand, 
it  lies  at  the  base  and  on  the  slopes  of  a  steep 
hill,  300  feet  high.  Its  harbour,  defended  by 
forts,  has  been  enlarged  since  1882  ;  and  Cagliari 
has  a  university  (1596 ;  remodelled  1764),  a  castle 


CAHERCONLISH 


141 


CAITHNESS 


(c.  1217),  and  a  cathedral  (1312).  Pop.  53,750. 
Cagliari  occupies  the  site  of  the  Carthaginian 
Carales,  and  has  a  Roman  amphitheatre,  measur- 
ing 95^  by  79  yards. 

Caherconlish,  a  village  in  the  county  and  8 
miles  SE.  of  the  town  of  Limerick. 

Ca'hir,  a  town  in  County  Tipperary,  on  the 
Suir,  11  miles  NW.  of  Clonmel.  On  a  rock  in  the 
river  is  a  12th-century  castle.     Pop.  2056. 

Cahirciveen,  or  Cahersiveen,  a  Kerry  village, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Caher  River,  39  miles  WSW. 
of  Killarney.  Near  it  is  ruined  Carhan  House, 
O'Connell's  birthplace.     Pop.  2013. 

Cahors  (Kd-or';  anc.  Divo^ia),  the  chief  town  in 
the  French  dep.  of  Lot,  on  a  small  rocky  peninsula, 
formed  by  a  bend  of  the  river  Lot,  71  miles  north 
of  Toulouse  by  rail.  It  has  a  12th-century 
cathedral,  a  14th-century  bridge,  and  many  Roman 
remains,  including  those  of  a  magnificent  aque- 
duct. Pension  was  a  student  at  the  university 
here,  which,  founded  by  Pope  John  XXII.  in 
1321,  was  united  with  that  of  Toulouse  in 
1751 ;  and  here  were  born  the  poet  Marot,  and 
Gambetta,  to  whom  a  monument  was  raised  in 
1884.     Pop.  11,751. 

Caicos  (Kl'koes),  a  group  of  islands  belonging 
geographically  to  the  Bahamas,  but  annexed  in 
1874  to  Jamaica.  Area,  Avith  Turk's  Islands,  223 
sq.  m.  ;  population,  4750. 

Calrnbulg,  an  Aberdeenshire  fishing- village, 
2J  miles  ESE.  of  Fraserburgh.    Pop.  561. ' 

Caimgorm,  a  mountain  (4084  feet)  of  Banff  and 
Inverness-shire,  3  miles  NE.  of  Ben  Macdhui. 
From  it  are  named  the  yellow  rock-crystals 
found  in  tlie  neighbourhood.  Cairntoul  (4241 
feet)  is  another  peak  of  the  same  group. 

Cairo  (Ki'ro),  the  capital  of  modern  Egypt,  is 
in  30°  6'  N.  lat.,  and  31°  26'  E.  long.,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Nile,  131  miles  by  railway  from  Alex- 
andria, and  near  the  apex  of  the  Delta.  In  the 
present  day  it  covers  about  11  sq.  m.  of  the 
sandy  plain,  and  extends  from  Mount  Mukattam 
to  the  port  of  Boulak  (B61aq)  ;  but  only  a  small 
part  of  the  modern  city  belongs  to  the  Cairo  of 
history,  which  consisted  originally  of  little  more 
than  an  immense  palace  with  its  attendant  build- 
ings. Modern  Cairo  is  built  upon  the  remains  of 
four  distinct  cities,  founded  between  641  and 
969  A.D.  ;  but  with  the  last  hundred  years  it  has 
been  greatly  enlarged  on  the  west  side,  the  space 
between  tlie  old  city  and  the  Nile  having  been 
covered  with  villas  and  palaces  of  European  con- 
struction. The  mediaeval  city,  however,  may  still 
be  seen  in  something  of  its  former  picturesque- 
ness  in  the  streets  and  bazaars,  which  occupy  and 
surround  the  site  of  the  original  palace-enclosure 
of  El-Kahira.  The  quarter  bounded  by  the  north 
and  east  walls,  between  the  Bab-en-Nasr  ('gate 
of  victory')  and  the  Citadel,  is  still  purely 
oriental ;  and  it  is  chiefly  in  this  part  that  are 
found  the  numerous  mosques,  schools,  fountains, 
and  latticed  houses  Avhich  represent  the  art  of 
the  Saracens  in  its  most  chaste  and  perfect  form. 
Here  is  situated  the  Azhar  University  (founded 
971),  to  which  2000  students  annually  flock  from 
all  parts  of  the  Mohammedan  world  ;  here  is  the 
mosque  of  El-Hakim  (990),  the  beautiful  Maristan 
and  tomb  of  Kalaun  (1288),  and  the  fine  mosques 
of  En-Nasir  (1298),  Aksunkur  (1347),  Sultan  Hasan 
(1358),  El-Muayyad  (1420),  and  El-Ghori  (1503),  to 
mention  but  a  few  of  these  exquisite  monuments. 
The  medifBval  city,  however,  is  rapidly  giving  way 
to  the  encroachments  of  western  commerce  and 
ganitation.    The  separate  closed  quarters  of  dis- 


tinct trades  are  becoming  rarer.  Very  few  of  the 
old  palaces  of  the  Mamelukes  are  still  standing ; 
the  most  beautiful  features  of  the  decoration  of 
ancient  houses  and  even  mosques  have  been  de- 
spoiled by  the  travelling  collector ;  and  natural 
decay,  aided  by  centuries  of  neglect  and  ignorant 
injury,  has  reduced  the  remains  of  a  perhaps  un- 
rivalled epoch  of  Saracenic  art  to  those  shattered 
but  exquisite  ruins,  which  an  official  'Commis- 
sion for  the  Preservation  of  the  Monuments'  now 
endeavours,  not,  indeed,  to  restore,  but  if  possible 
to  rescue  from  further  demolition  and  decay. 

The  modern  portion  of  the  city  consists  partly 
in  a  few  broad  streets  or  'boulevards,'  whicK 
pierce  the  mediaeval  quarters,  and  have  destroyed 
many  priceless  monuments  of  art,  but  chiefly  in 
tlie  western  suburb  of  Ismailia,  formed  by  new 
villas,  built  along  broad  avenues  lined  with  trees, 
and  extending  from  the  square  called  the  Ezbe- 
kiya,  near  or  in  which  are  the  principal  hotels, 
the  opera-house,  theatre,  and  the  European 
shops,  as  far  as  Boulak  (q.v.).  In  this  suburb 
are  some  of  the  numerous  palaces  of  the  Khedive, 
notably  Abdin,  where  all  official  receptions  take 
place ;  others  are  situated  on  the  bank  of  the 
Nile,  where  are  also  barracks  and  a  hospital. 
Modern  Cairo,  including  the  whole  circuit,  old 
and  new,  is  the  largest  city  in  Africa,  and  second 
only  to  Constantinople  in  the  Turkish  empire. 
Railways  and  telegraphs  connect  it  with  Alex- 
andria, Ismailia,  Suez,  Port  Said,  and  Upper 
Egypt,  its  central  station  (1893)  being  a  magnifi- 
cent structure.  Steamers  ply  on  the  Nile  as  far 
as  the  Second  Cataract.  Gas,  the  telephone,  and 
other  modern  appliances  are  in  universal  use 
among  the  European  and  official  circles.  There 
is  a  busy  trade,  but  chiefly  of  the  transport 
kind,  consisting  of  the  produce  of  the  interior. 
Manufactures,  except  rude  pottery,  turned  wood- 
work, and  silver-smithery,  are  almost  non-exist- 
ent ;  and  the  arts  of  ancient  and  mediaeval  Egypt 
appear  to  have  been  almost  forgotten.  After 
1882  Cairo  was  the  centi'e  of  English  influence  in 
Egypt.  Tliree  new  bridges  across  the  Nile  were 
built  in  1904-6  at  a  cost  of  £191,000.  Pop.  (1882) 
374,838 ;  (1898)  570,060.  See  works  by  Lane  (1896), 
Reynolds-Ball  (1898),  S.  L.  Poole  (1892,  1902). 

Cairo  (Kd'ro),  capital  of  Alexander  county,  Illi- 
nois, at  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi, 
180  miles  below  St  Louis.  A  steel  bridge  (1888), 
costing  $5,000,000,  connects  the  railways  north 
and  south  of  tlie  Ohio.  The  city,  Martin  Chuzzle- 
wit's  '  Eden,'  formerly  suffered  much  from  inun- 
dations, from  which  it  is  protected  by  levees, 
now  utilised  for  streets  and  railways.  There  are 
numerous  factories,  and  a  U.S.  marine  hospital 
and  custom-house.  Pop.  (1860)  2188;  (1890) 
10,324 ;  (1900)  12,566. 

Caith'ness,  a  county  in  the  extreme  NE.  of 
the  Scottish  mainland,  43  miles  long,  28  miles  in 
extreme  width,  and  701  sq.  m.  in  area.  Except 
in  the  west  and  south,  where  the  mountain-range 
dividing  Caithness  from  Sutherland  attains  in 
Morven  a  height  of  2313  feet,  its  general  aspect 
is  level  and  bare,  being  in  great  part  moorland 
and  treeless.  The  northern  sea-coast  is  bold  and 
rocky,  with  Dunnet  Head  and  Duncansby  Head, 
on  the  west  side  of  which  is  John  o'  Groats 
House  (q.v.).  The  climate  is  damp  and  chilly ; 
auroras  are  seen  almost  nightly  in  winter.  Only 
23  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  is  in  cultivation  ; 
and  the  crops  are  20  days  later  in  ripening  than 
in  the  Lothians.  There  are  herring,  ling,  cod, 
salmon,  and  lobster  fisheries  ;  Wick  being  a  chief 
seat  of  the  herring-fishery.    The  other  export? 


CAIVANO 


142 


CALCUTTA 


are  cattle,  oats,  wool,  and  flagstones,  of  which, 
as  well  as  of  freestone  and  slate,  Caithness  con- 
tains quarries,  the  chief  that  of  Castlehills,  5 
miles  E.  of  Thurso.  The  county  returns  one 
member ;  and  Wick  is  its  only  parliamentary 
burgh ;  another  town  Is  Thurso.  A  railway 
(1874)  connects  them  with  the  south.  Pop. 
(1801)  22,609;  (1861)  41,111;  (1901)  33,860.  See 
works  by  Laing  (1866)  and  Calder  (new  ed.  1887). 

Caivano  (Kl-vah'no),  a  town  of  Italy,  4  miles 
N.  of  Naples.     Pop.  10,832. 

Cajabamba  {Kahabam'ha),  cap.  of  the  prov.  of 
Chimborazo,  in  Ecuador,  102  miles  S.  of  Quito,  on 
the  arid  plateau  of  Topi,  at  an  elevation  of  9480 
feet.  Pop.  18,000.  The  former  town  of  iiiokfm&a, 
founded  here  in  1533,  was  in  1797  overwhelmed 
by  an  earthquake  that  cost  30,000  lives. 

Cajamarca  (Kahamar'ka),  a  NW.  dep.  of  Peru, 
between  the  western  chain  of  the  Andes  and  the 
Amazon.  A  railway  connects  it  with  the  Pacific. 
Area,  14,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  450,000.  Tlie  capital  is 
Cajamarca ;  pop.  12,000. 

Cakemulr,  a  Midlothian  tower,  2  miles  E.  of 
Borthwick,  whence  Queen  Mary  fled  hither. 

Calabar',  a  coast-district  on  tlie  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
now  embraced  in  the  soutliern  division  of  tlie 
British  protectorate  of  Nigeria.  Its  limits  are 
not  clearly  defined  ;  but  it  is  usually  understood 
to  extend  from  the  Nun  mouth  of  the  Niger  to 
the  Cameroon  colony.  The  surface  is  low  and 
flat,  and  the  climate  unhealthy.  Palm-oil,  ker- 
nels, ebony,  ivory,  india-rubber,  shea  butter,  and 
beni-seed  are  the  chief  articles  of  commerce. 
The  Scottish  Presbyterians  have  had  a  mission 
here  since  1846,  which  lias  produced  beneficial 
changes.  Of  the  different  tribes,  the  Efik,  who 
are  a  negro  stock,  is  the  most  important.  The 
chief  towns  are  Duke  Town,  Creek  Town,  and 
Old  Town.— The  Old  Calabar  or  Cross  River, 
believed  to  rise  near  Iko,  beyond  Uyanga,  enters 
the  Bight  of  Biafra  by  an  estuary  9  miles  broad, 
is  mainly  the  estuary  of  the  Cross  River.  It 
is  navigable  by  steamers  for  200  miles  above 
its  mouth.— The  New  Calabar  River  is  a  branch 
or  mouth  of  the  Niger.  See  Goldie's  Calabar  and 
its  Mission  (1890). 

Calabria,  the  south-west  peninsula  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy,  bounded  N.  by  the  province 
of  Basilicata.  Area,  6637  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about 
1,400,000.  It  is  traversed  throughout  its  entire 
length  of  160  miles  by  the  forest-clad  Apennines, 
whose  valleys  afford  rich  pasture.  There  is  no  river 
of  any  importance ;  but  the  valleys  and  plains 
are  very  fertile,  yielding  wheat,  rice,  cotton, 
liquorice,  saffron,  the  sugar-cane,  &c.,  and  also 
the  vine,  orange,  lemon,  olive,  fig,  and  mulberry, 
in  luxuriance.  The  coast  fisheries,  particularly 
of  the  tunny  and  anchovy,  are  important.  The 
'compartimento,'  which  is  very  subject  to  earth- 
quakes, is  divided  into  the  provinces  of  Cosenza, 
Catanzaro,  and  Reggio.  In  ancient  times  the 
name  Calabria  was  given  to  the  south-east  penin- 
sula, nearly  corresponding  to  the  modern  pro- 
vince of  Lecce,  no  portion  of  which  is  included 
in  modern  Calabria,  which  answers  to  the  ancient 
Bruttium,.  The  people  are  a  proud,  fiery,  and 
revengeful  race,  long  celebrated  as  among  the 
fiercest  of  banditti.  See  Ross  and  Cooper's  High- 
lands of  Calabria  (1888). 

Calahorra,  a  cathedral  city  of  Spain,  80  miles 
SE.  of  Logrofio  by  rail.  It  is  the  ancient  Cala- 
gurris,  Quintilian's  birthplace,  celebrated  for  its 
obstinate  but  unsuccessful  resistance  to  Pom- 
pey's  legate  (78  b.c.).     Pop.  8830. 


Calais  (Fr.  pron.  Ka-laiJ),  a  port  in  the  dep.  of 
Pas-de-Calais,  on  the  Strait  of  Dover,  here  21  m. 
wide,  by  rail  is  184  miles  N.  of  Paris.  It  ranks 
as  a  fortress  of  the  first  class,  the  old  walls, 
dividing  it  from  its  suburb.  Saint  Pierre,  having 
been  demolished  since  1883,  and  their  place 
supplied  by  a  ring  of  exterior  forts.  The  gate 
built  by  Richelieu  in  1635,  and  immortalised  by 
Hogarth,  has  disappeared ;  but  the  cardinal's 
citadel  (1641)  still  stands  on  the  west  of  the 
town.  On  the  south  and  east  are  low  marshy 
grounds,  which  could  be  submerged  in  the  event 
of  an  invasion.  A  new  harbour,  comprising  a 
tidal  one  of  15  acres  and  a  wet-dock  of  27,  was 
opened  in  1889.  Calais  is  one  of  the  chief  ports 
of  debarkation  for  travellers  from  England  to 
France,  and  has  steam  communication  thrice  a 
day  with  Dover,  with  which  since  1851  it  has 
also  been  connected  by  submarine  telegraph. 
With  the  air  of  a  Flemish  more  than  of  a  French 
town,  Calais  has  not  much  to  boast  of  in  the 
way  of  objects  of  interest.  The  picturesque 
hotel-de-ville  was  rebuilt  in  1750,  and  restored 
in  1867.  The  adjoining  Tour  de  Guet  (1214) 
served  as  a  lighthouse  till  1848;  the  present 
lighthouse  is  190  feet  high,  A  museum  (1884) 
occupies  the  site  of  the  Hotel  Dessin,  where 
Sterne  lodged,  and  Scott,  and  Lady  Hamilton. 
A  handsome  English  church  was  built  in  1862, 
The  chief  manufacture  is  tulle  or  bobbin-net, 
introduced  by  English  from  Nottingham  in  1818. 
Pop.  (1872)  39,700;  (1901)  53,180.  Till  997  a 
small  fishing-village,  Calais  in  1347,  after  a 
twelvemonth's  siege,  was  captured  by  Edward 
III.  of  England,  and  the  self-devotion  then  shown 
by  six  of  the  citizens  forms  one  of  the  noblest 
passages  of  history.  The  English  retained  it 
until  1558,  when  it  was  captured  by  the  Duke 
of  Guise,  its  garrison  of  800  men  holding  it  for 
a  week  against  his  30,000. 

Calais  (Knl'lis),  a  town  of  Maine,  82  miles  ENE. 
of  Bangor,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  St 
Croix  River.  There  is  some  shipbuilding  and  a 
large  trade  in  lumber.     Pop.  7690. 

Calaiias  (Kaldn'yas),  a  town  of  Andalusia, 
Spain,  27  miles  N.  of  Huelva  and  13  NE.  of 
Tharsis,  with  which  it  was  connected  by  rail  in 
1887.    Here  is  a  large  copper-mine.     Pop.  6721, 

Calascibetta  (Ka-Idh-shee-bet'td),  or  Calatasci- 
BETTA,  a  town  of  Sicily,  64  miles  SE,  of  Palermo. 
Pop.  6615. 

Calatafimi  (Kdlatafee'mee),  a  town  of  Sicily, 
8  miles  SW.  of  Alcamo ;  named  from  a  ruined 
Saracenic  castle,  Kalat-al-Fimi.  Here,  in  1860, 
Garibaldi  defeated  the  Neapolitans.  Pop.  10,500. 
Cala.tSiYa.d.(Kalatayood';  Arab. '  Ayud's  Castle '), 
a  city  of  Aragon,  Spain,  on  the  Jalon,  152  m.  NB. 
of  Madrid  by  rail.  It  is  built  out  of  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Bilbilis,  the  birthplace  of  Martial,  which 
lay  about  2  miles  to  the  east.     Pop,  10,057, 

Calatrava  la  Vlega  (Kalatrdh'va),  a  ruined  city 
of  Spain,  on  the  Guadiana,  12  miles  NE.  of  Ciudad 
Real.  Its  defence  against  the  Moors,  in  1158,  after 
being  abandoned  by  the  Templars,  is  famous  as 
originating  the  Order  of  the  Knights  of  Calatrava. 
Calave'ras,  an  inland  county  of  California,  E. 
from  San  Francisco,  with  a  picturesquely  varied 
surface,  including  hills,  caiions,  prairies,  and 
forests.  It  is  rich  in  granite,  quartz,  limestone, 
and  slate,  and  copper  and  gold  are  mined. 

Calcutta,  the  capital  of  Bengal  and  of  British 
India,  is  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Htigli 
(Hooghly),  an  arm  of  the  Ganges,  in  22°  34'  N. 
lat.,  and  88°  24'  E,  long.,  about  80  miles  from  the 


CALCUTTA 


143 


CALICUT 


gea  by  the  river.  It  was  founded  in  1686,  by 
the  removal  hither  from  Hiigli  of  the  factories 
of  the  East  India  Company.  Calcutta  is  the 
Anglicised  form  of  Kalil^ata,  as  this  again  is  the 
Moslemised  form  (1596)  of  Kali-ghat,  a  famous 
shrine  of  the  goddess  Kali,  which  still  exists  to 
the  south  of  the  city.  In  1707  Calcutta  had 
acquired  some  importance  as  a  town,  and  was 
made  the  seat  of  a  presidency.  In  1756,  how- 
ever, it  was  unexpectedly  attacked  by  Suraj-ud- 
Daula  (Surajah  Dowlali),  the  Nawiib  of  Bengal, 
and  yielding  after  a  two  days'  siege,  was  the 
scene  of  the  tragedy  of  the  'Black  Hole.'  The 
city  remained  in  the  hands  of  the  enemy  until 
seven  months  afterwards,  when  Clive  recaptured 
it.  In  1772-90  Calcutta  superseded  Murshidabad 
as  seat  of  the  central  government  in  India  ;  in 
1852  it  was  erected  into  a  municipality.  Pop. 
(1837)  229,700  ;  (1891)  741,144  ;  (1901)  1,026,987,  of 
whom  62  per  cent,  are  Hindus,  32'2  Moham- 
medans, and  4-4  Christians.  The  appearance  of 
the  city  as  it  is  approached  by  the  river  is  very 
striking.  On  the  left  are  the  Botanical  Gardens, 
destroyed  by  the  cyclones  of  1867  and  1870,  but 
since  replanted ;  and  the  Bishop's  College,  a 
handsome  Gothic  edifice,  now  used  as  an  engin- 
eering college.  On  the  right  are  the  suburb  of 
Garden  Reach,  the  government  dockyards  and 
the  arsenal,  and  the  Maidan  Esplanade,  which 
has  been  termed  the  Hyde  Park  of  India.  Here, 
near  the  river,  lies  Fort  William,  the  largest 
fortress  in  India,  constructed  (1757-73)  at  a  cost 
of  £2,000,000,  and  occupying,  with  the  outworks, 
an  area  of  2  sq.  m.  Facing  the  Esplanade,  among 
other  fine  buildings,  is  the  Government  House, 
the  official  residence  of  the  Viceroy  of  India, 
a  magnificent  palace  erected  (1799-1804)  by  the 
Marquis  of  Wellesley.  Beyond  this,  extending 
northwards  along  the  river-bank,  is  the  Strand, 
two  miles  in  length,  and  40  feet  above  low- 
water,  with  various  ghats  or  landing-places.  It 
is  adorned  by  many  fine  buildings,  including 
the  custom-house,  the  new  mint,  and  other 
goverinnent  offices,  and  is  lined  by  a  splendid 
series  of  jetties  for  ocean  steamers.  Among 
other  places  of  interest  are  the  High  Court, 
the  Bengal  Government  Offices,  St  Paul's  Cathe- 
dral, the  Scotch  church  (St  Andrew's),  the  Imperial 
Museum,  the  town-hall,  Bank  of  Bengal,  Jesuits' 
College,  Medical  College,  university  (1857),  the 
domed  post-office,  and  the  Treasury.  Calcutta 
has  three  theatres,  several  large  European  hotels, 
two  fine  clubs — the  Bengal  and  United  Service, 
four  daily  English  newspapers,  and  a  number 
of  monuments  throughout  the  city,  the  most 
noticeable  being  those  to  the  Marquis  of  Wel- 
lesley, Sir  James  Outram,  and  Sir  David  Ochter- 
lony,  the  last  a  column  165  feet  high.  Of  Cal- 
cutta's own  sons  the  greatest  is  W.  M.  Thackeray. 
Although  the  European  quarter  of  the  town  is 
distinguished  for  its  fine  public  buildings  and 
commodious  dwelling-houses,  the  quarters  occu- 
pied by  the  natives  present  a  very  different 
appearance,  their  houses  being  in  most  instances 
built  of  mud  or  bamboo  and  mats,  and  the  streets 
narrow  and  unpaved.  Calcutta  has  been  said 
to  be  a  city  of  palaces  in  front  and  of  pig-styes 
behind.  Great  havoc  was  done  in  the  native 
quarter  by  the  cyclone  of  1864,  which  destroyed 
40,700  native  houses  ;  and  those  of  1867  and  1870 
were  likewise  very  destructive.  Considerable 
improvements  have  now  been  effected ;  new  and 
wider  streets  have  been  opened  through  crowded 
quarters;  brick  liouses  are  fast  replacing  the 
huts,  and  an  extensive  system  of  drainage  has 
been  carried  out  to  the  no  small  advantage  of 


the  inhabitants.  The  water-supply  of  Calcutta 
has  been  very  much  improved  (1865-88),  the  large 
tanks  interspersed  throughout  the  city  having 
been  superseded  by  an  excellent  supply  drawn 
from  the  Huglf,  15  miles  above  Calcutta.  The 
result  of  this  has  been  a  marked  improvement 
in  the  health  of  the  city.  Electricity  and  gas  have 
taken  the  place  of  the  oil-lamps  which  till  far  on 
in  the  19th  century  liglited  the  streets  at  night. 
Tramways  have  been  extensively  introduced,  and 
steam  tramways  run  to  some  of  the  suburbs. 
A  canal  girds  a  i)art  of  the  city  beyond  the 
Circular  Road.  In  Howrah  and  other  villages  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  river  are  warehouses,  iron- 
works, timber-yards,  large  jute-mills,  &c.  Cal- 
cutta may  be  regarded  as  the  great  commercial 
capital  of  Asia ;  and  its  communications  by 
rail  and  steamboat  afford  great  facilities  for  its 
extensive  commerce.  Navigation  on  the  Htigli 
has  been  greatly  improved,  and  an  extensive 
scheme  of  docks  constructed  at  Kidderpur,  at 
a  cost  of  nearly  3  millions  sterling.  The  river, 
adjacent  to  the  city,  varies  in  breadth  from  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  to  nearly  a  mile.  Ships  of 
5000  tons  ascend  to  Calcutta  in  the  usual  course, 
the  main  difficulty  to  shipping  being  the  James 
and  Mary  shoal,  half-way  down  the  river. 

Calder,  Mid,  a  Midlothian  village,  llj  miles 
WSW.  of  Edinburgh.  Near  it  is  Calder  House, 
where  Knox  celebrated  the  Lord's  Supper  (1556). 
Pop.  703.  — West  Calder,  a  mijiing  town,  16  miles 
WSW.  of  Edinburgh.     Pop.  2652." 

Caldron  Linn,  waterfalls  on  the  Devon,  2| 
miles  ENE.  of  Dollar. 

Caledonian  Canal,  a  chain  of  natural  lakes 
united  by  artificial  canals,  running  straight  across 
Scotland  south-westerward  from  the  North  Sea 
to  the  Atlantic,  through  Glenmore,  or  the  Great 
Glen  of  Albin,  in  Inverness-shire.  The  sea  and 
fresh-water  lochs  in  this  line  are  the  Moray 
Firth  and  Lochs  Dochfour,  Ness,  Oich,  Lochy, 
and  Linnhe.  Suggested  by  Watt  in  1773,  and 
carried  out  from  Telford's  plans  in  1803-23,  at 
a  total  cost  up  to  1849  of  £1,311,270,  the  canal 
was  designed  to  avoid  the  dangerous  and  tedious 
navigation  of  ships,  especially  coasting-vessels, 
round  by  the  Pentland  Firth ;  the  distance 
between  Kinnaird's  Head  and  the  Sound  of  Mull 
by  tliis  route  being  500  miles,  but  by  the  canal 
only  250,  with  an  average  saving  of  9J  days  for 
sailing-vessels.  From  the  head  of  the  Moray 
Firth  to  that  of  Loch  Linnhe,  its  length  is  60^ 
miles,  37^  miles  being  natural,  and  23  miles 
artificial.  Each  cut  is  120  feet  broad  at  surface, 
50  at  bottom,  and  17  deep.  The  highest  part  is 
Loch  Oich  (105  feet) ;  and  there  are  in  all  28 
locks.  Ships  of  500  to  600  tons  can  pass  through. 
The  annual  expenditure  exceeds  as  a  rule  the 
income,  each  ranging  between  £6000  and  £11,000. 

Calf  of  Man,  an  island,  1  sq.  m.  in  area,  and 
360  feet  high,  at  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
Isle  of  Man. 

Cal'gary,  a  town  of  the  North-west  Territory 
of  Canada,  with  station  on  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway,  2262  miles  W.  of  Montreal,  stands  3380 
feet  above  sea-level,  between  the  Bow  and  Elbow 
rivers.  It  dates  from  1884.  Pop.  7500.— There 
is  a  bay  of  this  name  on  the  north-west  coast 
of  the  island  of  Mull  in  Scotland. 

Cali  (Kalee' ;  in  full  Santiago  de  Cali),  a  town 
of  Colombia,  3300  feet  above  the  sea,  50  miles 
SE.  of  Buenaventura  by  rail.     Pop.  16,000. 

Cal'icut,  a  seaport  of  Malabar,  Madras  presi- 
dency, 0  miles  N.  of  Beypur  terminus,  and  500 


CALIFORNIA 


144 


CALLERNISH 


SSB.  of  Bombay.  It  was  the  first  spot  in  India 
visited  overland  by  Covilham  (1486)  and  round 
the  Cape  by  Vasco  da  Gama  (149S),  being  then 
the  chief  emporium  on  the  coast.  So  populous 
and  powerful  was  it,  that  it  twice  repulsed  the 
Portuguese,  slaying  their  commander  in  1509, 
and  expelling  Albuquerque  himself  in  1510.  In 
1792,  when  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  English, 
it  was  little  better  than  a  ruin ;  but  since  then 
it  has  made  progress  in  trade  and  population, 
though  the  anchorage  is  an  open  roadstead.  The 
cotton  cloth  at  first  exported  hence  was  called 
•calico.'  Pop.  (1881)  57,085  ;  (1901)  75,510.  See 
Logan's  Malabar  (Madras,  1887). 

California,  a  state  of  the  American  Union, 
bounded  by  Oregon,  Nevada,  Arizona,  the  Mexican 
territory  of  Lower  or  Old  California,  and  the 
Pacific  Ocean.  The  parallels  of  32°  28'  and  42° 
N.  lat.  respectively  mark  its  S.  and  N.  limits. 
The  state  has  an  area  of  155,980  sq.  m.  It  is  thus 
larger  than  any  other  state  or  territory,  except 
Texas  and  Alaska,  larger  than  Italy,  or  Prussia, 
or  Hungary,  and  more  than  a  fourth  larger  than 
the  whole  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The  aspect 
of  the  country  is  extremely  varied.  Along  the 
eastern  border  of  the  state  extend  the  ranges 
of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  which  connects  with  the 
Cascade  Range  its  northward  extension.  The 
scenery  in  this  part  of  the  state  is  often  (as  in 
the  wonderful  Yosemite  and  Hetch-Hetchy  val- 
leys) very  striking.  There  are  twelve  peaks  which 
exceed  10,000  feet  in  height ;  Mount  Whitney 
(14,898  feet)  being  higher  than  any  other  in  the 
United  States  outside  of  Alaska.  West  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  lies  the  central  valley  of  Cali- 
fornia, drained  by  the  Sacramento  River,  and 
the  San  Joaquin.  The  eastern  slope  of  the 
great  valley  is  very  gradual,  while  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Sierras  has  a  sharp  and  precipitous 
descent  towards  the  great  basin  of  Nevada.  The 
Coast  Mountains  consist  of  a  number  of  ill- 
defined  ridges.  To  the  south  of  the  San  Joaquin 
Valley  a  transverse  ridge  connects  the  coast- 
ranges  with  the  Sierra,  separating  to  some  extent 
Southern  California  from  the  rest  of  the  state. 
The  coast-line  is  mostly  high  and  rocky,  with 
only  a  few  bays  and  harbours.  California  pre- 
sents a  great  variety  of  climatic  conditions.  In 
the  north-west  the  rainfall  is  excessive,  and  in 
the  north  the  winters  are  rather  severe  than 
mild ;  the  coast  region  of  the  northern  half  of 
the  state  is  damp,  with  cool  or  cold  nights,  even 
in  summer.  But  Southern  California,  in  tem- 
perature and  productions,  has  a  semi-tropical 
character ;  and  the  serenity  of  its  climate  has 
made  it  famous  as  a  resort  for  invalids.  In  the 
south  the  scanty  rainfall  and  the  extreme  summer 
heat  detract  from  an  otherwise  perfect  climate. 
In  general  it  may  be  said  that  the  winters  in 
California  are  mild,  and  the  summers  dry,  and 
not  intensely  hot,  though  often  very  dusty. 
There  are  practically  but  two  seasons— a  more  or 
less  rainy  winter,  and  a  nearly  rainless  summer. 
Extremes  of  temperature  are  much  less  marked 
than  in  the  states  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 
In  the  interior  the  thermometer  sometimes 
reaches  120"  in  summer. 

The  gold  production  of  the  state,  at  one  time 
enormous,  for  many  years  declined,  but  has  of 
late  again  increased ;  in  the  years  1848-64  the 
annual  product  was  $56,000,000 ;  in  1900-4  it 
averaged  over  $15,000,000.  Among  the  valuable 
minerals  obtainable  are  quicksilver,  lead,  silver, 
borax,  rock-salt,  marbles,  asphalt,  potash-salts, 
native  soda,  sulphur,  kaolin,  and  many  otJiers ; 
petroleum  is  abuiidant ;  coal  is  not  extensively 


wrought.  Copper,  iron,  chromium,  antimony, 
and  other  metals  abound.  But  the  mineral  wealth 
of  the  state  is  not  more  remarkable  than  its  agri- 
cultural resources,  wheat,  alfalfa  or  lucerne,  the 
vine,  and  all  manner  of  fruits  growing  luxuri- 
antly. In  many  sections  irrigation  facilitates 
agriculture.  The  distillation  of  brandy,  sugar- 
refining,  shipbuilding,  the  packing  of  meats,  silk- 
growing,  and  bee-keeping  are  profitable  indus- 
tries. The  fisheries  are  of  growing  importance. 
The  principal  exports  are  wheat,  barley,  wool, 
wines,  brandy,  honey,  hops,  timber,  provisions, 
metals,  ores,  borax,  and  other  minerals ;  fish  and 
furs,  largely  from  Alaska ;  dried,  preserved,  and 
green  fruits,  including  oranges,  prunes,  raisins, 
and  almonds.  Tiie  Lick  observatory  at  Mount 
Hamilton  belongs  to  the  state  university  at 
Berkeley ;  there  is  another  university  at  Palo 
Alto.  Pop.  (1850)  92,597  ;  (1860)  379,994  ;  (1870) 
560,247;  (1880)  864,694;  (1890)  1,208,130;  (1900) 
1,485,000.  Cliinese  immigration  was  stopped  by 
restrictive  legislation  in  1882-92.  The  pruicipal 
cities  are  San  Francisco  (q.v.),  Los  Angeles,  Oak- 
land,  and  Sacramento,  capital  of  the  state.  Tlie 
prosperity  of  the  state  was  greatly  stimulated  by 
the  opening  of  the  Union  Pacific  Railway  in  1869. 
In  April  1906  a  disastrous  earthquake  and  the 
resultant  fires  destroyed  a  great  part  of  Sau 
Francisco  and  injured  many  other  towns. 

Lower  or  Old  California  is  a  peninsula  and 
a  territory  of  Mexico,  continuous  southward 
from  the  state  of  California,  and  is  detached  by 
the  Gulf  of  California  and  the  lower  reaches  of 
the  Rio  Colorado  from  the  rest  of  Mexico.  Its 
area  is  61,562  sq.  m.,  or  more  than  half  the 
extent  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  The  climate 
is  exceedingly  dry,  and  the  surface  mountainous, 
and  excepting  in  some  of  the  valleys,  agriculture 
is  hardly  practicable.  The  whale-fishery  and 
pearl-fishery  are  of  some  value.  Some  mining  is 
done,  and  salt,  sugar,  orchil,  and  a  little  wine 
produced.     Pop.  42,200. 

The  Gulf  of  California,  an  arm  of  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  which  divides  the  peninsula  above  de- 
scribed from  the  rest  of  Mexico,  is  700  miles  in 
length,  and  varies  in  width  from  40  to  100  miles. 
It  receives  the  waters  of  the  Colorado. 

Callan,  a  market-town,  on  the  Owenree,  13 
miles  SW.  of  Kilkenny.    Pop.  1843. 

Callander,  a  Perthshire  village,  a  great  tourist 
centre,  on  the  Teith,  16  miles  NW.  of  Stirling  by 
rail.     Pop.  1438. 

Oallao(Span.  pron.  iiTaZ-i/a/i-'o),  the  port  of  Lima, 
Peru,  7  m.  SW.  of  Lima,  on  a  small  bay,  possesses 
a  floating-dock,  while  fine  harbour-works,  em- 
bracing an  area  of  520  acres,  with  extensive  pier 
and  dock  accommodation,  were  completed  in 
1875 ;  and  the  spacious  roadstead,  sheltered  by 
the  island  of  San  Lorenzo,  is  one  of  the  safest  in 
the  world.  The  huge  old  Spanish  fortress  is 
used  for  custom-house  offices.  There  are  sugar- 
refineries,  ironworks,  and  sawmills ;  and  the  ex- 
ports are  wool,  sugar,  specie,  copjjer,  cotton, 
bark,  hides,  guano,  and  cubic  nitre.  Pop.  48,000. 
The  present  Callao  dates  only  from  1746,  when 
the  original  city,  a  little  to  the  south,  was 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake  and  an  invasion  of 
the  sea.  It  was  bombarded  in  1880  during  the 
war  between  Chili  and  Peru. 

Callendar,  a  mansion  f  mile  ESE,  of  Falkirk, 
with  memories  of  Queen  Mary,  Prince  Charles 
Edward,  &c.  In  the  grounds  is  a  well-preserved 
section  of  the  northern  Roman  wall. 

Callernish,  a  district  on  the  west  cpast  of  the  . 


CALLINQTON 


145 


CAMBRAI 


island  of  Lewis,  16  miles  from  Stornoway,  remark- 
able for  its  four  stone  circles. 

Callington,  a  Cornish  market-town,  11  miles 
S.  of  Laiinceston.    Pop.  of  urban  district,  1714. 
Oalmar.    See  Kalmar. 

Calne  (Kami),  an  old  market-town  of  Wilt- 
shire, 6  miles  ESB.  of  Chippenham  bv  a  branch- 
line  (1863).  It  has  a  town-hall  (1882),  a  free 
grammar-school  (1660),  and  a  large  bacon-curing 
industry.  A  municipal  borough,  Calne  returned 
one  member  till  1885.     Pop.  3455. 

Caltabelotta  (Arabic  Kalaat-el-Ballut,  'castle 
of  the  cork-trees '),  a  town  of  Sicily,  10  miles  NE. 
of  Sciacca,  with  an  ancient  castle  crowning  a 
steep  rock  above  a  stream.     Pop.  6178. 

Oaltaglrone  (Kaltajeero'nay),  a  city  of  Sicily, 
on  two  hills  (2018  feet),  38  miles  SW.  of  Catania. 
Pop.  33,000. 

Caltanisetta,  a  fortified  town  of  Sicily,  83 
miles  SB.  of  Palermo  by  rail.  It  has  a  cathedral, 
mineral  springs,  and  sulphur- works.  Pop.  44,500. 
Calton  Hill.  See  Edinburgh. 
Calumet,  a  mining  locality  of  Houghton  county, 
Michigan,  on  a  peninsula  of  Lake  Superior,  42  m. 
N,  of  L'Anse  by  rail.  The  Calumet  and  Hecla 
copper-mine  is  one  of  the  richest  in  the  world. 

Calvados  (Kal-vad'os),  a  maritime  dep.  of  Nor- 
mandy. The  principal  rivers  are  the  Touques, 
Orne,  Dives,  Seniles,  Aure,  and  Vire.  The  coast 
is  formed  partly  by  bold  ridges,  partly  by  sand- 
downs,  cliffs,  and  reefs ;  the  dangerous  reef  ex- 
tending for  16  miles  between  the  mouths  of  the 
Orne  and  the  Vire  was  called  Calvados,  after  the 
Salvador,  a  vessel  in  the  Spanish  Armada  ship- 
wrecked here,  and  from  it  the  dep.  takes  its 
name.  Towns  are  Caen  (the  capital),  Bayeux, 
Falaix,  Honfleur,  Lisieux,  and  Trouville.  Area, 
2130  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1861)  480,992  ;  (1901)  410,178. 

Calvi  (Kal'vee),  a  seaport  of  Corsica,  on  a  penin- 
sula in  the  Gulf  of  Calvi,  38  miles  WSW.  of 
Bastia.  Captured  by  the  English  after  a  siege  of 
fifty-one  days  in  1794'(when  Nelson  lost  an  eye),  it 
was  retaken  by  the  Corsicans  next  year.  Pop.  1987. 
Calvr,  or  Kalw  (Kalv),  a  town  of  Wlirtemberg, 
35  miles  WSW.  of  Stuttgart.     Pop.  5423. 

Cam,  or  Granta,  a  sluggish  narrow  river, 
which,  rising  in  Essex,  flows  40  miles  NW.  and 
NB.  through  Cambridgeshire,  and  falls  into  the 
Ouse  3^  miles  above  Ely. 
Camargue.  See  Bouches  du  Rhone. 
Cambaluc  (Khan-Baligh,  'city  of  the  em- 
peror'), the  name  by  which  Marco  made  Pekin 
(q.v.)  known  to  Europe. 

Cambay  (KJiambhdt),  the  port  and  capital  of 
la  snuall  Indian  feudatory  state  of  Bombay  presi- 
dency,  lies  in  the    north-west  portion    of   the 
[peninsula,  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Cambay, 
1 52  miles  S.   of  Ahmedabad.     Many  ruins    still 
[attest  its  former  magnificence,  the  main  cause  of 
[its  decay  having  been  the  gradual  obstruction 
Lof   its    seaward  navigation.      It  exports  agate, 
icornelian,   and  onyx   ornaments.      Pop.    31,390. 
iThe  area  of  Cambay  state  is  350  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
1 79,722.— The  Gulf  of  Cambay,  80  miles  long  and 
'"5  broad,  was  formerly  a  great  commercial  resort. 
Camberwell,  a  metropolitan  and  parliamentary 
orough  (three  members)  of  London.    Pop.  of 
letr.  bor.  (1901)  259,339. 

Cambodia,  or  Camboja  (Fr.  Cambodge),  nomin- 
[illy  a  kingdom  in  Indo-China  under  a  French 
protectorate,  but  practically  a  French  depend- 
mcy,  on  the  lower  course  of  the  Mekong,  between 
Biam,  Annam,  and  French  Cochin-China,  and 
J 


comprising  an  area  of  38,000  sq.  m.  The  coast, 
156  miles  long,  offers  but  one  port,  Kampot. 
The  mountains  of  the  north  and  west  (some  of 
them  over  3000  feet  high)  generally  contain  iron, 
limestone,  sandstone,  and  more  sparingly,  copper. 
The  greater  part,  however,  of  Cambodia  consists 
of  alluvial  plains,  completely  inundated  during 
the  rainy  season.  In  the  north-east  are  forest- 
clad  tracts.  The  principal  river  is  the  Mekong, 
Cambodia  or  Tonle-Tom,  with  its  tributaries  and 
branching  mouths  ;  a  kind  of  backwater  is  the 
Tonle-Sap,  expanding  into  the  Great  Lake,  100 
miles  by  25  miles  in  area,  with  a  depth  of  65  feet 
at  its  maximum.  The  climate  is  divided  into  the 
rainy  season  from  April  to  October,  but  inter- 
rupted in  August,  and  the  dry  from  October  to 
April.  The  thermometer  ranges  from  70°  to  104° 
F.  The  natural  products  are  rice,  tobacco,  salt 
fish,  betel,  cotton,  maize,  pepper,  cinnamon, 
vanilla,  cardamoms,  sugar-cane,  indigo,  manioc, 
ramee,  sesame,  giitta-percha,  &c.  The  forests  con- 
tain excellent  timber.  Crocodiles  are  found  in 
the  rivers.  The  population  is  about  1,500,000, 
mainly  of  the  Cambodian  stock,  with  100,000 
Annamites,  150,000  Chinese,  40,000  Malays,  and 
a  few  hundreds  of  Frenchmen.  Pnom-Penh,  the 
capital,  at  the  junction  of  the  'Four  Arms'  of 
the  river,  has  a  population  of  35,000,  The  Cam- 
bodians appi'oach  the  Malay  and  Indian  types, 
are  less  Mongoloid  and  more  nearly  resemble  the 
Caucasian  type  than  their  neighbours  ;  they  speak 
a  monosyllabic  language.  The  principal  industry 
is  the  fishing  of  the  Great  Lake.  In  Kompong- 
Soai  are  manufactures  of  iron.  The  total  com- 
merce of  Cambodia  is  valued  at  from  10  to  12 
million  francs  yearly.  The  religion  of  Cambodia 
is  a  development  of  Buddhism,  in  which  the  wor- 
ship of  ancestors  fonns  a  large  part.  The  most 
remarkable  feature  of  Cambodia  is  the  splendid 
ruins  of  Khmer  architecture.  The  temples  and 
palaces  of  Angkor  (the  old  capital,  north  of  the 
Great  Lake,  abandoned  in  the  14th  century), 
which  were  known  to  Portuguese  missionaries  in 
the  16th  century,  have  since  1858  been  explored 
by  French  and  other  travellers,  and  are  even  less 
remarkable  for  their  magnitude  and  number  than 
for  their  artistic  value.  They  are  believed  to 
range  from  the  beginning  of  our  era  to  the  15th 
and  16th  centuries,  the  finest  dating  from  between 
the  8th  and  14th. 

The  ancient  kingdom  of  Cambodia  or  Khmer 
formerly  extended  over  a  large  part  of  Indo- 
China.  Buddhism  would  appear  to  have  been 
introduced  in  the  4th  century.  In  the  16th  and 
17th  centuries  Portuguese,  Spaniards,  and  Dutch 
successively  set  up  their  factories  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Mekong.  In  the  I7th  century  the  capital 
was  Cambodia  or  Pontaipret,  a  place  now  much 
decayed,  on  the  Mekong,  opposite  the  mouth  of 
the  Tonl6-Sap.  The  Khmer  kingdom  has  been 
dismembered  since  the  17th  century,  by  Annam 
first,  and  then  in  1812  by  Siam.  In  1863  France 
concluded  a  treaty  placing  Cambodia  under  a 
French  protectorate,  and  since  1887  it  is  practi- 
cally a  province  like  Annam  (q.v.)  of  French 
Indo-China.  See  works  by  Mouhot  (trans.  1864), 
Vincent  (1873),  Thomson  (1875),  and  others. 

Camborne,  a  Cornish  town,  12  miles  WSW.  of 
Truro  by  rail.  Round  it  are  productive  copper, 
tin,  and  lead  mines.     Pop.  of  parish,  14,730. 

Cambrai  (anc.  Camaracum),  a  city  and  first- 
class  fortress  of  the  French  dep.  of  Nord,  on 
the  Scheldt,  128  miles  NNE.  of  Paris  by  rail. 
Among  the  principal  public  buildings  are  the 
town-house,  archiepiscopal  palace,  and  cathedral 


CAMBRIDGE 


146 


CAMBUSLANG 


(rebuilt  after  the  fire  of  1859),  with  a  monument 
to  Fen61on.  The  town  also  contains  a  college, 
theological  seminary,  and  library,  with  40,000 
vols,  and  1200  MSS.  The  manufactures  are 
cambric— so  named  from  Cambrai— linen  thread, 
lace,  sugar,  soap,  leather,  &c.  Pop.  (1872)  22,897 ; 
(1901)  15,000.  The  League  of  Cambrai  was  formed 
in  1508  by  the  pope,  the  emperor,  and  the  kings 
of  Prance  and  Spain. 

Cambridge  (Kaim'brij),  county  town  of  Cam- 
bridgeshire, lies  on  the  Cam,  58  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  London,  and  76  NE.  of  Oxford.  Two  import- 
ant Roman  roads,  Akeman  Street  and  the  Via 
Devana,  here  cross  the  valley  of  the  Cam,  and 
were  guarded  by  the  station  Caviboritum,  the 
outlines  of  which  can  still  be  clearly  traced  on 
the  north  side  of  the  river.  In  its  centre  is  the 
partly  artificial  mound,  now  known  as  Castle 
Hill,  which  is  probably  a  relic  of  a  yet  older 
British  city.  The  Saxon  town  of  Grantabrygge 
occupied  the  site  of  Camborltum,  and  it  was  here 
that  the  Norman  castle  was  built.  The  present 
town,  as  distinguished  from  the  university,  has 
not  many  features  of  interest.  It  possesses  a 
guildhall,  corn  exchange,  free  public  library,  and 
jail.  There  is  also  a  fine  county  hospital  founded 
under  the  will  of  Dr  Addenbrooke  in  1743,  and 
an  extensive  recreation  ground  named  Parker's 
Piece.  Of  the  churches  St  Benedict's  or  Benets 
has  a  tower  which  is  a  fine  specimen  of  the  so- 
called  Saxon  architecture,  and  the  church  of  the 
Holy  Sepulchre  is  the  oldest  of  the  four  round 
churches  in  England,  having  been  built  in  1101 
in  imitation  of  the  church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
at  Jerusalem.  It  was  restored  by  the  Camden 
Society  in  1841.  The  parish  church  of  Great  St 
Mary's  is  also  the  church  of  the  university,  at 
which  all  academic  services  are  held.  In  1887-90 
there  was  built  a  fine  R.  C.  church,  with  a  spire 
215  feet  high.  The  country  round  Cambridge  is 
somewhat  flat  and  dull ;  but  on  the  west  side 
the  grounds  known  as  '  the  Backs '  of  the  col- 
leges are  very  beautiful,  consisting  of  gardens, 
meadows,  and  avenues.  The  Cam  flows  tlirough 
them,  and  is  crossed  by  nine  bridges.  Above 
Cambridge  the  Cam  is  a  small  but  picturesque 
stream.  Below  Cambridge  it  is  dull  and  ugly, 
but  is  used  for  boat-racing.  Since  1885  the 
borough  of  Cambridge  has  sent  one  member  to 
parliament,  instead  of  two  as  formerly.  Pop. 
(1851)  27,815;  (1871)  30,078;  (1901)  47,737,  of 
whom  38,393  were  within  the  municipal  borough. 

The  university,  dating  from  about  the  12th 
century,  comprises  tlie  following  colleges  in  the 
order  of  their  antiquity :  St  Peter's,  Clare,  Pem- 
broke, Caius,  Trinity  Hall,  Corpus  Christi,  King's, 
Queens',  St  (Jatliarine's,  Jesus,  Christ's,  St  John's, 
Magdalene,  Trinity,  Emmanuel,  Sidney  Sussex, 
Downing,  Selwyn.  Ridley  Hall  (a  theological 
training-college),  Westminster  (Presbyterian)  Col- 
lege, and  Girton  and  Newnham  colleges  for  women 
are  no  part  of  tlie  university.  Teachers  number 
120,  students  3000.  Chief  among  college  buildings 
are  King's  (1441),  with  its  noble  Perpendicular 
chapel ;  Trinity,  with  its  courts,  its  hall,  and  its 
library  by  Wren ;  and  John's,  with  its  splendid 
new  chapel  (1869)  by  Scott.  There  are  also  the 
library.  Senate  house,  Fitzwilliam  museum, 
observatory,  union,  &c.  See  works  by  J.  Bass 
MuUinger  (2  vols.  1873-84),  and  Willis  and  Clark 
(4  vols.  1889),  besides  Humphry's  short  G^iide 
(5th  ed.  1890). 

Among  its  *  wranglers '  (those  who  constitute 
the  first-class  after  the  public  mathematical 
honour  examinations)  have  been  the  great 
English  mathematicians  for  many  generations. 


But  amongst  the  eminent  men  Cambridge  has 
sent  forth  have  been  men  as  various  as  Cranmer, 
Ridley,  Latimer,  Parker,  Tillotson,  Tenison, 
Jeremy  Taylor,  Isaac  Barrow,  Paley,  Cudworth, 
Wollaston,  Bentley,  Porson,  Lord  Bacon,  Harvey, 
Sir  Isaac  Newton,  Lord  Burghley,  Falkland, 
Straff"ord,  Oliver  Cromwell,  Pitt,  Palmerston, 
Fuller,  Pepys,  H.  Walpole,  Wilberforce,  Macaulay, 
Thackeray,  Lytton,  Darwin,  Marlowe,  Fletcher, 
Spenser,  Milton,  Ben  Jonson,  Waller,  Herrick, 
Dryden,  Cowley,  Gray,  Byron,  Coleridge,  Words- 
worth, Tennyson. 

Cambridge,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  virtually 
a  suburb  of  Boston  (q.v.),  from  which  it  is  separ- 
ated by  the  Charles  River,  is  principally  distin- 
guished as  the  seat  of  Harvard  University ;  it  was 
the  home  from  1836  of  Longfellow,  who  lived  in  a 
house  formerly  occupied  by  Washington.  Cam- 
bridge was  first  settled  in  1030,  and  is  therefore 
one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  New  England.  It 
early  became  noted  for  its  printing  industry, 
and  the  manufacture  of  books  is  now  one  of  its 
leading  industries  ;  besides  which  there  are  large 
manufactories  of  furniture,  glass,  ironware,  tin- 
ware, bricks,  chemicals,  net  and  twine,  sugar, 
soap,  and  rubber.  Within  the  limits  of  the  city 
are  comprised  the  different  localities  of  Old  Cam- 
bridge, or  Cambridge  proper,  which  is  distinc- 
tively the  seat  of  the  university ;  East  Cambridge 
or  Lechmere  Point,  a  manufacturing  district ; 
Cambridgeport,  where  is  located  the  city  hall, 
numerous  churches,  several  banks,  a  convent, 
and  some  manufactories  ;  and  North  Cambridge, 
which  is  principally  devoted  to  residences.  Here 
Washington  assumed  command  in  1775.  The 
famous  cemetery  of  Mount  Auburn  is  partly  in 
Cambridge  and  partly  in  Watertown.  Pop.  of 
Cambridge  (1870)  39,364  ;  (1900)  91,886. 

Cambridgeshire,  an  inland  eastern  county  of 
England,  48  miles  long,  llj  to  33  miles  broad, 
and  821  sq.  m.  or  525,182  acres  in  area.  As 
much  as  92  per  cent,  of  that  area  consists  of 
arable  land,  meadow,  and  pasture,  the  rest  being 
fens.  The  surface,  except  in  the  south,  which 
is  somewhat  elevated  and  on  the  chalk  forma- 
tions, is  flat  and  thinly  wooded,  with  villages 
and  churches  here  and  there  on  slight  elevations 
called  '  eys '  or  islands.  In  a  country  less  level 
the  much-vaunted  Gog-Magog  Hills,  4  miles  SB. 
of  Cambridge,  would  escape  observation.  The 
northern  portion  of  Cambridgeshire  forms  part 
of  the  Bedford  Level  (q.v.).  The  chief  of  the 
sluggish  rivers  are  the  Ouse,  which  crosses  the 
middle  of  the  county  from  west  to  east,  with 
its  tributary  the  Cam ;  the  Nene,  which  borders 
the  county  on  the  north ;  and  the  Lark.  These 
are  all  navigable  to  a  certain  extent.  The  chief 
towns  are  Cambridge,  Ely,  Wisbeach,  March, 
Thorney,  Linton,  Soham,  Newmarket,  and  Roy- 
ston.  Cambridgeshire  returns  three  members  to 
parliament,  one  for  each  of  the  Chesterton,  New- 
market, and  Wisbeach  divisions.  Pop.  (1801) 
89.346;  (1841)  164,459;  (1871)  186,906;  (1901) 
190,687.  Of  four  great  dykes  or  earthworks  the 
chief  is  the  Devil's  Ditch,  extending  7  miles 
south-eastward  from  Reach  to  Wood-Ditton.  It 
is  18  feet  high  on  the  east  side,  and  was  certainly 
of  pre-Roman  workmanship,  as  it  is  cut  through 
by  Roman  roads.  See  works  by  Holl  (1882)  and 
Babington  (1883). 

Cambuskenneth,  a  ruined  abbey  (1147),  on 
the  Forth,  near  Stirling.  James  III.  and  his 
queen  are  buried  here. 

Cambuslang,  a  mining  town  of  Lanarkshire, 
4  miles  SE.  of  Glasgow.     Here  a  revival,  known 


CAMBUSNETHAN 


147 


CAMPSIE 


as  the  '  Camb'slang  Wark,'  was  held,  under  White- 
flfld,  in  1741.  Pop.  (1881)  5538  ;  (1901)  12,252. 
Cambusnethan.  See  Wishaw. 
Camden,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  New 
Jersey,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Delaware  River, 
opposite  Philadelphia,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  steam-ferries.  It  has  shipyards  and  dry- 
docks,  foundries,  cotton  and  woollen  mills,  and 
manufactures  of  machinery,  ironwares,  paints, 
oilcloths,  &c.     Pop.  (1880)  41,659  ;  (1900)  75,935. 

Camden  Place,  a  Kentish  seat,  2  miles  ENE. 
of  Bromley.    Here  lived  and  died  the  antiquary 
Camden. 
Camden  Town,  a  north  suburb  of  London. 
Camelford,  a  quaint  little  Cornish  town,  near 
the  source  of  the  Camel  ('crooked  brook*),   15 
miles  W.  of  Launceston.     Within  3  iniles  of  it  is 
the    traditionary    scene   of   King  Arthur's    last 
battle ;  also  near  are  the  great  slate-quarries  of 
Delabole.     '  Ossian '  Macpherson  was  member  for 
Camelford,  which  was  disfranchised  in  1832.    Pop. 
of  Lanteglos  parish,  1370. 
Cam'elon.    See  Falkirk. 
Camerlno  (Ka'mayree'no ;  anc.  Camerinum),  a 
town  of  Central  Italy,  on  a  spur  of  the  Apennines, 
41  miles  SW.  of  Ancona.     It  has  an  archiepiscopal 
cathedral    occupying    the  site  of   a   temple   to 
Jupiter,  and  a  university  (1727).     Pop.  12,000. 

Cameroon  (often  Cameroons;  in  German  spelt 
Kamenon),  a  German  colony  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  extending  from  the  Rio  del  Rey,  a  little 
east  of  the  Old  Calabar  River,  southwards  to 
a  point  slightly  below  3°  N.  lat.,  where  it  is 
bounded  by  French  Congo.  On  the  north-west, 
the  boundary  is  a  line  from  the  Rio  del  Rey  to 
near  Yola  on  the  Benue,  and  thence  to  Lake 
Chad.  The  eastern  boundary  is  understood  to 
be  about  the  meridian  15°  E.  This  would  make 
Adamawa  and  part  of  Bagirmi  the  '  Hinterland ' 
of  Cameroon.  But  the  arrangements,  on  this 
head  and  as  to  the  boundary  towards  the  interior 
agreed  on  by  Germany  and  Britain  in  1893,  were 
hotly  contested  by  the  French.  The  area  has 
befm  estimated  at  190,000  sq.  m.,  and  the  pop.  at 
3,500,000.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Came- 
roon River  (Port,  camaruo,  'a  shrimp'),  which 
enters  the  Bight  of  Biafra  opposite  Fernando  Po 
by  an  estuary  over  20  miles  wide.  The  low 
mangrove  swamps  that  clothe  its  banks  render 
the  climate  very  trying  to  Europeans  ;  but  much 
of  the  interior  is  high-lying  and  healthy.  The 
natives  belong  to  the  Bantu  group,  the  Duallas 
living  nearest  the  coast.  In  1884  the  German 
flag  was  hoisted  at  Cameroon,  and  by  1893  the 
revenue  decidedly  exceeded  the  expenditure. 
The  country  is  very  fertile ;  ebony,  red-wood, 
and  palm-trees  clothing  the  Cameroon,  which 
also  has  long  been  noted  as  an  'oil  river,'  and 
for  its  cotton  and  ivory;  while  many  tropical 
fruits  grow  wild.  North-west  of  the  estuary  lie 
the  Cameroon  Mountains,  a  volcanic  group,  which 
attain  a  height  of  13,746  feet  in  the  peak  Mongo 
ma  Lobah  ('mount  of  the  gods  '),  first  scaled  by 
Burton  and  Mann  in  1862. 

Campagna,  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy,  13  miles 
E.  of  Salerno.    Pop.  6896. 

Campagna  di  Roma  (Kampan'ya  dee  Rom'a),  an 
undulating,  mostly  uncultivated  plain  of  Italy, 
surrounding  Rome,  including  the  greatest  part  of 
ancient  Latium,  with  a  length  of  about  90  miles, 
and  an  extreme  breadth  inland,  to  the  Albau 
and  Sabine  hills,  of  40  miles.  A  broad  strip  of 
sandy  plain  skirts  the  Mediterranean,  with  a 
thick   fringe  of  pines.    The  ground  is  almost 


entirely  volcanic,  the  lakes  being  formed  bv 
craters  of  extinct  volcanoes,  and  the  broad  Tiber 
winds  across  the  plain  between  banks  of  tufa, 
of  which  the  Seven  Hills  of  Rome  are  composed. 
Of  late  some  drainage  has  been  attempted,  and 
eucalyptus  plantations  have  been  made  in  the 
hope  of  reducing  the  malarious  conditions. 

Campanha,  a  town  of  Brazil,  150  miles  NW. 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro.     Pop.  6000. 

Campania,  anciently  a  province  on  the  west 
coast  of  Italy,  having  Capua  as  its  capital,  and 
now  subdivided  into  the  provinces  of  Benevento 
Naples,  Salerno,  Avellino,  and  Caserta.  It  was 
one  of  the  most  productive  plains  in  the  world. 

Campbell  Island,  a  lonely  island  to  the  south 
of  New  Zealand,  in  52°  34'  S.  lat.,  and  169°  12'  E. 
long.  Though  1498  feet  high,  and  only  85  sq.  m. 
in  area,  it  is  yet  valuable  for  its  harbours.  Dis- 
covered in  1810,  it  served  as  an  observatory  dur- 
ing the  Transit  of  Venus  in  1874. 

Campbelltown,  an  Inverness-shire  village,  on 
the  Moray  Firth,  12  miles  NE.  of  Inverness. 
Pop.  648. 

Campbeltown,  a  royal  burgh  and  seaport  of 
Argyllshire,  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  Kintyre  pen- 
insula, 83  miles  SW.  of  Glasgow  by  water.  It 
curves  round  the  head  of  a  sea-loch  (2|  x  |  mile), 
which  is  sheltered  by  Davarr  Island  (300  feet 
high),  and  forms  a  magnificent  harbour.  The 
place  is  an  important  fishing  centre,  and  has 
upwards  of  twenty  whisky  distilleries.  With 
the  other  Ayr  burghs  it  returns  one  member  to 
parliament.  Dr  Nonnan  Macleod  was  a  native. 
Pop.  (1841)  6797  ;  (1901)  8286. 

Campden,  a  Gloucestershire  market-town,  9i 
miles  ESE.  of  Evesham.  Pop.  of  Chipping 
Campden  parish,  1536. 

Campeachy  (San  Francisco  de  Campeche),  a 
seaport  on  the  west  side  of  the  peninsula  of 
Yucatan.  It  has  a  citadel,  university,  naval 
academy,  and  shipbuilding  docks.  The  haven 
is  safe,  but  very  shallow,  and  the  trade,  prin- 
cipally in  logwood  and  wax,  has  greatly  fallen 
off;  while  cigars  and  palm-leaf  hats  are  almost 
the  only  manufactures.  Founded  in  the  middle 
of  the  16th  century,  it  was  taken,  occupied,  and 
burned  by  buccaneers  in  1685.     Pop.  16,600. 

Camperdown  (Dutch  Camperduin),  a  broad 
tract  of  low  dunes  in  North  Holland,  25  miles 
N.  of  Haarlem.  Off  here  Admiral  Duncan  de- 
feated the  Dutch  fleet  under  Admiral  Winter. 
October  11,  1797. 

Campinas,  SIo  Carlos  de  (Kampee'nas),  a  to^vn 
of  Brazil,  44  m.  NW.  of  Sao  Paulo.     Pop.  28,000. 
Campine  (Kam'peen),  a  barren  district  in  the 
provinces  of  Antwerp  and  Limburg  in  Belgium. 

Campobasso,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  among 
the  Apennines,  52  miles  N.  of  Benevento  by  rail. 
Pop.  15,594. 

Campobello,  two  towns  of  Sicily.  (1)  Campo- 
BELLO  DI  LiCATA,  17  miles  N.  of  Licata  by  rail, 
with  sulphur-mines.  Pop.  7481.— <2)  Campobello 
Di  Mazzaro,  32  miles  SSE.  of  Trapani  by  rail. 
Pop.  6586. 

Campo-Formio,  a  village  of  Northern  Italy,  6 
miles  SW.  of  Udine.  Here  peace  was  concluded 
on  17th  October  1797  between  Austria  and  the 
French  Republic. 

Campos,  Sao  Salvador  dos,  a  town  in  the 

Brazilian  province  of   Rio  de   Janeiro,   on  the 

Parahyba,  30  miles  from  its  mouth.    Pop.  35,000. 

Campsie,  a  Stirlingshire  parish,  12  miles  N.  by 

E.  of  Glasgow.    The  Campsie  Fells  (1894  feet) 


CAMPVERE 


148 


CANADA 


are  part  of  the  Lennox  Hills.  Norman  Macleod 
is  buried  in  the  graveyard. 

Oampvere  (now  Vere,  Veere,  or  Ter-Vere),  a 
small  fortified  Dutch  town  on  the  north-east  of 
the  island  of  Walcheren,  with  a  port  on  the 
Veergat,  which  separates  Walcheren  from  North 
Beveland.  The  town  has  fallen  into  decay  ;  but 
its  former  prosperity  is  indicated  by  such  large 
edifices  as  the  town-house  and  cathedral  church. 
Pop.  about  900.  From  1444  till  1795  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  Scottish  factory,  the  only  staple  port 
between  Scotland  and  the  Netherlands. 

Cana,  of  Galilee,  the  scene  of  our  Lord's 
first  miracle,  and  the  birthplace  of  Nathanael, 
was  situated  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Capernaum, 
to  the  W.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

Canaan  ('  low-land '),  the  name  originally  ap- 
plied to  the  low  coast-land  of  Palestine  on  the 
Mediterranean,  inhabited  by  the  Canaanites 
(strictly  so  called),  as  opposed  to  the  mountain- 
land.  Later  it  became  extended  to  the  whole 
country,  yet  only  to  the  part  west  of  the  Jordan, 
the  part  east  of  Jordan  being  contrasted  with  it 
as  the  '  Land  of  Gilead.' 

Canada  (probably  derived  from  an  Indian  word 
Tcannatha,  meaning  a  village,  but  understood  by 
the  first  French  discoverers  to  apply  to  the 
country  at  large),  a  British  dominion  occupying 
the  northern  part  of  North  America.  Canada 
originally  comprised  the  vast  territory  extending 
as  far  west  as  the  Mississippi,  and  including  the 
great  lakes,  which  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  by 
France  in  1763.  Subsequently,  at  the  termina- 
tion of  the  War  of  Independence,  it  was  limited 
to  the  region  now  occupied  by  the  provinces  of 
Ontario  and  Quebec,  described  prior  to  1867  as 
Upper  and  Lower  Canada  respectively.  The 
Dominion  of  Canada  is  a  confederation  of  the 
colonies  of  British  North  America,  constituted  in 
1867.  Upper  and  Lower  Canada,  Nova  Scotia, 
and  New  Brunswick  were  the  first  to  unite. 
The  Hudson  Bay  TeiTitory  was  acquired  from 
the  company,  a  portion  of  it  formed  into  the 
province  of  Manitoba,  the  remainder  designated 
the  North-west  Territories,  and  both  were  ad- 
mitted into  the  confederation  in  1870.  Part  of 
the  North-west  Territories  was  subsequently 
divided  into  districts— Keewatin  in  1876,  and 
Assiniboia,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  and  Atha- 
basca in  1882.  In  1871  British  Columbia,  and 
in  1873  Prince  Edward  Island,  became  parties  to 
the  Union,  which  now  includes  the  whole  of 
British  North  America,  except  Newfoundland. 

Canada  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  on  the  W.  by  the  Pacific  and  Alaska,  on 
the  E.  by  Newfoundland  and  the  Atlantic,  and 
on  the  S.  by  the  United  States.  Both  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  shores  abound  in  deep 
indentations  forming  magnificent  harbours  and 
sheltered  bays.  The  most  striking  physical  feat- 
ures of  Canada  are  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the 
Laurentian  Range  (which  forms  the  watershed 
between  Hudson  Bay  and  the  St  Lawrence,  and 
varies  in  height  from  1000  to  3000  feet),  and  the 
chain  of  immense  fresh-water  lakes.  The  eastern 
portions  of  Canada  are  generally  well  timbered, 
as  are  also  British  Columbia  and  the  North-west 
Territories  north  of  the  Saskatchewan.  West- 
ward of  the  Red  River,  between  the  49th  and 
55th  parallels  of  latitude,  there  is  an  immense 
fertile  plain,  suitable  for  general  agriculture  and 
grazing  (the  eastern  end  being  about  800  feet, 
and  the  western  about  3000  feet,  above  the  level 
of  the  sea),  extending  nearly  to  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains.   This  range  consists  of  triple  chains  with 


valleys  between  ;  the  most  easterly  has  the  gi-eat- 
est  elevation  near  the  52d  parallel,  the  highest 
peaks  being  Mount  Brown  (16,000),  Mount  Mur- 
chison  (15,789),  and  Mount  Hooker  (15,700).  The 
average  height  of  the  chain  is  from  7000  to  8000 
feet.  Canada  is  well  watered,  the  map  present- 
ing a  network  of  lakes  and  rivers.  The  system 
of  the  St  Lawrence  alone,  with  the  great  lakes 
Superior,  Huron,  Michigan,  Erie,  and  Ontario 
(between  the  last  are  the  celebrated  falls  of 
Niagara),  drains  an  area  in  Canada  of  330,000 
sq.  m.  With  their  outlet  the  lakes  form  the 
greatest  fresh-water  way  in  the  world.  Other 
important  lakes  are  Winnipeg,  Winnipegosis, 
Manitoba,  Lake  of  the  Woods,  Great  Slave,  Great 
Bear,  and  Athabasca.  Other  rivers  are  the  Sas- 
katchewan and  the  Winnipeg,  flowing  into 
Lake  Winnipeg,  and  the  Nelson,  flowing  from  it 
into  Hudson  Bay ;  the  Assiniboine  and  the  Red 
River,  which  flow  into  Lake  Winnipeg ;  the 
Albany  and  the  Churchill,  emptying  into  Hudson 
Bay ;  the  Athabasca  and  the  Peace  rivers,  flow- 
ing into  Lake  Athabasca,  and  the  Slave  River, 
from  it  into  Great  Slave  Lake ;  the  Mackenzie, 
fed  from  both  the  Great  Slave  and  the  Great 
Bear  lakes,  and  emptying  into  the  Arctic  Ocean  ; 
the  Eraser  and  Thompson,  in  British  Columbia, 
emptying  into  the  Pacific ;  the  Ottawa  and  the 
Saguenay,  emptying  into  the  St  Lawrence ;  and 
the  St  John,  in  New  Brunswick,  which  it  partly 
separates  from  the  State  of  Maine.  The  principal 
islands  of  the  Dominion  are :  on  the  east.  Cape 
Breton,  Prince  Edward  and  Magdalen  islands, 
and  Anticosti,  in  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence ;  and 
on  the  west  coast,  Vancouver  Island  and  Queen 
Charlotte  Islands.  All  the  great  Arctic  islands, 
except  Greenland,  belong  to  Canada. 

The  cold  in  winter  and  the  heat  in  summer  are 
greater  than  in  Great  Britain,  but  the  climate  is 
a  healthy  one.  Spring  commences  two  or  three 
weeks  later  than  in  England,  but  the  conditions 
for  the  rapid  growth  of  produce — warm  sunshine 
and  a  sufiiciency  of  rain— are  so  favourable  that 
the  crops  of  the  two  countries  are  about  equally 
advanced  by  the  middle  of  July.  The  winter 
may  be  said  to  continue  from  the  middle  of 
November  to  the  end  of  March,  or  about  four 
and  a  half  months.  British  Columbia  probably 
possesses  the  finest  climate  in  North  America. 
In  some  inland  parts  of  Canada  the  maximum 
temperature  may  be  from  90°  to  96°,  and  the 
minimum  from  20°  to  26°  below  zero.  But  al- 
though there  are  these  extremes,  the  air  is  always 
dry,  bracing,  and  exhilarating.  All  the  grain  and 
fruit  crops  grown  in  England  flourish  in  Canada  ; 
and  many  species  raised  in  England  under  glass, 
such  as  grapes,  peaches,  melons,  and  tomatoes, 
ripen  in  southern  Canada  in  the  open  air.  Canada 
is  nearly  as  large  as  the  whole  of  Europe,  and 
about  600,000  sq.  m.  larger  than  the  United  States 
Without  Alaska.  At  the  census  of  1901  the  area 
and  population  of  provinces  and  districts  were  : 

Area,  sq.  m.  Pop. 

Prince  Edward  Island 2,000  103,259 

Nova  Scotia 20,550  459,574 

New  Brunswick 28,100  331,120 

Quebec 227,500  1,648,898 

Ontario 819.650  2,181,947 

Manitoba 64,066  255,211 

British  Columbia 382,300  178,657 

Territories,  Islands,  &c 2.371,481  211.649 

3,315,647  5.371,315 

In  all,  4,671,815  were  natives  of  Canada,  886,545 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  19,338  of  other  parts  of 
the  British  empire,  127,899  of  the  United  States, 
31,231  of  Russia,  27,300  of  Germany,  and  107,187 


CANADA 


149 


CANADA 


of  China,  Scandinavia,  France,  and  Italy; 
1,649,371  were  French-speaking.  There  were 
108,112  Indians,  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan  (ab- 
sorbing Assiniboia  and  Athabasca)  were  consti- 
tuted provinces  in  1905.  The  chief  towns  are 
Montreal  (267,730),  Toronto  (208,040),  Quebec 
(68,840),  Ottawa,  capital  of  the  Dominion  (59,928), 
Hamilton  (52,634),  Winnipeg  (42,340),  Halifax 
(40,832),  and  St  John  (40,711).  Catholics  num- 
ber 2,229,600,  Presbyterians  842,442,  Anglicans 
680,620,  Methodists  916,886,  and  Baptists  316,477. 
English  is  generally  spoken  in  the  Dominion,  but 
in  some  parts  of  the  province  of  Quebec,  French 
is  the  only  language  understood.  In  the  Domin- 
ion, Quebec,  and  Manitoba  parliaments,  members 
may  address  the  House  in  either  language.  The 
French  spoken  by  the  habitants,  as  the  French- 
Canadians  are  called,  is  a  patois  which  in  many 
respects  resembles  the  French  of  the  17th  cen- 
tury more  closely  than  the  French  of  modern 
Paris.  The  principal  universities  are,  in  the 
order  in  which  they  were  founded,  as  follows  : 
Dalhousie(N.S.),  1820;  M'Gill  (Que.),  1821 ;  New 
Brunswick,  1828  ;  Toronto  (Ont.),  1828  ;  Queen's, 
Kingston  (Ont.),  1841  ;  Laval  (Que.),  1852  ;  Mani- 
toba, 1877.  The  government  also  established 
(1874)  the  Royal  Military  College  at  Kingston 
(Ont.).  Canada  has  passed  beyond  the  mother- 
country  in  many  social  questions.  Thus,  as 
regards  the  liquor  traffic,  local  option  prevails ; 
by  an  Act  of  the  Dominion  Parliament  in  1882, 
marriage  with  a  deceased  wife's  sister  was  legal- 
ised ;  religious  liberty  prevails ;  there  is  practi- 
cally free  and  unsectarian  education,  and  a  free 
and  liberal  franchise  ;  members  of  parliament  are 
paid  for  their  services  ;  the  parliaments  are  quin- 
quennial; and  there  is  no  system  for  legalising 
pauperism,  although  orphans  and  the  helpless  and 
aged  of  both  sexes  are  not  neglected. 

Between  the  years  1879  and  1903  the  annual 
value  of  Canadian  imports  varied  from  $81,965,000 
(1879)  and  $241,214,961  (1903);  while  that  of  ex- 
ports rose  from  $71,491,000  (1879)  to  $225,849,724 
(1903).  In  1903  the  exports  to  Great  Britain  were 
$131,202,000,  and  to  the  United  States  $71,784,000 ; 
while  the  imports  from  Britain  were  $58,894,000, 
and  from  the  United  States  $137,605,000.  Chief 
imports  are  iron  manufactures,  avooI  manufac- 
tures, coal  and  coke,  sugar,  cotton  and  cotton 
manufactures,  bread-stuffs,  silks,  chemicals ; 
exports  are  lumber  and  other  forest-products 
($39,536,958,  including  Avood-pulp),  cheese 
($24,712,943),  cattle,  wheat  and  wheat  flour 
($29,265,840),  barley,  and  other  agricultural  pro- 
ducts, cod  and  other  fish,  coal,  and  minerals. 
These  figures  do  not  give  an  accurate  idea  of  the 
total  trade  of  Canada ;  they  only  embrace  the 
outside  trade,  and  do  not  include  the  large  busi- 
ness which  takes  place  between  the  provinces. 
Canadian  fisheries  are,  as  regards  the  area 
available,  the  largest  in  the  world,  embracing 
nearly  5600  miles  of  sea-coast,  in  addition  to 
inland  seas,  innumerable  lakes,  and  a  great 
number  of  rivers  teeming  with  fish  ;  and  there  are 
twelve  fish-breeding  establishments  in  different 
parts  of  the  Dominion.  The  total  value  of  the 
produce  of  the  fisheries  varies  from  $21,000,000  to 
over  $25,000,000  annually. 

The  minerals  are  chiefly  coal,  gold,  copper, 
iron,  phosphates,  salt,  antimony,  mineral  oils, 
and  gypsum.  Gold-mines  have  been  and  are 
being  worked  in  Nova  Scotia,  in  Quebec,  and 
Ontario,  and  largely  in  British  Columbia,  where 
there  are  yet  immense  fields  to  open  up.  Silver- 
mines  are  being  worked  in  Ontario ;  and  that  at 
Silver  Islet,  Thunder  Bay  (on  Lake  Superior),  has 


been  the  richest  yet  discovered  in  Canada.  Iron 
ore  is  found  all  over  the  Dominion.  Copper  has 
been  mined  to  a  considerable  extent  both  in 
Quebec  and  Ontario,  and  the  deposits  of  the  ore 
are  of  great  extent.  There  are  very  large  coal- 
deposits  in  Nova  Scotia.  The  coast  of  British 
Columbia  is  rich  in  coal  of  a  good  quality.  Coal 
is  known  to  exist  over  a  vast  region  stretching 
from  150  to  200  miles  east  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, and  north  from  the  frontier  for  about  1000 
miles.  The  total  value  of  the  mining  produce  of 
Caiwida  averages  over  $65,000,000  annually. 

The  forest-products  of  Canada  constitute  one. 
of  her  most  important  sources  of  wealth.  They 
find  their  way  to  all  parts  of  the  world— to  the 
United  States,  to  the  United  Kingdom,  and  to 
the  Australian  colonies.  Canadian  cattle  are  of 
good  quality,  many  pedigree  and  highly  priced 
cattle  having  been  imported  for  the  improvement 
of  the  flocks  and  herds.  Herds  of  Shorthorns, 
Herefords,  Galloways,  Polled  Angus,  and  Jerseys 
are  to  be  found  in  many  parts  of  Canada.  Great 
progress  has  been  made  in  dairy-farming,  and  the 
factory  system  has  been  latterly  introduced  in 
the  older  provinces.  There  are  factories  for  mak- 
ing cheese,  and  creameries  for  butter.  Agricul- 
ture is  the  leading  interest  of  the  country. 
Mixed  farming  is  generally  carried  on,  the  grow- 
ing of  grain  and  fruit,  stock-raising,  and  dairy- 
farming  being  more  or  less  combined.  Great 
progress  has  recently  been  made  in  the  develop- 
ment of  manufactures.  The  'national  policy' 
comprises  a  high  protective  system,  but  since 
1901  gives  a  preference  to  Britain. 

There  are  nearly  19,000  miles  of  railway  in 
Canada.  The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  (4319 
miles)  was  completed  in  1885  ;  by  it  the  distance 
from  Liverpool  to  Japan  and  China  is  shorter  by 
1000  miles  than  via  New  York  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. In  1905  the  Grand  Trunk  system 
was  planning  extension  to  the  Pacific,  and  the 
Dominion  government  proposed  another  line  to 
the  north  of  the  Canadian  Pacific.  The  railway 
is  not  only  of  importance  locally  to  Canada,  as 
connecting  the  various  provinces  and  opening  up 
the  vast  North-west  Territories  for  settlement, 
but  it  is  of  imperial  importance  as  providing  a 
new  route  to  Australasia  and  the  East,  available 
for  commerce,  and  for  military  and  naval  pur- 
poses. The  canals  of  Canada  are  works  of  great 
utility  and  importance.  The  channel  of  the  St 
Lawrence  has  been  deepened,  and  vessels  of  5000 
and  6000  tons  now  reach  Montreal,  700  miles 
from  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  There  is  a  system  of 
caiials  to  overcome  the  St  Lawrence  rapids,  and 
the  difference  in  the  levels  of  the  great  lakes 
(600  feet)  which  affords  uninterrupted  navigation 
from  the  Strait  of  Belleisle  to  the  head  of  Lake 
Superior,  a  distance  of  2384  miles,  of  which  71J 
miles  are  canals.  A  scheme  has  been  proposed 
for  a  new  route  between  Britain  and  North-west 
Canada  through  Hudson  Bay,  with  a  railway 
from  Port  Nelson  to  Manitoba.  There  are  regu- 
lar lines  of  steamers  between  Canada  and  Britain, 
and  from  Vancouver  to  Australia  and  Cliina  and 
Japan.  The  postal  and  telegraph  systems  are 
very  complete,  and  the  Pacific  cable  from  Van- 
couver to  Australia  was  completed  in  1902. 

The  revenue  of  the  Dominion  in  the  years  1887 
to  1905  varied  from  $35,754,000  (1887)  to  over 
$66,000,000 ;  the  expenditure  from  $35,658,000  to 
$52,000,000.  Tlie  constitution  of  Canada  is  con- 
tained in  the  British  North  America  Act  of  1867. 
Tlie  govenunent  of  Canada  is  federal.  The  pro- 
vinces have  local  legislatures,  and  they  also  elect 
the  Federal  Parliament  which  sits  at  Ottawa. 


CANADA 


150 


CANARY  ISLANDS 


The  Executive  Government  and  authority  of  and 
over  Canada  is  vested  in  the  crown  of  Great 
Britain.  The  governor-general  for  the  time 
being,  whose  emoluments  are  paid  out  of  the 
Canadian  revenue,  carries  on  the  government  in 
the  name  of  the  sovereign,  with  the  assistance 
of  a  council,  known  as  the  cabinet,  consisting  of 
the  heads  of  the  various  departments,  whiclx 
is  responsible  to  the  House  of  Commons.  The 
Dominion  Parliament  consists  of  an  upper  house, 
styled  the  Senate  (81  members),  and  the  House 
of  Commons  (214  members).  The  senators  are 
nominated  for  life  by  the  governor  in  council. 
The  commons  are  elected  every  Ave  years,  unless 
the  House  be  dissolved  before  its  course  has 
run ;  and  there  is  a  special  franchise  distinct 
from  that  in  force  for  the  provincial  assemblies. 
At  the  head  of  each  of  the  provinces  is  a 
lieutenant-governor,  appointed  by  the  gover- 
nor in  council,  and  paid  by  the  Dominion,  who 
is  the  link  between  tlie  provinces  and  the  Federal 
Government.  Quebec  and  Nova  Scotia  have  each 
a  two-chamber  legislature;  New  Brunswick, 
Ontario,  Manitoba,  British  Columbia,  and  Prince 
Edward  Island  only  single-chamber  assemblies. 
The  executive  in  each  province  is  responsible  to  the 
local  legislature.  The  North-west  Territories  are 
administered  by  a  lieutenant-governor  and  a 
council,  partly  elected  and  partly  nominated. 
Legislation  upon  local  matters  is  delegated,  as  a 
general  rule,  to  the  provinces.  There  is  also  a 
very  perfect  systeni  of  municipal  government 
throughout  the  Dominion.  Both  the  counties 
and  townships  have  their  local  councils,  which 
regulate  the  taxation  for  roads,  schools,  and 
other  purposes,  so  that  every  man  directly  votes 
for  the  taxes  he  is  called  upon  to  pay.  Local 
taxation  is  very  light. 

In  1534  Jacques  Cartier  landed  near  Gaspe  and 
took  possession  of  Canada  for  the  king  of  France ; 
but  little  was  done  by  way  of  settlement  till 
1608,  when  Champlain  founded  Quebec.  From 
this  time  till  1763  Canada,  from  Acadia  (Nova 
Scotia)  to  Lake  Superior  and  down  the  Missis- 
sippi to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  was  held  to  be 
French  territory.  The  struggle  between  Great 
Britain  and  France  for  supremacy  was  long 
and  bitter,  but  ended  in  1763  with  the  Treaty 
of  Paris,  by  which  all  the  French  dominions 
in  Canada  were  ceded  to  Britain,  save  the  small 
islands  of  St  Pierre  and  Miquelon,  retained  as 
fishing  stations.  Hudson  Bay  territory,  Nova 
Scotia,  and  Newfoundland,  had  passed  to  Eng- 
land by  the  Treaty  of  Utrecht  in  1713.  Through 
the  American  War  of  Independence,  what  is  now 
Minnesota,  Wisconsin,  Michigan,  Ohio,  Indiana, 
and  Illinois,  was  lost  in  1783  to  the  United 
States,  no  longer  British  colonies.  Quebec  was 
in  1791  divided  into  Lower  and  Upper  Canada. 
A  rebellion  took  place  in  1837-38,  and  the  pro- 
vinces were  reunited  in  1840.  Prince  Edward 
Island  and  New  Brunswick  were  separated  from 
Nova  Scotia  in  1770  and  1784.  British  Cohunbia 
was  made  a  crown  colony  in  1858,  and  Vancouver 
Island  joined  to  it  in  1866.  The  confederation  of 
all  the  British  North  American  provinces— ex- 
cept Newfoundland— took  place  in  1867-71,  and 
the  prosperity  of  the  Dominion  was  only  tempo- 
rarily disturbed  by  the  Red  River  rebellion  of 
1869.  The  fishery  riglits  have  repeatedly  been 
a  source  of  difficulty  between  Canada  and  the 
mother-country  on  the  one  hand  and  the  United 
States  on  the  other,  and  the  dispute  about  seal- 
ing in  Behring  Sea  and  off  the  Alaskan  coasts 
was  only  settled  by  arbitration  in  1893,  The 
long-existing  dispute  as  to  the  boundary  between 


Canada  and  the  United  States  territory  of  Alaska 
was  finally  settled  by  a  joint  commission  in  1903. 

There  are  French  histories  of  Canada  by 
Faillon,  Garneau,  and  Revilland  ;  in  English  by 
Tuttle  (1878),  G.  Bryce  (1887),  Kingsford  (8  vols. 
1888-98),  and  Roberts  (1898).  See  also  works 
by  Fream  (1889),  Munro  (1890),  Goldwin  Smith 
(1891),  Lucas  (1901),  Bradley  (1904). 

Canadian  River,  a  shallow  tributary  of  the 
Arkansas,  rising  in  the  NE.  part  of  New  Mexico, 
and  ruiming  900  miles  generally  eastward  through 
Texas  and  Indian  Territory  to  the  Arkansas.  Its 
largest  tributary  is  the  Rio  Nutria,  or  North  Fork 
of  the  Canadian,  which  runs  parallel  to  the  main 
stream  for  about  600  miles. 

Canandaigua,  the  capital  of  Ontario  county. 
New  York,  at  tlie  north  end  of  Lake  Canandaigua, 
28  miles  SE.  of  Rochester  by  rail.     Pop.  6168. 

Canary  Islands,  a  Spanish  group  in  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  where  15°  W.  long,  crosses  29° 
N.  lat.  ;  the  nearest  is  only  62i^  geographical 
miles  from  the  NW.  coast  of  Africa.  There  are 
seven  large  and  several  small  islets,  with  a  joint 
area  of  2808  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  360,000. 
The  principal  islands,  proceeding  from  east  to 
west,  are  Lanzarote  (323  sq.  m.),  Fuerteventura 
(326),  Gran  Canaria  (758),  Tenerife  (877),  Gomera 
(169),  Palma  (718),  and  Hierro  or  Ferro  (82).  The 
coasts  are  steep  and  rocky,  and  the  surface  is 
diversified  with  high  mountains,  narrow  gorges, 
and  deep  valleys,  the  loftiest  summit  being  the 
Peak  of  Tenerife  (12,200  feet).  All  the  islands 
are  volcanic,  and  everywhere  show  plain  marks  of 
their  origin,  in  the  shape  of  cones,  craters,  beds  of 
tuff  and  pumice,  and  streams  of  lava  ;  but  erup- 
tions have  taken  place  within  the  historical 
period  only  in  Tenerife,  Palma,  and  Lanzarote. 
There  are  no  rivers,  and  on  several  of  the  islands 
water  is  very  scarce.  Upwards  of  900  species  of 
wild  flowering  plants  have  been  found  on  these 
islands — 420  of  them  peculiar  to  the  group,  and 
48  others  common  to  it  and  to  the  other  North 
Atlantic  islands,  but  found  nowhere  else.  The 
flora  as  a  whole  is  tnainly  of  a  South  European 
character,  with  a  large  infusion  of  African  genera. 
As  to  the  cultivated  plants,  the  warmth  of  the 
lowest  region  allows  of  the  growth  of  the  sugar- 
cane, sweet  potato,  bananas,  date-palm,  &c.  ; 
whilst  above,  to  the  height  of  3000  feet,  the 
vine  and  various  cereals  are  cultivated  in  a 
climate  resembling  that  of  the  south  of  Europe. 
Minerals  are  few  and  of  little  importance.  The 
temperature  near  the  sea  is  genial.  The  mean 
annual  rainfall  amounts  to  14  inches.  In  conse- 
quence of  the  higher  temperature,  the  less  rain- 
fall, and  drier  atmosphere  compared  with  Madeira, 
and  of  the  much  increased  facilities  for  reaching 
the  islands,  Orotava  and  Las  Palmas  are  coming 
into  note  as  winter-resorts  for  invalids.  A  few 
years  ago  cochineal  was  the  staple  production, 
but  the  competition  of  aniline  dyes  has  been 
severely  felt,  and  cochineal,  no  longer  bringing 
in  a  good  profit,  has  fallen  into  neglect.  The 
cultivation  of  the  vine  (almost  ruined  after  1853 
by  the  grape  disease)  and  sugar-cane  is  extend- 
ing ;  wine  being  exported  to  the  European  conti- 
nent, and  sugar  to  Spain.  Tobacco  is  also  grown. 
Submarine  cables  connect  the  islands  both  with 
the  continent  of  Europe  and  the  African  coast. 

The  Canaries,  the  Fortunate  Islands  of  the 
ancients,  were  rediscovered  in  1334,  when  a 
French  vessel  was  driven  amongst  them  by  a 
storm.  In  1404  the  Norman  Jean  de  Bethen- 
court,  having  obtained  assistance  from  Spain, 
mastered    four   of  the   islands.    His   successor 


CANCALE 


151 


CANTERBURY 


having  sold  his  rights  in  Spain,  they  were  after- 
wards acquired  by  the  Iting,  who  sent  a  large 
force  in  1477  to  conquer  the  Guanches,  a  brave 
and  intelligent  race  of  large  stature,  and  com- 
paratively fair.  Their  origin  is  unknown,  but 
they  are  assumed  by  mai^  to  have  been  of 
Berber  or  of  Libyan  stock.  Their  resistance  was 
so  stubborn,  that  it  was  not  until  1495  that  the 
last  of  the  islands  was  finally  annexed  to  Spain, 
of  which  they  now  form  a  province. 

See  works  by  Pegot-Ogier  (Eng.  trans.  2  vols. 
1S82),  Olivia  Stone  (1888),  C.  Edwardes  (1889), 
G.  W.  Strettell  (1890),  J.  Whitford  (1890),  and 
J.  H.  T.  Ellerbroke  (1892> 

Cancale  (Konfkdhl'),  a  bathing-place  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  8  miles  ENE.  of  St 
Malo,  on  Cancale  Bay,  famous  for  its  oysters. 
Pop.  3723,  or  with  the  port.  La  Houle,  6578. 

Candahar.    See  Kandahar. 

Candeish.    See  Khandesh. 

Candia  is  the  name  of  a  town  of  Crete  (once 
the  capital),  and  was  long  the  only  name  by 
which  the  island  was  known  in  Western  Europe. 
The  city  of  Candia  stands  on  the  north  coast  of 
the  island,  north  of  Mount  Ida.  Its  harbour  is 
sanded  up.     Pop.  22,800.    See  Crete. 

Candy.    See  Kandy. 

Canea  (anc.  Cydonia),  present  capital  and  chief 
commercial  town  of  Crete,  on  the  north-west 
coast,  with  a  fine  harbour.     Pop.  24,500. 

Canelones  (Kan-ay-lo'nez),  a  dep.  of  Uruguay. 
Area,  1827  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  86,750.  Capital,  Guade- 
lupe,  30  m.  N.  of  Monte  Video  by  rail ;  pop,  3000. 

Canicatti,  a  town  of  Sicily,  on  tlie  Naro,  24 
miles  ENE.  of  Girgenti  by  rail.     Pop.  19,599. 

Canna,  one  of  the  Inverness-shire  Hebrides, 
12  miles  SW.  of  Skye,  and  3  NW.  of  Rum.  It 
rises  to  800  feet,  and  is  4^  nn'les  long,  1  mile 
broad,  and  4^  sq.  m.  in  area.  With  the  adjoining 
Lsland  of  Sanday  (1  sq.  m.)  its  population  in  1841 
was  225  ;  it  is  now  under  100,  mostly  Catholic. 

CannsB,  an  ancient  town  of  Apulia,  Southern 
Italy,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Aufidus  (now 
Ofanto),  and  IJ  mile  N.  of  the  modern  Canosa. 
Here,  in  216  B.C.,  Hannibal  defeated  the  Romans 
with  prodigious  slaughter. 

Cannanore,  a  seaport  and  cantonment  of 
Malabar,  Madras,  50  miles  N.  of  Calicut.  Pop. 
27,818. 

Cannes  (Kdnn),  a  watering-place  in  the  dep.  of 
Ali)es-Maritimes,  charmingly  situated  on  a  bay 
of  the  Mediterranean,  19  miles  SW.  of  Nice  by 
rail.  Though  founded  by  the  Romans,  it  was 
but  a  place  of  3000  inhabitants,  when  in  1815 
Napoleon  landed  near  it  from  Elba ;  nor  was  it 
till  1836  that  Lord  Brougham  first  selected  it  as 
a  health-resort.  Alexis  de  Tocqueville,  Prosper 
Merimee,  Louis  Blanc,  Victor  Cousin,  Auerbach, 
J.  B.  Dumas,  and  the  Duke  of  Albany  have  died 
in  Cannes ;  and  in  1887  Queen  Victoria  came  to 
Cannes  to  visit  the  place,  and  to  see  the  beauti- 
ful Albany  Memorial  Church  of  St  George  of 
England,  erected  with  funds  raised  by  the  Prince 
of  Wales.  Cannes  is  celebrated  for  the  salubrity 
of  its  climate.  Low  wooded  hills  shelter  it  from 
the  north,  and  it  occupies  the  centre  of  the  great 
curved  bay,  14  miles  across,  of  which  Cap  Roux 
and  Cap  d'Antibes  form  the  extremities.  It  has 
a  small  port,  and  a  trade  in  flowers,  becoming 
yearly  of  greater  importance.  There  are  farms 
of  violets,  roses,  oranges,  tuberoses,  jessamine, 
and  cassia.  Pop.  (1872)  8201 ;  (1901)  25,350— 
sometimes  doubled  by  winter  visitors. 


Cannock,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  8  miles 
NNW.  of  Walsall.  Cannock  Chase  abounds  in 
important  iron  industries.  Pop.  (1851)  2099; 
(1871)  6650  ;  (1901)  23,992. 

Cannstatt,  a  town  of  Wurtemberg,  on  the 
Neckar,  3  miles  NE.  of  Stuttgart.  Of  Roman 
origin,  it  has  much-frequented  mineral  springs, 
and  mannfacture.s  of  iron,  cottons,  tobacco,  &c. 
Pop.  (1875)  15,064  ;  (1900)  26,500. 

Canonbie,  a  Dumfriesshire  Border  p*ri8h  on 
the  Esk,  16  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Carlisle.  Coal  is 
found. 

Canosa  (anc.  Camisium),  a  town  of  Southern 
Italy,  13  miles  SW.  of  Barletta.  It  has  a  castle- 
crowned  hill  and  a  cathedral  (1101-1825).  Pop. 
24,20a     See  Cann^. 

Canossa,  a  ruined  castle  of  Italy,  12  miles  SW. 
of  Reggio.  Here  the  Emperor  Henry  IV.  in  1077 
made  submission  to  Pope  Gregory  VII. 

Canso,  Cape,  the  eastern  extremity  of  Nova 
Scotia,  at  the  entrance  of  Chedabucto  Bay. 
Canso  Strait,  17  miles  long  and  2^  wide,  separates 
Nova  Scotia  from  Cape  Breton. 

Cantal,  an  inland  dep.  of  Southern  France, 
formed  out  of  the  south  portion  of  the  old 
I)rovince  of  Auvergne.  Area,  2090  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
(1901)  234,382. 

Canterbury,  a  municipal,  parliamentary,  and 
county  borough,  and  the  seat  of  the  metropolitan 
see  of  all  England,  in  East  Kent,  56  miles  ESE. 
of  London  by  road  (62  by  rail),  and  16  NW.  of 
Dover.  Standing  in  a  plain  on  the  banks  of  the 
Stour,  amid  gently  swelling  hills,  it  occupies  the 
site  of  the  Roman  Diirovernum  and  Saxon  Cant- 
warabyrig  ('  borough  of  the  men  of  Kent '),  and 
from  its  position  on  the  great  London  highroad 
must  always  have  been  a  place  of  importance. 
There  are  some  remains  of  the  ancient  walls  (If 
mile  in  circuit  and  20  feet  high),  and  the  West 
Gate  (c.  1380)  is  the  survivor  of  six.  Near  the 
city  wall  is  a  large  artificial  mound,  the  Dane 
John  (probably  Donjon),  and  connected  with  this 
mound  is  a  public  garden,  laid  out  in  1790,  from 
the  top  of  which  is  a  fine  view  of  the  country 
around.  The  much  mutilated  castle,  whose 
Norman  keep  resembled  Rochester's,  has  been 
degraded  to  a  gas-work ;  the  guildhall  (1439 ; 
rebuilt  1697)  has  been  refaced  with  modern 
brick;  and  the  Checquers  Inn,  where  Chaucer's 
pilgrims  lodged,  lost  its  'dormitory  of  the 
hundred  beds '  by  fire  in  1865. 

But  the  great  glory  of  Canterbury  is  its  magni- 
ficent cathedral,  whose  precincts  are  entered 
through  a  splendid  Perpendicular  gateway  (1517). 
It  was  founded  in  597  by  St  Augustine  ;  enlarged 
by  Archbishop  Odo  (942-959) ;  totally  destroyed 
by  fire  (1067) ;  rebuilt  by  Archbishop  Lanfranc 
and  Priors  Ernulf  and  Conrad  (1070-1130) :  this 
building  it  was  that  witnessed  the  murder  of 
Becket  (29th  December  1170) ;  bereft  of  its  choir 
by  fire  (1174) ;  partly  rebuilt  by  William  of  Sens, 
and  another  William,  an  Englishman  ;  and  trans- 
formed as  to  the  nave  and  nave-transepts  by  Prior 
Chillenden  into  the  Perpendicular  style  of  that 
period  (1378-1411),  The  central  or  '  Bell  Harry ' 
tower  was  carried  up  (1495)  to  about  double  its 
original  height ;  also  in  the  Perpendicular  style,  it 
is  235  feet  high.  The  north-west  or  Arundel  steeple 
was  taken  down  and  rebuilt  in  1834-40  ;  like  the 
south-west  or  Dunstan  steeple  (1413-44),  it  is  130 
feet  high.  The  north  transept  is  called  the 
Martyrdom  transept,  for  here  took  place  the 
murder  of  Becket.  In  1220,  fifty  years  later, 
his  remains  were  translated  from  the  crypt  to  a 


canterburv 


152 


CANTON 


shrine  in  the  newly  erected  Trinity  Chapel,  east- 
ward of  the  choir.  That  shrine  was  demolished 
in  1538  ;  but  in  1888  a  stone  coffin,  with  remains 
of  a  skeleton,  supposed  to  be  Becket's,  was  dis- 
covered in  the  crypt,  and  reinterred  there  after 
careful  examination.  In  1643  the  building  was 
'purified,'  as  it  was  called,  by  order  of  parlia- 
ment ;  still  very  many  most  interesting  monu- 
ments remain— such  as  the  tombs  of  Stephen 
Langton,  the  Black  Prince,  Henry  IV.,  and 
Archbishops  Peckham,  Meopham,  Stratford,  Sud- 
bury, Courtenay,  Chicheley,  Stafford,  Kemp, 
Bourchier,  Morton,  Warham,  and  Cardinal  Pole. 
The  fifty-one  statues  that  since  1863  have  adorned 
the  south  porch  and  the  western  entrance  include 
19  of  Canterbury's  94  archbishops,  21  English 
sovereigns,  3  deans,  Erasmus,  &c.  Of  stained 
glass  there  are  some  fine  old  specimens,  and  some 
new  ones  of  very  varied  merit.  The  total  length 
of  the  cathedral  is  522  feet,  by  154  in  breadth  at 
the  eastern  transept.  Its  predominant  styles 
are  Transition-Norman  and  Perpendicular.  The 
large  and  lofty  crypt  was  in  1561  given  up  by 
Elizabeth  to  a  congregation  of  French  and 
Flemish  Protestant  refugees,  and  a  French  ser- 
vice still  is  held  here.  On  3d  September  1872 
the  church  narrowly  escaped  destruction  for  the 
fourth  time  by  fire,  the  outer  roof  being  burned, 
over  all  the  east  portion  of  the  choir. 

To  the  north  of  the  cathedral  are  the  Cloisters, 
144  feet  square ;  the  Chapter-house  (1411) ;  the 
New  Library  and  the  Howley  Library ;  the 
beautiful  Green  Court ;  the  Deanery  (1517) ;  and 
the  King's  School  (1541).  Marlowe,  who  was  a 
native,  and  a  drinking  fountain  to  whose  memory 
was  erected  in  1891,  and  Dr  Harvey,  went  to 
school  here.  These  occupy  the  site,  and  in  part 
the  buildings,  of  the  Benedictine  Priory  of 
Christ's  Church.  The  remains  of  the  Abbey  of 
St  Augustine,  to  the  east,  were  in  1844-48  trans- 
fonned  into  an  Anglican  missionary  college.  Of 
fourteen  old  churches,  St  Martin's  has  a  font, 
said  to  be  the  very  one  in  which  Ethelbert  was 
baptised  by  St  Augustine,  whilst  St  Dunstan's 
contains  the  monuments  of  the  Ropers,  and,  in  a 
vault,  the  head  of  Sir  Thomas  More.  The  Clergy 
Orphan  School  occupies  a  conspicuous  position 
on  St  Thomas's  Hill,  a  mile  out  of  the  city  ;  the 
Simon  Langton  Schools  were  opened  in  1882. 
There  are,  besides,  several  hospitals,  large 
barracks,  a  corn  exchange,  and  an  art  gallery 
presented  to  the  city  in  1882  by  one  of  her  sons, 
Sidney  Cooper,  R.A.  There  is  also  a  free  library 
and  museum.  Canterbury  has  a  large  trade  in 
grain  and  hops.  Races  used  to  be  run  on  Barhain 
Downs,  but  tliey  were  eclipsed  in  importance 
by  the  Canterbury  'cricket  week.'  Since  1885 
the  city  has  returned  only  one  member.  Pop. 
(1851)  18,388  ;  (1901)  24,899.  See  works  by  Willis 
(2  vols.  1845-69),  Dean  Stanley  (10th  ed.  1883), 
Dean  Hook  (12  vols.  1860-76),  and  R.  Jenkins 
(1880). 

Canterbury,  a  provincial  district  of  New 
Zealand  (q.v.),  in  the  centre  of  the  South  Island, 
with  an  area  of  14,039  sq.  m.;  till  1876  it  was  a 
province,  with  Christchurch  as  its  capital,  and 
Lyttelton  as  its  port.  The  district  was  settled 
in  1850  by  the  Canterbury  Association,  a  society 
of  peers,  bishops,  and  commoners  interested  in 
the  colonisation  of  New  Zealand.  It  has  a  coast- 
line of  200  miles,  a  breadth  of  150,  and  is  well 
watered  by  numerous  rivers.  Coal,  iron  ore, 
fireclays,  quartz,  and  gold  exist,  and  coal-mines 
are  in  operation.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the 
great  range  of  hills  are  the  far-famed  Canterbury 
Plains,  the  great  sheep  district  of  the  colony. 


There  is  railway  connection  between  Christ- 
church  and  Dunedin,  with  various  branch  lines. 
The  staple  trade  is  in  wool  and  grain.  The 
Bishop  of  Canterbury  is  primate  of  New  Zealand. 
The  medicinal  hot  springs  at  Hanmar  Plain 
in  Amuri  district  have  considerable  celebrity. 
Mount  Cook  (13,200  feet)  is  the  highest  mountain 
in  New  Zealand.  Pop.  (1871)  46,801  ;  (1891) 
128,392  ;  (1901)  143,041. 

Cantire.    See  Kintyre. 

Canton,  a  large  commercial  city  and  port  in 
the  south  of  China,  and  capital  of  the  province  of 
Kwang-tung  (of  which  the  name  Canton  is  merely 
a  corruption),  is  situated  in  23"  7'  10"  N.  lat.,  and 
113°  14'  30"  E.  long.,  on  the  north  or  left  side  of 
the  Shu-kiang,  or  Pearl  River,  in  a  rich  alluvial 
plain,  70  miles  N.  of  Macao,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
estuary  of  the  Canton  River,  and  90  NW.  of 
Hong-kong.  The  city  is  surrounded  by  walls 
25  to  40  feet  high  and  20  thick,  with  an  espla- 
nade inside,  six  miles  in  circumference ;  and  it 
is  divided  by  a  partition  wall  running  east  and 
west  into  two  unequal  parts,  the  north  or  old 
city,  much  the  larger,  and  the  south  or  new  city. 
There  are  twelve  outer  gates,  four  gates  in 
partition  wall,  and  two  water  gates ;  shut  and 
guarded  by  night.  The  entire  circuit,  including 
suburbs,  is  nearly  10  miles.  At  the  south-west 
corner  of  the  suburbs,  south  of  the  river,  are  the 
Hongs  or  European  quarter,  divided  from  the 
river  by  a  quay,  100  yards  wide,  called  Respon- 
dentia Walk.  The  streets,  more  than  600,  are  in 
general  less  than  8  feet  wide,  and  very  crooked. 
The  houses  along  the  water-side  are  built  on 
piles,  and  subject  to  inundations.  There  are  two 
pagodas,  the  '  Plain  Pagoda,'  erected  ten  centuries 
ago,  160  feet  high,  and  an  octagonal  nine-storied 
pagoda,  175  feet  high,  erected  more  than  1300 
years  ago  ;  and  124  temples  or  Joss-houses.  The 
Honam  temple  covers,  with  its  grounds,  7  acres, 
and  has  175  priests  attached.  The  'Temple  of 
Filial  Duty '  has  200  priests,  supported  by  3500 
acres  of  glebe-lands.  The  priests  and  nuns  in 
Canton  number  more  than  2000,  nine-tenths  of 
them  Buddhists.  The  '  Temple  of  Five  Hundred 
Genii '  has  500  statues  of  various  sizes  in  honour 
of  Buddha  and  his  discii)les.  Examination  Hall, 
in  the  old  city,  is  1330  feet  by  583  feet,  covers  16 
acres,  and  has  8653  cells.  Nearly  half  the  craft 
on  the  river  are  fixed  residences,  and  the  popu- 
lation on  land  and  water  can  hardly  be  less  than 
a  million  and  a  half.  The  climate  of  Canton  may 
be  pronounced  healthy.  The  average  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  42°  to  96°  F.  ;  though  falls  of 
snow  occurred  in  1835  and  1861.  The  average 
rainfall  is  70  inches.     Pop.  1,800,000. 

The  admirable  situation  of  Canton,  with  a  safe 
and  commodious  anchorage  for  the  largest  vessels, 
explains  how,  from  an  early  period,  it  was  a 
favourite  port  with  foreign  merchants.  The 
earliest  notices  date  back  to  two  centuries  B.C.  ; 
and  the  Arabs  made  regular  voyages  hither  as 
early  as  the  9th  century  a.d.  The  Portuguese 
found  their  way  to  it  in  1517,  and  were  followed 
by  the  Dutch  a  hundred  years  later.  These  in 
turn  were  supplanted  by  the  English  before  the 
close  of  the  17th  century,  and  an  immense  trade 
was  carried  on  by  the  agents  of  the  East  India 
Company,  whose  monopoly  ceased  in  April  1834. 
In  1842  Canton  became  one  of  the  five  'treaty 
ports '  open  to  foreign  commerce.  The  city  was 
captured  by  the  allied  French  and  English  forces 
in  December  1857,  and  continued  to  be  garrisoned 
by  them  till  October  1 861 .  The  chief  exports  from 
Canton  are  tea,  silk,  sugar,  and  cassia  ;  the  chief 


CANTON 


163 


CAPE  COLONY 


I 


imports,  cotton,  woollen,  and  metal  goods,  food- 
stuffs, opium,  kerosene,  &c. 

Canton  River  is  a  name  given  to  the  chief 
channel  by  which  the  united  waters  of  the  Si- 
kiang  and  the  Pe-kiang  rivers  reach  the  sea 
through  the  delta.  Shu-kiang  or  Pearl  River  is 
another  name  for  part  of  this  waterway ;  and 
Boca  Tigre  (q.v.),  Bocca  Tigris,  or  Boque,  a  part 
of  it  below  Canton,  where  the  estuary  is  com- 
pressed between  escarped  hills. 

Canton,  capital  of  Stark  county,  Ohio,  on 
Nimishillen  Creek,  56  miles  SSE.  of  Cleveland, 
with  foundries,  iron  and  steel  works,  paper  and 
wool  mills.  Pop.  (1860)  4041 ;  (1900)  30,667. 

Cape  Breton  (Brit'un),  a  rocky  Canadian  island 
of  irregular  form,  at  the  eastern  extremity 
of  Nova  Scotia,  from  which  it  is  separated  by 
the  Gut  of  Canso,  one  mile  broad.  Measuring 
100  by  85  miles,  it  has  an  area  of  3120  sq.  m., 
with  a  pop.  of  97,000.  The  coast  is  greatly 
indented,  and  an  inlet,  the  Bras  d'Or,  entering 
the  island  on  the  east,  forms  a  lake  (50  by  20 
miles)  which  renders  most  of  the  interior  access- 
ible by  water,  and  which,  now  continued  by  a 
ship-canal  (^  mile)  to  St  Peter's  Bay,  on  the  south 
coast,  bisects  the  island.  The  climate  is  moist, 
but  milder  than  that  of  the  adjoining  continent ; 
the  principal  exports  are  timber,  fish,  iron  ore, 
and  coal.  Originally  Frencli,  it  was  taken  and 
retaken  by  the  English  in  1745-58 ;  and  in  1819 
became  part  of  the  province  of  Nova  Scotia. 
The  towns  are  Sydney,  Arichat,  and  Port  Hood, 
the  once  strongly  fortified  Louisbourg  having 
sunk  to  a  village. 

Cape  Coast  Castle,  a  British  settlement  in  the 
Gold  Coast  Colony,  Upper  Guinea,  315  miles  W. 
of  Lagos.  It  lies  in  a  chasm,  and  is  defended 
by  the  great  castle  and  by  three  small  forts  on 
the  hills  behind.  Ceded  by  the  Dutch  in  1665, 
from  1672  it  was  possessed  by  several  companies 
till  1843,  when  it  was  taken  over  by  government. 
In  1875  it  was  superseded  by  Accra  as  capital  of 
the  Gold  Coast.  L.  E.  Landon  died  here  in  1838. 
Pop.  11,500. 

Cape  Cod,  a  narrow  peninsula  of  Massachusetts, 
in  form  like  the  letter  L,  which,  with  a  length 
of  65  miles,  forms  the  south-east  boundary  of  the 
gi'eat  bay  of  that  state.  A  canal  across  the  neck 
has  been  proposed. 

Cape  Colony,  officially  Colony  of  the  Cape 
OF  Good  Hope,  is  a  British  colony  situated  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  African  continent. 
It  is  bounded  on  the  N,  by  German  South-west 
Africa,  the  Bechuanalaud  Protectorate,  the 
Orange  River  Colony,  and  British  Basutoland  ; 
on  the  S.  by  the  Southern  Ocean  ;  on  the  E.  by 
Natal ;  and  on  the  W.  by  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Neither  Basutoland  (q.v.),  the  Bechuana  Pro- 
tectorate, nor  the  territories  of  the  South  Africa 
Company  (see  Matabeleland,  Mashonaland, 
Zambesia)  are  part  of  the  colony.  All  sections 
are  under  the  authority  of  the  High  Commis- 
sioner for  British  South  Africa,  who  is  distinct 
from  the  governor  of  Cape  Colony.  Pondoland 
was  annexed  Lo  the  Cape  Colony  in  1894,  and  in 
1895  the  crown  colony  of  British  Bechuanaland 
was  also  incorporated.  The  total  area  of  the 
Cape  Colony  is  now  estimated  at  over  277,000 
square  miles. 

The  Cape  Colony  is  deficient  in  navigable  rivers, 
and  in  gulfs  or  arms  of  the  sea  stretching  inland. 
The  best  natural  harbour,  Saldanha  Bay,  is  un- 
used, on  account  of  the  aridity  of  the  land  around 
it.  Table  Bay,  the  principal  harbour,  is  naturally 
much  exposed  on  the  north-west ;  but  has  been 


protected  by  a  breakwater  (see  Capetown).  False 
Bay,  lying  to  the  east  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
includes  Simon's  Bay,  which  is  the  imperial  naval 
station.  Algoa  Bay  has  Port  Elizabeth  on  its 
western  shore.  Running  parallel  to  the  coast-line 
of  the  Cape  Colony,  and  at  an  average  distance 
from  it  of  about  150  miles,  there  is  a  range  of 
mountains  which  forms  the  watershed  of  the 
country,  and  is  known  as  the  Stonnberg,  the 
Sneeuberg,  the  Nieuwveld  Mountains,  the  Rogge- 
veld  Mountains,  and  Kamiesberg.  The  Eastern 
Province,  along  with  the  Cape  peninsula,  is  on 
the  whole  better  watered  than  the  interior 
portion  of  the  Western  Province,  which  is 
largely  covered  with  the  Karroo  or  steppe, 
dreary-looking,  but  of  great  value  to  the  sheep- 
farmer.  Beyond  the  belt  of  country  skirting 
the  sea-coast  agriculture  can  only  be  success- 
ful where  there  is  a  suppy  of  water  for  irrigation. 
The  climate  of  the  Cape  Colony  and  of  the 
interior  of  Southern  Africa  generally  is  one  of 
the  finest  in  the  world,  and  eminently  suited  for 
Europeans.  As  a  health-resort  the  Cape  has 
long  been  favourably  known.  The  climate  on 
the  coast  is  superior  to  that  of  England.  But 
it  is  after  the  traveller  leaves  this  well-watered 
belt  that  he  finds  himself  in  a  rare  and  yet 
balmy  atmosphere  which  is  exhilarating  to  the 
healthy,  and  most  beneficial  to  those  subject  to 
lung-complaints,  especially  if  they  have  arrived 
in  the  country  at  a  sufficiently  early  stage.  At 
Wynberg,  near  Capetown,  the  mean  temperature 
in  winter  is  55°,  in  summer  63°,  the  summer 
maximum  being  96°.  On  the  elevated  plateau  at 
Aliwal  North,  the  winter  mean  is  48-8°,  summer 
mean  67'4°,  summer  maximum  102°.  In  1891  the 
area  and  population  were  as  follows  : 

Area,  sq.  m.  Pop. 

Colony  proper 191,416  956,48.5 

Griqualand  West 15,197  83,3'75 

East  Griqualand 7,594  152,618 

Tembuland 4,122  180,415 

Transkei 2,552  153,.563 

Walflsh  Bay 430  768 


Total 221,311        1,527,224 

In  1904  the  census  (delayed  by  the  war)  showed 
579,741  whites  and  1,830,074  coloured,  a  total 
of  2,409,815.  Griqualand  West,  Pondoland  (an- 
nexed in  1894),  and  Britisli  Bechuanaland  (an- 
nexed 1895)  are  now  part  of  the  Colony  proper. 
The  natives  of  the  Cape  Colony  are  steadily  in- 
creasing.  There  are  two  main  groups  of  natives 
—the  yellow-coloured  and  oblique-eyed  Gariepine 
people  (named  from  the  Gariep  or  Orange  River) ; 
and  the  darker,  and  far  more  numerous  Bantu 
family.  The  Gariepine  family  includes  Hotten- 
tots, Korannas,  Nainaquas,  and  Bushmen.  The 
Bantus  are  subdivided  into  numerous  tribes, 
Kaffirs,  Zulus,  Basuto,  Bechuana,  Matebele, 
Mashona,  &c.  The  earliest  settlers  were  from 
various  countries  in  North  Europe,  being  the 
servants  of  the  Dutch  East  India  Company ;  to 
these  were  added  150  Huguenot  refugees  in  1688. 
In  1820  English  and  Scotch  settlers  were  placed 
by  government  on  land  in  the  Eastern  Province  ; 
and  after  the  Crimean  war  the  German  Legion  was 
settled  in  King  Williamstown  district.  The  dis- 
covery of  diamonds  caused  a  rush  to  Griqualand 
West.  The  Eastern  Province  of  the  colony  is, 
roughly  speaking,  an  English  country.  The 
western  part  is  mainly  occupied  by  Dutch- 
speaking  descendants  of  the  early  settlers. 
There  are  8000  miles  of  road  in  the  Colony 
proper.  The  railway  system  extended  in  1893 
to   2300    miles    of    government     line    (besides 


CAPE  COLONY 


154 


CAPE  HAYTI&I 


177  miles  of  private  lines),  belonging  to  three 
main  systems,  Western,  Midland,  and  Eastern. 
Capetown  is  now  connected  with  Mafeking  and 
Palapwe  in  British  Bechuanaland,  and,  by  the 
line  running  through  the  Orange  Free  State,  with 
Johannesburg  in  the  Transvaal,  which  again  will 
soon  be  connected  with  the  east  coast  at  Delagoa 
Bay.    There  are  over  5000  miles  of  telegraph  line. 

A  few  elephants  and  buffaloes  are  still  'pre- 
served '  in  the  Knysna  and  Zitzikama  forests,  but 
the  hippopotamus,  rhinoceros,  giraffe,  eland, 
quagga,  gnu,  and  other  large  game,  are,  with  the 
lion,  no  longer  to  be  seen  within  the  Cape  Colony. 
Smaller  antelopes  are  still  found,  with  baboons, 
monkeys,  wild  cats,  porcupines,  jerboas,  conies, 
ant-eaters ;  as  also  tiger-cats,  leopards,  jackals, 
and  wild  dogs.  The  variety  of  birds  is  also 
great,  and  some  are  peculiar,  such  as  the  secre- 
tJary-bird,  the  honey-bird,  the  weaver-bird,  and 
the  ostrich.  Reptiles  still  abound  ;  the  alligator 
is  chiefly  found  beyond  the  colony,  but  the 
iguana,  the  cobra  di  capello,  puff-adder,  and 
other  snakes  are  found  in  tlie  colony.  Insect  life 
is  also  abundant.  It  is  probable  that  no  single 
country  in  the  world  has  contributed  so  largely 
to  European  conservatories  and  gardens  as  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope — sending  such  handsome 
flowering  shrubs  as  the  pelargoniums,  heaths, 
proteas,  and  the  lovely  bulbous  plants  of  irideae, 
amaryllideae,  and  liliaceae. 

Tli'e  cliief  exports  from  the  colony  are  diamonds 
and  wool.  ■  Cattle  are  also  extensively  raised, 
especially  in  the  grassy  districts  of  the  Eastern 
Province.  Pneumonia,  known  as  '  lung-sickness,' 
was  introduced  from  Holland  in  1857,  and  has 
never  since  been  eradicated.  In  the  northern 
parts  of  the  colony,  and  more  especially  in  the 
countries  beyond  the  colony,  horses  are  subject 
during  the  summer  months  to  a  climatic  disease 
known  as  'the  horse-sickness."  Ostrich-feathers 
have  long  been  an  article  of  export  from  the  Cape, 
and  in  1864  ostrich-farming  was  commenced  at 
the  Cape,  and  is  now  one  of  the  leading  industries. 
Viticulture  was  introduced  by  Dutch  settlers  in 
1653,  and  developed  by  the  Huguenot  refugees. 
In  1900  there  were  about  83,000,000  vines  in  the 
Cape  Colony,  producing  nearly  5,000,000  gallons 
of  wine  and  over  1,100,000  gallons  of  brandy. 
The  climate  of  the  south-western  part  of  the 
colony  is  said  to  excel  that  of  any  other  country 
for  viticulture.  Tobacco  is  extensively  grown 
in  certain  districts.  The  climate  of  the  colony 
is  favourable  to  the  growth  of  fruit  in  great 
variety. 

Woollen  fabrics,  leather,  furniture,  and  soap  are 
produced.  Fishing  is  carried  on  in  all  the  bays 
which  indent  the  coast.  Guano  deposits  are 
found  on  the  small  islands  along  the  west  coast. 
The  diamond-fields  of  Kimberley,  and  its  huge 
mines,  have  (since  1867)  become  the  most  im- 
portant centre  of  the  industry  in  the  world.  The 
finest  South  African  diamond  is  the  '  Porter- 
Rhodes  diamond,'  found  in  1880,  and  valued  at 
£60,000.  Diamonds  are  far  the  largest  single 
item  of  export  from  the  colony,  having  nearly 
three  times  the  value  of  the  wool  exported.  Gold 
is  found  in  various  districts.  Copper  is  found 
throughout  the  district  of  Namaqualand.  Coal 
is  at  present  worked  only  in  two  or  three  spots. 
Iron  ores  are  abundant  in  several  places  ;  and 
lead,  zincblende,  manganese,  as  well  as  valuable 
stones,  such  as  garnets,  agates,  crocidolites, 
jaspers,  chalcedonies,  amethysts,  &c.,  are  found, 
as  well  as  fine  marbles  and  granite. 

From  1887  to  1902  the  revenue  of  the  colony 
rose  from  £3,352,000  to  £11,285,697  ;  the  expendi- 


ture from  £3,333,000  to  £11,950,745.  The  public 
debt  in  1903  was  over  £36,970,000.  In  the  same 
years  the  imports  varied  in  value  from  £5,771,000 
to  £34,220,500  ;  the  exports,  of  which  the  princi- 
pal items  were  diamonds  and  wool,  with  hides, 
ostricli-feathers,  angora  goats'  hair,  copper  ore, 
and  wine,  rose  in  value  from  £7,719,000  to 
£17,456,151.  The  total  value  of  diamonds  ex- 
ported from  1867  to  1902  was  £105,804,863. 

The  colonial  government  consists  of  a  gover- 
nor, nominated  by  the  crown,  whose  term 
of  office  usually  extends  to  six  years.  He  is 
assisted  by  an  executive  council,  practically 
the  ministry.  There  are  five  offices  in  the  Cape 
ministry— the  colonial  secretary,  the  treasurer 
of  the  colony,  the  attorney-general,  the  com- 
missioner of  crown-lands  and  public  works,  and 
the  secretary  for  native  affairs.  The  Lower 
House,  or  House  of  Assembly,  at  the  Cape,  con- 
sists of  ninety-five  members.  The  Upper  House, 
or  Legislative  Council,  consists  of  twenty-three 
members.  The  House  of  Assembly  is  purely 
elective  ;  in  the  Upper  House  the  single  excep- 
tion is  the  chairman  or  president  of  the  council, 
who  is  the  chief-justice  of  the  colony,  ex  officio. 
Members  of  both  Houses  receive  a  guinea  a  day 
while  the  House  is  sitting,  and,  if  residing  over 
15  miles  from  Capetown,  15s.  per  day  for  not 
more  than  90  days.  The  Cape  Colony  is  divided 
into  eighty-one  divisions  or  counties,  in  each  of 
which  there  is  a  divisional  council  elected  every 
three  years,  which  is  empowered  to  levy  rates 
and  manage  the  business  of  the  division.  The 
chairman  is  the  civil  commissioner  of  the  divi- 
sion, who  is  usually  also  the  resident  magistrate. 
The  large  towns  are  under  mayors  and  town  coun- 
cils ;  smaller  towns  have  municipal  councils ; 
and  villages  have  management  boards.  There  is 
an  appeal  from  the  colonial  courts  of  justice  to 
the  House  of  Lords.  Education  is  provided  for 
by  2438  state-aided  schools,  the  enrolled  pupils 
niunbering  over  150,000,  besides  many  private 
and  mission  schools.  The  University  of  the  Cape 
of  Good  Hope  was  founded  in  1873,  and  received 
a  royal  charter  in  1877. 

The  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese  navigator  Bartholomew  Diaz  in  1486. 
It  was  not  till  1652  that  the  Dutch  East  India 
Company  took  possession  of  Table  Bay  and 
fortified  it,  not  at  first  with  purposes  of  colonisa- 
tion, but  for  the  supply  of  the  Company's  vessels 
on  their  way  to  and  from  the  East  Indies. 
Colonisation  soon  began  ;  and  when  in  the  18th- 
century  wars  the  French  conquered  Holland,  an 
English  ffeet  was  sent  to  hold  the  Cape  for  the 
allies.  It  was  restored  to  Holland  at  the  peace 
of  Amiens  in  1801,  but  was  retaken  by  Britain  in 
1805,  after  some  fighting.  Since  1814  it  has  been 
definitively  British.  In  1825  an  executive 
council,  and  in  1835  a  legislative  council,  were 
established  ;  in  1853  a  regular  colonial  parlia- 
ment came  into  being.  Responsible  government 
was  conceded  in  1872 ;  and  the  chief  difficulties 
of  the  Cape  government  have  been,  besides  KaflSr 
wars,  the  hannoiii.siiig  of  the  interests  of  Dutch 
and  British  elements,  especially  before,  during, 
and  after  the  Transvaal  war  of  1899-1902. 

See  Theal's  History  of  South  Africa  (5  vols.  4th 
ed.  1899)  ;  and  books  by  Fronde  (1880),  Anthony 
Trollope  (1878),  Mackenzie  (1887),  Keane  (1895), 
Mockler-Ferryman  (1898),  Worsfold  (1898),  Young- 
husband  (1898),  Lucas  (1899),  Johnston  (1899),  and 
Burton  (1902). 

Cape  Haytien,  or  Le  Cap,  a  seaport  on  the 
north  coast  of  Hayti,  90  miles  N.  of  Port  au 
Prince.    Pop.  30,000. 


I 


CAPE  HORN 


165 


CAPRI 


Cape  Horn,  &c.  See  Horn  (Cape),  &c. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  popularly  regarded  as 
the  most  southerly  promontory  of  Africa,  though 
it  is  half  a  degree  N.  of  Cape  Agulhas.  This 
celebrated  promontory  is  in  34°  22'  8.  lat.,  and 
18"  29'  E.  long.,  being  the  termination  of  Table 
Mountain  (3582  feet).  On  the  north  it  forms 
Table  Bay ;  on  the  west  it  shuts  in  False  Bay 
and  Simon's  Bay.  'The  Cape'  was  actually 
reached  and  doubletl  by  the  Portuguese  Diaz, 
driven  out  of  his  reckoning  by  tempests,  in  1486 
— six  years  before  Columbus  saw  America.  The 
cape  Diaz  had  from  his  experiences  on  the  voyage 
named  'Cape  of  all  the  Storms'  John  II.  of 
Portugal  renamed  Caho  de  Buena  Esperama 
('Cape  of  Good  Hope').  But  it  was  only  in 
1497  that  Vasco  da  Gama  took  advantage  of  the 
discovery,  rounding  the  Cape  on  his  adventurous 
voyage  from  Lisbon  to  Calicut. 

Gape  River,  or  Rio  de  Segovia,  a  river  of 
Nicaragua,  flowing  nearly  300  miles  north-east- 
ward to  the  Caribbean  Sea,  and  forming  part  of 
the  boundary  with  Honduras. 

Capemalim  ('  village  of  Nahum '),  a  prosperous 
place  in  the  time  of  Christ,  identified  generally 
with  Tell  Hum,  on  the  NW.  coast  of  the  Sea  of 
Galilee,  but  by  Conder  with  Khan  Minieh,  in  the 
NE.  corner  of  the  plain  of  Gennesaret. 

Capetown,  the  capital  of  Cape  Colony,  is  situ- 
ated between  the  north  base  of  Table  Mountain 
and  Table  Bay,  in  33°  55'  S.  lat.,  18°  28'  E.  long. 
The  view  of  the  town,  alike  from  the  bay  and 
from  the  mountain,  is  most  imposing.  For  years 
the  early  history  of  Capetown  and  of  the  Cape 
Colony  were  one  and  the  same.  The  town  was 
laid  out  by  its  Dutch  founders  (1652)  with  mathe- 
matical preciseness — the  main  thoroughfares 
crossing  one  another  at  right  angles.  The  houses 
of  old  Capetown  are  mostly  flat-roofed  and 
whitewashed.  A  few  church  towers  rise  here 
and  there,  and  break  the  monotony,  with  an 
occasional  mill  chimney.  The  beautiful  govern- 
ment gardens  in  the  heart  of  Capetown  serve 
the  purposes  of  a  public  park.  There  is  a  fine 
oak  avenue,  extending  |  mile  through  the  gar- 
dens. Government  House,  on  the  left  side  of 
the  gardens,  is  a  heavy  17th-century  building, 
altered  and  added  to  from  time  to  time.  The 
gardens  are  14  acres  in  extent,  and  contain 
upwards  of  8000  varieties  of  trees  and  plants. 
rOther  edifices  are  the  handsome  Houses  of 
I  Parliament  (1885),  the  public  library  and  museum, 
Fthe  Fine  Arts  Gallery,  the  law  courts,  the  govern- 
fment  offices,  the  old  castle,  the  town-house,  the 
^Standard  Bank,  the  railway  station,  and  the 
|Conimercial  Exchange.  Tlie  old  '  stoeps,'  or  railed- 
:)ff"  verandas,  which  blocked  the  side  pavements, 
lisappeared  with  the  19th  century.  The  town  is 
veil  drained  and  paved,  has  a  good  water-supply, 
electric  tramways,  and  a  suburban  railway. 
The  earliest  conception  of  the  Europeans  in 
settling  at  the  Cape  was  to  make  it  a  place  of 
call  for  passing  vessels  belonging  to  their  own 
nation.  In  a  highei  sense,  the  Capetown  Har- 
bour Board,  in  erecting  the  breakwater  and  con- 
structing the  docks,  have  made  Table  Bay  a 
place  of  call  for  passing  vessels  of  all  nations. 
The  docks  were  opened  in  1870— the  graving- 
Idock  in  1882 ;  the  total  cost  of  the  works  ex- 
'ceeding  £2,000,000.  Pop.  (1875)  33,239,  or  with 
suburbs,  45,240  ;  (1902)  estimated  at  167,000. 

Cape  Verd,  the  most  westerly  headland  in 
Africa,  between  the  rivers  Gambia  and  Senegal, 
in  14°  53'  N.  lat.,  17°  34'  W.  long.  The  Portuguese 
discovered  it  in  1443. 


Cape  Verd  Islands  (Ilhas  do  Cabo  Verde),  a 
group  of  Portuguese  islands,  lying  350  miles  W. 
of  Cape  Verd.  They  comprise  ten  inhabited 
islands,  the  chief  being  Santiago,  Sao  Antao, 
Fogo,  Brava,  and  Sao  Nicolao.  Their  total  area 
is  about  1480  sq.  m. ;  and  since  1820  the  popula- 
tion has  increased  from  less  than  50,000  to  about 
150,000.  The  islands  are  all  very  mountainous, 
and  owe  their  origin  to  the  action  of  submarine 
volcanoes.  The  highest  peak  (9157  feet)  in  Fogo 
was  active  so  recently  as  1847.  The  climate  is 
unhealthy  during  the  rainy  season  (August  to 
October),  and  long  droughts  have  given  rise  to 
great  famines,  as  in  1730-33  and  1831-33,  which 
latter  cost  30,500  lives.  Though  water  is  de- 
ficient, vegetation  is  luxuriant,  yielding  African 
and  Southern  European  products.  Sugar,  manioc, 
yams,  maize,  coffee,  tobacco,  and  indigo  are 
grown  ;  the  woods  have  of  late  years  begun  to 
increase  ;  and  cattle-breeding  is  an  important 
industry.  Turtles  are  abundant  in  the  surround- 
ing seas ;  amber  and  archil  are  found  on  the 
coasts  ;  and  much  salt  is  still  procured  from  the 
lagoons.  The  inhabitants,  who  are  mostly 
negroes  and  mulattoes,  indolent  but  harmless, 
speak  a  bastard  Portuguese.  They  are  all  Catho- 
lics. Porto  Grande,  in  Sao  Vicente,  is  an  im- 
portant coaling  station  for  British  steamers. 
The  islands  were  discovered  in  1441-56  by  the 
Portuguese.  Slavery  was  abolished  between  1854 
and  1878.  See  Darwin's  Volcanic  Islands  (1844), 
and  Ellis's  West  African  Islands  (1885). 

Cape  Wrath  (said  to  be  from  Scand.  hvarf, 
'turning'),  a  grand  pyramidal  promontory  of 
granite  gneiss,  forming  the  north-west  extremity 
of  Scotland  and  of  Sutherland,  69  miles  NW.  of 
Lairg.  It  is  523  feet  high,  and  on  it  is  a  light- 
house (1828),  seen  27  miles  off. 

Capheaton,  Northumberland,  the  seat  of  the 
Swinburnes,  11  miles  WSW.  of  Morpeth. 

Capo  d'Istria,  a  fortified  seaport  of  Austria, 
on  a  rocky  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Trieste,  9^  miles 
SSW.  of  Trieste.  Connected  with  the  mainland 
by  a  stone  causeway,  nearly  half  a  mile  long,  it 
has  a  modern  cathedral,  and  a  Gothic  townhall 
on  the  site  of  a  Roman  temple.    Pop.  8646. 

Cappadocia,  an  ancient  district,  in  its  widest 
sense  including  the  whole  north-eastern  part  of 
Asia  Minor  from  Mount  Taurus  to  the  Euxine. 

Cappamore,  a  village  in  the  county,  and  12 
miles  SB.  of  the  town,  of  Limerick.    Pop.  766. 

Cappel,  a  village  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Zurich, 
4J  miles  N.  of  Zug.  Here  Zwingli  was  killed  in 
conflict  with  the  Catholics,  11th  October  1531. 

Cappoquin,  a  town  of  County  Waterford,  on 
the  Blackwater,  151  miles  SSW.  of  Dublin.  Pop. 
1366. 

Caprera  (Ka-pray'ra),  one  of  the  small  Buccinari 
Islands,  in  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio,  off"  the  north- 
ern extremity  of  Sardinia.  Measuring  6  by  2 
miles,  and  10^  sq.  m.  in  area,  it  is  rocky  and  bare, 
and  was  formerly  the  abode  only  of  wild  goats — 
whence  its  name  (Lat.  and  Ital.  capra,  'a  goat') — 
and  rabbits.  It  was  the  much-loved  home  of 
Garibaldi  from  1854  till  his  death  here  in  1882. 
He  was  buried  behind  his  house.  In  1885  the 
island  was  purchased  from  his  heirs  by  the  Italian 
government. 

Capri  (Kdh'pree;  anc.  Caprece),  a  charming  Medi- 
terranean island,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Bay  of 
Naples,  3|  miles  from  Cape  Campanella,  and  21  S. 
of  Naples.  Only  3J  sq.  m.  in  area,  it  yet  displays 
a  rich  variety  of  beautiful  scenery,  and  consists 
of  two  mountain  masses  1918  and  860  feet  high. 


CAPUA 


166 


CARDIFF 


On  a  shelving  rock  at  the  base  of  the  eastern  and 
lower  mountain  stands  the  town  of  Capri,  with 
walls,  gates,  and  drawbridges,  and  a  pop.  of 
1627.  Till  1876  it  communicated  with  Anacapri, 
on  the  western  tableland,  by  a  rock-hewn  flight 
of  536  steps ;  now,  however,  there  is  a  carriage- 
road  between  the  two  places.  The  coast  is  pre- 
cipitous, with  only  two  safe  landing-places,  both 
near  Capri.  The  island  was  the  scene  of  the  last 
infamous  debaucheries  of  the  Emperor  Tiberius. 
Ruins  are  still  found  of  Roman  baths,  aqueducts, 
and  villas.  The  wine  of  Capri,  both  red  and 
white,  is  well  known ;  and  delicious  quails, 
alighting  on  the  island  during  their  migra- 
tions to  and  from  Africa,  are  taken  in  nets. 
To  the  west  of  the  town  of  Capri  is  the  Grotta 
Azzurra  (Blue  Grotto),  a  remarkable  cavern,  118 
feet  long,  98  wide,  and  40  high,  but  entered  from 
the  sea  by  a  narrow  opening  not  more  than  3  feet 
high.  See  Gregorovius,  Island  of  Capri  (trans. 
Boston  1879);  Alan  Walters,  A  Lotos-Eater  in 
Capri  (1893). 

Capua,  a  fortified  city  of  Italy,  on  the  Vol- 
turno,  27  miles  N.  of  Naples  by  rail.  It  has  a 
fine  cathedral,  an  antiquarian  museum  (1874), 
and  a  tower  commemorating  the  sanguinary 
storming  of  the  city  by  Caesar  Borgia  in  1501. 
Pop.  14,291.— The  ancient  Capita,  which  for 
wealth  and  population  ranked  second  only  to 
Rome  and  Carthage,  and  in  which  Hannibal's 
men  became  enervated  (216  B.C.),  was  situated  3^ 
miles  SE.  of  the  present  city,  its  site  being 
occupied  by  the  modern  town  of  Santa  Maria  di 
Capua  Vetere.  It  was  finally  destroyed  by  the 
Saracens  in  840.  Among  its  Roman  antiquities 
is  a  well-preserved  amphitheatre,  capable  of  hold- 
ing 60,000  spectators. 

Carabo'bo,  a  state  of  Venezuela,  between  the 
Caribbean  Sea  and  the  state  of  Zamora.  Area, 
3000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  200,000.  The  capital  is 
Valencia  ;  and  the  chief  port,  Puerto  Cabello. 

Cardcas,  the  capital  of  the  republic  of  Venez- 
uela, is  situated  in  10°  31'  N.  lat.,  and  67°  5'  W. 
long.,  6  miles  (24  by  rail)  S.  of  La  Guaira,  its  port. 
Built  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Avila  (8635 
feet),  it  is  3025  feet  above  sea-level,  is  regularly 
laid  out,  and  well  supplied  with  parks  and  gar- 
dens, water  and  gas,  telephones,  newspapers, 
tramways,  and  railways.  The  most  notable 
edifices  are  the  Federal  Palaces  and  other  official 
buildings,  including  the  president's  'Yellow 
House  ;'  the  university  ;  the  Exhibition  Palace  ; 
the  cathedral ;  the  magnificent  basilica  of  St 
Ann  (£200,000) ;  and  over  a  score  of  hospitals  and 
charitable  institutions.  Population,  75,000.  The 
neighbourhood  is  subject  to  earthquakes  ;  in  that 
of  1812,  12,000  citizens  perished. 

Caramanla,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  part  of 
the  central  tableland  of  Asia  Minor,  from  the 
town  of  Karaman  (pop.  7000),  lying  at  the  north- 
ern base  of  Mount  Taurus.  It  is  mostly  in  the 
province  of  Konieh. 

Caravaca,  a  tovra  of  Spain,  40  miles  NNW.  of 
Murcia.     Pop.  15,994. 

Caravaggio  (Karavad'jo),  a  town  of  north  Italy, 
19  miles  SSB.  of  Bergamo  by  rail.  It  has  a 
famous  church,  to  which  pilgrimages  are  made, 
and  was  the  birthplace  of  three  painters,  all 
surnamed  Caravaggio.     Pop.  6089. ; 

Caravellas,  a  Brazilian  port,  475  miles  NE.  of 
Rio  de  Janeiro,  on  the  Caravellas,  5  miles  from 
its  mouth.    Pop.  4000. 

Carberry,  a  hill  3  miles  SE.  of  Musselburgh, 
where  Queen  Mary  surrendered  (1567). 


Carbondale,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Lackawanna  River,  16  miles  NNE.  of  Scranton 
by  rail,  with  foundries  and  planing-mills,  and 
rich  beds  of  anthracite  coal.  Pop.  (1880)  7714 : 
(1900)  13,536. 

Carcagen'te,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Jucar, 
25  miles  SSW.  of  Valencia  by  rail.     Pop.  12,521. 

Carcassonne  (the  Carcaso  of  Caisar),  a  town 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Aude,  on  the  river 
Aude,  and  the  Canal  du  Midi,  56  miles  SE.  of 
Toulouse  by  rail.  The  river,  here  spanned  by 
two  bridges  of  1184  and  1846  feet,  divides  it  into 
the  old  and  the  new  town  ;  the  former,  built  on  a 
height,  is  much  more  picturesque,  its  ramparts 
and  towers  dating  partly  from  the  time  of  the 
Visigoths,  and  partly,  like  the  many-towered 
castle,  from  the  11th  or  13th  century.  In  1210 
this  old  town  suff'ered  greatly  at  the  hands  of 
Simon  de  Montfort,  who  here  burned  400  Albi- 
genses.  In  1356  it  eff'ectually  resisted  the  Black 
Prince.  Cloth-making  is  the  staple  industry ; 
there  are  also  manufactures  of  paper,  leather,  and 
soap.  Pop.  (1872)  20,808;  (1901)  28,35L  See 
works  by  VioUet  le  Due  (1858)  and  Boyer  (1884). 

Car'chemis1i(mod.  JeraUus),  an  ancient  city  on 
the  Upper  Euphrates,  NE.  of  the  modern  Aleppo, 
was  long  the  northern  capital  of  the  Hittites. 

Car'denas,  a  seaport  of  Cuba,  on  the  north 
coast,  75  miles  E.  of  Havana,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  rail.     Pop.  22,000. 

Cardiff  (Caer-Ta/,  'fort  of  the  Taff'),  a  muni- 
cipal, parliamentary,  and  county  borough  and 
seaport,  the  county  town  of  Glamorganshire, 
South  Wales,  on  the  river  Taff",  a  new  bridge  over 
which  was  opened  in  1890  by  the  Duke  of 
Clarence,  56  miles  SW.  of  Gloucester,  and  170  W. 
of  London.  Its  progress  in  recent  years  is  the 
most  remarkable,  the  population  rising  from 
2000  in  1801  to  10,077  in  1841,  82,761  in  1881,  and 
164,420  in  1901.  Since  1905  the  mayor  is  called 
Lord  Mayor.  An  ancient  municipal  borough,  with 
Cowbridge  and  Llantrissant,  it  returns  one  mem- 
ber to  parliament.  Aniong  the  public  buildings 
are  the  infirmary,  town-hall,  free  library  and 
museum,  jail,  law-courts,  county  buildings,  the 
university  college  for  South  Wales  (1883),  the 
Roman  Catholic  pro-Cathedral,  baths,  a  theatre, 
and  numerous  halls.     There  is  a  public  park. 

The  port  of  Cardiff"  is  the  outlet  for  the  large 
mineral  and  manufactured  produce  of  the  central 
portion  of  the  South  Wales  mineral-field,  in 
which  are  the  populous  districts  of  Merthyr- 
Tydvil,  Rhymney,  Aberdare,  and  the  Rhondda 
Valley.  The  town  is  also  one  of  the  chief  stations 
on  the  Great  Western  line  from  London  to 
Milford-Haven.  The  Bute  Docks,  with  an  area  of 
150  acres,  constructed  at  the  expense  of  the  Bute 
estate,  have  cost  nearly  four  millions  sterling, 
and  belong  to  the  Marquis  of  Bute.  There  is 
also  a  tidal  harbour,  with  a  low- water  pier  1400 
feet  in  length.  The  imports  to  Cardiff'  include 
copper  ore,  live  cattle,  salted  provisions,  foreign 
fruit  and  vegetables,  corn  and  flour,  &c.  The 
Penarth  Docks,  about  one  mile  to  the  westward, 
form  another  outlet  for  the  trade  of  the  district. 
The  Barry  Dock  (1888),  of  nearly  80  acres,  adds 
enormously  to  the  shipping  facilities  of  Cardiff". 
Steamers  ply  between  the  port  of  Cardiff  and 
New  York,  London,  Liverpool,  Glasgow,  Bristol, 
Cork,  Whitehaven,  and  Burnham.  The  growth 
of  Cardiff"  began  with  the  opening  of  the  canal 
from  Merthyr-Tydvil  to  the  sea  (1794) ;  the  first 
dock  was  opened  only  in  1839 ;  the  second  or 
East  dock  dates  from  1854.  The  corporation, 
which   has    spent   £500,000    in    improving    tlifl 


CARDIGAN 


157 


CARLISLE 


streets,  in  1879  acquired  the  water-works,  and 
ill  1888  secured  a  new  supply  from  the  Breck- 
nockshire Beacons,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  £600,000. 

The  ancient  city  of  Llandaff'(q.v.),  now  a  mere 
village,  is  almost  connected  with  Cardiff.  Cardiff 
Castle  (1110)  is  partly  now  in  ruins,  and  partly 
occupied  by  the  Marquis  of  Bute,  who  has  spent 
large  sums  in  rebuilding  it,  and  to  whom  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  modern  town  belongs.  Robert, 
Duke  of  Normandy,  died  in  the  castle,  after 
twenty-eight  years'  captivity ;  and  Cromwell 
(1648)  got  possession  of  it  through  treachery. 

Cardigan  (anc.  Aberteifi;  then  Ceredigion — 
pron.  Ker-e-dee'gi-on,  g  hard),  a  county  town, 
municipal  borough,  and  seaport  on  the  Telfi, 
3  miles  from  its  mouth,  and  117  miles  NW.  of 
Cardiff  by  rail.  Pop.  (1851)  3876 ;  (1901)  3511. 
With  Aberystwith,  &c.,  it  till  1885  returned  one 
member  to  parliament.  Remains  of  a  castle 
(1160)  crown  a  low  cliff  on  the  Teifi.  The  town 
suffered  much  in  the  struggles  between  the  Welsh 
and  the  Normans.  The  Teifi  is  said  to  have  been 
the  last  British  resort  of  the  beaver. 

Cardigan  Bay,  a  semicircular  bend  of  St 
George's  Channel,  on  the  west  coast  of  Wales,  54 
miles  wide  from  north  to  south,  and  35  miles 
deep,  with  a  sweep  of  coast  of  130  miles.  It  has 
3  to  30  fathoms  water,  with  three  reefs. 

Cardiganshire,  a  maritime  county  in  South 
Wales,  on  Cardigan  Bay,  with  a  crescent-shaped 
coast-line  of  48  miles,  a  maximum  width  of  32 
miles,  and  an  area  of  693  sq.  m.  On  the  Mont- 
gomeryshire border  is  Plinlimmon  (2469  feet) ; 
and  a  rugged,  bleak  range  of  hills  runs  through 
the  middle  of  the  county  from  the  south-west  to 
the  north-east,  between  the  coast  and  the  Teifi ; 
but  on  other  parts  there  are  rich  flat  tracts. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Teifi,  Aeron,  Claerwen, 
Ystwith,  and  Rheidol.  The  'sweet  shire  of 
Cardigan'  contains  some  romantic  waterfalls, 
especially  the  Rheidol  Falls  and  the  Devil's 
Bridge,  and  above  twenty  small  lakes  or  llyns, 
noted  for  their  wild  beauty.  Rich  veins  of 
copper,  lead,  zinc,  and  silver  occur.  Cardigan- 
shire is  an  agricultural  county,  62  per  cent,  of  its 
total  area  being  cultivated ;  and  the  rearing  of 
live-stock  is  a  leading  industry.  There  are  some 
manufactures  of  coarse  woollens  and  gloves, 
stockings  and  hats.  Cardigan  is  the  county  town  ; 
other  towns  being  Aberystwith,  Lampeter, 
Adpar,  Aberayron,  Tregaron.  Cardiganshire 
returns  one  member.  Pop.  (1801)  42,956  ;  (1841) 
68,766;  (1861)  72,245;  (1901)  60,237.  The  an- 
tiquities include  many  prehistoric,  British,  and 
Roman  remains,  and  the  ruined  abbey  of  Strata 
Florida  (1164),  16  miles  SB.  of  Aberystwith. 
The  women  still  wear  the  Welsh  costume.  In 
1843-44  Cardiganshire  was  disturbed  by  the 
Rebecca  riots.  See  Meyrick's  History  of  Car- 
digansliire  (1810). 

Cardona,  a  town  of  Spain,  44  miles  NW.  of 
Barcelona,  on  the  Cardoner,  and  close  to  a  cele- 
brated mountain  of  salt.    Pop.  4691. 

Cardross,  a  village  of  Dumbartonshire,  on  the 
Firth  of  Clyde,  3^  miles  WNW.  of  Dumbarton. 
Bruce  died  at  Cardross  Castle  (1329),  which  stood 
between  the  village  and  Dumbarton.     Pop.  651. 

Carelia.     See  Karelia. 

Carhan  House.    See  Cahirsiveen. 

Caribbean  Sea,  lying  between  the  Antilles 
and  the  South  and  Central  American  mainland, 
and  communicating  with  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  by 
the  Yucatan  Channel,  120  miles  wide. 

Cariboo,  a  district  and  gold-field  in  British 


Columbia,    in  the    great   bend  of   the   Eraser 
River. 

Carlgnano  (Karinyah'no),  a  town  of  Piedmont, 
on  the  Po,  11  miles  S.  of  Turin.     Pop.  4270. 

Carimat'a,  a  name  applied  to  the  strait  between 
Borneo  and  Billiton  ;  also  to  a  cluster  of  a  hun- 
dred islets  and  reefs  (area,  57  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  500)  in 
that  strait ;  and  lastly,  to  the  principal  member 
of  the  group  (highest  point  2600  feet  high). 

Carini  (Karee'nee),  a  town  of  Sicily,  12  miles 
W.  by  N.  of  Palermo.     Pop.  11,667. 

Carinthia  (Ger.  Kdrnthen),  a  crown-land  of  the 
Austrian  empire,  forming  part  of  the  old  king- 
dom of  lUyria,  with  an  area  of  4005  sq.  m.,  and  a 
pop.  of  (1869)  337,694  ;  (1900)  367,344.  The  prin- 
cipal river  is  the  Drave  ;  and  the  loftiest  point  is 
the  Grossglockner  (12,450  feet),  the  general  aspect 
of  the  country  being  mountainous.  Only  15  per 
cent,  of  the  area  is  devoted  to  tillage.  Horseg 
and  cattle  are  reai-ed  and  exported.  The  principal 
products  are  mineral.  Klagenfurt  is  the  capital 
of  Carinthia,  which  came  into  the  possession  of 
Austria  in  1335.  Only  30  per  cent,  of  the  popu- 
lation are  Slavs  (Slovenians),  the  remainder  being 
Germans  ;  and  but  5  per  cent,  are  Protestants. 

Carisbrooke,  a  village  in  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
1  mile  SW.  of  Newport.  In  its  ruined  castle 
Charles  I.  was  imprisoned  (1647-48),  as  were  also 
his  children  Prince  Henry  and  the  Princess  Eliza- 
beth, the  latter  of  whom  died  here.  From  the 
castle  well,  200  feet  deep,  the  water  is  drawn  by 
a  donkey  inside  a  wheel. 

Carlaverock.    See  Caerlaveeock. 

Carlingford,  a  seaport  of  County  Louth,  69 
miles  N.  of  Dublin.  Close  by  rises  Carlingford 
Mountain  (1935  feet).  Carlingford  Lough  is  10 
miles  long,  and  2  wide.     Pop.  600. 

Carlisle,  the  county  town  of  Cumberland, 
stands  on  a  gentle  eminence  in  a  wide-spreading 
plain,  at  the  influx  of  the  Caldew  and  Petteril  to 
the  Eden— three  streams  that  nearly  encircle  it. 
It  is  299  miles  NNW.  of  London,  101  miles  S.  of 
Edinburgh,  22^  E.  by  N.  of  its  seaport,  Silloth, 
and  66  W.  by  S.  of  Newcastle.  In  spite  of  its 
hoar  antiquity,  'merry'  Carlisle  as  a  whole  is 
disappointingly  modern,  its  gates  having  van- 
ished, and  almost  the  whole  of  the  walls.  The 
castle  was  founded  in  1092,  and  now  serves  as  a 
barrack.  The  remains  of  its  Norman  keep  form 
a  massive  tower ;  but  the  part  in  which  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  was  imprisoned  (1568)  was  demol- 
ished in  1835.  The  cathedral,  ranging  in  date 
between  1092  and  1419,  comprises  every  variety 
of  style  from  Norman  to  Perpendicular.  The 
fragment  of  the  Norman  nave,  long  used  as  a 
parish  church,  is  cut  off"  from  the  choir,  which, 
mainly  Decorated  in  style,  is  one  of  the  finest 
choirs  in  England,  the  exquisite  tracery  of  its 
nine-light  east  window  being  of  matchless  beauty. 
There  are  monuments  and  other  memorials  to 
Paley,  Dean  Close,  and  Archbishop  Tait's  five 
children  ;  and  in  Carlisle  Cathedral  Scott  married 
Miss  Carpenter  (1797).  The  Eden,  which  has 
salmon  fisheries,  is  crossed  by  a  handsome  five-arch 
bridge  (1851).  The  manufactures  include  cotton, 
calico,  hats,  iron,  and  fancy  biscuits;  but  the 
prosperity  of  the  place  mainly  depends  on  its 
being  a  great  railway  centre.  An  ancient 
municipal  borough,  Carlisle  since  1885  has  re- 
turned only  one  member.  Pop.  (1801)  10,221 ; 
(1851)  26,310  ;  (1901)  45,478.  The  Liiguvalhcm  of 
the  Romans,  and  Caer-Luel  (hence  Carlisle)  of  the 
Britons,  the  town  was  destroyed  by  the  Danes 
in  875,  and  restored  by  William  Rufus  in  1092. 


CARLISLE 


158 


CARMARTHENSHIRE 


From  its  position  as  a  Border  fortress,  it  has  a 
wealth  of  martial  memories— none  more  famous 
than  the  rescue  of '  Kinmont  Willie '  by  Buccleuch 
from  Carlisle  Castle  in  1596.  During  the  Great 
Rebellion  it  twice  surrendered  to  the  Parliamen- 
tarians (1645-4S) ;  and  in  the  '45  it  was  held  by 
the  Jacobites,  thirty-one  of  whom  were  after- 
wards executed  on  Harraby  Hill.  See  works  by 
M.  Creighton  (1889)  and  R.  S.  Ferguson  (1890). 

Carlisle,  capital  of  Cumberland  county,  Perm- 
sylvania,  19  miles  WSW.  of  Harrisburg  by  rail. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Dickinson  College  (Methodist), 
and  has  United  States  barracks,  machine-shops, 
a  foundry,  and  manufectures  of  railway  cars, 
carpets,  window  sashes,  carriages,  and  shoes.  It 
was  shelled  by  the  Confederates,  July  1,  1863. 
Pop.  9620. 

Carlo'vltz  (in  England,  however,  usually  Car'- 
lovitz),  a  town  of  the  Austrian  empire,  in  Sla- 
vonia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  30  miles 
NW.  of  Belgrade.  It  has  a  Greek  cathedral,  and 
is  noted  for  its  red  wine.     Pop.  4916. 

Carlow,  a  small  inland  county  of  Leinster, 
Ireland,  with  an  area  of  346  sq.  m.  Except  for 
Mount  Leinster  (2610  feet),  on  the  south-east 
border,  it  is  a  triangular  fertile  level,  or  gently 
undulating  plain,  between  the  Wicklow  and 
Wexford  range  of  hills  on  the  east,  and  the 
highlands  beyond  the  Barrow  on  the  west.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Barrow  and  Slaney.  On  the 
west  side  of  the  county  begins  the  great  coal 
district  of  Leinster.  Barely  one-third  of  the 
entire  area  is  under  oats,  wheat,  potatoes,  and 
other  crops.  There  are  many  dairies  on  the 
plains.  Along  the  Barrow,  which  falls  more 
than  a  foot  per  mile,  are  many  large  corn-mills. 
Pop.  (1841)  86,228  ;  (1871)  51,472 ;  (1901)  37,748, 
of  whom  36,139  were  Catholics.  Since  1885  the 
county  has  returned  but  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment. The  chief  towns  are  Carlow,  Bagenals- 
town,  and  Tullow. 

Carlow,  the  county  town,  stands  at  the  influx 
of  the  Burren  to  the  Barrow,  56  miles  SW.  of 
Dublin  by  rail.  It  has  a  Catholic  cathedral, 
remains  of  De  Lacy's  castle  (1180),  the  county 
court-house,  extensive  flour-mills,  and  is  the 
emporium  for  the  agricultural  produce  of  the 
district.  Till  1885  it  returned  a  member.  Pop. 
(1851)  9121 ;  (1901)  6513. 

Carlsbad,  a  town  in  Bohemia,  on  the  Tepl, 
near  its  influx  to  the  Bger,  116  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Prague  by  rail.  It  is  widely  celebrated  for  its 
hot  mineral  springs  (117°  to  167°  F.),  and  is  fre- 
quented during  the  season  (April  to  October)  by 
30,000  visitors  from  all  parts  of  Europe,  many 
of  high  social  standing.  Set  in  most  lovely 
scenery,  the  town  is  well  built,  and  appears  to 
stand  on  a  vast  caldron  of  boiling  water,  which 
is  kept  from  bursting  only  by  the  safety-valves 
the  springs  provide.  Joseph  I.  made  Carlsbad 
a  free  town.  Pop.  14,579.  See  works  by  Kraus 
(Lond,  new  ed.  1888)  and  Merrylees  (1886). 

Carlsburg.    See  Karlsburg. 

Carlshamn,  a  fortified  seaport  on  the  south 
coast  of  Sweden,  30  miles  W.  of  Carlskrona. 
Pop.  6529. 

Carlskrona,  the  capital  of  a  Swedish  province, 
is  built  on  Ave  rocky  Islets  in  the  Baltic,  240 
miles  (by  rail  350)  SSW.  of  Stockholm.  It  was 
founded  in  1680  by  Charles  XI.,  who  made  it  the 
great  naval  station  of  Sweden,  instead  of  Stock- 
holm. It  has  a  magnificent  harbour.  Pop.  (1875) 
16,877 ;  (1900)  23,955. 

Carlsrulie  {Karls-roo'eh),  cap.  of  Baden,  is  5  m. 


E.  of  the  Rhine,  and  39  WNW.  of  Stuttgart,  34 
SSW.  of  Heidelberg.  Founded  in  1715,  and  built 
in  the  form  of  a  fan,  with  thirty-two  streets 
radiating  from  the  palace,  it  has  many  fine  build- 
ings—the palace  itself  (1776),  parliament-house 
(1845),  theatre  (1853),  town-hall  (1821),  and 
museum  (1852),  with  the  ducal  library  of  150,000 
vols.  Before  the  palace  stands  a  bronze  statue 
of  the  city's  founder,  the  Margrave  Charles 
William ;  and  in  the  market-place  is  a  stone 
pyramid  enclosing  his  remains.  The  manu- 
factures include  engines,  railway  carriages, 
jewellery,  carpets,  chemicals,  and  cloth.  Pop. 
(1875)  42,895  ;  (190U)  97,164. 

Carlstad,  a  Swedish  town  on  the  Tingvalla 
island,  near  the  east  shore  of  Lake  Wener,  205 
miles  WSW.  of  Stockholm  by  rail.  Greatly  im- 
proved since  the  fire  of  1865,  it  has  a  cathedral 
and  two  bridges  connecting  it  with  the  mainland. 
Pop.  12,000. 

Carlstadt,  a  fortified  town  of  Croatia,  Austro- 
Hungary,  32  miles  SW.  of  Agram  by  rail.  Pop. 
7824.— Carlstadt,  in  Bavaria,  on  the  Maine,  15 
miles  NNW.  of  Wurzburg.     Pop.  3320. 

Carlton,  a  town  of  Notts,  3J  miles  ENE.  of 
Nottingham.    Pop.  (1861)  2559  ;  (1901)  10,041. 

Carluke,  a  mining  town  of  Lanarkshire,  2\ 
miles  E.  of  the  Clyde,  and  19i  SE.  of  Glasgow  by 
rail.  General  Roy,  the  antiquary,  was  a  native. 
Pop.  4716. 

Carmagnola,  a  town  of  North  Italy,  18  miles 
S.  of  Turin  by  rail.    Pop.  3730. 

Carmania,  the  old  name  of  Kerman  (q.v.). 

Cannarthen  (Welsh  Caer  Fyrddyn,  the  Mari- 
dunum  of  Ptolemy),  the  capital  of  Carmarthen- 
shire, on  the  navigable  Towy,  9  miles  from  Car- 
marthen Bay,  and  39  NW.  of  Swansea.  Steele  is 
buried  in  the  old  parish  church  ;  a  ruined  castle 
of  the  Welsh  princes  was  in  1787  incorporated  in 
a  new  county  jail ;  and  Generals  Picton  and 
Nott,  both  natives,  are  commemorated  by  an 
obelisk  and  a  bronze  statue.  Near  the  town  are 
tin  and  iron  works ;  and  Carmarthen  exports  tin- 
plates,  slates,  domestic  produce,  &c.  It  unites 
with  Llanelly  in  returning  one  member.  Pop. 
(1851)  10,524  ;  (1901)  10,025. 

Carmarthenshire,  a  maritime  county  of  South 
Wales,  washed  on  the  south  by  Carmarthen  Bay, 
a  semicircular  inlet  of  the  Bristol  Channel,  and 
bounded  on  the  other  sides  by  Pembroke,  Cardi- 
gan, Brecknock,  and  Glamorgan  shires.  The 
largest  of  all  the  Welsh  counties,  it  has  a  maxi- 
mum length  and  breadth  of  45^  and  26  miles,  and 
an  area  of  947  sq.  m.,  of  which  70-8  per  cent,  is 
under  cultivation.  The  county  is  mountainous 
in  the  north  and  east,  Carmarthen  Van  or  Beacon 
(2596  feet)  being  the  highest  summit.  The  coast 
is  marshy  ;  the  chief  river  is  the  Towy,  which  has 
a  course  of  65  miles,  five-sixths  in  Carmarthen- 
shire, and  yields  plenty  of  salmon,  trout,  eels, 
and  lamprey.  On  this  river  is  the  celebrated 
vale  of  the  Towy,  30  miles  long,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  2  miles.  The  mineral  productions  of 
the  county  are  iron,  coal,  copper,  lead,  slates, 
lime,  dark-blue  marble.  These,  with  tinned  iron, 
grain,  cattle,  horses,  sheep,  and  butter,  are 
exported.  The  principal  towns  are  Carmarthen, 
Llanelly,  Llandilo-vawr,  Llandovery,  and  New- 
castle-Emlyn.  The  chief  manufactures  are 
woollens  and  leather.  Pop.  (1801)  67,317  ;  (1841) 
106,326  ;  (1901)  135,328,  largely  Welsh-speaking. 
Carmarthenshire  returns  two  members.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  the  '  Rebecca '  Riots  (1843-44) 
against  turnpike-gates. 


CARMAUX 


169 


CARPATHIAN  MOUNTAINS 


Oarmaux,  a  French  town  and  great  coal-mining 
centre  in  the  department  of  Tarn,  10  miles  N,  of 
Albi.  Pop.  (1901)  10,950.  There  have  been  great 
strikes  here. 

Carmel  (Mar  Elyas,  'Saint  Elijah'),  a  richly 
wooded  limestone-ridge  (1S87  feet)  which  runs 
from  SE.  to  N\V.  for  14  miles,  forming  the  only 
great  promontory  on  the  low  coast  of  Palestine. 

Carmo'na,  an  ancient  town  of  Andalusia,  Spain, 
27  miles  ENE.  of  Seville  by  rail.     Pop.  18,861. 

Carnac,  a  village  in  the  French  dep.  of  Mor- 
bihan,  20  miles  SE.  of  Lorient.  It  is  remarkable 
for  the  number  and  variety  of  the  Celtic  monu- 
ments and  Gallo-Roman  ruins,  consisting  of 
menhirs,  dolmens,  and  tumuli,  with  which  the 
neighbourhood  is  studded.  The  principal  group 
of  menhirs  is  situated  on  a  sterile  moor  near  the 
seashore,  and  consists  of  1000  or  more  rude 
monoliths  of  granite,  rising,  many  of  them,  to  a 
height  of  18  feet,  though  a  large  proportion  do 
not  exceed  3  feet.  They  are  arranged  in  eleven 
roughly  parallel  rows,  with  two  slight  breaks, 
extend  from  east  to  west  about  IJ  mile  in  length, 
and  have  at  one  end  a  curved  row  of  18  stones, 
the  extremities  of  which  touch  the  outer  hori- 
zontal rows.  See  Miln's  Excavations  at  Carnac 
(2  vols.  1877-81). 

Carnarvon  (Caer-yn-ar-Fon, '  fort  opposite  Mon, 
or  Anglesey'),  the  capital  of  Carnarvonshire, 
stands  near  the  south  end  of  the  Menai  Strait, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Seiont,  69  miles  W.  of 
Chester.  Carnarvon  Castle,  the  building  of  which 
was  commenced  by  Edward  I.  in  1283,  is  one  of 
the  noblest  ruins  in  the  kingdom,  the  walls,  7  to 
9  feet  thick,  being  still  entire,  and  enclosing  an 
oblong  of  three  acres.  The  gateway  under  the 
great  square  tower  has  four  portcullises.  The 
city  walls,  with  several  of  the  gates,  still  exist, 
but  are  now  within  the  town.  A  municipal 
borough,  Carnarvon  unites  with  Pwllheli,  Nevin, 
Criccieth,  Conway,  and  Bangor  to  return  one 
member  to  parliament.  The  harbour  admits 
ships  of  400  tons.  The  chief  exports  are  slates, 
stones,  and  ores.  There  are  also  iron  and  brass 
foundries.  Carnarvon  is  a  bathing-place,  and  is 
much  frequented  by  tourists.  Pop.  (1851)  8674 ; 
(1901)  9760.  Half  a  mile  from  Carnarvon  are  the 
remains,  covering  seven  acres,  of  Segontium,  or 
Caer  Seiont,  a  Roman  station  or  city.  There  is  a 
Roman  fort  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Seiont,  still 
almost  complete,  with  walls  11  feet  high  and  6 
feet  thick.  Carnarvon  was  the  seat  of  the  native 
princes  of  North  Wales  down  to  873.  In  1284 
was  born  here  the  first  Anglo-Norman  Prince  of 
Wales,  afterwards  the  unhappy  Edward  II. 

Carnarvonshire,  a  maritime  county  of  North 
Wales,  bounded  E.  and  SE.  by  Denbigh  and 
Merioneth  shires,  and  on  all  other  sides  by  the 
Irish  Sea  and  the  Menai  Strait.  With  a  maximum 
length  and  breadth  of  34  and  23  miles,  it  has  an 
area  of  379  sq.  m.,  of  which  50-7  per  cent,  is  under 
cultivation.  The  surface  is  grandly  mountainous, 
attaining  a  maximum  altitude  in  Snowdon  (3571 
feet),  in  the  centre  of  the  county,  the  loftiest 
summit  south  of  the  Scottish  Border.  Carnar- 
von Bay  is  34  miles  across,  and  16  deep  ;  it  com- 
municates with  the  Irish  Sea  through  the  Menai 
Strait,  which  is  14  miles  long,  and  200  yards  to  2 
miles  broad.  The  rivers  of  Carnarvon  are  numer- 
ous, but  small.  The  chief  is  the  Conway,  which 
is  navigable  for  10  miles,  and  runs  along  the  east 
border.  Almost  all  the  streams  flow  through 
small  lakes  or  tarns— of  which  there  are  50  or  60 
in  the  county— around  the  central  or  Snowdon 
group   of    mountains.     There    are    many   fine 


cataracts  on  these  streams.  The  mineral  pro- 
ducts include  copper,  lead,  zinc,  coal,  roofing 
and  writing  slates;  the  Penrhyn  slate-quarries 
employing  many  thousands  of  workmen.  The 
chief  towns  are  Carnarvon,  Bangor,  Pwllheli, 
Conway,  Nevin,  and  Criccieth;  besides  which 
boroughs,  several  flourishing  towns  and  tourist 
centres  have  come  into  prominence— Llandudno, 
Tremadoc,  Bethesda,  Bettws-y-Coed,  Llanberis, 
and  Beddgelert.  The  county  returns  two  mem- 
bers. Pop.  (1801)  41,521  ;  (1881)  119,349 :  (1891) 
118,204  ;  (1901)  126,883. 

Carnat'lc,  a  region  extending  600  miles  along 
the  east  or  Coromandel  coast  of  India,  now 
included  in  the  province  of  Madras. 

Carndonagh  (Kamdo'na),  a  town  of  Donegal, 
20  miles  N.  of  Londonderry.     Pop.  765. 

Carniola  (Ger.  Krain),  a  south-west  crown- 
land  of  the  Austrian  empire,  united  thereto 
since,  has  an  area  of  3856  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop  of 
510,000,  of  whom  35,000  are  Germans  and  18,*000 
Croats,  the  rest  being  Slavs  of  the  Slovenian 
branch.  It  is  traversed  in  the  north  by  a  con- 
tinuation of  the  Carinthian  Alps,  and  in  the 
south  by  the  Julian  Alps,  the  loftiest  summit 
being  the  Terglou  (9393  feet),  between  the  two 
sources  of  the  Save,  which  is  the  principal  river. 
The  chief  minerals  are  iron,  quicksilver,  and 
brown  coal ;  the  quicksilver  mines  of  Idria  are, 
next  to  Alinaden,  the  most  important  in  Europe. 
Laibach  is  the  capital. 

Camlough,  an  Antrim  fishing-village,  6  miles 
SE.  of  Cushendall  Station.     Pop.  592. 

Carnoustie  (Karnoos'tie),  a  coast-town  of  For- 
farshire, 11  miles  ENE.  of  Dundee.  It  has  fine 
golf-links.    Pop.  5204. 

Carolina.    See  North  and  South  Carolina. 

Caroline  Islands,  a  group  in  the  Western 
Pacific,  lying  between  the  Marshall  and  Pelew 
islands,  with  an  area  of  about  270  sq.  m.,  and  a 
pop.  of  some  36,000 ;  but  the  Pelew  (q.v.)  group 
is  generally  included  in  the  Caroline  Archipelago 
(area,  560  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  36,000),  which  thus 
stretches  across  32  degrees  of  longitude  and  9  of 
latitude.  There  are  some  500  small  atolls  in  the 
archipelago,  but  three-fourths  of  both  area  and 
population  are  included  in  the  five  volcanic 
islands  of  Babelthouap,  Yap,  Rouk,  Ponap6 
(Ascension),  and  Kusari  (Strong  Island).  The 
climate  is  moist,  but  not  unhealthy,  and  is  tem- 
pered by  cooling  breezes.  The  people  are  strongly 
built,  gentle,  amiable,  and  intelligent ;  they  are 
bold  sailors,  and  carry  on  a  brisk  trade  with  the 
Ladrones  to  the  north,  where  they  have  several 
settlements.  Copra  is  largely  exported.  The 
islands  were  discovered  in  1527  by  the  Portu- 
guese, and  called  Sequeira ;  in  1686  they  were 
annexed  and  rechristened  in  honour  of  Charles 
II.  by  the  Spaniards,  who,  however,  shortly 
changed  the  name  to  New  Philippines.  In  1885 
the  hoisting  of  the  German  flag  on  Yap  gave 
rise  to  a  sharp  dispute  with  Spain,  which  was 
submitted  to  the  arbitration  of  the  pope,  who 
decided  in  favour  of  Spain.  But  in  1899  the 
islands  were  ceded  to  Germany,  Spain  retaining 
a  coaling-station. — A  British  Caroline  island  near 
the  Marquesas  is  only  2  sq.  m.  in  area. 

Carouge  (Karoozh'),  a  Swiss  town  1|  mile  S. 
of  the  city  of  Geneva.     Pop.  5889. 

Carpathian  Mountains,  an  Austro-Hungarian 
range,  the  second  great  range  of  Central  Europe, 
extend  880  miles  in  a  great  semicircle  from 
Presburg  on  the  Danube  to  Orsova  on  the  same 
river.    Negoi,  the  culminating  peak,  has  an  eleva- 


CARPENTARIA 


160 


CARTHAGE 


tion  of  8517  feet.  The  range  is  generally  clothed 
with  wood  to  a  height  of  more  than  4000  feet, 
and  with  steep  precipices,  narrow  ravines,  ex- 
tinct craters,  and  cones  of  volcanic  origin, 
exhibits  scenes  of  grandeur  rarely  exceeded.  See 
works  by  Crosse  (1878)  and  Muriel  Dowie  (1891). 

Carpentaria,  Gulf  of,  a  great  indentation  of 
the  north  coast  of  Australia,  said  to  derive  its 
name  from  the  river  Carpentier,  so  named  by 
Carstensz  in  1623,  in  honour  of  Pieter  Carpentier, 
governor-general  of  the  Dutch  Indies.  It  con- 
tains many  islands.  To  the  east  (where  it  is 
bounded  by  Cape  York  Peninsula),  south,  and 
west  are  Queensland  and  the  northern  territory 
of  South  Australia.  On  the  east  it  receives 
the  Mitchell  and  Van  Dienien  rivers ;  at  the 
south  the  Flinders,  Leichhardt,  and  Albert ;  and 
on  the  west  the  Roper. 

Carpentras  (Karpon^trass'),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Vaucluse,  on  the  Auzon,  17  miles 
NE.  of  Avignon  by  rail.  It  has  a  Roman  trium- 
phal arch,  a  cathedral  (1405),  the  stately  Porte 
d'Orange  of  the  14th  century,  a  massive  aqueduct 
(1734),  and  manufactures  of  cottons,  woollens, 
he.    It  was  the  ancient  Carpentoracte.    Pop.  7794. 

Carpi  (Kar'pee),  (1)  a  cathedral  city  of  north 
Italy,  10  miles  N.  of  Modena  by  rail.  Pop.  5987. 
— (2)  A  village  28  miles  SB.  of  "Verona,  where 
Prince  Eugene  defeated  the  French  in  1701. 

Carrara  (Kar-rdh'ra),  a  town  of  north  Italy,  on 
the  Avenza,  near  its  mouth  in  the  Mediterranean, 
30  miles  NW.  of  Leghorn  by  rail.  It  is  surrounded 
by  the  marble  hills  (part  of  the  Apennine  system) 
in  which  are  some  400  marble-quarries,  though 
very  few  furnish  the  marble  used  for  statuary. 
Pop.  26,300.    See  the  Century  Magazine  for  1882. 

Carrick,  the  southern  division  of  Ayrshire 
(q.v.).    The  Prince  of  Wales  is  Earl  of  Carrick. 

Carrickfergus,  a  seaport  on  the  north  side  of 
Belfast  Lough,  and  the  south-east  border  of 
County  Antrim,  9^  miles  N.  of  Belfast,  and  12 
miles  S.  of  Lame  by  raiL  Its  picturesque  castle- 
keep  (90  feet),  supposed  to  have  been  erected  by 
De  Courcy  in  the  12th  century,  stands  on  a 
headland  30  feet  high.  But  one  gateway  now 
remains  of  the  ancient  city  walls.  Here  William 
III.  landed  before  the  battle  of  the  Boyne,  and 
here  Thurot  made  an  abortive  landing  in  1760. 
Flax-spinning  is  carried  on,  and  there  is  an  oyster- 
fishery.  Till  1885  Carrickfergus  was  a  parlia- 
mentary borough.    Pop.  (1851)  8488  ;  (1901)  4208. 

Carrickmacross,  a  Monaghan  market-town,  61 
miles  NW.  of  Dublin.    Pop.  1879. 

Carriok-on-Shannon,  the  capital  of  County 
Leitrim,  on  the  Shannon,  98  miles  NW.  of  Dublin 
by  rail.    Pop.  1177. 

Carrick-on-Suir  (Shure),  a  town  of  Tipperary 
and  Waterford  counties,  on  the  navigable  Suir,  14 
miles  E.  of  Clonmel,  and  149  SW.  of  Dublin  by 
rail.  It  has  woollen,  linen,  and  flax  factories, 
and  neighbouring  slate-quarries.  There  are  re- 
mains of  a  castle  (1309)  of  the  Butler  family,  a 
branch  of  which  took  the  titles  of  Viscount  and 
Earl  of  Carrick.  A  stone  bridge  connects  it  with 
the  suburb  of  Carrickbeg  in  County  Waterford. 
Pop.  (1851)  7512  ;  (1901)  5406. 

Carriden,  a  coast  parish  of  Linlithgowshire,  on 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  at  the  eastern  termination 
of  the  Roman  wall  of  Antonine. 

Carrollton,  since  1873  part  of  New  Orleans. 

Carroll,  a  Stirlingshire  village,  on  the  river 
Carron,  2  miles  NNW.  of  Falkirk.  Its  great 
ironworks  (1760)  till  1852  produced  'carronades,' 


&c.,  and  now  turn  out  stoves,  grates,  boilers, 
pipes,  &c.     Pop.  1942. 

Carse,  a  Scottish  term  for  low  lands  adjoining 
rivers,  as  the  Carse  of  Gowrie,  between  Perth  and 
Dundee,  and  the  Carse  of  Forth,  near  Falkirk. 

Carsebreck,  the  great  curling  centre  of  Scot- 
land, 11  miles  NNE.  of  Stirling. 

Carshalton,  a  Surrey  urban  district,  3  miles 
W.  by  S.  of  Croydon.     Pop.  6746. 

Carson  City,  capital  of  Nevada  state,  U.S., 
near  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  178  miles 
ENB.  of  San  Francisco.  It  has  gold  and  silver 
mines,  and  a  U.S.  mint.     Pop.  2100. 

Carstairs',  a  village  of  Lanarkshire,  1  mile 
NW.  from  which  is  Carstairs  Junction  on  the 
Caledonian  Railway,  28A-  miles  SW.  of  Edinburgh, 
and  31  ESE.  of  Glasgow.  Pop.  of  village,  508 ; 
of  Junction,  905. 

Cart,  a  Renfrewshire  feeder  of  the  Clyde, 
formed  by  the  confluence  of  the  Black  Cart  (9 
miles)  and  White  Cart  (18J),  the  latter  of  which 
has  been  made  navigable  to  Paisley  (q.v.). 

Cartagena  (Kartahay'na),  a  fortified  seaport  of 
Spain,  on  a  bay  of  the  Mediterranean,  326  miles  SB. 
of  Madrid  by  rail.  The  hill-protected  harbour  is 
one  of  the  best  in  the  Mediterraiiean,  its  entrance 
narrow,  and  commanded  by  a  fortified  island  on 
the  south.  Cartagena  was  formerly  the  largest 
naval  arsenal  not  only  in  Spain  but  in  Europe. 
It  presents  a  Moorish  aspect  in  its  streets,  its 
cathedral,  and  its  ruined  castle,  and  has  manu- 
factures of  ropes,  sailcloth,  and  glass,  besides 
extensive  blast-furnaces  and  smelting -works. 
Population,  86,500.  Cartagena  was  built  by 
Hasdrubal  242  B.C.,  under  the  name  of  New 
Carthage.  It  formed  the  headquarters  of  the 
Carthaginians  in  Spain,  but  in  210  b.c.  was  cap- 
tured by  P.  Scipio,  and  became  of  importance 
under  the  Romans,  who  employed  40,000  men 
daily  in  the  neighbouring  mines.  It  was  sacked 
by  the  Goths,  and  did  not  again  attain  any  note 
until  Philip  II. 's  reign.  From  July  1873  to 
January  1874  it  was  held  by  a  communist  junta. 

Cartagena,  capital  of  the  Colombian  state  of 
Bolivar,  stands  on  a  sandy  island,  to  the  SW.  of 
the  mouth  of  the  Magdalena,  and  communicates 
by  four  bridges  with  its  suburb,  Jetsemani,  on 
the  mainland.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral,  a  uni- 
versity, and  the  best  harbour  on  the  coast.  Its 
trade  has  greatly  fallen  oif  since  the  rise  of 
Sabanilla ;  but  much  was  expected  from  the 
reopening  of  a  canal  connecting  it  with  Calamar, 
on  the  Magdalena.  Founded  in  1533,  it  was 
burned  by  Drake  in  1585,  but  in  1741  repulsed 
an  attack  by  Admiral  Vernon.     Pop.  20,000. 

Cartago  (Kartah'go),  (1)  a  river  and  landlocked 
bay  or  lagoon,  communicating  with  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  near  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Mosquito 
Coast.— (2)  A  town  of  Costa  Rica,  12  miles  B.  of 
the  present  capital,  San  Jose,  on  a  plain  to  the 
south  of  the  constantly  smoking  volcano  of 
IrazG  (11,500  feet).  Pop.  8000.  Founded  in  1522, 
the  place  had  23,000  inhabitants  in  1823,  and  was 
capital  of  the  state  till  1841,  when  it  was  all  but 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake. — (3)  A  town  of  Cauca, 
in  Colombia,  founded  in  1540,  on  the  Rio  Viejo, 
3  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Cauca.  Pop. 
9000. 

Carthage  was  a  city  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa, 
the  capital  of  one  of  the  great  empires  of  the 
ancient  world.  It  was  situated  on  a  peninsula  at 
the  north-east  corner  of  the  region  now  known 
as  Tunis,  and  was  founded,  mo^t  probably,  about 
the  middle  of  the  9th  century  b.c,  by  Phoenicians. 


CARTHAGE 


161 


CASHMERE 


I 


The  name  Carthage  is  a  corruption  of  Kirjath, 
the  Canaanite  word  for  a  town,  which  occurs  in 
Scripture  in  such  names  as  Kirjath-Baal  and 
Kirjath-Jearim.  The  city,  called  Carthago  by 
the  Romans,  and  Karchedon  by  the  Greeks,  was 
known  to  its  own  inhabitants  as  Kirjath-Hade- 
shath,  or  the  New  Town,  to  distinguish  it  either 
from  Tyre  or  from  the  earlier  Phoenician  colony 
of  Utica.  It  was  destroyed  by  the  Romans  in 
146  B.C.,  its  pop.  numbering  700,000.  See  works 
by  Bos  worth  Smith  (1879)  and  Church  (188(3). 

Carthage,  Cape,  a  headland  of  North  Africa, 
jutting  out  into  the  Mediterranean,  in  36°  52'  N. 
lat.,  10°  22'  E.  long.,  with  traces  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Carthage  to  the  north  of  the  Tunis  lagoon. 

Carthagena.    See  Cartagena. 

Cartmel,  a  Lancashire  market-town,  6  miles 
B.  of  Ulverston.  It  was  the  seat  of  an  Augus- 
tinian  priory  (1188).  Pop.  1084.  See  The  Rural 
Deanery  of  Cartmel  (1892). 

Cartworth,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  6  miles  S.  of  Hoddersfleld.     Pop.  1838. 

Canipano  {Karoo' pano),  a  seaport  of  Venezuela, 
on  the  north  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Paria,  with 
a  lighthouse  and  good  roadstead.     Pop.  12,389. 

Carvin  (Karvan^),  or  Carvin-Epinay,  a  town 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Pas-de-Calais,  11  miles  SSW. 
of  Lille  by  rail.    Pop.  6905. 

Casablanca  (Arab.  Dar  el  Beicla),  a  port  of 
Morocco  on  the  Atlantic,  162  miles  SW.  of  Fez. 
Pop.  8500. 

CasalO  (Kasdh'leh),  a  city  of  north  Italy,  on 
the  Po,  21  miles  NNW.  of  Alessandria  by  rail. 
It  has  a  cathedral,  the  Torre  del  grand'  Orologio, 
some  fine  palazzi,  and  manufactures  of  silk.  In 
1474  it  became  the  capital  of  the  marquisate  of 
Montferrat.    Pop.  of  commune,  31,800. 

Casalpusterlengo  (u  as  oo),  a  town  of  Italy, 
22  miles  SB.  of  Milan  by  rail.     Pop.  5513. 

Casamicclola  (Kasamitch'ola),  a  watering-place 
on  the  island  of  Ischia,  in  a  valley  on  the  north 
side  of  Monte  Epomeo,  with  hot  springs  (158°  F.), 
baths,  hotels,  &c.,  the  season  extending  from 
June  to  September.  It  suffered  terribly  by  the 
earthquake  of  28th  July  1883.     Pop-  3763. 

Casa  Santa.    See  Loretto, 

Casas  Grandes,  an  old  Indian  town  of  Mexico, 
125  miles  SW.  of  El  Paso,  surrounded  with  ruins 
of  Aztec  buildings,  which  seem  to  indicate  a 
former  population  of  20,000  to  30,000. 

Casbln.    See  Kazvin. 

Cascade  Range,  a  chain  of  mountains  in 
Oregon  and  Washington,  U.S.,  and  in  British 
Columbia.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  great 
cascades  of  the  river  Columbia,  which  are  situ- 
ated at  the  point  where  that  stream  canons 
through  the  range  by  a  pass  4000  feet  deep. 
The  course  of  the  mountain-chain  in  the  United 
States  is  from  north  to  south  nearly  parallel  to 
the  Pacific,  and  about  110  to  160  miles  distant 
from  it.  Southward  it  is  continuous  with  the 
Sierra  Nevada  of  California ;  northward  it  con- 
nects with  the  range  which  forms  the  boundary 
between  British  Columbia  and  Alaska.  The 
chain  throughout  most  of  its  course  is  heavily 
wooded,  chiefly  with  evergreen  conifers.  Mount 
Jefferson  is  10,200  feet  high,  and  Mount  Hood 
11,225  feet.  The  principal  peaks  in  Washington 
state  are  Mounts  Baker  (10,700  feet).  Mount 
Rainier  or  Tacoma  (14,444  feet),  and  St  Helen's 
(12,000  feet).  In  this  region  volcanic  action  is 
not  quite  extinct.  In  the  British  Columbian 
portion  the  range  comes  nearer  the  coast. 


Caserta,  a  town  of  Italy,  20|  nnles  NNE.  of 
Naples  by  rail.  Its  magnificent  palace,  one  of 
the  finest  in  Europe,  was  founded  by  Charles 
HI.  in  1752.     Pop.  32,730. 

Cashel,  a  town  in  County  Tipperary  (till  1870 
a  parliamentary  borough),  100  miles  SW.  of 
Dublin  and  5  miles  SB.  of  its  railway  station. 
It  is  the  see  of  a  Protestant  bishop,  and  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  archbishop.  It  is  irregularly 
built  on  the  south  and  east  slopes  of  the  isolated 
Rock  of  Cashel  (300  feet),  rising  abruptly  from  a 
rich  and  extensive  plain.  The  Rock  is  crowned  • 
by  the  ruins  of  a  cathedral  (1169),  a  stone-roofed 
chapel  (1127),  the  palace  of  the  Munster  kings, 
a  round  tower,  90  feet  high  and  56  in  circum- 
ference ;  and  an  old  cross.  At  Cashel  in  1172 
Henry  II.  received  the  homage  of  the  king  of 
Limerick.    Pop.  (1851)  4798  ;  (1901)  2938, 

Cashgar.    See  Kashoar. 

Cashmere,  or  Kashmir,  a  native  state  embrac- 
ing an  irregular-shaped  mountainous  region,  part 
of  the  Himalayan  system,  in  the  extreme  north 
of  India.  Much  of  it  is  mere  desert,  but  Avithin 
its  borders  are  included  the  valleys  of  many 
snow-fed  streams.  Chief  among  these'  is  the 
beautiful  valley  of  the  Upper  Jhelum  at  Srinagar 
—'the  Vale  of  Cashmere'  of  Moore's  Lalla 
Rookh.  It  extends  for  about  120  miles  from 
NW.  to  SB.,  with  a  mean  breadth  of  75  miles, 
at  a  distance  of  180  miles  by  road  from  Rawal 
Plndi,  in  the  Punjab.  The  flat  part  of  the 
valley  is  not  more  than  80  miles  long  by  20 
wide,  with  a  variable  elevation  above  sea-level 
of  from  5000  to  7000  feet.  In  it  are  two  lakes, 
the  Dul  and  the  Wulur.  Nothing  can  well 
exceed  the  fertile  beauty  of  this  valley,  almost 
surrounded  as  it  is  by  snow-capped  mountains, 
whose  lower  spurs  descend  gently  in  terraced 
slopes.  These  terraces  are  abundantly  irrigated 
for  the  purpose  of  rice  cultivation,  rice  being 
the  staple  crop  throughout  Cashmere.  On  the 
margins  of  the  lakes,  and  scattered  through  the 
whole  extent  of  the  valley,  are  magnificent  groves 
of  chinar  or  plane-trees,  here  and  there  laid  out 
with  great  regularity  and  taste  to  form  gardens 
and  country-seats  which  used  to  be  the  favourite 
resorts  of  the  Mogul  emperors  two  centuries  ago. 
Other  features  of  Cashmere  are  its  avenues  of 
poplars,  and  the  floating-gardens  of  the  lakes. 
Srinagar  is  a  quaint  and  picturesque  old  town, 
built  almost  entirely  of  wood,  said  to  have  been 
founded  at  the  beginning  of  the  6th  century. 
Its  industries  are  chiefly  shawl-weaving  and 
lacquer-work,  with  silver  and  copper  work.  The 
restrictions  formerly  placed  on  the  residence  of 
Europeans  in  Cashmere  territory  have  been  modi- 
fied, and  Cashmere  is  now  visited  by  thousands 
of  Europeans  <lurlng  the  hot  months  of  the  year, 
a  well-known  summer  station  being  Gulmerg, 
which  is  higher  and  cooler  than  Srinagar.  Good 
roads  have  been  made,  and  a  railway  is  projected. 
The  natural  productiveness  of  the  valleys  is  re- 
markable. Fruit  of  almost  every  description  is 
found  nearly  wild  in  the  lower  valleys,  and 
the  vine  is  now  largely  cultivated  for  the  manu- 
facture of  wine.  NotAvithstanding  this  fertility 
and  the  general  cheapness  of  food-supply,  Cash- 
mere is  occasionally  subject  to  the  scourge  of 
famine.  Much  has  been  written  about  the  fine 
physique  of  the  Cashmere  men  and  the  beauty 
of  Cashmere  Avomen,  but  they  are  really  a 
corrupt  and  degraded  race. 

Cashmere  AA'as  conquered  by  Akbar  in  1586, 
and  became  part  of  the  Mogul  empire.  It  was 
overrun  by  the  Sikhs  in  1819.    Ghulab  Singh, 


CASKETS 


CASTELNAUDARY 


the  feudatory  of  the  Sikhs,  made  a  treaty  with 
Britain  in  1846,  by  which  he  recognised  British 
suprenracy.  In  1887  a  land  settlement  (under 
pressure  from  tlie  Indian  government)  abolished 
serfdom  ;  trade  greatly  increased.  The  popula- 
tion of  Cashmere  with  its  dependencies  (Ladakh, 
Jamu,  Gilgit,  Chitral,  &c.)  was  in  1901  close  on 
3,000,000,  Mohannnedans,  Buddhists,  and  Hindus, 
of  whom  1,158,000  were  in  Cashmere  proper. 
Thirteen  dialects  are  spoken  ;  the  Kashmiri  is 
very  closely  related  to  Sanskrit. 

See  works  by  Bellew  (1875),  Drew  (1875),  Wake- 
field  (1879),   Hinton    Knowles   (1885-88),   E.   F. 
Knight  (1893),  and  A.  Diuand  (1899). 
Caskets.     See  Alderney. 
Casoria,  a  town  of  Italy,  6  miles  N.  of  Naples 
by  rail.    Pop.  7551. 

Cas'pe,  a  town  of  Spain,  53  miles  SE.  of  Sara- 
gossa.     Pop.  9377. 

Caspian  Sea,  an  inland  sea  or  great  salt  lake, 
the  largest  in  the  world,  on  the  boundary  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia,  extending  from  36"  40' 
to  47°  20'  N.  lat.,  and  46°  50'  to  55°  10'  E.  long. 
Its  length  from  north  to  south  is  680  miles,  and 
its  breadth  varies  between  130  and  270  miles. 
Its  total  area  is  estimated  at  170,000  sq.  m.  It 
has  no  tides,  but  navigation  is  dangerous  because 
of  violent  storms.  Its  level  differs  much  at 
different  seasons,  owing  to  evaporation  and  the 
variable  amount  of  water  brought  by  its  tribu- 
taries. It  is  very  shallow  in  the  north — only 
14  feet  at  a  distance  of  10  miles,  and  72  feet  at 
a  distance  of  130  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Volga.  In  its  middle  it  is  intersected  by  a  sub- 
marine ridge.  The  greatest  depth  found  in  the 
northern  basin  is  2526  feet,  and  in  the  southern 
(close  by  the  southern  shore),  3006.  The  Caspian 
receives  the  waters  of  the  Volga,  Ural,  Emba, 
Terek,  Kura,  and  Atrek.  The  water  is  salt,  but 
much  less  so  than  that  of  the  ocean.  The 
northern  parts  are  covered  with  ice  during  winter. 
Fish  abounds,  and  very  valuable  sturgeon  and 
salmon  fisheries  are  carried  on.  A  canal  uniting 
the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Volga  with  those  of 
Lake  Ladoga  and  the  Diina  connects  the  Caspian 
with  the  Baltic.  Tlie  sea  is  now  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  Russian  territory,  the  southern 
shore  still  remaining  Persian.  The  Russians 
have  a  fleet  stationed  upon  it,  and  lines  of 
steamers,  for  which  the  petroleum  of  Baku 
forms  an  economical  fuel.  The  chief  Russian 
towns  on  its  shores  are  Astrakhan,  Derbend, 
Baku,  and  Krasnovodsk,  from  near  which  a  rail- 
way runs  by  Askabad  towards  Merv,  and  thence 
by  Bokhara  to  Samarkand,  with  an  extension 
to  Tashkand  in  Turkestan. 

Cassandra  (anc.  Pallene),  the  most  western  of 
the  three  tongues  of  the  Chalcidice  peninsula, 
between  the  gulfs  of  Salonica  and  Cassandra. 
The  latter  (anc.  Toronaicus  Sinus)  extends  35 
miles  north-westward,  and  is  8  to  16  miles  broad. 
Cassano  (Kassdh-no),  (1)  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  34 
miles  N.  of  Cosenza.  Pop.  7407.— (2)  On  the  Adda, 
16  miles  ENE.  of  Milan  by  rail,  the  scene  of 
two  sanguinary  battles— a  defeat  in  1705  of  the 
Imperialists  by  the  French  ;  and  a  defeat  in  1799 
of  the  French  themselves  by  the  Russians  and 
Austrians.  Pop.  5554. 
Cassay.    See  Manipur. 

Cassel,  or  Kassel,  chief  town  of  the  Prussian 
province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  and  the  old  capital 
of  the  former  electorate  of  Hesse-Cassel,  on  the 
navigable  Fulda,  120  miles  by  rail  NNB.  of  Frank- 
fort-on-Main,   and  233  WSW.  of  Berlin.     Pop. 


(1875)  53,043;  (1900)106,000.  The  oldest  part 
consists  of  a  few  very  narrow,  crooked  streets, 
close  to  the  river;  the  more  modern  parts  are 
situated  on  gentle  hills.  The  'upper  new  town' 
was  founded  by  French  refugees  in  1688.  In  the 
Friedrichs-Platz,  the  largest  square  in  any  Ger- 
man town,  stand  the  Elector's  palace,  the  mill- 
tary  school,  and  the  Museum  Fredericianum 
(1769-79),  with  a  library  of  100,000  volumes.  The 
large  new  law-courts  were  erected  in  1880  on  the 
site  of  the  Kattenburg,  a  costly  and  ambitious 
palace  projected  in  1820,  which,  however,  re- 
mained unfinished  till  1869,  when  its  materials 
were  used  in  the  construction  of  the  new  picture- 
gallery  (1877),  which  contains  1400  paintings. 
Cassel  carries  on  manufactures  of  locomotives 
and  steam-engines,  carriages,  philosophical  and 
mathematical  instruments,  cotton  and  linen 
fabrics,  plate,  and  sugar.  The  gardens  of  Wil- 
helmshohe  (1787-96)— which  was  assigned  to 
Napoleon  III.  as  a  residence  after  his  fall  at 
Sedan,  in  September  1870— with  their  splendid 
fountains  and  cascades,  and  the  colossal  statue 
of  Hercules,  within  the  hollow  of  whose  club 
eight  persons  can  stand  at  one  time,  are  3  miles 
from  Cassel. 

Cassillis  (Kassils),  Ayrshire,  seat  of  the  Marquis 
of  Ailsa,  on  the  Doon,  4  miles  NE.  of  Maybole. 

Cassiquiare  (Kassikeedh'ray),  a  south  bifurca- 
tion of  the  river  Orinoco  (q.v.).  It  leaves  it  near 
Esmeralda,  200  miles  from  its  source,  and  after  a 
rapid  south-west  course  of  130  miles,  joins  the 
Rio  Negro  near  San  Carlos. 

Castalia,  a  fountain  on  Mount  Parnassus  in 
Greece,  sacred  to  the  Muses. 

Castelbuono,  a  town  of  Sicily,  8  miles  SE.  of 
Cefalii.    Pop.  8439. 

Castelfranco,  (l)  a  town  of  Italy,  8  miles  SE. 
ofModena.  Pop.  1900.— (2)  A  town  15  miles  W. 
of  Treviso  by  rail,  the  scene  of  an  Austrian  defeat 
by  the  French,  24th  November  1805.  Giorgione 
was  a  native.    Pop.  7758. 

Castel  Gandolfo,  a  village  12  miles  SE.  of 
Rome,  near  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Albano. 
Here  Urban  VIII.  built  a  summer  residence  for 
the  popes.     Pop.  1684. 

Castellamare  (Kas-tel-la-mdh'reh),  (1)  a  seaport 
of  Italy,  17^  miles  SE.  of  Naples  by  rail ;  near 
ancient  Stabice,  where  the  elder  Pliny  lost  his 
life  when  the  city  was  overwhelmed  with  lava 
from  Vesuvius  (79  A.  D.).  The  Castello  that  gave 
it  name  was  built  by  the  Emperor  Frederick  II. 
in  the  13th  century.  Castellamare  has  a  cathedral, 
an  arsenal,  and  manufactures  of  macaroni,  cotton, 
sailcloth,  &c.  Pop.  34,207.  —(2)  A  town  of  Sicily, 
at  the  head  of  a  gulf  of  the  same  name,  41  miles 
WSW.  of  Palermo.     Pop.  15,303. 

Castellana  {Kastell&h'na),  a  town  of  south 
Italy,  26  miles  SE.  of  Bari.     Pop.  8092. 

Castellane'ta  (e  as  ay),  a  cathedral  city  of  south 
Italy,  24  m.  NW.  of  Taranto  by  rail.    Pop.  10,200. 
Castello  Branco,  a  town  of  Portugal,  115  miles 
NE.  of  Lisbon.     Pop.  9464. 

Castello  de  Vide,  a  town  of  Portugal,  139  miles 
ENE.  of  Lisbon  by  rail.     Pop.  5263. 

Castellon'  de  la  Plana,  a  town  of  Spain,  5 
miles  from  the  Mediterranean,  and  43  miles  NNE, 
of  Valencia  by  rail,  manufactures  linen,  woollen, 
sailcloth,  brandy,  &c.     Pop.  31,337. 

Castelnau'dary  {au  as  o),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Aude,  on  the  Canal  du  Midi,  34  m.  SE.  of 
Toulouse  by  rail.  The  Sostomagus  of  the  Romans, 
and  Castrum  Novum  Arianorum  (hence  the  moderu 


CASTEL  SARRASIN 


163 


CASTROGIOVANNI 


L 


name)  of  the  Visigoths,  Castelnaudary  suffered 
dreadfully  in  the  crusade  against  the  Albigenses, 
and  in  1355  it  was  captured  by  the  Black  Prince. 
It  has  silk  and  woollen  manufactures.    Pop.  8598. 

Castel  Sarrasin  (Sarazan"'),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Tarii-et-Garonne,  12  miles  W.  of 
Montaubaii.     Pop.  4155. 

Ca.stelterm\m(Kastelter'minee),  a  town  of  Sicily, 
20  miles  N.  of  Girgenti  by  rail.     Pop.  9209. 

Castelvetrano  (Kastelvetrdh-no),  a  town  of 
Sicily,  46  m.  SE.  of  Trapani  by  rail.     Pop.  24,500. 

Castiglione  (Kas-teel-yo'nay),  a  town  of  Sicily, 
on  the  north  slope  of  Mount  Etna,  35  miles  SW. 
of  Messina.  Pop.  8114. — Castiglione  delle 
Stiviere  is  22  miles  NW.  of  Mantua.  Here  the 
French  defeated  the  Austrians  in  1796.   Pop.  6123. 

Castile  (Kast-eeV;  Span.  Castillo),  the  central 
district  of  Spain,  divided  by  the  Gastilian 
Sierras  (8730  feet)  into  Old  and  New  Castile.  The 
former  district — so  called  because  it  was  first 
recovered  from  the  Arabs — extends  north  to  the 
Bay  of  Biscay,  is  walled  in  on  all  other  sides 
by  mountain-ranges,  and  rises  to  the  height  of 
2500  to  3000  feet  in  the  form  of  an  elevated 
plateau,  mostly  trackless,  treeless,  and  dreary. 
It  is  now  divided  into  the  eight  provinces  of 
Palencia,  Valladolid,  Avila,  Segovia,  Soria,  Burgos, 
Logrono,  and  Santander.  The  plateau  of  New 
Castile,  to  the  south,  is  also  enclosed  by  moun- 
tains, and  though  lying  1800  feet  lower  than  Old 
Castile,  presents  many  similar  characteristics  of 
soil  and  scenery.  It  embraces  the  provinces  of 
Madrid,  Toledo,  Guadalajara,  Ciudad  Real,  and 
Cuen^a.  Gastilian  is  tlie  literary  language  of 
Spain.  Area  of  Old  Ca.stile,  25,280  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
1,800,000;  area  of  New  Castile,  53,035  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  3,500,000 ;  total,  78,315  sq.  m.,  with  5,300,000 
inhabitants. 

Castillon  (Kas-tee-yon^'),  a  town  (pop.  3670)  in 
the  French  dep.  of  Gironde,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Dordogne,  33  miles  E.  of  Bordeaux  by  rail. 
Beneath  its  walls,  on  17th  July  1453,  the  English 
were  defeated,  their  leader,  John  Talbot,  Earl  of 
Shrewsbury,  being  slain. 

Castle-Acre,  a  Norfolk  parish,  4  miles  N.  of 
Swaftham,  with  a  ruined  castle  and  priory  founded 
by  the  Earl  of  Warrenne  (1085). 

Castlebar',  the  capital  of  County  Mayo,  on 
the  Castlebar  River,  152  miles  NW.  of  Dublin 
by  rail.    Pop.  3588. 

Castleblayney,  a  Monaghan  market-town,  73 
miles  NW.  of  Dublin.    Pop.  1576. 

Castle  Campbell.    See  Dollar. 

Castlecary,  (1)  a  market-town  of  Somerset, 
12-J  miles  NNE.  of  Yeovil.  Pop.  of  pari.sh,  2096. 
—(2)  A  railway  station,  and  old  castle,  6^  miles 
SW.  of  Falkirk,  Stirlingshire,  near  the  site  of  one 
of  the  principal  stations  of  Antoninus'  Wall. 

Castlecomer,  a  Kilkenny  market-town,  14i- 
miles  SW.  of  Carlo w.    Pop.  958. 

Castleconnell,  a  village  on  the  Shannon,  8 
miles  NE.  of  Limerick. 

Castlederg,  a  Tyrone  village,  on  the  Derg,  10 
miles  SW.  of  Strabane.     Pop.  796. 

Castledermot,  a  Kildare  town,  on  the  Lerr, 
9  miles  SE.  of  Athy.    Pop.  450. 

Castle  Donnington,  a  Leicestershire  market- 
town,  7i  miles  NNW.  of  Loughborough.  Pop. 
of  parish,  2591. 

Castle-Douglas,  a  Kirkcudbrightshire  town, 
at  the  north  end  of  Carlinwark  Loch,  19^  miles 
SW.  Qf  Dumfries.    Pop.  3018. 


Castleford,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  on  the  Aire,  10  miles  SE.  of  Leeds. 
It  was  a  Roman  station,  and  has  now  great  glass- 
works, manufacturing  especially  bottles.  Pop. 
(1851)  2150  ;  (1891)  14,143 ;  (1901)  17,386. 

Castle  Garden,  originally  Castle  Clinton,  a 
round  fort  (1807)  built  300  yards  out  from  the 
south  end  of  Manhattan  Island,  was  in  1824  con- 
verted into  a  place  of  amusement,  in  1839  planted 
with  trees,  turf,  and  flowers,  in  1847  again  trans- 
formed into  an  opera-house,  in  1858-90  was  the 
New  York  depot  for  immigrants  on  arrival,  was 
subsequently  a  government  armoury,  and  then 
an  aquarium. 

Castlegregory,  a  Kerry  village,  on  Tralee  Bay, 
15  miles  W.  of  Tralee.     Pop.  480. 

Castlehllls.    See  Caithness. 

Castle-Island,  a  Kerry  town,  on  the  Maine, 
11  miles  ESE,  of  Tralee.    Pop.  1500. 

Castlemaine,  a  town  of  Victoria,  78  miles 
NNW.  of  Melbourne  by  rail.  The  gold  diggings 
here  were  among  the  first  discovered  in  Australia. 
Pop.  5770. 

CastlepoUard,  a  Westmeath  village,  12  miles 
N.  of  MuUingar.     Pop.  700. 

Castlereagh,  a  market-town  on  the  Suck,  17 
miles  NW.  of  Roscommon.     Pop.  1190. 

Castle  Rising,  a  Norfolk  parish,  4  miles  NE. 
of  Lynn.  Its  ruined  castle  was  the  abode  ol 
Edward  II. 's  queen,  Isabella. 

Castle-Semple.    See  Lochwinnoch. 

Castleton,  (l)  the  capital  of  the  Peak  district, 
Derbyshire,  10  miles  NE.  of  Buxton.  It  is  com- 
manded, to  the  south,  by  the  ruined  castle  of 
William  Peveril,  a  natural  son  of  the  Conqueror. 
Pop.  641.— (2)  A  Liddesdale  parish,  Roxburgh- 
shire, 21  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Hawick.  For  Castle- 
ton of  Braemar,  see  Braemar. 

Castletown  (Manx  Bailey  CashtaT),  a  seaport 
of  the  Isle  of  Man,  on  Castletown  Bay,  11  miles 
SW.  of  Douglas  by  rail.  The  grounds  of  Rushen 
Abbey  (11th  century),  near  the  station,  are  now 
market-gardens.  Hard  by  is  the  small  building 
where  the  House  of  Keys  assembled  for  about 
170  years.  Brewing,  tanning,  and  lime-burning 
are  carried  on.  Near  Castletown  is  King  William's 
College  (1833),  an  Elizabethan  pile,  rebuilt  after 
the  fire  of  1844,  and  enlarged  in  1862.    Pop.  1963. 

Castletown  Berehaven,  a  Cork  seaport,  20 
miles  W.  of  Bantry.     Pop.  1650. 

Castletownsend,  a  Cork  seaport,  6  miles  SE. 
of  Skibbereen.     Pop.  466. 

Castlewellan,  a  Down  market-town,  19  miles 
NE.  of  Newry.     Pop.  945. 

Oastres  (Kdstr),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Tarn,  on  the  river  Agout,  46  miles  (72  by  rail) 
B.  of  Toulouse.  It  rose  up  around  a  Benedictine 
abbey  (647),  and  in  the  16th  century  became  a 
Huguenot  stronghold,  but  its  fortifications  were 
demolished  in  1629.  It  has  beautiful  promenades, 
a  quondam  cathedral,  and  manufactures  of  fine 
wool  dyed  goods,  leather,  paper,  soap,  &c.  Pop. 
25,000. 

Castri.     See  Delphi. 

Castro,  the  modern  name  of  the  capital  of 
several  islands  of  the  Grecian  Archipelago- 
Lesbos,  Samothrace,  Melos,  Lemnos,  &c. 

Castro  del  Rio,  a  town  of  Andalusia,  Spain, 
23  miles  SE.  of  Cordova.     Pop.  10,268. 

Castrogiovannl  (Kastrojovdn'nee ;  anc.  Enna), 
a  town  of  Sicily,  56  miles  E.  gf  Catania  by  rail, 


CASTRO  URDIALES 


164 


CAUCASUS 


on  a  fertile  plateau,  which  rises  precipitously  to 
a  height  of  3270  feet  above  sea-level.    Pop.  22,500. 

Castro  Urdiales  (Oordidh'les),  on  the  N.  coast 
of  Spain,  30  m.  ESE.  of  Santander.    Pop.  12,250. 

Castrovil'lari,  a  town  of  South  Italy,  34  miles 
N.  ofCosenza.    Pop.  11,505. 

Castuera  (Kastooay'ra),  a  town  of  Estremadura, 
Spain,  68  miles  ESE.  of  Badajoz.     Pop.  7002. 

Catalonia  (Span.  Cataluna),  an  old  princi- 
pality of  Spain,  triangular  in  shape,  occupying 
the  north-east  portion  of  tlie  peninsula,  and 
now  divided  into  the  provinces  of  Barcelona, 
Tarragona,  Lerida,  and  Gerona.  Total  area, 
12,500  sq.  m,  ;  pop.  2,000,000.  Catalonia  is  the 
principal  manxafacturing  province  of  the  kingdom 
— is,  in  fact,  'the  Lancashire  of  Spain.'  The 
language,  costume,  and  habits  of  the  inhabitants, 
who  regard  with  contempt  and  pity  the  Spaniards 
of  the  surrounding  provinces,  are  quite  distinct 
from  those  of  the  rest  of  Spain,  whose  people 
they  greatly  surpass  in  energy,  industry,  and 
intelligence.  Even  the  educated  classes  speak 
the  rough  Catalan  dialect,  more  nearly  akin  to 
Provencal  than  to  Castilian.  Catalonia  became 
an  integral  portion  of  the  Spanish  monarchy  in 
1479,  though  never  a  very  peaceable  one. 

Catamarca,  a  western  province  of  the  Argen- 
tine Republic,  sinking  SE.  from  the  Andes  to 
the  Salt  Marshes  which  separate  it  from  Cordoba. 
Its  capital,  Catamarca  (pop.  8000),  is  82  miles 
NE.  of  Rioja. 

Catania  {Kat&h'nia ;  anc.  Catdnd),  a  seaport  of 
Sicily,  near  the  foot  of  Etna,  59  miles  by  rail  SSW. 
of  Messina,  and  54  NNW.  of  Syracuse.  By  erup- 
tions and  earthquakes,  it  has  been  several  times 
almost  entirely  destroyed— especially  in  1669  and 
1693 ;  but  out  of  its  ruins  it  has  always  risen 
with  increased  beauty,  and  it  is  now  the  finest 
city  in  Sicily.  The  harbour  was  choked  by  a 
stream  of  lava  in  1693,  and  is  still  unsafe,  in  spite 
of  a  costly  mole.  Among  the  chief  buildings  are 
the  Benedictine  convent  of  San  Nicola,  secular- 
ised in  1866  ;  the  cathedral  (1091) ;  and  the  uni- 
versity (1445).  Catania  has  manufactures  of  silk 
and  linen  goods,  and  of  articles  in  amber,  lava, 
wood,  &c.  Among  the  remains  of  ancient  times 
are  those  of  a  theatre,  a  temple  of  Ceres,  Roman 
baths,  and  an  aqueduct.    Pop.  (commune)  150,000. 

Catanzaro  (Katantzdh'ro),  a  city  of  S.  Italy,  on 
a  rocky  hill  6  in.  from  the  Gulf  of  Squillace,  and 
326  SE.  of  Naples  by  rail.  It  has  a  cathedral,  a 
ruined  castle  of  Robert  Guiscard,  and  manufac- 
tures of  silks,  velvets,  and  woollens.    Pop.  30,931. 

Cateau,  Le,  orCAT^Av-CAUBnESis(Kdhto'-Kon^- 
brezee),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Nord,  14  m. 
ESE.  of  Cambrai.  Here  in  1559  a  treaty  was  con- 
cluded between  France  and  Spain.     Pop.  10,269. 

Caterham,  a  village  of  Surrey,  with  barracks, 
7  miles  S.  of  Croydon.    Pop.  9500. 

Catharines.    See  Aleutian  Islands. 

Cathay,  an  old  name  for  China  (q.v.),  current 
in  Europe  in  the  middle  ages. 

Cathcart,  Old,  a  Renfrewshire  town,  3  miles 
S.  of  Glasgow.     Pop.  4800. 

Cat  Island.    See  Bahamas. 

Catrail,  or  Picts'  Work,  an  earthwork  extend- 
ing 50  miles  from  near  Galashiels,  through  the 
counties  of  Selkirk  and  Roxburgh,  to  Peel  Fell 
in  the  Cheviots.     See  Blackwood's  Maga.  (1888). 

Cat'rine,  an  Ayrshire  town,  on  the  Ayr,  2| 
miles  ESE.  of  Mauchline,  with  a  cotton-mill. 
Pop.  ?358, 


Catskill,  a  village  of  New  York,  U.S.,  on  the 
Hudson,  34  miles  SSE.  of  Albany.     Pop.  5920. 

Catskill  Mountains,  a  group  of  well-wooded 
mountains  in  the  state  of  New  York,  U.S.,  west 
of  the  Hudson  River,  and  south  of  the  Mohawk. 
Belonging  to  the  Appalachian  system,  they  cover 
some  5000  sq.  m.,  chiefly  in  Greene  County,  N.Y. 
Some  peaks  reach  nearly  4000  feet  in  height. 
The  movmtains  generally  have  steep  and  often 
precipitous  ascents,  and  their  summits  are  broad 
and  rocky.  Tlie  deep  valleys  or  '  cloves '  of  the 
region  are  remarkable  for  their  almost  perpen- 
dicular walls.  See  Searing's  Land  of  Rip  Van 
Winkle  (1885). 

Catstane,  a  monolith,  3J  miles  WNW.  of  Cor- 
storphine. 

Cat'taro,  a  strongly  fortified  Austrian  port  in 
Dalmatia,  lies  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Cattaro, 
40  miles  SE.  of  Ragusa,  under  the  steep  Monte- 
negrin hills.  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  naval  school, 
and  a  pop.  of  5500.  At  one  time  the  capital  of 
a  small  republic,  the  town  in  1420  joined  the 
republic  of  Venice,  and  was  handed  over  to 
Austria  in  1814.  The  Gulf  of  Cattaro,  an  inlet  of 
the  Adriatic,  19  miles  long,  consists  of  three 
basins  or  lakes,  connected  by  straits  J  mile  broad. 

Cat'tegat,  or  Kattegat,  the  bay  or  arm  of  the 
sea  between  the  east  coast  of  Jutland  and  the 
west  coast  of  Sweden,  to  the  north  of  the  Danish 
islands.  It  is  connected  with  the  Baltic  Sea  by 
the  Great  and  Little  Belt  (q.v.),  and  by  the 
Sound  ;  and  the  Skager  Rack  connects  it  with 
the  North  Sea.  Its  length  is  about  150  miles, 
and  its  greatest  breadth  85. 

Cattolica,  a  town  of  Sicily,  14  miles  NW.  of 
Girgenti.     Pop.  6591. 

Canto  (Kowb),  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Hesse-Nassau,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
30  miles  WNW.  of  Wiesbaden  by  rail.    Pop.  2179. 

Cauca  {Kow'ka),  a  river  of  Colombia,  flowing 
600  miles  N.  to  the  Magdalena.  It  gives  name  to 
the  largest  of  the  Colombian  states,  traversed  by 
the  Andean  coast-range,  and  extending  along  the 
Pacific  from  Panama  to  Ecuador.  Area,  260,000 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1887)  465,690.    Capital,  PopaySn. 

Caucasus,  a  great  mountain-range  that  forms 
the  backbone  of  a  well-marked  geographical 
region,  nearly  corresponding  with  the  Russian 
governor-generalship  or  lieutenancy  of  Caucasia. 
It  occupies  the  isthmus  between  the  Black  Sea 
and  the  Caspian,  its  general  direction  being  from 
west-north-west  to  east-south-east.  From  the 
peninsula  of  Taman  on  the  Black  Sea,  to  the 
peninsula  of  Apsheron  on  the  Caspian,  it  has  a 
length  of  about  750  miles.  The  breadth,  includ- 
ing the  secondary  ranges  and  spurs,  is  about  150 
miles,  but  that  of  the  higher  Caucasus  does  not 
exceed  70  miles.  This  range  is  sometimes  treated 
as  the  boundary  line  between  Europe  and  Asia, 
but  the  region  is  really  Asiatic  in  character  (see 
Asia,  p.  52).  The  higher  and  central  part  of  the 
range  is  formed  of  parallel  chains,  not  separated 
by  deep  and  wide  valleys,  but  remarkably  con- 
nected by  elevated  plateaus,  which  are  traversed 
by  narrow  fissures  of  extreme  depth.  The  highest 
peaks  are  in  the  most  central  ridge  or  chain,  at 
least  six  of  them  well  over  16,000  feet,  much  ex- 
ceeding the  highest  Alps.  Mount  Elburz  attains 
an  elevation  of  18,538  feet  above  the  sea,  Dikh-tau 
of  16,923,  an<i  Kazbek  of  16,541.  Here  the  line 
of  perpetual  snow  is  between  10,000  and  11,000 
feet  high ;  but  the  whole  amount  of  perpetual 
snow  is  not  great,  nor  are  the  glaciers  very  large 
or  numerous.    For  more  than  100  miles'  lengtlj 


CAtJCASUS 


165 


CAWNPORE 


6f  the  main  ridge  there  are  no  passes  lower  than 
10,000  feet.  The  spurs  and  outlying  mountains 
or  hills  are  of  less  extent  and  importance  than 
those  of  almost  any  other  mountain-range  of 
similar  magnitude,  subsiding  as  they  do  until 
they  are  only  about  200  feet  high  along  the 
shores  of  the  Black  Sea.  Some  parts  are  entirely 
destitute  of  wood,  but  other  parts  are  very 
densely  wooded,  and  the  secondary  ranges  near 
the  Black  Sea  exhibit  most  magnificent  forests 
of  oak,  beech,  ash,  maple,  and  walnut ;  grain  is 
cultivated  in  some  parts  to  a  height  of  8000  feet, 
while  in  the  lower  valleys  rice,  tobacco,  cotton, 
indigo,  &c.  are  produced.  Tlie  climate,  though 
generally  healthy,  is  very  different  on  the  northern 
and  southern  sides  of  the  range,  the  vine  grow- 
ing wild  on  the  south.  The  south  declivity  of 
the  mountains  towards  Georgia  presents  much 
exceedingly  beautiful  and  romantic  scenery. 

There  are  no  active  volcanoes  in  Mount  Cau- 
casus, but  every  evidence  of  volcanic  action. 
Elburz  and  Kazbek  are  both  of  volcanic  origin. 
There  are  hot  springs  and  mud  volcanoes  at  each 
end  of  the  range,  and  there  are  also  famous 
petroleum  wells  in  the  peninsula  of  Apsheron 
(see  Baku).  Mineral  springs  also  occur  in  many 
places,  notably  at  Vladikavkaz.  The  bison,  or 
aurochs,  bears,  wolves,  and  jackals  are  among 
the  animals.  Lead,  iron,  sulphur,  coal,  and  copper 
are  found. 

The  waters  of  the  Caucasus  flow  into  four  prin- 
cipal rivers— the  Kuban  and  the  Rion  or  Faz 
(the  Phasis  of  the  ancients),  which  flow  into  the 
Black  Sea;  and  the  Terek  and  the  Kur,  which 
flow  into  the  Caspian.  Kuban  and  Terek  are 
north,  Rion  and  Kur  or  Kura  south  of  the  moun- 
tains. The  Russians  have  with  great  labour 
carried  a  military  road  through  the  tremendous 
fissure  or  ravine  of  the  Dariel  gorge,  about  half- 
way from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Caspian.  The 
road  passes  over  a  height  of  about  8000  feet, 
and  is  protected  by  many  forts.  The  only  other 
road  is  by  the  Pass  of  Derbend,  near  the  Caspian 
Sea.  The  term  '  Caucasian '  was  at  one  time  used 
for  all  the  finer  types  of  the  fair-skinned  division 
of  mankind,  but  the  '  Caucasian  race '  of  Blumen- 
bach  has  long  been  divided  into  the  two  groups, 
Aryan  or  Indo-European  and  Semitic ;  and  it  is 
very  doubtful  if  the  most  of  the  Caucasian 
peoples  belong  to  either  of  these  stocks.  The 
Ossetes,  numbering  perhaps  120,000,  are  dis- 
tinctly Aryan ;  the  southern  or  Kartveli  group 
of  Caucasian  tribes  (including  the  Georgians), 
the  eastern  group  (including  the  Tchetchens  and 
Lesghians),  and  the  western  group  (including 
Circassians  and  Abkhasians),  speak  languages 
mutually  unintelligible  and  of  doubtful  affinities. 

The  resistance  which  the  Caucasian  peoples  for 
more  than  half  a  century  offered  to  the  arms  of 
Russia  attracted  to  them  the  attention  of  the 
■world.  But  with  the  capture  in  1859  of  Shamyl, 
the  prophet  chief  of  the  Lesghians,  the  power  of 
the  Caucasians  was  shattered ;  by  1870  it  was 
completely  broken.  The  bulk  of  the  Circassians 
and  Abkhasians  migrated  to  Turkish  territories 
in  Asia  or  Europe.  The  ancient  divisions  of  the 
country,  Georgia,  Imeritia,  Svanetia,  Mingrelia, 
&c.,  based  on  tribal  distinctions,  have  disappeared 
from  the  Russian  administrative  system,  in  which 
the  main  range  of  Caucasus  divides  the  province 
into  Ciscaucasia,  north  of  the  mountains,  and 
Transcaucasia  to  the  south  of  them  ;  the  former 
comprising  the  governments  of  Stavropol,  Kuban, 
Terek;  the  latter,  those  of  Daghestan  (really 
north  of  Caucasus),  Tiflis,  Kutais,  Elisabetpol, 
Baku,  Kars,  and  Erivan.    Total  area,  308,000  sq. 


m. ;  pop.  6,290,000.  The  chief  town  in  Ciscau- 
casia is  Vladikavkaz;  in  Transcaucasia,  Tiflis. 
The  old  capital  of  Georgia  was  Mtzkhet,  a  good 
specimen  of  a  Georgian  word.  See  works  by 
Freshfield(1869),  Cuninghame(1872),  Bryce(1878), 
Phillipps-Wolley  (1883),  'Wanderer'  (1883),  and 
Abercromby  (1890). 

Caudehec  (Koad-bek'),  two  places  in  Seine- 
Infdrieure.  Caudebec  Iks  Elbeuf,  12  miles  S.  by 
W.  of  Rouen,  has  a  population  of  9700,  and 
manufactures  cloth.  Caudebcc-en-Caux,  a  pretty 
antique  village  of  2386  inhabitants,  is  ou  the- 
Seine,  31  miles  WNW.  of  Rouen, 

Gaura  (Kov/ra),  a  river  of  Venezuela  flowing 
NNW.  to  the  Orinoco.  On  both  sides  stretches 
the  territory  of  Caura  (22,485  sq.  m.). 

Cauterets  {Koa-U-ray),  a  French  watering- 
place  in  the  dep.  of  Hautes-Pyrenees,  lies  3250 
feet  above  sea-level,  in  the  valley  of  the  Laver- 
dan,  42  miles  SSE.  of  Pau.  The  stationary  popu- 
lation was  in  1901  only  1566,  but  it  is  annually 
swelled  in  summer  by  15,000  to  20,000  visitors, 
for  whose  accommodation  numerous  sumptuous 
hotels  and  bathing-establishments  have  been 
built.  Its  twenty-five  sulphurous  springs  (60° 
to  131°  F.)  have  been  known  from  Roman  times  ; 
though  their  modern  reputation  dates  from  the 
16th  century,  when  Margaret,  sister  of  Francis  I., 
held  her  literary  court  and  wrote  much  of  her 
Heptavrieron  at  Cauterets. 

Cauvery.    See  Kaveri. 

Cava  del  Tirreni,  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy,  in 
a  lovely  valley,  5^  miles  NW.  of  Salerno  by  rail. 
Pop.  6339.  About  a  mile  distant  is  a  Benedictine 
monastery  celebrated  for  its  archives. 

Cavaillon  (Ka-va-yon^'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Vaucluse,  18  miles  SE.  of  Avignon,  with 
a  cathedral  and  Roman  remains.    Pop.  9757. 

CaVan,  an  inland  county  in  the  south  of  Ulster. 
It  lies  in  the  narrowest  part  of  Ireland,  18  miles 
from  the  Atlantic,  and  20  from  the  Irish  Sea. 
Area,  746  sq.  m.,  of  which  less  than  a  third  is 
under  crops.  Bogs  and  hills,  with  many  small 
lakes,  are  found  in  the  north-west,  where  Cuil- 
cagh  attains  a  maximum  altitude  of  2188  feet. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Erne,  the  Woodford,  and 
the  Annalee.  Of  minerals,  Cavan  affords  coal, 
iron,  lead,  and  copper,  with  many  mineral  springs. 
The  chief  towns  are  Cavan,  Cootehill,  and  Bel- 
turbet.  Cavan  returns  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment. Pop.  (1851)  174,064;  (1901)  97,541,  of 
whom  79,026  were  Catholics.— Cavan,  the  county 
town,  stands  on  a  branch  of  the  Annalee,  85  miles 
NW.  of  Dublin  by  rail.     Pop.  2822. 

Oavlte  (Ka-vee-tay^,  a  decayed  seaport  of  Luzon, 
one  of  the  Philippines,  12  miles  SW.  of  the 
capital.     Pop.  5500. 

Cawdor,  a  Nairnshire  village,  5J  miles  SW.  of 
Nairn.  Cawdor  Castle,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of 
Cawdor,  was  founded  in  1454,  but  is  one  of  the 
three  traditional  scenes  of  King  Duncan's  murder 
by  Macbeth  in  1040.  See  Cosmo  Innes's  Book  of 
the  Thanes  of  Cawdor  (1859). 

Cavmpore'  (Kanhpur),  a  city  of  the  North- 
western Provinces,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Ganges,  42  miles  SW.  of  Lucknow,  266  SE.  of 
Delhi,  and  628  NW.  of  Calcutta.  The  river  here 
varies  according  to  the  season,  from  500  yards  in 
width  to  more  than  a  mile.  The  principal  land- 
ing-place is  the  beautiful  Sarsiya  ghat.  Ca^vn- 
pore,  at  least  as  a  place  of  note,  is  of  recent 
origin,  being  indebted  for  its  growth,  besides  its 
commercial  facilities,  partly  to  military  and 
political    considerations.     Population,    200,000. 


CAXAMARCA 


166 


CENTRAL  AMERICA 


In  1T77,  being  then  an  appendage  of  Oudh,  it 
was  assigned  by  the  nawab  as  the  station  of  a 
subsidiary  force  ;  and  in  1801  it  became,  in  name 
as  well  as  in  fact,  British  property.  At  the  out- 
break of  the  mutiny  in  May  1857,  Cawnpore  con- 
tained 1000  Europeans  (560  of  them  women  and 
children),  who,  after  a  three  weeks'  gallant 
defence,  surrendered  to  the  infamous  Nana 
Sahib,  on  promise  of  a  safe-conduct  to  Allaha- 
bad, only  to  be  pitilessly  massacred.  There 
is  a  memorial  church,  a  Romanesque  red- 
brick building,  whilst  the  scene  of  the  actual 
massacre  is  occupied  by  the  memorial  gardens. 
Over  the  fatal  well  a  mound  has  been  raised,  its 
summit  crowned  by  an  octagonal  Gothic  en- 
closure, with  Marochetti's  white  marble  angel  in 
the  centre.  But  Sir  George  Trevelyan's  Cawn- 
pore (1865)  is  the  best  memorial  of  the  tragedy. 
Caxamarca.  See  Cajamarca. 
Caxias,  (l)  a  town  of  Brazil,  in  the  province  of 
Maranhao,  on  the  navigable  Itapicuru,  190  miles 
from  its  mouth.  Pop.  10,000.— (2)  An  Italian 
colony  in  the  Brazilian  province  of  Rio  Grande 
do  Sul,  founded  in  1875.    Pop.  13,680. 

Cayenne,  a  fortified  seaport,  capital  of  French 
Guiana,  on  an  island  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  of 
the  same  name.  The  harbour  is  the  best  on 
the  coast,  but  insecure  and  shallow.  Cayenne, 
though  the  entrepot  of  all  tlie  trade  of  the  colony, 
is  chiefly  known  as  a  great  French  penal  settle- 
ment (since  1852),  its  climate  being  extremely 
unwholesome  for  Europeans.  The  French  took 
possession  of  the  island  in  1604,  and  again  in 
1677.  The  name  of  the  capital  is  sometimes  used 
for  the  whole  colony.    Pop.  12,600. 

Cayes,  or  Aux  Cayes  (0  Ka]/),  a  seaport  of 
Hayti,  on  the  south-west  coast,  95  miles  AVSW.  of 
Port-au-Prince.    Pop.  8000. 

Caymans  {Kl-mans'),  three  fertile  coral  islands, 
165  miles  NW.  of  Jamaica,  of  which  they  are  a 
dependency.  Columbus  discovered  them,  and 
called  them  Tortugas,  from  the  abundance  of 
turtle,  still  their  staple  production.  Area,  225 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  2322. 

Cazalla  de  la  Sierra,  a  Spanish  town,  38 
miles  ENE.  of  Seville.    Pop.  8310. 

Cazem'be,  an  African  territory  extending 
between  the  Moero  and' Bangweolo  lakes,  west 
of  30°  E.  long.     Here  Livingstone  died  in  1878. 

Cazorla,  a  town  of  Andalusia,  Spain,  40  miles 
ENE.  ofJaen.     Pop,  6692. 

Ceara  (Say-a-rdh'),  a  province  of  Brazil,  on  the 
north  coast,  with  an  area  of  40,253  sq.  m.,  and 
952,625  inhabitants.  The  capital,  Ceara,  has  a 
harbour,  with  breakwater,  and  is  the  terminus  of 
a  railway  to  Baturite  (90  miles).     Pop.  35,000. 

Cebu,  or  Zebu,  is  one  of  the  Philippine  Islands 
(q.v.),  the  seventh  in  respect  of  area. 

Cedar-bergen,  a  range  in  the  west  of  Cape 
Colony,  stretches  N.  and  S.  on  the  east  side  of 
Olifant  River  Valley,  in  Clanwilliam  division. 
Sneeuwkop  (6335  feet)  is  the  highest  point. 

Cedar  Creek,  a  river  of  Virginia,  U.S.,  giving 
name  to  the  defeat  of  the  Confederates,  19th 
October  1864. 

Cedar  Rapids,  a  town  of  Iowa,  on  the  Red 
Cedar  River,  79  miles  SW.  of  Dubuque.  It  is  an 
important  railway  centre,  and  has  large  flour- 
mills,  carriage  and  machine  works,  and  breweries. 
Pop.  (1860)  1830  ;  (1880)  10,104;  (1900)  25,656. 

Cefalii  (Chay -fa-loo'),  a  city  of  Sicily,  on  the 
north  coast,  40  miles  ESE.  of  Palermo.    It  lies 


beneath  a  cliff,  with  a  Norman  cathedral  and 
Greek  ruins.    Pop.  15,714. 

Ceglie  (Chayl'yay),  a  town  in  southern  Italy, 
21  miles  NE.  of  Taranto.     Pop.  13,865. 
Celano,  Lake  of.    See  Fucino,  Lake  of. 
Celaya  (Se-ldh'ya),  a  town  in  the  Mexican  state 
of  Guanajuato,  on  the  Rio  Laja,  about' 150  miles 
by  rail  NW.  of  the  city  of  Mexico.    Pop.  28,336. 

Celbridge,  a  town  of  Co.  Kildare,  Ireland,  on 
the  Liffey,  12  miles  W.  of  Dublin.     Pop.  915. 

Celebes  (Span.  pron.  The-lay'bez;  Eng.  usu.  Sel'- 
e-bez),  practically  a  Dutch  island,  is  separated 
from  Borneo  by  tlie  Strait  of  Macassar,  and  800 
miles  long  by  200  broad.  It  consists  of  a  central 
nucleus  whence  radiate  four  long  mountainous 
limbs,  respectively  E.,  NE.,  SE.,  and  S.,  enclosing 
the  three  gulfs  of  Gorontalo,  running  in  nearly 
200  miles,  Tolo  150  miles,  and  Boni  about  200 
miles.  The  gulfs,  as  also  the  north  and  west 
coasts,  are  studded  with  islands,  rocks  and  shoals, 
and  larger  outlying  islands.  The  east  end  of  the 
north-eastern  peninsula  is  subject  to  earthquakes, 
and  contains  11  volcanoes,  some  of  them  active, 
such  as  Mount  Sapoetan  (5938  feet),  and,  farther 
east,  Mount  Klabat  (6559  feet),  which  has  now, 
however,  long  been  quiescent,  besides  numerous 
hot  springs  and  sulphur  lakes.  The  mountains  of 
the  south  peninsula  seldom  rise  above  2000  feet. 
In  the  extreme  south,  however,  are  Maros  (4225 
feet)  and  Bonthain  (9994  feet).  Between  the  hills 
and  coast  of  the  south  peninsula  are  extensive 
grassy  plains,  affording  pasture  for  large  herds  of 
cattle  and  horses.  Celebes  is  rich  in  lakes, 
among  them,  Passo,  in  the  central  nucleus,  35  by 
25  miles,  and  Tondano,  nearly  2000  feet  above  the 
sea.  Thanks  to  the  elevation  of  the  land  and  its 
sea  exposure,  Celebes,  no  part  of  which  is  more 
than  50  miles  from  the  sea,  enjoys  a  compara- 
tively cool  and  healthy  climate.  The  vegetation 
includes  rice,  maize,  coffee,  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo, 
areca,  betel,  pepper,  clove  and  nutmeg  growing 
wild ;  the  tree  yielding  macassar  oil,  oak,  teak, 
cedar,  ebony,  sandalwood,  bamboos ;  also  the 
upas.  Many  animals,  birds,  and  insects  are 
wholly  peculiar  to  Celebes.  Gold  is  obtained 
from  surface  washings ;  iron,  salt,  tin,  and  copper 
are  likewise  worked. 

In  1900  the  pop.  was  calculated  at  1,878  500. 
The  Bugis  and  Mangkassars  of  the  south 
peninsula,  tall,  shapely,  and  comparatively  fair, 
are  the  dominant  native  race,  much  disposed  to 
trading  and  seafaring.  The  '  Alfuros,'  a  collective 
name  for  the  other  native  tribes,  are  at  a  very 
low  grade  of  culture.  Celebes  was  first  visited 
in  1525  by  a  Portuguese  expedition  from  the 
Moluccas.  In  1607  the  Dutch  began  to  trade 
with  Celebes,  and  now  claim  the  whole  island, 
which  they  have  divided  into  the  residences  of 
Macassar  and  Menado,  a  third  division  round  the 
north  and  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Tolo  being  included 
in  the  residence  of  the  Ternate.  The  chief  town 
is  Macassar  (pop.  20,000),  with  a  sea-frontage  of 
nearly  2^  miles.  See  Lahure,  Celebes  (Paris,  1879) ; 
Hickson,  The  Naturalist  in  North  Celebes  (1889). 

Cellardyke,    See  Anstruther. 

Celle,    See  Zell. 

Cenis,    See  Mont  Cenis, 

Cento  (Chen'to),  a  town  of  central  Italy,  16 
miles  N,  by  W.  of  Bologna.  It  is  the  birthplace 
of  the  painter  Guercino.    Pop.  4975. 

Central  America,  that  part  of  the  northern 
half  of  the  American  continent  which  lies  between 
the  isthmuses  of  Tehuantepec  and  Panama,  some- 
times extended  so  as  to  embrace  Mexico.     It 


CENTRAL  ASIA 


167 


CEUTA 


includes  the  republics  of  Guatemala,  Honduras, 
San  Salvador,  Nicaragua,  and  Costa  Rica  ;  Belize ; 
and  the  Mexican  state  of  Chiapa  and  peninsula  of 
Yucatan.  The  republic  of  Panama  (once  Colom- 
bian) might  now  be  added. 

Central  Asia.    See  Asia,  p.  55. 

Central  City,  tlie  name  of  several  villages  and 
hamlets  in  tlie  United  States,  and  of  the  capital 
of  Gilpin  county,  Colorado,  40  miles  W.  of 
Denver  by  rail,  with  quartz-mills  aud  rich  gold- 
mines, and  3126  inhabitants. 

Central  Falls,  a  city  of  Providence  county, 
Rhode  Island,  4^  miles  N.  of  Providence,  with 
extensive  manufactures.     Pop.  (1900)  18,167. 

Central  India,  the  official  term  for  a  group  of 
feudatory  Indian  states  Avhich  fall  into  nine 
political  agencies,  but  are  all  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  governor-general's  agent.  The 
region  in  which  these  states  lie  is  to  the  north  of 
the  British  '  Central  Provinces '  of  India,  and 
touches  the  North-west  Provinces,  Rajputana, 
Khandesh  in  the  Bombay  Province,  and  Chutia- 
Nagpur  in  Bengal.  The  area  is  78,800  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  8,650,000.  The  nine  subordinate  agencies 
comiH-ised  in  the  Central  India  Agency  are  the 
Indore,  Bhil  or  Bhopawar,  Deputy  Bhil,  Western 
Malwa,  Bhopal,  Gwalior,  Guna,  Bundelkhand, 
and  Baghelkhand  agencies. 

Central  Provinces,  a  chief-commissionership  of 
India,  near  the  centre  of  the  peninsula,  embracing 
18  British  districts  and  15  native  states.  Area, 
86,500  sq.  m.  British  and  30,000  native ;  pop. 
10,000,000  and  2,000,000  respectively.  The  surface 
is  irregular,  the  plains  being  broken  by  ridges  ;  in 
the  north  extend  the  Vindhyan  and  Satpura 
(2000  feet)  tablelands,  with  the  Nerbudda  be- 
tween ;  south  of  these  stretches  the  great  Nagpur 
plain,  with  the  Chatisgarh  plain  to  the  east,  and 
a  wild  forest-region  beyond,  reaching  almost  to 
the  Godavari.  The  climate  is  hot  and  dry,  ex- 
cept during  the  south-west  monsoon  (June— Sep- 
tember), when  41  of  the  mean  annual  45  inches 
of  rain  fall.  Wheat,  rice,  oil-seeds,  cotton,  and 
tobacco  are  raised ;  the  only  manufactures  of 
note  are  weaving  and  the  smelting  and  working 
of  iron  ores.  Of  the  population  three-fourths 
are  Hindus,  and  one-seventh  aboriginal  or  non- 
Aryan  tribes  who  still  adhere  to  their  primitive 
faiths.  Only  6  per  cent,  reside  in  the  52  towns 
of  above  5000  inhabitants,  of  which  three— Nag- 
pur, Jubbulpore,  and  Kampti— have  over  50,000 
inhabitants. 

Ceos  (modern  Kea,  Italianised  as  Zea  or  Tzla), 
one  of  the  Cyclades,  in  the  iEgean  Sea,  14  miles 
off  the  Attic  coast.  It  is  13  miles  long,  8  broad, 
and  39  sq.  m.  in  area.  The  culminating  point  is 
Mount  Elias,  1863  feet  high.  The  population  is 
4311,  of  whom  the  great  majority  live  in  the 
capital,  Zea  or  Ceos.  In  ancient  times  Ceos  was 
noted  as  the  birthplace  of  the  poets  Simonides 
and  Bacchylides,  and  the  physician  Erasistratus. 

Cephalonia  (Homeric  Sams,  or  Samos),  the 
largest  of  the  seven  Ionian  Islands  (q.v.),  lies 
opposite  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Lepanto  or 
Corinth.  It  is  irregular  in  shape,  with  a  length 
of  30  miles,  and  an  area  of  302  sq.  m.  Pop. 
83,543.  The  surface  is  mountainous,  attaining 
6310  feet ;  the  soil  for  the  most  part  thin,  and 
water  scarce.    The  capital  is  Argostoli  (q.v.). 

Cephissus,  one  of  the  two  rivers  which  water 
the  Athenian  plain. 

Ceram'  (Serang),  the  largest  of  the  south- 
ern Moluccas  (q.v.),  lies  NB.  of  Amboyna,  to 
Which  Dutch  residency  it  belongs,  and  is  divided 


into  Great  and  Little  Ceram  by  the  Isthmus  of 
Taruno.  Area,  6605  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  105,000.  A 
mountain-chain  reaches  in  Nusa  Keli  11,000  feet. 

Cerignola  (Chereen'yola),  a  town  of  Italy,  22 
miles  SB.  of  Foggia  by  rail.  Tlie  Spanish  victory 
over  the  French  here  in  1503  established  Spain's 
supremacy  in  Naples.     Pop.  34,200. 

Cerigo  {Cher'ee-go),  the  southernmost  of  the  seven 
Ionian  Islands  (q.v.),  now  officially  known  again 
by  its  old  Greek  name  ofCythera,  is  separated  from 
the  Morea  by  a  narrow  strait.  Ajea,  107  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  14,259.  Capsali  is  the  capital.  In  ancient* 
times  the  island  was  sacred  to  Venus. 

Cerne  Abbas,  a  market-town  of  Dorset,  on  the 
Cerne,  7  miles  N.  of  Dorchester.    Pop.  834. 

Cerreto  (Cher-ray' to),  a  cathedral  city  of  south 
Italy,  14  miles  NNW.  of  Benevento.     Pop.  5129. 

Cerro  de  Pasco  (Serro),  the  capital  of  the  Peru- 
vian dep.  of  Junin,  stands  at  an  elevation  of 
14,276  feet,  138  miles  NE.  of  Lima.  Near  it  are 
rich  silver-mines.     Pop.  15,000. 

Cerro  Gordo,  a  plateau  in  Mexico,  the  most 
easterly  on  the  route  from  Vera  Cruz  to  the  capi- 
tal. Here,  on  18th  April  1847,  the  Americans 
totally  defeated  the  Mexicans. 

Cerro  Largo,  a  dep.  in  the  NE.  of  Uruguay. 
Area,  5735  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  38,000.  Capital,  Cerro 
Largo  or  Melo  ;  pop.  5000. 

Certaldo  (Cher-tahl'do),  a  town  of  central  Italy, 
19  miles  SW.  of  Florence  (37  by  rail).  Boccaccio 
was  born  and  died  here.  His  house  still  stands 
much  as  in  his  time.    Pop.  2500. 

Cervet'ri  (from  Ccere  Vetus),  a  village  19  miles 
WNW.  of  Rome,  on  the  site  of  the  ancient  Ccere 
or  Agylla,  formerly  one  of  the  most  important 
cities  of  Etruria. 

Cervin,  Mont.    See  Matterhorn. 

Cesena  (Chez-ay'na),  a  cathedral  city  of  central 
Italy,  12  miles  SB.  of  Forli  by  rail.  It  gave  birth 
to  Popes  Pius  VI.  and  VII.  Pop.  16,435.  Here 
Murat  defeated  the  Austrians,  30th  March  1815. 

Cetinje,  or  Cettign^  {Set-tin' y eh),  capital  of 
Montenegro,  lies  in  a  rocky  valley  2093  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  17  miles  E.  of  Cattaro.     Pop.  3200. 

Cette  {Sett),  a  seaport  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Herault,  on  a  neck  of  land  between  the  lagoon  of 
Thau  and  the  Mediterranean,  23  miles  SW.  of 
Montpellier.  The  harbour  enclosed  by  the  piers 
and  breakwater  can  accommodate  about  400 
vessels,  and  is  defended  by  forts.  A  broad  deep 
canal,  lined  with  excellent  quays,  connects  the 
port  with  the  Canal  du  Midi  and  the  Rhone, 
thus  giving  to  Cette  an  extensive  inland  traffic ; 
it  has  likewise  an  active  foreign  commerce.  Cette 
has  shipbuilding  yards,  salt-works,  glass-works, 
factories  for  the  manufacture  of  syrups  and  grape- 
sugar,  &c.  It  is  a  resort  for  sea-bathing,  and  has 
extensive  fisheries.  Colbert  founded  it  in  1666. 
Pop.  (1872)  25,181 ;  (1901)  32,364. 

Ce'uta  (Span.  pron.  Thay'oo-ta),  a  fortified  port 
belonging  to  Spain,  on  the  coast  of  Morocco, 
opposite  Gibraltar.  It  occupies  the  site  of  the 
Roman  colony  of  Ad  Septem  Fratres,  so  called 
from  the  seven  hills,  of  which  the  most  prominent 
are  Montes  Almina  and  Hacho  ;  on  the  latter,  the 
ancient  Abyla  (one  of  the  Pillars  of  Hercules),  is 
a  strong  fort,  and  on  the  former,  among  beautiful 
gardens,  lies  the  New  Town.  Ceuta  has  a 
cathedral,  but  is  chiefly  important  as  a  military 
and  convict  station.  The  harbour  is  small,  and 
exposed  to  the  north.  In  1415  Ceuta,  with  its 
territory,  was  captured  by  the  Portuguese ;  in 
1580  it  fell  to  Spain.     Pop.  13,339, 


CEVENNES 


168 


CEYLON 


Cevennes  (anc.  Cebenna),  the  chief  mountain- 
range  in  the  south  of  France.  With  its  continua- 
tions and  offsets,  it  forms  the  watershed  between 
the  Rhone  and  the  Loire  and  Garonne.  The 
Cevennes  extend  for  over  150  miles,  through  or 
into  nine  deps.,  the  central  inass  lying  in  Lozere 
and  Arddche,  where  Mont  Lozere  attains  5584 
feet,  and  Mont  Mezeuc  (the  culminating  point  of 
the  chain)  5754  feet.  The  average  height  is  from 
3000  to  4000  feet.  See  works  by  R.  L.  Steven- 
son (1879)  and  E.  A.  Martel  (Paris,  1890). 

Ceylon  (the  Taproiane  of  the  Greeks  and 
Romans,  and  the  Serendib  of  the  Arabian  Nights), 
a  British  crown  colony  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  is  an 
island  to  the  south-east  of  India,  from  which  it 
is  separated  by  the  Gulf  of  Manaar  and  Palk 
Strait,  32  to  120  miles  broad.  Extreme  length 
from  north  to  south,  266  miles ;  greatest  width, 
140  miles.  Area,  23, .330  sq.  m,,  of  which  about 
one -sixth  is  under  cultivation.  In  natural 
scenery  Ceylon  can  vie  with  any  part  of  the  world ; 
and  as  its  magnificent  hills  rise  from  the  sapphire 
ocean,  clothed  with  the  rich  luxuriance  of  a  tropi- 
cal vegetation,  it  seems  to  the  voyager  like  some 
enchanted  island  of  Eastern  story.  Undulating 
plains  cover  about  four  parts  of  the  island,  and 
the  fifth  is  occupied  by  the  mountain-zone  of  the 
central  south,  which  has  an  elevation  of  from 
6000  to  8000  feet  above  the  sea-level.  Pedrotalla- 
galla  attains  the  height  of  8260  feet ;  Adam's  Peak, 
7420  feet ;  and  the  tableland  of  Nuwara-Eliya, 
6210  feet.  The  mountain-system  is  mainly  com- 
posed of  metamorphic  rocks,  chiefly  gneiss,  fre- 
quently broken  up  by  intrusive  granite.  With 
the  exception  of  some  local  beds  of  dolomitic 
limestone,  the  gneiss  is  everywhere  the  surface 
rock,  and  the  soil  is  composed  of  its  disintegrated 
materials.  Iron  can  be  obtained  in  great  quan- 
tities, and  anthracite  and  rich  veins  of  plumbago 
exist  on  the  southern  range  of  hills.  Gold  has 
recently  been  found.  The  gems  of  Ceylon  have 
been  celebrated  from  time  immemorial,  and  in- 
clude sapphires,  rubies,  the  oriental  topaz,  garnets, 
amethysts,  cinnamon  stone,  and  cat's-eye.  The 
pearl-fisheries  of  Ceylon,  known  at  a  very  remote 
date,  fonn  a  government  monopoly,  and  are 
under  the  inspection  of  an  officer,  who  reports 
when  a  sufficient  number  of  pearl-yielding  oysters 
have  reached  maturity.  The  fishings  occur  at 
irregular  dates.  The  value  of  pearls  obtained 
varies  from  £10,000  in  some  years  to  £60,000  in 
others  ;  there  was  no  fishing  from  1892  till  1904. 

The  most  important  river  in  Ceylon  is  the 
Mahavila-ganga,  which  drains  more  than  4000  sq. 
m.  Galle  and  Trincomalee  are  the  only  great 
natural  harbours ;  but  harbour  iinprovements 
have  concentrated  the  commerce  of  the  island 
at  Colombo,  the  capital  of  the  island.  At  Trin- 
comalee are  the  naval  stores  and  dockyard.  In 
climate,  Ceylon  has  a  great  advantage  over  the 
mainland  of  India,  and  as  an  island  enjoys  a 
more  equable  temperature.  The  average  for  the 
year  in  Colombo  is  80°  in  ordinary  seasons.  The 
beautiful  tableland  of  Nuwara-Eliya  is  used 
as  a  sanatorium.  Here  the  thermonaeter  in  the 
shade  never  rises  above  70°,  while  the  average  is 
62° ;  the  nights  are  cool  and  refreshing.  The 
general  botanical  features  of  Ceylon  are  in  many 
respects  similar  to  those  of  Southern  India  ;  but 
about  800  species  of  p  ants  are  peculiar  to  the 
island.  Of  animals  the  quadrumana  are  repre- 
sented by  the  Loris  gracilis  and  five  species  of 
monkeys.  Sixteen  species  of  bats  exist  in  Ceylon, 
including  the  flying-fox.  Of  the  larger  carnivora, 
the  bear  and  leopard ;  and  of  the  smaller,  the  palm- 
cat  and  the  glossy  genette  (the  civet  of  Europeans) 


may  be  mentioned.  The  tiger  is  not  met  with  in 
Ceylon.  Deer,  buffaloes,  and  the  humped  ox  of 
India  are  plentiful,  and  the  wild  boar  occurs. 
The  elephant,  which  is  for  the  most  part  tusk- 
less,  is  emphatically  lord  of  the  forests  of  Ceylon. 
Whales  are  captured  off  the  coast.  Three  hun- 
dred and  twenty  species  of  birds  are  found.  The 
crocodile  is  the  largest  reptile  in  the  island  ;  tor- 
toises and  lizards  are  also  found.  There  are  a 
few  species  of  venomous  snakes. 

The  Singhalese  (Sinhalese,  also  spelt  Cingalese), 
the  most  numerous  of  the  natives  of  Ceylon,  are 
supposed  to  be  the  descendants  of  those  colonists 
from  the  valley  of  the  Ganges  who  first  settled 
in  the  island  543  B.C.,  and  speak  an  Aryan  lan- 
guage closely  allied  to  the  Pali  or  niodernised 
Sanskrit.  The  Kandyans,  or  Highlanders,  are 
a  more  sturdy  race.  The  Malabars,  or  Tamils, 
have  sprung  from  those  early  invaders  of  Ceylon 
who  from  time  to  time  swept  across  from  Southern 
Hindustan.  The  Moormen,  of  Arab  descent,  are 
enterprising  traders.  The  '  burghers '  of  Ceylon 
are  people  of  Portuguese  and  Dutch  descent,  who 
have  become  naturalised.  There  is  besides  a 
remarkable  tribe  of  outcasts— the  Veddahs— 
hardly  removed  from  the  wild  animals  of  the 
forest.  The  Singhalese  are  devoted  to  Buddhism, 
which  has,  however,  been  adulterated  with  Brah- 
manism.  The  most  celebrated  Buddhistic  relic 
in  Ceylon  is  the  so-called  sacred  tooth  of  Gautama 
or  Buddha,  really  a  piece  of  discoloured  ivory, 
which  is  guarded  with  jealous  care  at  Kandy. 
Another  is  the  sacred  Bo-tree  of  Anuradhapura. 
Brahmanism  or  Hinduisni  is  the  faith  of  the 
Tamils  or  Malabars,  and  the  Moormen  are  Mo- 
hanunedans.  After  the  expulsion  of  the  Dutch 
Christians,  Protestant  missions  to  the  natives  of 
Ceylon  Avere  commenced  by  the  Baptists  in  1813. 
The  Wesleyan  Methodists  followed  in  1814,  the 
Americans  in  1816,  the  Church  of  England  in 
1818.  Schools,  collegiate  institutions,  and  female 
seminaries,  under  the  direction  of  the  mission- 
aries, are  in  successful  operation ;  and  there  is 
a  government  system  of  education.  Amongst 
the  antiquities  of  Ceylon  are  dagobas  or  relic- 
shrines,  cave-temples  and  other  temples,  and 
viharas  or  monasteries ;  also  the  ruined  tanks, 
singular  monuments  of  the  former  greatness  of 
the  Singhalese.  Thirty  colossal  reservoirs,  and 
about  700  smaller  tanks,  still  exist,  though  for 
the  most  part  in  ruins.  The  restoration  of  these 
magnificent  works  of  irrigation  is  being  carried 
on  by  the  government. 

Coffee  was  long  the  chief  connnercial  product 
of  the  island ;  but  in  1869  a  fungus  (Hemileia 
vastatrix)  attacked  the  leaves  of  the  coffee-trees, 
and  though  everything  was  tried  to  mitigate  or 
overcome  the  pest,  it  steadily  increased  in  viru- 
lence, and  the  coffee-planters  were  obliged  to  turn 
their  attention  to  other  products  of  the  soil.  Cin- 
chona, cacao,  cardamoms,  and  many  other  plants 
were  tried  with  varying  success,  but  it  soon  became 
plain  that  Ceylon  was  capable  of  becoming  a  great 
tea-producing  country,  and  tea  has  become  the 
chief  factor  in  restoring  the  financial  equilibrium. 
Cinnamon  and  cocoa-nut  cultivation  are  chiefly 
in  the  hands  of  natives ;  tea,  cinchona,  cacao, 
and  cardamom  cultivation  in  the  hands  of  Euro- 
peans. The  export  of  coffee  fell  from  995,493 
cwt.  in  1873  to  10,315  cwt.  in  1902.  In  1878 
3515  lb.  of  tea  were  exported ;  in  1900-4  over 
150,000,000  lb.  a  year.  The  other  exports  are 
cinchona,  cocoa,  coco-nut  oil,  cinnamon,  carda- 
moms, plumbago,  tobacco,  coir,  copra,  and  cord- 
age— mainly  to  India  and  Britain.  The  chief 
imports  from  Britain  are  cotton  goods,  iron  and' 


CEZIMBRA 


169 


CHALON-StJR-SAON£ 


Iron  goods,  coal,  and  machinery;  but  the  chief 
import  is  rice  from  India.  In  the  early  years  of 
the  20th  century  the  exports  to  Britain  averaged 
£3,500,000  a  year,  and  the  imports  from  Britain 
£2,100,000. 

Ceylon,  the  largest  of  the  British  crown 
colonies,  is  administered  by  a  governor  aided  by 
executive  and  legislative  councils  (the  former 
consisting  of  five  members,  the  latter  of  lifteen, 
partially  elective),  and  municipal  councils.  Local 
boards  and  village  tribunals  give  a  measure  of 
self-government  to  the  people.  The  population 
of  Ceylon,  2,763,984  at  the  census  of  1881,  rose  by 

1901  to  3,578,333,  of  whom  2,331,045  are  Singhalese, 
953,535  Tamil  immigrants  and  settlers,  228,706 
Moormen  (Mohammedans  of  Arab  descent),  9509 
Europeans,  23,539  Eurasian  descendants  of  Portu- 
guese and  Dutch,  3971  Yeddahs,  and  11,963  Malays. 
The  revenue  in  1882  was  12,161,570  rupees,  and  in 

1902  was  27,198,056  rupees.  The  expenditure  had 
risen  from  12,494,664  rupees  in  1882  to  26,341,878 
in  1902.  In  the  latter  year  the  rupee  had  de- 
preciated to  Is.  4d.  Buddhism  was  introduced 
into  Ceylon  in  307  b.c.  In  237  B.C.  the  Malabar 
mercenaries  usurped  supreme  power,  which  they 
retained  till  1071  a.d.,  when  for  100  years  a  native 
dynasty  ruled,  the  reign  of  Prakrama  (from  1153 
A.D.  on)  being  the  most  glorious  in  the  annals 
of  Ceylon.  The  Malabars  struggled  with  the 
native  dynasties  till  1517,  when  the  Portuguese 
established  themselves  in  the  island,  to  be  ex- 
pelled by  the  Dutch  in  1658  ;  and  it  was  not 
till  the  great  French  wars  at  the  end  of  the  18th 
century  that  the  Dutch  ceded  all  their  powers 
and  possessions  here  to  Britain,  the  island  being 
formally  annexed  to  the  British  crown  in  1815. 

See  various  works  by  John  Ferguson  (1898,  &c.) ; 
Two  Happy  Years  in  Ceylon,  by  Miss  Gordon 
Gumming  (1891) ;  and  the  Official  Handbook  (1900) 
by  Davidson. 

Cezimbra,  a  coast  town  of  Portugal,  18  miles 
S.  of  Lisbon.     Pop.  9815. 

Ohablis  {Shah-lee'),  a  town  in  the  dep.  of 
Yonne,  12  miles  E.  of  Auxerre.  It  gives  name  to 
an  esteemed  white  Burgundy  wine.    Pop.  2300. 

Chaco,  El  Gran.    See  Gran  Chaco. 

Chad,  Tchad,  or  Tsad,  Lake,  a  lake  in  the 
Soudan,  Northern  Africa,  with  an  estimated  area 
of  10,000  sq.  m.  in  the  dry  season,  and  four  or  five 
times  that  extent  during  the  rainy  months.  The 
western  half  contains  the  real  lake ;  the  eastern 
is  generally  a  complex  of  low  islands,  separated 
by  shallow  canals,  and  inhabited  by  a  race  of 
semi-amphibious  Negroes.  The  few  streams  that 
reach  the  lake  are  all  small,  except  the  Shari, 
which  comes  from  the  south-east.  Lake  Chad, 
whose  waters  are  perfectly  fresh,  has  no  regular 
outlet.  It  sometimes  overflows  towards  a  great 
depressed  plain  300  miles  to  the  north-east.  The 
first  Europeans  to  see  it  were  Denham,  Clapper- 
ton,  and  Oudney  ;  Nachtigal  explored  it  in  1870. 
The  lake  is  surrounded  by  the  states  of  Bornu, 
Kanem,  Wadai,  and  Bagirrai.  Wadai  is  a  strong, 
independent  state,  with  Kanem  and  Bagirini  as 
its  vassal  states.  The  line  that  divides  the  sphere 
of  French  influence  from  the  British  sphere  runs 
from  Say  on  the  Niger  to  Barrua  on  the  west  shore 
of  Chad,  leaving  Sokoto  and  Bornu  in  the  English 
sphere.  The  treaty  agreed  on  by  England  and 
Germany  in  1893  made  the  line  between  the  Eng- 
lish sphere  and  the  German  run  from  the  Bight 
of  Biafra  to  Yola  on  the  Benue,  and  thence  to  the 
SW.  corner  of  Lake  Chad,  leaving  the  southern 
shore  of  Chad,  with  most  of  Adamawa  and  part  of 
Bagirmi  and  the  mouth  of  the  Shari,  in  the  German 


sphere  as  the  '  Hinterland '  of  Cameroon.  This 
the  French  hotly  contested  on  the  score  of  treaties 
made  with  Adamawa  by  Mizon.  The  French  have 
of  late  done  much  exploration  hereabouts,  with  a 
view  of  extending  their  influence.  See  the  work 
on  the  travels  of  the  unfortunate  explorer 
Crampel  by  Alls,  A  la  Conquete  die  Tchad  (1892); 
and  Dybowski,  Im  Route  du  Tchad  (1893). 

Chadda,  another  name  for  the  Benue  (q.v.). 

Chadderton,  a  suburb  of  Oldham  (q.v.). 

Chaeronea,  a  town  in  ancient  Boeotia,  near  the 
river  Cei)hissus,  memorable  for  the  disastrous 
defeat  of  the  Athenians  by  Philip  of  Macedon, 
338  B.C.     Plutarch  was  a  native. 

Chagny  (Shan-yee'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Saone-et-Loire,  32  miles  S.  of  Dijon.    Pop.  4589. 

Chagos.    See  Diego  Garcia. 

Chagres  (Tchdh-gres),  a  town  of  the  republic 
of  Panama;  on  the  N.  coast  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Panama,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Chagres  River.  The 
river  Chagres  rises  about  10  nailes  NE.  of  Panama, 
makes  an  immense  bend  round  to  the  NE.,  and 
enters  the  Caribbean  Sea.  Though  towards  its 
mouth  it  varies  in  depth  from  16  to  30  feet,  it  is 
yet  but  little  available  for  navigation.  The  pro- 
posed route  of  the  Panama  Canal  was  by  the 
valley  of  the  Chagres  for  part  of  its  course. 

Chalce'don,  a  city  of  ancient  Bithynia,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Euxine,  opposite  to  Byzantium. 

Chalcis,  the  capital  of  the  Greek  island  of 
Euboea,  on  the  Euripus,  a  strait  here  only  120 
feet  wide.  It  was  successively  Athenian,  Mace- 
donian, Roman,  and  Venetian,  until  its  conquest 
by  the  Turks  in  1470.     Pop.  9877. 

Chaleurs,  Bay  of,  an  inlet  of  the  Gulf  of  St 
Lawrence,  between  Gaspe,  a  district  of  Quebec, 
and  New  Brunswick,  having  a  length  of  90  miles 
east  and  west,  and  a  width  of  from  12  to  20. 

Chalfont  St  Giles,  a  village  of  Buckingham- 
shire, 16  miles  SE.  of  Aylesbury.  Milton's  cot- 
tage here  (1665)  was  saved  from  demolition  and 
purchased  by  the  nation  in  1887. 

Chalgrove,  a  village  13  miles  SE.  of  Oxford, 
the  scene  of  a  skirmish  between  Prince  Rupert's 
cavalry  and  a  parliamentary  force  under  Hamp- 
den, who  here  received  his  death-wound,  June 
18, 1643. 

Chalons-sur-Marne  (Shdhlon'-siir-Mam),  the 
capital  of  the  French  dep.  of  Marne,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  river  Marne,  107  miles  E.  of  Paris  by 
rail.  An  old  place,  Avith  timber  houses  and  many 
spired  churches,  it  has  a  13th-century  cathedral, 
a  handsome  h6tel-de-ville(1772),  and  a  fine  public 
park,  though  the  Germans  in  1870  cut  down  its 
immemorial  elms  for  fuel.  It  still  does  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  champagne  wine  ;  but  its  manu- 
facture of  the  worsted  cloth  known  as  *  shalloon ' 
(Chaucer's  chalons)  is  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  the 
population  has  dwindled  from  60,000  in  the  13th 
century  to  21,500  in  the  20th.  Near  Chalons  (anc. 
Catalauni)  the  Romans  and  Goths  in  451  a.d. 
defeated  Attila  and  his  Huns.  In  1856  Napoleon 
III.  formed  the  celebrated  camp  of  Chalons,  16J 
miles  NE.  of  the  town. 

Chalon-sur-Saone  (Shdhlon^-silr-Sone),  a  town 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Saone-et-Loire,  84^  miles  by 
rail  N.  of  Lyons.  Lying  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Saone,  which  here  isjoined  by  the  Canal  du  Centre, 
uniting  it  with  the  Loire,  Ch5,lon  has  an  extensive 
traffic  with  central  France,  as  well  as  with  the 
Mediterranean  and  Atlantic.  The  industries  are 
copper  and  iron  founding,  machinery  and  ship- 
building, and  the  manufacture  of  glass,  paper, 
and  chemicals.    Pop.  30,000. 


CHAMALAItl 


X10 


CHANNEL 


Chamalarl  (Tcha-ma-lah'ree),  a  peak  (23,944 
feet)  of  the  Himalayas,  between  Tibet  and  Bhutan, 
140  miles  E.  of  Mount  Everest. 

Chamba,  one  of  the  Punjab  Hill  States,  imme- 
diately SE.  of  Cashmere,  with  an  area  of  3180  sq. 
m.  Pop.  128,000,  nearly  all  Hindus.  It  is  shut 
in  by  lofty  hills,  and  traversed  by  two  ranges  of 
snowy  peaks  and  glaciers,  with  fertile  valleys 
to  the  south  and  west.  The  banks  of  the  Ravi 
and  Chenab,  two  of  the  five  great  Punjab  rivers, 
are  clothed  with  mighty  forests,  leased  to  the 
British  government. 

Chambal,  a  river  rising  in  the  Vindhya  Range, 
2019  feet  above  sea-level,  and  flowing  650  miles 
north-eastward  to  the  Jumna  40  miles  below 
Etawah. 

Chambersburg,  capital  of  Franklin  county, 
Pennsylvania,  52  miles  WSW.  of  Harrisburg  by 
rail.  A  large  part  of  it  was  burned  by  the  Con- 
federates in  1864.    Pop.  8863. 

Obambery  (Shovfbay-ree'),  capital  of  the  old 
duchy  and  present  French  dep.  of  Savoy,  beauti- 
fully situated  between  two  ridges  of  hills,  370  miles 
SE.  of  Paris  by  rail.  The  town  itself  is  uninterest- 
ing ;  but  the  scenery  around,  with  the  river  Laisse 
flowing  through  the  valley,  is  exceedingly  fine. 
Chambery  has  a  small  cathedral,  a  palace  of 
justice,  and  the  old  castle  of  the  Dukes  of  Savoy. 
It  manufactures  clocks,  silk-gauze,  soap,  hats, 
paper,  &c.    Pop.  17,100. 

Chambeze  {Cham-bee' zeli),  the  farthest  head- 
stream  of  the  Congo,  rises  south  of  Tanganyika, 
about  9°  40'  S.  lat.,  and  33°  15'  E.  long.,  and  flows 
south-west  to  Lake  Bangweolo  (q.v.). 

Cbambord  (Shon^borr'),  a  celebrated  chateau  in 
the  French  dep.  of  Loir-et-Cher,  12  miles  E.  of 
Blois.  Commenced  in  1526,  it  is  a  huge  Renais- 
sance pile,  and  in  1821  was  presented  to  the 
Comte  de  Chambord  (1820-83). 

Chamounl,  or  Chamonix  (Shah-moo-nee' ;  Lat. 
Campus  munitus,  as  sheltered  by  the  mountains), 
a  celebrated  valley  among  the  French  Alps,  in  the 
dep.  of  Upper  Savoy,  53  miles  ESE.  of  Geneva, 
at  an  elevation  of  about  3400  feet  above  sea-level. 
It  is  about  13  miles  long  and  2  broad,  and  is 
traversed  by  the  Arve.  On  the  south  side  lies 
the  giant  group  of  Mont  Blanc,  from  which 
enormous  glaciers  glide  down,  even  in  summer, 
almost  to  the  bottom  of  the  valley :  one  of 
them,  the  Glacier  des  Bois,  expands  in  its  upper 
course  into  a  great  mountain-lake  of  ice,  the  Mer 
de  Glace.  The  village  of  Chamouni,  which  is 
the  usual  starting-point  for  the  ascent  of  Mont 
Blanc,  owes  its  origin  and  its  alternative  name, 
Le  Prieure,  to  the  Benedictine  convent  founded 
here  before  1099.  In  1741  Chamouni  was  visited 
by  two  Englishmen,  Pococke  and  Wyndham,  but 
it  was  only  in  1787  that  the  attention  of  travellers 
was  effectually  called  to  it  by  the  Genevese  natu- 
ralist, De  Saussure,  and  others.  Since  then  the 
number  of  visitors  has  increased  to  over  15,000 
tourists,  and  the  railway  was  opened  in  1901. 
Pop.  of  village,  600;  of  commune,  2500. 

Champagne,  a  district  and  ancient  province 
(180  by  150  miles)  of  France,  now  forming  the  deps. 
of  Marne,  Haute-Marne,  Aube,  and  Ardennes, 
with  parts  of  Yonne,  Aisne,  Seine-et-Marne, 
and  Meuse.  It  is  famous  for  its  white  and  red 
wines,  the  former  either  sparkling  or  still ;  the 
best  varieties  are  produced  at  Rheims  and 
Epernay.  The  chief  towns  were  Troyes,  Bar-sur- 
Aube,  Leon,  and  Rheims. 

Champaign,  a  city  of  Illinois,  128  miles  SSW. 


of  Chicago.  It  has  furniture  and  wagon  factories, 
and  an  Industrial  University  (1868).     Pop.  9839. 

Champaran,  a  British  Indian  district  in  the 
NW.  corner  of  Behar,  with  an  area  of  3531  sq.  m., 
and  a  pop.  of  1,859,465. 

Champlain',  a  beautiful  lake  separating  the 
states  of  New  York  and  Vermont,  and  penetrat- 
ing, at  its  north  end,  about  6  miles  into  Canada. 
Lying  91  feet  above  sea-level,  it  is  110  miles  long, 
by  from  1  to  15  broad,  empties  itself  into  the  St 
Lawrence  by  the  Richelieu  River,  and  has  com- 
munication by  canal  with  the  Hudson.  The  lake 
was  discovered  by  Champlain  in  1609  ;  and  here  a 
British  flotilla  was  defeated  by  the  Americans, 
11th  September  1814. 

Chancellorsville,  a  post-station  of  Virginia, 
near  the  Rappahannock,  11  miles  W.  of  Fredericks- 
burg. Here,  May  2  and  3,  1863,  the  Confederates 
defeated  the  Federals,  but  suffered  a  severe  loss 
in  Stonewall  Jackson,  who  was  accidentally  shot 
by  his  own  men. 

Chanda,  chief  town  of  a  district  of  India,  on 
the  south-west  frontier  of  the  Central  Provinces, 
90  miles  S.  of  Nagpur.     Pop.  16,137. 

Chandausl,  a  town  of  the  United  Provinces,  27 
miles  S.  of  Moradabad.     Pop.  25,000. 

Cbanderi  (Tchanday'ree),  a  town  of  Central 
India,  105  miles  S.  of  Gwalior.  Now  an  insignifi- 
cant place,  it  once  contained  14,000  stone  houses. 

Cbandernagore  (properly  Chandan-nagar, '  city 
of  sandalwood'),  a  French  city,  with  a  territory 
of  about  3^  sq.  m.,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Hugli,  22  miles  above  Calcutta.  Established  in 
1673,  it  for  a  while  rivalled  Calcutta;  now, 
through  the  gradual  silting  up  of  the  river,  it  has 
little  external  trade.     Pop.  25,395. 

Cbandor,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Bombay, 
40  miles  NB.  of  Nasik.  Its  fort,  commanding  an 
important  pass  between  Khandesh  and  Bombay, 
crowns  a  hill  3994  feet  high.     Pop.  4892. 

Chandpur,  a  town  of  the  United  Provinces,  19 
miles  S.  of  Bijnaur.    Pop.  12,000. 

Cbang-Chow,  two  cities  of  China,  (1)  a  city  28 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Amoy ;  pop.  1,000,000.— (2)  a 
city  50  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Nanking ;  pop.  360,000. 

Chang-Sha,  a  city  of  China,  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Hu-nan,  on  the  Heng-kiang,  a  tributary 
of  the  Yang-tse.     Pop.  300,000. 

Channel,  The  Ekglish  (Fr.  La  Manche, 
'  Sleeve ; '  Roman  Mare  Britannicum),  is  the 
narrow  sea  between  England  and  France.  On 
the  east,  it  joins  the  North  Sea  at  the  Strait  of 
Dover,  21  miles  wide,  from  which  it  runs  west- 
south-west  for  280  miles,  and  joins  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  at  the  Chops,  with  a  breadth  of  100  miles 
between  the  Scilly  Isles  and  Ushant  Isle.  With 
an  average  breadth  of  70  miles,  it  is  90  miles 
wide  fi'om  Brighton  to  Havre ;  60  miles  from 
Portland  Bill  to  Cape  La  Hague ;  140  miles — its 
greatest  breadth — from  Sidmouth  to  St  Malo; 
and  100  to  110  miles  west  of  the  latter  line.  It 
occupies  23,900  square  geographical  miles,  and 
contains  the  Channel  Isles,  Ushant  Isle,  and  Isle 
of  Wight.  It  is  shallowest  at  the  Strait  of  Dover, 
where  a  chalk  ridge  at  the  depth  of  twelve  to 
thirty  fathoms  joins  England  and  France.  West 
of  this,  the  average  depth  of  the  central  portion 
is  thirty  fathoms,  with  hollows  from  forty  to 
sixty-two  fathoms  deep.  The  English  coast-line 
of  the  Channel  is  390  miles  long,  and  the  French 
coast-line  is  570  miles  long.  The  proposed  Chan- 
nel Tunnel,  23  miles  long,  from  Dover  to  Calais, 
was  discussed  first  in  1867, 


CHANNEL  ISLANDS 


\n 


eHAftLESi?(Mf 


Channel  Islands,  a  group  of  small  islands  off 
the  NW.  coast  of  France,  whicli  from  the  10th 
century  formed  part  of  the  old  duchy  of  Nor- 
mandy, and  since  the  Norman  Conquest  has 
remained  subject  to  the  British  crown.  The 
nearest  points  are  about  12  miles  from  the  French 
coast.  The  four  principal  islands  are  Jersey, 
Alderneyj  Sark,  and  Guernsey ;  others  being  tlie 
Caskets  (or  Casquets),  Burhou,  Brecqhou,  Jethou, 
Herm,  the  Minquiers,  and  the  Chausseys.  The 
area  is  75  sq.  m.,  the  population  over  95,000. 
The  islands  are  administered  according  to  their 
own  laws  and  customs,  and  are  not  botuid  by 
British  acts  of  parliament.  Jersey  has  its  own 
lieutenant-governor,  judges,  and  'states'  partly 
elective ;  Guernsey,  Alderney,  and  Sark  have  a 
governor  in  conanion,  but  separate  administra- 
tions. English  predominates  in  the  towns  ;  else- 
where the  vernacular  is  a  local  modification  of 
old  Norman-French.  The  scenery  is  beautiful, 
the  climate  delightful  to  invalids.  Frost  and 
snow  are  rare.  Flowering  plants  and  shrubs  are 
about  a  fortnight  earlier  in  the  sj^ring  than  iu 
England.  The  produce  of  the  islands  is  princi- 
pally agricultural ;  but  horticulture  and  flori- 
culture are  successfully  followed  — the  latter 
especially  in  Guernsey.  The  system  of  cultiva- 
tion is  very  primitive.  The  principal  manure  is 
seaweed.  A  great  quantity  is  burned  for  the 
manufacture  of  kelp  and  iodine.  The  principal 
crops  are  potatoes,  hay,  wheat,  turnips,  mangel- 
wurzel,  parsnips,  and  carrots.  The  Channel 
Islands  are  famous  for  excellent  breeds  of  horned 
cattle,  usually  known  as  'Alderneys,'  though 
each  island  has  its  own  special  type.  The  other 
main  articles  of  exportation  are  granite,  fruit, 
and  early  potatoes.  See  The  Channel  Islands,  by 
Wimbush  and  Carey  (1904). 

Chanonry.    See  Fortrose. 

Chantenay,  a  growing  western  suburb  of 
Nantes  (q.v.). 

Chantibun,  or  Chantabon,  a  town  of  Siam,  a 
considerable  port  near  the  mouth  of  the  Chanta- 
bun  River,  in  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  occupied  by  the 
French  as  security  for  the  fulfilment  of  the  treaty 
of  Bangkok  in  1893.     Pop.  30,000. 

Chantilly  (S^on^tee-yee'),  a  town  in  the  dep.  of 
Oise,  26  m.  NNE.  of  Paris.  One  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful places  in  the  vicinity  of  the  capital,  and  the 
headquarters  of  French  horse-racing,  it  attracts 
immense  numbers  of  visitors.  The  magnificent 
chateau  of  the  great  Conde  here  was  pulled  down 
at  the  Revolution  of  1793,  but  was  rebuilt  by  the 
Due  d'Aumale,  who  bought  back  the  estate  in 
1872,  and  who  in  1886  presented  it  to  the  French 
Institute,  with  its  priceless  art  collections,  its 
value  nearly  £2,000,000.  The  manufacture  of 
silk  pillow-lace,  or  blonde,  so  famous  in  the  18th 
century,  is  all  but  extinct.     Pop.  4702. 

Chapala,  an  isleted  lake  of  Mexico,  on  the 
high  plateau  of  Jalisco,  surrounded  by  steep, 
bare  mountains.  It  has  an  area  of  1300  sq.  m., 
and  is  traversed  by  the  Rio  Grande  de  Santiago. 

Chapel-en-le-Frith,  a  Derbyshire  market-town, 
5  miles  N.  of  Buxton.    Pop.  of  parish,  4627. 

Ohapelizod,  a  town  on  the  Liffey,  3  miles  W. 
of  Dublin.     Pop.  1458. 

Chapra,  a  town  in  Bengal,  1  mile  above  the 
Gogra's  confluence  with  the  Ganges.    Pop.  47,000. 

Ohapul'tepec,  a  rock,  150  feet  high,  2  miles 
BW.  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  A  castle  (1785) 
crowns  it,  on  the  site  of  Montezuma's  palace. 

Clxard,  a  municipal  borough  of  Somerset,  15 


miles  SSE.  of  Taunton.  It  has  manufactures 
of  lace.     Pop.  4575. 

Charente  (Sharon^t),  a  river,  rises  in  the  dep. 
of  Haute- Vienne,  and  winds  222  miles  NW.,  S., 
and  WNW.,  mainly  through  the  deps.  of  Char- 
ente and  Charente-Inferieure,  to  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  opposite  the  island  of  Oleron. 

Charente,  a  French  dep.  formed  chiefly  out  of 
the  old  province  of  Angoumois.  Area,  2285  sq. 
m.  Pop.  (1866)  378,218  ;  (1901)  344,376.  Gener- 
ally level,  with  granite  offshoots  of  the  Limousin 
range  in  the  north,  and  chalk-hills  in  the  south, 
it  is  divided  into  the  five  arrondissements  of 
Angouleme,  Cognac,  Ruftec,  Barbezieux,  and  Con- 
folens.    Angouleme  is  the  chief  town. 

Charente-Inferieure  (SharonH-On"fayree-ehr^, 
a  dep.  of  France,  formed  principally  from  the 
former  provinces  of  Saihtonge,  Aunis,  and  a  small 
portion  of  Poitou.  The  Bay  of  Biscay  washes  its 
western  boundary.  Area,  2625  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1866) 
479,529 ;  (1901)  446,294.  It  is  watered  on  its 
boundaries  by  the  Sfevre-Niortaiseand  the  Gironde, 
and  in  the  centi'e  by  the  navigable  Charente.  The 
chief  harbours  are  those  of  Rochefort  and  Tonnay- 
Charente.    La  Rochelle  is  the  chief  town. 

Charenton-le-Pont  ( Slmron^ton^'-le-Pon^ ),  a 
town  on  the  Marne,  4  m.  SE.  of  Paris.  Pop.  17,550. 

Charjui  (Tchar-joo'ee),  a  Russian  town  of  Cen- 
tral Asia,  on  the  Amu-Daria,  where  the  Trans- 
caspian  railway  from  Merv  to  Bokhara  crosses 
the  river  by  a  great  bridge  opened  in  1888. 

Charkov'.    See  Kharkov. 

Charlhury,  an  Oxfordshire  market-town,  6 
miles  SE.  of  Chipping  Norton.     Pop.  1478. 

Charlcote  House,  Warwickshire,  4J  miles  ENE. 
of  Stratford-on-Avon,  the  seat  (1558)  of  the  Lucy 
family. 

Charleroi  (SMhrl-rwah'),  a  Belgian  town  on  the 
Sambre,  35  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Brussels.  It  has 
manufactures  of  hardware,  glass,  yarn,  «&c.,  the 
huge  ironworks  of  Couillet,  and  neighbouring 
collieries,  smelting-furnaces,  and  nail-factories. 
Six  times  exchanged  between  France  and  Spain, 
it  was  assigned  to  Austria  by  the  peace  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle  (1748).    Pop.  25,000. 

Charleston,  a  port  of  entry,  capital  of  a  county 
of  its  own  name,  and  the  largest  city  of  South 
Carolina,  is  situated  on  a  tongue  of  land  between 
the  rivers  Ashley  and  Cooper,  which  unite  imme- 
diately below  the  town  and  form  a  beautiful  and 
spacious  harbour,  communicating  with  the  ocean 
at  Sullivan's  Island,  a  popular  sea-bathing  resort, 
7  miles  below.  It  is  118  miles  NE.  of  Savannah, 
580  miles  SW.  of  Baltimore,  and  540  miles  SSW. 
of  Washington.  A  shifting  sandbar  extends 
across  the  mouth  of  the  harbour,  but  the  new 
jetties  (1878-88)  secui-e  a  depth  of  20  feet  of 
water.  The  harbour  is  defended  by  Castle 
Pinckney  and  Fort  Siunter,  each  on  an  island, 
the  former  2  and  the  latter  6  miles  below  the 
city,  and  also  by  Fort  Moultrie,  on  Sullivan's 
Island.  At  the  entrance  of  the  harbour  is  a 
flashing  light  125  feet  high.  Charleston  is  regu- 
larly built,  and  extends  about  3  miles  in  length 
and  nearly  Ih  mile  in  breadth.  It  has  a  copious 
water-supply" from  a  large  artesian  well  (1970  feet 
deep).  Among  the  public  buildings  are  the 
custom-house,  city  hall,  court-house,  citadel, 
academy  of  music,  theatre,  orphan  asylum,  and 
police  barracks.  The  custom-house  is  a  hand- 
some edifice,  built  of  granite  and  white  marble. 
At  the  southern  extremity  of  the  city  is  a  small 
park  called  the  Battery  or  White  Point  Garden, 
with  a  fine  promenade  on  the  sea-wall.     The 


CHARLESTON 


1?2 


CHATEAUROUX 


Charleston  College  (1785 ;  reorganised  1837)  has 
an  excellent  museum  of  natural  history.  Here 
are  also  a  medical  college,  the  state  military 
academy,  &c.  Charleston  is  the  seat  of  an 
Episcopal  and  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  St 
Michael's  Church  (Episcopal)  is  a  brick  structure, 
with  a  steeple  180  feet  high,  and  a  chime  of  bells 
imported  from  England  in  1764.  Charleston  is  a 
commercial  rather  than  a  manufacturing  city, 
and  was  formerly  the  chief  cotton  port  of  the 
United  States  ;  but  since  the  civil  war  it  has  not 
developed  so  rapidly  as  other  ports,  and  at  the 
close  of  the  19th  century  the  exports  had  been 
declining.  They  now  average  from  $7,000,000  to 
about  $11,000,000  per  annum,  the  principal  items 
being  cotton  and  phosphates.  The  other  exports 
are  rice,  lumber,  and  naval  stores.  Tiie  imports 
($1,500,000  to  $2,000,000  yearly)  are  chiefly  salt, 
iron,  ale,  brimstone,  kainite,  and  fruits  from  the 
West  Indies.  There  is  a  large  wholesale  distrib- 
uting trade  in  dry-goods,  clothing,  drugs,  &c. ; 
and  the  city  has  large  machine-shops,  cotton- 
presses,  grist-mills,  cotton-mills,  rice-mills,  a 
bagging-factory,  shipyards,  a  good  dry-dock 
for  large  ships,  and  extensive  manufactures  of 
phosphate  of  lime,  which  abounds  in  the 
vicinity.  The  city  was  founded  in  1680 ;  a  few 
years  later  a  company  of  French  Huguenots 
settled  here.  In  1776  Charleston  repulsed  a 
British  squadron;  in  1780  it  surrendered  to 
Sir  Henry  Clinton.  On  12th  April  1861,  the 
Confederates  began  the  civil  war  by  the  boni- 
bardment  of  Fort  Sumter,  which  they  took  the 
next  day.  In  1861  half  the  city  was  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  a  considerable  part  was  not  rebuilt 
until  after  1865.  After  a  long  siege  and  bom- 
bardment, begun  in  1863,  the  place  was  evacuated 
by  the  Confederates,  February  17,  1865.  On  31st 
August  1886  a  severe  earthquake  destroyed  or 
seriously  injured  nearly  7000  buildings.  Pop. 
(1800)  18,711 ;  (1840)  29,261 ;  (1880)  49,984 ;  (1891) 
64,955;  (1901)55,807. 

Charleston,  or  Kanawha,  capital  of  West 
Virginia,  on  the  Great  Kanawha  River,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Elk,  369  miles  WNW.  of  Richmond 
by  rail.  Large  quantities  of  bituminous  coal 
and  salt  are  procured  near  by.  Charleston  was 
made  state-capital  in  1885,  as  it  had  already  been 
in  1870-75.     Pop.  12,000. 

Charlestown,  a  Fife  seaport  village,  on  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  4  miles  SSW.  of  Dunfermline. 
Pop.  750. 

CJharlestown,  a  Mayo  village,  10  miles  NW.  of 
Ballaghaderreen.    Pop.  640. 

Charlestown  (Massachusetts).  See  Boston 
and  Bunker  Hill. 

Charlevllle,  a  market-town,  34  miles  N.  of 
Cork.    Pop.  2000. 

Charleville  (SMhrl-veel'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Ardennes,  on  the  Meuse,  opposite  Mezieres. 
It  has  manufactures  of  hardware,  leather,  and 
beer.    Pop.  17,900. 

Charlotte,  capital  of  Mecklenburg  county, 
North  Carolina,  265  miles  ENE.  of  Atlanta,  has 
manufactures  of  carriages,  cotton  goods,  tobacco, 
&c.,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  Presbyterian  university 
(1867).    Pop.  18,200. 

Charlotte  Amalle  (Amdh'lee-eh),  the  capital  of 
the  West  Indian  island  of  St  Thomas  (q.v.). 

Charlottenhurg  (Sharlot'tenboorg'),  a  Prussian 
lK)wn  on  the  Spree,  3  miles  W.  of  Berlin,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  road  leading  through  the 
Thiergarten.  It  contains  a  royal  palace,  founded 
in  1690  for  Sophie  Charlotte,  the  second  wife  of 


Frederick  I.  ;  in  its  mausoleum  here  are  the 
remains  of  Frederick  William  III.  and  the 
Emperor  William  I.  In  the  town  are  a  famous 
technical  high-school  or  university  and  military 
school;  the  manufactures  include  ironwares, 
machinery,  porcelain,  glass,  paper,  leather,  chemi- 
cals, and  beer.  Pop.  (1871)  19,518  ;  (1880)  30,483  ; 
(1890)  76,859  ;  (1900)  189,290. 

Charlottetown,  the  capital  of  Prince  Edward 
Island,  on  the  south  coast,  stands  on  the  Hills- 
borough estuary,  which  forms  a  secure  and  com- 
modious harbour  for  the  largest  vessels.  It  has 
two  colleges,  an  iron-foundry,  a  woollen-factory, 
and  shipbuilding  yards.  Tlie  population  is  aboiit 
13,000. 

Charnwood  Forest,  a  bare  Leicestershire  hill- 
tract  (853  feet),  5  miles  SW.  of  Loughborough. 

Charolals  (Sharolay'),  a  district  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Saone-et- Loire,  noted  for  its  fine  cattle. 

Charters  Towers,  a  mining  township  of  North- 
east Queensland,  situated  on  the  northern  spurs 
of  the  Towers  Mountain,  820  miles  NW.  of 
Brisbane.  It  dates  from  the  gold  discovery  here 
in  1871.  It  has  railway  connection  with  Towns- 
ville  on  the  coast.    Pop.  5597. 

Chartres  (SMhrtr),  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of 
Eure-et-Loir,  on  the  double-channelled  Eure,  55 
miles  SW.  of  Paris.  It  consists  of  an  upper  and 
lower  town,  connected  by  very  steep  streets; 
and  the  highest  point  is  crowned  by  the  glorious 
cathedral— in  Street's  opinion,  the  finest  in 
France.  Built  chiefly  between  1194  and  1200, 
it  has  two  spires,  of  which  the  south-western 
is  342^  feet  high,  and  the  north-western,  371 ; 
the  latter,  built  in  1507-14,  being,  'on  the 
whole,  the  most  beautiful  spire  on  the  Con- 
tinent.' Other  features  are  the  three  rose- 
windows,  the  splendid  portals,  and  the  13th- 
centiu-y  stained  glass  that  fills  no  fewer  than 
130  windows.  The  weekly  corn-market  is  one 
of  the  largest  in  France,  and  is  remarkable  as 
being  under  a  corporation  of  women.  Chartres 
has  manufactures  of  woollen,  hosiery,  and  leather. 
Population,  about  20,000.  The  Atitricum  of  the 
Carnutes  (hence  the  present  name),  Chartres 
in  1594  was  the  scene  of  the  coronation  of 
Henry  IV. 

Chartreuse,  La  Grande  (Shdhr-trehz'),  the 
original  Carthusian  monastery,  founded  by  St 
Bruno  in  1084,  in  the  dep.  of  Isere,  14  miles  NNE. 
of  Grenoble,  and  4268  feet  above  sea-level,  A 
huge  17th-century  structure,  it  had  become 
practically  a  hotel  when  in  1904  the  monks  were 
expelled  by  the  French  government. 

Ch.ktea.\ilOYia.nt(Shdh-to-bree-on^'),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Loire-Inf^ieure,  on  the  Chere,  40 
miles  NNE-  of  Nantes  by  rail.    Pop.  6469. 

Chateauduil(S7ia7i-fo-d«u^')>  a  pretty  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Eure-et-Loir,  on  the  Loir,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Loire,  83  miles  SW.  of  Paris.     It  was 
almost  destroyed  by  fire  in  1723.     Dunois  is  buried 
in  the  chapel  of  the  stately  castle.    Pop.  5576. 
Chateau  Gaillard.    See  Andelys, 
Chateau-Gontier  (Shdh-to-Gon^t-yay'),  a  town 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Mayenne,  on  the  Mayenne, 
180  miles  WSW.  of  Paris  by  rail.    Pop.  6281. 
Chateau  Margaux.    See  Maroaux. 
Chateauroux  {Shdhtoroo'),  the  capital  of  the 
French  dep.  of  Indre,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
Indre,  88  miles  S.  of  Orleans  by  rail.     It  has 
manufactures    of  woollens,    iron,    leather,    and 
tobacco.    Pop.  (1872)  16,858  ;  (1901)  21,060.     • 


CHATEAU-THIERRY 


173 


CHAUTAUQUA 


CMteau-Tliierry(SMA-<o-ree-er-ree'),  a  town  in 
the  French  dep.  of  Aisne,  59  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Paris 
by  rail,  Avith  manufactures  of  mathematical  instru- 
ments and  woollen  yarn.  Here  Napoleon  defeated 
Prussians  and  Russians  in  1814,     Pop.  6519. 

Ohatelineau,  a  Belgian  town  in  Hainault,  on 
the  Sambro,  27  miles  E.  of  Mons,  with  coal-niiues 
and  ironworks.     Pop,  12,000. 

Chatellerault  (Shd1i4el-ro'),  a  town  and  river- 
port  in  the  P'rench  dep.  of  Vienne,  on  the  river 
Vienne,  40  miles  S.  of  Tours  by  rail.  It  is  a  smoky, 
dingy  place,  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  cutlery 
manufacture  in  France,  and  since  1820  has  had  a 
government  small-arms  factory.  The  title  of 
Duke  of  Chatellerault  was  conferred  by  Henri 
II.  in  1548  on  James  Hamilton,  Earl  of  Arran 
and  Regent  of  Scotland,  The  population  of  the 
town  is  18,000,  of  the  commune  20,000. 

Chatham  (Chat'tnm ;  Ceteham,  '  village  of  cot- 
tages'),  a  municipal  and  pari,  borough,  river- 
port,  and  naval  arsenal  of  Kent,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Medway,  at  the  upper  part  of  its  estuary, 
30  miles  ESE,  of  London,  It  forms  almost  one 
continuous  town  with  Rochester  (q.v.)  on  the 
west,  but  itself  has  few  objects  of  interest.  It 
owes  its  importance  to  its  naval  and  military 
establishments  situated  at  Brompton,  a  suburb 
on  high  ground  overlooking  the  Medway.  There 
is  also  a  large  convict  establishment.  The 
Chatham  fortified  lines  are  the  frequent  scenes 
of  field-operations,  sham  fights,  and  reviews. 
The  dockyard,  founded  by  Elizabeth  before  the 
threatened  invasion  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  was 
in  1662  removed  to  its  present  site.  In  1667  the 
Dutch,  under  De  Ruyter,  sailed  up  the  Medway, 
and,  in  spite  of  the  fire  from  the  castle,  destroyed 
much  shipping  and  stores.  In  a  military  point 
of  view,  the  lines  of  detached  forts  connected 
with  Chatham  constitute  a  fortification  of  great 
strength ;  and  the  whole  is  regarded  as  a  flank 
defence  for  London,  In  or  near  Chatham  are 
Fort  Pitt,  a  military  hospital  and  strong  fort ; 
Melville  Hospital,  for  marines  and  sailors  ;  bar- 
racks for  infantry,  marines,  artillery,  and  engin- 
eers ;  a  park  of  artillery ;  &c,  Chatham  is  one 
of  the  principal  royal  shipbuilding  establish- 
ments in  the  kingdom.  The  dockyard  is  nearly 
two  miles  in  length ;  and  the  whole  is  traversed 
in  every  direction  by  tramways  for  locomotives. 
Three  great  wet-docks,  with  a  water  area  of  G7 
acres,  on  reclaimed  marsh  land  were  completed  in 
1883  after  the  labour  of  17  years,  and  at  a  total 
cost  of  about  £3,000,000,  In  the  navy  estimates 
provision  is  made  for  about  5000  artisans  and 
labourers.  There  are  statues  of  Lieutenant 
Waghorn,  a  native  of  Chatham,  and  the  pioneer 
of  the  '  overland  route '  to  India,  and  of  General 
Gordon  (1890);  but  Chatham's  most  cherished 
memories  are  of  Charles  Dickens.  Pop,  (1851) 
28,424  ;  (1871)  45,792  ;  (1901)  78,755  ;  of  these 
37,057  were  in  the  municipal  borough,  which  was 
constituted  in  1891,  The  parliamentary  borough 
returns  one  member. 

Chatham,  (l)  a  town  of  Ontario,  on  the  Thames, 
67  miles  SW,  of  London  by  rail,  with  mills  and 
foundries,  soap  and  candle  works.  Pop,  9000.— 
(2)  A  port  of  entry  in  the  north  of  New  Bruns- 
wick, on  the  Miramichi,  6  miles  NE.  of  New- 
castle, with  a  good  harbour,  shipyards,  found- 
ries, a  Catholic  cathedral,  and  a  college.  Pop. 
6000. 

Chatham  Islands,  a  small  group  in  the  Pacific, 
lying  360  miles  E.  of  New  Zealand,  to  which 
•they  politically  belong.  There  are  three  islands 
—Of  which  the  largest,  Chatham  Island,  is  38 


miles  long— and  some  rocky  islets.  Total  area, 
375  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  420,  of  whom  about  half  are 
Maoris,  with  a  few  Morioris  or  aborigines.  The 
Chatham  Islands  were  discovered  in  1791  by 
Lieutenant  Broughton,  of  the  brig  Chatham.  A 
large  brackish  lake  occupies  the  interior  of 
Chatham  Island,  which  is  of  volcanic  origin  and 
hilly.  Stock-rearing  and  seal-fishing  are  the 
chief  industries,  the  islanders  having  over  60,000 
sheep  and  400  to  700  cattle,  with  which  they 
supply  passing  vessels.  The  Morioris  numbered 
1200  in  1831,  when  800  Maoris  were  landed  from 
New  Zealand,  by  whom  the  former  were  reduced 
to  90  in  nine  years'  time. 

Chatillon  (Shdh-tee-yon"'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Cote  d'Or,  on  the  Seine,  49  miles  NNW.  of 
Dijon.  A  congress  of  allied  sovereigns  was  held 
here  in  1814,     Pop,  5120. 

Chat  Moss,  a  bog  in  Lancashire,  the  largest 
in  England,  7  miles  W.  of  Manchester,  and  10 
sq.  m.  in  extent.  In  1793-1800  it  was  the  scene 
of  the  first  great  and  successful  efforts  for  the 
reclaiming  of  bogs,  and  in  1829  George  Stephenson 
here  achieved  a  great  engineering  triumph  in  the 
construction  of  the  Liverpool  and  Manchester 
Railway,  constructing  the  portion  of  the  line 
through  Chat  Moss  at  a  smaller  expense  than 
any  other  part  of  the  railway. 

Chatsworth,  Derbyshire,  25  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Derby,  is  the  magnificent  seat  of  the  Duke 
of  Devonshire,  a  Palladian  pile  (1687-1820),  with 
splendid  art-collections  and  grounds. 

Chattahoo'chee,  a  headstream  of  the  Appa- 
lachicola  (q.v,). 

Chattanooga,  capital  of  Hamilton  county, 
Tennessee,  a  shipping  centre  on  the  Tennessee 
River,  151  miles  SE,  of  Nashville,  with  good 
railway  connections.  It  has  cotton  and  other 
factories,  ironworks,  tanneries,  and  sawmills. 
Pop.  (1870)  6093  ;  (1880)  12,892  ;  (1900)  30,150. 

Chatteris,  a  Cambridgeshire  market-town,  8 
miles  S.  of  March,     Pop.  of  parish,  4787. 

Chaudes-Aigues  (Shoad-zayg'),  a  town  in  the 
dep.  of  Cantal,  90  miles  S.  of  Clermont,  with  four 
mineral  springs  (135°  to  177°  F.).  They  are  good 
for  various  diseases,  rapidly  discharge  the  grease 
from  sheep's  wool,  and  in  winter  are  impounded 
for  heating  the  houses  of  the  town.    Pop.  1046. 

Chaudfontaine  (Shoad-fon^-tayn'),  a  Belgian  vil- 
lage in  the  valley  of  the  Vesdre,  5  m.  SSE.  of  Li^ge 
by  rail,  with  mineral  springs  (92°  F.),  Pop.  1552, 
Chaudifere  (Sho-dee-ehr'),  a  river  and  lake  of 
Canada.  The  river  .joins  the  St  Lawrence  from 
the  south  7  miles  above  Quebec,  and  2^  miles  from 
its  mouth,  forms  the  celebrated  falls  of  Chaudiere. 
The  lake— merely  one  of  the  many  expansions  of 
the  Ottawa— has  on  its  right  the  city  of  that 
nanae,  the  capital  of  the  Dominion. 

Chaumont  (Sho-mon^),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Haute-Marne,  1023  feet  above  sea-level 
between  the  rivers  Marne  and  Suize,  140  miles 
SE.  of  Paris.  There  are  manufactures  of  gloves, 
cutlery,  &c.    Pop.  11,700. 

Chauny  (Sho-nee'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Aisne,  77  miles  NNE.  of  Paris.  Pop.  10,100. 

Chautauqua  (ch  as  s7i),  a  celebrated  summer- 
resort  on  Chautauqua  Lake,  in  a  county  of  the 
same  name  near  the  south-west  extremity  of  the 
state  of  New  York,  is  famous  as  the  seat  of  the 
'Chautauqua  Assembly,'  founded  in  1874  by 
John  H.  Vincent,  D.D.,  and  Lewis  Miller,  to  pro- 
vide systematic  instruction  for  Sunday-school 
teachers,  together  with  popular  lecture  courses 


CHAUX  DE  FONDS 


T74 


CHELYUSKIN 


In  literature,  science,  and  art.  Lake  Chautauqua 
is  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water  20  miles  long,  with 
an  average  breadth  of  2  miles,  lying  700  feet 
above  Lake  Erie,  from  which  it  is  distant  10 
miles.  The  Assembly  Grounds,  on  the  northern 
shore  of  the  lake,  comprise  about  165  acres, 
containing  over  500  attractive  summer  cottages, 
a  museum  of  archaeology,  an  amphitheatre  seat- 
ing over  5000,  &c.  Large  numbers  of  students 
and  visitors  congregate  here  in  the  summer 
season. 

Chaux  de  Fonds  (Sho-d'Fon^d'),  a  Swiss  town, 
18  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Neuchatel,  in  a  bleak 
valley  3254  feet  above  the  sea.  It  has  for  two 
centuries  been  a  chief  seat  of  the  watch  manu- 
facture.    Pop.  (1834)  6500  ;  (1901)  36.390. 

Oheadle,  (l)  a  market-town  in  the  moorland 
district  of  Staffordshire,  14  miles  NNE.  of  Staf- 
ford. Lying  in  a  pleasant  vale,  engirt  by  wooded 
hills,  it  has  a  Roman  Catholic  Church,  erected 
in  1846  from  designs  by  Pugin,  at  a  cost  of 
£60,000.  Pop.  of  parish,  5190.— (2)  Cheadle  and 
Gatley,  a  Cliesliire  urban  district,  near  the  Mersey, 
2J  miles  WSW.  of  Stockport,  and  included  partly 
in  that  county  borougli.    Pop.  7920. 

Chedabucto  Bay,  an  indentation  into  Nova 
Scotia,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Gut  of  Canso,  which 
separates  Cape  Breton  from  Nova  Scotia. 

Cheddar,  a  Somerset  village,  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Mendip  Hills,  21^  miles  SSW.  of  Bristol 
by  rail.  It  lies  at  the  entrance  of  a  deep  rocky 
gorge,  nearly  1  mile  long,  whose  stupendous 
limestone  cliffs  contain  caverns— one  300  feet 
long— filled  with  fantastic  stalactites  and  stalag- 
mites. The  famous  Cheddar  cheese  originated 
here.     Pop.  of  parish,  1901. 

Chedu'ba  (or  Man-aung),  a  wooded  island  of 
Arakan,  in  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Area,  240  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  25,867. 

Cheesewrlng,  a  curious  natural  pillar,  32  feet 
high,  in  Cornwall,  5  miles  N.  of  Liskeard. 

Che-fOO,  a  treaty  port  on  the  north  side  of  the 
peninsula  of  Shan-tung,  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  Pechili,  in  which  it  is  the  only  port 
that  remains  open  throughout  the  winter.  The 
foreign  quarter,  with  about  420  Europeans  and 
Americans,  is  in  some  sense  a  colony  of  Slianghai ; 
the  Chinese  town  (spelt  also  Cheefoo,  Chi-fit,  and 
Tscliifu)  has  about  33,000  inhabitants.  There  is 
a  large  import  and  export  trade. 

Che-keang,  an  eastern  and  maritime  province 
of  China.     Capital,  Hang-chow. 

Chellabinsk  {Tchel-ya-binsk'),  a  town  in  the 
Russian  government  of  Orenburg,  365  miles  NE. 
of  Orenburg,  which  has  rapidly  grown  in  import- 
ance as  the  meeting-point  of  several  great  rail- 
ways—one of  them  the  Trans-Siberian  railway. 
Pop.  25,300. 

Chelmer,  an  Essex  tributary  of  the  Blackwater 
at  Maldon,  29  miles  long. 

Chelmsford,  the  county  town  of  Essex,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Chelmer  and  the  Cann,  29  miles 
NE.  of  London,  It  has  a  corn  exchange  (1857), 
a  shire  hall  (1792),  a  grammar-school  (1551),  and 
a  parish  church,  which,  all  but  the  tower  and 
spire,  was  rebuilt  between  1803  and  1878.  There 
is  a  considerable  trade  in  agricultural  produce. 
Chelmsford  was  incorporated  in  1888.  Pop.  (1851) 
6033 ;  (1901)  12,580. 

Chelsea,  a  suburb  of  London,  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Thames,  here  crossed  by  bridges  to 
Battersea  (q.v.).  In  the  sixteenth  century  the 
village  of  Chelsea  was  the  residence  of  Sir  Thomas 
More,  Queen  Catharine  Parr,  the  Princess  Eliza- 


beth, and  Anne  of  Cleves.  Afterwards  Walpole, 
Swift,  Steele,  and  Sir  Hans  Sloane,  and,  in  later 
years,  Leigh  Hunt,  Carlyle,  Rossetti,  and  George 
Eliot  lived  here.  Ranelagh  (1742-1803)  here  was 
much  resorted  to,  and  afterwards  Cremorne 
(closed  1877).  Besides  Chelsea  Hospital  (1692) 
for  old  and  disabled  soldiers,  there  are  a  Royal 
Military  Asylum  for  soldiers'  children,  large 
barracks  for  the  Foot  Guards,  a  botanic  garden, 
water-works  (1722)  to  supply  London,  a  river- 
pier,  and  an  embankment  (1873)  extending  to 
Battersea  Bridge  on  the  west.  The  famous  porce- 
lain works  were  established  about  1745.  The 
borough  has  returned  a  member  to  parliament 
since  1885,  and  (since  1899)  is  one  of  the  London 
metropolitan  borough.s.  Pop.  (1901)  73,842.  See 
the  otticial  History  of  Chelsea  Hospital  (1872),  and 
other  works  by  Martin  (1888)  and  Beaver  (1893). 

Chelsea,  Massachusetts,  a  north-east  suburb 
of  Boston,  separated  therefrom  by  the  Mystic 
River  estuary.    Pop.  (1870)  18,547  ;  (1900)  34,072. 

Cheltenham,  a  fa.shionable  watering-place  of 
Gloucestershire,  on  the  Chelt,  a  little  affluent  of 
the  Severn,  44  miles  NNE.  of  Bristol,  47  SSW.  of 
Birmingham,  and  121  WNW.  of  London  (by  road 
only  95).  It  lies  in  a  picturesque  and  fertile 
valley,  on  the  east  and  south-east  half  encircled 
by  the  Coteswolds.  A  saline  spring  was  dis- 
covered here  in  1716,  and  from  a  mere  village  the 
place  gradually  increased  till  1788,  when  the 
benefit  derived  by  George  III.  from  its  waters 
suddenly  made  it  a  resort  of  fashion.  The  four 
spas— Royal  Old  Well,  Montpellier,  Pittville, 
and  Cambray— are  all  saline  but  the  last,  which 
is  chalybeate ;  they  are  deemed  efficacious  for 
liver  complaints  and  dyspepsia.  With  its  squares, 
crescents,  and  terraces,  its  gardens  and  promen- 
ades, its  clubs  and  pump-rooms,  its  August 
'cricket  week,'  its  healthy  climate,  the  cheap- 
ness of  living,  and  the  happy  absence  of  manu- 
factures, the  town  offers  many  attractions  both 
to  visitors  and  residents,  the  former  largely  fox- 
hunters  in  winter,  the  latter  retired  Anglo- 
Indians.  It  is,  besides,  a  great  educational 
centre,  the  seat  of  the  Proprietary  College,  for 
700  boys,  founded  in  1840,  and  occupying  a 
splendid  Tudor  pile  of  1843 ;  a  grammar-school 
(1586 ;  reconstituted  1883) ;  a  large  ladies'  college 
(1854) ;  a  Church  of  England  training  college  for 
schoolmasters  (1847) ;  and  private  schools  beyond 
number.  Noticeable  buildings  are  the  14th- 
century  parish  church ;  the  Roman  Catholic 
Church  (1857),  with  a  spire  205  feet  high ;  the 
Corn  Exchange  (1863);  and  the  handsome  Free 
Library.  Cheltenham  has  memories  of  Handel, 
Lord  Tennyson,  Frederick  Robertson,  Sydney 
Dobell,  and  Dean  Close,  under  whom  (1824-56) 
it  became  a  stronghold  of  Evangelicalism.  It 
was  incorporated  as  a  municipal  borough  in  1876, 
and  has  returned  one  member  to  parliament  since 
1832,  the  parliamentary  boundary  having  been 
extended  in  1885.  Pop.  (1804)  3076 ;  (1841)  31,411 ; 
(1901)  52,858,  of  whom  49,439  were  within  the 
municipal  boundary. 

Chelyuskin,  Cape  (TcJiel-yoosfkin ;  also  called 
North-east  Cape,  and  Cape  Severo),  the  most 
northerly  point  of  Asia,  on  a  peninsula  of  the 
same  name,  which  forms  the  western  arm  of  the 
eastern  half  of  the  Taimyr  peninsula.  It  is 
named  after  a  Russian  officer  who  here  suc- 
cumbed to  the  fatigues  of  the  journey  (1742) ;  it 
was  first  revisited  by  Nordenskjbld  in  1878.  He 
found  it  a  Ioav  promontorj^  divided  into  two 
parts  by  a  small  bay  ;  the  lat.  of  the  western  19 
77°  36'  37"  N. 


CHEMNITZ 


175 


CHESHIRE 


Chemnitz  (Kem'neetz),  a  Saxon  town  at  the  base 
of  the  Erzgebirge  and  the  confluence  of  the  Chem- 
nitz with  three  other  streams,  51  miles  SSE.  of 
Leipzig  by  rail,  and  43  WSW.  of  Dresden.  It  is 
the  'Saxon  Manchester,'  its  industry  consisting 
in  the  manufacture  of  cottons,  woollens,  silks, 
calico,  cheap  hosiery,  machinery,  and  mixed 
fabrics  of  wool,  cotton,  and  jute.  Pop.  (1801) 
10,835  ;  (1861)  45,532  ;  (1900)  206,584. 

Chemulpo,  a  town  on  the  west  coast  of  Corea, 
25  miles  by  road  WSW.  of  the  capital,  Seoul.  It 
is  one  of  the  three  treaty  ports  opened  in  1883  to 
foreign  commerce,  the  volume  of  which  has  since 
steadily  advanced.  Pop.  (1005)  20,000,  of  whom 
5000  are  foreigners,  many  Chinese  and  Japanese. 

Chenab',  one  of  the  five  rivers  of  the  Punjab, 
rises  in  the  Kashmir  range  of  the  Himalayas  and 
enters  British  territory  in  Sialkot  district.  It 
imites  with  the  Jhelum  at  Timmu,  afterwards 
receives  the  Ravi,  and,  as  the  Trimab,  joins  the 
Sutlej,  50  miles  above  Mithankot.  Its  length  is 
755  miles. 

Cheneys,  the  former  seat  of  the  Russells,  in 
Bucks,  4  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Amersham.  The 
church  is  their  burial-place. 

Chengalpat.    See  Chingalpat, 

Chiepping  Wycombe.    See  Wycombe. 

Chepstow,  a  river-port  of  Monmouthshire,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Wye,  2J  miles  from  its  in- 
flux to  the  Severn  estuary,  and  17  ENE.  of  New- 
port. It  lies  between  bold  cliffs,  on  a  slope 
rising  from  the  river,  in  the  midst  of  exquisite 
scenery.  Its  noble  ruined  castle  stood  two  sieges 
during  the  Great  Rebellion,  and  has  been  held 
successively  by  Fitz-Osbornes,  Clares,  Bigods, 
Herberts,  and  Somersets.  The  railway  crosses 
the  Wye  by  Brunei's  tubular  suspension  bridge 
(1852),  600  feet  long,  and  50  above  high-water. 
Here  occurs  the  highest  tide  in  the  British 
Islands— the  greatest  recorded  difference  between 
low  and  high  water  being  53  feet.  Pop.  3050. 
See  Marsh's  Annals  of  Chepstow  Castle  (1883). 

Cher  (Sher),  a  river  flowing  200  miles  north- 
ward and  north-westward  to  the  Loire  below 
Tours.  It  is  navigable  from  Vierzon. — Cher,  to 
which  the  river  gives  its  name,  is  the  central  dep. 
of  France.  The  surface  consists  of  plain  and 
well-wooded  hills  (1600  feet).  Area,  2770  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  (1872)  335,392  ;  (1901)  345,543.  Bourges  is 
the  chief  town. 

Cherasco  (Kayras'ko),  a  town  of  north  Italy, 
37  miles  SSE.  of  Turin  by  rail.     Pop.  3341. 

Cherbourg  (Sher-boorg'),  a  French  port  and 
arsenal  in  the  dep.  of  Manche,  at  the  head  of  a 
deep  bay  on  the  N.  extremity  of  the  peninsula  of 
Cotentin,  70  miles  S.  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and 
230  WNW.  of  Paris.  Begun  by  Vauban  in  1687, 
the  harbour-works  and  fortifications  were  pushed 
on  by  the  great  Napoleon,  and  were  supposed  to 
have  been  completed  in  1858  by  Napoleon  III.  at 
a  total  outlay  of  200  million  francs ;  but  less  than 
thirty  years  after,  the  French  government  resolved 
to  spend  49  millions  more  on  the  construction  of 
fresh  works  between  1883  and  1894.  The  stupen- 
dous digue  or  breakwater  (1853)  is  almost  2^  miles 
long,  encloses  a  space  of  nearly  2000  acres,  and  is 
connected  with  the  strongest  fortifications.  The 
commercial  harbour  of  Cherbourg  consists  of  an 
outer  harbour,  786  feet  in  length  by  654  feet  wide, 
and  of  an  inner  basin,  1338  feet  long  by  416  feet 
wide.  The  great  inner  naval  floating-harbour  was 
inaugurated  by  the  Emperor  Napoleon  in  1858,  in 
presence  of  Queen  Victoria.  Entirely  cut  out  of 
the  solid  rock,  it  is  20  acres  in  area,  and  is  sur- 


rounded by  building-slips  and  capacious  graving^ 
docks.  The  town  itself  is  insignificant,  the  streets 
being  narrow  and  dirty.  There  are  some  manu- 
factures of  hosiery,  chemicals,  lace,  and  leather, 
sugar  and  salt  refineries,  sawing  and  flour  mills  ; 
but  the  industrial  energies  of  the  great  bulk  of 
the  population  are  absorbed  in  the  arsenal  and 
dockyards.  Cherbourg  is  a  very  ancient  place ; 
originally  Ccesaris  Burgum,  in  the  11th  century  it 
was  known  under  the  name  of  Carusbitr.  In  1758 
it  was  taken  by  the  English,  who  destroyed  the 
naval  and  military  works,  and  levied  a  contribu- 
tion on  the  town.  Pop.  (1872)  34,785 ;  (1901) 
42,952  ;  or,  with  the  three  suburbs  of  Tourlaville, 
Octeville,  and  Equeurdreville,  60,000. 

Cherhlll,  Wiltshire,  3  miles  E.  of  Calne,  with  a 
'  white  horse '  (1780)  in  the  turf,  129  feet  long. 

Cheribon,  a  seaport  of  Java,  on  the  north 
coast,  125  miles  ESE.  of  Batavia.     Pop.  19,000. 

Cherkask.    See  Tcherkask. 

Chernigov.    See  Tcherniqoff. 

Cherso,  an  Austrian  island  of  Illyria,  in  the 
Gulf  of  Quarnero,  13  miles  SSW.  of  Fiume.  Area, 
127  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  9550.  Cherso  (pop.  4670),  on 
the  west  side,  has  a  spacious  harbour. 

Cherson.    See  Kherson. 

Chertsey,  a  town  in  Surrey,  near  the  right 
bank  of  the  Thames,  here  crossed  by  a  seven- 
arch  bridge  (1785),  21  miles  WSW.  of  London. 
It  arose  in  a  monastery  founded  in  666,  and  re- 
founded  in  964  by  Edgar  for  Benedictine  monks. 
Charles  James  Fox  lived  on  St  Anne's  Hill,  an 
abrupt  elevation  a  mile  distant ;  and  the  poet 
Cowley  spent  his  last  two  years  in  a  house  that 
is  marked  with  an  inscription.  The  population 
is  about  13,000. 

Cherwell,  a  stream,  30  miles  long,  rising  in 
Northamptonshire,  and  falling  into  the  Isis  or 
Thames  near  Oxford  (q.v.). 

Chesapeake  Bay,  in  Maryland  and  Virginia, 
and  dividing  the  former  state  into  two  parts,  is 
the  largest  inlet  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the 
United  States,  being  200  miles  long,  and  from  4 
to  40  broad.  Its  entrance,  12  miles  wide,  has  on 
the  north  Cape  Charles,  and  on  the  south  Cape 
Henry,  both  promontories  being  in  Virginia.  The 
bay  receives  the  Susquehanna,  Potomac,  Rappa- 
hannock, York,  and  James  rivers. 

Chesham,  a  market-town  of  Buckinghamshire, 
18  miles  NW.  of  London.  It  manufactures  cricket 
bats,  racquets,  wooden  spades,  hoops,  &c.  Pop. 
7350. 

Cheshire,  a  maritime  county  in  the  west  of 
England,  on  the  Welsh  border,  bounded  N.  by 
the  river  Mersey,  separating  it  from  Lancashire, 
and  partly  also  by  the  Irish  Sea.  Its  greatest 
length  from  north  to  south  is  48  miles  ;  greatest 
breadth,  32;  and  area,  1102  sq.  m.,  of  which  76 
per  cent,  is  under  cultivation.  The  coast-line  is 
confined  to  the  hammer-headed  peninsula  called 
Win-al,  about  8  miles  broad,  between  the  estuaries 
of  the  Mersey  and  Dee.  The  surface  forms  an 
extensive  nearly  level  plain  between  the  Derby- 
shire and  Welsh  mountains,  well  wooded,  and 
studded  with  small  lakes  or  meres.  This  plain, 
comprising  four-fifths  of  the  surface,  is  crossed, 
near  the  middle,  by  a  tract  of  high  ground  run- 
ning south-west  from  a  promontory  overlooking 
the  Mersey,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Weaver,  to 
Beeston  Castle  rock,  366  feet  high.  In  the  east 
are  large  tracts  of  peat,  and  much  of  the  county 
is  wet  and  rushy.  Coal-measures  appear  on  the 
Flintshire  border,  and  also  on  the  borders  of 
Staffordshire  and  Derbyshire.     The  Dee  skirtf 


CHESHUNT 


176 


CHEVIOT  HILLS 


the  county  on  the  west  for  55  miles,  the  Mersey 
on  the  north  for  40,  and  the  Weaver,  rising  in  the 
east  part,  runs  40  miles  west-north-west  to  the 
Mersey.  In  addition  to  its  river  navigation,  the 
county  has  an  almost  unrivalled  system  of  canals, 
and  contains  the  greater  part  of  the  Manchester 
Ship  Canal.  The  chief  mineral  products  are  rock- 
salt  and  coal.  The  rock-salt,  discovered  in  1070, 
and  mined  by  gunpowder,  is  found  near  the 
Weaver  and  its  branches,  especially  near  North- 
wich  (q.v.),  and  at  Middlewich,  Winsford,  and 
Sandbach.  Much  salt  is  also  made  from  brine- 
springs  20  to  40  yards  deep.  About  90,000  cows 
are  kept,  capable  of  producing  15,000  tons  of 
cheese.  In  the  cattle-plague  of  1865-66  upwards 
of  70,000  cattle  perished,  36,000  of  these  being 
slaughtered  as  a  preventive  measure.  Pop.  (1801) 
194,305;  (1841)  395,660;  (1901)  815,099.  There 
are  extensive  manufactures  in  the  principal 
towns,  especially  Birkenhead,  Congleton,  Chester 
(the  county  town),  Crewe,  Hyde,  Macclesfield, 
Stalybridge,  and  Stockport.  The  county  is  fonned 
into  eight  parliamentary  divisions,  each  return- 
ing one  member,  and  includes  the  parliamentary 
boroughs  of  Birkenhead  and  Chester,  with  por- 
tions of  the  boroughs  of  Ashton-under-Lyne, 
Stalybridge,  Stockport,  and  Warrington.  It 
contains  503  civil  parishes,  and  is  mostly  in  the 
diocese  of  Chester.  Cheshire  has  some  Roman 
roads,  tiunuli,  barrows,  remains  of  religious 
houses,  and  many  old  castles  and  halls.  William 
the  Conqueror  erected  Cheshire  into  a  county 
palatine,  with  an  independent  council  and  eight 
barons.  Henry  VIII.  subordinated  it  to  the 
English  crown  ;  but  Cheshire  did  not  send  repre- 
sentatives to  the  English  parliament  till  1549. 
See  Ormerod's  History  of  Cheshire  (3  vols.  1819 ; 
new  ed.  1875),  and  Earwaker's  East  Cheshire  (1877). 

Ches'hunt,  a  large  village  of  Hertfordshire,  14 
miles  N.  of  London.  It  is  famous  for  its  rose- 
gardens,  and  its  college,  founded  in  1768  for  'the 
Countess  ofHuntingdon's  Connexion' at  Trevecca, 
Wales,  removed  hither  in  1792,  and  now  a  school 
of  London  University.     Pop.  13,100. 

Ohesil  Bank  or  Beach,  a  bank  of  gravel  and 
shingle  extending  16  miles  from  Bridport  to  Port- 
land. It  varies  in  height  from  20  to  43  feet,  and 
in  width  from  170  to  200  yards.  For  some  part 
of  its  course  it  hugs  the  shore,  but  the  Fleet 
comes  between  it  and  the  land  for  nearly  10  miles 
from  Abbotsbury  (q.v.).  Towards  its  west  end 
the  bank  is  composed  of  sand,  grit,  and  fine 
gravel,  but  the  materials  get  gradually  larger 
and  larger  as  it  is  followed  eastward. 

Chester,  an  ancient  episcopal  city,  municipal, 
parliamentary,  and  county  borough,  and  river- 
port,  the  capital  of  Cheshire,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Dee,  22  miles  from  the  mouth  of  its 
estuary,  16  miles  SE.  of  Liverpool,  and  179  miles 
NNW.  of  London.  One  of  the  most  picturesque 
to^vns  in  England,  it  stands  on  a  rocky  sandstone 
height,  and  is  still  surrounded  by  the  entire  circuit 
of  its  ancient  walls,  nearly  2  miles  round,  7  or  8 
feet  thick,  and  forming  a  promenade  with  para- 
pets. The  castle,  with  the  exception  of  '  Caesar's 
Tower,'  has  been  removed,  its  site  being  occupied 
by  barracks  and  county  buildings.  The  Dee  is 
crossed  by  two  bridges,  the  old  picturesque  bridge 
of  seven  arches,  and  the  new  or  Grosvenor  Bridge 
(1832),  with  a  noble  single  arch  of  stone  200  feet 
in  length.  The  two  main  streets  cross  each  other 
at  right  angles,  and  were  cut  out  of  the  I'ock  by 
the  Romans  4  to  10  feet  below  the  level  of  the 
houses.  These  streets  exhibit  the  curious  arrange- 
ment called  the  *  rows  : '  the  front  parts  of  their 


second  stories,  as  far  back  as  16  feet,  form  a  con- 
tinuous  paved  promenade  or  covered  gallery,  open 
in  front,  where  there  are  pillars  and  steps  up 
from  the  street  below,  with  private  houses  above, 
inferior  shops  and  warehouses  below,  and  the 
chief  shops  of  the  town  within.  There  are  a  con- 
siderable number  of  the  picturesque  old  timber 
houses  of  the  16th  century,  and  many  of  the  more 
modern  buildings  are  in  the  same  style.  The 
Cathedral  is  an  irregular  massive  structure  of 
crumbling  sandstone,  375  by  200  feet,  with  a 
massive  tower  of  127  feet.  Formerly  the  church 
of  the  rich  abbey  of  St  Werburgh,  it  became  in 
1541.  a  cathedral  church.  It  is  of  various  dates 
from  Norman  to  Late  Perpendicular,  its  most 
striking  feature  being  the  fine  Perpendicular 
window  of  the  west  front.  Chester  has  manu- 
factures of  lead,  oil,  and  chemicals,  iron-foundries, 
and  an  iron-shipbuilding  yard.  The  making  of 
boots  and  shoes  is  an  important  industry.  Since 
1885  Chester  returns  only  one  member.  Pop. 
(1851)  27,756  ;  (1901)  38,309. 

Chester  was  the  Deva  or  Devana  Castra  of  the 
Romans,  and  the  British  Caerleon:  Chester  repre- 
senting the  Anglo-Saxon  Ceaster,  from  the  Roman 
Castra.  In  605  it  was  laid  utterly  waste  by  Ethel- 
frith  of  Northumbria ;  and  rebuilt  in  908,  it  was 
the  last  place  in  England  that  held  out  against 
William  the  Conqueror.  Llewelyn  ravaged  it  in 
1255  ;  and  after  a  long  and  memorable  siege 
(1643-46),  the  royalist  inhabitants  were  starved 
into  surrender.  A  projected  Fenian  attack  on 
the  castle  in  1867  proved  abortive. 

Chester,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Dela- 
ware, 15  miles  SW.  of  Philadelphia,  with  a 
military  academy,  large  shipbuilding  yards,  and 
manufactures  of  cotton  and  woollen  goods, 
engines,  &c.  Swedes  founded  it  as  Upland  in 
1643— the  oldest  town  in  the  state.  Pop.  (1860) 
4631 ;  (1900)  33,988.  There  is  a  Historical  Sketch 
of  the  city  by  Ashmead  (1883). 

Chesterfield,  a  municipal  borough  in  Derby- 
shire, on  the  Rother  rivulet,  12J  miles  SSE.  of 
Sheffield  by  rail.  All-Saints'  Church  (c.  1350) 
has  a  curious  crooked  spire,  228  feet  high,  and  6 
feet  off"  the  perpendicular;  in  Trinity  Church 
(1838)  is  buried  George  Stephenson.  Other  build- 
ings are  the  townhall  (1857),  the  Stephenson 
memorial  hall,  and  the  grammar-school  (1574; 
rebuilt  1846).  There  are  manufactures  of  silk, 
lace,  earthenware,  and  machinery;  and  the 
neighbourhood  is  rich  in  coal,  iron,  and  other 
minerals.  Brindley's  Chesterfield  Canal  (1776) 
extends  46  miles  to  the  Trent.  Pop.  (1851)  7101 ; 
(1901)  27,185,  within  the  borough  as  extended  iu 
1892.    See  Yeatman's  Records  of  Chesterfield  (1885). 

Chesterfield  Inlet,  a  narrow  gulf  penetrating 
250  miles  west  from  the  NW.  of  Hudson  Bay. 

Chester-le-Street,  a  Durham  market-town  near 
the  left  bank  of  the  Wear,  6  miles  N.  of  Durham 
city.  The  seat  of  the  Bishop  of  Bernicia  from 
883  to  995,  it  has  an  old  collegiate  church ;  whilst 
in  the  neighbourhood  are  Lambton,  Lumley,  and 
Ravensworth  Castles,  the  seats  of  the  Earls  of 
Durham,  Scarborough,  and  Ravensworth.  Coal- 
mines and  ironworks  are  numerous.  Pop.  of 
parish,  12,000. 

Chesterton,  a  NE.  suburb  of  Cambridge. 

Cheviot  Hills,  a  mountain-range  of  North- 
umberland and  Roxburghshire,  on  the  Englisli 
and  Scotch  border,  running  35  miles  south- 
westward,  from  near  the  junction  of  the  Till  and 
Tweed,  to  the  sources  of  the  Liddel.  The  princi- 
pal points  are  Cheviot  Hill  (2676  feet)  and  Peel 
Fell  (1964). 


CHEYENNE 


177 


CHICAGO 


Cheyenne,  the  capital  of  Wyoming  state,  U.S., 
situated  on  tlie  eastern  slope  of  the  Laramie 
Mountains,  6000  feet  above  sea-level,  and  106 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Denver.  Coal  and  iron  are 
found  in  its  neighbourhood.  Pop.  (1870)  1450 ; 
(1880)  3456  ;  (1900)  14,087. 

Ohhatisgarh  is  the  south-east  division  of  the 
Central  Provinces  of  India.  Area,  39,761  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  3,612,705.    Dongargaon  is  the  capital. 

Chiana  (Kee-dh'na;  anc.  Clanis),  a  river  of 
Italy,  originally  a  tributary  of  the  Tiber,  watering 
the  perfectly  level  Val  di  Chiana,  which  its  over- 
flow rendered  once  the  most  pestilential  district 
of  Italy.  The  bed  was  deepened  in  1789-1816, 
and  in  1823  a  northern  branch  was  led  through 
canals  to  the  Arno,  a  few  miles  below  Arezzo. 

Chlanti  (Kee-dhn'tee),  an  Italian  mountain- 
range,  in  the  province  of  Siena ;  it  gives  name 
to  an  excellent  red  wine. 

Chiapas,  Las  (Tchee-dh'pas),  a  Pacific  state  of 
Mexico,  adjoining  Guatemala.  Area,  27,222  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  320,000.     Capital,  San  Cristobal.^ 

Chlaramonte  (Kee-dh-ra-mon' teh),  a  town  of 
Sicily,  30  miles  W.  of  Syracuse.    Pop.  9364. 

Chia'ri  (Kee-dh'ree),  a  town  of  Lombardy,  13 
miles  W.  of  Brescia  by  rail.  Here  the  Austrians, 
under  Prince  Eugene,  defeated  tlie  French  and 
Spaniards,  under  Villeroi,  2d  September  1701. 
Pop.  5999. 

Chiavari  (Kee-ah'va-ree),  a  port  of  Italy,  24  miles 
ESE.  of  Genoa  by  rail.    Pop.  11,000. 

Chia.^enna.  (Kee-a-ven'na),  a  town  of  Lombardy, 
to  the  north  of  Lake  Como.     Pop.  4848. 

Chicacole,  a  town  on  the  Langnliya  River,  567 
miles  NE.  of  Madras.     Pop.  18,355. 

Chicago  (pron.  Shekahgo)  is  situated  in  the 
north-east  corner  of  the  state  of  Illinois,  about 
the  fork  and  mouth  of  the  Chicago  River,  on  the 
west  shore  and  near  the  head  of  Lake  Michigan. 
It  is  850  miles  from  Baltimore,  and  2415  from  San 
Francisco.  The  city  is  divided  by  the  river  and 
its  branches  into  north,  south,  and  west  'sides,' 
which  are  connected  with  each  other  by  upwards 
of  thirty  bridges  and  two  tunnels.  The  river 
frontage,  counting  both  sides,  extends  41  miles. 
From  a  small  trading  village  Chicago  has  expanded 
into  a  great  metropolis,  ranking,  in  the  United 
States,  second  only  to  New  York.  The  area, 
in  1887  only  367  sq.  m.,  had  in  1904  increased 
to  190 ;  while  the  city  extended  lengthwise  for 
21J  miles,  and  from  east  to  west  10^  miles.  It 
is  the  largest  grain  market  in  the  world ;  and 
more  hogs  are  killed,  and  mere  pork,  bacon,  and 
lard  shipped,  than  in  and  from  any  other  two 
cities  on  the  continent.  The  site  was  at  first 
barely  on  a  level  with  the  lake ;  but  thorough- 
fares were  gradually  raised  from  8  to  12  feet, 
and  the  surrounding  lots  progressively  filled  in. 
Now  Chicago  has  some  of  the  finest  streets  (laid 
out  with  mathematical  regularity)  in  all  America, 
notably  Michigan  Avenue  and  Drexel  Boulevard. 
Among  the  public  buildings  of  Chicago  are  the 
Board  of  Trade  building,  of  granite ;  the  county 
court-house  and  city-hall,  erected  at  a  cost  of 
nearly  $6,000,000 ;  the  criminal  court  and  county 
jail ;  the  United  States  custom-house  and  post- 
office  ;  the  Art  Institute  building ;  the  Dearborn 
Observatory;  the  Auditorium,  with  a  seating 
capacity  of  7500 ;  besides  some  300  churches, 
public  schools,  numerous  hospitals,  theatres, 
music-halls,  and  many  palatial  hotels.  The 
Chicago  University,  opened  in  1892,  has  2600 
students,  and  assets  valued  at  $15,500,000,  of 
which  $9,000,000  were  given  by  Mr  Rockefeller. 


There  are  also  medical  and  commercial  colleges, 
a  university  at  Evanston,  12  miles  to  the  north, 
and  several  theological  seminaries  in  the  city  and 
its  suburbs.  The  public  library,  with  320,000 
volumes,  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  United 
States ;  and  the  Newberry  Library,  founded  in 
1888  as  a  reference  library  by  a  legacy  of 
$3,000,000,  has  over  250,000  volumes.  Many  of 
the  office  buildings  are  enormously  tall,  accessible 
in  the  upper  stories  by  rapid  elevators;  these 
'  sky-scrapers '  are  built  on  the  steel-frame  system, 
the  brick  walls  not  actually  serving  as  a  support. 

The  park  system  is  without  a  parallel  in 
America  ;  it  embraces  Lincoln  Park,  on  the  lake, 
shore  to  the  north,  and  five  others,  all  connected 
or  nearly  so  by  magnificent  boulevards,  the 
system  measuring  some  35  miles.  Among  other 
open  spaces  are  20  large  cemeteries,  besides 
numerous  smaller  parks  and  squares,  and  several 
driving  parks.  The  water-supply  system  has  640 
miles  of  pipe ;  a  new  tunnel,  capable  of  furnish- 
ing 100,000,000  gallons  a  day,  and  running  4  miles 
out  into  Lake  Michigan,  was  constructed  in 
1888.  The  sewerage  of  the  city  is  emptied,  by  a 
canal  connecting  the  Chicago  and  Illinois  rivers, 
into  the  Mississippi,  and  thence  to  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  ;  this  scheme,  adopted  in  1892  (opened  in 
1900),  included  an  open  canal  combining  a  sewage 
system  with  a  system  of  navigation  between  Lake 
Michigan  and  the  Mississippi,  practically  between 
the  North  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The 
city  garbage  is  disposed  of  by  fire  in  destructors. 
The  great  secret  of  Chicago's  phenomenal  growth 
is  its  transportation  facilities  by  rail  and  water. 
Fully  one-third  of  the  railroad  system  of  the 
United  States  centres  there.  But  the  great 
waterway  by  Lake  Michigan  and  its  connections 
is  unquestionably  of  most  importance  for  the 
prosperity  of  the  city.  In  1888  for  the  'first  time 
a  steamer  from  London  direct  landed  her  cargo 
at  this  city.  The  manufactures  of  the  city 
include  nearly  every  variety  of  production,  from 
a  child's  toy  to  the  largest  steam-engine. 

Joliet  and  Marquette  visited  the  place  in  1673, 
and  ere  long  the  French  built  a  fort  here.  '  Fort 
Dearborn'  was  built  in  1804.  The  history  of 
Chicago  as  a  city  dates  from  1837,  Avhen  its 
population  was  4170 ;  in  1845  it  was  12,088. 
Since  that  time  the  city  has  made  prodigious 
strides  in  extent  and  in  the  acquisition  of 
wealth.  Pop.  (1860)  109,206  ;  (1880)  503,185  ; 
(1900)1,698,575.  In  1900  the  number  of  native-born 
was  1,111,460  (59  per  cent,  of  foreign  parentage), 
and  587,115  were  foreign-born,  largely  Germans, 
next  Irish,  Bohemians,  Poles,  Swedes.Norwegians, 
English  and  Scotch,  French,  Canadians— besides 
30,150  negroes.  The  manufactures  of  tlie  city 
are  very  various.  Over  300,000,000  bushels  of 
grain  are  dealt  with  annually  in  the  Chicago 
elevators.  Over  5,000,000  hogs,  2,000,000  cattle 
and  as  many  sheep  are  slaughtered  annually. 
The  city  income  is  about  $35,000,000  yearly. 

The  great  fire,  which  broke  out  on  Sunday, 
October  7,  1871,  devastated  a  total  area  of  nearly 
3^  sq.  m. ;  about  17,450  buildings  were  burned, 
98,500  persons  rendered  homeless,  and  some  200 
lives  sacrificed,  the  total  money  loss  being  esti- 
mated at  $190,000,000.  As  a  result  of  this 
disaster,  when  this  central  portion  was  rebuilt, 
brick,  iron,  and  stone  structures  were  erected, 
and  stone  pavements  also  were  substituted  for 
wood.  Another  conflagration,  on  July  14,  1874, 
destroyed  about  $4,000,000  worth  of  property.  In 
1886  occurred  the  '  Haymarket  Massacre,'  in  which 
eight  policemen  were  killed  and  sixty  maimed  by 
a  dynamite  bomb  thrown  by  an  anarchist  from 


CHICHEN 


178 


CHILI 


among  a  crowd  of  labour  agitators.  Another 
anarchist  plot  was  detected  in  July  1888.  In  Jack- 
son  Park,  to  the  south-east  of  the  city,  was  the 
site  chosen  for  the  great  World's  Columbian  Exposi- 
tion or  World's  Fair,  held  1st  May  to  30th  October 
1893  in  celebration  of  the  fourth  centenary  ol 
the  discovery  of  America  by  Columbus.  Ihe 
buildings  were  dedicated  with  elaborate  cere- 
monies on  21st  October  1892.  The  area  occupied 
for  the  purpose,  633  acres,  had  a  frontage  of  a 
mile  and  a  half  on  Lake  Michigan ;  the  enormous 
building  for  manufactures  itself  covering  30^ 
acres  of  ground,  and  having  13^  acres  ot  gallery 
space.  The  number  of  visitors  was,  from  first 
to  last.  23,529,400.  See  histories  by  Andreas 
(1884)  and  Moses  and  Kirklaud  (1895). 

Ohicheii',  one  of  over  fifty  ruined  Indian  towns 
in  the  Mexican  province  of  Yucatan,  a  few  miles 
WSW.  of  Valladolid. 

Chlcliester,  a  municipal  borough  and  episcopal 
city  in  Sussex,   17  miles  ENE.  of  Portsmouth, 
and  28  W.   of  Brighton.     It  stands  on  a  plain 
between  an  arm  of  the  sea  and  the  South  Downs, 
which  rise  gently  on  the  north.    The  two  mam 
streets  cross  at  right  angles,   and  meet  in  an 
elaborate    eight-sided    market-cross    (c.     1500). 
Within  the  suburbs  the  city  is  surrounded  by 
an  ancient  wall,  1^  mile  in  circuit,  now  a  pro- 
menade under  the  shade  of  elms.    The  cathedral, 
erected  in  the  12th  and  13th  centuries,  on  the 
Bite  of  a  wooden  one  founded  1108,  and  burned 
1114  measures  410  by  131  feet,  with  a  spire  277 
feet  high  (rebuilt  1865-66,  after  its  fall  in  1861), 
and  a  detached  bell-tower  or  campanile,  120  feet, 
the  only  structure  of  the  kind  retained  by  an 
English  cathedral.    The  bishop's  palace  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  erected  on   the  site  of  a 
Roman  villa.     Chichester  has  a  market-house, 
guildhall  (formed  out  of  the  chapel  of  the  Fran- 
ciscan monastery),  a  theological  college  (1872), 
&c     The  chief  trade  is  in  agricultural  produce 
and  live-stock.    Wool-stapling,  malting,  brewing, 
and    tanning    are  also    carried  on.     From    the 
time  of  Edward  I.  till  1867  Chichester  returned 
two  members,   and  till  1885  one.     The  port  of 
Chichester,  2  miles  to  the  south-west   of  the 
city,  is  situated  on  a  deep  inlet  of  the  English 
Channel,  of  about  8  sq.  m.,  and  is  connected 
with  Chichester  by  a  canal.     The  Roman  Beg- 
num,  Chichester  was  partly  destroyed  in  491  by 
the  South  Saxons,  but  was  soon  after  rebuilt 
by  Cissa,  their  king,  and  called  Cissanceaster, 
or  Cissa's  Camp.     It  sufi'ered  much  during  the 
Great  Rebellion,  when  among  royalist  prisoners 
of  war  was  the  famous  Chillingworth,  who  died 
here,  and  lies  buried  in  the  cathedral.     Pop. 
12,244.     See  works  by  Willis  (1861),   Stephens 
(1876),  Swainson  (1880),  and  Corlette  (1902). 

Chickahoni'Iny,  a  river  of  Virginia,  flowing 
90  miles  south-eastward,  within  5  miles  of  Rich- 
mond, to  the  James.  Four  battles  were  fought 
near  it  in  June  1862. 

Chlckamauga,  a  tributary  of  the  Tennessee 
River,  rising  in  Georgia,  and  flowing  NW.  into 
Tennessee,  where,  on  its  banks,  the  Confederates 
won  a  victory,  September  19-20,  1863. 

Chicken  Rock,  2  miles  S.  of  the  Calf  of  Man, 
with  a  lighthouse. 

Chiclana  {Chee-Uah'na),  a  town  of  Spain,  12  m. 
SE.  of  Cadiz,  with  mineral  baths.     Pop.  12,339. 

Chiclayo  (Clm-kWo),  a  town  of  Peru,  12  miles 
SE.  of  Lambayeque.     Pop.  11,325. 

Chic'opee,  a  town  of  Hampden  county,  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  east  bank  of  the  Connecticut 


River,  4  miles  N.  of  Springfield,  with  manufac- 
tures of  cottons,  firearms,  swords,  tools,  bicycles, 
and  bronzes.    Pop.  (1885)  11,528  ;  (1900)  19,170. 

Ohiem-See  (Keem-Zay),  a  lake  of  Upper  Bavaria, 
40  miles  SE.  of  Munich,  and  1650  feet  above  sea- 
level,  is  12  miles  long,  7  broad,  and  512  feet  deep. 
It  has  three  islands  ;  its  surplus  water  is  dis- 
charged by  the  Alz  into  the  Inn. 

Chieri  (Ke-eh'ree),  a  town  of  Italy,  12  miles 
SE.  of  Turin  by  rail.     Pop.  9494. 

Chieti  (Ke-ay'tee ;  anc.  Teate),  an  archiepiscopal 
city  of  Italy,  on  a  hill  near  the  Pescara,  69  miles 
E.  of  Aquila  by  rail,  and  only  8  from  the  Adriatic. 
It  has  a  fine  Gothic  cathedral.    Pop.  12,273. 

Chignecto  Bay,  an  inlet  at  the  head  of  the 
Bay  of  Fundy,  in  British  North  America.  It 
separates  Nova  Scotia  from  New  Brunswick,  is 
30  miles  long  and  8  broad,  and  has  an  isthmus  of 
only  14  miles  wide,  with  an  unfinished  ship- 
railway  (undertaken  in  1889)  between  it  and  the 
Gulf  of  St  Lawrence. 

CWgwell,  an  Essex  village  on  the  border  of 
Hainault  Forest,  13  miles  NE.  of  London.  Its 
'  Maypole  Inn'  figures  in  Barnahy  Rudge;  and  its 
grammar-school,  founded  by  Archbishop  Harsnet 
of  York  in  1629,  has  been  enlarged  since  1871  at 
a  cost  of  £10,000.  Penn  was  a  pupil.  Pop.  of 
parisli,  2500. 

Chlhudhua,  the  largest  state  of  Mexico, 
bounded  N.  and  NE.  by  New  Mexico  and  Texas, 
has  an  area  of  87,802  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of 
298,100.  — Chihuahua,  the  decayed  capital,  is 
225  miles  S.  of  El  Paso  by  rail.  It  has  an 
imposing  cathedral  (1717-89).     Pop.  25,000. 

CMklslar,  a  small  port  in  Russian  Turkestan, 
on  the  east  shore  of  the  Caspian,  north  of  the 
Atrek's  mouth. 

Chili (Tc/iee'Zee;  Span.  Chile,  pron.  Tehee' lay), one 
of  the  republics  of  South  America,  on  the  west 
coast  and  bordering  on  Peru,  Bolivia,  and  Argen- 
tina. It  may  be  described  as  a  long  strip  of 
territory  lying  between  the  summit  of  the  Andes 
and  the  Paciiic  Ocean,  extending  from  about  the 
18th  parallel  of  south  latitude  to  the  southern 
extremity  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  After  the  war 
with  Bolivia  and  Peru  (1879-81),  Chili  acquired 
the  coast  between  23°  and  25°  S.  claimed  by 
Bolivia,  and  annexed  the  Peruvian  province  of 
Tarapacd.  Chili  occupies  the  Peruvian  pro- 
vince of  Tacna  (with  Arica),  subject  to  the  pay- 
ment of  a  war  indemnity  by  Peru.  In  the  south 
the  disputed  claims  of  Chili  and  Argentina  to 
Patagonia  have  been  settled  by  Chili  taking  all 
territory  and  islands  south  of  the  52d  parallel 
and  west  of  68°  30'  W.  This  includes  the  larger 
portion  of  Tierra  del  Fuego.  The  Strait  of 
Magellan  is  by  treaty  considered  neutral.  Ihe 
length  of  Chili  is  about  2500  English  miles.  Its 
breadth  varies  from  40  to  200  miles.  The  Andes 
extend  in  two  parallel  lines  throughout  nearly 
the  entire  length  of  the  country  ;  between  these 
two  ranges  of  the  'Cordillera'  there  is  a  central 
valley  or  tableland.  The  streams  in  the  north 
are  mostly  shallow  brooks;  in  the  south  they 
are  larger  and  more  numerous,  although  most 
are  navigable  for  only  a  few  miles.  The  Biobio 
(q  V.)  is  the  largest ;  the  Callecalle,  or  Rio  de 
Valdivia  (100  miles),  is  the  most  important,  because 
of  the  sheltered  harbour  at  its  mouth.  In  tlie 
south  are  also  many  deep  lakes.  Mineral  waters, 
chiefly  saline  and  sulphureous,  are  abundant. 
The  most  important  islands  are  those  constituting 
the  southern  province  of  Chilo6 ;  Juan  Fernan- 
dez also  belongs  to  Chili.     Owing  to  its  great 


CHILI 


179 


CHILTERN  HILLS 


extension  from  north  to  south,  Chili  comprises 
regions  of  very  different  nature  and  climate. 
The  north  provinces,  TarapacS,  Atacama,  and 
part  of  Coquimbo,  are  arid,  rainless  districts, 
where  the  principal  industry  is  mining  and  ex- 
traction of  saltpetre.  The  middle  and  southern 
provinces  — Aconcagua,  Vali)araiso,  Santiago, 
O'Higgins,  Colchagua,  Curico,  Talca,  Linares, 
Maule,  Nuble,  Concepcion,  Arauco,  Biobio,  Mal- 
leco,  Cautin,  Valdivia— are  agricultural,  with  coal- 
fields. The  Patagonian  provinces— Llanhique, 
Chiloe,  and  Magellanes  territory— are  densely 
wooded.  The  climate  of  Chili  is,  on  the  whole, 
temperate.  In  the  north  it  is  rather  hot  and 
rainless ;  in  the  south  it  is  dry  for  about  eight 
months  of  the  year,  and  rainy  the  other  four. 
In  Southern  Chili  generally  the  land  is  poor  and 
of  hardly  any  value  for  agriculture,  which,  indeed, 
is  carried  on  in  a  very  primitive  fashion  ;  but  the 
soil  of  the  valleys,  where  large  herds  of  cattle 
graze,  is  very  fertile.  The  Andes  are  almost 
everywhere  visible,  covered  with  perpetual  snow. 
The  highest  peak  is  Aconcagua,  22,867  feet ;  the 
average  height  of  the  great  range  is  8000  feet. 
There  are  many  volcanic  peaks,  mostly  extinct. 
Chili  is  subject  to  frequent  shocks  of  earth- 
quake, and  occasionally  to  destructive  terremotos; 
the  most  notable  of  these  recorded  was  in  1832, 
when  the  coast  near  Valparaiso  was  thrown  up 
permanently  between  3  and  4  feet.  In  1885  Con- 
cepcion and  Talcahuano  were  destroyed  by  a 
fearful  earthquake ;  in  1868  and  again  in  1875 
Iquique  and  the  northern  districts  suffered. 

The  population  of  Chili  at  the  census  of  1885 
was  2,524,476 ;  in  1901,  3,146,580.  Santiago,  the 
capital,  has  296,700  inhabitants ;  Valparaiso, 
132,950;  Talca,  Concepcion,  Iquique,  and  Chilian, 
from  50,000  to  30,000.  The  natives  of  Cliili  are 
a  mixture  of  Spanish  with  the  Araucanian  Indians. 
In  the  upper  classes  the  race  has  been  kept  more 
purely  Spanish  than  in  any  other  South  American 
country.  The  working-classes  are  laborious  and 
docile,  but  it  cannot  be  said  that  there  is  as  yet 
any  effectual  protection  for  property.  The  manu- 
factures are  confined  to  copper-smelting,  sugar- 
refining,  tanning,  brewing,  manufactures  of  soap 
and  candles,  biscuits,  boots  and  shoes,  woollens, 
flax,  and  nitrates. 

Chili  is  a  Roman  Catholic  country,  but  other 
religions  are  tolerated.  Education  receives  much 
attention.  There  is  a  first-class  university  at 
Santiago,  and  a  lyceum  in  every  provincial 
capital.  The  language  spoken  in  Chili  is  Spanish, 
but  with  many  local  Avords  of  Indian  origin. 

The  value  of  imports  in  1890-1902  varied  from 
$63,000,000  to  $160,000,000;  the  exports  varied 
from  869,000,000  to  $175,000,000.  About  a  third 
of  the  imports  and  two-thinis  of  the  exports  are 
from  and  to  Britain,  the  German  and  French 
trade  being  next  in  importance.  Mineral  pro- 
ducts represent  five-sixths  of  the  total  exports. 
The  chief  articles  of  export  are  nitrate  and  iodine, 
copper,  silver,  gold,  manganese,  hides,  wool, 
wheat,  and  barley.  The  principal  imports  are 
cotton,  woollen,  and  jute  goods,  iron,  hardware, 
coal,  machinery,  timber,  rice,  sugar,  earthen- 
ware, cement,  paper,  beer,  glassware,  kerosene, 
tallow,  matches,  tea  and  coffee. 

A  government  broad-gauge  railway  line  runs 
from  Valparaiso  to  Santiago,  crossing  the  coast- 
range  of  the  Andes,  and  thence  southwards 
through  the  central  valley  to  Concepcion,  and 
through  Araucania  towards  Valdivia,  with  a  total 
length  of  about  1750  miles.  A  branch  also  runs 
to  Santa  Rosa  at  the  foot  of  tlie  Andes,  from 
which  a  line  was  in  progress,  under  difficulties, 


from  1890  to  1905,  to  unite  with  the  Argentine 
railway  system,  via  the  Uspallata  Pass,  wliich  it 
crosses  at  the  elevation  of  9843  feet  above  sea- 
level  by  means  of  a  tunnel  6J  miles  in  length. 
The  length  from  Valparaiso  to  Buenos  Ayre8 
(from  Pacific  to  Atlantic)  is  880  miles. 

The  credit  of  Chili  stands  higher  than  that  of 
any  other  South  American  state.  At  the  begin- 
ning of  the  century  the  foreign  debt  amounted 
to  about  $85,000,000,  and  the  internal  debt,  in- 
cluding forced  paper  currency  in  circulation,  to 
$25,000,000.  The  revenue  for  1901  was  stated  at 
$41,000,000,  and  tlie  expenditure  $43,000,000.  The 
customs  revenue,  which  in  1856  amonnted  to 
$4,147,298,  in  1901  reached  $23,000,000.  The  gbld 
standard  was  adopted  in  1895,  and  a  loan  of 
$20,000,000  authorised  for  the  conversion  of  the 
paper  currency. 

The  constitution  of  Chili  is  republican  and 
based  upon  that  of  the  United  States.  The 
cabinet  consists  of  six  ministers.  The  Council 
of  State  consists  of  five  members  nominated  by 
the  president,  and  six  appointed  by  congress. 
The  legislature  is  composed  of  two  chambers — 
the  Deputies,  about  100  in  number ;  and  the 
Senate,  numbering  one  to  every  five  deputies. 
From  the  war  of  1879-81  with  Peru,  Chili  enjoyed 
peace  and  prosperity  till  1891,  when  owing  to 
President  Balmaceda's  aiming  at  dictatorial 
powers,  a  rebellion  broke  out  which  ended  in 
Balmaceda's  defeat.  Boundary  disputes  with 
Argentina  were  referred  to  British  arbitration 
and  arranged  in  1898. 

See  works  on  Chili  by  Rumbold  (1877),  Boyd 
(1881),  Markham  (1883),  Russell  (1890),  Hancock 
(1893),  and  Perez  Garcia  (1900). 

Chilkoot,  a  pass  from  Dyea,  on  the  inlet  from 
the  Pacific,  over  the  mountains  to  the  head-waters 
of  the  Yukon ;  on  the  main  route  to  Klondike 
till  the  railway  by  the  Wliite  Horse  Pass. 

Chilian,  capital  of  the  Chilian  province  of 
Nuble,  with  bathing  establishments  on  the  extinct 
volcano  of  Chilian  (9445  feet).    Pop.  36,000. 

Chillianwalla,  a  Punjab  village,  5  miles  from 
the  Jhelum's  east  bank,  and  85  NW.  of  Lahore. 
Here  an  indecisive  but  sanguinary  battle  was 
fought  in  the  second  Sikh  war,  13th  January  1849. 

Chllllco'the,  capital  of  Ross  county,  Ohio,  on 
the  Scioto  River  and  the  Ohio  Canal,  50  miles  S. 
of  Columbus.  It  has  manufactures  of  paper, 
leather,  &c.,  and  was  from  1800  to  1810  the 
capital  of  the  state.     Pop.  12,282. 

Chillingham,  a  village  in  the  north  of  North- 
umberland, on  the  river  Till,  8  miles  SW.  of  Bel- 
ford.  To  the  south  is  Chillingham  Castle,  seat  of 
the  Earl  of  Tankerville,  built  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  III.  In  the  park,  as  at  Cadzow,  are  pre- 
served a  herd  of  wild  white  cattle. 

Chillon  (Fr.  pron.  Shee-yono'),  a  castle  1^  mile 
SSB.  of  Montreux,  at  the  east  end  of  the  Lake  of 
Geneva.  It  was  long  a  state-prison,  and  in  it  lan- 
guished Byron's  '  Prisoner  of  Chillon,'  Bonivard. 

Ohlltem  Hills,  the  southern  part  of  the  low 
chalk  range  which  runs  north-east,  about  70 
miles,  from  the  north  bend  of  the  Thames,  in 
Oxfordshire,  through  Bucks  and  the  borders  of 
Herts  and  Beds.  In  Oxford,  Herts,  and  Beds 
the  Chiltern  Hills  are  15  to  20  miles  broad,  and 
the  highest  point  is  near  Wendover  (950  feet).— 
The  hundreds  of  Bodenham,  Desborough,  and 
Stoke,  in  Buckinghamshire,  are  called  the  Chiltern 
Hundreds.  The  Stewardship  of  them  (the  salary 
being  as  fictitious  as  the  duties)  is  still  held  to 
be  an  office  of  profit  under  the  crown,  and  its 
acceptance  by  a  member  of  the  House  of  Commons 


CHIMBORAZO 


180 


CHINA 


entails  the  vacation  of  his  seat  (simple  resignation 
without  some  disqualification  not  being  provided 
for  in  parliamentary  usage). 

CMmbora'zo,  a  conical  peak  of  the  Andes,  in 
Ecuador,  20,498  feet  above  the  sea,  but  only  about 
11,000  above  the  level  of  the  valley  of  Quito,  to 
the  north.  From  1745,  wlien  La  Condamine 
ascended  as  high  as  16,730  feet,  numerous 
attempts  had  been  made  to  scale  it  before 
Whymper  in  1880  twice  reached  its  summit. — 
The  province  of  Chimborazo,  to  the  south,  has 
an  area  of  5523  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  120,300. 

Chimbote  (TcMm-ho'tav),  a  seaport  of  Peru, 
250  miles  NW.  of  Lima  ;  pop.  2000. 

China,  Manchuria  (q.v.),  and  its  dependencies 
of  Mongolia,  I-li,  and  Tibet  (q.v.),  constitute  the 
Chinese  empire,  embracing  a  vast  territory  in 
Eastern  Asia  only  inferior  in  extent  to  the  total 
dominions  of  Great  Britain  and  Russia.  The 
dependencies  are  not  colonies,  but  subject  terri- 
tories. China  Proper  is  alone  dealt  with  in  tliis 
article.  By  its  natives  the  country  is  never  so 
called,  but  usually  by  tlie  Chinese  words  for  '  The 
Middle  State,'  or  'The  Kingdom  of  the  Great 
Pure  (dynasty).'  The  name  China  (Chi-na,  laud 
of  Chin)  comes  to  us  from  India  through  Buddh- 
ism. Various  old  names  are  Serica  and  Cathay, 
and  in  the  Bible  '  Laud  of  Siniin '  (Isa.  xlix.  12). 

China  Proper,  washed  on  the  east  by  the  Pacific, 
consists  of  eigli  teen  provinces — the  three  provinces 
of  Manchuria  not  being  reckoned.  On  the  north 
are  Chih-li,  Shan-hsi  (Shansi),  Shen-hst  (Shensi), 
and  Kan-sA ;  on  the  west  Sze-chwan  (Szechuen) 
and  Yun-nan ;  on  the  south  Kwang-lisi  (Kwangsi) 
and  Kwang-tung ;  on  the  east  Fu-chien  (Fukien), 
Cheh-chiang  (Chehkiang),  Cheang-sii  (Kiangsu), 
and  Shan-tung ;  and  in  the  centre  are  Ho-nan, 
An-hui  (Nganhwei),  Hil-pei,  HA-nan,  Chiang-hsi 
(Kiangsi),  and  Kwei-chau  (Kweichow).  Hainan 
and  Formosa  are  the  chief  islands.  The  total 
area,  often  stated  at  1,300,000  sq.  m,,  is  probably 
not  much  short  of  2,000,000.  The  Chinese  empire 
without  Corea  has  an  area  of  4,218,400  sq.  m. 
The  population  of  the  ejnpire  is  variously  esti- 
mated at  from  300  to  400  millions.  The  great 
bulk  of  this  falls  to  the  provinces  of  China 
Proper;  the  population  of  all  the  dependencies 
(Manchuria,  Tibet,  Mongolia,  Zungaria,  East 
Turkestan)  making  but  some  16,000,000  or 
17,000,000  of  the  total.  The  population  of  Peking, 
the  capital,  is  probably  under  a  million.  Of 
(since  1902)  nearly  forty  ports  open  to  foreign 
commerce,  only  five  have  a  population  under 
50,000,  That  of  Canton  is  estimated  at  2,600,000  ; 
of  Tien-tsin  at  950,000 ;  of  Han-kau  at  750,000 ; 
of  Fti-chau  at  650,000  ;  of  Shang-hai  at  455,000 ; 
of  Ning-po  at  250,000. 

China  Proper  may  be  described  as  sloping 
from  the  mountainous  regions  of  Tibet  towards 
the  shores  of  the  Pacific  on  the  east  and 
south.  The  most  extensive  mountain-range  is 
the  Nan  Ling  or  Southern  Ea,nge,  a  far-extending 
spur  of  the  Himalayas.  Commencing  in  Yun- 
nan, it  bounds  with  a  continuous  barrier  (pene- 
trated by  only  a  few  difficult  passes)  Kwang-hsi, 
Kwang-tung,  and  Fii-chien  on  the  north,  and, 
passing  through  Cheh-chiang,  reaches  the  sea  at 
Ning-po.  North  of  this  long  range,  and  west 
of  the  118th  meridian,  on  to  the  borders  of  Tibet, 
the  country  is  mountainous,  while  to  the  east 
and  from  the  great  wall  on  the  north,  to  the 
Po-yang  lake  in  the  south,  there  is  the  Great 
Plain,  comprising  the  greater  part  of  the  pro- 
vinces of  Chih-li  and  Shan-tung,  Ho-nan,  An-hui, 
and  Chiang-s<i. 


In  the  provinces  west  from  Chih-li— Shan-hsl, 
Shen-hsi,  and  Kan-su— the  soil  is  formed  of  what 
are  called  the  loess  beds,  which  are  extremely 
fertile,  the  fields  composed  of  it  hardly  requiring 
any  other  manure  than  a  sprinkling  of  its  own 
fresh  loam.  The  husbandman  in  this  way  obtains 
an  assured  harvest  two  and  even  three  times  a 
year.  This  fertility,  provided  there  be  a  sufficient 
rainfall,  seems  inexhaustible.  The  rivers  of  China 
—called  for  the  most  part  lio  in  the  north,  and 
Chiang  (Iciang)  in  the  south,  are  one  of  its  most 
distinguishing  features.  Two  of  them  stand  out 
conspicuous  among  the  great  rivers  of  the  world ; 
the  Ho,  Hoang-ho,  or  Yellow  River,  and  the 
Chiang,  or  Yang-tsze-kiang.  They  rise  not  far 
from  each  other  among  the  mountains  of  Tibet. 
The  Ho  pursues  a  tortuous  course  seaward 
through  North  China ;  the  Chiang  or  Yang-tsze 
through  Central  China.  The  terrible  calamities 
caused  by  the  inundations  of  the  Hoang-ho  have 
procured  for  it  the  name  of  '  China's  Sorrow." 
So  recently  as  1887  it  burst  its  southern  bank 
near  Chang  Chau,  and  poured  its  mighty  flood, 
with  hideous  devastation  and  the  destruction  of 
millions  of  lives,  into  the  populous  province  of 
Ho-nan.  The  Ho  is  not  much  under  the  Chiang 
in  length — somewhat  over  3000  miles.  The  Grand 
Canal,  when  in  good  order,  aff'orded  water  com- 
munication from  Peking  to  Hang-chau  in  Cheh- 
chiang,  a  distance  of  more  than  600  miles.  Steam 
communication  all  along  the  eastern  seaboard 
from  Canton  to  Tien-tsin  has  very  much  super- 
seded its  use.  The  lakes  are  very  many,  but  not 
on  so  great  a  scale  as  the  rivers. 

It  was  in  214  b.c.  that  the  emperor  Shih  Hwang 
Ti  determined  to  erect  a  grand  barrier  all  along 
the  north  of  his  vast  empire.  The  Great  Wall  is 
one  of  the  wonders  of  China,  and  extends  from 
the  Shan-hai  Pass  east  of  Peking  westward  to 
the  Chia-yii  barrier  gate,  the  road  through  which 
leads  to  the  'Western  Regions.'  Its  length  in  a 
straight  line  would  be  1255  miles,  but,  if  measured 
along  its  sinuosities,  this  distance  must  be  in- 
creased to  1500.  It  is  formed  by  two  strong 
retaining  walls  of  brick,  rising  from  granite 
foundations,  the  space  between  being  filled  up 
with  stones  and  earth.  The  breadth  of  it  at  the 
base  is  about  25  feet,  at  the  top  15,  and  the  height 
varies  from  15  to  30  feet. 

The  country  is  rich  in  the  products  necessary 
for  the  support  and  comfort  of  the  people.  There 
is  in  it  every  variety  of  climate ;  but  the  average 
temperature  is  lower  than  in  any  other  country 
in  the  same  latitude.  Wheat,  barley,  maize, 
millet,  and  other  cereals  are  chiefly  cultivated 
in  the  northern  regions,  and  rice  in  the  southern. 
Culinary  or  kitchen  herbs,  mushrooms,  and 
aquatic  vegetables,  with  ginger  and  a  variety  of 
other  condiments,  are  everywhere  produced  and 
largely  used.  From  Formosa  there  comes  sugai', 
and  the  cane  thrives  also  in  the  southern 
provinces.  Oranges,  pummeloes,  lichis,  pome- 
granates, peaches,  plantains,  pine-apples,  man- 
goes, grapes,  and  many  other  fruits  and  nuts, 
are  supplied  in  most  markets.  Tea  is  noted 
below.  Opium  is  increasingly  grown.  The  Chinese 
are  emphatically  an  agricultural  people;  irriga- 
tion is  assiduously  and  skilfully  employed,  and 
no  people  are  so  careful  to  waste  nothing  that 
can  be  used  as  manure.  Pork  is  the  commonest 
flesh  meat,  and  the  number  of  pigs  is  enormous. 
The  seaboard,  rivers,  lakes,  and  ponds  supply  an 
immense  quantity  of  excellent  fish  taken  by  the 
net.     Fowls  and  ducks  are  largely  produced. 

Tea  does  not  grow  in  the  north,  but  is  culti- 
vated extensively  in  the  western  provinces  ami 


CHINA 


181 


CHINA 


In  those  south  of  the  Great  Chiang.  The  infusion 
of  the  leaves  was  little,  if  at  all,  drunk  in  ancient 
times,  but  now  its  use  is  universal.  Fii-chien, 
Hu-pei,  and  Hu-nan  produce  most  largely  the 
black  teas  ;  the  green  comes  chiefly  from  Cheh- 
chiang  and  An-hui ;  both  kinds  come  from  Kwan- 
tung  and  Sze-chwan.  Next  to  silk,  tea  is  China's 
most  valuable  export.  As  compared  with  the 
populations  of  western  nations,  the  Chinese  are 
sparing  in  the  use  of  strong  drink  ;  opium  is,  how- 
ever, a  common  luxury.  From  the  23d  century 
B.C.  and  earlier,  the  care  of  the  silkworm,  and 
the  spinning  and  weaving  of  its  produce,  have 
been  the  special  work  of  woman.  The  mulberry- 
tree  grows  everywhere,  and  in  all  the  provinces 
some  silk  is  produced ;  but  Kwan-tung,  Sze- 
chwan,  and  Cheh-chiang  furnish  the  best  and 
the  most.  Indigenous  to  the  country  also  are 
hemp  and  other  fibrous  plants,  such  as  the 
Bcehmeria  nivea.  Cotton  is  cultivated  most  ex- 
tensively in  the  great  basin  of  the  Chiang.  There 
are  few  cities  which  cannot  boast  of  one  or  more 
pagodas.  The  rhinoceros,  elephant,  and  tapir 
are  said  still  to  exist  in  the  forests  and  swamps 
of  Yun-nan,  and  tigers  occur  in  soine  districts. 
Both  the  brown  and  black  bear  are  met  with,  and 
several  varieties  of  deer,  including  the  musk-deer. 
The  breed  of  horses  and  cattle  is  dwarfish  ;  asses 
and  mules  are  better  of  their  sort.  The  camel  is 
seen  in  the  north  and  west. 

The  coalfields  of  China  are  enormous— more 
than  twenty  times  the  extent  of  those  of  Great 
Britain ;  but  up  to  this  time  the  majority  of  them 
can  hardly  be  said  to  have  been  more  than 
scratched.  Immense  quantities  of  iron  ore,  more- 
over, must  have  been  extracted  from  the  earth 
during  the  millenniums  of  its  history,  but  a  much 
greater  amount  is  still  untouched.  Copper,  lead, 
tin,  silver,  and  gold  are  known  to  exist  in  many 
places,  but  little  has  been  done  to  make  the 
stores  of  them  available.  Tlie  monetary  currency 
is  mainly  the  copper  cash,  cumbrous  and  often 
debased.  Even  foreign  silver  coins  are  treated 
as  bullion,  and  taken  by  weight ;  but  since  1890 
silver  dollars  are  coined  at  Canton.  Good  roads 
are  few.  Where  communication  by  water  is 
abundant  the  want  of  roads  is  not  so  much  felt. 
It  is  owing  doubtless  to  the  want  of  roads  that 
the  wheelbarrow  is  so  much  used  from  the 
Chiang  northwards.  A  smattering  of  education 
is  widely  diffused ;  but  apart  from  the  official 
classes,  who  obtain  promotion  by  competitive 
examinations,  those  who  can  read  fi'eely  or  write 
readily  are  few.  The  three  religions  of  China  are 
Confucianism,  Taoism,  and  Buddhism.  It  is  diffi- 
cult to  estimate  the  comparative  number  of  their 
adherents.  To  claim  a  majority  for  those  of  any 
one  of  them  is  very  absurd.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  Confucianism  represents  the  intelligence 
and  morality  of  China  ;  Taoism  its  superstitions  ; 
and  Buddhism  its  ritualism  and  idolatry,  while 
yet  it  acknowledges  no  God.  Of  the  outstanding 
peculiarities  of  the  Chinese  may  be  reckoned  the 
pigtail  of  the  men  and  the  pinched  feet  of  the 
■women.  Infanticide  is  not  so  common  as  is 
often  said. 

The  govfirnment  of  the  empire  is  conducted 
from  the  capital,  the  central  authorities  directing 
and  controlling  the  different  provincial  adminis- 
trations. There  is  the  Grand  Cabinet,  the  privy- 
council  of  the  emperor,  whose  members  are  few, 
and  hold  other  substantive  offices.  There  is  also 
the  Grand  Secretariat,  formerly  the  supreme 
council.  The  business  on  which  the  cabinet 
deliberates  comes  before  it  from  the  Seven  Boards 
—of  Civil  Office,  of  Revenue,  of  Ceremonies  (in- 


cluding religion),  of  War,  of  Punishment,  of 
Works,  and,  since  1885,  of  Admiralty  affairs. 
Each  Board  has  two  presidents  and  four  vice- 
presidents,  three  of  them  Manchus  and  three 
Chinese.  The  Tsungli  Yaman,  or  foreign  office, 
established  in  1861,  was  in  1902  super:<eded  by  a 
new  one  called  Wai-wu-pu;  and  the  Ceusorate 
exercises  a  supervision  over  the  Boards.  In  the 
provinces  a  governor-general  and  governor  are 
usually  associated  ;  below  these  two  functionaries 
there  are  the  lieutenant-governor  (connnouly 
called  the  treasurer),  the  provincial  judge,  the 
salt  comptroller,  and  the  grain-intendant.  Each 
province  is  required  to  support  itself  and,  to 
furnish  a  certain  surplusage  for  the  imperial 
government.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  are 
estimated  at  from  £12,000,000  to  £15,000,000, 
derived  mainly  from  land-tax,  customs,  likin  or 
transit  duties,  salt-tax,  and  licenses.  China  had 
no  foreign  debt  till  1874;  in  1902  its  liabilities 
amounted  to  about  £120,000,000,  including  the 
war  indemnity  to  Japan  and  £64,000,000  indem- 
nity due  to  the  Powers  for  the  '  Boxer'  outrages. 

The  imports  of  China  from  abroad  amounted  in 
1887  to  102,263,000  taels,  in  1902  to  315,363,905 ; 
the  exports  in  1SS7  to  85,860,000,  and  in  1902  to 
215,181,584.  Of  the  imports  in  1902,  a  value  of 
nearly  60,000,000  taels  was  from  Britain,  nearly 
134,000,000  from  Hong-kong(Britain  and  the  other 
foreign  countries  indirectly),  33,000,000  from 
India,  and  30,140,000  from  the  United  States; 
while  of  the  exports  in  1902,  a  value  of  10,350,000 
taels  went  to  Britain,  82,700,000  to  Hong-kong, 
and  28,900,000  to  Japan.  The  chief  imports  are 
cotton  goods (127,550,000  taels),  opium  (35,460,000), 
rice  (23,600,000),  sugar,  metals,  oil  and  kero- 
sene, woollens,  fishery  products  and  'seaweed,' 
coal,  and  raw  cotton  ;  the  exports,  silk  (79,220,000 
taels),  tea  (22,880,000),  raw  cotton  (13,160,000), 
sugar,  straw-braid,  paper,  clothing,  hides,  and 
china-ware.  These  figures  do  not  include  the 
very  extensive  coasting  trade,  but  only  goods 
passed  through  the  twenty-three  treaty  ports 
open  to  foreign  commerce  (of  wliich  Shang- 
hai is  by  far  the  most  important.  Canton  being 
the  second),  and  the  Russian  overland  trade. 
Between  1887  and  1902  English  imports  from 
China  declined,  according  to  English  official 
figures,  from  £6,667,000  to  £2,407,289,  while 
English  exports  to  China,  which  fell  to  £5,038,000 
in  1889,  rose  again  to  £7,188,810  in  1902.  Of  the 
total  shipping  entered  and  cleared  in  1902  at 
Chinese  ports,  69,499  vessels  of  53,990,000  tons 
(many  steamers),  24,758  of  26,950,200  were  British. 

The  imperial  army  proper  consists  of  Manchds, 
Mongols,  and  the  descendants  of  Chinese  who 
revolted  from  the  Ming  dynasty  and  joined  the 
Manchus  on  their  invasion  of  the  empire,  the  first 
defection  taking  place  in  1621.  These  are  divided 
each  into  eight  corps  with  different  coloured 
banners,  and  as  a  whole  are  styled  'The  Eight 
Banners.'  In  addition  to  this  there  is  the 
national  army,  distributed  in  more  than  one 
thousand  camps  throughout  the  provinces,  nearly 
twice  as  numerous  as  the  imperial,  and  called 
'The  Army  of  the  Green  Standard,'  being  in  fact 
little  more  than  a  vast  militia  or  gendarmerie. 
The  total  force  on  a  peace  footing  is  about 
300,000,  and  on  a  war  footing  about  1,000,000, 
but  with  little  coliesion  or  discipline.  The  navy 
possessed  by  China  was  all  but  annihilated  in 
the  war  with  Japan,  Since  then  some  swift 
vessels  have  been  acquired,  including  two  cruisers 
launched  on  the  Tyne  in  1897-98,  three  small 
cruisers  launched  at  Stettin  in  1897,  and  a  few 
smaller  vessels. 


CHINA 


182 


CHINOIT 


Chinese  historical  documents  begin  witli  the 
reigns  of  Yao  and  Shun  (2356-2206  B.C.).  In  403 
B.C.  we  find  only  seven  great  states,  all  sooner  or 
later  claiming  to  be  'the  kingdom,'  and  contend- 
ing for  the  supremacy,  till  Ts'in  (Ch'in)  put  down 
all  the  others,  and  in  221  b.c.  its  king  assumed 
the  title  of  Hwang  Ti,  or  Emperor.  From  that 
year  dates  the  imperial  form  of  the  Chinese 
government,  which  has  thus  existed  for  more 
than  2100  years.  The  changes  of  dynasty  have 
been  many,  two  or  more  sometimes  ruling  to- 
gether, each  having  but  a  nominal  supremacy 
over  the  whole  nation.  The  greater  dynasties 
have  been  those  of  Han  (206  B.C. -220  a.d.),  T'ang 
(618-906),  Sung  (960-1279),  Yiian  (the  Mongol, 
1280-1367),  the  Ming  (1368-1643),  and  the  Ching 
(Manchil-Tartar,  from  the  Manchft  conquest  of 
China  in  1648  to  the  present  date).  It  was  not 
till  after  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  doubled, 
and  the  passage  to  India  discovered  by  Vasco 
da  Gama  in  1497,  that  intercourse  between 
any  of  the  European  nations  and  China  was 
possible  by  sea.  It  was  in  1516  that  the  Portu- 
guese first  made  their  appearance  at  Canton ;  and 
they  were  followed  at  intervals  of  time  by  the 
Spaniards,  the  Dutch,  and  the  English  in  1635. 
The  Chinese  received  none  of  them  cordially; 
and  Chinese  dislike  of  them  was  increased  by  their 
mutual  jealousies  and  collisions  with  one  another. 
In  the  meantime  trade  gradually  increased,  and 
there  grew  up  the  importation  of  opium  from 
India.  Before  1767  the  import  rarely  exceeded 
200  chests,  but  in  that  year  it  amounted  to 
1000.  In  1792  the  British  government  wisely 
sent  an  embassy  under  Lord  Macartney  to 
Peking.  A  second  embassy  from  Great  Britain 
in  1816  was  dismissed  from  Peking  suddenly 
and  contumeliously  because  the  ambassador 
would  not  perform  the  prostrations  required. 
From  the  measures  of  the  Chinese  to  prevent 
the  import  of  opium  came  the  first  war  with 
China  in  1840 ;  the  result  of  which  was  the 
opening  of  Canton,  Amoy,  Foo-chow,  Ningpo, 
and  Shanghai  to  commerce,  and  the  cession  of 
Hong-kong  to  Britain.  A  second  war  in  1857, 
France  being  allied  with  Britain,  ended  in  the 
opening  of  five  more  treaty  ports.  A  tliird  war 
(1860) and  tlie  march  on  Peking  did  even  more  to 
open  China  to  tlie  world.  After  a  war  in  1884-85 
France  secured  permanent  control  of  Tongking 
and  Annam.  In  1894  Japan,  reviving  old  claims 
on  Corea,  drove  the  Chinese  out  of  Corea,  and 
after  victories  on  land  and  at  sea,  captured  Port 
Arthur  and  Wei-hai-wei.  By  the  treaty  of  1894 
Japan  secured  as  indemnity  Formosa  and  the 
Liao-tung  peninsula  ;  but  the  protests  of  Russia, 
Germany,  and  France  made  Japan  resign  Liao- 
tung.  Russia  obtained  a  lease  of  Port  Arthur 
and  Talienwan,  with  railway  and  other  privileges 
in  Manchuria  ;  Germany  obtained  Kiao-chau  and 
concessions  in  Shan-tung  ;  and  Britain,  as  an  off- 
set, obtained  a  lease  of  Wei-hai-wei  and  sought 
to  secure  trading  freedom  in  the  Yang-tsze-kiang 
valley.  Russia's  refusal  to  evacuate  Manchuria 
and  her  movements  in  Corea  led  to  war  with 
Japan  in  1903,  the  defeat  of  the  Russian  armies 
in  Manchuria,  tlie  destruction  of  the  Russian 
fleet,  and  the  fall  of  Port  Arthur  (1905),  China 
being  nominally  neutral.  By  the  peace  (1905) 
Japan  secured  dominance  in  Corea,  the  Russian 
leases  in  Liao-tung,  and  great  influence  in  southern 
Manchuria  and  on  China  generally. 

A  series  of  far-reaching  reforms,  promoted  by  a 
nationalist  reform  party  in  1898,  were  summarily 
cancelled  by  the  dowager  empress,  who  assumed 
supreme  authority ;  and  the  reactionary  and  auti- 


foreign  'Boxer'  association  (more  accurately 
'The  Fist  of  Righteous  Harmony'),  encouraged 
by  the  court,  made  extermination  of  tlie  foreigners 
its  war-cry  and  besieged  the  foreign  legations  in 
Peking,  relieved  after  a  two  montlis'  siege  by  an 
international  army  of  Japanese,  Russians,  British, 
Americans,  French,  and  Germans. 

Many  Chinese  have  sought  a  livelihood  abroad, 
especially  in  California,  Britisli  Columbia,  the 
Straits  Settlements  and  Eastern  Archipelago,  and 
Australia.  More  than  half  the  population  of 
Singai)ore  is  Cliinese ;  there  are  200,000  Chinese 
in  Java,  90,000  in  tlie  United  States,  36,000  in 
Australia,  and  17,000  in  Canada.  From  1855  on- 
wards the  immigration  of  Chinese  into  the  United 
States  increased,  in  1882  it  was  checked,  and 
in  1888  practically  prohibited.  Australia  and 
Canada  also  restrict  Chinese  immigration.  The 
admission  of  Chinese  coolies  to  work  in  South 
African  mines  was,  spite  of  keen  opposition, 
sanctioned  under  special  arrangements,  and  in 
1904-5  some  47,000  established  themselves. 

The  Chinese  people  are  the  result  of  a  fusion 
of  various  invading  Mongolian  tribes,  from  B.C. 
3000  to  700  A.D.,  with  the  aborigines  of  various 
stocks ;  the  Manchfi  dynasty  has  ruled  since 
1644.  Three  types  may  still  be  recognised  in 
China — a  northern  Manchft-Corean,  a  central  and 
nearly  pure  Chinese,  and  a  southern  with  Malayan 
and  other  admixtures.  The  Chinese  language  is 
monosyllabic,  the  words  being  indeclinable  and 
wholly  uninflected.  It  is  written  by  means  of 
some  73,000  characters,  each  of  which  is  the 
symbol  of  an  idea.  The  spoken  language  differs 
greatly  in  different  parts  of  the  country,  though 
the  written  language  is  everywhere  the  same. 

See  works  on  China  by  Davis  (1857),  Williamson 
(1870),  Gray  (1877),  Wells  Williams  (1883),  Richt- 
hofen  (German,  1885),  Boulger  (1884  and  1893), 
Douglas  (1887-1900),  Simon  (1887),  Gundry  (1893), 
Curzon  (1894),  Colquhoun  (1898),  Krausse  (1898), 
Scidmore(1900),  Little  (1899-1902),  Parker  (1901-3). 

Chlnampo,  or  Chinnampho,  a  free  porton  theN. 
coast  of  Corea,  105  m.  NW.  of  Seoul.    Pop.  17,000. 

Ohinandega  (Tcheenanday'ga),  a  Nicaraguan 
town,  30  miles  NW.  of  Leon.     Pop.  11,000. 

China  Sea,  the  portion  of  the  Pacific  Ocean  to 
the  east  of  China  and  Siam. 

Ohincha  Islands,  three  bare,  rocky  islets  of 
Peru,  6i  miles  in  area  and  200  feet  high,  which  in 
1841-74  yielded  millions  of  tons  of  guano. 

Chinchilla  (Tchin-cheel'ya),  a  town  of  Spain, 
12  miles  SE.  of  Albacete  by  rail.     Pop.  5972. 

Ghinchon',  a  town  of  Spain,  25  miles  SE.  of 
Madrid.     Pop.  4913. 

Chindwa'ra,  a  town  in  the  Central  Provinces, 
70  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Nagpur,    Pop.  10,000. 

Chindwin,  a  tributary  of  the  Irawadi  (q.v.). 

Ohingalpat  (Chengalpat),  a  town  of  India,  36 
miles  S\V.  of  Madras  by  rail.    Pop.  9617. 

Chingford,  an  Essex  village,  9^  miles  NE.  of 
London,  in  Eppiiig  Forest,  with  a  golf  course. 
Pop.  4400. 

Ching-tu,  or  Chentu,  capital  of  Sze-chwan,  in 
a  fertile  plain  and  rich  mining  country.  It  has  a 
great  arsenal  and  a  population  of  a  million. 

Chin-Kiang,  a  Chinese  port  on  the  Y'^ang-tsze- 
kiang,  40  miles  ENE.  of  Nanking,  opened  to 
foreign  trade  in  1861.     Pop.  235,000. 

Chinon  (Shee-non^'),  an  antique  town  in  the  dep. 
of  Itidre-et-Loire,  on  the  Vienne,  31  miles  SW.  of 
Tours  by  rail.  On  a  lofty  rock  are  the  ruins  of 
its  vast  old  castle,  the  death-place  of  Henry  11. ; 


CHINSURA 


183 


CHOLULA 


and  the  place  where,  in  1429,  Joan  of  Arc  revealed 
her  mission  to  tlie  Dauphin.  A  farmhouse  across 
the  Vienne  is  pointed  out  as  Rabelais'  birthplace. 
Pop.  4365. 

Chln'sura,  a  town  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Haglf,  originally  Dutch,  but  ceded  to  the  British 
in  1825,  and  now  included  in  Hugli  (q.v.). 

Chloggia,  or  Chiozza  (Kee-od'ja,  Kee-ot'za),  a 
seaport  and  cathedral  city  of  Italy,  15  miles 
SSW.  of  Venice,  on  an  island  at  the  southern 
end  of  the  Venetian  Lagoon,  connected  with  the 
mainland  by  a  stone  bridge  of  43  arches.  Pop., 
inclusive  of  Sottomarina,  30,084. 

Chios  {Keeos;  now  Ohio,  Italianised  Scio),  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  and  fertile  islands  in  the 
iEgean  Sea,  belonging  to  Turkey,  7  miles  off  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf 
of  Smyrna.  It  is  30  miles  long  from  north  to 
south,  by  8  to  15  miles  broad,  with  an  area  of  320 
sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  70,600,  almost  all  Greeks. 
The  larger  northern  part  is  more  mountainous 
than  the  southern.  The  climate  is  delightful  and 
salubrious.  Earthquakes  are,  however,  not  rare, 
and  one  in  1881  caused  the  death  of  3558  persons, 
and  the  destruction  of  property  to  the  value  of 
three  to  four  millions  sterling.  The  products  are 
wine  and  figs,  both  noted  in  classical  days,  with 
mastic,  silk,  lemons,  oranges,  olives,  antimony, 
and  goats'  skins.  The  capital,  Chios,  about  the 
middle  of  the  east  coast,  contains  about  13,000 
inhabitants.  On  the  west  coast  is  a  rich  monas- 
tery, Nea-Moni,  founded  in  the  11th  century. 
Chios,  which  is  one  of  the  seven  birthplaces  of 
Homer,  was  taken  by  the  Genoese  (1346),  and  by 
the  Turks  (1566).  A  number  of  the  Chiotes  hav- 
ing in  1821  joined  the  revolted  Samians,  a  Turkish 
fleet  and  army  in  1822  inflicted  dreadful  ven- 
geance ;  25,000  Chiotes  fell  by  the  sword,  47,000 
were  sold  into  slavery,  and  only  some  5000 
escaped.  A  second  rising  in  1827  was  likewise 
unsuccessful. 

Chippenham,  a  municipal  borough  in  Wilt- 
shire, on  the  Avon,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of 
twenty-two  arches,  13  miles  NE.  of  Bath.  An 
ancient  place,  it  was  captured  by  the  Danes  from 
Alfred  the  Great  in  878,  and  now  consists  chiefly 
of  a  long  well-built  street.  It  has  a  trade  in 
cheese  and  other  agricultural  produce,  but  its 
cloth  manufactures  have  declined.  It  lost  its 
last  parliamentary  member  in  1885.  Population, 
5100. 

Chippewa  Falls,  capital  of  Chippewa  county, 
Wisconsin,  on  the  Chippewa  River,  114  miles  by 
rail  E.  of  St  Paul,  with  saw  and  flour  mills  and  a 
large  luinber-trade.    Pop.  8094. 

Chipping  Campden.  See  Campden. 
'  Chipping  Norton  (meaning  '  northern  market- 
town'),  a  municipal  borough  in  the  north  of 
Oxfordshire,  85  miles  NW.  of  London  by  rail, 
with  woollen,  tweed,  and  glove  manufactures. 
Pop.  3780. 

Chipping  Ongar.    See  Ongar. 

Chipping  Sodhury  ('southern  market- 
borough'),  a  Gloucestershire  market-town,  near 
the  Frome,  10^  miles  NE.  of  Bristol.  Pop.  of 
parish,  1128. 

Chipping  Wycombe.    See  Wycombe. 

Chiquimu'la,  a  town  (pop.  6000)  in  the  east  of 
Guatemala,  which  gives  name  to  the  Isthmus  of 
Chiquimula,  with  a  breadth  from  the  Gulf  of 
Honduras  to  the  Pacific  of  150  miles. 

Chiquinquira,  the  largest  town  in  the  dep.  of 
Boyaca,  Colombia,  near  the  Suarez,  30  miles  W. 


of  Tunja,  since  Indian  times  a  place  of  pilgrim- 
age.    Pop.  18,000. 

ChiriquI  (Tchee-re-keef),  an  administrative  divi- 
sion of  tlie  dep.  of  Panamd,  Colombia,  adjoining 
Costa  Rica.     Area,  6500  sq.  m. ;  pop.  43,000. 

Chirk,  a  Denbighshire  market-town,  on  the 
EUesmere  Canal,  9i  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Wrexham. 
Pop.  of  parish,  2272. 

Chislehurst,  a  village  in  Kent,  11  miles  SE.  of 
London.  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon  was  a  native. 
Camden  Park  estate  (now  built  over)  was  the 
residence  of  Camden  tlie  antiquary.  Napoleon 
III.  died  at  Camden  Place  in  1873.  There  are  an 
Orphanage  and  a  Governesses'  Institution  here. 
Pop.  of  parish,  7500. 

Ohlsyrlok,  a  suburban  parish  of  Middlesex,  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Thames,  7^^  miles  W,  by  S. 
of  St  Paul's.  Here  are  some  charming  old  river- 
side houses  (one  of  them  William  Morris's  home) ; 
here  too  are  extensive  market-gardens  to  supply 
London,  and  the  gardens  of  the  Horticultural 
Society.  In  the  churchyard  are  Hogarth's  grave 
and  Foscolo's  cenotaph  ;  and  at  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire's  beautiful  villa,  Chiswick  House, 
died  Fox  and  Canning.  The  population  is  over 
30,000. 

Chita,  or  Tohita,  capital  of  Transbaikalia,  on 
the  Chita  River  and  the  great  Siberian  railway, 
545  miles  E.  of  Irkutsk.    Pop.  12,500. 

Chitaldrtig,  a  town  of  Mysore,  India,  126  miles 
NW.  of  Bangalore.     Pop.  4571. 

ChltrSl,  a  small  state  under  the  supremacy  of 
Cashmere,  in  the  upper  basin  of  the  Kunar,  or 
Kashkar,  a  tributary  of  the  Kabul  River,  and  on 
the  borders  of  Kafiristan. 

Chittagong,  or  Islamabad,  a  port  of  Bengal, 
2'?0  miles  E.  of  Calcutta,  on  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  and  on  the  Karnaphuli  River, 
about  12  miles  from  its  mouth.  Formerly  an 
important  centre  of  trade  under  the  Portugue.se, 
with  one  of  the  best  ports  in  India,  it  has 
recently  regained  much  of  the  commerce  it  lost 
with  the  rise  of  Calcutta.  Since  1905  it  is  a 
sub-capital  of  Eastern  Bengal  and  Assam.  Pop. 
23,200. 

Chittor'  (*  little  town '),  a  town  of  India,  on  the 
Poini,  100  miles  W.  of  Madras.     Pop.  9809. 

Chiusa  (Kee-oo'za),  the  name  of  several  Italian 
towns,  the  largest  being  Chiusa  Sclafani,  in 
Sicily,  31  miles  SSW.  of  Palermo.     Pop.  6874. 

Chinsi  (Kee-oo'zee),  a  town  102  miles  NNW.  of 
Rome  by  rail,  on  an  olive-clad  eminence  in  the 
Val  di  Chiana,  not  far  from  the  small  Lago  di 
Chiusi.  The  Clusium  of  the  Etruscans,  it  has 
yielded  many  antiquities.     Pop.  1824. 

Chlvasso  (Kee-vas'so),  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the 
Po,  18  miles  NE.  of  Turin  by  rail.     Pop.  4375. 

Ohivilcoy,  in  the  Argentine  province  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  is  110  miles  W.  of  the  capital.    Pop.  15,000. 

Chobe,  a  tributary  of  the  Zambesi. 

Chobham,  a  Surrey  parish,  4  miles  NW.  of 
Woking.     A  camp  was  formed  here  in  1853. 

Cholet  {Sho-lay'),  in  the  French  dep.  of  Maine- 
et-Loire,  on  the  Maine,  has  manufactures  of 
linens  and  woollens.     Pop.  17,150. 

Cholu'la,  a  decayed  town  of  the  Mexican  state 
of  Puebla,  stands  nearly  7000  feet  above  sea-level, 
on  the  tableland  of  Anahuac,  55  miles  ESE.  of 
the  city  of  Mexico.  The  pop.  has  dwindled  from 
100,000  in  Cortes'  day  to  only  9000.  The  most 
remarkable  memorial  of  aboriginal  times  is  the 
huge  Teocalli  pyramid  of  earth,  clay,  brick,  and 
stone,  dedicated  to  the  god  Quetzalcoatl. 


CHOll 


184 


CfiUDLEIGfi 


Chon,  a  loch,  If  mile  long  and  3  furlongs  wide, 
7  miles  WNW.  of  Aberfoyle. 

Chonos  Archipelago,  a  group  of  bare,  thinly 
peopled  islands  off  the  west  coast  of  Patagonia, 
44°-46°  S.  lat.,  belonging  to  Chili. 

Chorley,  a  busy  town  in  North  Lancashire,  9 
miles  S.  by  E.  of  Preston  by  rail.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  cotton-yarn,  jaconets,  muslins,  fancy 
goods,  calicoes,  ginghams,  and  railway  wagons, 
with  neighbouring  bleach-flelds,  print-works, 
coal-mines,  and  stone  quarries.  It  became  a 
municipal  borough  in  1881.  Pop.  (1851)  8907; 
(1901)  26,852. 

Chosbn.    See  Corea. 

OllOta  Nagpore  (Chutid  Ndgpiir),  a  south-west 
commissionership  of  Bengal,  embracing  four 
British  districts,  seven  petty  tributary  states, 
and  two  semi-independent  states.  Area  of  the 
British  districts,  26,966  sq.  m. ;  pop.  4,900,000. 
Area  of  the  division,  43,020  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  6,000,000. 

Chrlstcliurcll,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal 
borough  of  Hampshire,  at  the  head  of  the  estuary 
fonned  by  the  Avon  and  Stour,  24  miles  SW. 
of  Southampton  by  road,  but  33.i  by  rail.  The 
noble  church  of  an  Augustinian  priory  (1150)  is 
803  feet  long  by  101  across  the  transept,  and 
includes  every  style  from  Norman  to  Perpendicu- 
lar. Special  features  of  interest  are  the  splendid 
Early  English  porch,  a  monument  to  Shelley,  a 
beautiful  rood-screen,  and  the  chapel  built  by 
Henry  VIII. 's  victim,  Margaret,  Countess  of 
Salisbury.  Little  remains  of  a  Norman  castle. 
Christchurch  possesses  one  notable  specialty,  the 
making  of  watch  and  clock  fusee-chains.  The 
harbour  has  high-water  twice  every  tide.  The 
parliamentary  borough,  22,350  acres  in  area,  com- 
prises the  favourite  watering-place  Bournemouth, 
and  returns  one  member ;  but  of  the  population 
of  70,000  only  4500  are  within  the  municipal 
borough  of  Christchurcli,  wliich  was  incorporated 
in  1886. 

Christcliurcli,  capital  of  the  provincial  district 
of  Canterbury,  New  Zealand,  on  the  river  Avon, 
about  8  miles  from  Port  Lyttelton  by  rail.  It 
has  tramways,  government  offices,  a  museum 
(with  many  specimens  of  the  Moa),  a  cathedral 
(1881 ;  a  reproduction  of  that  of  Caen  in  France), 
and  a  hospital.  The  water-supply  is  derived  from 
artesian  wells.  Two  parks  and  the  Government 
Domain  afford  ample  pleasure-grounds.  Boot 
manufacturing  is  one  of  the  chief  industries.  An 
earthquake  in  18S8  damaged  the  cathedral  and 
other  buildings.  Pop.  18,500,  but  with  Syden- 
ham and  the  suburbs,  52,000. 

Christianla,  the  modern  capital  and  chief  com- 
mercial town  of  Norway  (the  ancient  capital 
is  Trondhjem,  'home  of  the  throne,'  where  the 
kings  are  still  crowned),  59°  56'  N.  lat.,  10° 
60'  B.  long.,  is  built  on  the  northern  end  of 
the  Christiania  Fiord.  Pop.  (1801)  8931 ;  (1891) 
151,239;  (1900)  227,626.  Christiania  is  named 
after  Christian  IV.,  who  commenced  building 
it  in  1624  after  the  destruction  Of  the  ancient 
city  of  Oslo  by  fire.  It  is  the  seat  of  the 
national  parliam'ent,  of  the  High  Court  of  Judi- 
cature, and  of  the  National  University,  with 
over  1500  students.  Connected  with  this  is 
the  students'  garden,  a  library  of  350,000  vol- 
umes, a  botanical  g;arden,  zoological  and  other 
museums,  laboratories,  and  observatory.  The 
Meteorological  Institute  was  established  in  1866. 
There  are  two  national  and  liistorical  palaces  here, 
one  in  the  city  quite  near  the  university,  and 
one,  Oscarshall,  beautifully  situated  two'  uiles 


from  the  city  on  an  eminence  overlooking  thd 
fiord.  There  is  a  national  picture-gallery,  and  a 
very  interesting  museum  of  northern  antiquities. 
The  Dom  or  Catliedral  and  Trinity  Church  are 
the  principal  ecclesiastical  buildings.  The  old 
fortress  Akershus  Faestning  still  remains,  and  is 
used  as  a  promenade,  but  has  little  military 
value.  Among  other  public  buildings  are  the 
Houses  of  Parliament,  two  theatres,  the  Free- 
masons' Hall,  &c.  The  staple  industry  of  Chris- 
tiania is  its  shipping  trade ;  its  chief  export  is 
timber.  A  considerable  industry  is  the  brewing 
of  Christiania  ol,  a  sort  of  lager  beer,  with 
resinous  flavour,  largely  consumed  throughout 
Norway,  and  exported.  The  minor  manufac- 
tures are  cotton,  canvas,  engine-works,  nail- 
works,  paper-mills,  and  cariole-making.  The 
harbour  is  closed  by  ice  for  three  or  four  months 
most  winters. 

Christiansand,  a  city  of  Norway,  near  its 
southernmost  extremity,  on  a  sandy  plain  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Otteraa.  A  garrisoned  town, 
built  by  Christian  IV.  in  1641,  it  has  several 
dockyards,  and  a  good  harbour  much  used  for 
refuge.  At  the  mouth  of  the  harbour  is  the 
beautiful  island  of  Oddero,  laid  out  with  public 
gardens  and  promenades.  Christiansand  has 
a  considerable  trade  in  timber,  pitch,  stock- 
fish (salted  cod),  fish-oil  for  curriers,  salmon, 
mackerel,  lobsters,  and  white  ptarmigans,  the 
last  two  chiefly  for  the  London  market.  Ship- 
building is  a  considerable  industry.  Christian- 
sand, which  suffered  much  by  fire  in  July  1892, 
has  a  cathedral.     Pop.  14,813. 

Christiansfeld,  a  settlement  (1772)  of  Moravian 
Brethren  in  Northern  Sleswick. 

Christianstad,  a  Swedish  town,  on  the  Helge, 
14  miles  from  the  Baltic,  and  351  SSW.  of  Stock- 
holm by  rail.  It  possesses  an  arsenal,  a  magni- 
ficent church,  and  a  senate-house.    Pop.  10,370. 

Christlanstadt,  the  chief  town  of  the  Danish 
West  Indian  island  of  Santa  Cruz,  on  the  north 
shore.    Pop.  5500. 

Christiansund  (63°  10'  N.  lat.,  7°  50'  E.  long.), 
sometfmes  confounded  with  Christiansand  though 
350  miles  farther  north,  is  a  picturesque  Nor- 
wegian coast-town,  built  on  three  wooded  islands. 
It  has  a  considerable  trade  with  Spain  and  Italy 
in  salt-fish,  and  is  a  calling-place  for  passenger 
steamers.     Pop.  12,381. 

Christmas  Island,  in  the  Pacific,  is  in  1°  57' 
N.  lat.,  and  157°  27'  W.  long.,  with  some  guano 
deposits,  and  is  a  British  possession.— Another 
Christmas  Island,  annexed  to  Britain  in  1888, 
lies  about  250  miles  SW.  of  Java,  is  6  miles 
long  by  4  broad,  and  consists  of  rich  phosphate 
deposits  and  coral  on  a  volcanic  substratum, 
part  of  it  covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation. — 
There  is  a  third  Christmas  Island  in  the  Bras 
d'Or,  Cape  Breton. 

Ohrudim,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  74  miles  ESE. 
of  Prague  by  rail.  It  manufactures  sugar,  beer, 
alcohol',  and  artificial  manure.     Pop.  12,886. 

Chubut,  or  Chupat,  a  Welsh  colony  in  Pata- 
gonia, so  named  from  a  river  whose  mouth  is 
600  miles  S.  of  the  river  Plate.  The  first  settlers, 
151,  arrived  in  July  1865 ;  and  the  population, 
after  dwindling  to  120,  rose  to  690  in  1876,  and 
3800  in  1000.  The  principal  town,  Trerawson, 
or  Rawsonville,  about  5  miles  from  the  sea,  is 
named  after  Dr  Ra,wson,  an  Argentine  statesman. 

Chudleigh,  a  Devon  market-town,  on  the  Teign, 
10  miles  SSW.  of  Exeter.    Pop.  of  parish,  2000. 


CaUDLEIOB 


166 


CIRCASSIA 


Chudleigh,  Cape,  on  the  north  coast  of  Labra- 
dor, at  the  entrance  of  Hudson  Strait. 

Chumbi,  the  valley  leading  by  the  Chola  Pass 
from  Sikkim  into  Tibet. 

Chumbul',  an  Indian  river,  rising  in  the  Vin- 
dhyan  Moiuitains,  and  flowing  650  miles  NE.  to 
the  Jumna. 

Chunar',  a  town  of  India,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Ganges,  26  miles  SW.  of  Benares.    Pop.  9548. 

Chungking,  the  commercial  capital  of  Western 
China,  a  treaty  port  in  Sze-chwan  (q.v.),  on  the 
Yang-tsze-kiang,  1500  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Pop.  900,000. 

Chupra,  a  town  of  Bengal,  on  the  Gogra,  near 
its  confluence  with  the  Ganges.     Pop.  40,500. 

ChXL(iaiS3iGa,  (Tchoo-]cee-zdh'ka),ov  Sucre,  capital 
of  Bolivia,  on  a  mountain -closed  tableland,  8825 
feet  above  the  sea.    Pop.  21,000. 

Ohuquito  (Tchoo-kee'to),  a  town  of  Peru,  on  the 
■west  shore  of  Lake  Titicaca.     Pop.  5000. 

Ohur  (Fr.  Coire;  Roumansch  C2(era),  capital  of 
the  Swiss  canton  of  Grisons,  SO  miles  SE.  of 
Zurich  by  rail,  stands  1940  feet  above  the  sea, 
on  the  road  to  the  Spliigen  pass.    Pop.  11,500. 

Church,  States  of  the,  a  territory  or  group  of 
'Papal  States'  in  Central  Italy,  once  under  the 
sovereignty  of  the  pope,  since  1870  incorporated 
with  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  Till  1859  they  covered 
15,000  sq.  m.,  and  had  a  population  of  3,000,000— 
including,  besides  Rome,  the  Romagna,  Umbria, 
the  Marcli  of  Ancona,  and  the  towns  of  Bologna, 
Perugia,  and  Viterbo. 

Churchill  River,  Canada,  rises  under  55°  N. 
lat.,  and  flows  near  1000  miles  generally  NE. 
through  a  series  of  lakes  to  Hudson  Bay,  near 
Fort  Churchill. 

Churn,  a  headstream  of  the  Thames,  16  miles 
long,  rising  3^  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Cheltenham. 

Chusan',  the  largest  island  of  a  small  archi- 
pelago, a  mile  off"  the  E.  coast  of  China,  opposite 
Ningpo.  Area,  over  230  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  200,000  to 
250,000.  Although  mountainous  in  the  centre,  it 
is  generally  fertile.  Ting-hai,  the  capital  (pop. 
40,000),  has  a  land-locked  harbour.  It  was  held 
by  the  British  in  1840-41,  and  again  in  1860. 
The  sacred  island  of  Pu-tu,  a  mile  E.  of  Chusan, 
is  covered  with  Buddhist  temples,  pagodas,  and 
monasteries,  with  over  a  thousand  monks. 

Cicester.    See  Cirencester. 

Cienfuegos  (See-eii-foo-ay'gds),  a  port  of  Cuba, 
on  the  south  coast,  on  the  Baliia  de  Jagua,  140 
miles  ESE.  of  Havana  by  rail.    Pop.  80,560. ' 

Cieza  (Thee-ay'tha),  a  town  of  Spain,  26  miles 
NW.  of  Murcla.     Pop.  13,892. 

Cilicia,  an  ancient  division  of  Asia  Minor,  now 
included  in  the  Turkish  province  of  Adana,  lay 
between  the  Taurus  range  and  the  Cilician  Sea. 

Cimiez  (anc.  Civitas  Cemcneliensis),  a  place  with 
many  fine  villas,  2|  miles  N.  of  Nice.  Queen 
Victoria  stayed  here  in  1895. 

Cincinnati  (Sin-sin-nah'tee),  the  second  city  of 
Ohio,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  river  Ohio,  270 
miles  SE.  of  Chicago  by  rail,  opposite  the  cities 
of  Covington  and  Newport  in  Kentucky.    Steam- 
ferries  and  six  lofty  bridges  connect  the  city 
with  the  Kentucky  shore  ;  the  suspension  bridge 
by  Roebling  is  2250  feet  long,  and  cost  §1,800,000. 
Cincinnati  occupies  an  exceedingly  broken  and  ij 
irregular  site,  the  more  densely  built  parts  being  i 
enclosed  between  the  river  and  steep  hills.     The  r 
lower  business  streets  are  liable  to  be  flooded  at  ] 
times.    The  river  front  is  upwards  of  14  miles  [ 


in  length.  A  second  terrace  is  50  or  60  feet 
higher,  and  a  district  between  the  hills  and  the 
Miami  Canal,  known  as  *over  the  Rhine,'  is 
appropriated  to  the  large  German  colony.  The 
suburbs  are  built  on  a  succession  of  irregular 
hills,  by  whose  steepness  they  are  broken  into 
a  series  of  some  five  and  twenty  villages,  inter- 
spersed with  parks  (including  Eden  Park,  of 
216  acres).  Among  the  public  buildings  are  the 
post-oftice ;  the  Chamber  of  Commerce  ;  a  large  art 
museum  ;  an  art  school,  and  a  college  of  music 
(1878) ;  a  large  music-hall,  with  a  noted  grand 
organ ;  a  commodious  city  building ;  and  a  court- 
house. There  are  more  than  250  churches,  in- 
cluding a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral ;  besides 
many  handsome  theatres,  hotels,  and  public 
halls,  hospitals  and  asylums,  and  schools  of 
every  grade,  including  medical,  law,  and  divinity 
seminaries— the  Presbyterian  Lane  Theological 
Seminary  is  famous.  To  the  Cincinnati  Univer- 
sity, the  Cincinnati  Observatory  and  Astrono- 
mical School  are  attached  ;  there  are  large  libra- 
ries, a  zoological  garden,  the  Cuvier  Club  and 
the  Historical  and  Philosophical  Society.  The 
city  is  a  centre  of  musical  and  art  culture,  and 
its  decorative  pottery  and  wood-carving  have  a 
national  reputation.  It  has  a  large  river  and 
canal  traffic,  and  many  railways  converge  here. 
Amongst  the  factories  are  clothes-factories, 
foundries,  machine  shops,  coach-works,  works 
for  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  tobacco,  shoes, 
leather,  &c.  There  is  some  boat-building  and 
printing;  and  the  slaughter-houses,  stock- 
yards, and  grain-elevators  are  very  extensive. 
Cincinnati  was  settled  by  white  men  in  1780, 
and  was  named  in  honour  of  the  military  Society 
of  the  Cincinnati.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city 
in  1819,  and  early  attained  the  name  of  'the 
queen  city  of  the  west ; '  as  also  that  of  '  Porko- 
polis,'  from  its  great  trade  in  pork.  Great  riota 
occurred  in  1884,  and  were  with  difficulty  sup- 
pressed by  the  military.  Pop.  (1850)  115,436 ; 
(1880)  255,139;  (1890)  296,908;  (1900)  325,902, 
about  a  third  being  of  German  origin. 

Cinque  Ports.  The  five  great  ports  on  the 
coast  of  Kent  and  Sussex  lying  opposite  to  France 
—Sandwich,  Dover,  Hythe,  Romney,  and  Hast- 
ings—were, subsequently  to  the  battle  of  Hast- 
ings, constituted  by  the  Conqueror  a  jurisdiction 
entirely  separate  from  the  counties  of  Kent  and 
Sussex,  and  erected  into  a  sort  of  county  pala- 
tine, under  a  warden,  the  seat  of  whose  adminis- 
tration was  Dover  Castle  (now  Walmer  Castle). 
Privileges  similar  to  theirs  were  afterwards  ex- 
tended to  Winch elsea  and  Rye  ;  and  all  the  seven 
municipal  towns  except  Winchelsea  had  sub- 
ordinate ports  and  towns  attached  to  them,  which 
were  called  limbs  or  members.  See  Montagu 
.Burrows,  Cinque  Poi'ts  (1888). 

Cintra,  a  town  of  Portugal,  17  miles  WNW.  of 
Lisbon.  Pop.  5500.  The  convention  of  Cintra 
(1808),  between  Britain  and  France,  provided  for 
the  evacuation  of  Portugal  by  the  French. 

Ciotat,  La  (She-o-ta'),  a  seaport  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Bouches-du- Rhone,  on  the  Mediterranean, 
23  miles  SE.  of  Marseilles  by  rail.     Pop.  11,474.' 

Circars,  The  Northern  (Sarkdr,  *a  govern- 
ment '),  the  historical  name  for  an  Indian  terri- 
tory lying  along  the  coast  of  the  Bay  of  Bengal, 
from  18  to  100  miles  wide,  with  an  area  of  17,000 
miles.  It  nearly  corresponds  with  the  present 
Madras  districts  of  Ganjam,  Vizagapatam,  Goda- 
vari,  Kistna,  and  parts  of  Nellore  and  Karnul. 

Circassia,  a  territory  on  both  sides  of  the 
western  Caucasus.    See  Caucasus. 


CIRENCESTER 


186 


CLARENCE 


Cirencester,  a  town  of  Gloucestershire,  amid 
the  Coteswold  Hills,  on  the  Churn,  a  headstream 
of  the  Thames,  and  on  the  Thames  and  Severn 
Canal,  14  miles  SSB.  of  Cheltenham,  and  18  NW, 
of  Swindon,  It  has  a  very  fine  Perpendicular 
church  (restored  1867),  a  public  hall  (1863),  some 
remains  of  an  abbey  (1117),  and,  1  mile  distant, 
an  agricultural  college  (1846),  a  Tudor  edifice. 
Near  this  is  the  handsome  seat  of  Earl  Bathurst. 
There  is  a  considerable  trade  in  wool  and  agri- 
cultural produce,  and  the  town  is  a  hunting 
centre.  Till  1867  it  returned  two  members;  till 
1885  one.  The  population  is  over  7500.  Ciren- 
cester (pron.  Cisseter)  was  the  Roman  Corinium, 
and  was  stormed  by  Rupert  in  1642  and  1643. 
The  chronicler  Richard  of  Cirencester  was  a 
native. 

Cis-Sutlej  States,  a  term  including  the  British 
districts  of  Umballa  (Ambala),  Ludhiana,  Firoz- 
pur,  Hissar,  and  the  native  states  of  Patiala, 
Jind,  and  Nabha. 

Oiteaux  (See-to' ;  anc.  Cistercium),  the  mother 
abbey  of  the  great  Cistercian  monastic  order 
(founded  here  in  1098),  stands  12  miles  S.  of  Dijon, 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Cote  d'Or.  The  abbey 
buildings,  nearly  destroyed  in  1798,  have  been 
converted  into  an  industrial  and  agricultural 
reformatory  for  juvenile  offenders. 

Citta  di  Castello,  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy,  on 
the  Tiber,  25  miles  NNW.  of  Perugia.    Pop.  5433. 

Cittavec'chia.    See  Malta. 

Oiudad  Bolivar.    See  Angostura. 

Ciudadela  (The-oo-da-day'la),  a  seaport  town 
(formerly  capital)  of  Minorca,  on  the  west  coast, 
with  a  cathedral.     Pop.  8431. 

Ciudad  Real  (The-oo-dhadh  Ray-al;  'royal 
city '),  a  town  of  Spain,  between  the  Guadiana 
and  Jabalon,  105  miles  S.  of  Madrid  by  rail.  Pop. 
14,500.  Area  of  province  of  Ciudad  Real,  7840  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  305,000. 

Ciudad  Rodrigo  (The-oo-dhadh  Rodh-ree'go; 
'Roderic's  Town'),  a  fortified  cathedral  city  of 
Spain,  17  m.  from  Portuguese  frontier,  56  SW. 
of  Salamanca  by  rail,  on  a  steep  hill  above  the 
Agueda ;  taken  by  the  English  (1706)  and  French 
(1707),  by  Wellington  (Jan.  1812).    Pop.  6984. 

Civlta  Castellana  (Chee'vi-ta  Kas-tel-lah'na),  a 
town  of  Italy,  25  miles  N.  of  Rome.  It  has  a 
cathedral  (1210),  and  a  citadel,  now  a  state- 
prison.  Pop.  5251.  In  the  neighbourhood  are 
remains  of  the  Etruscan  Falerii. 

Oivita  Vecchla  (Chee'vi-ta  Vek'ld-a;  anc. 
Partus  Trajani),  an  Italian  fortified  port,  50  miles 
NW.  of  Rome  by  rail.     Pop.  14,980. 

Clackmannan,  the  county  town  of  Clackman- 
nanshire, on  the  Devon,  2  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Alloa. 
An  eminence  is  crowned  by  the  ruined  tower  of 
the  Bruces.    Pop.  1505. 

Clackmannanshire,  the  smallest  county  of 
Scotland,  lies  between  the  counties  of  Perth,  Fife, 
and  Stirling,  and  slopes  from  the  green  Ochil 
Hills  to  the  Forth.  Its  greatest  length  is  10 
miles  ;  area,  38  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1871)  23,747  ;  (1901) 
32,019.  Clackmannan  is  the  county  town,  but 
Alloa  and  Alva  are  more  important  places.  Clack- 
mannanshire, with  Kinross-shire,  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  See  Beveridge,  Between 
the  Forth  and  the  Ochils  (1888). 

Clacton,  an  Essex  watering-place,  15  miles  SE. 
of  Colchester.    Pop.  7500. 

Olairac,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Lot-et- 
Garonne,  on  the  Lot,  18  miles  NW.  of  Agen. 
Pop.  1550. 


Olairvaux  (Clair-vo'),  a  village  of  France,  10 
miles  SE.  of  Bar-sur-Aube.  Its  once  fanious 
Cistercian  abbey,  founded  in  1115  by  St  Bernard, 
was  suppressed  at  the  Revolution,  and  the  exten- 
sive buildings  are  now  used  as  a  prison. 

Clanwilliam,  a  division  of  the  Western  Prov- 
ince, N.  of  Capetown,  South  Africa,  embracing 
the  rich  valley  of  Olifant  River  West.  Chief 
village,  Clanwilliam,  on  Jan  Dissels  River. 

Clap'ham,  a  south-western  suburb  of  London, 
lying  a  mile  S.  of  the  Thames,  and  forms  one  of 
the  London  parliamentary  boroughs,  returning 
one  member,  but  for  municipal  purposes  it  is 
divided  between  tlie  metropolitan  boroughs  of 
Battersea  and  Wandsworth.  Claphani  Connnon 
is  still  an  open  common  of  200  acres. — Tlie 
'Claphani  Sect'  was  a  name  given  by  Sydney 
Smith  to  the  Evangelical  party,  as  represented 
especially  by  Venn,  Romaine,  Zachary  Macaulay, 
and  Willjerforce. 

Clapton,  a  north-east  district  of  London. 

Clara,  a  market-town  of  King's  county,  65 
miles  W.  of  Dublin.     Pop.  1111. 

Clare,  a  maritime  county  in  the  province  of 
Munster,  Ireland,  lying  between  Galway  Bay  and 
the  Shannon.  It  has  a  length  of  67  miles,  a  great- 
est breadth  of  48,  and  an  area  of  1294  sq.  m.  In 
the  east  the  hills  reach  a  height  of  1758  feet.  The 
sea-line  is  high  and  rocky,  in  parts  precipitous, 
and  occasionally  from  400  to  680  feet  high,  with 
many  isles  and  fantastic  detached  rocks.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Shannon  and  the  Fergus.  The 
county  has  about  100  small  lakes.  The  south- 
west third  of  the  county  forms  part  of  the  Munster 
coalfield.  There  are  lead-mines,  slate  and  marble 
quarries,  and  many  chalybeate  springs.  The 
chief  towns  are  Ennis  (the  county  town),  Kilrush, 
Kilkee,  Ennistimon,  and  Killaloe.  Pop.  (1841) 
286,394  ;  (1901)  112,129,  nearly  all  Catholics.  The 
county  returns  two  members.  There  are  many 
cromlechs,  raths,  remains  of  abbeys,  and  old 
castles,  and  several  round  towers,  one  at  Kilrush 
being  120  feet  high.  Till  Elizabeth's  time  the 
county  was  called  Thomond ;  its  present  name 
comes  from  an  English  adventurer,  Thomas  de 
Clare,  who  received  from  Henry  III.  a  part  of 
all  the  land  he  might  conquer  from  the  Irish. 

Clare,  (l)  one  of  the  most  interesting  of  the 
smaller  towns  of  Suff"olk,  19  miles  SSW.  of  Bury. 
It  has  a  fine  old  castle,  and  gives  an  earl's  title 
to  the  British  sovereign.  Pop.  of  parish,  1657. 
—(2)  A  village  of  County  Clare,  on  the  Fergus, 
23  miles  NW.  of  Limerick.  Pop.  590.— (3)  Or 
Claremorris,  a  town  of  County  Mayo,  14  miles 
SE.  of  Castlebar.     Pop.  1119. 

Clare  Island,  a  Mayo  island  (5x3  miles),  in 
the  Atlantic,  at  the  entrance  of  Clew  Bay. 

Claremont,  a  mansion  at  Esher,  Surrey,  14j 
miles  SW.  of  London.  Built  for  himself  by  Sir 
John  Vanbrngh,  and  rebuilt  by  Clive  in  1768,  it 
was  the  death-place  of  the  Princess  Charlotte  and 
of  Louis  Philippe,  and  in  1882  became  the  private 
property  of  Queen  Victoria. 

Claremont,  a  village  of  New  Hampshire,  U.S., 
on  the  Sugar  River,  55  miles  by  rail  WNW.  of 
Concord.     Pop.  6565. 

Claremorris.    See  Clare. 

Clarence,  an  English  ducal  title,  by  some 
derived  from  Clare  in  Suffolk,  but  usually  under- 
stood to  be  the  French  form  of  Glarentza  (Ital. 
Chiarenza),  a  small  port  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
Morea,  in  Greece,  50  miles  SW.  of  Patras— the 
title  having  come  to  Edward  III.  through  his 
wife,  Philippa  of  Hainault. 


CLARENDON  PARK 


187 


CLEVELAND 


Clarendon  Park,  Wiltshire,  3  miles  ESE,  of 
Salisbury,  the  seat  of  a  former  royal  palace,  where 
a  great  council  met  in  1164. 

Clarens,  a  beautiful  Swiss  village  on  the  Lake 
of  Geneva,  3^  miles  SB,  of  Vevey  by  rail. 

Clase,  a  northern  suburb  of  Swansea. 

Clausthal.     See  Klausthal. 

Clava,  a  plain  6  miles  E.  of  Inverness,  with 
many  stone-circles  and  standing-stones. 

Claverdon,  a  Warwickshire  village,  8  miles  N. 
of  Stratford-on-Avon. 

Claverhouse,  3^  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Dundee,  the 
birthplace  of  Viscount  Dundee. 

Claycross,  or  Claylane,  a  town  of  Derby- 
shire, on  the  Rother,  in  a  coal  and  iron  region,  4^ 
miles  S.  of  Chesterliekl.    Pop.  «358. 

Clayton,  a  Yorkshire  township,  3^  miles  W. 
by  S.  of  Bradford.    Pop.  5119. 

Clear,  Cape,  a  headland  of  Clear  Island,  the 
most  southerly  point  of  Ireland,  with  a  light- 
house and  telegraph  station.  Clear  Island,  66 
miles  SW.  of  Cork,  is  1504  acres  in  area. 

Cleator  Moor,  a  town  of  Cumberland,  4  miles 
SE.  of  Whitehaven,  with  coal-mines  and  iron- 
furnaces.     Pop.  8120. 

Cleaven  Dyke,  a  rampart  in  Caputh  parish, 
Perthshire,  at  the  Isla's  junction  with  the  Tay,  a 
supposed  site  of  the  Battle  of  the  Grampians 

(86  A.D.). 

Cleckheaton,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  5  miles  SSE.  of  Bradford,  with  manu- 
factures of  textiles  and  machinery.    Pop.  12,826. 

Clee  Hills,  a  Shropshire  range  (1805  feet)  to  the 
N,  of  Ludlow. 

Cleethorpe,  a  Lincolnshire  watering-place,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Humber,  2i  miles  ESE.  of  Great 
Grimsby.     Pop.  (with  Tluuuscoe)  13,000. 

Cleeve  Abbey,  Somerset,  2^  miles  SW.  of 
Watchett,  a  ruined  Cistercian  abbey  (1188). 

Cleish  Hills,  Kinross-shire,  1240  feet  high. 

Cleland,  a  Lanarkshire  mining  village,  B^  miles 
E.  byN.  of  Motherwell.    Pop.,  with  Omoa,  3000. 

Cleobury-Mortimer,  a  Shropshire  market- 
town,  on  the  Rea,  12  miles  E.  of  Ludlow.  Pop. 
of  parish,  1463. 

Clerkenwell,  a  London  parish,  lying  within 
the  parliamentary  borough  of  Finsbury,  and  due 
north  of  St  Paul's.  It  is  largely  inhabited  by 
watchmakers,  goldsmiths,  and  opticians.  The 
Fenian  attempt  to  blow  up  Clerkenwell  prison 
took  place  13th  December  1867. 

Clermont  (mediaeval  Clair-mon"' ;  Clarus  Mons, 
or  Clarimontium),  the  name  of  several  towns  in 
France.  (1)  In  the  dep.  of  Oise,  41  miles  N.  of 
Paris  by  rail.  Pop.  4617.— (2)  Clermont-Ferrand 
(Roman  Augustonemetum),  the  capital  of  the  dep. 
of  Puy-de-D6me,  between  the  rivers  Bedat  and 
Allier,  135  miles  S.  of  Paris  by  rail.  Among  its 
buildings  are  the  old  Gothic  cathedral,  built  of 
dark  lava  from  a  neighbouring  range  of  extinct 
volcanoes  ;  the  fine  church  of  Notre  Dame,  where 
Peter  the  Hermit  preached  the  first  Crusade  ;  the 
handsome  Palais  des  Facultes ;  and  the  govern- 
ment buildings,  formerly  a  convent  (1250).  The 
chief  manufactures  are  candied  fruits,  wax 
matches,  chemicals,  linen,  rope,  lace,  and 
machines.  There  are  several  mineral  springs. 
The  bishopric  of  Clermont  was  founded  in  253 ; 
and  seven  ecclesiastical  councils  were  held  here 
during  the  middle  ages.  A  statue  has  been 
erected  to  Pascal,  who,  as  well  as  Gregory  of 


Tours,  was  a  native  of  Clermont.  Pop.  (1872) 
32,963  ;  (1901)  45, 367. -(3)  Clermont  l'  Herault, 
33  miles  W.  of  Montpellier  by  rail.     Pop.  4803. 

Clevedon,  a  pleasant  Somersetshire  watering- 
place,  on  the  Bristol  Channel,  12  miles  by  road 
but  16  by  rail  WSW.  of  Bristol.  The  historian 
HallaTU,  and  Arthur,  his  son,  lie  in  the  old  parish 
church  ;  Coleridge  lived  a  while  here  at  Myrtle 
Cottage  (1795) ;  and  Clevedon  Court,  a  mediaeval 
mansion  of  singular  beauty,  though  much  dam- 
aged by  fire  in  1882,  is  the  'Castlewood'  of 
Thackeray's  Esmond.  The  population  is  about 
6000. 

Cleveland,  a  wild  mountainous  district,  with 
some  picturesque  fertile  valleys,  forming  the  east 
part  of  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire  between 
Whitby  and  the  Tees.  In  the  south  the  hills  rise 
1300  to  1850  feet.  An  extraordinary  change  has 
been  wrought  in  the  aspect  of  the  country  by  a 
discovery  of  ironstone  in  the  Cleveland  hills ; 
since  1851,  lonely  hamlets  have  become  populous 
towns.  See  works  by  J.  C.  Atkinson  (1891)  and 
J.  Leyland  (1892). 

Cleveland,  the  largest  city  of  Ohio,  is  on  the 
south  shore  of  Lake  Erie,  350  miles  by  rail  E.  of 
Chicago.  The  city  is  built  mainly  upon  a  plain 
from  60  to  150  feet  above  the  lake,  and  is  divided 
into  the  east  and  west  sides  by  the  tortuous 
valley  of  the  Cuyahoga  River,  which  is  crossed 
by  two  high-level  bridges — one  mainly  of  stone 
(1878),  and  one  of  iron  (1888,  3931  feet  long). 
There  are  other  bridges  at  the  lower  level  in  the 
valley.  The  '  flats '  along  the  river  are  occupied 
by  vast  lumber-yards,  factories,  mills,  coal-yards, 
ore  docks,  ship-yards,  &c.  The  river  is  the  har- 
bour, and  an  outer  harbour  is  protected  by  an 
immense  United  States  breakwater.  The  busi- 
ness centre  of  Cleveland  extends  east  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  river- valley  for  three-fourths  of 
a  mile  along  Superior  Street.  On  the  Public 
Square,  10  acres  in  area,  are  the  custom-hoi;se  and 
post-office,  a  court-house,  the  fine  old  'Stone' 
(first  Presbyterian)  Church,  a  theatre,  an  hotel, 
banks,  and  fountains.  From  the  south-east  corner 
of  the  square  Euclid  Avenue,  according  to  Bayard 
Taylor  the  most  beautiful  street  in  the  world, 
runs  eastward  beyond  Wade  Park,  a  beautiful 
tract  of  about  65  acres.  Farther  east  is  Lake 
View  Cemetery,  with  the  monument  of  President 
Garfield,  125  feet  high.  A  great  wealth  of  gardens 
and  shade-trees  is  noticeable  throughout  the 
'Forest  City,'  except  in  the  poorest  quarters; 
few  houses  are  built  in  blocks,  and  tenements  are 
virtually  unknown.  The  water  is  supplied  from 
Lake  Erie.  Cleveland  has  a  large  music-hall, 
several  theatres,  over  250  churches,  the  Western 
Reserve  University,  and  colleges,  medical  schools, 
hospitals,  asylums,  and  two  large  libraries ;  some 
60  periodicals,  daily,  tri-weekly,  weekly,  and 
monthly,  are  published  in  the  city.  Cleveland's 
rapid  growth  is  due  mainly  to  the  fact  that  nowhere 
else  can  the  rich  iron  ores  of  Lake  Superior,  the  coal 
of  Northern  Ohio,  and  the  limestone  of  the  Lake 
Erie  islands,  be  brought  together  so  cheaply  ;  its 
position  at  the  north  terminus  of  the  Ohio  Canal 
being  very  advantageous,  and  seven  railways  ter- 
minate here.  The  chief  industries  of  the  city  are 
the  various  manufactiires  of  iron,  including  steel 
rails,  forgings,  wire,  bridges,  steel  and  iron  ships, 
engines,  boilers,  nails,  screws,  sewing-machines, 
agricultural  implements  and  machinery  of  all 
kinds,  the  refining  of  petroleum,  Avood-work,  and 
other  manufactures  of  endless  variety.  Cleve- 
land is  the  greatest  iron  ore  receiving  point  in 
America,  one  of  the  largest  lumber  markets  in  the 


CLEVES 


188 


CLUGNY 


country,  and  the  mercantile  centre  of  an  exten- 
sive and  productive  region.  The  site  was  laid 
out  by  General  Moses  Cleveland  in  1796  ;  in  1836 
it  was  incorporated.  Pop.  (1850)  17,034 ;  (1880) 
160,146  ;  (1890)  261,353  ;  (1900)  381,768. 

Cleves  (Ger.  Kleve,  Dutch  Kleef),  a  town  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  2k  miles  from  the  Rhine,  and  48 
NW.  of  Dlisseldorf.  The  tine  old  castle,  the 
Schwanenburg,  partly  built  on  a  commanding 
rock,  is  the  reputed  scene  of  the  legend  of  the 
Knight  of  the  Swan,  made  familiar  by  Wagner's 
opera  of  Lohengrin,  Anne  of  Cleves,  fourth  wife 
of  Henry  VIII.,  was  born  here.  Cleves  has  manu- 
factures of  cotton  and  leather  goods,  tobacco,  &c. 
Pop.  14,170. 

Clew  Bay,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  on  the  west 
coast  of  County  Mayo,  about  15  miles  long  by  9 
broad.  At  the  entrance  is  Clare  Island  (3949 
acres  ;  pop.  62),  wliich,  as  well  as  Inishgort  (27 
acres ;  pop.  23),  has  a  lighthouse. 

Clewer,  a  Berkshire  parish,  on  the  Thames, 
1  mile  W.  of  Windsor.  Here  is  a  well-known 
Anglican  sisterhood.    Pop.  5766. 

Cllcliy  (Clee-shee'),  a  town  on  the  Seine,  to  the 
north-west  of  Paris,  of  which  it  forms  a  suburb. 
It  has  numerous  manufactories,  especially  of 
chemicals  and  catgut,  and  is  much  affected  by 
washerwomen.     Pop.  40,000. 

Cliefden.    See  Cliveden. 

Cllfden,  a  Connemara  seaport,  50  miles  NW. 
of  Galway.    Pop.  911. 

Oliflford  Castle,  a  ruin  on  the  Wye,  Hereford- 
shire, 2  miles  NNE.  of  Hay,  the  traditional  birth- 
place of  Fair  Rosamond. 

Clifton.    See  Bristol. 

Clifton,  a  town  and  port  of  entry  of  Ontario, 
on  the  Niagara  River,  2  miles  below  the  Falls. 
Here  is  a  noble  railway  suspension  bridge,  800 
feet  long  and  240  above  the  water.    Pop.  1610. 

Clifton  Moor,  Westmorland,  3  miles  SSE.  of 
Penrith,  the  scene  of  a  Jacobite  skirmish  (1745). 

Clinton,  (1)  capital  of  Clinton  county,  Iowa,  on 
the  Mississippi,  here  crossed  by  an  iron  railroad 
bridge,  4000  feet  long,  GO  miles  SSE.  of  Dubuque 
by  rail.  It  has  numerous  mills,  foundries,  and 
factories,  and  a  trade  in  lumber  and  grain.  Pop. 
(1870)  6129  ;  (1900)  22,698.— (2)  A  town  of  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  Nashua  River,  45  miles  W.  of 
Boston  by  rail.  It  has  large  manufactures  of 
ginghams  and  plaids,  carpets,  combs,  and  machin- 
ery. Pop.  18,424.— (3)  A  post-village  of  New 
York,  9  miles  WSW.  of  Utica,  is  the  seat  of 
Hamilton  College  (1812),  a  Presbyterian  founda- 
tion.    Pop.  1336. 

Clippens,  a  Renfrewshire  village,  1  mile  NNE. 
of  Johnstone.    Pop.  428. 

Clipstone,  in  Sherwood  Forest,  Notts,  5  miles 
NE.  of  Manslield,  the  seat  of  an  ancient  royal 
palace. 

Clitheroe,  a  municipal  borough  in  Lancashire, 
on  the  Ribble,  35  miles  N.  of  Manchester.  It  lies 
on  a  low  eminence,  at  the  base  of  Pendle  Hill 
(1881  feet).  Clitheroe  has  cotton  and  paper  mills, 
and  extensive  lime-quarries  are  wrought  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Its  12th-century  castle  was  dis- 
mantled by  the  parliamentarians  in  1649.  The 
free  grammar-school  dates  from  1554.  Stony- 
hurst  College  (q.v.)  lies  4  miles  SW.  A  borough 
since  about  1280,  Clitheroe  till  1832  returned  two 
members  to  parliament,  then  till  1885  one.  Pop. 
(1851)  7300  ;  now  11,500,  See  Whitaker's  History 
of  WhaUey  and  Clitheroe  (1801 ;  4th  ed.  1876). 


Cliveden,  a  seat  with  noble  woods  in  Bucks, 
on  the  Thames,  3^  miles  NNE.  of  Maidenhead. 
Originally  built  by  Charles  II.'s  Duke  of  Buck- 
ingham, but  burned  in  1795  and  1849,  it  was  sold 
in  1893  by  the  Duke  of  Westminster  to  the 
American  millionaire,  W.  W.  Astor. 

Cloch  Point,  on  the  Clyde,  opposite  Dunoon, 
with  a  lighthouse. 

Ologhan  (Clo'an),  a  village  of  King's  county,  5 
miles  NE.  of  Banagher. 

Clogher  (Clo'er),  (1)  a  decayed  episcopal  city 
and  quondam  parliamentary  borough  of  Tyrone, 
on  the  Blackwater,  15  miles  SSE.  of  Omagh. 
The  Protestant  see  is  now  united  to  Armagh. 
The  cathedral  and  episcopal  palace  are  handsome 
edifices.  Pop.  225.— (2)  A  lishing-village  of  County 
Louth,  7  miles  NE.  of  Drogheda.     Pop.  653. 

Clonakilty,  a  seaport  of  County  Cork,  at  the 
head  of  Clonakilty  Bay,  33  miles  SW.  of  Cork. 
Pop.  3098. 

Clones,  a  town  of  County  Monaghan,  94  miles 
NW.  of  Dublin  by  rail.     Pop.  2062. 

Clonfert,  an  ancient  episcopal  city  of  Ireland, 
is  in  the  extreme  east  of  County  Galway.  The 
bishopric  was  founded  in  the  6th  century,  and 
ceased  to  be  a  separate  Anglican  one  in  1602, 
being  ultimately  incorporated  with  Killaloe  ;  but 
it  is  still  the  see  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop. 

Clonmacnoise,  a  holy  place  of  Ireland,  on  the 
Shannon,  10  miles  by  river  S.  of  Athlone.  An 
abbey  was  founded  here  by  St  Kieran  in  548 ; 
and  the  spot  is  still  marked  by  the  ruins  of  the 
'seven  churches'  (including  the  '  cathedral,' the 
ruins  of  which  belong  to  the  church  rebuilt  in 
14th  century),  two  round  towers,  and  a  great 
Celtic  cross.  This  'lona  of  Ireland'  was  the 
burial-place  of  many  princes. 

Clonmel',  a  municipal  borough  in  Tipperary 
and  Waterford  counties,  on  the  Suir,  135  miles 
SW.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  In  1650  Cromwell  be- 
sieged  it,  and  demolished  the  castle.  It  gave 
birth  to  Sterne  and  Lady  Blessington,  and  was 
the  scene  of  Smith  O'Brien's  attempted  rising  in 
1848.  Till  1885  it  returned  one  member.  Here 
Bianconi  first  established  his  jaunting-cars  ;  and 
Clonmel  is  still  a  tourist  centre.    Pop.  10,167, 

Clontarf ,  where  in  1014  Brian  Born  defeated 
the  Danes,  was  long  famous  as  a  watering-place, 
and  in  1900  was  incorporated  with  Dublin  city. 

Cloughjordan,  a  village  of  Tipperary,  87  miles 
SW.  of  Dublin.     Pop.  618. 

Clovelly,  a  coast-village  of  North  Devon,  11 
miles  WSW.  of  Bideford.  From  its  rude  little 
pier  it  cliinbs  400  feet  upwards  in  a  steep  narrow 
combe.     Pop.  of  parish,  641. 

Clovenfords,  a  famous  vinery  on  the  Tweed, 
SI  miles  W.  of  Galashiels. 

Cloyne,  an  ancient  episcopal  town  of  County 
Cork,  15  miles  ESE.  of  Cork.  The  cathedral  was 
founded  in  the  6th  century  by  St  Colman; 
opposite  is  a  finely  preserved  round  tower  over 
90  feet  high.  The  see,  held  once  by  Bishop 
Berkeley,  is  united  to  that  of  Cork ;  but  there  is 
also  a  Catholic  diocese.     Pop,  820. 

Clugny  iCliln-yee'),  or  Cluni,  a  town  in  the 
dep.  of  Saone-et-Loire,  on  the  Grosne,  15  m.  NW. 
of  Macon  by  rail.  Pop.  3618.  Its  famous  Bene- 
dictine abbey  (910-1790)  attained  a  degree  of 
splendour  and  influence  unrivalled  by  any 
similar  institution  of  the  middle  ages.  The 
grand  basilica  or  abbey  church,  commenced  by 
St  Hugh,  the  eighth  abbot,  in  1089,  and  dedi- 
cated by  Pope  Innocent  II.  in  1131,  was,  until 


CLUMBER  PARK 


189 


COBLENZ 


the  construction  of  St  Peter's  at  Rome,  the 
largest  church  in  Christendom.  Of  this  mag- 
nificent and  imposing  pile  one  tower  and  part  of 
the  transept  alone  remain ;  the  site  of  the  nave 
is  traversed  by  a  road.  See  two  works  by  Sir  G. 
F.  Duckett  (1886-88),  with  others  in  French  by 
Pignot,  Lorain,  Penjon,  Cucherat,  and  Champly. 
Clumber  Park,  a  seat  of  the  Duke  of  New- 
castle, in  Notts,  3  miles  SE.  of  Worksop. 

Clun,  a  Shropshire  market-town,  6^  miles  N. 
by  E.  of  Knighton.    Pop.  of  parish,  2115, 

Clunes,  a  gold-mining  township  of  Victoria,  97 
miles  NW.  of  Melbourne  by  rail.     Pop.  4242. 

Clunie,  a  Perthshire  parish,  5^  miles  W.  by  S. 
of  Blairgowrie,  with  an  isleted  loch,  and  a  castle 
associated  with  the  '  Admirable '  Crichton. 
Cluslum.    See  Chiusi. 

Clwyd  (Kloo'id),  a  river  of  north  Wales,  rises 
on  Craig  Bronbanog,  in  Denbighshire,  and  runs  30 
miles  to  the  Irish  Sea,  below  Ruthin  flowing 
through  the  fertile  Vale  of  Clwyd,  24  miles  long, 
and  2  to  7  wide. 

Clyde  (Welsh  Chuyd,  '  strong '),  a  world-famous 
river  and  firth  of  south-west  Scotland.    The  river 
rises  as  Daer  Water  at  an  altitude  of  1600  feet, 
and  runs  106  miles  northward  and  north-west- 
ward,  round   Tinto  Hill  (2335    feet),   and    past 
Lanark,  Bothwell,  Glasgow,  and  Renfrew,  till  at 
Dumbarton  it  merges  in  the  firth.     Its  drainage 
area  is  1481  sq.  m.,  of  which  111  belong  to  the 
South,  North,  and  Rotten  Calders,  127  to  the 
Kelvin,  200  to  the  Black  and  White  Carts,  and 
305  to  the  Leven  and  Loch  Lomond.     Tributaries 
higher  up  are  Powtrail    Water,    Little    Clydes 
Burn,   Douglas  Water,   Medwyn    Water,   Mouse 
Water  with  its  deep  gorge  through  the  Cartland 
Crags,  and,  near  Hamilton,  the  Avon.    In  the 
four  miles  of  its  course  near  Lanark  the  river 
descends  from  560  to  200  feet,  and  forms  the  four 
celebrated  Falls  of  Clyde— Bennington,   Corra, 
Dundaff,  and  Stonebyres  Linns,   of  which  the 
finest,   Corra,   makes  a  triple  leap  of  84    feet. 
Above  the  falls  the  Clyde  is  a  beautiful  pure 
trout-stream,  traversing  pastoral  uplands ;  below, 
it  flows  through  a  rich  fertile  valley,  here  broad- 
ening out  into  plain,  there  pent  between   bold 
wooded  banks.     But  its  waters  become  more  and 
more  sluggish,  begrimed,  and  polluted,  the  nearer 
they  get  to  Glasgow.    Since  1765  upwards  of  ten 
millions  sterling  has  been  expended  on  rectifying 
and    deepening  the    channel    from    Glasgow  to 
Dumbarton,  no  less  tliau  40,000,000  cubic  yards 
[of  materials  having  been  lifted  by  steam-dredgers 
[  during  1844-1905.  Tlie  result  has  been  tliat  whereas 
'  a  hundred  years  ago  there  was  a  depth  at  low- 
^ater  of  15  inches,  now  they  have  at  Glasgow 
[from    18    to   20    feet    at  low-water;'    and  that 
iwhereas  even  lighters  could  once  'not  pass  to 
Jand  from  Glasgow  except  it  be  in  the  time  of 
lood  or  high-water  at  spring- tides,'  now  a  steamer 
f'has  been  docked  at  Glasgow  that  is  second  in 
[size  only  to  the  Great  Eastern.    In  1812  Henry 
Bell  laimched  on  the   Clyde  the  first  boat  in 
1  Europe  successfully    propelled  by  steam ;    and 
[since  then  the  river's  shipping  and  shipbuilding 
[(the  latter  dating  from  about  1718)  have  both 
[grown    enormously.— The    Firth,    which    some 
make  begin  at  Glasgow  (the  highest  point  of  the 
^tide),  and  some  not  until  Goiu-ock,  extends  12 
dies  westward  and  52  southward,  and  broadens 
3m  1  mile  at  Dumbarton  to  if  at  Dunoon,  and 
87  at  Ailsa  Craig.     It  sends  off  the  Gareloch, 
fLoch  Long,  Holy  Loch,  and  the  Kyles  of  Bute  ; 
contains  the  islands  of  Bute,  Arran,   and  the 


two  Cumbraes ;  is  bordered  along  its  ancient 
sea-margin  with  an  almost  continuous  fringe 
of  seaports  and  watering-places  (Greenock, 
Rothesay,  Ayr,  &c.) ;  and,  like  the  last  14  miles 
of  the  river,  is  one  of  the  world's  chief  com- 
mercial water-ways.  See  works  by  Deas  (1881- 
87),  Millar  (1888),  and  Pollock  (new  ed.  1893). 

Clydebank,  a  town  of  Dumbartonshire,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Clyde,  Similes  NAV.  of  Glasgow. 
It  has  great  shipbuilding  works.  Pop.  (1881) 
1634 ;  (1891)  10,589  ;  (1901)  21,591. 

Clydesdale.    See  Clyde  and  Lanarkshire. 

Clynder,  a  Dumbartonshire  Avatering-place  on 
the  Gareloch.     Pop.  331. 

Cnossus,  Gnossos,  or  Knossos,  anciently  the 
chief  town  of  Crete,  said  to  have  been  built  by 
Minos,  where  since  1900  very  important  excava- 
tions  of  the  great  palace  have  been  made  by  Mr 
A.  J.  Evans  and  others.  It  stood  N.  of  the 
centre,  three  miles  from  the  sea. 

Coahuila  {Ko-a-ioee'la),  a  state  of  Mexico,  next 
to  Texas.     Area,  64,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  281,000. 

Coalbrookdale,  in  Shropshire,  extends  8  miles 
along  the  Severn,  rich  in  coal,  iron,  and  lime. 

Coalisland,  a  village  of  Tyrone,  5  miles  NE.  of 
Dnngannon.     Pop.  785. 

Coalville,  an  urban  district  of  Leicestershire, 
16  miles  NW.  of  Leicester  by  rail.    Pop.  (1901) 

Cofinza,  KwANZA,  or  Quanza,  a  river  of  West 
Africa,  rising  in  the  east  of  the  Portuguese  terri- 
tory, and  after  a  generally  NW.  course,  entering 
the  Atlantic  30  miles  S.  of  St  Paul  de  Loando. 
It  is  navigable  for  light  vessels  as  far  as  the 
Cambambe  cataracts,  over  120  miles. 

Coast  Range,  a  range  of  mountains  nearly 
parallel  to  the  Pacific  Coast  in  California  (q.v.). 

Coatbridge,  a  thriving  manufacturing  town 
of  Lanarkshire,  since  1885  a  municipal  burgh, 
9  miles  E.  of  Glasgow  by  rail,  and  32  W.  by  S. 
of  Edinburgh.  The  centre  of  a  great  mineral 
district,  it  is  surrounded  by  numerous  blast- 
furnaces, and  produces  malleable  iron,  boilers, 
tubes,  tin-plate,  firebricks  and  tiles,  and  railway 
waggons.  Coatbridge  has  grown  very  rapidly  in 
size  and  prosperity— a  growth  largely  due  to  the 
development  of  the  Gartsherrie  Ironworks  of 
Messrs  Baird,  first  put  in  blast,  4th  May  1830. 
Pop.  (1831)  741 ;  (1851)  8564  ;  (1881)  18,425;  (1901) 
36,991.  See  A.  Miller's  Rise  and  Progress  of  Coat' 
bridge  (Glas.  1864). 

Coatzacoalco  (Co-at'za-co-al'co),  a  river  of  the 
isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  in  Mexico,  rises  in  the 
Sierra  Madre,  and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 
130  miles  SB.  of  Vera  Cruz. 

Coban  (Ko-bdhn'),  capital  of  the  dep.  of  Vera 
Paz,  in  Guatemala,  on  the  fertile  Tierra  Tem- 
plada  plateau,  85  miles  N.  of  the  town  of  Guate- 
mala.    Pop.  24,700. 

Cobham,  (l)  a  village  of  Kent,  4  miles  SSE. 
of  Gravesend.— (2)  A  Surrey  village,  on  the  Mole, 
6^  miles  W.  of  Epsom.     Pop.  of  parish,  3978. 

Cobija  (Ko-bee'ha),  a  seaport  of  the  Chilian 
province  of  Antofagasta,  on  a  shallow,  open  bay. 

Coblenz,  or  Koblenz  {K6-blentz),  capital  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  56  m.  SSE.  of  Cologne  by  rail,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Rhine  and  Moselle.  It  is 
very  strongly  fortified  with  a  wall  and  a  series  of 
detached  forts,  including  the  ahnost  impregnable 
castle  of  Ehrenbreitstein  (q.v.),  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Rhine.  Among  the  principal  build- 
ings are  the  church  of  St  Castor  (836),  the  oldest 


OOBOURQ 


190 


COGNAC 


In  the  Rhine  district ;  the  Kauf  haus  (1479) ;  the 
Protestant  Florins  Kirche  (12th  century);  the 
church  of  Our  Lady  (1250-1431);  and  tlie  old 
Jesuit  College,  now  a  gymnasium.  The  extensive 
palace  was  built  in  1778-86  by  the  last  Elector 
of  Treves,  and  restored  in  1845.  The  favourable 
position  of  Coblenz  secures  it  an  active  com- 
merce in  wine,  corn,  mineral  waters,  &c.  It 
manufactures  champagne  (about  1,000,000  bottles 
annually,  exported  chiefly  to  England),  cigars, 
japanned  goods,  and  furniture.  Pop.  (1875) 
29,290  ;  (1901)  45,146.  Coblenz  (Fr.  CoUence)  was 
known  to  the  Romans  as  Confiuentes.  From  1018 
till  1796  it  belonged  to  Treves.  In  1798  it  was 
made  the  capital  of  the  new  French  dep,  Rhine 
and  Moselle,  and  by  the  treaty  of  1815  was  given 
to  Prussia. 

Cobourg,  a  port  of  entry  of  Ontario,  on  Lake 
Ontario,  69  miles  NE.  of  Toronto.  It  contains 
a  Wesleyan  university,  and  several  woollen-mills, 
foundries,  and  breweries.    Pop.  4242. 

Coburg  (Ko'boorg),  capital  of  the  duchy  of 
Coburg,  In  the  united  duchy  of  Saxe-Coburg- 
Gotha,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Itz,  81  m.  SSE.  of  Eisenach  by  rail.  The 
ducal  palace  (1549)  is  one  of  the  principal  build- 
ings, others  being  the  government  buildings,  the 
arsenal,  containing  a  public  library,  the  town- 
house,  and  the  palace  of  the  Duke  of  Edinburgh. 
The  old  castle  of  Coburg,  mentioned  in  1057, 
beside  which  Coburg  originally  grew  up,  is  situ- 
ated on  an  eminence  530  feet  above  the  town. 
It  afforded  Luther  a  shelter  during  the  Diet 
of  Augsburg  in  1530,  and  in  1632  successfully 
resisted  a  siege  by  Wallenstein.  In  1782  it  was 
converted  into  a  prison,  but  in  1838  it  was 
thoroughly  restored.  Luther's  apartments  are 
preserved  as  he  used  them.  Coburg  has  manu- 
factures of  woollen,  cotton,  marquetry,  baskets, 
porcelain,  furniture,  and  carriages,  and  exports 
beer.  Pop.  (1875)  14,567 ;  (1900)  20,460.  Prince 
Albert,  to  whom  a  statue  was  erected  in  the 
market-place  of  Coburg  by  Queen  Victoria  in 
1865,  was  born  at  Rosenau,  a  ducal  seat  4  miles 
to  the  north. 

Coburg  Peninsula,  the  most  northerly  part 
of  Australia  to  the  west  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpen- 
taria, running  out  north-westward  towards  Mel- 
ville Island. 

Cocanada  (CocanaTi'da),  a  seaport  and  head- 
quarters of  Godavari  district  315  miles  N.  of 
Madras.     Pop.  (1881)  30,441 ;  (1901)  48,096. 

Oochabamba,  a  central  dep.  of  Bolivia,  with 
offshoots  of  the  Eastern  Cordilleras,  and  exten- 
sive plateaus.  Area,  26,685  sq.  m. ;  pop.  360,000. 
The  capital,  Cochabamba  (8396  feet  above  the 
sea),  on  a  tributary  of  the  Guapay,  was  founded 
in  1565,  as  Ciudad  de  Oropesa.    Pop.  34,705. 

Cochin,  a  native  state  of  India,  politically 
connected  with  Madras,  between  the  British 
district  of  Malabar  and  the  state  of  Travancore, 
with  the  Arabian  Sea  on  the  SW.  Area,  1362 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  822,906.  Cochin  formed  a  treaty 
with  the  East  India  Company  in  1798. 

Cochin,  once  the  capital  of  the  above  princi- 
pality, but  now  a  seaport  of  Malabar  district, 
in  the  Madras  presidency.  In  spite  of  a  bar,  it 
is  next  to  Bombay  on  this  coast  for  shipbuilding 
and  maritime  commerce.  Here  the  Portuguese 
erected  their  first  fort  in  India  in  1503.  They 
were  supplanted  by  the  Dutch  in  1663  ;  and  in 
1796  Cochin  was  captured  by  the  British.  Pop. 
17,698.  Half  a  mile  south  is  a  town  of  the  same 
name,  in  the  native  state  (pop.  15,775), 


Cochin-China,  a  name  for  Annam  (q.v.),  is 
used  specially  for  French  Cochin-China,  a  part 
of  French  Indo-Chine,  occupying  the  south 
extremity  of  the  Indo-China  peninsula,  and 
bounded  N.  by  Cambodia  and  Annam ;  area, 
23,000  sq.  m.  ;  population,  3,000,000,  chiefly 
Annamites,  "but  comprising  also  Cambodians, 
Chinese,  &c.  Through  nearly  its  whole  extent 
Cochin-China  is  low  and  almost  flat,  but  to 
the  north  and  east  rises  into  hills.  It  is  watered 
in  the  west  by  two  branches  of  the  Mekong,  the 
Han-giang  and  the  Tien-giang.  In  the  east  the 
Dong-nai  River  flows  from  north-east  to  south- 
v/est,  receiving  the  Saigon  River  from  the  north- 
west. These  and  other  rivers  are  all  connected 
with  one  another  by  the  innumerable  arroyos 
and  canals  which  intersect  Cochin-China  in  all 
directions.  The  temperature  rises  in  the  dry 
season  (October  to  April)  to  95°  F.  by  day  and  62° 
by  night,  and  in  the  wet  season  varies  between 
68°  and  86°.  The  soil,  mostly  alluvial,  is  exceed- 
ingly fertile,  producing  the  best  rice  in  the  world. 
Sugar-cane,  tobacco,  cotton,  arachis,  mulberry, 
indigo,  maize,  tea,  betel,  hemp,  are  raised  on  a 
small  scale ;  and  coffee,  cacao,  and  vanilla  have 
also  been  introduced.  A  railway  of  44  miles  and 
a  steam-tramway  run  from  Saigon,  the  capital ; 
Cape  St  Jacques  is  joined  by  telegraph  to  Singa- 
pore, Tonkin,  and  Hong-kong. 

Oockbumspath,  a  Berwickshire  village,  7  miles 
SE.  of  Dunbar. 

Cockenzie,  a  Haddingtonshire  fishing-village, 
1  mile  NB.  of  Prestonpans.    Pop.  1678. 

Cockermouth,  a  town  of  Cumberland,  on  the 
Derwent,  25  miles  SW.  of  Carlisle,  and  12  NW.  of 
Keswick.  A  ruined  castle  crowns  a  bold  height 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Cocker,  near  its  influx  to 
the  Derwent.  It  became  Mary  Stuart's  prison  in 
1568,  and  in  1648  was  dismantled  by  the  parlia- 
mentarians. Wordsworth  was  born  here  in  an 
old-fashioned  house  still  standing.  Till  1867 
Cockermouth  returned  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment ;  till  1885  one.     Pop.  5364. 

Cockpen',  a  Midlothian  parish,  7J  miles  SE.  of 
Edinburgh. 

Cockthorpe,  a  Norfolk  parish,  5  miles  NE.  of 
Walsingham.    Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel  was  a  native. 

Cocos.    See  Keeling  Islands. 

Cod.    See  Cape  Cod. 

Codogno,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  17  miles 
SB.  of  Lodi  by  rail.     Pop.  8935. 

Ooele-Syria  (See-leh;  'Hollow  Syria'),  now 
called  El-Buka'a,  'the  deep  plain,'  a  valley 
of  Syria,  extending  between  the  ranges  of  the 
Lebanon  and  Anti-Lebanon.  It  is  1706  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  is  watered  by  the  Orontes  (now  Bl- 
Asi).   Above  the  valley  stand  the  ruins  of  Baalbek. 

Coggeshall,  a  town  of  Essex,  on  the  Black- 
water,  44  miles  NE.  of  London.  It  has  a  school, 
founded  by  Sir  Robert  Hitcham  (1636),  remains  of 
a  Cistercian  abbey  (1142),  a  good  Decorated 
church,  and  some  manufactures  of  silk,  velvet, 
and  lace.  It  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
Roman  Canonium.  John  Owen  was  minister 
here.  Pop.  of  parish,  2730.  See  Beaumont's 
History  of  Coggeshall  (1890). 

Cognac  (Kon-yak'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Charente,  on  an  old  castle-crowned  hill  over 
the  Charente,  42  miles  SE.  of  Rochefort  by  rail. 
The  cultivation  of  the  vine  and  distillation  of 
brandy,  hence  called  Cognac,  form  the  chief 
industry  of  the  district.  Francis  I.  was  bom 
here.     Pop.  (1872)  12,950  ;  (1901)  18,454. 


COHOES 


191 


COLMAR 


Oohoes,  a  manufacturing  city  of  Albany  county, 
New  York,  on  the  Hudson,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mohawk,  3  miles  above  Troy,  and  on  the  Erie 
Canal.  It  has  cotton-mills,  knitting-mills,  and 
manufactures  of  axes,  gas-piping,  machines,  &c. 
Pop.  (1860)  8799  ;  (1900)  23,910. 

Coilsfield,  or  Montqomerie,  an  Ayrshire  estate 
near  Tarbolton,  with  memories  of  Burns  and 
Highland  Mary. 

Coimbatore  (Co-im'ba-tore),  a  town  of  Madras 
Presidency,  on  the  Noyil,  304  miles  SW.  of 
Madras  by  rail,  and  1437  feet  above  the  sea. 
Population,  55,000. 

Coimbra  (Co-im'bra),  capital  of  the  Portuguese 
province  of  Beira,  on  a  hill  above  the  Mondego, 
135  m.  NNB.  of  Lisbon  by  rail.  It  was  the  capital 
of  Portugal  for  about  two  centuries  and  a  half 
from  its  erection  into  a  kingdom  in  1139,  and 
many  of  the  early  kings  are  buried  in  and  around 
the  old  town.  It  has  two  cathedrals,  and  a 
university,  the  only  one  in  Portugal,  with  over 
700  students.  It  was  originally  established  at 
Lisbon  in  1288,  but  was  permanently  transferred 
here  in  1537.    Pop.  18,369.- 

Coina,  a  town  of  Spain,  20  miles  WSW.  of 
Malaga.     Pop.  9972. 

Coire.    See  Chur. 

Cojutepeque  (Ko-hoo-te-pay'kay),  a  town  of  San 
Salvador,  Central  America,  15  miles  E.  of  the 
capital.    Pop.  10,000. 

Colberg,  or  Kolberg,  a  seaport  and  watering- 
place  of  Prussia,  in  Pomerania,  on  the  Persante, 
near  its  mouth  in  the  Baltic,  170  miles  NNE.  of 
Berlin  by  rail.  It  manufactures  woollens,  agri- 
cultural machines,  and  spirits.     Pop.  20,250. 

Colchester,  an  ancient  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  in  the  NE.  of  Essex,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Colne,  51  miles  NE.  of  London, 
and  12  miles  from  the  sea.  It  is  built  on  the 
ridge  and  sides  of  a  promontory,  with  a  port  on 
the  river  at  a  suburb  called  the  Hythe,  which 
has  a  quay  for  vessels  of  150  tons.  It  is  a  town 
of  special  historical  and  antiquarian  interest. 
Before  the  Roman  conquest  of  the  island  it  was 
the  British  '  Royal  Town '  of  Cunobelin  (the 
Cymbeline  of  Shakespeare);  and  here  the  Em- 
peror Claudius  founded  a  colonia—the  first 
Roman  town  in  Britain.  There  are  still  many 
remains  of  that  town.  The  walls  are  the  most 
perfect  Roman  walls  in  England.  Immense 
quantities  of  pavements,  coins,  pottery,  and  other 
remains  of  domestic  use  and  personal  adornnient 
have  been  found  here.  The  tower  of  Holy  Trinity 
Church  has  all  the  characteristics  of  Saxon  archi- 
tecture. The  castle,  homing  a  very  interesting 
museum,  is  the  largest  Norman  keep  in  Eng- 
land. In  the  Norman  west  front  of  St  Botolph's 
Priory  the  Roman  bricks  are  a  striking  feature  ; 
and  all  the  old  churches  have  an  intermixture 
of  Roman  brick  in  their  walls.  The  Protes- 
tant refugees  from  the  Low  Countries  at  the 
end  of  the  16th  century  introduced  the  baize 
and  serge  trade,  which  became  an  important 
manufacture,  and  spread  into  the  neighbouring 
towns  and  --.illages.  Colchester  was  one  of  the 
eight  '  Dutch  Congregations '  incorporated  by 
royal  license.  The  wars  with  Spain  in  the  reign  of 
Queen  Anne  closed  the  markets  for  these  goods, 
and  the  trade  died  out.  A  chief  historical  event 
was  the  siege  and  capture  of  the  town  by  the 
parliamentarians  (1648).  Colchester  now  is  a 
large  military  depot;  and  the  fishery  of  the 
Colne  and  its  creeks  has  for  centuries  been 
famous  for  the  quality  of  its  oysters.    Colchester 


returns  one  member.  Pop.  (1851)  19,443  ;  (1901) 
38,378.  See  the  Rev.  E.  Cutts's  Colchester  ('  His- 
toric Towns '  series,  1888). 

Coldingham,  a  Berwickshire  village,  46  miles 
ESB.  of  Edinburgh,  with  remains  of  an  Augus- 
tinian  priory  (1098),     Pop.  482. 

Coldstream,  a  Berwickshire  town,  15  miles 
SW.  of  Berwick  by  rail,  on  the  Tweed,  with  a 
fine  bridge  by  Smeaton  (1766).    Pop.  1482. 

Coleford,  in  Gloucestershire,  4  miles  ESE.  of 
Monmoutli,  pop.  2540 ;  also  a  towu  of  Somerset, 
6  miles  NW.  of  Froine,  pop.  1520. 

Colenso,  a  small  town  of  Natal,  on  the  Tugela, 
15  miles  S.  of  Ladysmith,  wliere  on  15tli  Dec' 
1899  Buller  was  defeated  by  the  Boers. 

Goleorton,  Leicestershire,  3  miles  E.  by  N.  of 
Ashby-de-la-Zouch,  the  seat  of  Sir  George  Beau- 
mont, connoisseur  and  art-patron.  See  Knight's 
Memorials  of  Goleorton  (2  vols.  1887). 

Coleralne,  a  river-port  in  County  London- 
derry, on  the  Bann,  4  miles  from  its  mouth,  33 
by  rail  NE.  of  Londonderry.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  fine  linens,  pork-curing,  distilling,  and 
important  river  fisheries.  Until  1885  Coleraine 
returned  a  member  to  Parliament.  Pop.  (1861) 
C236  ;  (1901)  6929. 

Ooleroon,  the  largest  and  most  northerly 
branch  from  the  Kaveri,  flows  94  miles  to  the 
Bay  of  Bengal. 

Colesberg,  a  town  of  Cape  Colony,  142  miles  by 
rail  SW.  of  Bloemfontein.  It  was  the  scene  of 
active  operations  during  the  war,  1899-1902. 
Pop.  about  2000. 

Ooleshill,  a  Warwickshire  market-town,  10  miles 
ENE.  of  Birmingham.     Pop.  of  parish,  2535. 

Oollma  (Ko-lee'ma),  a  Pacific  Mexican  state, 
with  an  area  of  2694  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  (1890)  of 
72,591.  The  capital  is  Colima,  1450  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  40  miles  ENE.  of  the  port  of  Man- 
zanillo.  Pop.  20,251.  Beyond  the  state  frontier, 
about  35  miles  NE.  of  the  capital,  rises  the  vol- 
cano of  Colima  (12,750  feet),  which  burst  out  in 
June  1869. 

Colinsburgh,  a  Fife  village.  If  mile  N.  by  W. 
of  Kilconquhar  station.  It  was  founded  about 
1718  by  Colin,  Earl  of  Balcarres.     Pop.  854. 

Colinton,  a  Midlothian  village,  on  the  Water  of 
Leith,  4  miles  SW.  of  Edinburgh.    Pop.  776. 

Coll,  one  of  the  Argyllshire  Hebrides,  16  miles 
W.  of  Tobermory  in  Mull.  It  is  13  miles  long,  1 
to  3^  broad,  326  feet  high,  and  30  sq.  m.  in  area. 
Pop.  (1801)  1162  ;  (1901)  432. 

Oori6,  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy,  on  the  Elsa,  24 
miles  SSW.  of  Florence.    Pop.  5090. 

Collingwood,  a  town  of  Ontario,  on  the  south 
shore  of  Georgian  Bay.  It  has  factories,  ship- 
yards, and  grain-elevators,  and  a  considerable 
trade  in  lumber  and  grain.  Pop.  5445.  —Another 
Collingwood  is  a  suburb  of  Melbourne  (q.v.). 

Collumpton.    See  Cullompton. 

Colmar,  the  capital  of  the  German  district  of 
Upper  Alsace,  on  a  plain  near  the  Vosges,  42 
miles  SSW.  of  Strasburg.  It  is  one  of  the  chief 
seats  of  the  cotton  industry  in  Alsace,  other 
manufactures  being  paper,  leather,  ribbons,  and 
hosiery.  Colmar  is  an  old  place,  having  been 
raised  to  the  rank  of  a  free  imperial  city  in  1226. 
Fortified  in  1552,  its  fortifications  were  razed  in 
1673  by  Loi;is  XIV.  Pleasant  boulevards  now 
occupy  their  place.  Colmar  was  formally  ceded 
to  France  in  1697,  but  was  recovered  by  Germany 
in  1871.    Pop.  (1875)  23,778 ;  (1900)  36,800. 


COLNE 


192 


COLOMBIA 


Oolne,  a  town  of  East  Lancashire,  on  a  high 
ridge  near  the  source  of  the  Calder,  a  western 
branch  of  the  Ribble,  26  miles  N.  of  Manchester. 
It  manufactures  cotton  calicoes  and  mousselines- 
de-laine.    Pop.  (1871)  7335  ;  (1901)  23,000. 

Colney  Hatch,  a  village  of  Middlesex,  6^  miles 
N.  of  London,  with  a  great  lunatic  asylum,  opened 
in  1851. 

Cologne  (Ger.  Kdln),  a  city  and  free  port  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  362  miles  by  rail 
WSW.  of  Berlin,  175  SB.  of  Rotterdam,  149  E. 
of  Brussels,  and  302  NE.  of  Paris.  Formerly  an 
independent  city  of  the  German  empire,  it  is 
now  the  most  important  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia ;  a  fortress  of  the  first  rank,  forming  a 
semicircle  along  the  Rhine,  and  connected 
with  the  town  of  Deutz  on  the  opposite  bank  by 
a  bridge  of  boats,  and  an  iron  bridge,  1362  feet 
long,  for  railway  and  carriage  traffic.  Pop.  (1871) 
129,233;  (1900)  372,229.  The  old  streets  are 
mostly  narrow  and  crooked ;  but  the  area  freed 
by  the  removal  of  the  ancient  fortifications  was 
purchased  in  1882  by  the  corporation  for  about 
£600,000 ;  its  most  prominent  feature  is  the 
handsome  '  Ringstrasse '  or  boulevard,  nowhere 
less  than  60  feet  wide,  which  encircles  the  entire 
old  town.  The  new  fortifications  include  a 
number  of  detached  forts,  planted  round  Cologne 
and  Deutz,  within  a  radius  of  about  4  miles  from 
the  cathedral.  The  church  of  St  Maria  im  Capitol 
was  consecrated  in  1049 ;  in  St  Ursula  are  pre- 
served the  bones  of  the  11,000  virgins.  The 
cathedral  is  one  of  the  noblest  specimens  of 
Gothic  architecture  in  Europe.  Traditionally 
founded  by  Archbishop  Hildebold,  during  Charle- 
magne's reign  in  814,  and  gifted  by  Frederic 
Barbarossa  in  1162  with  the  bones  of  the  three 
Magi,  it  was  rebuilt  after  burning  in  1248.  The 
choir  was  consecrated  in  1322  ;  and  the  work  was 
carried  on  till  1509,  when  it  was  suspended  ;  but 
the  work  of  renovation  began  in  1823,  and  in  1842 
the  foundation-stone  of  the  new  part  was  laid. 
The  naves,  aisles,  and  transepts  were  opened  in 
1848  ;  the  magnificent  south  portal  was  completed 
in  1859  ;  in  1860  the  iron  central  fleche  was  added  ; 
and  the  western  spires,  the  crown  of  the  edifice, 
were  finished  in  1880.  The  church  measures  440 
feet  in  length,  and  240  in  breadth ;  the  spires 
rise  515  feet.  The  great  bell,  the  '  Kaiserglocke ' 
(1887),  made  of  French  cannon,  weighs  over  26 
tons.  Among  secular  buildings  are  the  14th- 
century  town-house  ;  the  noble  Gothic  Giirzenich 
(1441-52),  a  banqueting-hall,  now  containing  the 
exchange ;  the  modern  law-courts ;  and  the 
Wallraf-Richartz  Museum,  with  a  good  collection 
of  paintings.  The  situation  of  Cologne  is  ex- 
tremely favourable  for  commerce  ;  and  the  manu- 
factures include  the  making  of  eau-de-Cologne, 
beet-sugar,  tobacco,  glue,  carpets,  soap,  leather, 
furniture,  pianos,  chemicals,  and  spirits  of  wine. 
The  city  was  founded  by  the  Ubii,  about  37  b.c, 
and  was  at  first  called  Ubiorum  oppidum ;  but  a 
colony  being  planted  here  in  50  a.d.  by  Agrippina, 
the  wife  of  the  Emperor  Claudius,  it  received  the 
name  of  Colonia  Agrippina.  It  entered  the  league 
of  the  Hanse  towns  in  1201,  and  contended  with 
LUbeck  for  the  first  rank.  Cologne  was  at  a 
very  early  period  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  elevated 
at  the  end  of  the  8th  century  into  an  arch- 
bishopric, whose  holders  took  their  place  amongst 
the  princes  and  electors  of  the  empire.  The 
archbishopric  was  secularised  in  1801,  when 
the  city  also  lost  its  independence,  and  the  Con- 
gress of  Vienna  assigned  the  whole  territories  to 


gresi 
Prus 


Colombia,  a  republic  occupying  the  north-west 
corner  of  the  South  American  continent,  and 
till  1903,  when  Panama  (q.v.)  became  inde- 
pendent, including  also  the  Isthmus  of  Panama. 
Its  area  is  estimated  at  about  510,000  sq.  miles 
(nearly  as  large  as  Great  Britain,  France,  and 
Spain  together).  The  population  amounts  to 
about  4,000,000,  including  some  200,000  uncivilised 
Indians  in  the  remote  forests.  The  situation  of 
Colombia,  washed  by  two  oceans,  with  a  coast- 
line of  nearly  3000  miles,  and  many  good  harbours, 
is  very  favoiirable  to  commerce.  The  surface  of 
the  country  is  extremely  varied,  with  lofty  moun- 
tains in  the  west,  and  vast  plains  in  the  east 
scarcely  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  For  the 
mountain  system,  which  spreads  out  in  three 
great  ranges,  like  the  rays  of  a  fan,  see  Andes. 
From  the  Central  Cordillera  descend  the  two 
principal  rivers  of  Colombia,  the  Magdalena  and 
its  tributary  the  Cauca,  which  flow  north  into 
the  Caribbean  Sea,  besides  several  affluents  of 
the  Amazon  in  the  east,  and  the  Patia,  which 
forces  its  way  to  the  Pacific  through  a  gorge 
between  cliffs  10,000  to  12,000  feet  high.  The 
Eastern  Cordillera,  by  far  the  largest  chain,  con- 
sists of  a  series  of  extensive  tablelands,  cool  and 
healthy,  and  is  the  most  thickly  populated  por- 
tion of  the  republic ;  on  one  of  its  plateaus,  at 
an  elevation  of  8694  feet,  stands  the  capital, 
Bogotd  (q.v.).  Eastward  from  this  Cordillera 
stretch  vast  llanos  or  plains,  through  which  flow 
many  tributaries  of  the  Orinoco.  Other  rivers 
are  the  San  Juan  (navigable  150  miles),  on  the 
Pacific  coast,  and  the  Atrato  and  Zulia  flowing 
north.  In  the  course  of  one  day's  journey,  the 
traveller  may  experience  in  this  country  all  the 
climates  of  the  world ;  perpetual  snows  cover 
the  summits  of  the  Cordilleras,  while  the  valleys 
are  smothered  in  the  rich  vegetation  of  the 
tropics.  The  climate  of  Panama  is  notoriously 
unwholesome,  and  in  some  parts  of  Bolivar  and 
Magilalena  marsh  fevers  abound.  The  hot  region, 
extending  to  an  elevation  of  about  3200  feet,  pro- 
duces in  abundance  rice,  cacao,  sugar-cane,  ban- 
anas, yams,  tobacco,  indigo,  cotton,  caoutchouc, 
vegetable  ivory,  medicinal  plants,  resins,  and 
dyewoods.  In  the  temperate  zone,  from  3200  to 
8500  feet  above  the  sea,  the  coffee  plant,  the  fig, 
and  the  cinchona-tree  flourish.  The  wax-palm 
extends  beyond  this  region,  and  is  found  at  a 
height  of  nearly  11,000  feet,  and  large  crops  of 
potatoes,  grain,  and  leguminous  plants  are  raised 
in  the  cold  region  ;  but  from  10,000  feet  rises  the 
bleak  paramo,  with  its  scanty  vegetation,  ending 
in  lichens  at  the  snow-line.  The  fauna  of  Colom- 
bia is  very  varied,  including  the  condor,  capy- 
bara,  tapir,  armadillo,  sloth,  seventeen  kinds  of 
monkeys,  jaguar,  puma,  ocelot,  margay,  and  bear. 
The  boa  and  numerous  other  snakes  are  common, 
alligators  swarm  in  the  rivers.  Enormous  herds 
of  cattle  are  found  throughout  the  temperate 
zone.  In  minerals  the  country  is  exceedingly 
rich,  although  the  naines  have  been  little  wrought, 
owing  to  the  lack  of  roads.  Yet  from  the  dep. 
of  Antioquia  alone  over  £400,000  worth  of  gold  is 
annually  exported.  The  dep.  of  Tolima  is  the 
richest  in  silver.  Iron,  copper,  lead,  platinum, 
coal,  sulphiu',  zinc,  antimony,  arsenic,  cinnabar, 
rock-salt,  crystal,  granite,  marble,  lime,  gypsum, 
jet,  amethysts,  rubies,  emeralds,  porphyry,  and 
jasper  are  also  found. 

The  only  industries  common  to  all  the  deps. 
of  Colombia  are  agriculture  and  the  rearing  of 
cattle.  Coarse  cloths,  soap,  and  candles  are 
manufactured  ;  and  the  so-called  Panama  straw- 
hats  are  exported.    The  transit  trade  across  the 


COLOMBO 


193 


COLORADO 


Isthmtig  of  Panama  (q.v.),  wliich  was  formerly 
very  important,  was  lost  to  the  republic  in  1903, 
when  Tanama  became  a  separate  state.  The 
foreign  trade  proper  is  mainly  with  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  The  imports  are  mostly 
food-stuffs,  textiles,  machinery,  and  ironwares; 
the  exports,  coffee,  gold,  silver,  and  other  ores, 
caoutchouc,  ivory-nuts,  divi-divi  pods  (for  tan- 
ning), tobacco,  cacao,  cotton,  cinchona,  cattle, 
balsams,  timber  and  dyewoods,  hides  and 
wool.  At  the  beginning  of  the  20th  century  the 
annual  value  of  exports  was  $20,000,000,  and  of 
imports  $19,000,000.  Of  the  export  trade  27  per 
cent,  goes  to  the  United  States,  and  25  per  cent, 
to  Britain.  The  revenue  for  the  usual  biennial 
periods  averages  about  $29,000,000,  and  the  ex- 
penditure about  $40,000,000,  showing  a  serious 
deficit.  The  internal  debt  amounts  to  about 
$11,350,000.  The  foreign  debt,  mostly  to  Britain, 
was  cut  down  in  1897,  by  arrangement,  to 
$13,122,000,  but  even  so  the  interest  fell  steadily 
into  arrears.  There  are  400  miles  of  railway  in 
Colombia  and  over  9000  miles  of  telegraph. 

The  population  is  mainly  descended  from  the 
numerous  Indian  tribes,  partly  Hispanicised  in 
language  and  habits.  The  chief  aborigines  of 
the  country,  the  Chibchas  or  Muyscas,  inhabiting 
the  plateau  of  Bogota,  were  a  comparatively 
civilised  race  at  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  ; 
the  uncivilised  Indians  are  now  mostly  confined 
to  the  eastern  plains,  the  northern  portion  of 
Magdalena,  and  the  district  of  Darien  and  the 
Atrato.  The  pure  whites  form  about  a  fifth  of 
the  entire  population,  and  the  Indian  half-breeds 
more  than  half ;  mulattoes  and  zambos,  resulting 
respectively  from  the  union  of  negroes  with 
whites  and  Indians,  exceed  a  sixth  of  the  whole. 
Slavery  was  finally  abolished  in  1852,  and  in  1870 
a  system  of  compulsory  education  was  adopted. 
The  state  church  is  Roman  Catholic,  but  tolera- 
tion in  matters  of  religion  is  guaranteed. 

Colombo  (Kalan-totta,  •  the  Kalany  ferry '),  the 
capital  of  Ceylon,  is  situated  on  the  western  side 
of  the  island.  Since  the  construction  of  the 
great  breakwater  begun  in  1875,  the  harbour  has 
been  greatly  improved,  especially  by  works  in 
1894-190(5 ;  trade  has  of  late  years  vastly  increased, 
Colombo  having  superseded  Galle.  It  is  the 
seat  of  an  Anglican  bishop,  and  is  an  important 
missionary  centre.  Colpetty,  a  beautiful  suburb, 
shaded  by  groves  of  the  cocoa-nut  palm,  is  a 
favourite  retreat.  Lord  Napier  of  Magdala  was 
born  here.  The  Portuguese,  who  fortified  the 
place  in  1517,  altered  its  older  name  Kalambn,  in 
honour  of  Columbus.  The  Dutch  succeeded  to 
the  Portuguese,  and  to  the  Dutch  the  British 
in  1796.  Pop.  (1871)  100,238  ;  (1901)  158,093. 
Colon'.    See  Aspinwall. 

Colonia,  a  dep.  of  Uruguay,  on  the  Plata, 
below  the  Uruguay  River.  Area,  2200  sq.  m.  ; 
population,  54,000.  The  capital,  Colonia  del 
Sacramento,  on  the  Plata,  100  "miles  above  Monte 
Video,  has  a  good  harbour,  a  dock  for  vessels  of 
1000  tons,  and  1500  inhabitants. 

Colonna,  Cape  (anc.  Suniuvi  Promontorium), 
a  Greek  headland,  the  southmost  point  of  Attica, 
crowned  by  a  temple  of  Minerva,  thirteen  of 
whose  white  marble  cohunns  (whence  the  mod- 
em name)  are  still  standing. 

Colonsay  and  Oronsay,  two  of  the  Argyllshire 
Hebrides,  16  miles  NNW.  of  Port  Askaig  in  Islay, 
separated  from  each  other  by  a  sound,  100  yards 
wide,  and  dry  at  low-water.  Colonsay,  which 
rises  to  a  height  of  493  feet,  is  16  sq.  m.  in  area  ; 
Oronsay,  only  3.    On  the  latter  are  a  sculptured 

at 


cross  and  a  14th-century  Austin  priory ;  whilst 
in  the  former  are  standing-stones,  a  bone  cave, 
Colonsay  House  (1772),  and  an  obelisk  to  the 
lawyer,  Duncan  M'Neill,  Lord  Colonsay  (1794- 
1874).  Pop.  (1851)  933 ;  (1901)  313,  of  whom  12 
were  in  Oronsay. 

Colorado   (Co-lo-rah'do ;   Span,    'reddish'),   a 
remarkable  river  of  North  America,  formed  in  39* 
17'  N.  lat.,  109' 50'  W.  long.,  by  the  union  of  the 
Grand  and  Green  rivers,  rising,  one  in  Colorado 
state,  the  other  in  Wyoming.     Below  the  junc- 
tion,  the    main    affluent    in    Utah    is    the    San 
Juan,  and  in  Arizona  the  Colorado  Chiquito  or. 
Flax  River,  the  Bill  Williams,  and  the  Rio  Gila, 
all  from  the  left.    The  only  important  affluent 
the  Colorado  receives  from  the  right  is  the  Ria 
Virgen.     From  the  junction  of  the  Grand  and 
Green,  the  general  course  of  the  stream  is  to 
the  south-west,  through  the   southern  part  ol 
Utah  and  the    north-west  of  Arizona;    and  it 
afterwards  separates  Arizona  from  Nevada  and 
California.    The  lower  part  of  its  course  is  in 
Mexican  territory,  where  it  flows  into  the  north 
extremity  of  the  Gulf  of  California.    The  most 
striking  features  of  the  Colorado  basin  are  its 
dryness,  and  the  deeply  channelled  surface  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  country.    Almost  every 
stream  and  watercourse,  and  most  of  all  the  Col- 
orado itself,  has  cut  its  way  through  stratum 
after  stratum  of  rock,  until  now  it  flows,  in  a 
great  part  of  its  course,  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep 
trench  or  canon.     For  nearly  400  miles  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Colorado  Chiquito,  the  main  stream 
thus  makes  its  way  through  a  great  plateau, 
forming  what  is  called  the  Grand  Canon  of  the 
Colorado,  one  of  the  most  remarkable  ravines  in 
the  world.   The  caiion-walls  throughout  the  upper 
part  of  the  great  canon  are  from  4000  to  7000  feet 
in  height,  and  are  often  nearly  perpendicular. 
This  over-drained   river    basin  has    an    area  of 
240,000  sq.  m.    The  whole  course  of  the  river 
below  the  junction  is  about  900  miles;   to  its 
remotest  sources  it  is  2000  miles.     Navigation, 
though  much  impeded  by  rocks  and  sand-bars, 
is  possible  for  light-draught  steamers  for  over 
600  miles.     See  Powell's  Canyons  of  the  Colorado 
(1893),  Button's  book  on  the  geology,  and  Dellen- 
bangh's  Romance  of  the  Colorado  (1903). 

Colorado  River  of  Texas  rises  by  many  head- 
streams  in  north-west  Texas,  winds  900  miles 
south-eastward,  and  discharges  its  waters  by  two 
main  outlets  into  Matagorda  Bay.  It  is  little 
used  for  navigation.  Its  valley  is  fairly  fertile 
and  supplied  with  timber. 

Colorado,  a  state  of  the  American  Union,  in 
37°-41'N.  lat.,  and  102°-109''  W.  long.,  traversed 
from  north  to  south  by  ranges  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  It  takes  its  name  from  the  river 
Colorado,  to  the  basin  of  which  all  the  western 
slope  of  the  state  belongs,  as  the  eastern  does  to 
the  Mississippi  valley ;  while  part  of  the  south 
is  drained  by  the  Rio  Grande  and  its  head- 
streams.  The  area  is  103,645  sq.  m.,  or  rather 
more  than  half  that  of  France,  Colorado  being 
fifth  of  the  states  in  size.  The  high  plams  and 
over-drained  imsas  to  the  west  are  not  clearly 
marked  off  from  the  mountain-region  ;  and  much 
of  the  western  slope  is  actually  mountainous. 
The  eastern  slope,  which  embraces  about  two- 
fifths  of  the  whole  state,  is,  apart  from  the  foot- 
hills skirting  the  flank  of  the  mountain-region,  an 
open  and  comparatively  treeless  plain,  with  a  sur- 
face singularly  monotonous,  and  for  the  most  part 
devoted  to  the  pasturage  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
This  level  region  averages  5000  feet  in  altitude, 


COLORADO  SPRINGS 


194 


COLUMBIA 


and  its  lowest  point  is  3000  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  mountain  region  contains  more  tlian  a  hundred 
peaks  exceeding  13,000  feet,  the  loftiest  being 
Blanca  Peak  (14,464  feet).  Six  passes  cross 
mountain-ranges  at  points  over  12,000  feet  high  ; 
the  Argentine  Pass  is  13,000  feet  in  altitude. 
Railways  are  led  across  many  of  these  passes.  A 
marked  feature  of  the  mountain-region  is  pre- 
sented in  the  parks,  or  rich  mountain-valleys, 
often  very  spacious,  and  generally  bearing 
evidence  of  being  the  dried  basins  of  lakes. 
The  central  mountain-region,  with  its  parks, 
canons,  and  hot  springs,  and  its  rich  mineral 
deposits,  has  attracted  most  attention ;  the 
western  part  of  the  state  is  far  less  accessible 
and  less  developed.  The  rainfall  is  small ;  but 
a  good  many  important  streams  take  their  rise  in 
the  state,  including  several  tributaries  of  the 
Colorado  ;  the  Arkansas  and  South-Platte,  flow- 
ing to  the  Mississippi ;  and  the  Rio  Grande. 
Extensive  and  important  irrigation-works  are 
fed  by  some  of  these  streams.  From  the  dryness 
of  the  air,  Colorado  has  a  great  reputation  as  a 
health-resort.  The  medicinal  and  thermal  springs 
are  numerous.  A  disease  called  '  mountain  fever ' 
is  endemic  in  some  places.  Agriculture  is  re- 
munerative in  all  sections  where  irrigation  can  be 
efiected.  Insect-plagues,  including  the  Colorado 
potato-beetle,  have  proved  very  destructive  ;  the 
Rocky-mountain  locust  has  of  late  been  com- 
paratively harmless. 

The  discovery  of  gold  (1858)  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Pike's  Peak  led  to  the  first  important 
settlements  in  this  region.  Since  1873  the  silver 
production  has  far  exceeded  that  of  gold,  and 
the  state  took  rank  as  the  first  in  out-turn  of 
silver,  second  or  third  in  its  gold,  and  first  or 
second  in  the  production  of  the  precious  metals 
in  general.  The  depreciation  of  silver  and  the 
currency  legislation  of  1893  led  to  the  closing  of 
some  of  the  silver-mines,  and  on  the  other  hand 
a  development  of  gold-mining  took  place,  so  that 
from  1897  Colorado  was  the  chief  gold-producing 
state  of  the  Union,  and  from  1900  onwards  pro- 
duced annually  twice  as  much  as  California.  In 
the  working  of  the  silver  ores  much  lead  is  ob- 
tained. There  are  great  beds  of  coal.  Iron  and 
Bessemer  steel  rails  are  among  the  manufactures  ; 
copper,  cement,  fireclay,  and  manganese  are 
wrought ;  and  there  are  thirty  petroleum  wells 
near  Florence.  Not  quite  one-half  of  this  region 
was  acquired  by  the  United  States  from  France  in 
1804 ;  the  remainder  was  ceded  by  Mexico  in  1848. 
The  southern  part  has  a  small  Spanish-speaking 
population,  partially  of  Indian  descent.  Colorado 
was  organised  as  a  territory  in  1861,  and  was  ad- 
mitted as  a  state  in  1876.  The  principal  towns 
are  Denver,  the  capital  (106,713),  and  Pueblo 
(24,558).  Pop.  of  Colorado  (1860)  34,277  ;  (1870) 
39,864;  (1880)  194,327;  (1885)  243,910;  (1890) 
412,198  ;  (1900)  539,700. 

Colorado  Springs,  a  popular  summer-resort 
of  Colorado,  situated  on  the  Fontaine  qui  Bouille 
Creek,  75  miles  S.  of  Denver  by  rail.  Pop.  (1880) 
4226;  (1890)11,140  ;  (1900)  21,085. 

Columbia,  the  name  of  nearly  thirty  places  in 
the  United  States,  of  which  the  most  important 
are :  (1)  The  capital  of  South  Carolina,  at  the 
head  of  navigation  on  the  Congaree  River,  130 
miles  NNW.  of  Charleston  by  rail.  It  has  a  fine 
granite  state-house  ($3,000,000),  a  Presbyterian 
theological  seminary,  and  the  university  of  South 
Carolina  (1806).  Pop.  (1880)  10,036  ;  (1900)  21,118. 
— (2)  A  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Susque- 
hanna, 80  miles  W.  of  Philadelphia,  with  jron- 


fumaces  and  rolling-mills,  and  manufkctures  of 
machinery,  flour,  &c.  Pop.  12,599.— (3)  The 
capital  of  Maury  county,  Tennessee,  on  the  Duck 
River,  45  miles  SSW.  of  Nashville  by  rail,  with 
manufactures  of  ploughs,  furniture,  and  flour. 
Pop.  6370.— (4)  The  capital  of  Boone  county, 
Missouri,  24  miles  B.  of  Boonville,  with  manu- 
factures of  flour,  tobacco,  and  woollens,  and  with 
the  state  university  (1840).    Pop.  6000. 

Columbia,  or  Oregon,  after  the  Yukon  the 
largest  river  on  the  west  side  of  America,  rises  in 
British  Columbia,  on  tlie  west  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  near  Mounts  Brown  and  Hooker,  in 
about  50°  N.  lat.,  has  a  very  irregular  course, 
generally  south-west,  through  Washington,  forms 
the  northern  bovmdary  of  Oregon  for  about  350 
miles,  and  enters  the  Pacific  by  an  estuary  35 
miles  long  and  from  3  to  7  wide.  Its  estimated 
length  is  1400  miles  ;  its  drainage  area  298,000 
miles,  its  chief  affluents  being  Clarke's  Fork  and 
the  Snake  River  (with  very  remarkable  canons). 
Navigation  is  rendered  difficult  by  a  surf-beaten 
bar,  and  by  falls  and  rapids  ;  still,  goods  are  con- 
veyed by  steamboats  and  short  intermediate  rail- 
ways for  nearly  500  miles.  The  extraordinarily 
abundant  salmon-fisheries  of  the  Columbia  have 
been  largely  developed ;  and  there  are  many 
canneries,  mostly  near  the  mouth  of  the  river. 

Columbia,  British,  is  a  province  of  the 
Dominion  of  Canada,  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  60th  parallel  of  latitude ;  on  the  S.  by  the 
United  States ;  on  the  W.  by  the  Pacific  Ocean 
and  part  of  Alaska ;  and  on  the  E.  by  the  provi- 
sional districts  of  Alberta  and  Athabasca  (North- 
west Territories).  Its  area  is  390,344  sq.  m.,  in- 
cluding Vancouver  Islajid  (14,000  sq.  m.)  and 
Queen  Charlotte  Islands  (5100  sq.  m.),  200  miles 
NW.  of  Vancouver  Island.  British  Columbia 
was  practically  under  the  control  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company  until  1858,  when,  owing  to  the  dis- 
covery of  gold,  it  was  made  a  crown  colony.  Van- 
couver Island  was  united  with  it  in  1866,  and  the 
province  joined  the  Canadian  Confederation  in 
1871.  The  scenery  is  rugged  and  picturesque. 
Between  the  western  slopes  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains (highest  peaks,  Mount  Brown,  16,000  feet, 
and  Mount  Hooker,  15,700  feet)  and  the  sea  the 
area  is  largely  occupied  by  spurs  and  outlying 
groups  of  that  chain.  Near  the  coast  these  form 
the  Cascade  Range.  Of  the  rivers  the  most  im- 
portant is  the  Fraser,  800  miles  long,  and  600 
yards  wide  at  its  principal  outlet  in  the  Gulf  of 
Georgia.  Of  the  Columbia  only  the  upper  por- 
tion is  within  the  province.  Many  varieties  of 
climate  are  found.  That  of  Vancouver  Island 
and  the  coast  of  the  mainland  is  very  similar  to 
that  of  the  south  of  England.  The  interior  is 
divided  as  to  climate  into  three  zones — the  south, 
the  middle,  and  the  north.  In  1881  the  popula- 
tion was  40,459,  and  in  1901,  190,000,  including 
about  25,000  Indians  and  10,000  Chinese.  The 
principal  towns  on  Vancouver  Island  are  Victoria, 
the  capital  (pop.  21,000),  and  Nanainio  ;  on  tlie 
mainland  there  are  New  Westminster,  formerly 
the  capital  of  British  Columbia,  and  Vancouver 
(27,000),  the  terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway.  The  provincial  government  is  adminis- 
tered by  a  lieutenant-governor,  appointed  and 
paid  by  the  Dominion,  and  a  Legislative 
Assembly,  elected  by  the  inhabitants. 

The  province  is  not  likely  to  become  an  agri- 
cultural country,  but  there  is  a  considerable  area 
of  land  available  for  arable  and  pastoral  farming 
both  on  Vancouver  Island  and  on  the  mainland 
in  the  river- valleys.    The  rich  valley  of  the  lower 


COLUMBIA 


196  COMORO  ISLES 


Fraser,  or  New  Westminster  district,  is  the 
largest  compact  agricultural  area  on  the  main- 
land. Of  the  total  area  (say  250,000,000  acres) 
only  about  900,000  acres  are  as  yet  occupied. 
The  fruit-growing  industry  is  still  in  its  infancy. 
The  principal  industries  of  the  province  are  con- 
nected with  the  mines,  the  fisheries,  and  the 
forests.  The  minerals  form  one  of  its  chief 
resources.  Gold,  coal,  silver,  iron,  copper,  galena, 
mercury,  platinum,  antimony,  bismuth,  molyb- 
denum, plumbago,  mica,  and  other  minerals  have 
been  discovered  in  different  parts,  copper  being 
very  widely  distributed.  The  quartz-mines  have 
been  little  drawn  on  ;  most  of  the  metal  secured 
has  come  from  the  alluvial  deposits.  Coal  and 
lignite  exist  in  many  parts  of  the  mainland.  At 
Naiiaimo,  on  Vancouver  Island,  there  is  a  large 
coallield,  and  an  extensive  export,  largely  to  the 
United  States,  Excepting  the  salmon-fishery, 
the  rich  fisheries  have  not  yet  been  developed. 
The  fur-sealing  industry  in  the  Pacific  is  also 
valuable.  But  little  timber  has  yet  been  cut, 
notwitlistanding  the  immense  forests  of  mag- 
nificent trees  tliat  abound.  Until  the  completion 
of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  in  1885,  British 
Columbia  was  isolated  from  the  rest  of  the 
Dominion.  Now,  however,  it  occupies  a  favour- 
able position  in  regard  to  the  markets  of  the 
west  of  South  America  and  Australasia.  Lines 
of  steamers  connect  Vancouver  with  Hong-kong 
and  Australian  ports.  The  telegraph  cable  to 
Australia  was  con)pleted  in  1902.  The  dispute 
as  to  the  boundary  between  Alaska  and  British 
Columbia  was  finally  settled  by  a  commission  in 
1903.  See  works  by  Pemberton,  Rattray,  Mac- 
donald,  Macfie,  Leonard  (published  between  18C0 
and  1870),  H.  H.  Bancroft  (1887),  Lees  and 
Clutterbuck  (1888),  Begg  (1896),  and  Baillie- 
Grohman  (1900). 

Columbia,  District  of,  In  the  United  States. 
8eo  District  of  Columbia. 

Columbus,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Ohio,  on 
the  Scioto  River,  116  miles  NE.  of  Cincinnati  and 
138  SSW.  of  Cleveland.  In  a  central  square  of  10 
acres  stands  the  state  capitol,  a  fine  stone  struc- 
ture 804  feet  long  by  184  wide.  Other  edifices  are 
the  city-hall,  with  a  public  library ;  a  court-house 
erected  at  a  cost  of  $400,000 ;  U.  S.  government 
and  Board  of  Trade  buildings  ;  a  large  state  peni- 
tentiary ;  a  hospital  for  the  insane,  erected  at  a 
cost  of  $1,520,980;  and  institutions  for  the  blind, 
the  deaf  and  dumb,  &c.  Here  also  are  the  Ohio 
State  University  and  the  Capital  University 
(Lutheran).  Fourteen  lines  of  railway  radiate 
in  all  directions,  which,  added  to  the  natural 
advantage  of  proximity  to  the  great  coal  and 
iron  fields  of  the  state,  tend  to  a  rapid  develop- 
ment of  the  manufacturing  industries.  Columbus 
was  founded  in  1812.  Pop.  (1870)  31,274  ;  (1880) 
61,647;  (1890)88,150    ;  (1900)125,560. 

Columbus  is  also  the  name  o"f  some  twenty 
other  places  in  the  United  States,  the  most  im- 
portant being :  (1)  Capital  of  Muscogee  county, 
Georgia,  on  the  Chattahoochee  River,  100  miles 
SSW.  of  Atlanta.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  cotton, 
and  extensive  manufactures  of  cotton,  woollen, 
and  iron  goods.  Pop.  (1880)  10,123  ;  (1900)  17,614, 
—(2)  Capital  of  Bartholomew  county,  Indiana,  41 
miles  S.  by  E.  of  Indianapolis.  Pop.  8739. --(3) 
Capital  of  Lowndes  county,  Mississippi,  on  the 
Tombigbee  River,  150  miles  NE.  of  Jackson. 
Pop.  6599.— (4)  Capital  of  Colorado  county, 
Texas,  on  the  Colorado  River,  95  miles  SSE.  of 
Austin  by  rail.  Pop.  2500. 
Colwjrn   Bay,  a  beautiful  wateiing-place   of 


Denbighshire,  6  miles  W.  of  Abergele.    Pop.  of 
district,  9000. 

Colyton,  a  Devon  market-town,  on  the  Coly  (a 
feeder  of  the  Axe),  4^  miles  SW.  of  Axrainster. 
Pop.  of  parish,  1950. 

Comacchio  (Co-mah'ki-o),  a  walled  cathedral 
city  of  Italy,  30  miles  ESB.  of  Ferrara,  on  an 
island  in  a  shallow  lagoon.    Pop.  7535. 

Comaya'gua,  a  city  of  Honduras,  Central 
America,  on  the  Rio  Humuya,  190  miles  E.  of 
Guatemala.  Founded  in  1540,  it  has  a  handsome 
cathedral.    Pop.  10,000. 

Combaoonum  (Kimbhakonam),  one  of  the  old- 
est and  most  sacred  cities  of  southern  India,  in 
the  centre  of  the  richest  part  of  the  Kaveri  delta, 
193  miles  SW.  of  Madras  by  rail,  with  Hindu 
temples,  a  government  college,  &c.  Population, 
above  60,000. 

Combe-Florey,  a  Somerset  pari.sh,  5  mile.s  NE. 
of  Wiveliscombe.    Sydney  Smith  was  rector. 

Combemartln,  a  Devon  coast- village,  4  miles  E. 
of  Ilfracombe.     Pop.  of  parish,  1507. 

Comber,  a  market-town  of  Down,  on  the  river 
Comber,  8  miles  SE.  of  Belfast.    Pop.  2051. 

Comines  (Comeen'),  a  town  on  the  borders  of 
Belgium  and  France,  15  m.  SW.  of  Courtrai  by 
rail,  divided  by  the  Lys  into  two  parts,  of  which 
that  on  the  left  (pop.  4381)  belongs  to  Belgium ; 
the  other,  on  the  right  (pop.  6435),  to  France. 

Comi'so,  a  town  of  Sicily,  37  miles  WSW.  of 
Syracuse.     Pop.  20,333. 

Commentrey,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Allier,  211  miles  S.  of  Paris  by  rail,  with  collieries 
and  ironworks.    Pop.  9316. 

Commondyke,  an  Ayrshire  collier  village,  3 
miles  NNE.  of  Cumnock.     Pop.  412. 

Come,  a  walled  city  of  Lombardy,  Northern 
Italy,  at  the  south-west  extremity  of  the  Lake  of 
Como,  30  miles  N.  of  Milan  by  rail.  It  lies  in  a 
valley,  surrounded  by  hills,  clad  with  luxuriant 
gardens,  olive  plantations,  and  orange  groves, 
with  here  and  there  an  old  ruin  cropping  out. 
Among  the  principal  buildings  of  Como  are  the 
cathedral  (1396-1732),  and  the  marble  13th- 
century  town-hall.  The  chief  articles  of  manu- 
facture are  silk,  satin,  gloves,  and  soap.  Pop. 
38,560,  Como,  the  ancient  Comum,  was  the 
birthplace  of  Csecilius  Statins,  the  two  Plinys, 
several  popes,  and  the  physicist  Volta. 

The  Lake  of  Como  (Ital.  Logo  di  Como,  or  II 
Larip,  anc.  Larius  Lacus),  a  lake  of  Northern 
Italy,  lying  at  the  foot  of  the  Bernine  Alps,  and 
formed  by  an  expansion  of  the  Adda,  which 
enters  it  at  its  north,  and  issues  at  its  south- 
eastern extremity.  Its  total  length  is  30  miles ; 
but  midway  the  promontory  of  Bellaggio  divides 
it  into  two  branches,  the  shorter  of  which  is 
called  the  Lago  di  Lecco.  The  greatest  breadth 
is  2^  miles.  It  is  663  feet  above  sea-level,  has  a 
mean  depth  of  870,  and  a  maximum  of  1352  feet. 
The  beauty  of  the  surrounding  scenery  and  the 
salubrity  of  the  climate  have  made  the  Lake  of 
Como  the  most  resorted  to  in  Italy,  its  shores 
being  everywhere  studded  with  noble  villas.  See 
Lund,  Como  and  the  Italian  Lakes  (1887). 

Comorln',  Capk  (Kvmdri),  the  most  southerly 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  of  India,  in  8°  4'  20" 
N.,  and  77°  35'  35"  E. 

Co'moro  Isles,  a  group  of  four  islands  belong- 
ing since  1886  to  France,  in  the  Mozambique 
Channel,  between  Africa  and  Madagascar.  Area, 
761  sq.  m. ;  pop.  63,000.  Of  volcanic  origin,  and 
mountainous,  attaining  8400  feet,  they  tire  four 


COMPIEGNE 


196 


CONGO 


!n  number— Great  Comoro  or  Angazlya,  Anjouan 
or  Johanna,  Mohilla,  and  Mayotta  ;  the  last  has 
been  French  since  1841.  In  all,  the  blood  of  the 
natives  is  partly  Arab,  partly  Malagasy. 

Compi^gne  (Com-pee-en'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Oise,  on  the  river  Oise,  a  little  below  its 
junction  with  the  Aisne,  52  miles  NNE.  of  Paris 
by  rail.  It  has  three  interesting  churches,  a 
Gothic  hotel-de-ville  with  a  fine  belfry,  and  a 
palace,  rebuilt  by  Louis  XV,,  and  splendidly  fitted 
up  by  Napoleon.  The  beautiful  Forest  of  Com- 
piegne,  30,000  acres  in  area,  was  a  favourite  hunt- 
ing-ground of  the  kings  of  France.  The  manu- 
factures include  canvas,  cordage ,  and  sugar.  Pop. 
(1872)  11,859 ;  (1901)  14,000.  It  was  at  the  siege 
of  Compiegne,  in  1430,  that  the  Maid  of  Orleans 
was  captured ;  and  here,  in  1810,  Napoleon  first 
met  Maria  Louisa  of  Austria. 

Compostella.    See  Santiago  de  Compostella. 

Compstone,  the  ruined  castle  of  the  soldier- 
poet,  Alexander  Montgomerie,  on  Tarf  Water, 
2J  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Kirkcudbright. 

Compton  Castle,  Devon,  4  miles  W.  of  Torquay, 
a  fine  old  fortified  house. 

Comrie,  a  pleasant,  sheltered  village  of  Perth- 
shire, on  the  Earn,  7  miles  W.  of  Ciiefi"  by  rail 
(1893),  often  disturbed  by  earthquakes,  notably 
in  1839  and  1876.     Pop.  1200. 

Oomstock.    See  Virginia  City. 

Cona,  an  Argyllshire  stream,  flowing  9J  miles 
eastward  to  Loch  Linnhe.    See  also  Glencoe. 

Oonacry,  or  Konakry,  a  town  on  the  small 
Tombo  island  (9°  50'  N.  lat.),  capital  of  the  French 
territory  called  Rivieres  du  Sud  on  the  west  coast 
of  Africa  ;  pop.  2000. 

Concameau  (ConFcdhr-no'),  a  fishing-village  of 
Brittany,  on  the  east  coast  of  Finistere,  15  miles 
by  rail  SE.  of  Quimper.     Pop.  5845. 

Ooncepcion,  (1)  a  province  of  Chili,  stretching 
from  the  Andes  to  the  coast  north  of  Arauco. 
Area,  3535  sq.  m.  ;  population,  215,000.— Concep- 
ciON,  tlie  capital,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Biobio,  is 
a  regular  and  handsome  town,  with  a  fine  cathe- 
dral. Its  port,  Talcahuano,  on  Concepcion  Bay, 
is  the  safest  and  best  harbour  in  all  Chili.  Pop. 
54,180.— (2)  Concepcion  del  Uruguay,  the  former 
capital  of  the  Argentine  province  of  Entre  Rios, 
on  the  Uruguay,  180  miles  SE.  of  Parana  by  the 
Entre  Rios  Railway.  Pop.  10,000.— (3)  Concep- 
cion, a  to^vn  of  Paraguay,  on  the  Paraguay  River, 
260  miles  above  Asuncion.  Pop.  2000  ;  or  15,000 
with  the  surrounding  districts. — (4)  The  name  of 
several  places  in  Bolivia,  the  largest  being  Con- 
cepcion dE  Apolobamba,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Caupolican,  formerly  a  Franciscan  mission.— 
(5)  Concepcion,  a  town  of  Mexico,  50  miles  W.  of 
Chihuahua,  in  the  upper  Yaqui  valley.— (6)  Con- 
cepcion DE  LA  Vega,  a  town  of  San  Domingo,  5 
miles  SE.  of  Santiago.    Pop.  9000. 

Concord,  (l)  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  23  miles 
by  rail  NW.  of  Boston.  As  early  as  1767  the 
people  of  Concord  opposed  the  British  govern- 
ment, and  in  the  revolutionary  skirmish  here  on 
the  19th  April  1775, '  the  embattled  farmers  stood 
and  fired  the  shot  heard  round  the  world.'  The 
place  was  the  home  of  Emerson,  Hawthorne,  and 
Thoreau,  and  the  Alcotts.  In  the  Old  Manse 
Emerson  was  born,  and  in  it  Hawthorne  wrote 
his  'Mosses  from  an  Old  Manse.'  Pop.  5727. 
See  Bartlett's  Concord  (1880).— (2)  Capital  of 
New  Hampshire,  U.S.,  on  the  Merrimac  River, 
73  miles  NNW.  of  Boston  by  rail.  It  has  a 
fine  granite  state-house,  celebrated  quarries  of 
white  granite,  and,  with  abundant  water-power, 


manufactures  of  cotton,  woollens,  leather,  &c. 
Population,  25,000. 

Concordia,  a  river-port  of  the  Argentine  state 
of  Entre  Rios,  on  the  Uruguay,  302  miles  N.  of 
Buenos  Ayres  by  river.     Pop.  12,000. 

Condamine,  a  headstream  of  the  Darling  (q.v.). 

Conde-sur-l'Escaut  (Con^day-silr-VEsco'),  a  for- 
tified town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Nord,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Haine  and  Scheldt,  7  miles 
NNE.  of  Valenciennes  by  rail.    Pop.  4586. 

Conde-sur-Noireau  (Con^day-siir-Nwahro'),  a 
French  town  in  the  dep.  of  Calvados,  23  miles 
SSW.  of  Caen.    Pop.  655L 

Condom  (Con^don^'),  a  town  in  the  dep.  of  Gers, 
on  a  height  above  the  confluence  of  the  Baise  and 
the  G61e,  20  miles  SW.  of  Agen  by  rail.    Pop.  6735. 

Conegliano  (Con-el-ydh'no),  a  picturesque  oown 
of  Italy,  31  m.  NE.  of  Venice  by  rail.     Pop.  4682. 

Coney  Island,  barely  separated  from  the  south- 
west angle  of  Long  Island,  at  the  entrance  to  New 
York  harbour,  is  a  narrow  strip  of  sand,  5  miles 
long,  by  i  mile  broad,  with  a  fine  beach.  It  is  a 
crowded  place  of  summer  resort,  with  huge  bath- 
ing pavilions,  a  tubular  iron  pier  (1000  feet),  a 
look-out  toAver  (300  feet),  and  the  Brooklyn  seaside 
home  for  poor  invalid  children. 

Congleton,  a  market-tovm  and  ancient  muni- 
cipal borough  in  the  east  of  Cheshire,  pictur- 
esquely situated  in  a  deep  valley  on  the  banks  of 
the  Dane,  an  affluent  of  the  Weaver,  26  miles  S. 
of  Manchester.  It  has  a  handsome  town-hall 
(1866),  a  market-house  (1882),  manufactures  of 
silk,  and  neighbouring  coal-mines.  Pop.  (1851) 
11,505;  (1901)  10,707. 

Congo,  the  great  equatorial  river  of  Central 
Africa,  in  respect  of  its  basin  the  second  largest 
river  of  the  world,  has  its  reservoir  in  Lake 
Bangweolo,  of  which  the  Chambezi  is  the  largest 
feeder,  and  into  which  also  flow  numerous 
streams  from  the  Lokinga  Mountains  on  the  south. 
From  Bangweolo  the  great  river  issues  under 
the  name  of  the  Luapula;  and  flowing  in  a 
northerly  direction,  it  expands  into  Lake  Moero, 
on  leaving  which  it  is  called,  as  far  as  Nyangwe, 
the  Lualaba.  From  Nyangwe  to  Stanley  Falls, 
Stanley  christened  it  the  Livingstone  ;  and  from 
Stanley  Falls  to  the  mouth  it  is  known  by  the 
name  of  the  Congo. 

Its  length  has  been  calculated  variously  at  a 
little  under  and  a  little  over  3000  miles ;  it  drains 
an  area  of  more  than  1,300,000  sq.  m, ;  and  it  dis- 
charges a  body  of  water  into  the  ocean  second 
only  to  the  Amazon.  Such  is  the  power  and 
force  of  this  mighty  stream  that  no  delta  exists 
at  its  mouth.  Vessels  take  in  fresh  water  at  its 
entrance  into  the  sea.  The  two  largest  tribu- 
taries of  the  Congo  are  the  Kassai  from  the 
south,  explored  (1885)  by  Wissmann ;  and  the 
Mobangi,  from  the  north,  explored  (1884-85)  by 
Grenfell,  and  afterwards  by  Vangele.  Other 
tributaries  are  the  Kwa  or  Kwango,  the  Juapa 
and  Bosira,  the  Ikelemba,  the  Lulongo,  and  the 
Lumami  rivers  on  the  south  or  left  bank ;  and 
the  Aruwimi,  the  Mbura,  the  Loika,  the  Ngala,  the 
Lokinga  Nkundji,  &c.,  on  the  north  or  right  bank. 
As  regards  commerce  and  navigation,  the  Congo 
may  be  divided  into  three  parts— Lower,  Middle, 
and  Upper.  The  lower  region  extends  from 
Banana  at  the  mouth  to  the  foot  of  the  first 
rapids,  110  miles,  navigable  by  ocean  steamers 
drawing  18  feet.  The  middle  or  cataract  region 
extends  from  Vivi  to  Stanley  Pool,  235  miles, 
navigable  for  70  miles  by  small  steamers  or  iron 
whaleboats ;  and  a  railway,  surveyed  in  1888, 


CONGO  FREE  STATE 


197 


CONNAUGHT 


from  Vivi  to  Leopoldville  (250  miles),  was  soon 
thereafter  begun,  keeping  mostly  at  a  distance  of 
about  30  miles  south  of  the  river.  The  mortality 
of  the  workers  employed  in  the  construction  of 
the  railway  was  very  high,  and  labourers  had  to 
be  imported  from  Dahomey  and  the  Gold  Coast 
regions.  Chinese  coolies  were  also  employed. 
The  lirst  25  miles  were  open  for  traffic  in  1S'J3, 
and  the  railway  from  Matadi  to  Leopoldville  was 
completed  by  1S98.  The  upper  region  of  the  river 
from  Stanley  Pool  to  Stanley  Falls,  1008  miles,  is 
navigable  for  steamers  with  a  draught  of  four  feet, 
besides  over  3000  miles  of  navigable  tributaries. 

The  river,  whose  mouth  was  discovered  in 
1484-85  by  Diego  Cam,  was  known  to  the  Portu- 
guese as  the  Zaire,  a  corruption  of  the  native 
words  Nzari,  Nyali,  or  Niadi,  meaning  '  river ; ' 
while  the  country  about  it  and  south  of  it  was 
known  as  Congo.  The  centre  of  Portuguese 
missions  was  San  Salvador.  In  1818  Captain 
Tuckey  was  sent  by  the  British  government,  and 
explored  118  miles  of  the  river.  In  1867-71 
Livingstone  discovered  the  Luapula  and  Lualaba, 
which  he  supposed  to  be  the  head- waters  of  the 
Nile ;  but  which  in  1876-77  Stanley  proved,  by 
following  it  down,  to  be  really  the  Congo. 

Congo  Free  State,  now  called  Independent 
State  of  the  Congo,  developed  out  of  the 
Association  Internationale  formed  by  Leopold  II., 
king  of  the  Belgians,  was  recognised  as  a  state 
by  the  European  Powers  in  conference  at  Berlin 
in  1885.  At  first  under  the  sovereignty  of 
Leopold  as  an  individual,  it  was  by  him  made 
over,  with  all  his  sovereign  rights,  to  Belgium  in 
1890,  and  Belgium  reserved  the  right  of  annexing 
it  at  the  end  of  ten  years.  The  state  comprises 
a  small  strip  of  territory  north  of  the  Congo 
River,  from  its  mouth  to  Manyanga,  thence  it  is 
bounded  N.  by  the  Congo  River  (with  French 
Congo  to  the  northwards)  to  the  Mobangi,  thence 
to  the  NB.  watershed  of  the  Congo  basin,  east- 
wards to  30°  B.  long.,  and  southwards  to  near 
Lake  Bangweolo,  westwards  to  the  Kassai  River 
sources,  and  thence  by  a  zigzag  to  the  Kwango, 
and  then  to  the  Congo  at  Nokki  (the  south  bank 
of  the  river  from  that  point  being  Portuguese). 
The  state  borders  accordingly  on  French  Congo, 
several  minor  native  states,  the  Equatorial  pro- 
vince, the  British  East  Africa  Company's  sphere 
and  Uganda,  German  East  Africa,  the  British 
sphere  on  the  S.  (Zambesia),  and  Portuguese 
territory  on  the  W.  and  SW.  The  west  shore  of 
Lake  Tanganyika  belongs  to  the  Congo  State. 

The  Congo  Free  State  is  governed  by  an  admin- 
istrative bureau  at  Brussels,  consisting  of  three 
secretariats — Control,  Finance,  and  Foreign 
Affairs,  under  the  direct  supervision  of  His 
Majesty  the  King  of  the  Belgians ;  also  by  an 
administrator  on  the  Congo  who  has  his  head- 
quarters at  Boma,  CO  miles  from  the  sea,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river.  Its  present  income  is 
derived  from  an  endowment  of  £40,000  a  year 
bestowed  upon  it  by  the  King  of  the  Belgians, 
a  loan  from  Belgium,  from  taxes,  dues,  and  the 
sale  and  letting  of  public  lands.  The  state,  for- 
merly allowing  free  imports,  was  allowed  in  1890 
to  impose  duties.  The  annual  revenue  is  about 
28,000,000  francs.  The  inhabitants  of  the  Congo 
basin  belong  to  what  has  been  termed  the  Bantu 
race.  They  are  a  happy,  inoffensive  people,  not 
so  dark  as  the  Fan  or  Ethiopian.  Split  up  into 
numberless  tribal  communities,  they  can  oft'er 
but  slight  resistance  to  the  advance  of  civilisa- 
tion ;  and  as  they  are  born  traders,  they  take 
very  readily  to  commerce.  The  dialects  through- 
out the  country  are  very  numerous,  but  many  of 


them  would  appear  to  have  a  common  origin. 
Pop.  from  twenty  to  thirty  millions.  The 
climate  is  purely  tropical,  the  average  tempera- 
ture ranging  between  78°  and  82°.  Malarial 
fevers,  especially  on  the  coast,  are  not  infrequent. 
The  interior  is  healthier  than  the  coast.  The 
principal  products  are  ivory,  palm-oil,  palm- 
kernels,  india-rubber,  various  gums,  ground-nuts, 
camwood,  beeswax,  orchilla,  &c.  Wild  coffee, 
tobacco,  and  hill  rice  are  cultivated  on  the  upper 
rivei*,  also  various  kinds  of  maize  and  sorghum. 
The  annual  value  of  the  special  exports  (prin- 
cipally ivory,  palm-oil  and  kernels,  coffee  and 
caoutchouc)  from  the  Congo  is  about  50,000,000 
francs  (general  exports,  57,000,000  francs),  and  of 
the  general  imports  21,000,000  francs.  As  Bel- 
gium had  not  exercised  the  right  of  annexing  it, 
the  Free  State  was  in  1905  still  nominally  an 
independent  state  managed  like  a  colony  ;  and 
the  administration  was  charged  with  allowing 
systematic  cruelty  in  enforcing  labour  and  ex- 
torting produce  and  taxes. 

See  works  on  the  Congo  State  and  River  by 
Stanley  (1885),  Bentley,  Ward,  and  Johnston 
(1895),  and,  impeaching  the  administration  for 
cruelty.  Fox  Bourne  (1903)  and  Guy  Burrows 
(1903);  French  books  by  Alexis,  Coquilhat, 
Dupont,  Jeannent,  Wauters,  AUart,  and  Bour- 
guignon  (1898);  the  German  work  by  Pechuel- 
Loesche;  Silva  White's  Development  of  Africa 
(1890),  Scott  Keltic's  Partition  of  Africa  (1895), 
and  Sir  H.  Johnston's  Colonization  of  Africa 
(1899).    For  French  Congo,  see  Gaboon. 

Con!  (Ko'nee),  or  Cuneo,  capital  of  an  Italian 
province,  48  miles  SW.  of  Turin  by  rail.  It  has 
a  fine  cathedral.     Pop.  12,413. 

Conisborougli  Castle,  a  Norman-Saxon  round 
tower  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  5  miles 
WSW.  of  Doncaster.  It  is  Athelstan's  strong- 
hold in  Ivanhoe. 

Conishead  Priory,  Lancashire,  2  miles  SSB. 
of  Ulverstone,  a  hydropathic  on  the  site  of  a 
12th-century  monastery. 

Coniston  Lake,  in  the  English  Lake  District, 
lies  in  North  Lancashire,  at  the  east  foot  of  the 
Coniston  Fells,  9  miles  W.  of  Bowness  on  Winder- 
mere. It  is  5  miles  long,  J  mUe  broad,  147  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  260  feet  deep.  On  the  east 
shore  stand  Ruskin's  home,  Brantwood,  and  Tent 
House,  once  Tennyson's  residence.  The  Old 
Man  of  Coniston,  to  the  NW.,  is  2633  feet  high. 

Conjeveram  (KdncMvaram),  the  Benares  of 
southern  India,  45  miles  SW.  of  Madras  by  rail, 
with  three  large  Hindu  temples,  seven  old  tanks, 
and  an  annual  fair.  It  was  long  a  Buddhist 
centre.  The  Free  Church  of  Scotland  has  a 
mission  here.    Pop.  48,000.     "^ 

Conn,  Lough,  a  picturesque  Irish  lake  of 
County  Mayo,  together  with  Lough  Cullin  (from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  narrow  neck  of  land), 
13  miles  long,  and  1  to  8  broad. 

Connah's  Quay,  a  seaport  on  the  Dee  estuary, 
4  miles  SB.  of  Flint. 

Connaught,  the  most  westerly  and  the  smallest 
of  the  four  provinces  of  Ireland.  It  contains  the 
counties  of  Galway,  Leitrim,  Mayo,  Roscommon, 
and  Sligo.  Greatest  length  from  north  to  south, 
105  miles ;  greatest  breadth,  not  including  Achil 
Island,'92  miles.  Area,  6863  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1841) 
1,420,705 ;  (1901)  646,932.  The  west  coast  has 
many  fine  bays  and  harbours,  and  the  surface, 
especially  in  the  western  half,  is  mountainous 
and  rugged,  forming  grand  and  picturesque 
scenery.    The  people  are  almost  purely  Celtic. 


CONNECTICUT 


198 


CONSTANTINOPLE 


Connecticut  (kon-netf-e-cut),  one  of  the  six 
New  England  states  of  the  American  Union,  is 
bounded  by  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  Long 
Island  Sound,  and  the  state  of  New  York.  The 
smallest  in  area  of  all  the  states  except  Rhode 
Island  and  Delaware,  with  a  surface  of  4990  sq.  ni. 
(two-thirds  that  of  Wales),  it  is  one  of  the  most 
densely  peopled  states  of  the  Union.  The  surface 
is  rocky  and  uneven,  and  the  low  Green  and 
Taconic  Mountains  of  the  Appalachian  system 
occupy  part  of  the  west.  Much  of  the  soil  is  not 
easily  cultivated,  and  rather  unfei'tile ;  but  part 
of  the  valley  of  the  Connecticut  River  is  very 
productive,  and  grows  tobacco.  The  Connecti- 
cut River,  rising  in  New  Hampshire,  and  forming 
the  boundary  with  Vermont,  flows  south  through 
Massachusetts  and  Connecticut  to  Long  Island 
Sound,  after  a  course  of  450  miles,  navigable  for 
small  vessels  to  Hartford.  In  the  east  of  the 
state  is  the  Thames,  and  in  the  west  the  Housa- 
tonic.  The  chief  value  of  the  very  numerous 
streams  is  as  a  source  of  water-power  for  manu- 
factories. The  brown  hematites  of  the  north- 
west yield  excellent  iron;  there  are  quarries  of 
sandstone,  granites,  trap,  limestone,  and  gneis- 
soid  building-stones,  as  well  as  of  serpentine  and 
verde-antique  ;  and  lead,  copper,  and  cobalt  have 
been  mined.  Mineral- waters  occur.  The  climate 
is  very  changeable,  and  is  rather  severe  in  winter, 
but  generally  healthful.  Some  good  harbours 
favour  the  coastwise  trade,  but  the  whale 
and  seal  fisheries  have  declined.  Oyster-fishing 
and  other  fisheries  are  engaged  in.  The  state 
stands  in  the  first  rank  as  respects  the  amount 
and  aggregate  value  of  manufactured  goods ; 
clocks,  hardware,  india-rubber  goods,  firearms, 
silks  and  other  textiles,  small-wares  in  great 
variety,  and  subscription  books  are  produced  on 
a  large  scale.  In  very  few  parts  of  the  world 
has  more  been  done  for  popular  education  than 
in  this  state.  Yale  University  at  New  Haven 
comprises  collegiate  and  post-graduate  courses, 
besides  medical,  theological,  scientific,  law,  and 
art  schools.  Trinity  College  is  at  Hartford,  and 
the  Wesleyan  University  at  Middletown,  and 
there  are  several  divinity  schools.  Among  the 
principal  cities  and  towns  are  Hartford,  the 
capital  (pop.  80,000),  New  Haven  (110.000),  Bridge- 
port, Waterbury,  Meriden,  New  Britain,  Norwalk, 
Danbury,  Norwich,  Stamford,  and  New  London. 

The  old  stock  of  inhabitants  were  of  English 
Puritan  origin,  but  of  later  years  there  has  been 
a  large  immigration  of  Irish,  German,  English, 
and  others.  The  originally  Puritan  colony  of 
Connecticut  may  be  said  to  date  from  the  seces- 
sion in  1634  of  the  more  democratic  element  from 
Massachusetts.  Its  constitution  of  1639  was  '  the 
first  written  democratic  constitution  on  record.' 
The  royal  charter  of  1662,  essentially  a  confirma- 
tion of  the  older  one,  was  superseded  by  the 
present  state  constitution  only  in  1818.  Promi- 
nent events  in  Connecticut  history  have  been  the 
bloody  war  with  the  Pequot  Indians,  1637 ;  the 
governorship  of  Sir  Edmund  Andros,  during  a 
part  of  which  (1687-88)  the  colonial  charter  was 
in  abeyance ;  and  the  abolition  of  slavery  in 
1818.  Pop.  (1870)  537,454 ;  (1880)  622,700  ;  (1900) 
908,420.    See  Johnston's  Connectimt  (1887). 

Connel  Ferry,  Argyllshire,  at  the  mouth  of 
Iioch  Etive,  6  miles  NE.  of  Oban. 

Connemara  (Con-ne-mah'ra),  a  wild  district 
forming  the  westernmost  division  of  Galway. 

Connor,  an  Antrim  village,  5  miles  S.  of  Bally- 
mena.  Here  Edward  Bruce  defeated  the  English 
(1315).    There  is  a  diocese  of  Connor. 


Consett,  a  Durham  town,  on  the  Derwent,  8j 
miles  N.  of  "Wolsingham,  with  ironworks  and 
coal-pits.     Pop.  10,000. 

Constance,  or  Kostnitz,  a  city  of  Baden,  once 
a  free  imperial  city,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of 
the  Rhine,  at  its  exit  from  Lake  Constance,  91 
miles  E.  of  Basel  by  rail.  One  of  the  most 
ancient  towns  of  Germany,  Constance  owed  its 
prosperity  to  its  linen  industry,  already  famous 
in  the  12th  century.  Its  manufactures  also  in- 
clude cotton,  jute,  and  waterproof  fabrics,  canvas, 
carpets,  chemicals,  bell-founding,  &c.  It  has  a 
cathedral  (dating  partly  from  the  11th  century), 
an  old  Dominican  convent  (now  an  hotel),  and 
the  present  market-hall,  in  which  three  places 
the  sessions  of  the  great  Church  Council  of 
Constance  (1414-18)  v/ere  held.    Pop.  26,235. 

Lake  Constance  (German  Bodensee  or  Bod- 
mansee;  Roman  Lacus  Brigantinus)  lies  between 
Switzerland  and  Germany,  on  the  north  side  of 
the  Swiss  Alps,  and  forms  a  meeting-point  of  the 
five  territories— Baden,  Wiirtemberg,  Bavaria, 
Vorarlberg  (Austria),  and  Switzerland.  Lying 
1306  feet  above  the  sea,  and  traversed  by  the 
Rhine  from  east  to  west,  it  has  a  length  of  44 
miles,  an  extreme  breadth  of  9  miles,  an  area  of 
208  sq.  m.,  and  a  depth  of  490  feet  (maximum 
906).  Towns  on  its  shores  are  Constance,  Bregenz, 
Lindau,  and  Friedrichshafen. 

Constantla,  a  district  of  Cape  Colony,  in  South 
Africa,  lying  on  the  eastern  and  north-eastern 
slopes  of  Table  Mountain  range,  and  distant  from 
Capetown  7  miles  by  rail.  It  produces  red  and 
white  wines  of  delicious  aroma. 

Constantina,  a  town  of  Spain,  in  Andalusia, 
40  miles  NNB.  of  Seville,  with  silver-mines. 
Pop.  11,503. 

Constantino,  capital  of  the  easternmost  pro- 
vince of  Algeria,  is  very  picturesquely  situated 
on  a  nearly  isolated  chalk  rock,  830  feet  high, 
40  miles  SW.  of  its  port  Philippeville  by  raiL 
It  is  surrounded  by  walls,  and  consists  of  French 
and  Arab  quarters.  The  ancient  capital  of 
Numidia,  called  Carta  by  the  Carthaginians,  Cirta 
by  the  Romans,  it  was  destroyed  about  311  a.d., 
but  was  soon  rebuilt  by  Constantino  the  Great, 
from  whom  it  derives  its  present  name.  It 
manufactures  woollen  cloths,  saddlery,  leather 
goods,  and  carpets,  and  is  a  great  trade  centre. 
Pop.  53,000,  of  whom  20,000  are  French  and  3500 
Jews. 

Constantinople,  the  capital  of  the  Ottoman 
empire,  in  49°  N.  lat,  28°  59'  E.  long.,  was 
founded  in  330  a.d.  by  Constantine  the  Great, 
from  whom  it  derives  its  name,  on  a  site  partly 
occupied  by  the  ancient  Greek  colony  (658  b.c.) 
of  Byzantium.  The  Turks  call  it  Istambol  or 
Stambol,  probably  a  mere  corruption  of  Turkish 
mispronunciation  of  Constantinopolis.  The  orig- 
inal Byzantium  was  built  on  the  apex  of  the 
triangular  peninsula  which  juts  out  towards  Asia 
on  the  southern  side  of  the  Golden  Horn,  where 
the  present  Eski  Serai  or  '  Old  Seraglio '  stands, 
and  its  commanding  position  made  it  an  object 
of  strife  among  the  nations — Persians,  Gauls,  and 
Greeks.  In  the  4th  century  b.c,  the  Athenians 
repelled  the  siege  of  Philip  of  Macedon,  aided, 
according  to  the  legend,  by  the  supernatural 
appeai'ance  of  a  crescent  in  the  sky,  which  re- 
vealed the  presence  of  the  invaders,  and  was  forth- 
with adopted  as  the  badge  or  crest  of  the  city, 
as  it  is  to  this  day. 

Constantinople  consists  of -two  distinct  parts 
—Stambol  or  Constantinople  proper,  and  Chris- 
tian   Constantinople   (Pera,    Galata,  Top-haua). 


(JONS-TANTINOPLE 


199 


COOCH  SBHAJ^ 


iTie  two  are  separated  by  the  Golden  Horn, 
a  creek  about  five  miles  long  and  half  a  mile 
wide  at  the  entrance,  a  safe  and  spacious  har- 
bour, and  so  deep  that  the  largest  ironclads 
of  the  Turkish  navy  can  lie  quite  close  to  the 
shore.  Stambol  or  Turkish  Constantinople  lies 
on  the  southern  side  of  the  Golden  Horn,  and 
Christian  Constantinople  lies  on  the  north  side  : 
the  two  are  connected  by  a  couple  of  rude  but 
convenient  bridges.  The  old  walls,  in  courses 
of  stone  and  red  brick,  and  14  miles  in  circuit, 
show  that  the  modern  Turkish  city  occupies 
much  the  same  area  as  the  capital  of  the  first 
Christian  emperor.  Within  these  walls  the  city 
rises,  like  Rome,  upon  seven  low  hills,  crowned 
by  noble  mosques,  with  a  wilderness  of  pictur- 
esque, tumble-down,  filthy,  wooden  houses  and 
bazaars  climbing  up  their  sides.  In  Stambol  are 
nearly  all  the  monuments  and  antiquities  worth 
seeing  in  Constantinople.  First  is  Agia  Sophia, 
Saint  Sophia,  the  church  dedicated  by  Constan- 
tino to  'Eternal  Wisdom,'  rebuilt  with  added 
splendour  by  Theodosius  (415)  and  by  Justinian 
(538-568),  and  now  converted  into  a  mosque. 
Outside  it  is  not  worth  a  second  glance ;  but 
within,  the  airy  grace  of  its  stupendous  dome, 
and  the  beauty  of  its  marbles  and  mosaics,  de- 
spite all  the  ravages  of  Moslem  and  tourists' 
desecrations,  fascinate  and  amaze  the  vision. 
Next,  but  not  less  beautiful,  is  the  Suleymaniya, 
the  mosque  which  the  Great  Suleyman  erected 
in  1550-5.  Scarcely  less  stately  is  the  mosque 
of  Sultan  Ahmed  I.  in  the  Hippodrome,  distin- 
guished without  by  its  six  minarets  (instead  of 
the  usual  four).  The  mosque  of  the  conqueror 
Mohammed  II.  is  also  notable.  There  are  over 
two  hundred  other  mosques  in  Constantinople, 
and  an  even  larger  number  of  chapels,  besides 
hundreds  of  medreses  or  mosque  colleges.  The 
Fanar,  or  Greek  quarter  of  Stambol,  recalls  the 
memory  of  famous  Fanariote  statesmen  in  the 
Turkish  service.  The  Hippodrome  (now  called 
At-Meydan,  or  '  Horse  Manege '),  originally  a 
circus  surrounded  by  marble  seats,  long  since 
removed,  still  shows  remains  of  antiquity,  such 
as  the  famous  column  of  the  Tliree  Serpents 
which  once  stood  at  the  Temple  of  Delphi,  and 
an  obelisk  brought  from  Heliopolis  in  Egypt  in 
the  reign  of  Theodosius  ;  whilst  hard  by  are  the 
Burnt  Column,  the  column  of  Theodosius,  and 
the  Seraskier's  Tower.  Among  the  remains  of 
Mohammedan  splendour  the  Old  Seraglio  (Eski 
Serai)  is  the  most  important,  though  it  has  not 
been  a  royal  residence  since  the  days  of  Mahmiid 
II.  Its  first  gate,  Bab-i-Humayun  or  'Sublime 
Porte,'  has  given  its  name  to  the  Turkish  govern- 
ment in  its  foreign  relations. 

Christian  Constantinople,  on  the  north  side  of 
the  Golden  Horn,  comprises  Galata,  Pera,  and 
Top-hana.  Galata  is  pre-eminently  the  merchant 
quarter,  founded  by  a  colony  of  Genoese  mer- 
chants in  1216.  The  Tower  of  Galata,  a  Genoese 
erection,  serves  the  same  purpose  as  the  Seras- 
kier's Tower  on  the  opposite  side  in  giving  alarms 
of  fires.  A  tunnelled  railway  drags  passengers 
up  the  steep  ascent  to  Pera.  Pera  is  the  aristo- 
cratic quarter;  here  are  all  the  embassies  and 
consulates.  The  steep  and  badly  paved  Grande 
Rue  is  lined  with  fair  if  expensive  shops,  and 
boasts  a  rude  opera-house,  many  cafes  and  res- 
taurants, besides  most  of  the  principal  hotels, 
and  probably  the  worst  morals  in  Europe.  Turks 
preponderate  at  Top-hana,  which  is  so  named 
from  its  cannon-foundry  ;  the  magnificent  palace 
of  Dolmabagche  is  on  the  brink  of  the  Bosphorus. 
Other  suburbs  are  Kasim  Pasha,  on  the  Golden 


Horn,  the  seat  of  the  admiralty  ;  Haskoi,  and  the 
picturesque  village  of  EyyOb.  Along  the  Euro- 
pean  shore  of  the  Bosphorus  are  the  summer- 
resorts  of  Therapia  and  Biyukdere.  The  Asiatic 
shore  is  also  lined  with  settlements  from  Scutari 
(q.v.)  to  Candili.  The  new  palace  of  Yildiz 
Koshki  stands  at  the  top  of  the  hill  of  Beshik- 
tasli,  beyond  Pera.  The  population  of  Coiistan- 
tinople  is  estimated  at  about  1,250,000,  of  whom 
half  are  Mohammedans.  The  trade,  chiefly  in 
the  hands  of  Europeans,  is  increasing,  but  much 
below  what  it  might  be  if  properly  developed. 
The  local  manufactures  are  insignificant.  The 
burden  of  vessels  entering  and  clearing  the  port 
exceeds  15,000,000  tons.  The  first  through  ex- 
press train  from  Paris  (vid  Belgrade  and  Adrian- 
ople)  reached  Stambol  in  1888.— In  330  a.d.,  im- 
pressed by  its  magnificent  site,  Constantine  the 
Great  abandoned  the  old  capital  of  the  Roman 
Empire  on  the  Tiber,  and  founded  in  the  place  of 
Byzantium  a  new  metropolis  on  the  Bosphorus, 
which  he  called  Constantinople.  Its  walls  and 
public  buildings  were  enlarged  and  beautified  by 
Justinian  in  527-565.  Since  then  it  has  undergone 
many  sieges  by  Sassanians,  Persians,  Avars,  Sara- 
cens (six  times),  Russians  (in  9th  to  11th  cen- 
tury), Latins,  and  Turks ;  and  of  its  twenty-six 
sieges  and  eight  captures,  that  of  the  Latins 
under  Baldwin  and  Dandolo  in  1204  was  by  far 
the  most  disastrous,  barbarous,  and  spoliating. 
In  comparison,  the  Turkish  sieges  were  humane 
and  chivalrous :  the  first  took  place  in  1356 ; 
Murftd  II.  made  the  attempt  again  in  1422  ;  and 
Mohanuned  II.  carried  the  city  in  1453.  The 
great  cliurch  Councils  of  Constantinople  were 
hold  in  381  and  553  a.d. 

See  books  by  De  Amicis  (trans.  1878),  Mordt- 
mann,  P.  Marion  Crawford  (1895),  Grosvenor 
(1895),  and  W.  H.  Hutton  (1900);  and  on  its 
past  history  by  Brodribb  and  Besant  (1878),  Van 
Millingen  (1899),  and  Pears  (1903). 

Oonstanza.    See  Kustendji. 

Contrex^ville,  a  small  place  in  the  centre  of 
the  Vosges  department,  with  alkaline  mineral 
waters.     Pop.  850. 

Oonversano  (Kon-ver-sdh'no),  a  cathedral  city 
of  South  Italy,  18  miles  SE.  of  Bari.    Pop.  11,006. 

Conway,  a  river  of  North  Wales,  rises  in  a 
mountain-lake  where  Merioneth,  Denbigh,  and 
Carnarvon  meet,  and  runs  30  miles  northward 
past  Conway  to  Beaumaris  Bay. 

CJonway,  or  Aberconway,  a  picturesque  little 
seaport  of  North  Wales,  in  Carnarvonshire,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  river  Conway  at  its  estuary, 
45^  miles  WNW.  of  Chester  by  rail.  The  river  is 
crossed  by  a  fine  tubular  bridge  (412  feet  long), 
constructed  by  Stephenson  in  1848,  as  well  as  by 
Telford's  suspension  bridge  (1826).  The  town  is 
triangular  in  form,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  high 
wall  12  feet  thick  and  1  mile  in  circumference, 
pierced  by  four  Moorish-looking  gates,  and 
crowned  by  twenty-one  round  towers.  In  its 
south-eastern  corner,  rising  proudly  from  a  rock 
above  the  river,  is  the  ruined  castle,  built  soon 
after  the  Conquest  by  Hugh,  Earl  of  Chester, 
and  rebuilt  in  1284  by  Edward  I.,  to  check  the 
Welsh.  Its  walls  are  12  to  15  feet  thick,  with 
eight  vast  towers,  four  of  which  are  each  siir- 
mounted  by  a  slender  turret.  The  Plas  Mawr 
('  great  mansion ')  is  a  noble  timber  house  (1585), 
without  and  within  profusely  covered  with  orna- 
ment. Conway  (a  chartered  borough  since  1876) 
is  one  of  the  six  Carnarvon  boroughs.    Pop.  4800. 

Coocli  Behar.    See  Behar. 


COOK 


200 


COQUJSf 


Cook,  Mount,  or  Aorangi,  one  of  the  Southern 
Alps,  on  the  western  side  of  the  South  Island  of 
New  Zealand.  It  is  12,349  feet  high,  and  is 
covered  with  peri)etual  snow. 

Cook  Islands,  or  Hervey  Archipelago,  a 
cluster  lying  midway  between  the  Society  and 
Navigator  groups,  are  near  20'  S.  lat.,  and  158° 
W.  long.,  some  being  volcanic,  some  coralline. 
The  principal  are  Ilaratonga,  Mangaia,  Aitutaki, 
and  Atiou.  The  natives  are  about  6000  in  all. 
Tlie  islands  were  made  a  British  protectorate  in 
1888,  and  annexed  to  New  Zealand  in  1901. 

Cook's  Garth,  Captain  Cook's  birthplace,  in 
the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  7  miles  W.  of 
Guisborough. 

Cookstown,  a  town  of  County  Tyrone,  53  miles 
W.  of  Belfast  by  rail,  with  manufactures  of  linen 
and  bleach-works.    Pop.  S541. 

Cook  Strait,  discovered  by  Captain  Cook  in 
1709,  separates  the  North  and  South  Islands  of 
New  Zealand,  and  is  20  to  80  miles  wide. 

Cooktown,  a  town  in  the  north  of  Queensland, 
1050  miles  NNW.  of  Brisbane,  already  one  of  the 
chief  ports  of  the  colony,  though  only  founded 
in  1873.  It  is  built  along  Ij  mile  of  the  southern 
bank  of  the  Endeavour  liiver,  and  is  almost  en- 
vironed by  hills.  There  are  already  handsome 
public  buildings,  and  a  monument  (1889)  to 
Captain  Cook,  who  beached  his  ship  here  in  1770. 
Near  there  are  gold-diggings  and  tin-mines,  with 
pearl  and  trepang  fisheries.     Pop.  2480. 

Coolgardie,  since  1893  a  great  gold-mining 
centre  in  Western  Australia,  350  miles  ENE.  of 
Perth  by  rail.    Pop.  in  1905,  5000. 

Coolins.    See  Cuchullins. 

Coomassie,  the  capital  of  Ashanti,  Western 
Africa,  120  miles  NNW.  of  Cape  Coast  Castle. 
It  occupies  the  side  of  a  rocky  hill,  and  is  about 
four  miles  in  circuit.  The  king's  palace  was 
burned  by  Wolseley  in  1874.     Pop.  20,000. 

Coonoor  (Kuniir),  a  pass  in  the  Neilgherry 
Hills,  half-way  between  Coimbatore  and  Ootaca- 
mund,  with  a  hill  sanatorium. 

Cooper's  Hill,  a  ridge  on  the  borders  of  Berks 
and  Surrey,  connnanding  a  beautiful  view  of  the 
Thames  vallej^,  and  the  scene  of  a  famous  poem 
by  Denliam.  Cooper's  Hill  College  (1870),  train- 
ing engineers  for  the  Indian  Works  Department, 
with  its  forestry  school  (1885),  was  closed  in  1906. 

Coorg  (a  corruption  of  Kodagu,  'steep  moun- 
tain '),  a  province  under  the  government  of  India, 
lying  below  the  Western  Ghats  and  Mysore.  Area, 
1583  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1871)  168,312  ;  (1901)  180,600, 
speaking  a  Dravidian  language  akin  to  Canarese. 
Great  part  of  its  area  is  3000  feet  above  the  sea. 

Cootehill,  a  town  in  County  Cavan,  Ireland,  88 
miles  NW.  of  Dublin.    Pop.  1503. 

Copais,  or  TopoLiAS,  a  marshy  lake  of  Boeotia, 
NW.  of  Thebes,  was  almost  all  successfully 
drained  in  1876-86. 

Copan,  an  Indian  village  in  the  south-western 
corner  of  the  Central  American  state  of  Honduras, 
in  a  mountainous  region,  the  site  of  a  ruined  city 
of  great  magnificence. 

Copeland  Forest,  a  Cumberland  moorland,  2927 
feet  high,  between  Ennerdale  and  Wast  Waters. 

Copeland  Islands,  belonging  to  Bangor  parish, 
County  Down. 

Copenhagen  (Dan.  KjobenMvn,  'Merchants' 
Haven '),  the  capital  of  Denmark,  is  situated  on 
the  low-lying  eastern  shore  of  the  island  of  Zea- 
land, in  the  Sound,  which  is  here  about  12  miles  | 


broad.  The  channel  fonns  a  fine  and  capacious 
harbour,  which  is  bridged  over  so  as  to  connect 
the  isolated  suburb  of  Christianshavn  and  the 
main  part  of  the  city  at  two  points.  Pop.  (1835) 
120,000 ;  (1880)  235,254 ;  now  390,000,  or,  with 
suburbs,  600,000.  Copenhagen  is  still  defended 
by  the  old  citadel  of  Frederikshavn  and  by  forta 
on  the  seaward  side ;  the  old  fortifications, 
removed  since  1863,  have  been  succeeded  by 
exterior  works.  Amongst  its  few  buildings  of 
historical  interest  or  intrinsic  beauty,  the  cathe- 
dral, rebuilt  after  the  bombardment  of  1807, 
pos.sesses  statues  of  Christ  and  the  Apostles, 
and  a  baptismal  font,  designed  and  in  part 
executed  by  Thorwaldsen.  Trinitatiskirke  is 
remarkable  for  its  round  tower,  which  is 
ascended  by  a  spiral  incline  instead  of  steps ; 
and  an  English  church,  built  at  a  cost  of 
£10,000,  was  con.secrated  in  1887.  The  royal 
palace,  called  Christiansborg,  was  rebuilt  be- 
tween 1794  and  1828,  but  sufl'ered  greatly  from 
fire  in  1884.  In  the  castle  of  Rosenborg  (1610-24) 
are  kept  the  regalia ;  the  palace  of  Charlotten- 
borg  (1624)  is  now  used  as  an  academy  of  arts. 
The  university  was  founded  by  Christian  I.  in 
1479,  has  1300  students,  and  a  library  of  350,000 
volumes ;  the  royal  library  contains  600,000. 
Copenhagen  is  the  centre,  not  only  of  Danish, 
but  of  northern  literature  and  art,  and  is  the  seat 
of  the  unrivalled  Museum  of  Northern  Antiquities, 
and  the  Thorwaldsen  Museum  (1846).  The  ex- 
ports include  grain,  rape-seed,  butter,  cheese,  beef, 
cattle,  wool,  &c. ;  and  porcelain,  pianos,  clocks, 
watches,  mathematical  instruments,  chemicals, 
sugar,  beer,  and  tobacco  are  manufactured.  To 
counterbalance  the  prejudicial  efl"ect  of  the  Baltic 
Ship  Canal  (see  Baltic  Sea)  on  the  commerce  of 
Copenhagen,  the  Danes  established  here  in  1890- 
94  a  great  free  i)ort,  fenced  off'  from  Danish  customs 
territory,  and  designed  to  be  an  entrepot  between 
Baltic  lands  and  the  outer  world. 

In  1254  the  village  of  Copenhagen  obtained  the 
privileges  of  a  town,  and  in  1443  King  Christopher 
made  it  the  capital  of  the  kingdom.  It  was 
several  times  attacked  by  the  Hanseatic  League  ; 
was  besieged  by  the  Swedes  in  the  17th  century  ; 
was  bombarded  by  the  English,  Dutch,  and 
Swedes  in  1700;  suffered  grievously  by  fires  in 
1728,  1794,  and  1795 ;  witnessed  a  great  sea-fight 
in  its  roads  on  2d  April  1801,  when  the  English, 
under  Sir  Hyde  Parker  and  Nelson,  destroyed 
the  Danish  fleet;  and  (to  prevent  the  Danish 
fleet  from  falling  into  the  power  of  Napoleon) 
was  bombarded  by  the  English  from  the  2d  to 
the  5th  of  September  1807,  when  hundreds  of 
persons  lost  their  lives. 

Copiapo  (Co-pe-a-po'),  capital  of  the  Chilian  dep. 
of  Atacama,  on  the  Copiapo  River,  30  miles  from 
its  mouth  ;  pop.  10,374. 

Copinshay,  a  small  Orkney  island,  2J  miles 
from  the  SE.  point  of  Mainland.     Pop.  9. 

Coppermine  River,  so  named,  like  the  Copper 
Mountains  to  the  west  of  it,  from  the  copper  of 
the  vicinity,  runs  250  miles  through  the  North- 
west Territory  of  Canada  to  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
about  68"  N.  lat.,  and  116°  W.  long.  Hearne  dis- 
covered it  in  1771. 

Ooppet  (Coppai/),  a  Swiss  village,  8  m.  N.  by  E. 
of  Geneva  by  rail,  with  a  chateau,  where  Necker 
and  his  daughter,  Mme.  de  Stael,  are  buried, 
and  where  the  latter  spent  much  of  her  life. 

Coquet,  a  beautiful  stream  of  Northumberland, 
flowing  40  miles  to  the  sea  below  Warkworth. 
Coquet  Island  is  1  mile  E.  by  S.  of  its  mouth. 


eOQtJlMBO 


m 


COREA 


Coquimbo,  or  La  Serena,  capital  of  a  province 
of  Chili,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river  Coquimbo, 
is  a  handsome  town,  with  a  cathedral.  Pop. 
16,000.  The  port  of  Coquimbo  is  on  a  bay  6 
miles  SW.,  and  has  a  pop.  of  7000.— Area  of 
province,  12,855  sq.  m.  ;  pop^  200,000. 

Coral  Sea  is  that  section  of  the  Pacific  which 
stretches  between  Australia  on  the  west  and  the 
New  Hebrides  on  the  east. 

Corato  (Co-rdh'to),  a  town  of  southern  Italy,  25 
miles  W.  of  Bar!.    Pop.  40,428. 

Corbeil  (Cor-bayl),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Seine-et-Oise,  on  the  Seine,  21  miles  S.  of  Paris 
by  rail.    Pop.  9541. 

Corby  Castle,  a  Cumberland  mansion,  4?  miles 
ESE.  of  Carlisle. 

Corcyra,  the  ancient  name  for  Corfu  (q.v.). 

Cordilleras  (Cor-dil-yay'ras;  lit.  'chains'),  a 
name  of  several  American  mountain-chains.  The 
Andes  include  the  Cordilleras  of  South  America, 
those  to  which  the  name  is  most  frequently  given ; 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains  those  of  North  America. 
Those  of  Central  America  extend  from  Darien  to 
the  north  of  Mexico,  and  gradually  increase  in 
elevation  from  the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  until  they 
form  magnificent  plateaus,  and  reach  a  height  of 
more  than  17,000  feet  in  Mexico. 

Cor'doba,  a  central  province  of  the  Argentine 
Republic.  Area,  55,350  sq.  m.  ;  population, 
430,000.  The  capital,  Cordoba.,  lies  in  the  valley 
of  the  Hio  Primero,  246  miles  WNW.  of  Rosario 
by  rail  It  has  tramways,  a  cathedral,  a  hand- 
some city-hall,  a  university  (1613),  &c.  Founded 
by  Cabrera  in  1573,  the  town  was  famous  as  a 
centre  of  the  Jesuit  missions.  It  was  afterwards 
falling  into  decay,  but  the  opening  of  the  rail- 
way in  1870  has  greatly  restored  its  prosperity. 
Population,  50,000. 

Cor'doba,  a  town  of  Mexico,  66  miles  WSW.  of 
Vera  Cruz  by  rail.    Pop.  12,302. 

Cor'dova,  or  Cordoba,  a  city  of  Spain,  81  miles 
ENB.  of  Seville  by  rail.  It  stands  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Guadalquivir,  here  crossed  by  the 
Moorish  '  Puente  Viejo '  of  sixteen  arches.  The 
old  turreted  walls  enclose  gardens  and  vine- 
yards ;  but  the  interior  shows  narrow  and  dirty 
streets.  Founded  in  152  B.C.  by  the  Romans  as 
Cordtiba,  and  a  great  Moorish  town  from  711  a.d. 
until  1286,  it  has  a  cathedral,  built  as  a  mosque 
in  the  8th  century,  the  most  magnificent  Moham- 
medan temple  in  Europe.  Cordova  was  formerly 
celebrated  for  its  manufacture  of  goat  leather, 
called  cordovan,  whence  the  term  cordwain,  but 
that  industry  is  now  almost  entirely  extinct.  It 
manufactures  silverware,  silk  fabrics,  &c.  Cor- 
dova was  the  birthplace  of  Lucan,  Seneca,  and 
Averroes.  Pop.  58,466.— Area  of  Cordova  pro- 
vince, 5190  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  456,000. 

Corea  (native  name  Choson,  '  Morning  Radi- 
ance'), a  kingdom  on  the  east  coast  of  Asia, 
stretching  as  a  peninsula  from  34°  30'  to  43°  N. 
lat.,  and  from  124°  30'  to  130°  30'  E.  long.,  be- 
tween the  Sea  of  Japan  and  the  Yellow  Sea,  and 
separated  by  the  Strait  of  Corea  from  the  Japanese 
islands.  From  about  the  beginning  of  the  Chris- 
tian era  Corea  has  been  alternately  dependent  on 
Japan  and  China  ;  from  the  16tli  c.  it  was  formally 
a  vassal  state  of  China,  paying  at  least  a  cere- 
monial tribute.  But  even  before  the  war  between 
China  and  Japan  in  1894-95,  Japan  had  acquired 
commercial  and  fiscal  predominance.  In  conse- 
quence of  internal  troubles  in  1894  (fomented  by 
Japanese  residents),  Japan  intervened  and  drove 
the  Chinese  across  the  Yalu  (see  China),  and 


Corea  was  declared  an  independent  state.  The 
growing  power  of  Russia  in  Manchuria,  and  its 
encroachments  on  Corea,  created  great  anxiety  in 
Japan  in  1900-4,  led  to  the  Japanese  ultimatum, 
and  was  the  cause  of  the  war  of  1904-5,  in  wliich 
the  Japanese  took  Port  Arthur,  triumphed  at 
Mukden  and  elsewhere,  and  utterly  destroyed  the 
Russian  fleet.  By  the  peace  (1905)  Japan's  pre- 
dominating interest  in  Corea  was  fully  recognised. 

Occupying  about  the  same  latitude  as  Italy, 
Corea,  with  an  area  of  83,000  sq.  m.,  is  also 
like  Italy  hemmed  in  on  the  north  by  alpine 
ranges,  and  traversed  frona  north  to  south  by 
a  branch  chain.  Among  the  summits  are  Hien- 
fung  (8114  feet),  Mount  PopofT,  and  Coxcomb 
(4800),  north-east  of  Seoul.  The  climate  is 
healthy,  bracing  in  the  north,  but  colder  in 
winter  and  hotter  in  summer  than  in  correspond- 
ing European  latitudes.  Some  of  the  rivers  are 
frozen  for  from  three  to  five  months  in  the  year. 
Among  the  i)roducts  are  rice,  wheat,  beans, 
cotton,  hemp,  maize,  millet,  sesame,  and  ginseng. 
Iron  ores  of  excellent  quality  are  mined ;  and  there 
are  copper-mines  in  several  places.  The  principal 
industries  are  the  manufacture  of  paper,  mats 
woven  of  grass,  si)lit  bamboo  blinds,  oil-paper, 
and  silk.  Three-fourths  of  the  trade  is  with 
Japan,  and  over  a  fifth  with  China.  Several  rail- 
ways were  in  progress  before  the  war  of  1904-5. 

The  population  is  estimated  at  from  8,000,000 
to  16,000,000.  The  language  is  intermediate 
between  Mongolo-Tartar  and  Japanese,  polysylla- 
bic and  agglutinating.  It  has  an  alphabetic  sys- 
tem of  its  own ;  but  Chinese  characters  have  taken 
the  place  of  Corean  in  official  writing  and  corre- 
spondence. The  philosophy  of  Corea  is  Con- 
fucian, but  in  spite  of  great  restrictions  on 
Buddhism  there  are  numerous  Buddhist  monas- 
teries. The  government  is  an  hereditary  and 
absolute  monarchy,  and  carried  on  through  three 
ministers,  besides  whom  are  ministers  of  six 
departments.  Seoul,  the  capital,  has  a  pop.  of 
196,940.  Phyong-yang,  86  miles  from  the  sea,  on 
the  Tai-dong,  lias  a  pop.  of  over  40,000.  It  is  the 
centre  of  a  silk  industry,  and  20  miles  ofl',  at 
Keum-san,  are  gold-washings.  Kai-song  is  im- 
I)ortant  as  the  capital  of  the  old  dynasty,  and 
for  its  cultivation  of  ginseng. 

The  earliest  records  of  Corea  carry  us  back  to 
1122  B.C.,  when  Ki-tze  with  5000  Chinese  colonists 
brought  to  Corea  Chinese  arts  and  politics. 
Down  to  modern  times  Corea  has  remained  per- 
fectly secluded.  Almost  the  first  knowledge  of 
Corea  obtained  by  Europe  was  through  the  ship- 
wreck of  some  Dutchmen  on  the  coast  in  1653. 
The  missionary  De  Cespedes  had,  however, 
entered  Corea  at  the  end  of  the  16th  century, 
and  from  1777  other  missionaries  followed.  In 
1835  M.  Maubant  gained  a  footing  in  Corea,  but 
in  1866,  after  thousands  of  converts  had  been 
put  to  death,  the  only  three  Catholic  missionaries 
left  had  to  flee  for  their  lives.  To  avenge  the 
death  of  the  Catholics  the  French  sent  an 
expedition,  which  was,  however,  repulsed,  while 
a  stranded  Ainerican  schooner  was  burned  with 
her  crew  in  sight  of  Phybng-yang.  Japan  was 
the  first  to  effect  a  footing  in  Corea  in  1876, 
when  a  treaty  was  concluded  between  the  two 
countries.  Corea  followed  this  up  by  treaties 
with  China,  the  United  States,  and  other  coun- 
tries (1882-86) ;  and  Chemulpo,  Fusan,  and  Gensan 
were  opened  to  foreign  trade.  The  war  of  1904-5 
opened  the  country  nmch  more  fully.  See  works 
by  Oppert  (1880),  Ross,  Griffis,  Lowell,  Carles 
(1888),  Cavendish,  Landor,  Bishop,  Hamilton, 
Laguerie,  and  Whigham  (1904). 


CORENfYN 


202 


dORS 


Corentyn,  a  river  of  South  America,  rising  in 
1°  50'  N.  lat.,  and  flowing  northward  to  the 
Atlantic  between  British  and  Dutch  Guiana.  It 
fonns  an  estuary  25  miles  wide. 

Corfe  Castle,  a  village-borough  of  Dorsetshire, 
in  the  '  Isle '  of  Purbeck,  4  miles  SE.  of  Wareham. 
Its  famous  castle,  the  traditional  scene  of  the 
murder  of  King  Edward  the  Martyr,  by  his  step- 
mother Elfrida  (979),  was  gallantly  defended  in 
164S  by  Lady  Bankes  for  six  weeks  against  600 
Roundheads.  Taken  through  treachery  two  years 
later,  it  was  dismantled  ;  and  its  beautiful  ruins 
cover  nearly  8^  acres.  Pop,  of  parish,  1708.  See 
works  by  G.  Bankes  (1853)  and  T.  Bond  (1884). 

Corfu,  the  most  northerly  and  important  of 
the  Ionian  Islands  (q.v.),  at  the  entrance  to  the 
Adriatic,  separated  from  Albania  by  a  channel  2  to 
12  miles  broad.  It  is  40  miles  long,  3^  to  20  miles 
broad,  and  culminates  in  Pantocrator  (2997  feet). 
Area,  270  sq.  m. ;  pop.  126,000.  The  surface  is 
largely  covered  with  luxuriant  groves  of  olive, 
cypress,  and  ilex.  The  principal  products  are 
olives  and  wine,  oranges,  citrons,  figs,  carob,  silk, 
and  honey.  The  minerals  are  sulphur,  salt,  coal, 
and  marble.  The  principal  town,  Corfu  (pop. 
28,328),  is  finely  situated  on  the  east  coast,  and 
has  a  good  harbour.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek 
archbishop  and  of  a  Catholic  bishop,  and  has  a 
royal  palace,  an  Ionian  academy,  founded  by 
Lord  Guildford  in  1823,  with  a  library  of  35,000 
volumes,  a  gymnasium,  theatre,  &c.  The  ancient 
name  of  the  island  is  Corcyra,  but  from  its  shape 
it  was  also  caUed  Drepane,  or  '  sickle.' 

Corl  iCoree;  anc,  Cora),  a  town  of  Italy,  SO 
miles  SE.  of  Rome.    Pop.  7450. 

Corlgliano  (Cor-eel-ydh'no),  an  Italian  town,  4 
miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Taranto.     Pop.  12,271. 

Coringa,  a  decayed  seaport  of  Madras,  at  the 
northern  mouth  of  the  Godavari  River,  8  miles  S. 
of  Cocanada.    Pop.  4397. 

Corinth,  a  city  of  Greece,  celebrated  in  anti- 
quity for  its  vices,  situated  on  the  rocky  isthmus 
of  Corinth  (3§  miles  wide,  and  262  feet  high), 
which  connects  the  Peloponnesus  with  the  main- 
land. It  lay  under  the  northern  declivity  of  the 
mountain  (1886  feet  high),  on  which  .stood  its 
citadel  (Acrocorinthus) ;  and  its  position,  midway 
between  the  -^gean  and  Adriatic,  was  excep- 
tionally advantageous  for  trade.  Founded,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  about  1350  b.c.^  Corinth  at 
its  zenith  is  said  to  have  had  300,000  mhabitants, 
but  was  utterly  destroyed  by  the  Romans  in  146 
B.C.  Exactly  a  century  afterwards  it  was  rebuilt 
by  Julius  Csesar ;  in  1459  it  was  captured  by  the 
Turks.  After  being  delivered  from  them  in  1822, 
it  slowly  increased  till  1858,  when  it  was  utterly 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  The  town  has 
since  been  rebuilt  in  a  more  convenient  posi- 
tion, 3  miles  to  the  north-east.  Pop.  4000.  A 
mile  and  a  half  ENE.  of  New  Corinth,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Lepanto  (anciently  Gulf  of  Corinth),  is 
the  western  mouth  of  the  Corinth  Ship  Canal 
(1882-93)  through  the  isthmus,  4  miles  long.  Two 
new  towns  have  been  laid  out  at  its  east  and 
west  mouths,  the  eastern  named  Isthmia,  the 
western  Posidonia. 

Corinth,  a  town  of  Mississippi,  93  miles  B.  by 
S.  of  Memphis.  Here  the  Confederates  were 
defeated,  October  3-4,  1862.     Pop.  3275. 

Cork,  a  maritime  county  in  Munster,  the  south- 
most  and  largest  of  the  Irish  counties.  Greatest 
length  from  east  to  west,  110  miles;  greatest 
breadth,  70;  area,  2890  sq.  m,  Cork  is  hilly. 
With  great  variety  of  surface.    The  west  paxt 


is  rocky,  mountainous,  and  boggy ;  the  east  and 
south,  rich,  fertile,  and  picturesque.  The  ranges 
run  east  and  west,  except  the  Boghra  Mountains, 
between  the  Lee  and  Blackwater.  The  coast  is 
bold  and  rocky,  and  from  its  indentations,  250 
miles  long;  the  bays  run  3  to  25  miles  inland, 
the  chief  being  Bantry,  Dunmanus,  Baltimore, 
Glandore,  Clonakilty,  Kinsale,  Cork  Harbour,  and 
Youghal.  There  are  many  isles  olf  the  coast, 
including  Cape  Clear  Island.  In  the  west,  Cork 
is  divided  from  Kerry  by  a  range  running  north- 
east and  north,  the  chief  points  being  1200  to 
2240  feet  high.  This  range  sends  offshoots  to 
the  east,  which  divide  the  county  into  the 
parallel  basins  of  the  three  chief  rivers  of  Cork, 
the  Blackwater,  Lee,  and  Bandon.  Part  of  the 
Munster  coalfield  occupies  400  sq.  m.  in  the 
north-west.  Cork  has  many  small  lakes  in  the 
west.  The  chief  mineral  products  are  coal,  iron, 
copper,  barytes,  limestone,  marble,  fullers'  earth, 
brick-clay,  marl.  There  is  a  thermal  magnesian 
spring  at  Mallow.  The  climate  is  moist  but 
genial.  The  dairies  are  extensive,  and  Cork 
butter  stands  in  high  estimation.  Of  the  total 
area,  about  30  per  cent,  is  under  crops.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  leather,  tweeds,  whisky, 
porter ;  and  the  chief  exports  provisions.  Pop. 
(1841)  854,118;  (1851)  653,180;  (1871)  517,076; 
(1881)  495,607 ;  (1901)  406,611,  of  whom  90  per 
cent,  are  Catholics.  Since  1885  the  county 
returns  seven  members,  the  city  two ;  Bandon, 
Mallow,  Kinsale,  and  Youghal  having  been 
absorbed  in  the  county. 

Cork,  a  city  and  parliamentary  borough  of 
Ireland,  capital  of  County  Cork,  and  a  county  in 
itself,  on  the  Lee,  11  miles  above  its  mouth,  and 
166  SW.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  Standing  in  the 
centre  of  a  picturesque  valley,  it  is  built  in  part 
on  an  island,  or  group  of  islands,  formerly  a 
swamp,  which  the  word  Cork,  Corcoch,  or  Corcaig 
implies ;  in  part,  on  the  slopes  of  the  river-banks. 
Nine  bridges  cross  the  river  to  the  islands.  There 
are  a  spacious  public  park  or  racecourse  of  400 
acres;  an  elm-tree  walk,  the  Mardyke,  above  a 
mile  long,  on  the  west  of  the  city ;  and  a 
beautiful  public  cemetery.  The  chief  buildings 
are  St  Anne  Shandon's  Church,  with  a  tower 
170  feet  high ;  the  Protestant  Cathedral,  Early 
English  in  style,  erected  since  1865  at  a  cost  of 
£100,000  ;  Queen's  College  (1849),  a  fine  Tudor- 
Gothic  quadrangular  building ;  and  the  Schools 
of  Science  and  Art.  The  Lee  is  navigable  to 
about  a  mile  above  the  city,  and  a  large  sum 
has  been  expended  on  the  improvement  of  the 
navigation.  The  extent  of  the  quays  is  now 
above  4  miles,  and  ships  of  2000  tons  reach  them. 
Cork  Harbour,  noted  for  its  size  and  safety,  is  a 
basin  of  10  sq.  m.,  formed  by  the  Lee's  estuary. 
It  could  contain  the  whole  British  navy,  and  has 
been  the  main  source  of  the  rise  and  progress  of 
the  city.  It  is  the  port  of  call  for  the  trans- 
atlantic steamers  plying  between  Liverpool  and 
New  York.  The  estuary  contains  several  large 
isles,  rising  abruptly  and  high  above  the  water, 
with  narrow  channels  between  them.  The 
entrance  is  by  a  channel  two  miles  by  one, 
defended  by  batteries.  Adjoining  the  island  of 
Haulbowline,  on  which  are  extensive  government 
stores,  is  a  large  government  dock,  where  vessels 
of  the  British  fleet  may  be  repaired.  On  the 
shores  of  the  estuary  are  the  towns  of  Passage 
and  Queenstown,  formerly  Cove  of  Cork.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  leather,  iron,  gloves, 
ginghams,  friezes,  flour,  malt  liquors,  and  whisky ; 
the  chief  exports  grain,  provisions,  butter,  live- 
stock, leather,  and  tweeds.     Cork  returns  two 


CORLEONE 


CORRIB 


members  f,o  parliament.  Pop.  (1871)  78,642; 
(1881)  80,124 ;  (1901)  7(5,122  :  of  pari,  borough 
(1881)  104,496  ;  (1901)  99,693.  Of  these  five-sixths 
are  Catholics.  Cork  grew  up  around  an  abbey 
founded  in  600  by  St  Finbar.  Dermod  Maccarthy, 
king  of  Cork  or  Desmond,  surrendered  it  to  Henry 
II.  in  1172,  Cromwell  took  it  in  1649,  and  Marl- 
borough in  1690.  There  is  a  statue  of  Father 
Mathew,  who  laboured  here  many  years.  See 
Miss  Cusack's  History  of  the  City  and  County  of 
Cork  (Dublin,  1875). 

Corleone  (Cor-le-o'neh),  a  town  of  Sicily,  21 
miles  S.  of  Palermo.    Pop.  14,441. 

Corneto  (Cor-neh'to),  a  picturesque,  mediaeval- 
looking  town  of  central  Italy,  12  miles  N.  of 
Civita  Vecchia  by  rail,  and  3  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean. Pop.  7175.  It  rose  out  of  the  ruins  of 
the  Etruscan  city  of  Tarquinii. 

Cornhill,  a  Northumberland  village,  IJ  mile 
ESB.  of  Coldstream. 

Corniclie.    See  Riviera. 

Coming,  capital  of  Steuben  county,  New  York, 
on  the  Cliemung  River,  15  miles  by  rail  WNW. 
of  Elmira,  with  foundries,  glass-works,  &c.  Pop. 
(1880)  4802  ;  (1900)  11,061. 

Corno,  Monte.    See  Gran  Sasso  d'Italia. 

Cornwall,  a  maritime  county,  forming  the 
south-western  extremity  of  England.  Its  ex- 
treme length  is  81  miles ;  its  extreme  breadth 
45  miles ;  and  its  area  is  1365  sq.  m.,  of  which 
63*4  per  cent,  is  under  cultivation.  The  surface 
is  very  irregular,  and  a  ridge  of  bleak  hills, 
interspersed  with  moors,  stretches  from  the 
Tamar  to  the  Land's  End.  Brown  Billy  (1368 
feet)  is  the  loftiest  point.  As  this  range  is 
nearer  the  north  of  Cornwall  than  the  south, 
the  principal  rivers  are  on  the  southern  side, 
and  run  to  the  English  Channel.  With  the 
exception  of  a  few  unimportant  creeks,  there 
are  only  two  harbours  on  the  north  coast — the 
estuary  of  the  Camel,  on  which  is  Padstow,  and 
the  bay  of  St  Ives.  Nearly  all  the  north  coast 
is  formed  of  bold  and  picturesque  clitts ;  but  at 
Perranzabuloe  and  Gwithian  there  are  hills  of 
blown  sea-sand.  The  southern  coast  is  also 
mostly  bold  and  rocky,  but  indented  with  many 
headlands  and  bays.  Between  the  Land's  End 
(5°  41'  31"  W.)  and  the  Lizard  Point  is  the 
deep  indentation  named  Mount's  Bay,  from  St 
Michael's  Mount,  with  the  harbour-works  of 
Penzance.  East  of  the  Lizard  is  Falmouth  Bay ; 
and  on  the  eastern  boundary  is  another  of  the 
great  havens  of  the  kingdom,  Plymouth  Sound. 
Tlie  estuary  of  the  Fowey  also  affords  a  small 
but  perfectly  sheltered  deep-water  harbour.  The 
chief  river  is  the  Tamar,  which  practically  divides 
Cornwall  from  Devon,  rising  within  3  miles  of 
the  north  coast  at  Wooley  Barrows.  It  is  tidal, 
and  navigable  for  19  miles  (total  length  59)  from 
its  embouchure  in  Plymouth  Sound.  Its  prin- 
cipal Cornish  tributary  is  the  Notter.  The  lower 
part  of  the  estuary  of  the  Tamar  is  called  the 
Hamoaze.  The  Fowey  is  30  miles  long,  and 
navigable  for  6.  The  Fal  is  20  miles  long  from 
its  source  to  Falmouth  Harbour.  The  Camel 
(also  called  the  Alan)  is  29  miles  long,  10  being 
tidal.  There  is  a  tradition  that  a  large  tract  of 
land  between  the  Lands  End  and  the  Scilly 
Isles  (q.v.)  was  submerged  by  the  sea.  This  is 
the  fabled  Lyonesse.  Mining  has  been  carried 
on  here  from  prehistoric  times,  and  the  county 
has  been  regarded  as  the  Cassiterides  of  the 
Phoenicians  and  Greeks.  It  yields  tin,  copper, 
lead,  iron,  zinc,  silver,  cobalt,  antimony,  man- 


ganese, bismuth,  tungsten,  arsenic,  &c.— a  greater 
variety  of  minerals  (some  unique)  than  any  other 
part  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Gold  has  been 
found  in  alluvial  tin  works  or  'streams,'  the 
largest  nugget  over  two  ounces.  Of  late  years 
mining  has  been  very  much  reduced,  and  almost 
all  the  mines  now  existing  are  tin,  of  which 
Cornwall  yields  nearly  all  that  is  raised  in  the 
kingdom.  The  pilchard,  herring,  and  mackerel 
fisheries  are  extensive  and  important.  The 
climate,  mild  though  damp,  has  been  turned  to 
good  account  in  the  Scilly  Isles  and  the  Penzance 
district,  by  the  development  of  market-gardening 
for  the  supply  of  early  vegetables  and  of  fruit 
to  the  leading  markets.  Pop,  (1801)  192,281  ;' 
(1861)  369,390;  (1901)  322,957.  Cornwall  con- 
tains one  parliamentary  borough— Falmouth  and 
Penryn,  and  six  county  divisions.  It  returned 
40  members  prior  to  1832,  14  till  1867.  12  till 
1885,  and  now  7  in  all.  The  bishopric  of  Corn- 
wall, merged  in  that  of  Exeter  since  Saxon  times, 
was  restored  in  1876,  and  the  see  fixed  at  Truro. 

Cornwall  remained  in  the  hands  of  its  Celtic 
inhabitants,  and  under  the  rule  of  the  British 
Church  till  936.  The  ancient  Cornish  language, 
belonging  to  the  Cymric  or  Brythonic  group  of 
the  Celtic  tongues,  was  generally  spoken  until 
the  reign  of  Elizabeth,  and  until  1678  was  used 
in  public  worship.  It  lingered  in  the  extreme 
west  of  the  county  till  the  early  part  of  the  18th 
century  ;  Dolly  Pentreath  (?  1676-1778)  of  Mouse- 
hole  is  popularly  regarded  as  the  last  who  spoke 
it.  Cornwall,  which  abounds  in  prehistoric 
remains,  was  created  into  a  duchy  in  1337  for  the 
Black  Prince.  The  eldest  son  of  the  reigning 
sovereign  is  Duke  of  Cornwall ;  and  the  revenues 
derived  from  the  duchy  by  the  Prince  of  Wales 
average  £61,000  a  year.  See  Tregellas's  Cornwall 
(6th  ed.  1891),  and  other  works  cited  there. 

Cornwall,  a  port  of  entry  of  Ontario,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Cornwall  Canal,  and  separated  by 
the  St  Lawrence  from  New  York  state,  67  miles 
SW.  of  Montreal.  It  has  one  of  the  principal 
woollen-mills  in  the  Dominion.    Pop.  7033. 

Coro,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  210  miles  WNW.  of 
Caracas,  near  the  Golfete  de  Coro.  Pop.  8881, 
Its  port  is  La  Vela,  7  miles  NB.  by  rail. 

Coromandel  Coast,  a  name  used  vaguely  for 
the  major  part  of  the  eastern  coast  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Madras,  on  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  ITie 
name  is  probably  a  corruption  of  Cholamandalam, 
'  country  of  the  Cholas,'  an  old  Dravidian  people. 

Coronation  Gulf,  an  inlet  connected  with  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  south  of  Victoria  Land,  in  68°  30' 
N.  lat.,  and  110°  W.  long. 

Coronea,  a  town  of  Boeotia,  where  in  447  b.c. 
the  Boeotians  defeated  the  Athenians,  and  in  394 
Agesilaus  the  allied  Greeks. 

Corra  Linn.    See  Clyde. 

Corran  Narrows,  the  strait  between  Loch 
Linnhe  and  Lower  Loch  Eil. 

Correze  (Cor-reJiz'),  a  French  dep.  formed  out 
of  the  old  province  of  Limousin,  and  taking  its 
name  from  a  river,  the  Correze,  flowing  52  miles 
SW.  to  the  Vezere,  a  tributary  of  the  Dordogne. 
Area,  2265  sq.  m.  ;  population,  305,000.  The  sur- 
face attains  in  Mont  Odonze  3129  feet.  The  dep. 
is  divided  into  the  three  arrondissements  of 
Tulle  (the  capital),  Brive,  and  Ussel. 

Corrib,  Lough,  an  isleted  lake  of  counties 
Galway  and  Mayo,  the  second  largest  in  Ireland. 
Lying  only  30  feet  above  sea-level,  it  is  25  miles 
long  from  NW.  to  SE.,  and  1  to  6  broad,  with  an 
area  of  68  sq.  m.    From  its  south  end,  4  miles  N,  of 


CORRICHIB 


204 


COSELEf 


Galway,  it  sends  ofT  the  Galway  River  to  Galway 
Bay.  It  receives  the  waters  of  Lough  Mask,  at 
its  north  end,  through  the  Pigeon  Hole  and  other 
caves,  as  well  as  those  of  the  Clare,  &c. 

Corrichie,  a  moor  on  the  borders  of  Kincardine 
and  Aberdeen  shires,  15  miles  W.  of  Aberdeen. 
Here,  on  2Sth  October  1562,  the  Earl  of  Moray 
defeated  the  Catholic  Earl  of  Huntly. 

Corrle,  an  Arran  coast-village,  5^  miles  N.  by 
E.  of  Brodick. 

Corrlentes,  a  province  of  the  Argentine  Re- 
public, between  the  Parana  and  Uruguay  rivers. 
Area,  54,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  310,000.— The  capital, 
Corrientes,  15  miles  below  the  confluence  of  the 
Parana  and  the  Paraguay,  takes  its  name  from 
seven  currents  formed  by  points  of  rock  above  the 
city.  Steamers  from  Buenos  Ayres  (832  miles) 
touch  here  almost  daily,    Pop.  18,000. 

Corrievrekln  (Gael.,  'Brecan's  cauldron'),  a 
whirlpool  or  dangerous  passage  scarcely  a  mile 
broad,  off  the  west  coast  of  Argyllshire,  in  the 
strait  between  Scarba  and  Jura. 

Corry,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  37  miles  SE. 
of  Erie.  It  has  machine-shops,  saw-mills,  and 
oil-refineries.    Pop.  5677. 

Corryarrick,  Inverness-shire,  a  mountain-pass 
7  miles  SSE.  of  Fort  Augustus. 

Corsham,  a  Wiltshire  market-town,  4  miles 
SW.  of  Chippenham.    Pop.  of  parish,  3931. 

Cor'sica,  the  fourth  largest  island  of  the  Medi- 
terranean, is  114  miles  long  by  52  miles  broad,  with 
300  miles  of  coast-line.  Area,  3378  sq,  m.  ;  pop. 
(1872)  258,507 ;  (1901)  295,589.  Corsica  is  separ- 
ated from  the  twin  island  of  Sardinia,  to  the 
south,  by  the  Strait  of  Bonifacio.  It  is  54  miles 
BW.  of  Leghorn  'and  98  S.  of  Genoa.  Though 
now  a  dep.  of  France,  the  island  belongs  geo- 
graphically, historically,  and  linguistically  to 
Italy.  The  interior  is  a  labyrinth  of  mountains, 
the  highest  summits  being  about  the  middle :  Cinto 
(8878  feet) ;  Rotondo  (8607) ;  Pagli-Orba  (8283). 
On  the  west  side  the  mountains  reach  to  the 
coast,  but  on  the  east,  between  mountains  and 
sea,  there  extend  alluvial  plains,  edged  seawards 
with  lagoons  and  swamps,  highly  fertile  but 
malarious,  so  that  in  summer  the  occupants  have 
to  escape  to  the  mountains.  In  the  time  of  the 
Romans  these  plains  were  densely  peopled,  and 
recently  eucalyptus  plantations  are  beginning  to 
overcome  the  malaria.  Corsica  is  watered  by 
numerous  streams,  none  navigable,  with  cascades 
glittering  in  all  directions.  The  climate  generally 
is  highly  salubrious.  The  soil  is  very  fertile, 
and  over  43  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  is  arable 
land  ;  yet  flour,  wheat,  and  hay  are  imported. 
Corsica  presents  a  succession  of  climates  and 
vegetation  zones.  About  one-sixth  of  the  whole 
is  covered  with  forest,  but  this  includes  in  many 
places  only  confused  thickets.  The  moufflon 
or  wild  sheep  is  found ;  also  wild  boars,  large 
foxes,  and  small  deer,  but  no  wolves  or  bears. 
The  venomous  ant  is  peculiar  to  Corsica,  where 
are  also  the  Malmignata  spider  and  the  taran- 
tula. The  minerals  include  copper,  silver,  lead, 
sulphide  of  antimony,  iron,  and  manganese. 
Among  the  valuable  stones  are  granite,  porphyry, 
jasper,  alabaster,  and  marble;  and  the  Orezza 
mineral  waters  have  a  high  medicinal  value.  The 
chief  industries  are  fishing  and  rearing  of  cattle. 
Wines,  timber,  charcoal,  olive-oil,  and  dried  fruits 
are  the  principal  exports.  In  1888  a  railway  was 
opened  from  Bastia  to  Corte,  and  other  lines 
have  since  been  constructed.  Corsica  is  divided 
into  the  five  arroudissements  of  Ajaccio,  Bastia, 


Calvi,  Corte,  Sartene.  The  capital  is  Ajaccio, 
but  the  most  important  town  is  Bastia.  The 
language  is  a  corrupt  Italian.  In  early  times 
known  as  Cyrnos,  Corsica  in  the  8th  century  fell 
to  the  Saracens,  in  the  11th  to  Pisa.  Thence  it 
passed  to  the  Genoese.  The  Genoese,  unable 
to  subdue  the  Corsicans,  who  had  risen  under 
General  Paoli,  surrendered  Corsica  to  the  French, 
who  conquered  it  in  1768,  since  which  time  it  has 
willingly  united  itself  with  France.  Napoleon 
was  '  the  Corsican.'  See  works  by  Boswell  (1768), 
Borde  (1887),  Barry  (1893),  and  Caird  (1899). 

Corsicana,  capital  of  Navarre  county,  Texas, 
53  miles  SSE.  of  Dallas.  It  is  an  important 
cotton  port.     Pop.  9400. 

Corstor'phine,  a  Midlothian  village,  3  miles  W. 
by  S.  of  Edinburgh.     Pop.  1500. 

Cortland,  capital  of  Courtland  county,  New 
York,  36  miles  S.  of  Syracuse.  It  has  impor- 
tant manufactures.     Pop.  9020. 

Comisk  (Corooskf),  a  fresli-water  loch  (IfxJ 
m.)  in  Skye,  among  the  Cuchulliu  Hills. 

Corto'na  (Lat.  Crotona),  in  Tuscany,  69  miles 
SE.  of  Florence,  stands  2130  feet  above  sea-level, 
looking  down  on  the  Trasimene  Lake,  and  is  one  of 
the  oldest  cities  in  Europe,  with  mighty  Cyclopean 
walls,  Etruscan  and  Roman  remains.     Pop.  7000. 

Ooruiia,  La  (in  English,  Corunna),  a  fortified 
seaport  of  Spain,  midway  between  Capes  Ortegal 
and  Finisterre,  on  a  peninsula  in  the  Bay  of 
Coruna,  263  miles  NW.  of  Leon  by  rail.  The 
harbour  is  commodious ;  and  in  1888  a  quarantine 
iiarbour  was  completed.  One  mile  north-west 
of  the  town  stands  the  famous  Torre  de  Hercules, 
restored  by  Trajan,  which  serves  as  a  lighthouse, 
and  is  nearly  100  feet  high.  The  chief  imports 
are  sugar  and  American  raw  petroleum,  dried 
cod,  hides,  spirits,  and  English  coal.  The  indus- 
tries include  the  manufacture  of  cotton,  cigars, 
glass-wares,  and  canned  provisions.  Pop.  45,000. 
Coruna,  which  was  taken  from  the  Phoenicians 
by  the  Romans  in  the  1st  century  b.c,  for  English- 
men has  rare  historic  interest.  Here  in  1386  John 
of  Gaunt  landed  to  claim  the  crown  of  Castile  in 
right  of  his  wife ;  in  1554  Philip  II.  embarked 
for  England  to  marry  Queen  Mary ;  and  in  1588 
the  great  Spanish  Armada  set  sail  for  the  con- 
quest of  England.  Here  also  fell  gloriously  Sir 
John  Moore  (January  16, 1809),  after  his  memor- 
able retreat  and  his  defeat  of  Soult.  He  is  buried 
in  the  gardens  of  San  Carlos. 

Corvo,  the  most  northerly  of  the  Azores  (q.v.). 

Corwen,  a  town  of  Merionethshire,  North 
Wales,  on  the  Dee,  12  miles  NE.  of  Bala  by  raiL 
Pop.  of  parish,  2680. 

Corygaum,  a  village  in  the  presidency  of 
Bombay,  16  miles  S.  of  Poona,  the  scene  of  the 
last  of  the  three  defeats  of  the  Peishwa  of  the 
Mahrattas  (January  1,  1818). 

Cos  (Italian,  Stanko),  a  Turkish  island  of  the 
Archipelago,  off  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  Measur- 
ing 23  by  5  miles,  it  has  an  area  of  110  sq.  m., 
and  a  pop.  of  10,000,  mostly  Greeks.  It  consists 
mostly  of  fertile  and  well-tilled  plains,  partially 
of  hilly  country ;  and  exports  lemons,  grain,  wine, 
cotton,  and  silk.  The  chief  town  is  Cos  or  Co,  on 
the  north-east  coast.  Cos  was  famous  of  old 
for  its  wine,  its  amphorae,  and  its  fine  'Coan 
garments.'  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Ptolemy 
Philadelphus,  the  painter  Apelles,  and  the  phy- 
sician Hippocrates. 

Coseley,  a  south-eastern  suburb  of  Wolver- 
hampton. 


COSENZA 


206 


COURTRAI 


Cosenza  (Co-sentz'a  ;  anc.  Consentia),  a  cathedral 
city  of  Italy,  12  miles  E.  of  the  Mediterranean, 
and  262  SE.  of  Naples  by  rail,  in  a  mountain- 
closed  valley  at  the  confluence  of  the  Crati  and  the 
Busento.    Pop.  26,686.    Alaric  died  here  410  a.d. 

Cosne  (Kone),  a  town,  with  iron  manufactures, 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Nievre,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Loire,  122  miles  SSE.  of  Paris.    Pop.  8260. 

Oosslmhazar'  (Kasimbdzdr),  near  Murshidabad, 
was  in  the  17th  century  the  chief  English  agency 
in  Bengal. 

Costanza.    See  Kustendji. 

Costa  Rica  (ReeJca),  the  most  southerly  of  the 
republics  of  Central  America.  It  occupies  the 
entire  breadth  from  sea  to  sea  between  Nicar- 
agua on  the  one  side  and  Colombia  on  the  other. 
Area,  21,495  miles,  or  about  two-thirds  that  of 
Ireland ;  population,  321,000.  The  whites  are 
mostly  of  pure  Spanish  descent.  Except  on  the 
coast,  the  countiy  is  generally  mountainous,  with 
many  volcanoes,  all  under  11,500  feet ;  on  the 
Atlantic  slope  dense  forests  prevail,  but  wide 
savannahs  are  more  frequent  on  the  Pacific  side. 
Prior  to  the  discovery  of  gold  in  1823,  Costa  Rica 
was  a  land  of  poverty,  owing  its  title  of  'The 
Rich  Coast '  solely  to  the  anticipations  of  its  first 
Spanish  settlers ;  since  then,  foreign  capital  has 
opened  up  much  of  the  country.  Although  rich 
in  gold,  silver,  copper,  and  other  metals,  its  chief 
industry  is  agriculture ;  but  the  population  is 
very  scanty,  and  only  a  twentieth  part  of  the 
land  is  under  cultivation.  Besides  valuable 
timber  and  dye-woods,  it  yields  tobacco,  sugar, 
bananas,  cacao,  caoutchouc,  sarsaparilla,  and 
vanilla,  which,  with  hides,  tortoise-shell,  and 
mother-of-pearl,  are  largely  exported.  But  the 
staple  of  trade  is  coff'ee,  to  which  is  principally 
due  the  reviving  prosperity  of  'the  Coffee  Re- 
public' There  are  160  miles  of  railway.  The 
chief  ports  are  Punta  Arenas  and  Limon ;  the 
other  towns  are  San  Jose,  the  capital.  Cartage, 
Alajuela,  and  Heredia.  Discovered  by  Columbus 
in  1493,  and  probably  first  settled  on  his  fourth 
voyage,  in  1502,  Costa  Rica  has  had  much  the 
same  history,  chequered  by  frequent  revolutions, 
as  its  neighbours:  it  declared  its  independence 
in  1821.  See  works  "by  Biolley  (1889),  Barrantes 
(Barcelona,  1892),  and  Villafranca  (N.Y.  1895). 

Oote-d'Or,  a  dep.  in  the  east  of  France, 
formed  of  part  of  the  old  province  of  Burgundy. 
Area,  3383  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1901)  361,626.  It  con- 
tains four  arrondissements :  Beaune,  Chatillon- 
Bur-Seine,  Dijon  (the  capital),  and  Semur. 
"  Cotentin,  The  (Co-tonnani''),  the  peninsula  pro- 
jecting into  the  English  Channel  between  the 
Bay  of  St  Michel  and  the  Gulf  of  Carentan,  now 
the  northern  part  of  the  dep.  of  La  Manche.  It 
is  55  miles  long  and  25  broad.  The  chief  town 
is  Cherbourg  ;  the  old  capital  is  Coutances. 

Cotes-du-Nord  ('northern  coasts'),  a  French 
Breton  dep.,  washed  by  the  English  Channel. 
Area,  2659  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1901)  609.350.  It  is 
divided  into  the  five  arrondissements  of  St 
Brieuc,  Dinan,  Loudeac,  Lannion,  and  Guin- 
gamp.    The  chief  town  is  St  Brieuc. 

Coteswold,  or  Cotswold,  Hills,  a  range  run- 
ning over  50  miles  through  Glovicestershire,  from 
Chipping  Campden  in  the  NB.,  by  Cheltenham 
and  Stroud,  to  near  Bath  in  the  SW.  It  has  an 
average  height  of  500  or  600  feet,  and  separates 
the  Lower  Severn  from  tlie  Thanies's  sources. 
The  highest  point  is  Cleeve  Hill,  1134  feet. 

Ctotliele,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Mount 


Edgcumbe,  in  Cornwall,  on  the  Tamar,  61  miles 
N.  of  Saltash. 

Cothen.    See  Kothen. 

Cotonou,  a  small  French  settlement  on  tha 
Guinea  coast,  formerly  in  Dahomey. 

Cotopaxi,  the  loftiest  active  volcano  in  the 
world  (19,550  feet),  is  in  Ecuador,  in  the  eastern 
cliain  of  the  Andes,  and  50  miles  S.  of  tha 
equator.  The  upper  part  of  Cotopaxi,  a  perfect 
cone  of  4400  feet,  is  entirely  covered  with  snow, 
save  that  the  verge  of  the  crater  is  a  bare  parapet 
of  rock.  The  first  eruption  recorded  was  in  1533. 
Others  followed  in  1698,  1743,  1744,  and  1768,  the 
most  terrible  of  all.  Cotopaxi  was  quiet  till 
1851.  In  1854-56, 1877,  and  1880  there  were  again 
eruptions.  See  Whymper's  Travels  among  the 
Andes  (1892). 

Cotrone,  a  fortified  coast-town  of  Italy,  35 
miles  NE.  of  Catanzaro  by  rail.     Pop.  9649. 

Cotswolds.    See  Coteswolds. 

Oottbus,  or  KoTTBus,  a  town  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Brandenburg,  on  the  Spree,  71  miles 
SE.  of  Berlin  by  rail.  It  manufactures  woollen 
cloth,  carpets,  hats,  linen,  jute,  leather,  and 
tobacca    Pop.  40,000. 

Cottingham,  a  town  in  the  East  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  4  miles  NW.  of  Hull.    Pop.  3780. 

Coulmiers  (Koolm-yaif),  a  French  village,  12 
miles  WNW.  of  Orleans,  the  scene  of  a  Bavarian 
defeat,  9th  November  1870. 

Coulport,  Dumbartonshire,  a  pier  on  Loch 
Long,  4  miles  N.  of  Cove. 

Council  Bluffs,  a  city  of  Iowa,  capital  of 
Pottawattamie  county,  141  miles  WSW.  of  Des 
Moines  by  rail,  on  a  plain  backed  by  the  high 
bluffs  from  which  it  takes  its  name.  The  Mis- 
souri River,  3  miles  to  the  west,  is  crossed  by 
a  grand  railway  bridge  to  Omaha,  and  five  rail- 
ways meet  at  the  town,  which  manufactures 
paper,  iron,  carriages,  and  agricultural  machines. 
Pop.  (1870)  10,020 ;  (1900)  25,802. 

Coupar-Angus  (Coop'er-Ang-g^is),  a  Perthshire 
police-burgh,  near  the  Isla's  left  bank,  13  miles 
NNE.  of  Perth.  Within  a  Roman  camp  here  is 
the  fragment  of  a  Cistercian  abbey  (1164).  Linen 
is  manufactured.    Pop.  2100.     See  also  Cupar. 

Courbevoie  (Koorb-vwah'),  a  town  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Seine,  opposite  the  north-western 
suburbs  of  Paris.     Pop.  27,597. 

Courland,  or  Kurland  (Koor'land),  one  o! 
the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia.  Mostly  level, 
with  many  lakes  and  forests,  it  was  formerly  an 
independent  duchy— properly,  indeed,  consisting 
of  two  duchies,  Courland  and  Senigallen— and 
belonged,  along  with  Livonia,  to  the  Teutonic 
Knights.  The  difficulty  of  resisting  Russia  led 
to  the  acknowledgment  in  1561  of  Poland's 
sovereignty;  but  in  1795  Courland  was  finally 
united  to  Russia.  Area,  10,535  sq.  m. ;  population, 
680,000,  mostly  Protestants.  Mitan  is  the  capital, 
but  Libau  the  most  floiirishing  town. 

CourtallTun  (Kuttdlam),  an  Indian  town,  38 
miles  NW.  of  Tinnevelli,  stands  amongst  the 
Ghats  near  the  south  end  of  the  peninsula ;  and 
though  only  450  feet  above  sea-level,  serves  as 
the  sanatorium  of  the  district.     Pop.  1216. 

Courtmacsherry,  a  fishing-village  of  County 
Cork,  10  miles  S.  of  Bandon. 

Courtrai  (Flem.  Kortrijk),  a  walled  town  of 
Belgium,  on  the  Lys,  54  miles  SW.  of  Brussels 
by  rail,  and  6  from  the  French  frontier.  It  has  a 
fine  eld  bridge  flanked  with  towers,  a  noble  town- 


COUTANCES 


206 


CRACOW 


hall  (1526),  belfry,  and  a  beautiful  Gothic  church, 
founded  in  1238  by  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders. 
Table  damask,  linen,  and  lace  are  tlie  chief 
mannfactures.  Population,  about  35,000.  Here, 
in  1302,  the  citizens  of  Ghent  and  Bruges  won 
over  the  French  the  '  Battle  of  the  Spurs,'  so 
named  from  the  number  of  gilt  spurs  gathered 
from  the  dead, 

Coutances  (Kooton^ss),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  La  Manche,  5  miles  from  the  English 
Channel  and  57  S.  of  Cherbourg  by  rail.  It  has 
a  fine  cathedral.    Pop.  6145. 

Coutras  (Kootrah'),  a  town  in  the  dep.  of 
Gironde,  32  miles  NE.  of  Bordeaux.  Here,  in  1587, 
Henry  of  Navarre  defeated  the  League.  Pop.  4324. 

Cove,  a  Kincardineshire  fishing-village,  4|  miles 
S.  by  E.  of  Aberdeen.     Pop,  462. 

Cove  and  Kilcreggan,  a  Dumbartonshire 
police  burgh,  at  the  end  of  the  Rosneath 
peninsula,  3^  miles  by  water  NW.  of  Greenock. 
Pop.  916. 

Coventry,  a  city,  parliamentary,  municipal, 
and  county  borough,  and  manufacturing  town 
in  the  north  of  Warwickshire,  on  the  Sherbourne, 
an  affluent  of  the  Avon,  1S|  miles  ESE.  of  Bir- 
mingham, and  94  NW.  of  London.  It  stands  on 
a  gentle  eminence  in  a  valley,  with  a  ridge  of 
hill  on  the  south,  and  still  contains  some  houses 
with  timbered  projecting  fronts  which  belong  to 
the  15th  and  16th  centuries.  The  modern  build- 
ings include  a  corn  exchange,  market-hall,  baths, 
Free  Public  Library,  School  of  Art,  new  grammar 
and  other  schools,  many  tricycle  and  bicycle 
•works,  the  Coventry  and  Warwickshire  Hospital, 
and  the  Coventry  Provident  Dispensary.  Coven- 
try is  rich  in  benevolent  and  charitable  institu- 
tions, which  have  been  greatly  augmented  by  the 
benefactions  of  the  late  David  Spencer.  In 
1887  he  provided  a  building  for  a  technical 
school ;  in  1883  he  had  given  £4200  for  a  public 
recreation  ground  ;  and  at  his  death  (June  9, 
1888)  he  bequeathed  £100,000  for  benevolent  pur- 
poses, A  statue  of  Sir  Thomas  White  has  been 
erected,  and  a  memorial  of  James  Starley,  the 
inventor  of  the  modem  tricycle.  At  a  cost  of 
many  thousands  of  pounds  the  principal  streets 
have  been  widened,  and  a  steam-tramway  now 
runs  through  the  city.  During  recent  years  up- 
wards of  £70,000  has  been  expended  in  church 
restoration,  and  during  1887-89  all  of  Tennyson's 
'three  tall  spires'  were  in  the  restorer's  hands. 
St  Michael's  (1230-1395)  is  said  to  be  the  largest 
parish  church  in  England,  and  is  one  of  the 
noblest  of  the  ligliter  Gothic  structures.  St 
Mary's  Hall  (14th  c),  for  the  Guild,  is  one  of  the 
finest  specimens  of  ornamental  work  in  England, 
with  carved  oak  roof,  ancient  tapestry,  and  great 
painted  window.  Coventry  returns  one  member 
to  parliament.  The  chief  manufactures  are  rib- 
bons, watches,  bicycles  and  tricycles,  cotton, 
worsted  and  woollen  goods,  and  art  metal  works 
(the  Albert  Memorial,  Hyde  Park,  London,  being 
of  Coventry  manufacture).  There  are  large  silk- 
'  dyeing  works.     Pop.  (1841)  30,743  ;   (1901)  69,978. 

The  name  Coventry  has  been  interpreted  '  Con- 
vent-town,' but  as  the  form  in  Domesday  is  Cou- 
entrev,  it  is  more  likely  '  town  on  the  Couen ' — 
Couen  being  the  ancient  British  name  of  the  Sher- 
bourne, and  trev  being  'town.'  In  1043  Earl 
Leofric  and  his  wife.  Lady  Godiva,  founded  here 
a  magnificent  Benedictine  monastery.  Henry 
VIII.  demolished  the  beautiful  cathedral.  Here 
occurred  the  famous  meeting  for  the  intended 
trial  by  battle  between  the  Dukes  of  Norfolk  and 
Hereford,  immortalised  in  Shakespeare's  Richard 


II.  Two  memorable  parliaments  were  also  held 
here  in  1404  and  1459.  In  the  15th,  16th,  and 
17th  centuries,  Coventry  was  famous  for  woollens, 
broadcloths,  caps,  and  blue  thread  bonnets. 
'  George  Eliot'  lived  in  Foleshill  Road  during  1841- 
42.    See  T.  Sharp's  History  of  Coventry  (Birm.  1871). 

Covilhao,  a  Portuguese  town,  103  miles  by  rail 
NNE.of  Abrantes.     Pop.  15,986. 

Covington,  a  city  of  Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio, 
opposite  Cincinnati,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  a  fine  suspension  bridge.  It  has  distilleries, 
and  manufactures  of  glass-ware,  nails,  and  to- 
bacco.   Pop.  (1850)  9408  ;  (1900)  42,938. 

Cowbridge,  a  mun.  borough  of  Glamorganshire, 
on  the  Ddaw,  12  miles  W.  of  Cardiff  (17  by  rail), 
with  which  and  Llantrissant  it  returns  one  mem- 
ber.   It  has  a  grammar-school  (1678).     Pop.  1377. 

Cowdenbeath,  a  coal-mining  village  of  Fife,  2 
miles  WSW.  of  Lochgelly.     Pop.  8249. 

Cowdenknowes.    See  Eablston. 

Cowdray  House.    See  Midhurst. 

Cowes,  a  watering-place  in  the  north  corner  of 
the  Isle  of  Wight,  11^  miles  SSB.  of  Southampton 
by  water,  and  4  N.  of  Newport  by  rail.  It 
consists  of  West  and  East  Cowes,  lying  on 
opposite  sides  of  the  mouth  of  the  Medina's 
estuary,  and  connected  by  steam-ferry.  Standing 
on  a  hill-slope.  West  Cowes  is  the  headquarters  of 
the  Royal  Yacht  Club  (1815).  Their  club-house 
was  originally  a  fort  (1540).  Yacht- building  is 
the  great  speciality  of  Cowes,  which  has  a  fine 
promenade  (1864),  excellent  hotels,  baths,  villas, 
&c.  Slatwoods  at  East  Cowes  was  Dr  Arnold's 
birthplace,  and  in  the  vicinity  are  East  Cowes 
Castle  (1798),  Norris  Castle  (1799),  and  Osborne 
House  (1845).  The  last,  built  as  a  marine  resi- 
dence for  Queen  Victoria,  is  an  Italian  edifice, 
with  a  flag- tower  112  feet  high,  and  beautiful 
grounds.  Pop.  of  West  Cowes  (1851)  4786,  (1901) 
8654  ;  of  East  Cowes  (1861)  1954,  (1901)  3180. 

Cowie,  a  fishing-village  near  Stonehaven. 

Cowlairs',  a  N,  suburb  of  Glasgow,  with  great 
railway  works. 

Cowley,  a  S.  suburb  of  Oxford,  giving  name 
to  the  Anglican  mission  order  of  the  'Cowley 
Fathers '  (1865). 

Cowpen,  a  Northumberland  township,  with 
coal-pits,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Blyth,  1  mile 
W.  by  N.  of  Blyth,     Pop.  17,982. 

Cowslip  Green,  Hannah  More's  home,  Somer- 
set, 10  ]niles  SSW.  of  Bristol. 

Coxhoe  Hall,  the  birthplace  of  Mrs  Browning, 
5i  miles  SSE.  of  Durham. 

'Coxwold,  a  Yorkshire  parish,  7J  miles  SE,  of 
Thirsk.     Sterne  was  its  parson. 

Coyle,  an  Ayrshire  stream,  flowing  14J  miles 
through  Kyle  to  the  Ayr. 

Cracow  (Pol.  Krakov,  Ger.  Krakau),  a  city  of 
Austrian  Galicia,  259  miles  NE.  of  Vienna.  It 
stands  672  feet  above  sea-level,  in  a  wide,  hill- 
girt  plain  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Vistula,  which 
here  becomes  navigable,  and  is  spanned  by  a 
bridge  (1850)  leading  to  Podgorze.  The  old  walls, 
converted  into  promenades,  have  been  super- 
seded by  a  line  of  detached  forts.  On  the  Wawel 
rock  rises  the  old  castle  of  the  Polish  kings, 
degraded  now  to  a  barrack.  The  neighbouring 
cathedral  (1320-59)  is  a  splendid  pile,  containing 
the  graves  of  John  Sobieski,  Poniatowski,  and 
Kosciusko,  with  Thorwaldsen's  statue  of  Christ. 
The  university  (1364)  was  reorganised  and  re- 
opened in  1817,  and  now  is  attended  by  more  than 


CRADOCK 


207 


CRETE 


1100  students.  Cracow  has  important  fairs,  and 
its  trade  and  manufactures  (chemicals,  tobacco, 
beer,  agricultural  implements,  &c.)  have  greatly 
revived.  Three  miles  west  of  the  city  is  a  g:-assy 
mound,  150  feet  high,  reared  in  1820-23  to  the 
memory  of  Kosciusko.  Pop.  (1869)  49,835  ;  (1890) 
74,593 ;  (1905)  about  95,000.  Cracow  was  the 
Polish  capital  from  1320  till  1609.  On  the  third 
partition  of  Poland  (1795)  it  was  assigned  to 
Austria.  In  1809-15  it  was  part  of  the  duchy  of 
Warsaw,  and  in  1815-45  a  republic  ;  but  in  1846 
it  was  re-annexed  to  Austria. 

Oradock,  a  town  and  liealth-resort  of  Cape 
Colony,  2800  feet  above  the  sea,  in  the  upper 
valley  of  the  Great  Fish  River,  and  half-way 
between  Port  Elizabeth  and  Colesberg.  It  is  a 
centre  of  the  wool  trade.     Pop.  7800. 

Cralgcrook,  Lord  Jeffrey's  seat,  3^  miles  W.  of 
Edinburgli. 

Cralgeirachie,  (l)  a  Speyside  village  of  Banfif- 
shire,  13  miles  SSB.  of  Elgin.— (2)  A  Speyside 
height  that  '  stands  fast '  near  Aviemore. 

Craigendor'an,  a  steamboat  pier,  Dumbarton- 
shire, 1  mile  SB.  of  Helensburgh. 

Cralgenputtock,  Carlyle's  moorland  home 
(1828-34),  15  miles  WNW.  of  Dumfries. 

Craig  Go  wan,  a  height  (1437  feet)  near  Bal- 
moral, with  cairns  to  the  royal  family. 

Craighall,  New,  a  collier  village  of  Midlothian, 

2  miles  WSW.  of  Musselburgh.    Pop.  1650 
Craigleburn,  3  miles   E.  of  Moffat,  a  wood 

celebrated  by  Burns, 

Craigleithi,  a  huge  quarry  2  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Edinburgh. 

Craigmillar,  a  fine  ruined  castle  (1427-1661), 

3  miles  SE.  of  Edinburgh. 

Craignethan,  a  ruined  castle  (Scott's  'Tillie- 
tudlem')  in  Lanarkshire,  5^  miles  WNW.  of 
Lanark. 

Craigneuk,  part  of  Wishaw  (q.v.). 

Craigphadrlck.    See  Inverness. 

Crail  an  antique  little  coast-town  in  the  '  East 
Neuk '  of  Fife,  2^  miles  WSW.  of  Fife  Ness,  and 
10  SE.  of  St  Andrews.  There  is  a  fragment 
of  a  castle  of  David  I. ;  and  an  interesting  church, 
in  which  Knox  preached,  and  of  which  Sharp  was 
minister.  A  royal  burgli  since  1306,  Crail  with 
St  Andrews,  &c.  returns  an  M.P.     Pop.  1070. 

Craiova.    See  Krajova. 

Cramond,  a  village  at  the  Almond's  influx  to 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  5  miles  WNW.  of  Edinburgh. 

Cranborne,  a  Dorset  town,  9  miles  NNE.  of 
Wimborne.     Pop.  of  parish,  2824. 

Cranbrook,  a  pleasant  little  market-town  in 
the  Weald  of  Kent,  46  miles  SB.  of  London.  It 
has  a  fine  Perpendicular  church,  and  a  large  trade 
in  hops.  From  the  14th  to  the  17th  century  it 
was  the  centre  of  the  broadcloth  manufacture  in- 
troduced by  the  Flemings.  Pop.  of  parish,  8950. 
See  Tarbutt's  Annals  of  Cranbrook  (1875). 

Cranganore  (Kodungalur),  a  town  in  Cochin 
state,  on  the  west  coast  of  southern  India.  It 
stands  on  an  opening  of  the  Cochin  backwater, 
18  miles  N.  of  Cochin  town.    Pop.  10,000. 

Cranston,  a  town  of  Rhode  Island,  4  miles  by 
rail  SW.  of  Providence,  with  calico  and  woollen 
works,  &c.     Pop.  (1880)  5940;  (1900)13.343. 

Crarae,  a  place  with  granite  quarries  on  Loch 
Fyne,  9^  m:ies  SSW.  of  Inveraray. 

Crathle  and  Braemar,  Aberdeenshire,  the 
Deeside  parish  in  which  is  Balmoral  (q.v.). 


Craven  Arms,  Shropshire,  a  junction,  20  miles 
S.  of  Shrewsbury. 

Crecy-en-Ponthleu,  or  Cressy,  a  village  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Somme,  on  the  Maye,  12  miles  N. 
of  Abbeville.  Here,  on  26th  August  1346,  Edward 
III.  won  a  great  victory  over  the  French. 

Crediton,  or  Kirkton,  a  Devon  town,  on  the 
Creedy,  a  tributary  of  the  Exe,  7  miles  NW.  of 
Exeter.  It  suffered  much  by  fire  in  1743  and 
1769,  but  its  church  is  a  fine  old  cruciform  struc- 
ture. The  traditional  birthplace  of  St  Boniface, 
the  apostle  of  Germany,  Crediton  was  tlie  seat 
from  910  to  1050  of  a  bishopric,  transferred  then 
to  Exeter.  Its  woollen  manufactures  are  a  thing 
of  the  past.     Pop.  (1851)  3924 ;  (1901)  3974. 

Creedmoor,  a  village  of  Long  Island. 

Creetown,  a  Kirkcudbrightshire  seaport,  4  miles 
NE.  of  Wigtown.     Pop.  991. 

Creil,  a  French  manufacturing  town  in  Oise,  and 
22  miles  SE.  of  Beauvais,  where  metal-work  and 
earthenware  are  largely  produced.     Pop.  11,000. 

Crema  (Kray'ma),  a  cathedral  city  of  Lombardy, 
27  miles  N  W.  of  Cremona  by  rail.     Pop.  8251. 

Cremo'na,  a  decayed  city  of  northern  Italy,  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Po,  60  miles  SB.  of  Milan 
by  rail.  Among  its  buildings  are  the  cathedral 
(1107-1606),  with  gorgeous  interior;  the  neigh- 
bouring octagonal  Baptistery ;  the  Palazzo  Pub- 
lico (1245) ;  the  Campo  Santo ;  and  the  famous 
Torrazzo  (1288)  or  belfry— the  loftiest  campanile 
in  Italy,  396  feet  higli.  It  has  a  river  traffic,  and 
manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  earthenware,  and 
chemicals ;  in  the  16th,  17th,  and  18th  centuries 
it  was  greatly  celebrated  for  its  violins,  the  most 
famous  makers  being  the  Aniati,  Straduarius,  and 
the  Guarnieri.     Pop.  37,930. 

Creran,  an  Ai-gyllshire  sea-loch,  curving  8 
miles  to  Loch  Linnhe. 

Cressy.    See  Creqy. 

Creston,  a  town  of  Iowa,  115  miles  W.  of 
Ottumwa.  It  has  machine-shops  and  railway- 
carriage  works.     Pop.  (1870)  411  ;  (1900)  7750. 

Crete  (Ital.  Candia,  Gr.  Krete),  an  autono- 
mous Turkish  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  still 
under  Turkish  suzerainty.  It  is  60  miles  S.  of 
Cape  Mailea  in  Greece,  110  SW.  of  Cape  Krio  in 
Asia  Minor,  100  SSW.  of  Rhodes,  and  300  W.  of 
Cyprus.  Its  length  is  156  miles  ;  its  breadth 
varies  from  30  to  as  little  as  7  miles  ;  and  its  area 
is  3326  sq.  m.,  or  twice  the  size  of  Hampshire. 
The  climate  is  excellent ;  the  rainfall  about  27 
inches.  Crete  is  for  the  most  part  mountainous, 
especially  in  the  -west,  where  stand  the  White 
Mountains.  In  the  centre  Mount  Ida,  now  called 
Upsiloriti,  attains  8055  feet.  Everywhere  the 
numerous  small  valleys  are  exceedingly  fertile. 
The  rivers  are  dried  up  in  summer ;  but  springs 
abound  all  over  the  island.  The  coast-line,  deeply 
indented  on  the  north,  includes  some  good  har- 
bours, as  Suda  Bay  on  the  north,  and  on  the 
south  Kaloi  Limenes  or  the  Fair  Havens  (Acts, 
xxvii.  8).  Three  neighbouring  islands  are  Clauda 
or  Gavdo,  off  the  south-west  coast,  15  sq.  m.  in 
area,  with  a  lighthouse ;  Dia ;  and  Grabusa. 
Wheat  and  fruit  are  the  most  important  products. 
Oranges  and  lemons  particularly  flourish.  The 
grapes  are  good,  but  the  wine,  though  abundant, 
is  very  inferior.  The  forests  have  almost  entirely 
disappeared ;  but  on  the  hills  the  cypress 
flourishes,  and  in  t*he  plain  country  the  olive  is 
the  most  important  tree.  The  principal  exports 
are  olive-oil,  soap,  carobs,  wool,  cheese,  valonia, 
acorns,  and  fruits.    Sheep  are  largely  bred,  and 


CREUSE 


208 


CRINAN  CANAL 


the  wool  is  exported.  Sponges  are  found  upon 
the  coast.  Pop.  320,000,  mostly  of  Greek  descent, 
with  30,000  Moslems.  The  Cretans  are  a  turbu- 
lent race,  of  proverbial  mendacity,  bold  and  in- 
dependent. Crete  had  once,  according  to  Homer, 
'a  hundred  cities;'  there  are  now  but  three 
towns  :  Candia,  pop.  21,500 ;  Retimo,  9500 ;  and 
Canea  or  Khania,  14,000.  Crete  was  subdued  by 
the  Romans  (67  B.C.),  by  the  Venetians  (1205), 
and  by  the  Turks  (1C69).  A  series  of  rebellions 
ended  in  1S97  in  the  intervention  of  the  powers, 
the  expulsion  of  the  Turkish  officials,  and  the 
constitution  of  Crete  an  autonomous  state  under 
Turkish  suzerainty  and  Prince  George  of  Greece 
as  commissioner.  In  1905  there  was  a  rebellion 
aimed  at  union  with  Greece.  Since  1900  there 
have  been  great  excavations  at  Knossos,  the 
ancient  capital.  See  works  by  Spratts  (1S65), 
Edwardes  (1887),  A.  J.  Evans  (1896),  Bickford 
Smith  (1897),  and  Freese  (1897). 

Creuse  (nearly  Krehz),  a  river  and  a  dep.  in 
central  France.  The  river  flows  146  miles  north- 
westward to  the  Vienne,  a  tributary  of  the  Loire. 
— The  dep.,  with  an  area  of  2150  sq.  m.,  had  a 
pop.  of  (1872)  274,663  ;  (1901)  277,831. 

Creusot,  Le  (Kreh-zo'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Saone-et-Loire,  14  miles  SSE.  of  Autun, 
and  236  SSE.  of  Paris.  It  owes  its  importance  to 
the  huge  ironworks  (1837)  of  Schneider  &  Co., 
at  which  cannon  are  largely  made.  Pop.  (1846) 
4012 ;  (1901)  30,175. 

Or^vecceur  (Krehv-kehr' ;  Fr.' heart- breaker'), 
a  once  famous  Dutch  fort  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Meuse  and  Dieze,  4  miles  NNW.  of  Bois-le-Duc. 
It  figures  in  history  1587-1794.— The  same  name 
is  borne  by  French  villages  in  Nord  and  in  Oise. 

Crevillente  {Kray-vil-yen'teh),  a  town  of  Spain, 
20  miles  WSW.  of  Alicante.    Pop,  10,167. 

Crewe,  a  town  of  Cheshire,  with  a  great  rail- 
way junction  and  the  huge  works  (1843)  of  the 
London  and  North-Western  Railway,  to  which 
it  owes  its  present  importance.  It  is  158  miles 
NW.  of  London,  43  SE.  of  Liverpool,  31  SSW. 
of  Manchester,  and  53  NW.  of  Birmingham. 
About  1840  there  were  only  two  or  three  houses 
where  Crewe  now  stands ;  but  since  then  its 
pop.  has  grown  to  4491  in  1851,  17,810  in  1871, 
aiiil  42,074  in  1901.  Naturally  Crewe  is  not  an 
attractive  place ;  still,  the  L.  &  N.W.  Company 
have  erected  many  handsome  buildings,  done 
much  in  the  way  of  sanitation,  and  in  1887-88 
presented  the  town  witli  a  beautiful  park  of  40 
acres.  Crewe  was  incorporated  in  1877,  and  the 
borough  boundary  was  extended  in  1892.  Lord 
Crewe's  seat,  Crewe  Hall,  by  Inigo  Jones,  was 
burnt  in  1866,  but  has  been  since  rebuilt. 

Crewkerne,  a  Somerset  market-town,  in  the 
fertile  valley  of  the  Parret,  15  miles  SE.  of 
Taunton.  It  has  a  cruciform  Perpendicular 
church,  with  a  splendid  west  front ;  a  grammar- 
school  (1499),  occupying  new  buildings ;  and 
manufactures  of  sailcloth,  girth-web,  hair- 
seating,  &c.    Pop.  4226. 

Criccieth  (Krik'ki-eth),  a  Carnarvonshire 
watering-place,  one  of  the  five  Carnarvon  (q.v.) 
boroughs,  on  Cardigan  Bay,  4  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Tremadoc.     Pop.  1410. 

Crichton  (now  Krl-ton ;  formerly  Krihh'ton),  a 
fine  ruined  castle  of  Midlothian,  on  the  Tyne,  5 
miles  ESE.  of  Dalkeith.     It  figures  in  Marmion. 

Crickhowell,  a  market-town  of  Brecknock- 
shire, on  the  Usk,  13  miles  SE.  of  Brecknock. 
Pop.  of  parish,  1246. 

Crjcklade,  a  town  in  Wiltshire,  on  the  Isis  or 


Thames,  7  miles  NNW.  of  Swindon.  Enfran- 
chised  under  Edward  I.,  it  returned  two  mem- 
bers  till  1885,  the  'borough'  since  1782  having 
included  forty-four  parislies  and  parts  of  six 
others,  with  a  pop.  of  51,000.  Pop.  in  1901  of  rural 
district  (Cricklade  and  Wootton  Bassett)  11,357. 

OrieS  (Kreeff),  a  Perthshire  town,  on  the  Earn's 
left  bank,  18  in.  W.  of  Perth  by  two  branch-lines 
opened  in  1856-66.  It  is  situated  in  the  midst 
of  exquisite  scenery,  enjoys  a  pure  dry  climate, 
has  a  large  hydropatliic  (1867),  two  old  market- 
crosses,  and  Morrison's  Academy  (1859).  Of  many 
neighbouring  seats,  Drnmmond  Castle  (1491), 
Lord  Willoughby  de  Eresby's,  is  famous  for  its 
gardens.    Pop.  (1851)  3824  ;  (1901)  5208, 

Crlffel,  a  Kirkcudbrightshire  hill  (1867  feet), 
2\  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Newabbey. 

Crime'a  (Tartar  Krym,  anciently  the  Tauric 
Chersonese),  a  peninsula  of  South  Russia,  between 
the  Black  Sea  and  Sea  of  Azov,  joined  to  the 
continent  of  Russia  by  the  Isthmus  of  Perekop, 
18^  miles  long  by  5^  miles  broad  at  its  narrowest 
part,  a  canal  through  which  was  undertaken  in 
1888.  The  peninsula  is  200  miles  from  east  to 
west,  by  125  miles  from  north  to  south,  with 
625  miles  of  coast-line,  and  an  area  of  about 
10,000  sq.  m.  Along  the  Siwash  or  Putrid  Sea 
on  the  north,  and  the  Sea  of  Azov,  the  coasts 
are  flat  and  open.  To  the  west  of  the  wide  bay 
of  Kaffa  or  Theodosia  the  south  coast  becomes 
rocky  and  elevated,  and  forms  a  succession  of 
capes  and  small  gulfs.  Balaklava,  and  more 
especially  Sebastopol,  have  fine  harbours.  Lime- 
stone mountains  from  Cape  Chersonese  to  Bafla 
Bay  show  deep  erosion,  presenting  the  ruins  of 
a  vast  tableland,  sloping  gently  northwards  into 
the  steppe,  but  hanging  in  abrupt  precipices 
southwards.  Chatir  Dagh  or  Tent  Mount  (anc. 
Mons  Trapezits,  'table  mount'),  is  the  highest 
summit,  5450  feet.  In  the  hilly  district  about 
Kertch  are  thermal  and  naphtha  springs,  and 
mud  volcanoes.  There  are  some  fifty  small 
rivers  and  rivulets,  and  four  hundred  salt 
lakes.  The  climate  is  healthy,  and  generally 
mild,  but  in  winter  the  steppe  is  exposed  to  cold 
winds,  frost,  and  snowstorms,  while  the  south 
coast  is  sheltered  and  warm.  The  steppe,  though 
not  fertile,  yet  grazes  innumerable  herds  of  cattle, 
and  yields  porphyries  and  various  coloured 
marbles.  The  northern  mountain-slopes  are  laid 
out  in  pastures,  thickets,  orchards,  and  gardens 
watered  from  the  rivers.  In  the  uplands  are 
still  magnificent  forests  of  oak,  beech,  elm,  ash, 
willow,  &c.  On  the  southern  slopes  are  famous 
health-resorts,  with  Livadia  and  other  imperial 
residences.  Good  wine  is  largely  produced,  and 
some  exported.  Though  the  Crimea  was  once 
famous  for  its  corn,  it  has  suffered  greatly  from 
drought,  and  nuich  good  land  is  now  unculti- 
vated. Good  coal  is  mined ;  an  extensive  field 
was  opened  iu  1888.  The  population  numbers 
about  900,000,  of  whom  most  are  Tartars,  250,000 
Russians,  and  the  rest  Greeks,  Jews,  Bulgarians, 
Germans,  &c.  The  capital  is  Simferopol,  the 
old  Tartar  capital  being  Bakchiserai.  For 
Englishmen  the  peninsula's  chief  interest  is  in 
the  Crimean  War  (1854-55),  when  Britain, 
France,  and  Sardinia  defeated  the  Russians,  at 
a  cost  to  the  first  of  20,656  lives. 

See  J.  B.  Telfer,  The  Crimea  and  Transcaucasia 
(1876),  and  histories  of  the  war  by  Kinglake  (8 
vols.  1863-87)  and  Hamley  (1891). 

Crinan  Canal,  9  miles  long,  in  Argyllshire, 
between  Loch  Gilp,  a  branch  of  Loch  Fyne,  and 
Loch  Crinan,  in  the  Sound  of  Jura,  at  the  head 


I 


CROAGHPATRICK 


CROYDON 


of  the  peninsula  of  Kintyre.  Constructed  in 
1793-1801  at  a  cost  of  £183,000,  it  is  24  feet  broad 
and  10  deep,  has  15  locks,  and  admits  vessels 
of  200  tons. 

Croaghpatrlck  (Kro-patrick),  a  mountain  (2510 
ft.)  of  County  Mayo,  4  m,  SW.  of  Westport.  Here 
St  Patrick  is  said  to  have  begun  missionary  work. 

Croatia  and  Slavonia  (Hung.  Horvut-Szlavon- 
orszdg);  form  since  1881,  together  with  their 
former  '  Military  Frontier,'  a  crown-land  belong- 
ing to  the  Hungarian  section  of  Austria,  lying 
between  the  Adriatic  Sea  on  the  SW.,  where 
Croatia  has  a  seaboard  of  about  84  miles,  and 
Hungary  on  the  NB.  Area,  16,352  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
about  2,500,000.  The  surface  of  Croatia  falls 
mainly  into  a  wooded  mountain  district,  attain- 
ing 5751  feet.  The  province  belongs  to  the  basin 
of  the  Danube,  its  most  important  rivers  being 
the  Drave  and  Save.  In  Slavonia  extensive 
marshes  are  found  along  the  main  rivers.  Warm 
mineral  springs  are  numerous,  and  earthquakes, 
especially  about  Agram,  are  frequent.  The 
Adriatic  coast  is  poorly  supplied  with  harbours. 
The  people  are  Slavs.    Agram  is  the  capital. 

Croisic,  Le  (Krwah-seek'),  a  seaport  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Loire-Inferieure,  20  miles  W.  of 
St  Nazaire  by  rail.     Pop.  2464. 

Crom'arty,  a  town  of  Ross  and  Cromarty,  on 
the  south  shore  of  the  Cromarty  Firth,  2  miles 
from  its  entrance,  and  19  NNE.  of  Inverness. 
Nothing  remains  of  the  old  stronghold  of  the 
Urquharts,  the  most  famous  of  whom  was 
Rabelais'  translator.  Sir  Thomas.  Hugh  Miller 
was  a  native.  With  Wick,  &c.,  Cromarty  returns 
a  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  1242.  —Cromarty 
Firth,  a  land-locked  inlet,  extends  19J  miles 
north-eastward  and  eastward  to  the  Moray  Firth. 
It  forms  a  noble  harbour,  1  mile  to  7|  miles 
broad,  and  5  to  35  fathoms  deep ;  receives  at  its 
head  the  Conon  ;  and  narrows  at  its  entrance  to 
7  furlongs,  between  the  beetling  North  and  South 
Sutors,  400  and  463  feet  high.  On  its  shores 
are  the  towns  of  Dingwall,  Invergorden,  and 
Cromarty.— Crom'artyshire,  a  Scottish  county, 
369  sq.  m.  in  area,  but  consisting  of  ten  detached 
portions,  and  scattered  up  and  down  Ross-shire, 
with  which,  under  the  Local  Government  (Scot- 
land) Act  of  1889,  it  is  finally  incorporated. 
It  comprised  the  ancient  sheriffdom  of  Cromarty, 
and  outlying  bits  annexed  thereto  towards  the 
close  of  the  17th  century  at  the  instigation  of 
Viscount  Tar  bat  (created  Earl  of  Cromarty,  1703), 
who  wished  thus  to  hold  jurisdiction  over  every 
part  of  his  estates.  See  Sir  W.  Eraser's  Earls 
of  Cromarty  (2  vols.  1876). 

Cromdale,  in  Elginshire,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Spey,  5  miles  NE.  of  Grantown.  Here,  on 
1st  May  1690,  800  Jacobite  Highlanders  were  sur- 
prised and  routed  by  a  body  of  dragoons. 

Cromer,  a  pleasant  watering-place  of  Norfolk, 
23  miles  N.  of  Norwich  by  rail  (1877).  The  sea 
has  made  great  encroachments  on  the  cliffs  since 
1350,  though  the  town  itself  is  now  protected  by 
a  sea-wall,  formed  in  1877,  with  an  esplanade 
and  a  jetty,  at  a  cost  of  nearly  £10,000.  There 
are  capital  sands  and  golf-links  (1887),  and  the 
church  has  a  noble  flint-work  toAver  of  160  feet. 
Pop.  of  urban  district,  3781.  Lord  Cromer  (Sir 
Evelyn  Baring)  was  born  here.  See  W.  Rye's 
Cromer  Past  and  Present  (1889). 

Cromford,  a  town  of  Derbyshire,  on  the  Der- 
went,  2  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Wirksworth.     Ark- 
wright  migrated  hither  in  1771.    Pop.  1082. 
Crompton,  a  northern  suburb  of  Oldham. 
N 


Cronstadt,  a  strongly  fortified  Russian  sea^ 
port,  20  miles  W.  of  St  Petersburg,  on  a  narrow 
island  7  miles  long,  at  the  narrowest  part  of  the 
Gulf  of  Finland,  and  over  against  the  mouth  of 
the  Neva.  Founded  by  Peter  the  Great  in  1710, 
it  is  at  once  the  greatest  naval  station  and  the 
most  flourishing  commercial  port  of  Russia.  It 
is  the  seat  of  the  Russian  Admiralty ;  has  three 
harbours ;  and  since  1884  has  been  connected 
with  St  Petersburg  by  a  ship-canal  207  feet  wide 
and  22  feet  deep.  Cronstadt  contains  a  cathedral, 
a  statue  of  Peter  the  Great,  and  a  British  sea- 
men's hospital  (1867).     Pop.  61,000. , 

Cronstadt,  in  Hungary.    See  Kronstadt. 

Crookhaven,  a  fishing-village  of  County  Cork, 
30  miles  SW.  of  Skibbereen. 

Crookston  Castle,  a  ruined  castle  of  Renfrew- 
shire, 5J  miles  ESE.  of  Paisley.  Darnley's 
betrothal  to  Queen  Mary  is  falsely  placed  here. 

Cropredy  Bridge,  near  Banbury,  gives  name 
to  Charles  I.'s  defeat  of  Waller  (29th  June  1644). 

Crosby,  Great,  a  watering-place  6^  miles  N. 
by  W.  of  Liverpool.     Pop.  7800. 

Crossmaglen',  an  Armagh  market-town,  3  miles 
NE.  of  CuUoville.    Pop.  774. 

Crossraguel  ('Cross  of  St  Regnlus'),  a  ruined 
Clugniac  abbey  (1244)  in  Ayrshire,  2  miles  SW.  of 
Maybole. 

Cross  River.    See  Calabar. 

Crosthwaite,  the  parish  containing  Keswick 
(q.v.).     In  its  cliurchyard  is  Southey's  grave. 

Crotona.     See  Cortona. 

Crowborough,  a  village  in  East  Sussex,  7  miles 
S.  of  Tunbridge  Wells,  2  miles  E.  of  Crowborough 
Beacon  (804  feet).    Pop.  3000. 

Crowland,  or  Croyland,  a  Lincolnshire  market- 
town,  on  the  Welland,  in  the  Fens,  10  miles 
NNE.  of  Peterborough.  Here  in  716  King  Ethel- 
wald  founded  a  monastery,  which,  restored  in 
1113,  became  a  mitred  Benedictine  abbey  of 
singular  magnificence.  The  north  aisle  of  its 
church  now  serves  as  the  parish  church;  the 
so-called  '  triangular '  bridge,  now  waterless,  was 
built  by  an  abbot  about  1380.  Pop.  of  parish, 
2800.     See  Perry's  Crowland  Abbey  (1867). 

Crowle,  a  market-town  of  Lincolnshire,  7  miles 
E.  by  S.  of  Thome.     Pop.  of  parish,  2741. 

Crown  Point,  a  village  of  New  York,  on  Lake 
Champlain.  A  British  fort  here  was  captured  by 
Colonel  Ethan  Allen  in  1775. 

Croydon,  a  town  in  Surrey,  lOJ  miles  S.  of 
London  Bridge,  yet  practically  a  suburb  of 
London.  It  lies  on  the  edge  of  the  chalk  and 
plastic  clay,  near  the  Banstead  Downs,  at  the 
source  of  the  Wandle,  hence  its  name  Croindene 
'chalkhill')  in  Domesday.  The  archbishops  of 
Canterbury  had  a  palace  here  from  the  Con- 
quest till  1757.  Its  Perpendicular  hall  (1452)  and 
chapel  (1633-63)  were  purchased  by  the  Duke  of 
Newcastle  in  1887  and  presented  to  the  Sisters  of 
the  Church  Extension  Association,  Addington 
Park,  3^  miles  ESE,,  has  since  1807  been  the 
summer  seat  of  the  archbishops.  Addiscombe 
House,  at  one  time  the  residence  of  the  first 
Earl  of  Liverpool,  was  converted  in  1812  into  the 
Bast  India  Military  College,  but  was  pulled  down 
in  1863.  The  fine  old  Perpendicular  parish  church 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  January  1867,  with  the 
exception  of  the  tower ;  but  was  rebuilt  by  Sir 
Gilbert  Scott,  and  retains  the  monument  of  Arch- 
bishop Sheldon,  with  fragments  of  that  of  Arch- 
bishop Grindal.  That  of  Archbishop  Whitgift 
was  restored  in  1888  at  a  cost  of  £600.     Whit- 


CROYLAND 


210 


CULLEN 


gift's  Hospital  (1596)  is  a  red  brick  quadrangular 
pile,  whilst  his  grammar-school  now  occupies 
buildings  of  1871,  besides  a  large  Whitgift  middle 
school.  Till  the  18th  century  Croydon  was 
famous  for  Its  '  colliers '  or  charcoal-burners ; 
now  its  chief  specialty  is  the  manufacture  of 
church  clocks  and  carillons.  It  was  made  a 
municipal  borough  in  1883,  a  parliamentary  one 
in  1885,  and  a  county  borough  in  1888.  Top.  (1851) 
10,260;  (1861)20,325;  (1871)55,652;  (1881)78,953; 
(1891)  102,695  ;  (1901)  133,895. 

Croyland.    See  Crowland. 

Crystal  Palace.    See  Sydenham. 

Crozet  Islands,  a  rocky,  uninhabited  group  to 
the  south  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  almost  on  a  line 
between  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  Kerguelen's 
Land,  in  lat.  46°  S. ,  and  long.  52°  E. 

Csaba,  a  town  of  Hungary,  7  miles  S.  of  Bekes 
by  rail.     Top.  37,616. 

Csanad,  a  village  in  Hungary,  on  the  Maros, 
22  miles  E.  of  Szegedin.    Pop.  2977. 

Csongrad,  a  town  of  Hungary,  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Theiss  and  the  Koros,  75  miles  SE.  of 
Pesth.     Pop.  27,837. 

Cuando,  a  name  of  the  Chobe,  a  tributary  of 
the  Zambesi  (q.v.). 

Ouango,  or  Kwanoo.    See  Congo. 

Cuba,  the  most  westerly  and  largest  of  the 
West  Indian  islands,  since  1902  an  indepen- 
dent republic,  stretches  in  the  form  of  a  long 
narrow  crescent,  convex  on  tlie  north  side,  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  which  it  divides 
into  two  channels — the  north-west,  124  miles 
wide,  and  the  soutli-west,  98  miles  at  its  narrowest 
part.  Cuba  is  759  miles  long  from  east  to  west, 
with  a  breadth  varying  from  27  miles  to  90  miles, 
a  coast-line  of  1976  miles,  and  an  area  of  41,655 
sq.  m.  The  shores  are  low  and  in  many  parts 
beset  by  reefs  and  banks,  but  there  are  numerous 
excellent  havens.  A  watershed  running  length- 
wise through  the  island,  rises  into  mountainous 
heights  only  in  the  south-east,  where  the  Sierra 
de  Maestra  in  the  Pico  de  Tarquino  attains  8400 
feet.  The  mountains,  containing  minerals,  espe- 
cially copper  and  iron,  are  wooded  to  the  sum- 
mits. The  limestone  rocks  abound  in  caverns, 
with  magnificent  stalactites.  Mineral  waters  are 
plentiful.  The  rivers,  running  north  and  soutli, 
are  navigable  for  only  a  few  miles  by  small  boats, 
but  are  very  serviceable  for  irrigation.  The 
climate,  more  temperate  than  in  the  other  West 
Indian  Islands,  is  healthy  in  the  elevated  interior, 
but  the  coasts  are  the  haunt  of  fever  and  ague. 
No  month  of  the  year  is  free  from  rain,  the 
greatest  rainfall  being  in  May,  June,  and  July. 
Earthquakes  are  frequent  in  the  east;  and  a 
hurricane  in  1846  demolished  1872  houses  and 
sank  216  vessels.  The  soil  is  eminently  fertile,  a 
large  part  still  covered  with  virgin  forest  con- 
taining magnificent  mahogany,  cedar,  &c.  Among 
the  cultivated  products  are  sugar,  tobacco, 
coffee,  cacao,  rice,  maize,  cotton,  esculent  roots, 
and  tropical  fruits.  The  rivers  and  seas  are  well 
stocked  with  fish,  and  turtles  abound  in  the 
shallows  and  sandy  places  of  the  beach.  Sugar 
has  long  been  the  chief  product ;  and  there  are 
some  1600  sugar  plantations,  8500  tobacco  plan- 
tations, and  700  coffee  plantations. 

Cuba,  spoken  of  as  the  '  Queen  of  the  Antilles,' 
was  discovered  in  1492  by  Columbus,  and  first 
settled  by  Spaniards  at  Baracoa  in  1511.  Havana, 
founded  in  1519,  was  reduced  to  ashes  by  the 
French  in  1538,  and  again  in  1554.  In  1762  the 
English   took   and   held    Havana    for    a   year. 


In  1818  the  trade  of  Cuba  was  opened  to  the 
world,  and  for  some  years  the  island  enjoyed  un- 
exampled prosperity.  During  the  American  civil 
war  Cuba  developed  its  sugar  industry.  An  in- 
surrection against  the  Spanish  authorities  went 
on  from  1868  to  1878,  a  new  one  broke  out  in 
1895,  and  the  Spanish  severities  in  suppressing  it 
led  to  the  intervention  of  the  United  States  aiid 
the  war,  disastrous  to  Spain,  of  1898-99.  After 
the  war  Cuba  was  occupied  by  the  Americans 
till  1902,  when  a  separate  constitution  was  given 
to  it  as  an  independent  republic,  closely  con- 
nected with  the  United  States  by  a  '  reciprocal 
commercial  convention.'  Pop.  (1900)  1,580,000. 
Havana  is  tlie  capital ;  other  towns  are  Puerto 
Principe,  Santiago,  Nuevitas,  and  Cienfuegos, 
united  by  railway.  See  works  by  Gallenga  (1873), 
Goodman,  Ballou,  Davis  (1807),  Porter  (1899),  and 
Robinson  (1905). 

Cubango,  a  river  of  central  Southern  Africa, 
the  chief  feeder  of  Lake  Ngami. 

Cucliullins,  or  CooLiNR,  a  group  of  sublimely 
picturesque  mountains  in  the  south  of  Skye, 
attaining  3183  feet. 

Cuckfield,  a  Sussex  market-town,  12  miles 
NNW.  of  Lewes.     Pop.  1837. 

Ciicuta,  San  Jose  de,  a  town  in  the  Colom- 
bian dep.  of  Santander,  on  the  Rio  Zulia,  35 
miles  S.  of  Puerto  Villamizar  by  rail.  It  was 
rebuilt  after  the  earthquake  of  1875.  Pop.  10,000. 
— Rosario  de  Cucuta,  to  the  SE.,  has  also  large 
I)lantations  of  coffee  and  cacao.     Pop.  6000. 

Cuddalore  (Kudalur  or  Gudulur),  the  chief 
town  in  South  Arcot,  on  the  Coromandel  or  east 
coast  of  India,  16  miles  S.  of  Pondicherry.  It 
has  a  large  trade  by  land  with  Madras  in  oils, 
indigo,  and  sugar,  and  exports  grain  by  sea. 
Cuddalore,  for  77  years  British,  was  in  1758 
taken  by  the  French,  but  finally  ceded  to  Britain 
in  1785.     Pop.  53,000. 

Cuddapah,  a  town  161  miles  NW.  by  rail  of 
Madras.     Pop.  18,982. 

Cuddesdon,  a  village  of  Oxfordshire,  6  miles 
ESE.  of  Oxford.  Here  are  the  palace  of  the 
bishops  of  Oxford,  rebuilt  by  Bishop  Fell  in 
1679,  and  a  theological  college  (1854). 

Cuenca  (Kiven-ka),  a  decayed  city  of  Spain,  85 
miles  ESE.  of  Madrid,  stands  2960  feet  above  sea- 
level,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Jucarand  Huecar. 
It  has  a  very  interesting  cathedral  (1177-1669). 
Pop.  10,300.— Area  of  province  of  Cuenca,  6726 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  251,000. 

Cuenca,  a  cathedral  city  of  Ecuador,  on  the 
Rio  Paute,  190  miles  SSW.  of  Quito,  on  a  fertile 
tableland,  8469  feet  above  the  sea.     Pop.  80,000. 

Cuernavaca  (Kwemavah'ka),  capital  of  the 
Mexican  state  Morelos,  40  miles  S.  of  Mexico 
City.  Near  it  is  the  famed  teocalli  of  Xochicalco. 
Pop.  17,000. 

Cuevas  de  Vera  (Kway'vas  day  Vay'ra),  a  town 
in  the  Spanish  province  of  Almeria,  on  the  Alman- 
zora,  70  miles  WSW.  of  Cartagena.     Pop.  20,558. 

Culbin,  a  sandy  desert  on  the  Moray  Firth,  15 
sq.  m.  in  area,  about  the  mouth  of  the  Findhorn. 
It  was  formed  between  12th  and  17th  centuries, 
and  some  of  its  drifted  sand-hills  are  100  ft.  high. 

Culebra  (Coolay'bra),  one  of  the  Virgin  Islands, 

Culenborg,  or  Kuilenburo,  a  town  of  Holland, 
on  the  Lek,  11  miles  SSE.  of  Utrecht.   Pop.  6798. 

Culiacan',  a  city  of  Mexico,  on  the  Rio  de 
Culiacan,  100  miles 'SE.  of  Sinaloa.     Pop.  11,000. 

Cullen,  a  fishing- town  of  Banffshire,  on  the 


CULLERA 


211 


CUNENE 


Moray  Firth,  67  miles  NW.  of  Aberdeen  by  rail- 
way (1885).  Backed  by  the  conical  Bin  Hill  (1050 
feet),  it  has  a  harbour  (1817-34),  a  cruciform 
parish  church,  and  Cullen  House,  a  seat  of  the 
Earl  of  Seafield.  A  royal  burgh  since  about  1200, 
Cullen  unites  with  Elgin,  &c.,  to  return  one 
member.    Pop.  4100. 

Oullera  (Kool-yay'ra),  a  Spanish  port,  near  the 
Jucar's  mouth,  25  m.  SSE.  of  Valencia.  Pop.  11,950. 

Oullod'en,  or  Drummossie  Muir,  a  broad  flat 
sandstone  ridge,  300  to  500  feet  high,  6  miles 
ENE.  of  Inverness.  Planting  and  culture  have 
changed  its  aspect  much  since  16th  April  1746, 
when  it  was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  Prince 
Charles  Edward  by  the  Duke  of  Cmnberland. 
Since  1881  a  cairn,  20  feet  high,  marks  the  battle- 
field. Within  2  miles  stands  Culloden  House,  the 
seat  of  Duncan  Forbes. 

Cullompton,  a  Devon  town,  on  the  Culme,  12 J 
miles  NE.  of  Exeter.     Pop.  of  parish,  3979. 

Culna.    See  Kalna. 

Culross  (Koo'ros),  a  pretty  old-world  village 
of  Fife  (till  1889  Perthshire  detached),  on  the 
north  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  7  miles  W.  by 
S.  of  Dunfermline.  With  memories  of  SS.  Serf 
and  Kentigern,  it  has  remains  of  a  Cistercian 
abbey  (1217),  but  has  lost  its  manufacture  of 
•girdles,'  its  salt-works,  shipping,  and  submarine 
coal-mines.  A  royal  burgh  since  1588,  it  unites 
with  Stirling,  &c.  to  return  one  member.  Pop. 
350.    See  Beveridge's  CtUross  (1885). 

Cults,  a  Fife  parish,  the  birthplace  of  Wilkie, 
4 J  miles  SW.  of  Cupar. 

Culzean  (Kul-Uen'),  the  Ayrshire  seat  (1777)  of 
the  Marquis  of  Ailsa,  4J  miles  W.  of  Maybole. 

Cumand,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  on  the  Man- 
zanares,  a  mile  above  its  mouth,  where  the  port 
of  Puerto  Sucre  lies  on  the  Gulf  of  Cariaco.  It 
is  the  oldest  European  town  in  South  America, 
having  been  founded  by  Columbus's  son  Diego  as 
New  Toledo  in  1521.  It  was  almost  destroyed  by 
earthquake  in  1853.     Pop.  12,051. 

Cumania,  a  region  in  central  Hungary  divided 
into  Great  Cumania,  east  of  the  Theiss,  and  Little 
Cumania,  between  the  Danube  and  the  Theiss. 

Ctunherland,  a  Border  county  of  England, 
washed  on  the  W.  by  the  Irish  Sea  and  the  Sol- 
way  Firth.  Eleventh  in  size  of  the  English 
counties,  it  has  a  maximum  length  of  75  miles,  a 
maximum  breadth  of  45,  and  an  area  of  1564  sq. 
m.  The  surface  is  mountainous  in  the  south- 
west and  east ;  the  middle  consists  of  hills, 
valleys,  and  elevated  ridges,  and  the  north  and 
north-west  districts,  including  the  vale  of  Car- 
lisle, are  low,  flat,  or  gently  undulated.  The 
mountains  in  the  south-west  are  high,  rugged,  and 
sterile,  with  deep  and  narrow  valleys,  lakes,  rivers, 
waterfalls,  and  woodlands.  The  chief  mountains 
are  Scaw  Fell  Pike  (3210  feet),  Scaw  Fell  (3162), 
Helvellyn  (3118),  Skiddaw  (3058),  Bow  Fell  (2960), 
and  Cross  Fell  (2892).  The  largest  lakes  are 
UUswater,  Derwentwater,  Bassenthwaite,  Thirl- 
mere,  Buttermere,  Wastwater,  and  Eunerdale. 
Six  of  the  chief  waterfalls  are  60  to  156  feet  high. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Eden,  the  Esk,  and  the 
Derwent.  Cumberland  abounds  in  mineral 
wealth— silver,  copper,  lead,  iron,  plumbago, 
gypsum,  limestone,  coal,  slates,  marbles,  marl, 
&c.  In  the  mountainous  parts  the  climate  is  wet 
and  variable,  especially  from  July  to  October  ;  on 
the  coast  it  is  mild.  The  annual  rainfall  ranges 
from  50  inches  to  244  at  Styhead  Pass  (1077  feet). 
There  are  many  small  dairies.  The  estates  are 
generally  small,  and  farmed  by  the  owners,  or 


held  under  the  lords  of  the  manors  by  customary 
tenure.  Many  of  the  small  proprietors,  or  '  states- 
men,' have  had  their  lands  in  their  families  for 
centuries.  The  chief  towns  are  Carlisle,  Cocker- 
mouth,  Whitehaven,  Workington,  Maryport, 
Wigton,  Penrith,  Keswick,  Egremont.  Since 
1885  Cumberland  returns  one  member  for  each  of 
the  four  divisions.  North  or  Eskdale,  Mid  or 
Penrith,  Cockermouth,  and  West  or  Egremont. 
Pop.  (1801)  117,230  ;  (1841)  178,038  ;  (1901)  266,921. 
Near  Keswick  and  Kirkoswald  are  two  fine  stone 
circles  ;  and  many  Roman  relics  have  been  found. 
For  centuries  part  of  Cumbria  or  Strathclyde, 
the  present  county  was  finally  annexed  to  Eng- 
land in  1157.  Prior  to  the  union  of  the  crowns," 
it  was  the  constant  scene  of  war  and  devastation  ; 
and  it  suflered  again  in  both  the  '15  and  the  '45. 
See  ^Borders,  Lake  District  ;  and  R.  S.  Fer- 
guson's History  of  Cumberland  (1890X 

Cumberland,  a  river  of  Kentucky  and  Tennes- 
see, flowing  650  miles  to  the  Ohio  at  Smithland— 
nearly  200  navigable  for  steamboats.  For  the 
Cumberland  Mountains,  see  Kentucky. 

Cumberland,  (l)  capital  of  Alleghany  county, 
Maryland,  on  the  Potomac,  178  miles  W.  by  N. 
of  Baltimore  by  rail.  It  has  manufactures  of 
brick,  cement,  flour,  and  leather.  Pop.  17,729.— 
(2)  The  north-easternmost  town  of  Rhode  Island, 
with  coal  and  other  minerals.     Pop.  8990. 

Cumberland  Island  (so  called)  is  a  peninsula 
of  Baffin  Land,  extending  into  Davis  Strait. 

Cumbernauld,  a  Dumbartonshire  village,  16 
miles  NE.  of  Glasgow.     Pop.  1120. 

Cumbrae,  Big  or  Great,  an  island  of  Buteshire, 
in  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  2J  miles  E.  of  Bute  at  the 
narrowest,  and  \\  mile  WSW.  of  Largs.  With  the 
shape  of  a  shark's  tooth,  it  is  3|  miles  long,  2 
broad,  lOJ  in  circumference,  and  5  sq.  m.  in  area. 
It  rises  417  feet,  and  consists  of  Old  Red  sand- 
stone, with  wall-like  trap-dykes  intersecting  it. 
The  Marquis  of  Bute  is  sole  proprietor.  Millport, 
on  the  south  shore,  19  miles  SSW.  of  Greenock, 
is  a  crowded  resort  in  summer.  Pop.  (1801)  506  ; 
(1901)  1754,  of  whom  1663  were  in  Millport.— 
Little  Cumbrae,  IJ  mile  SSW.  of  Millport,  is 
barely  1  sq.  m.  in  area.  It  rises  409  feet,  and  has 
a  lighthouse  (1826).    Pop.  17. 

Cumbria.    See  Strathclyde. 

Cumlnestown,  an  Aberdeenshire  village,  6 
miles  ESE.  of  Turriff".     Pop.  438. 

Cumnock,  Old,  a  town  of  Ayrshire,  on  Lugar 
W^ater,  18  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Ayr.  The  manufac- 
ture of  wooden  snuff'-boxes  was  many  years  since 
transferred  to  Mauchline,  and  mining  is  now  the 
chief  industry.  The  Covenanting '  prophet,'  Peden 
(1626-86),  lies  in  the  churchyard.  Dumfries 
House  (Marquis  of  Bute)  is  2  miles  to  the  west. 
Pop.  3104.— New  Cumnock,  on  the  Nith,  5^  miles 
SE.  of  Old  Cumnock,  has  1514  inhabitants. 

Cumnor,  a  Berkshire  village,  3f  miles  WSW.  of 
Oxford.  The  house  in  which  Amy  Robsart  was 
murdered  is  gone. 

Cunaxa,  east  of  the  Euphrates,  60  miles  N.  of 
Babylon,  the  battlefield  (401  b.c.)  where  Cyrus 
the  younger,  supported  by  Xenophon  and  13,000 
Greeks,  was  defeated  by  his  brother  Artaxerxes 
Mnemon,  and  slain. 

Cundinamarca,  a  central  dep.  of  Colombia. 
Area,  79,810  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  567,65a  The  capital  is 
Bogota,  also  capital  of  the  republic. 

Cunene  (Koo-nay'nay),  a  river  of  Portuguese 
South  Africa,  flowing  600  miles  southward  and 
westward  to  the  sea  60  miles  north  of  Cape  Frio. 


CUNEO 


212 


CYPRUS 


Cimeo.    See  Coni. 


Chiiminghame,  the  northern  of  the  three  old 
divisions  of  Ayrshire. 

Cupar,  or  Cupar-Fife,  the  county  town  of 
Fife,  on  the  Eden,  10  miles  W.  by  S.  of  St 
Andrews,  and  30  NNE.  of  Edinburgh.  Brewing, 
tanning,  &c.  are  carried  on  ;  and  there  is  a  large 
corn-market.  Lord  Campbell  was  a  native.  The 
place  has  been  a  royal  burgh  since  at  least  1363, 
and  it  unites  with  St  Andrews,  &c.  to  return  one 
member.  Pop.  (1851)  5605  ;  (1901)  4483.  See  also 
Coupar-Ajngus. 

Cura,  CiuDAD  DE,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  CO  miles 
SW.  of  Caracas.    Pop.  12,644. 

OuraQao  (Koo-ra-sdh'o ;  also  spelt  Curagoa),  the 
most  important  of  the  Dutch  West  India  Islands. 
It  lies  40  miles  from  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  is  36 
miles  long  by  8  broad,  and  has  a  population  of 
80,000.  Tlie  capital  is  Willemstad,  on  the  Bay  of 
St  Anna,  with  10,000  inhabitants.  The  chief 
produce  is  salt,  but  careful  cultivation  produces 
sugar,  tobacco,  maize,  figs,  cocoa,  cocoa-nuts, 
lemons,  and  the  oranges  with  which  the  CuraQoa 
liqueur  is  prepared  in  Holland.  The  colonial 
government  lias  authority  not  merely  over  the 
neighbouring  Windward  Islands,  Aruba  and  Bon- 
aire, but  also  St  Eustache,  Saba,  and  the  Dutch 
part  of  St  Martin.  Altogether  the  Dutch  West 
Indies  have  a  population  of  about  52,000.  Curagao 
Avas  discovered  by  Spain  in  1527,  taken  by  tlie 
Dutch  in  1634,  by  the  English  in  1807,  and  re- 
stored to  Holland  in  1815. 

Curia  Muria.    See  Kuria  Muria. 

Curisches  Haflf.    See  Kurisches  Haff. 

Curico,  a  town  of  Chili,  near  the  Rio  Lontu6, 
140  miles  SSE.  of  Valparaiso.     Pop.  15,110. 

Curragh,  a  large  undulating  down  in  Ireland,  2 
miles  E.  of  Kildare  town.  It  is  crown  property, 
and  in  it  is  a  large  camp  of  exercise,  established 
in  1855.     It  is  even  better  known  as  a  racecourse. 

Currie,  a  Midlothian  village,  6  miles  SW.  of 
Edinburgh.     Pop.  333. 

Curzola  (Koortz'ola  ;  anc.  Corcyra),  a  Dalmatian 
island  of  the  Adriatic,  30  miles  long  by  5  broad. 
Pop.  18,934  (1938  in  Curzola  town  in  the  NE.). 

Gusset  (Kiis-say'),  a  town  2  miles  NE.  of  Vichy 
(q.v.),  with  two  mineral  springs.    Pop.  6125. 

Oustozza  (Koostotz'a),  a  village  10  miles  SW.  ot 
Verona,  where  the  Italians  have  twice— in  1848 
and  1866— been  utterly  defeated  by  the  Austrians. 

Oiistrin.    See  KiiSTRiN. 

Cutch  (Kachchh),  a  protected  principality  under 
the  government  of  Bombay,  stretches  along  the 
Gulf  of  Cutch  and  the  Indian  Ocean  between 
Gujarat  and  Sind.  Excluding  the  Rann  of  Cutch, 
it  is  160  miles  long  from  E.  to  W.,  30  to  70  broad, 
and  6500  sq.  m.  in  area.  Earthquakes  have  oc- 
curred. The  population  is  about  500,000.  The 
capital  is  Bhuj.  The  Rann  or  Runn  of  Cutch— 
subdivided  into  two  parts,  the  smaller,  of  nearly 
2000  sq.  m.,  on  the  east,  and  the  larger,  of  7000 
sq.  m.,  on  the  north—is  a  desert,  being  mainly 
caked,  hard  ground  during  the  dry  season,  and 
in  the  rainy  a  sort  of  shallow  lake.  It  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  originally  a  permanent  inlet 
of  the  ocean.  The  periodical  disappearance  of 
the  waters  leaves  behind  it  one  continuous  ci-ust 
of  salt. 

Cut  Hill,  a  Dartmoor  eminence  (1971  feet). 

Cuttack  (Kataka,  '  the  fort'),  a  town  of  Orissa, 
Bengal,  immediately  below  the  bifurcation  of  the 
Mahanadi,   220  miles   SW.  of  Calcutta.     It  is 


chiefly  notable  for  its  filigree-work  in  gold  and 
silver.     Pop.  53,500. 

Cuxhaven  (Kooks-Mh'fen),  a  German  town,  on 
the  Elbe's  south  bank,  at  its  mouth  in  the  German 
Ocean,  72  miles  NW.  of  Hamburg.    Pop.  6490. 

Cuyaba  {Koo-ya-W),  the  capital  of  the  Brazilian 
province  of  Matto  Grosso,  on  the  Cuyaba  River, 
980  miles  NW.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.     Pop.  18,000. 

Cuzco  (Kooz-ko),  a  city  of  Peru,  11,440  feet  above 
sea-level,  in  a  valley  of  the  Andes,  345  miles  ESE. 
of  Lima.  It  was  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Incas, 
and  at  the  time  of  its  conquest  by  Pizarro  (1533) 
had  200,000  inhabitants.  Now  it  has  only  some 
28,000,  but  it  is  a  fine  city,  with  a  cathedral 
(1572-1654)  and  a  university  (1598). 

CwmdH  (Koom-dil'),  a  village  of  Glamorgan- 
shire, 6  miles  NNW.  of  Bridgend.     Pop.  6769. 

Cyc'lades.    See  Archipelago. 

Cydnus,  a  river  of  Cilicia,  rising  on  the  south 
side  of  the  Taurus  range,  and  flowing  past  Tarsus, 
and  a  broad  sand-choked  lagoon,  into  the  sea. 
Alexander  nearly  lost  his  life  through  bathing 
in  it  when  overheated. 

Cynon,  a  river  of  South  Wales,  flowing  18  miles 
to  the  Taff. 

Cyprus  (Gr.  Kupros,  Turk.  G'br's,  Fr.  Chypre, 
Ital.  Cipro),  a  Mediteri'anean  island,  60  miles  W. 
of  Syria,  and  40  S.  of  Asia  Minor,  nominally 
belonging  to  Turkey,  but  actually  occupied  and 
administered  by  Britain.  Its  extreme  length  is 
140  miles,  of  which  40  consist  of  the  Carpas  pen- 
insula ;  the  extreme  breadth  is  60  miles  ;  and  the 
area  is  3707  sq.  m.,  or  a  little  larger  than  Norfolk 
and  Suffolk  together.  The  northern  of  two  prin- 
cipal ranges  of  mountains  extends  from  Cape  St 
Andreas,  at  the  extreme  east,  almost  as  far  as 
Cape  Korinakiti.  Its  highest  mountains  (includ- 
ing St  Hilarion,  3340  feet)  are  north  of  Nicosia. 
South  of  this  range  is  the  great  Messaorian  plain, 
once  famous  for  its  cereals.  The  western  range 
occupies  great  part  of  the  western  and  south- 
western districts ;  its  highest  mountain  is  Mount 
Troodos  (6352  feet),  one  of  whose  peaks  bears  the 
classic  name  of  Olympus.  Larnaca  and  Limassol, 
the  chief  seaports,  are  open,  shallow  roadsteads. 
The  rivers  only  flow  after  heavy  rain  or  the  melt- 
ing of  the  snow  in  the  hills.  The  towns  are  Nicosia 
(the  capital),  Larnaca,  Limassol,  Famagusta, 
Papho,  and  Kyrenia.  Pop.  (1901)  237,022,  of 
whom  51,500  were  Mohammedan  and  Turkish- 
speaking,  the  rest  mostly  professing  the  Orthodox 
or  Greek  religion,  and  speaking  Greek.  Cyprus 
produces  wheat,  barley,  carobs  or  locust  beans, 
cotton,  silk,  flax,  tobacco,  madder,  wool,  gypsum, 
oranges,  pomegranates,  sponges,  gum-raastic,  and 
immense  quantities  of  wine. 

Cyprus  was  once  celebrated  for  its  copper- 
mines,  which  were  worked  by  the  Phoenicians 
and  Romans ;  indeed  the  word  '  copper '  is  derived 
from  the  name  of  the  island.  A  little  is  still 
mined.  Gypsum  or  plaster  of  Paris  is  manufac- 
tured and  exported.  Salt  is  produced  by  evapora- 
tion. The  climate  of  Cyprus  has  been  unduly 
vilified.  Though  some  parts  are  malarious,  for 
people  who  live  regular  lives  and  take  reason- 
able precautions,  the  climate  is  not  only  healthy 
but  pleasant.  The  people  are  healthy  and  well 
grown ;  the  men,  as  a  rule,  handsome,  the  women 
rarely  so.  Among  wild  animals  the  moufllon  or 
Cyprus  sheep  is  becoming  very  scarce.  Mules  of 
peculiar  excellence  are  bred.  The  forests  (for 
which  Cyprus  was  once  famous)  have  well-nigh 
disappeared,  and  the  climate  and  fertility  of  the 
country  have  greatly  sufiered  in  consequence; 


CYRENE 


213 


DAKAR 


flocks  of  goats  prevent  any  natural  growth  of  trees 
on  the  mountains.  Locusts,  a  greater  scourge, 
are  now  almost  exterminated. — Successively  held 
by  Phoenicians,  Egyptians,  Persians,  and  Egyp- 
tians again,  till  in  58  B.C.  it  became  a  Roman 
province,  Cyprus  at  the  division  of  the  empire 
naturally  belonged  to  the  eastern  half.  Richard 
I.  in  1195  gave  it  to  Guy  de  Lusignan ;  in  1487 
it  fell  to  Venice ;  and  in  1570  it  was  conquered 
by  the  Turks.  Since  1878  it  has  been  occupied 
by  Britain,  and  in  1882  had  a  constitution  granted 
it.  Britain  agreed  to  pay  the  Sultan  a  sum 
ultimately  fixed  at  £87,800  (as  excess  of  revenue), 
and  £5000  for  state  lands,  besides  a  large  quantity 
of  salt ;  but  these  sums  are  not  actually  paid 
over,  but  are  retained  as  part  payment  for  losses 
in  connection  with  the  Turkish  guaranteed  loan. 
See  works  by  Cesnola  (1877),  A.  H.  Lang  (1878), 
Ilepworth  Dixon  (1879),  Sir  S.  Baker  (1879), 
Mallock  (1889),  Fyler  (1899),  and  Hackett  (1901). 

Cyrene,  a  ruined  city  of  North  Africa,  the 
capital  of  Cyrenaica.    See  Barca. 


Czaslau  (Tchas'low;  Czech  Cdslav},  a  town  of 
Bohemia,  40  miles  ESE.  of  Prague  by  rail.  In 
its  church  the  Hussite  leader  Ziska  was  buried  ; 
and  here  Frederick  the  Great  defeated  the  Aus- 
trians  in  1742.     Pop.  8878. 

Czegled  iTseg'led),a.  market-town  of  Hungary, 
47  miles  SE.  of  Pesth  by  rail.    Pop.  29,549. 

Czenstocliau(2'c/ie?i'sto-7iow),  or  Czenstochowa, 
a  town  of  Poland,  148  miles  SW.  of  Warsaw  by 
rail.  A  Catholic  monastery  (c.  1382)  is  visited 
yearly  by  over  50,000  pilgrims,  as  possessing 
the  famous  'Black  Virgin,'  a  murky  Byzantine 
painting  ascribed  to  St  Luke.    Pop.  45,522. 

Czernowitz  (Tcher-no'vitz),  capital  of  the  pro- 
vince of  Bukowina,  near  the  right  bank  of  the 
Pruth,  165  miles  SE.  of  Lemberg  by  rail.  It  has 
the  palace  of  a  Greek  archbishop  (1875);  his 
cathedral  (1864),  on  the  model  of  St  Isaac's  at 
St  Petersburg ;  an  Armenian  church  (1875) ;  a 
synagogue  (1877) ;  the  '  Austria  Monument'  (1875) ; 
and  a  university  (1875)  with  nearly  300  students. 
Pop.  (1869)38,884;  (1900)69,620. 


ACOA,  a  city  of  Bengal,  150  miles  NE. 
of  Calcutta,  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Buriganga.  From  1010  to  1704  capital 
of  Mohannnedan  Bengal,  it  was  in  1905 
made  headquarters  of  the  newly-con- 
stituted joint  province  of  Eastern  Ben- 
gal and  Assam.  The  suburbs  formerly  extended 
15  miles  northward,  where  mosques  and  brick 
buildings  are  still  found  buried  in  thick  jungle. 
In  the  18th  century  it  became  Avidely  celebrated 
for  its  delicate  muslins ;  but  after  1817  this  trade 
declined,  under  the  competition  of  Manchester 
piece-goods,  and  the  aspect  of  the  city  changed 
with  the  disastrous  decay  of  its  staple  industry. 
The  general  development,  however,  of  trade 
throughout  the  presidency,  and  the  opening  of 
the  State  Railway  in  1886,  has  brought  back  a 
share  of  its  former  prosperity.  A  small  colony 
of  muslin-weavers  still  survives,  and  other  manu- 
factures are  coarse  cotton  cloth,  embroidery, 
silver-work,  shell-carving,  and  pottery.  Dacca 
College  (1835)  has  about  300  students.  Pop.  (1800) 
200,000  ;  (1872)  69,212  ;  (1901)  90,542. 

Dacla,  the  land  of  the  ancient  Daci  or  Getae, 
including  the  country  between  the  Danube,  the 
Tlieiss,  the  Carpathians,  and  the  Pruth. 

Daer  Water.    See  Clyde. 

Daghestan  ('mountain-land'),  a  triangular 
territory  of  Ciscaucasia,  between  the  Caucasus 
and  the  west  coast  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  Area, 
11,425  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  589,705. 

Dago,  an  island  near  the  entrance  of  the  Gulf 
of  Finland,  fornung  part  of  the  Russian  govern- 
ment of  Bstiionia.    Area,  367  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  15,000. 

Dagupan,  an  important  commercial  town  of 
Luzon,  Philippine  Islands,  in  the  Lingayen  Gulf, 
connected  with  Manila  by  rail.     Pop.  20,500. 

Dahlak,  three  islands,  with  many  smaller  rocks, 
in  the  Red  Sea,  off  Massowah. 

Dahna.    See  Arabia. 

Dahomey,  a  French  dependency  in  Africa,  ex- 
tending inland  from  tlie  Slave  Coast,  bordering 
on  Yoruba.  The  seaboard  is  confined  to  a  district 
of  35  miles  ;  and  the  long  lagoon  which,  shut  in 
from  the  ocean  by  a  protecting  bank  of  sand, 
affords  an  easy  route  along  nearly  the  Avhole  of 
this  coast.  About  midway  is  the  port  of  Whydah, 
whence  a  road  extends  inland  to  Abomey,  a  dis- 


tance of  70  miles.  Dense  forests  and  dismal 
swamps  cover  nearly  two-thirds  of  this  distance, 
but  from  the  Great  Swamp  of  Agrime  vast  un- 
dulating jilains  rise  for  many  miles,  in  the  direc- 
tion of  the  Kong  Mountains.  The  Avon  and 
Denham  lagoons  receive  the  rivers.  The  soil  is 
extremely  fertile.  Groves  of  oil-palms  encircle 
each  town,  and  palm-oil  is  made  in  large  quanti- 
ties. Cotton  cloth  is  made,  and  weai)ons  and 
tools  are  forged  from  native  iron.  The  Dahoman 
kingdom  dates  from  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century,  and  reached  its  zenith  about  1850. 
Fetich -worship  prevailed,  taking  the  form  of- 
serpent- worship  on  the  coast ;  and  wholesale 
murder  was  one  of  the  chief  features  in  religious 
and  state  ceremonies,  as  many  as  500  liuman 
victims  having  been  sacrificed  at  one  of  the  grand 
'customs'  which  took  place  annually.  The 
revenue  depended  largely  upon  the  sale  of  slaves. 
The  French  established  a  footing  on  the  coast  in 
1851,  and  gradually  extended  their  influence  till, 
iti  1894,  the  Avhole  kingdom  was  taken  in.  Tlie 
colony  comprises,  besides  the  native  kingdom  of 
Dahomey,  all  the  French  possessions  bounded  on 
the  north  by  the  French  Soudan,  on  the  east  by 
British  Nigeria  and  Lagos,  on  the  south  by  the 
Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  on  the  west  by  German  Togo. 
The  total  area  is  estimated  at  60,000  sq.  m.,  and  the 
population  at  1, 000,000.  There  are  about  70  miles 
of  coast.  The  capital  is  Porto  Novo  (pop.  50,000). 
Other  centres  are  Abomey  (15,000),  the  former 
capital  of  Dahomey;  Allada  (10,000);  Agone 
(20,000) ;  Grand  Popo  ;  Cotonu,  a  port ;  Whydah, 
a  port ;  Nikki,  and  Say.  In  1901  the  imports 
(liquors,  cotton,  and  tobacco)  were  valued  at 
15,752,650  francs,  the  exports  (chiefly  palm  kernels 
an<l  oil)  at  10,478,900  francs.  See  works  by  Burton 
(I860,  Skertchly  (1874),  Bouche  (Paris,  1885), 
Aubley  (Paris,  1894),  and  Lee  (1900) ;  and  Ellis, 
The  Ewe-siKuking  Peoples  (1890). 

Dahra,  a  district  of  Algeria,  to  the  east  of 
Mostaganem,  and  near  the  coast. 

Dailly,  an  Ayrshire  village,  on  Girvan  Water, 
2  miles  SSW.  of  Maybole.     Pop.  506. 

Dalmiel,  a  town  of  Spain,  28  miles  ENE.  of 
Ciudad  Real  by  rail.    Pop.  12,000. 

Dakar,  a  seaport  with  a  magnificent  harbour 
in  French  Senegal,  opposite  the  island  of  Goree 
(q.v.),  capital  of  the  settlement,  and  terminus  of 
the  railway  towards  Timbuctoo.    Pop.  2000. 


DAKOTA 


214 


DAMASCUS 


Dako'ta.     See  North  and  South  Dakota. 

Dalbeattie,  <a  Kirkcudbrightshire  town,  near 
Urr  Water,  15  miles  SW.  of  Dumfries.  Founded 
in  1V80,  it  owed  its  importance  to  the  neighbour- 
ing Craignair  granite  quarries  (now  largely  ex- 
hausted).    Pop. (1841)  1430  ;  (1901)  3469. 

Dalecarlia,  or  Dalarne,  an  old  province  of 
central  Sweden,  now  the  county  of  Kopparberg. 

Dalgety,  in  1904  chosen  to  be  Federal  Capital  of 
the  Australian  Connnonwealth,  is  in  the  SE.  corner 
of  New  South  Wales,  296  miles  SW.  of  Sydney. 

Dalhousie  Castle,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Dal- 
housie,  in  Midlothian,  on  the  South  Esk,  2^ 
miles  S.  by  W.  of  Dalkeith. 

Dallas,  a  Spanish  mining  town,  18  miles  WSW. 
of  Almeria.    Pop.  6294. 

Dalkeith,  a  town  of  Midlothian,  6  miles  SE. 
of  Edinburgh,  on  a  tongue  of  land  between  the 
North  and  South  Esks.  There  is  a  large  corn 
exchange  (1855) ;  of  nearly  a  dozen  places  of 
worship  the  only  old  one  is  the  parish  church, 
collegiate  once,  of  which  Norman  Macleod  was 
minister.  Dalkeith  Palace,  a  seat  of  the  Duke 
of  Buccleuch,  is  a  Grecian  edifice,  built  in  1700 
by  Sir  John  Vanbrugh  for  Monmouth's  widowed 
duchess.  Professor  Tait  was  born  here.  Pop. 
(1841)  4831 ;  (1901)  6812. 

Dalkey  (Dal-lcee'),  a  delightfully  situated  coast- 
town,  8  miles  SE.  of  Dublin.     Pop.  3397. 

Dallas,  capital  of  Dallas  county,  Texas,  on 
Trinity  River,  265  miles  NNW.  of  Houston.  A 
flourishing  place,  it  has  flour-mills  and  grain-eleva- 
tors, foundries,  and  manufactures  of  woollens, 
soap,  &c.     Pop.  (1880)  10,358 ;  (1900)  42,640. 

Dalles.    See  Columbia  River. 

Dalmahoy,  the  Earl  of  Morton's  Midlothian 
seat,  IJ  mile  S.  by  E.  of  Ratho.  Near  it  are  the 
Dalmahoy  Crags  (680  feet). 

Dalmally,  an  Argyllshire  village,  near  the 
NE.  end  of  Loch  Awe,  24|  miles  E.  of  Oban. 

Dalmatia,  a  narrow  strip  of  Austrian  territory 
extending  along  the  Adriatic.  Area,  4940  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  (1901)591,600.  The  coast  is  steep  and 
rocky,  and  the  chief  towns,  all  on  the  coast, 
areZara,  Sebenico,  Lissa,  Spalato,  Brazza,  Ragusa, 
and  Cattaro.  The  country  is  mountainous,  Orjen, 
near  Cattaro,  attaining  6235  feet.  Only  one-ninth 
of  the  land  is  arable,  mainly  the  coast  strip. 
Nearly  half  is  in  pasture,  and  a  third  in  wood. 
The  numerous  islands  are  not  very  fertile. 

Dalmellington,  an  Ayrshire  village,  near  the 
river  Doon,  15^  miles  SB.  of  Ayr.  Near  it  are 
active  collieries  and  ironworks.    Pop.  1448. 

Dalmeny,  a  Linlithgowshire  village,  near  South 
Queensferry,  with  an  interesting  Norman  church. 
Dalmeny  Park  is  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Rosebery. 

Dalny,  the  Russian  name  for  Ta-lien-wan,  a 
port  in  the  Manchurian  Liao-tung  peninsula,  20 
miles  NE.  of  Port  Arthur.  One  terminus  of  the 
Trans-Siberian  railway,  it  was  occupied  by  the 
Japanese  in  1904.     Pop.  50,000. 

Dairy,  (1)  a  town  of  Ayrshire,  on  the  Garnock, 
23  miles  SW.  of  Glasgow,  with  neighbouring  iron- 
works (1845).  Pop.  5316.— (2)  A  village  in  the 
north  of  Kirkcudbright,  8  miles  NW.  of  New 
Galloway.— (3)  A  place  in  Perthshire,  near  Tyn- 
drum,  the  scene  of  a  skirmish  between  Bruce  and 
Macdougal  of  Lorn  (1306). 

Dalswinton,  an  estate  on  the  Nith,  7  miles 
NNWo  of  Duju  fries.  On  its  little  loch  a  minia- 
ture steamboat  was  launched  in  1788. 


Dalton-in-Furness,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  16 
miles  WNW.  of  Lancaster,  communicating  with 
the  sea  by  a  canal  (3^  miles).  It  has  extensive 
malting  and  ironworks  ;  and  the  ruins  of  Furness 
Abbey  (q.v.)  are  in  the  vicinity.  Romney  was  a 
native.     Pop.  (1861)  2812  ;  (1901)  13,020. 

Daman',  an  outlying  portion  of  the  Punjab, 
extending  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Indus,  and 
as  far  back  as  the  Suliman  Mountains. 

Daman',  a  Portuguese  settlement  and  port  in 
the  province  of  Gujarat,  on  the  Gulf  of  Cambay, 
100  miles  N.  of  Bombay.  The  settlement  con- 
sists of  Daman  proper  (22  sq.  m.),  and  the  par- 
gcuid  of  Nagar  Havili  (60  sq.  m.),  with  magnificent 
teak  forests  to  the  east.  Pop.  of  former,  56,300  ; 
of  latter,  12,650.  The  port  stands  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Daman-Ganga,  a  deep,  navigable  stream, 
with  a  bar  at  its  mouth.  The  Portuguese  have 
held  Nagar  Havili  since  1780  only,  but  Daman 
has  been  occupied  by  them  since  1558. 

Damanhour,  a  town  of  Egypt,  38  miles  ESE.  of 
Alexandria  by  rail ;  pop.  20,353. 

Daman-i-Koli  ('skirts  of  the  hills'),  a  hilly 
tract  of  Bengal,  reserved  for  the  Santals,  &c. 
Area,  1366  sq.  in.  ;  pop.  353,413. 

Dam'araland,  or  Damaland,  in  the  west  of 
South  Africa,  between  Nainaqualand  and  Ovampo- 
land,  extending  from  the  Atlantic  to  about  19° 
45'  E.  long.  Behind  the  waterless  coast  region 
(100  miles)  rises  a  mountain  district,  with  peaks 
over  8500  feet  above  the  sea  ;  and  farther  inland 
stretch  wide  prairies.  The  mountains  are  rich 
in  minerals,  especially  copper.  The  produce  of 
the  interior  consists  of  ivory,  feathers,  skins,  &c. 
The  Damaras,  properly  Herero,  a  Bantu  stem, 
number  about  80,000  ;  they  are  nomads,  and  own 
large  flocks  and  herds.  The  Hawkoin,  or  Hill 
Damaras,  in  the  north-east,  however,  who  are  a 
much  lower  type,  now  speak  Hottentot.  Since 
1886  Damaraland  is  part  of  German  SW.  Africa. 
The  only  harbour  in  this  part  of  the  coast  is 
Walvisch  Bay  (q.v.),  which  is  British  ;  it  was  an- 
nexed to  Cape  Colony  in  1884. 

Damascus,  the  capital  of  Syria,  and  the  largest 
town  in  Western  Asia.  It  is  called  by  the 
natives  Dimashk  es-Sham,  or  simply  es-Sham,  the 
name  which  is  generally  applied  to  all  Syria.  The 
city  stands  1^  mile  from  the  mouth  of  the  gorge, 
through  which  the  Barada,  the  Chrysorrhoas  of 
the  Greeks,  forces  its  way  into  the  plain ;  and  is 
70  miles  ESE.  of  Beyrout  on  the  Mediterranean, 
and  120  NE.  of  Acre,  to  both  of  which  railways 
were  opened  in  1895.  It  is  situated  on  the 
western  side  of  a  plain  500  sq.  in.  in  area,  at 
an  elevation  of  2260  feet  above  the  sea,  and  im- 
mediately to  the  north-west  of  the  city  the  Anti- 
Libanus  rises  to  a  height  of  3840  feet.  This 
elevated  part  of  the  mountain,  called  Jebel 
Kasyun,  is  crowned  by  the  Kubbet  en-Nasr 
('  Dome  of  Victory '),  from  whose  base  the  best 
view  of  Damascus  is  obtained.  The  seven  canals 
by  which  water  is  drawn  off"  from  the  central 
Barada  are  called  rivers,  two  of  tliem  the  Abana 
and  Pharpar  of  Scripture.  The  appearance  of 
Damascus  as  viewed  from  the  mountain  resembles 
a  tennis-racquet.  The  handle,  which  lies  in  a 
south-westerly  direction,  is  the  Meidan,  a  suburb 
which  extends  along  the  Mecca  pilgrim-route 
for  about  a  mile,  and  ends  at  the  Bawabat  Alia 
('  Gate  of  God  ').  The  other  part  is  concentrated 
on  the  rivers,  and  is  enclosed  within  ancient  walls 
and  encompassed  by  luxuriant  gardens.  At  the 
western  side  of  the  city  within  the  walls  stands 
the  citadel.  It  is  a  large  moated  quadrangular 
structure,  300  yards  long  and  250  wide,  with  pro- 


DAMBULA 


215 


DANUBE 


jecting  towers.  It  was  erected  in  1219,  and  has 
a  massive  appearance,  but  it  is  a  good  deal  dilapi- 
dated. The  palace  stands  outside  the  walls  west 
of  the  citadel,  and  400  yards  oast  of  the  citadel 
there  towered  above  the  city  the  Great  Mosque, 
destroyed  by  fire  in  October  1S93.  It  was 
erected  at  the  beginning  of  the  8th  century  on 
the  site  of  the  church  of  St  John,  .just  as  that 
church  had  been  erected  by  Arcadius  about  the 
beginning  of  the  5th  century  on  the  site  of  a 
pagan  temple,  which  probably  occupied  the  site 
of  the  ancient  Beit  Riimnon.  Damascus  contains 
70  other  mosques,  and  more  than  150  chapels 
for  prayer  and  instruction.  The  tomb  of  Nur 
ed-Din  is  one  of  the  ornaments  of  the  city ; 
the  best  baths  are  decorated  with  beautiful 
tiles  and  marble.  The  Jewish  quarter  lies  to 
the  south  of  the  'street  called  Straight,'  which 
runs  east  and  west  for  about  a  mile,  with 
Roman  gateways  at  either  end.  The  Christian 
quarter  lies  north  of  the  street  called  Straight  in 
the  eastern  part  of  the  city.  The  diflferent  indus- 
tries are  also  carried  on  in  separate  quarters,  there 
being  bazaars  for  the  silversmiths,  the  saddlers, 
the  shoemakers,  &c.  Damascus  is  a  meeting- 
place  between  the  East  and  West ;  and  enormous 
caravans  of  camels  pass  to  and  fro  between  it  and 
Bagdad,  exchanging  the  dates  and  tobacco  and 
spices  and  carpets  of  the  East  for  the  produce  of 
the  looms  and  workshops  of  Europe.  The  chief 
exports  are  grain,  flour,  native  cotton  and  silk 
manufactures,  wool,  apricot  paste,  raisins,  and 
liquorice-root;  the  imports  include  textiles,  in- 
digo, tobacco,  coffee,  sugar,  and  leather.  In  1889 
gas  and  tramways  were  introduced  into  the 
city.  Pop.  170,000,  of  whom  20,000  are  Chris- 
tians (32,000  before  the  great  massacre  of  July 
18(30),  6000  Jews,  and  the  rest  Mohammedans. 

Dambula,  or  Dambul,  a  vast  Buddhist  rock- 
temple  in  Ceylon,  40  miles  N.  of  Kandy,  contain- 
ing, among  a  profusion  of  carvings,  colossal 
figures  of  Buddha. 

Damletta  (Arab.  Dimyaf),  a  town  of  Lower 
Egypt,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  chief  eastern 
mouth  of  the  Nile,  8  miles  fi'om  its  mouth  in 
the  Mediterranean.  Its  commerce  has  been  much 
injured  by  the  prosperity  of  Alexandria,  but  it 
still  carries  on  a  considerable  trade  in  exporting 
rice,  fish  (from  Lake  Menzaleh),  coff'ee,  and  dates ; 
and  imports  charcoal,  soap,  and  manufactured 
goods.  It  is  the  tenninus  of  a  branch-railway 
from  Cairo.  The  cambric  known  as  dimity 
received  its  name  from  Damietta,  where  it  was 
once  manufactured  ;  the  famous  leather-work  has 
also  declined.  A  bar  at  the  mouth  of  the  river 
impedes  navigation.  Pop.  43,750.  The  existing 
town  was  erected  after  1251,  but,  prior  to  that, 
a  city  of  the  same  name  (anc.  Tamiathis)  stood 
more  to  the  south. 

Damodar,  a  river  of  Bengal,  rises  in  Chutia 
Nagpur,  and  flows  350  miles  SE.  to  the  Hooghly. 

Damoh,  a  town  of  the  Central  Provinces  of 
India,  50  miles  E.  of  Sagar.    Pop.  11,800. 

Dampier,  the  name  of  several  places  in  Aus- 
tralasia: (1)  Dampier  Archipelago,  a  cluster  of 
about  twenty  small  rocky  islands  off  the  NW. 
coast  of  Australia.— (2)  Dampier  Island,  off  the 
NE.  coast  of  New  Guinea,  with  a  volcano  5250 
feet  high.— (3)  Dampier's  Land,  a  fertile  penin- 
sula of  Western  Australia,  lying  between  King 
Sound  and  the  Indian  Ocean.— (4)  Dampier  Strait, 
between  New  Guinea  and  the  archipelago  of  New 
Britain,  forming,  with  Goschen  Strait  to  the  SE., 
the  shortest  route  from  Eastern  Australia  to 
China  by  some  300  miles.— (5)  Dampier  Strait, 


separating  the  island  of  Waygiou  from  the  NW. 
extremity  of  New  Guinea. 

Danakil,  a  vaguely  defined  region  between  the 
southern  end  of  the  Red  Sea  and  Abyssinia. 

Danbury,  a  Connecticut  town,  69  miles  NNB. 
of  New  York.  It  manufactures  hats  and  sewing- 
machines.    Pop.  (1880)  11,666 ;  (1900)  16,540. 

Danebury,  Hants,  a  famous  training-ground. 

3  miles  WN  W.  of  Stockbridge. 

Danes'  Dyke.    See  FLAMBORouaH  Head. 
Dangan  Oastle,  a  mansion  in  County  Meath 

4  miles  S.  of  Trim,  the  seat  of  Wellington's  father! 
D^ngs,  a  hill  country  in  Bombay  Presidency.* 

about  the  N.  end  of  the  Western  Ghats. 

Dannemora,  a  Swedish  town,  25  miles  NE.  of 
Upsala,  a  great  iron-mining  centre.    Pop.  5000. 

Dantzlc.    See  Danzig. 

Danube  (Lat.  Danuhitis;  Ger.  Donau;  Hung. 
Duna;  Slav.  Dunai),  next  to  the  Volga  the  chief 
river  of  Europe,  is  formed  by  the  Brege  and  the 
Brigach,  rising  in  the  Black  Forest,  Baden,  and 
uniting  at  Donaueschingcn,  2264  feet  above  sea- 
level.  It  has  a  total  length  of  1740  miles,  and 
drains  315,000  sq.  m.  It  flows  first  SE.,  and 
then  NE.  to  Uliu  (1519  feet).  From  the  junc- 
tion with  the  Ilier  above  Ulm  it  is  navigable 
for  boats  of  100  tons.  At  Ratisbon  it  reaches  its 
most  northerly  point,  and  from  thence  its  course 
is  generally  SE.  Between  Ulm  and  Passau, 
where  it  leaves  Germany,*  it  receives  the  Lech, 
Isar,  and  Inn,  on  the  right,  and  the  Altmiihl  and 
Regen  on  the  left  bank.  At  Passau  its  width  is 
231  yards,  and  its  depth  16  feet.  It  flows  E.  to 
Presburg,  receiving  the  Ens  from  the  S.,  and  the 
March  or  Morava  from  the  N.  ;  and  it  passes  from 
Austria  into  Hungary  through  an  opening  called 
the  Carpathian  Gate.  Near  Waitzen  it  turns 
directly  S.,  through  the  Hungarian  plain,  a  vast 
sandy  alluvial  flat,  in  which  it  is  continually 
forcing  new  channels  and  silting  up  old  ones ; 
receiving  from  the  N.  the  Waag  and  the  Gran, 
and  the  Drave  from  the  W.  Next  the  Danube 
turns  again  SE.,  and,  increased  by  the  waters  of 
the  Theiss  and  Temes  from  the  N.,  sweeps  past 
Belgrade,  where  it  is  joined  by  the  Save,  and 
forms  the  boundary  between  Hungary  and  Servia. 
Before  touching  the  Roumanian  frontier  its  width 
is  greatly  contracted  and  interrupted  by  eight 
rapids  with  rocky  shoals.  The  most  difficult 
passage  is  the  shortest  (IJ  mile)  of  the  eight — 
the  '  Iron  Gate,'  properly  so  called,  below  Orsova. 
In  1890-95  the  Hungarian  government  undertook, 
at  a  cost  of  £800,000,  to  improve,  by  blasting 
rocks  and  widening  the  course,  the  navigation 
here.  In  Wallachia  the  Danube  flows  in  a  wide 
stream,  constantly  broadening  into  a  lake,  or 
overspreading  its  banks  with  swamps.  It  forms 
the  northern  boundary  of  Bulgaria  as  far  as 
Silistria  ;  and  from  here  it  turns  northward,  skirt- 
ing the  Dobruja,  and  flows  between  marshy  banks 
to  Galatz,  receiving  on  the  way  the  Jalomitza  and 
the  Sereth.  From  Galatz  it  flows  E.,  and,  after 
being  joined  by  the  Pruth  from  the  N.,  SE.  to  the 
Black  Sea.  The  delta  is  a  vast  wilderness  (1000 
sq.  m.)  cut  up  by  clvannels  and  lagoons  ;  the 
farthest  mouths  are  60  miles  apart.  Two-thirds 
of  the  Danube's  volume  passes  through  the  Kilia, 
which,  like  the  southern  or  St  George  branch, 
forms  a  double  channel  near  the  outlet;  and  so 
ships  enter  by  the  middle  or  Sulina  mouth, 
deepened  to  20  feet  and  straightened  in  1858- 
1903.  The  steel  cantilever  bridge  across  the 
river  (2878  metres)  at  Tchernavoda  is  one  of  the 
great  railway  bridges  of  the  world.    To  defend 


f)ANUBIAlJ  PRINCIPALITIES 


216 


bAfeJfeELlNG 


Vienna  against  risk  of  inundation,  the  course  of 
the  Danube  skirting  it  was,  in  1868-Sl,  diverted 
into  an  artificial  channel.  Similar  works  have 
been  undertaken  near  Pesth.  The  Danube  has 
about  400  tributaries,  100  of  them  navigable  by 
the  fleet  of  the  Danube  Steam  Navigation  Com- 
pany (1830).  The  Danube  is  connected  with  the 
Rhine  by  means  of  the  Ludwigs-Canal  (1844),  and 
with  the  Elbe  by  means  of  the  Moldau  and  Mlihl, 
and  canals.  See  F,  D.  Millet,  The  Damibe  from 
the  Black  Forest  to  the  Black  Sea  (1892). 

Danubian  Principalities,  a  name  applied  to 
Moldavia  and  Wallachia  ;  see  Roumania.  Servia 
and  Bulgaria  are  sometimes  Included  under  the 
name. 

Danvers,  a  post-village  of  Massachusetts,  4 
miles  NW.  of  Salem.  It  manufactures  shoes, 
carpets,  bricks,  &c.,  and  is  the  seat  of  the  state 
lunatic  asylum,  Peabody,  3  miles  S.,  was  for- 
merly South  Danvers.    Pop.  8048. 

Danville,  (1)  capital  of  Vermilion  county,  Illi- 
nois, on  the  Vermilion  River,  132  miles  S.  of 
Chicago.  It  is  an  important  railway  junction, 
and  contains  railway-shops,  steam-rnills,  found- 
ries, and  organ  and  chair  factories.  Bituminous 
coal  is  mined  near  by.  Pop.  16,491.  _(2)  Capital 
of  Montour  county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  north 
branch  of  the  Susquehanna,  68  miles  N,  by  E. 
of  Harrisburg.  It  was  settled  in  1768,  and  the 
Pennsylvania  Ironworks  here  is  the  oldest  estab- 
lishment in  the  States  for  the  manufacture  of 
railroad  iron.  There  are  also  blast-furnaces, 
foundries,  and  rolling-mills.  Pop.  7998.— (3)  A 
town  of  Virginia,  on  the  Dan  River,  141  miles  SW. 
of  Richmond,  with  large  cotton  and  other  mills, 
and  a  great  trade  in  tobacco.     Pop,  16,305. 

Danzig,  or  Dantzic  (Polish  Gdansk),  a  great  sea- 
port and  fortress,  capital  of  West  Prussia,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  western  branch  of  the  Vistula, 
284  miles  NE,  of  Berlin,  and  4  from  the  river's 
mouth  in  the  shallow  Gulf  of  Danzig,  an  inlet  of 
the  Baltic,  In  tlie  10th  century  its  possession  was 
disputed  by  Danes,  Pomeranians,  Prussians,  Bran- 
denburgers,  Poles,  and  the  Teutonic  Knights  ;  tlie 
last  held  it  1308-1454,  when  it  became  a  free  city 
under  Poland.  In  1793  it  fell  to  Prussia.  The 
city  is  traversed  by  the  Motlau  and  Radaune, 
tributaries  of  the  Vistula,  the  former  of  which 
admits  vessels  drawing  15  feet  up  to  the  Speich- 
erinsel.  The  principal  port,  however,  is  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Vistula,  below  the  sand-bars. 
Among  the  most  noteworthy  buildings  are  the 
large  church  of  St  Mary  (1343-1502),  with  a  noble 
'Last  Judgment,'  probably  by  Memling,  and 
a  finely-carved  altar  of  wood;  the  church  of 
St  Catharine  (1326-30) ;  the  fine  old  Gothic  town- 
hall  ;  the  old  exchange ;  and  the  Franciscan 
monastery,  now  a  museum  and  school.  Once  a 
great  Hanse  town,  Danzig  is  still  one  of  the  chief 
commercial  cities  of  northern  Europe,  The 
manufactures  include  beer,  spirits  (Danzig  Gold- 
wasser),  sugar,  tobacco,  flour,  iron-wares,  machin- 
ery, amber,  gold  and  silver  ornaments  ;  and  there 
are  also  an  imperial  dockyard  and  an  artillery 
arsenal.     Pop.  (1880)  108,551 ;  (1900)  140,540. 

Daoudnagar.    See  Daudnagar. 

Dapsang,  a  mountain  in  the  part  of  the 
Himalaya  system  called  Karakorum,  in  Baltistan 
or  Little  Tibet,  28,700  feet  high. 

Darabgherd,  or  Darab,  a  town  of  Persia,  115 
miles  SE.  of  Shiraz.     Pop.  4000. 

Daraganj,  a  suburb  of  Allahabad,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Ganges.     Pop.  15,159. 

Darbliangah,  a  town  of  Behar  province,  on  the 


Little  Baghmati  River,  78  miles  NB.  of  Patna  by 
rail.  It  has  large  bazaars  and  a  handsome 
market-place,  extensive  tanks,  a  hospital,  and 
the  maharajah's  palace,  with  fine  gardens,  men- 
agerie, and  aviary.  There  is  an  active  trade  in 
oil-seeds,  food-grains,  timber,  salt,  iron,  lime, 
&c.     Pop.  (1891)  73,561  ;  (1901)  66,244, 

Dardanelles  (anc,  i/eWespout),  a  narrow  channel 
separating  Europe  from  Asia,  and  uniting  the 
Sea  of  Marmora  with  the  Archipelago.  The 
name  is  derived  from  the  ancient  city  of  Dardanus 
in  tlie  Troad,  on  the  southern  shore.  The  strait 
extends  40  miles  south-westward,  and  has  a  vary-  . 
ing  breadth  of  1  to  4  miles.  From  the  Sea  of 
Marmora  a  strong  current  runs  through  it  to  the 
Archipelago,  Both  sides  are  strongly  fortified. 
A  treaty  concluded  between  the  five  great  powers 
and  Turkey  in  1841  arranged  that  no  non-Turkish 
ship  of  war  should  pass  the  Dardanelles  without 
the  express  consent  of  Turkey.  Xerxes  and 
Alexander  crossed  the  Dardanelles  in  480  and 
334  B.C.,  the  former  to  enter  Europe,  and  the 
latter  to  enter  Asia.  Leander,  to  visit  Hero, 
nightly  swam  across— a  feat  perforined  in  1810 
by  Lord  Byron. 

Dardistan,  a  region  of  Central  Asia,  bordering 
on  Baltistan,  the  north-western  portion  of  Cash- 
mere, consists  of  lofty  mountains  and  high-lying 
valleys.  Its  interest  depends  mainly  on  the  fact 
that  its  inhabitants,  the  Dards,  are  an  Aryan 
peojile,  speaking  a  Sanskritic  tongue  mixed  with 
Persian  words.  They  are  Moslems.  The  chief 
districts  are  Hasora,  Gilghit,  and  Tassin ;  some 
include  Chitral. 

Dar-es-Salaam,  a  seaport  of  German  East 
Africa,  45  miles  S.  of  Zanzibar.    Pop.  21,000. 

Dar-fertit,  a  thinly-peopled  territory  south  of 
Dar-Fur,  beyond  the  Bahr-el-Arab,  and  north  of 
the  Niam-Niam  country.  Schweinfurth  was  the 
first  European  to  visit  the  region  in  1870-71. 

Dar-Fur,  a  country  of  Central  Africa,  one  of 
the  divisions  of  the  SMan  or  'Land  of  the 
Blacks,'  situated  approximately  in  10°  to  16°  N. 
lat.,  and  in  22°  to  28°  E.  long.  It  is  hilly  in 
parts,  and  traversed  by  a  mountainous  ridge 
called  Marra.  Towards  the  north  it  is  level, 
sandy,  and  almost  destitute  of  water.  During 
the  rainy  season  (June— September)  it  exhibits  a 
rich  vegetation.  Tobacco,  which  is  used  by  the 
natives  in  every  form,  abounds.  The  chief 
minerals  are  copper  and  iron.  The  wealth  of  the 
inhabitants  consists  princiimlly  in  cattle.  Dar- 
Fiir,  long  a  notorious  centre  of  the  slave-trade, 
was  annexed  to  Egypt  in  1875  ;  but  in  1884  fell 
under  the  power  of  tlie  Mahdi.  Since  1900 
trade  with  Egypt  has  been  revived  again,  and 
is  now  considerable.  Pop,  4,000,000,  mainly 
zealous  Moslems, 

Dargai,  in  tlie  Afridi  hill  country,  near  the 
Kohat  Pass,  in  the  NW.  Frontier  Province  of 
India,  Avas  tlie  scene  of  a  brilliant  feat  of  arms 
during  the  Tirah  campaign  in  1897. 

Dariel.    See  Caucasus. 

Darien,  a  name  formerly  applied  to  the  entire 
isthmus  of  Panamd  (q.v.),  but  now  confined  to 
the  heavily-wooded  hill-country  lying  between 
the  Gulfs  of  Uraba  (often  called  the  Gulf  of  Darien) 
on  the  north  and  San  Miguel  on  the  south. 
William  Paterson's  Darien  Scheme  (1695-1703),  to 
plant  a  Scottish  colony  on  the  Atlantic  side  of 
the  Isthmus  of  Panama,  proved  a  total  fiasco. 

Darjeeling  (Ddrjiling),  a  sanitary  station  in 
the  Lower  Himalayas,  is  situated  on  a  narrow 
ridge,  7167  feet  above  the  sea.    It  is  a  very  popu- 


DARLASTON 


217 


DARWEN 


lar  sanatorium  (1883),  with  a  good  water-supply. 
The  fashionable  month  is  October,  after  the  rains, 
when  the  clear  atmosi)here  shows  a  view  of  un- 
surpassed grandeur.    Pop.  14,200, 

Darlaston,  a  Staffordshii^  town,  1|  mile  NW. 
of  Wednesbury,  with  irouAvorks  and  neighbouring 
coal  and  iron  mines.     Pop.  15,422. 

Darling,  a  name  applied  to  a  river,  a  mountain- 
range,  and  two  districts  in  Australia,  is  derived 
from  Lieutenant-general  Sir  Ralph  Darling  (1775- 
1859),  governor  of  New  South  Wales  in  1825-31. 
(1)  The  river  Darling,  is  formed  by  several  head- 
streams,  all  rising  in  the  great  Dividing  Range,  and 
flows  1160  miles  south-westward  to  the  Murray 
at  Wentworth,  on  the  boi'der  between  New  South 
Wales  and  South  Australia.— (2)  The  Darling 
Range,  in  Western  Australia,  runs  parallel  to  tlie 
west  coast,  at  a  distance  of  10  to  25  miles  ;  in 
Mount  William  it  attains  3000  feet.— (3)  The  Dar- 
ling district  at  the  SW.  corner  of  New  South 
Wales,  scantily  watered,  has  an  area  of  50,000 
sq.  m.— <4)  The  Darling  Downs  ((5080  sq.  m.)  form 
the  richest  pastoral  district  of  Queensland,  in  the 
south  of  the  colony.  It  was  discovered  by  Allan 
Cunningham,  the  botanist,  in  1827. 

Darlington,  a  town  in  the  south  of  the  county 
of  Durliam,  on  a  slight  elevation  overloolving  the 
Skerne  near  its  junction  with  the  Tees,  23  miles  S. 
of  Durham,  and  45  NNW.  of  York.  The  chief 
industry  is  connected  with  the  extensive  loco- 
motive works ;  there  are  also  iron  and  steel 
works,  breweries,  tanneries,  and  wool-mills. 
Pop.  (1821)  6551;  (1851)  11,228;  (1871)  27,730; 
(1901)  44,500,  many  of  them  connected  with  the 
Society  of  Friends.  Darlington  was  incorporated 
in  1867,  since  then  also  returning  one  member  to 
parliainent.  Its  prosperity  dates  from  the  open- 
ing, on  27th  September  1825,  of  the  Stockton  and 
Darlington  Railway,  the  first  passenger-line  em- 
ploying a  locomotive-engine,  which  engine  now 
stands  on  a  pedestal  outside  the  station.  From 
the  11th  century  the  town  belonged  to  the  bishops 
of  Durham,  and  till  1867  a  borough  bailiff,  ap- 
pointed by  the  bishop,  managed  its  affairs.  St 
Cuthbert's  collegiate  church,  a  very  fine  speci- 
men of  Early  English,  was  founded  in  1160.  It 
has  a  tower  180  feet  high.  Among  the  chief 
modern  erections  are  the  spacious  new  railway 
station  (1887),  a  grammar-school,  and  a  free 
library  (1885). 

Darmstadt,  a  town  of  Germany,  capital  of  the 
grand-duchy  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  is  situated  on 
the  small  river  Darm,  15  miles  S.  of  Frankfort- 
on-Main.  One  of  its  two  palaces,  the  old  ducal 
palace,  contains  museums  of  painting,  natural 
history,  and  archaeology,  and  a  library  of  500,000 
volumes ;  in  the  otlier.  Prince  Cliarles's  palace, 
is  Holbein's  famous  'Meyer  Madonna.'  The 
handsome  post-office  dates  from  1881,  the  theatre 
from  1871.  There  are  manufactures  of  chemicals, 
hats,  machinery,  tobacco,  playing-cards,  carpets, 
and  beer.     Pop.  (1875)  44,088  ;  (1900)  72,380. 

Damaway,  the  Earl  of  Moray's  seat,  Elgin- 
shire, 3^  miles  SW.  of  Forres. 

Darnetal,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Seine- 
Inferieure,  2  j  miles  E.  of  Rouen.     Pop.  6776. 

Darnick,  a  Roxburghshire  village,  1  mile  W. 
of  Melrose.     Pop.  307. 

Darnley,  a  Renfrewshire  barony,  1^  mile  E. 
of  Barrhead. 

Dartford,  a  thriving  market-town  of  Kent,  in 
the  narrow  valley  of  the  Darent,  2  miles  above 
its  influx  to  the  Thames,  and  17  ESE.  of  London. 
Edward  III.  here  founded  an  Augustinian  nun- 


nery (1355) ;  St  Edmund's  chantry  was  a  great 
place  of  pilgrimage ;  and  at  Dartford  Wat  Tyler 
commenced  his  rebellion  (1381).  The  church, 
with  a  Norman  tower,  has  interesting  monuments 
—one  to  Sir  John  Spielman,  Queen  Elizabeth's 
jeweller,  who  in  1588  established  here  the  first 
paper-mill  in  England.  Paper  is  still  manufac- 
tured, besides  steam-engines,  machineryj  gun- 
powder, &c.  Pop.  (1851)  6224  ;  (1891)  II  962 ; 
(1901)  18,644.  See  works  by  Dunkiu  (1844)  and 
Bayly  (1876).  ' 

Dartmoor,  a  great  granitic  upland  in  Devon- 
shire, the  source  of  nearly  all  the  principal  rivers 
of  the  county,  remarkable  alike  for  its  wild  an<J 
rugged  scenery,  its  antiquities,  its  wide,  solitary,- 
trackless  wastes,  and  its  mineral  products.  It 
is  upwards  of  130,000  acres  in  extent,  the  extreme 
length  from  north  to  south  being  25  miles,  and  the 
extreme  breadth  20.  The  central  portion  is  the 
ancient  royal  forest  of  Dartmoor,  whose  rights  be- 
long to  the  Duchy  of  Cornwall ;  this  is  surrounded 
by  a  belt  of  open  country,  once  known  as  the 
'Commons  of  Devonshire,'  but  portions  of  which 
have  been  enclosed.  The  attempts  to  cultivate 
Dartmoor  itself  have  been  very  few,  and  the  north- 
ern quarter  for  miles  shows  no  trace  of  man.  The 
valleys  through  which  the  rivers  descend  to  the 
lowland  country  are  singularly  fertile,  and  at  times 
full  of  beauty.  The  moor  itself  affords  valuable 
mountain  pasture  to  cattle,  sheep,  and  large  num- 
bers of  half-wild  ponies.  The  average  height  of 
Dartmoor  above  the  sea  is  upwards  of  1200  feet,  but 
its  highest  point.  High  Willhayes,  is  2039  feet ;  and 
the  next.  Yes  Tor,  2030.  The  hills  are  commonly 
called  tors^  and  for  the  most  part  have  granite 
crests,  weathered  into  grotesque  and  picturesque 
shapes.  Dartmoor  is  rich  in  minerals— tin,  cop- 
per, iron,  manganese,  gold,  and  china-clay  or 
kaolin,  this  last  much  the  most  important  now- 
adays. Dartmoor  is  unrivalled  in  England  in 
the  extent  and  character  of  its  prehistoric  and 
rude  stone  antiquities.  The  chief  centre  of  pop- 
ulation is  Prince  Town,  where  is  a  prison,  built 
(1806)  for  prisoners  of  war,  and  adapted  '(1855) 
to  its  present  purpose  of  a  convict  prison.  See 
works  by  Rowe  (1856),  and  Page  (1889). 

Dartmouth,  a  seaport  and  municipal  borough 
(till  1867  also  parliamentary)  of  South  Devon,  32 
miles  S.  by  W.  of  Exeter.  It  is  built  in  pictur- 
esque terraces  on  a  steep  slope  300  to  400  feet 
high,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  romantic  estuary 
of  the  river  Dart,  at  a  short  distance  from  the 
sea.  The  streets  are  narrow^,  and  many  of  the 
houses  very  old,  with  overhanging  stories,  pro- 
jecting gables,  and  wood-carvings.  St  Saviour's 
Church  (c.  1372)  has  a  richly  sculptured  pulpit, 
and  a  beautifully  carved  rood-loft.  A  battery, 
and  the  remains  of  a  castle  built  during  the 
reign  of  Henry  VII.,  stand  at  the  entrance  to 
the  harbour.  In  1190  the  Crusaders,  under 
Cceur-de-Lion,  embarked  for  the  Holy  Land  at 
Dartmouth,  which  in  1643  was  taken  by  Prince 
Maurice,  but  in  1646  retaken  by  Fairfax.  New- 
comen,  the  inventor  of  the  steam-engine,  was 
born  here ;  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert  at  Greenway, 
across  the  Dart ;  and  John  Davis  at  Sandridge. 
Here  is  a  great  Royal  Naval  School.  Pop.  (1861) 
4444  ;  (1901)  6580. 

Darton,   a  township  in  the  West  Riding  of 

Yorkshire,  2>\  miles  NW.  of  Barnsley.    Pop.  7613. 

Darvel,  an  Ayrshire  police-burgh,  with  muslin 

manufacture,  9  miles  E.  of  Kilmarnock.     Pop 

3074. 

Darwen,  a  municipal  borough  of  Lancashire, 
on  the  river  Darwen,  3^  miles  S.  of  Blackburn, 


DARWIN  SOUND 


518 


DEAD  SEA 


and  9  N.  of  Bolton.  Cotton  is  the  staple  manu- 
facture ;  then  come  paper-making  and  paper- 
staining  ;  and  to  these  and  other  industries,  with 
its  water  facilities,  and  the  neighbouring  coal- 
mines and  stone  quarries,  Darwen  owes  its  rapid 
growth  and  its  well-being.  It  was  incorporated 
in  1878.  Among  the  chief  buildings  are  the  free 
library,  the  market-hall,  the  co-operative  hall, 
and  the  public  baths  erected  in  memory  of  Sir 
Robert  Peel.  Pop.  (1851)  7020;  (1901)  38,212. 
See  Shaw's  History  of  Darwen  (1891). 

Darwin  Sound  and  Mount  Darwin  are  on  the 
SW.  side  of  King  Charles's  South  Land,  Tierra 
del  Fuego.    The  mountain  rises  6800  feet. 

Datchet,  a  village  of  Bucks,  on  the  Thames, 
2  miles  B.  of  Windsor. 

Datia  (Datee'a),  a  native  state  of  Bundelkhand 
(area,  837  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  186,440).  The  chief  town, 
Datia,  125  miles  SE.  of  Agra,  has  a  pop.  of  24,566. 

Daudnagar  (Ddh-ood-nug'ur),  a  wretched-look- 
ing town  in  the  Gaya  district  of  Bengal,  on  the 
Soane,  90  miles  SW.  of  Patna.     Pop.  9870. 

Daulatabad  (Doiolatabad'),  a  decayed  town 
in  the  Deccan,  28  miles  NW.  of  Hyderabad.  Its 
fortress,  a  walled  and  moated  conical  rock,  600  feet 
high,  surrendered  to  the  Mohammedans  in  1294, 
and  has  long  been  ungarrisoned.     Pop.  1243. 

Dauphine,  a  former  frontier  province  (capital, 
Grenoble)  of  south-west  France,  now  forming  the 
deps.  Drome,  Isere,  and  Hautes  Alpes. 

Dauria,  a  mountainous  region  of  south-eastern 
Siberia,  between  Lake  Baikal  and  the  river 
Argun,  on  the  Chinese  frontier. 

Davarr  Island.    See  Campbeltown. 

Davenport,  capital  of  Scott  county,  Iowa,  on 
the  Mississippi,  opposite  Rock  Island  (q.v.),  183 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Chicago.  It  is  the  seat  of  Gris- 
wold  College  (1859),  and  manufactures  flour,  iron 
wares,  Avoollen  goods,  &c.    Pop.  36,872. 

Daventry  (pron.  Daintry),  an  ancient  municipal 
borough  of  Northamptonshire,  at  the  sources  of 
the  Avon  and  Nene,  12  miles  W.  of  Northampton, 
and  4  NW.  of  Weedon  by  a  branch  line  opened 
in  1888.  Charles  I.  spent  six  days  here  in  1645 
before  the  battle  of  Naseby.  Pop.  3739.  Danes 
or  Borongh  Hill,  1  mile  E.,  is  one  of  the  largest 
Roman  camps  in  the  kingdom. 

Davidson's  Mains,  or  Muttonhole,  a  Mid- 
lothian village,  3i  miles  WNW.  of  Edinburgh. 
Pop.  919. 

Davis  Strait  washes  the  western  coast  of 
Greenland,  and  connects  Baffin  Bay  with  the 
Atlantic  Ocean.  At  its  narrowest  point,  immedi- 
ately north  of  the  Arctic  circle,  it  measures 
about  200  miles  across.  The  navigator  John 
Davys  sailed  through  it  in  1587. 

Davos',  a  small  valley  lying  amongst  the  Alps 
of  the  Eastern  Grisons,  16  miles  SE.  of  Coire,  and 
31  SSE.  of  Landquart  by  rail.  It  has  become  fam- 
ous as  a  health-resort  in  winter,  especially  for  such 
as  suffer  from  chest  disease,  the  air  being  still  and 
dry,  with  much  bright,  warm  sunshine  through- 
out the  winter.  Till  lately  mere  out-of-the-way 
hamlets,  the  villages  of  Davos-Platz  (5105  feet 
above  sea-level)  and  Davos-Dorfli  have  hotels, 
villas  and  chalets,  doctors,  and  daily  posts.  Skat- 
ing and  tobogganing  are  pastimes.  See  English 
works  on  the  place  by  Wise  (1881),  Muddock 
(1884),  and  J.  A.  Symonds  (1892). 

Dawley,  a  Shropshire  township,  4  miles  SE.  of 
Wellington,  with  mineral  industries.    Pop.  7996. 

Dawlish,  a   pleasant   watering-place   of  SE. 


Devon,  12  miles  SE.  of  Exeter,  and  backed  by  the 
Great  Haldon  (818  feet).     Pop.  5000. 

Dawson,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Klondike 
with  the  Yukon,  1500  miles  from  its  mouth,  is  the 
capital  of  the  Yukon  territory  of  Canada,  since 
1896  the  centre  of  the  Klondike  gold-mining 
industry.    Pop.  12,000. 

Dax,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Landes,  on 
the  Adonr,  93  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Bordeaux  by  rail, 
with  a  14th-century  castle,  now  a  barrack,  remains 
of  Roman  walls,  a  cathedral,  &c.  Its  hot  sulpluu'- 
springs  (77°-144°  F.)  were  known  to  the  Romans, 
who  called  the  place  Aqrue  Tarbellce ;  in  the 
middle  ages  it  was  called  Acqs.    Pop.  9716. 

Daylesford,  a  Worcestershire  estate,  3^  miles 
E.  of  Stow-on-the-Wold,  repurchased  in  1788  by 
Warren  Hastings,  who  died  and  was  buried  here. 

Dayton,  capital  of  Montgomery  county,  Ohio, 
on  the  Great  Miami,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Mad 
River,  60  miles  NNE.  of  Cincinnati  by  rail.  The 
public  buildings  include  a  court-house  of  white 
marble  and  a  large  jail.  Standing  on  the  line  of 
the  Miami  Canal  (opened  1829),  the  city  is  the 
terminus  of  eight  railroads,  and  the  water  of  the 
Mad  River  is  brought  through  its  streets  by  an 
hydraulic  canal,  supplying  abundant  water-power. 
It  manufactures  railroad-cars,  cotton,  woollen, 
and  iron  goods,  oil,  flour,  paper,  and  machinery. 
Pop.  (1870)  30,473  ;  (1890)  61,220 ;  (1900)  85,333. 

Dead  Sea,  the  usual  name,  dating  from  the 
time  of  Jerome,  for  a  most  remarkable  lake  in 
the  south-east  of  Palestine,  called  in  the  Old 
Testament  The  Salt  Sea,  Sea  of  the  Plain,  or  East 
Sea;  by  Josephus,  Lacns  Asphaltites ;  and  by  the 
Arabs  now,  Bahr-Lut,  '  Sea  of  Lot.'  It  is  46  miles 
long,  5  to  9  miles  broad,  and  1292  feet  below  the 
level  of  the  Mediterranean.  The  depth  of  the 
greater  part,  the  northern  section,  is  about  1300 
feet ;  but  at  the  southern  end  the  water  is  only 
from  3  to  12  feet  deep.  The  Dead  Sea  is  fed  by 
the  Jordan  from  the  north,  and  by  many  other 
streams,  but  has  no  apparent  outlet,  its  super- 
fluous water  being  carried  off  by  evaporation. 
Along  the  eastern  and  western  shores  there  are 
lines  of  bold  cliffs  rising  1500  feet  on  the  west, 
and  2500  on  the  east.  The  north  shore,  a  great 
mud  flat,  is  marked  by  the  blackened  trunks  and 
branches  of  trees ;  the  southern  shore  is  low, 
also  marshy  and  dreary.  Lava-beds,  pumice- 
stone,  warm  springs,  sulphur,  and  volcanic  slag 
prove  the  presence  here  of  volcanic  agencies 
at  some  period.  The  neighbourhood  is  fre- 
quently visited  by  earthquakes,  and  the  lake 
still  occasionally  casts  up  to  its  surface  large 
masses  of  asphalt.  The  water  is  characterised  by 
the  presence  of  a  large  quantity  of  magnesian  and 
soda  salts.  Its  specific  gravity  ranges  from  1172 
to  1227  (pure  water  being  1000).  The  proportion 
of  saline  matter  is  so  great,  that  whilst  sea-water 
contains  only  3-5  per  cent,  of  salts,  the  water  of 
the  Dead  Sea  contains  upwards  of  26  per  cent. 
Rain  hardly  ever  falls ;  the  water  is  nearly  as 
blue  and  clear  as  that  of  the  Mediterranean  ;  and 
though  its  taste  is  horribly  salt  and  fetid,  a  bath 
in  it  is  refreshing.  Owing  to  the  great  specific 
gravity  of  the  water,  it  is  almost  impossible  for 
the  bather  to  sink  in  it.  According  to  Major 
Conder,  'it  is  now  generally  agreed  that  the  Dead 
Sea  and  Jordan  were  formed  by  a  great  fault  or 
crack  in  the  earth's  surface  long  before  the 
creation  of  man,  and  that  the  district  presents 
in  our  own  days  much  the  same  aspect  as  in 
the  days  of  Abraham.  It  is  vain,  therefore,  to 
suppose  that  the  "  cities  of  the  plain  "  were  be- 
neath the  present  sea,  although  this  view  was 


DEAL 


il9 


deIs 


held  as  early  as  the  time  of  Josephus'  (Bible 

Geography,  1884). 

Deal,  a  municipal  borough  and  sea-bathing 
place  of  Kent,  on  a  bold  open  beach,  near  tlie 
south  extremity  of  the  Downs,  between  North  and 
South  Foreland,  89  miles  by  rail  ESE.  of  London. 
Till  1885  it  was  part  of  the  parliamentary  borough 
of  Sandwich.  A  line  anchorage  extends  7  or  8 
miles  between  Deal  and  the  Goodwin  Sands. 
Deal  has  mainly  arisen  to  supply  the  wants  of 
the  numerous  vessels  in  the  Downs,  its  chief 
industries  being  connected  with  boat-building, 
sail-making,  piloting,  victualling,  &c.  The  hand- 
some iron  promenade  pier  was  erected  in  1804. 
Pop.  (1851)  7067  ;  (1901)  10,580.  Deal  has  been  one 
of  the  Cinque  Porta  since  the  13th  century.  Of 
the  three  castles  built  by  Henry  VIII.  in  1539, 
Deal  Castle  is  the  residence  of  its  'captain;' 
Sandown  Castle  (where  Colonel  Hutchinson  died), 
to  the  north  of  Deal,  was  pulled  down  in  1864  on 
account  of  the  inroads  of  the  sea ;  and,  to  the 
south,  Walmer  Castle  is  now  the  official  residence 
of  the  Warden  of  the  Cinque  Ports.  See  Chap- 
man's Deal :  Past  and  Present  (1891). 

Dean,  Forest  of,  a  picturesque  hilly  tract, 
34  sq.  m.  in  extent,  in  the  west  of  Gloucester- 
shire, between  the  Severn  and  the  Wye.  An 
ancient  royal  forest,  it  was  almost  entirely  dis- 
afforested by  Charles  I.,  on  a  sale  to  Sir  John 
Wintour,  but  was  re-afforested  very  shortly  after 
the  Restoration.  The  greater  part  still  remains 
crown  property  ;  and  about  one-half  is  approijri- 
ated  for  the  growth  of  timber  for  the  navy.  It 
is  divided  into  six  'walks,'  which  contain  woods 
of  oak,  beech,  &c.  There  are  coal  and  iron  mines, 
and  quarries  of  stone  suitable  for  building  and 
making  grindstones,  troughs,  and  rollers.  The 
deer  were  exterminated  in  1854. 

Deanston.    See  Doune. 

Death  Valley,  a  peculiarly  sterile  depression 
in  the  Mohave  Desert  (q.v.)  in  California. 

Debateable  Land,  a  Border  tract  between  the 
Esk  and  Sark,  long  a  bone  of  contention  between 
England  and  Scotland. 

Deben,  a  Suffolk  river,  rising  near  Debenham, 
flows  30  miles  SE.  to  the  German  Ocean.  It  is 
tidal  and  navigable  from  Woodbrldge  (8^  miles). 

Debenham,  a  small  Suffolk  town,  8  miles  NNE. 
of  Needham  Market.     Pop.  of  parish,  1219. 

De'breczen,  a  town  of  Hungary,  in  the  midst 
of  a  wide  plain,  130  miles  E.  of  Pe'sth  by  rail.  It 
is  a  large  straggling  place,  indeed  really  a  collec- 
tion of  villages.  It  has,  however,  a  fine  town- 
hall,  a  large  Protestant  college,  a  theatre,  &c. 
The  inhabitants  are  largely  dependent  on  agri- 
culture ;  enonnous  herds  of  cattle  graze  on  the 
fertile  stretches  of  plain.  There  are  also  manu- 
factures of  soap,  saltpetre,  flour,  sausages,  hams, 
and  tobacco-pipes.  Population,  73,500,  nearly  all 
Protestants.  The  '  Rome  of  the  Calvlnists,' 
Debreczen  was  long  the  headquarters  of  the  Re- 
formed faith,  and  suffered  much  therefor.  It 
took  a  prominent  part  in  the  revolution  of  1849. 

Deca'tur,  capital  of  Macon  county,  Illinois,  on 
the  Sangamon  River,  39  milos  E.  of  Springfield. 
It  has  woollen,  planing,  and  flour  mills.  Pop. 
(1880)  9547  ;  (1900)  20,760. 

Decazeville  (De-Mhz-veel'),  a  town  in  the  dep. 
of  Aveyron,  110  miles  NNE.  of  Toulouse  by  rail, 
with  iron  and  coal  mines  near  by,  and  great 
blast-furnaces  and  ironworks.    Pop.  6684. 

Deccan  (from  dakshin,  '  the  south '),  a  term 
applied  sometimes  to  the  whole  Indian  peninsula 
to  the  south  of  the  Vindhya  Mountains,  which 


separate  it  from  the  basin  of  the  Ganges,  and 
sometimes  restricted  to  that  portion  which  is 
rather  vaguely  bounded  N.  by  the  Nerbudda,  and 
S.  by  the  Kistna  or  Krishna. 

Deception  Island,  a  volcanic  island  belonging 
to  the  South  Shetland  group  in  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  directly  south  of  Cape  Horn. 

Deddington,  an  Oxfordshire  market-town,  6 
miles  S.  of  Banbury.  Piers  Garveston  was  seized 
in  its  ruined  castle  (1312).     Pop.  of  parish,  1777. 

Dedham,  an  Essex  village,  on  the  Stour,  3^ 
miles  W.  by  N.  of  Manningtree,  with  a  school 
(1571).    Pop.  of  parish,  i485. 

Dee,  a  Welsh  and  English  river,  issuing  from 
Bala  Lake,  in  Merionethshire,  and  flowing  90  miles 
NE.,  N.,  and  NW.  to  the  Irish  Sea.  Near  Trevor  it 
is  crossed  by  the  Ellesmere  Canal,  on  an  aqueduct 
1007  feet  long  and  120  high  ;  and  also  by  the 
stone  viaduct  of  the  Chester  and  Shi-ewsbury 
Railway,  of  19  arches,  each  90  feet  span  and  150 
high.  At  Chester,  which  it  nearly  encircles,'  it 
is  100  yards  broad  ;  thence  it  runs  alongside 
marshes  in  an  artificial  tidal  canal  7  miles  long, 
which  should  admit  ships  of  600  tons,  but  which  is 
rapidly  silting  up.  Near  Connah's  Quay,  between 
Chester  and  Flint,  where  its  width  is  160  yards,  it 
is  crossed  by  the  great  railway  swing-bridge, 
whose  first  cylinder  was  laid  by  Mr  Gladstone  on 
16th  August  1887.  The  Dee  ends  in  a  tidal  estuary 
13  miles  long  and  3  to  6  broad,  and  forming  at 
high-water  a  noble  arm  of  the  sea  ;  but  at  low- 
water  a  dreary  waste  of  sand  and  ooze  (Klngsley's 
'  sands  of  Dee '),  with  the  river  flowing  through 
it  in  a  narrow  stream.  Its  chief  tributaries  are 
the  Treveryn,  Alwen,  Celrog,  Clyweddog,  and 
Alyn.  Canals  connect  the  Dee  Avith  the  rivers  of 
central  England. 

Dee,  a  beautiful  river  of  Aberdeen  and  Kincar- 
dine shires,  rising  at  an  altitude  of  4060  feet 
among  the  Cairngorm  Mountains,  and  running 
87  miles  eastward,  till  it  enters  the  German 
Ocean  at  Aberdeen,  where  in  1870-72  a  mile  of 
its  channel  was  diverted  for  harbour  improve- 
ments. It  makes  a  descent  of  2084  feet  during 
the  first  2|  miles  of  its  course ;  at  the  Linn  of 
Dee,  18  miles  lower  down,  tumbles  through  a 
chasm  300  yards  long,  and  at  one  point  scarcely 
4  feet  wide ;  thereafter  flows  by  Castleton  of 
Braemar,  Balmoral  Castle,  and  Ballater ;  since 
1864  has  supplied  Aberdeen  with  water ;  and  is 
still  a  good  salmon  river,  though  not  what  it 
once  was.— The  Kirkmdbrightshire  Bee  issues 
from  Loch  Dee  (750  feet  above  sea-level),  and 
flows  38  miles  south-eastward  and  southward, 
past  Threave  Castle  and  Kirkcudbright,  to 
Kirkcudbright  Bay.  Midway  it  is  joined  by  the 
Water  of  Ken,  28  miles  long,  a  stream  of  greater 
volume  than  its  own.     It,  too,  affords  fine  fishing. 

Deel,  a  river  of  Cork  and  Limerick,  flowing 
28  miles  to  the  Shannon. 

Deepdene.    See  Dorking. 

Deeping,  Market,  a  market-town  of  Lincoln- 
shire, on  the  Welland,  7^  miles  SSE.  of  Bourn. 
Pop.  of  parish,  979. 

Deer,  Old,  a  village  of  Buchan,  Aberdeen- 
shire, 36  miles  N.  of  Aberdeen.  Here,  about 
580  A.D.,  St  Columba  and  Drostan,  his  nephew, 
established  a  monastery,  which  William  Comyn, 
Earl  of  Buchan,  refounded  about  1219  for  Cis- 
tercian monks.  The  larger  village  of  New  Deer, 
to  the  W. ,  has  736  inhabitants. 

Dees,  a  town  of  Transylvania,  on  the  Szamofl, 
37  miles  NNE.  of  Klauseuburg  by  rail.     Pop.  9191. 


DEGGENDORF 


220 


DELHI 


Deggendorf,  a  town  of  Lower  Bavaria,  on  the 
Danube,  39  miles  NW.  of  Passau,  with  a  cluuch 
visited  by  tliousands  of  pilgrims.    Pop.  7000. 

Dehra,  headquarters  of  the  Delira  Dun  district 
of  the  Meerut  division  of  Agra  province,  in  a 
mountain  valley  2300  feet  above  the  sea,  with  a 
great  imperial  school  of  forestry.  Pop.  29,000. 
See  also  Derajat. 

Deil's  Dyke,  or  Picts'  Dyke,  an  ancient  forti- 
fication of  Galloway,  extending  from  Loch  Ryan 
to  the  upper  part  of  the  Solway  Firth. 

Deir-el-kamar  ('  convent  of  the  moon '),  a  town 
of  Syria,  formerly  the  capital  of  the  Druses,  13 
miles  SSE.  of  Beyrout.     Pop.  8000. 

Delagoa  Bay,  a  Portuguese  possession,  is  a 
large  inlet  of  the  Indian  Ocean  on  the  south- 
east coast  of  Africa.  Stretching  for  70  miles 
between  26°  20' and  25°  30'  S.  lat.,  it  is  25  miles 
wide,  and  for  size  and  accommodation  is  the 
finest  natural  harbour  in  Soutli  Africa,  although 
landing  facilities  are  still  very  primitive.  There 
are  several  islands  and  shoals  in  the  bay,  but  its 
navigation  is  safe  and  easy,  and  the  anchorage 
commodious  and  well  sheltered.  The  settlement 
of  Lourengo  Marques  and  surrounding  country 
have  been  notoriously  unhealthy ;  but  in  1887  the 
swamps  behind  the  town  were  filled  in,  and  other 
improvements  have  since  been  carried  out.  The 
rivers  Maputa,  Tembe,  and  Umbelosi  (joining  to 
form  the  English  River),  and  the  Komati,  fall 
into  Delagoa  Bay.  The  first  two  are  navigable 
for  some  distance  for  small  craft.  In  1887  a  com- 
pany was  formed  in  London  to  work  a  concession 
from  the  Portuguese  government  for  ninety  years, 
for  the  construction  of  a  railway  (293  miles)  from 
Delagoa  Bay  to  Pretoria  in  the  Transvaal.  The 
line  was  partly  opened  in  1888.  See  Rose 
Montiero,  Delagoa  Bay  (1892). 

Delaware,  one  of  the  Atlantic  States  of  the 
American  Union,  forms  a  part  of  a  peninsula 
lying  between  the  lower  reaches  of  the  Susque- 
hanna and  Chesapeake  Bay  on  the  west,  and  the 
Delaware  River  and  Bay  and  Atlantic  Ocean  on 
the  east.  With  an  area  of  1960  sq.  m.,  or  little 
more  than  that  of  Northumberland,  it  is  the 
smallest  of  all  the  states,  except  Rhode  Island. 
Save  in  a  small  hilly  section  in  the  north,  nearly 
all  the  surface  is  low  and  level,  and  in  the  ex- 
treme south  there  is  much  swampy  land ;  while 
the  most  southern  two-fifths  of  the  area  is  in 
great  part  a  sandy  region.  The  coast-region  has 
many  salt-marshes  ;  farther  inland  is  a  consider- 
able body  of  extremely  rich  alluvial  soil.  The 
western  border  is  generally  well  wooded,  and  in 
some  places  flat  and  marshy.  The  rivers  are 
mostly  small,  but  many  are  navigable.  In  the 
north  kaolin  and  iron  ore  are  found,  and  bog  ore 
or  limonite  occurs  in  other  parts.  The  state  is 
well  provided  with  railroad  facilities,  and  is 
crossed  by  a  canal  connecting  the  Delaware  and 
Chesapeake  bays.  The  northern  section  has  large 
and  varied  manufacturing  interests.  Peaches 
and  the  various  small  fruits,  as  well  as  market- 
garden  products,  are  leading  articles  of  export ; 
the  principal  cereal  crops  are  maize,  Avheat,  and 
oats.  Pop.  (1870)  125,015  ;  (1900)  184,735.  The 
principal  towns  are  "Wilmington,  New  Castle, 
Dover  (the  state  capital),  and  Smyrna.  Dela- 
ware's first  permanent  white  settlements  were 
made  by  Swedes  and  Finns  in  1638 ;  Dutch  and 
Swedes  contended  for  this  region,  till  in  1655  it 
passed  under  Dutch  sway.  After  the  transfer  of 
New  Amsterdam  (now  New  York)  to  the  English 
in  1664,  Delaware  became  English  also.     Dela- 


ware, a  slave-state  until  1861-65,  took  no  part  in 
the  secession  movement. 

Delaware,  the  capital  of  Delaware  county, 
Ohio,  on  the  Whetstone  River,  24  miles  by  rail 
N.  of  Columbus.  It  has  foundries,  flour  and 
woollen  mills,  &c.,  chalybeate  and  sulphur 
springs,  and  a  Wesleyan  University  (1842).  Presi- 
dent Hayes  was  a  native.     Pop.  7950. 

Delfshaven  (Delfshdh'ven),  a  Dutch  town,  in- 
corporated with  Rotterdam  in  1886,  so  as  to 
become  a  western  section  of  the  city. 

Delft,  an  ancient  town  of  South  Holland,  on  the 
Schie,  8  miles  NW.  of  Rotterdam.  Its  town-hall 
(1618)  is  a  picturesque  and  richly  adorned  edi- 
fice. The  New  Church  (1476)  contains  a  monu- 
ment to  William  the  Silent,  who  was  assassinated 
here,  10th  July  1584,  as  also  the  tomb  of  Grotius, 
and  the  burial-vaults  of  the  present  royal  family. 
The  Old  Church  contains  the  tomb  of  the 
naturalist  Leeuwenhoek,  and  of  the  great 
admiral  Tromp.  Delft  has  also  a  state  arsenal, 
an  East  Indian  college,  and  a  polytechnic.  There 
are  some  manufactures  of  fine  carpets,  casks, 
baskets  ;  but  Delft  has  quite  lost  its  high  reputa- 
tion for  del f- ware,  so  famous  from  the  16th  to  the 
18th  century.     Pop.  (1876)  23,804  ;  (1901)  31,878. 

Delhi  (Del'lee),  the  chief  commercial  and  indus- 
trial centre  of  the  Punjab,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Jumna,  113  miles  NNW.  of  Agra,  and  954 
NW.  of  Calcutta.  It  is  the  terminus  of  the  East 
Indian  and  Rajputana  railways,  the  former  cross- 
ing the  Jumna  by  a  fine  iron  bridge.  Delhi  is 
walled  on  three  sides,  has  ten  gates,  and  stands 
on  high  ground,  the  famous  palace  of  Shah  Jehan, 
now  the  Fort,  looking  out  over  the  river  and  a 
wide  stretch  of  wooded  and  cultivated  country. 
To  the  north,  about  a  mile  distant,  rises  the 
historic  'ridge,'  crowned  with  memorials  of  the 
Mutiny,  and  commanding  a  fine  view  of  the  city, 
the  domes  and  minarets  of  which  overtop  the 
encircling  groves.  The  palace  buildings  com- 
prise the  cathedral-like  entrance  hall,  the  audi- 
ence hall,  and  several  lesser  pavilions,  covering 
in  all  an  area  of  1600  feet  by  3200,  exclusive  of 
gateways.  The  beautiful  inlaid  work  and  carving 
of  these  buildings  are  the  admiration  of  the 
world,  and  the  diwan-i-khas  is  worthy  of  its 
famous  inscription :  '  If  there  is  a  heaven  on 
earth,  it  is  this— it  is  this  ! '  In  the  heart  of  the 
city  stands  the  Jama  Masjid  ('great  mosque'), 
one  of  the  largest  and  finest  structures  of  the 
kind  in  India,  which  also  owes  its  origin  to  Shah 
Jehan.  Ainong  the  notable  monuments  in  the 
neighbourhood  are  the  imperial  tombs,  including 
that  of  Hamayun,  second  of  the  Mogul  dynasty  ; 
the  old  Kala  Masjid,  or  black  mosque ;  and  the 
13th  century  Kutab  Minar,  10  miles  to  the  south, 
which  is  238  feet  high,  and  tapers  gracefully 
from  a  diameter  of  47  feet  at  the  base  to  9  feet 
at  the  summit.  Modern  Delhi  is  noted  for  its 
broad  main  streets,  the  chief  being  the  Chandni 
Chauk,  or  Silver  Street,  Avith  its  high  clock- 
tower,  and  the  institute  and  museum.  Delhi  has 
a  large  trade  in  Avheat  and  other  produce,  and  its 
bazaars  are  noted  for  gold  and  silver  work,  pre- 
cious stones,  shawls,  and  costly  fabrics.  Across 
the  river  is  the  ruined  fort  of  Salimgarh.  Pop. 
(1891)  192,570  ;  (1901)  208,385. 

Delhi  was  the  capital  of  the  Afghan  or  Pathan, 
and  afterwards  of  the  Mogul,  empire.  It  was 
taken  by  Lord  Lake  in  1803,  and  has  ever  since 
been  under  British  rule,  except  when  it  was  held 
by  the  mutineers  in  1857.  The  march  of  the 
mutineers  from  Meerut;  the  terrible  11th  of 
May ;  the  explosion  of  the  powder-magazine  by 


J 


DELITZSCH 


221 


DENMARK 


W^illoughby  and  his  heroic  band ;  the  assault, 
when  the  city  was  won  (September  20)  gate  by 
gate  and  quarter  by  quarter— a  success  saddened 
by  the  death  of  the  gallant  Nicholson  ;  the  sub- 
sequent daring  capture  of  the  king  of  Delhi  by 
Hodson ;  and  the  capture  and  shooting  of  his 
sons  by  the  same  officer,  are  memorable  events. 
A  memorial  to  Willoughby  was  erected  by  gov- 
ernment in  1888.  In  1877  Delhi  was  the  scene 
of  the  famous  Durbar  at  which  the  Queen  was 
proclaimed  Empress  of  India. 

Delitzsch  (Day'leetch),  a  town  of  Prussian  Sax- 
ony, on  the  Lobber,  12  m.  N.  of  Leipzig.  Pop.  8342. 

Dellys  (Del-leessT),  a  port  of  Algeria,  50  miles 
E.  of  Algiers.    Pop.  3578. 

Delos  (also  anciently  Asteria,  Ortygia),  an  island 
in  the  Grecian  Archipelago,  the  smallest  (little 
more  than  1  sq.  m.)  of  the  Cyclades,  between  the 
islands  Ehenea  and  Mykonus.  The  town  of  Delos, 
which  stood  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Cynthus,  a 
granite  crag  347  feet  high,  is  now  a  mass  of  ruins. 
Still,  however,  the  remains  of  the  great  temple  of 
Apollo  (whom  Leto  gave  birth  to  here),  and  of 
his  colossal  statue,  may  be  distinctly  traced. 
Since  1877  extensive  excavations  have  been  pro- 
secuted for  the  French  Archaeological  Institute. 

Delphi,  an  ancient  Greek  town  in  Phocis,  cele- 
brated chiefly  for  its  famous  oracle  of  Apollo, 
8  miles  N.  of  the  northern  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Lepanto,  at  the  southern  base  of  Parnassus.  The 
modern  town  of  Kastri  now  occupies  the  site,  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  the  source  of  the  still  flow- 
ing Castalian  spring. 

Delvino,  a  town  of  Albania,  45  miles  WNW. 
of  Janina,  with  a  strong  castle.    Pop.  6000. 

Demavend,  Mount,  an  extinct  volcano  of 
Persia,  forming  the  loftiest  peak  (18,600  feet)  of 
the  Elburz  chain,  which  separates  the  low  shores 
of  the  Caspian  from  the  high  Persian  tableland. 

Dembea,  Lake.    See  Tzana. 

Demerara  (Dem-y-rah'ra),  a  county  of  British 
Guiana  (q.v.),  takes  its  name  from  the  Demerara 
River,  which  rises  in  the  Maccari  Mountains,  in 
about  4°  40'  N.  lat.,  and  after  a  northerly  course 
of  200  miles,  enters  the  Atlantic  at  Georgetown. 
The  moutli  is  1^  mile  wide,  but  is  obstructed  by 
a  bar  at  low  tides. 

Demir-Hissar  ('iron-castle'),  a  town  of  Euro- 
pean Turkey,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Struma,  45 
miles  NE.  of  Saloniki.     Pop.  8000. 

Demmin,  an  ancient  town  of  Prussia,  on  the 
Peene,  29  miles  S.  of  Stralsund.    Pop.  12,546. 

Demotica,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Maritza,  31  miles  S.  of  Adrian- 
ople  by  rail.    Pop.  12,000. 

Denain  (Beh-nav?'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Nord,  near  the  Scheldt  and  Selle  rivers,  20 
miles  NNE.  of  Cambrai  by  rail.  It  lies  in  the 
centre  of  an  extensive  coalfield,  and  has  manu- 
factures of  iron,  beet-root  sugar,  and  brandy. 
An  obelisk  marks  the  scene  of  Marshal  Villars's 
victory  over  the  allies  under  Prince  Eugene,  27th 
July  1712.     Pop.  23,500. 

Denbigh  (Den'hy),  a  municipal  borough,  county 
town  of  Denbighshire,  near  the  middle  of  the 
Vale  of  Clwyd,  30  miles  W.  of  Chester  by  rail. 
Its  imposing  ruined  castle,  which  was  rebuilt  in 
1284,  and  in  which  Charles  I.  took  refuge  (1645), 
was  dismantled  by  the  parliamentarians.  Den- 
bigh manufactures  shoes  and  leather,  but  is 
residential  more  than  commercial.  With  Ruthin, 
Holt,  and  Wrexham,  it  returns  one  member.  A 
lunatic  asylum  for  North  Wales  was  erected  in 
1848,  and  in  1860  a  noble  institution  for  twenty- 


five  orphan  girls,  and  as  many  day  pupils,  from 
money  left  in  1540  by  one  Thomas  Howell.  Pop. 
6500. 

Denbighshire,  a  county  of  North  Wales,  on 
the  Irish  Sea,  and  between  the  Dee  and  the 
Conway.  With  8  miles  of  coast,  it  is  41  miles 
long,  17  broad  on  an  average,  and  603  sq.  m.  in 
area.  The  surface  is  partly  rugged  and  moun- 
tainous, with  some  beautiful  and  fertile  vales 
as  that  of  Clwyd,  20  miles  by  7.  The  highest 
mountain  is  Cader  Fronwen,  2563  feet ;  and  many 
others  exceed  1500  feet.  There  occur  coal,  iron, 
slates,  flags,  millstones,  limestone,  lead,  and 
copper.  Tlie  chief  rivers  are  the  Dee,  Conway 
Elwy,  and  Clwyd.  The  Rhaiadr  waterfall  is  20(J 
feet  high  in  two  parts.  Llangollen  vale  is  famed 
for  romantic  beauty  and  verdure,  amid  hills  of 
savage  grandeur.  About  two-thirds  of  Denbigh- 
shire is  under  cultivation  ;  its  corn,  cheese,  butter, 
and  live-stock  are  greatly  esteemed.  It  is  also 
well  timbered.  Salmon  are  caught  in  the  rivers. 
The  towns  are  Denbigh,  Wrexham,  Ruthin,  Holt, 
Llangollen,  Llanrwst,  Abergele,  and  Ruabon. 
Pop.  (1801)  60,299  ;  (1841)  88,478 ;  (1901)  129,935. 
Denbighshire  returns  two  members. 

Denby,  with  Cumberworth,  a  townsliip  of  York- 
shire, 8  miles  W.  of  Barnsley.    Pop.  3500. 

Den'derah  (Gr.  Tentyra;  Coptic  Ttntore,  prob- 
ably  from  Tei-n-Athor,  '  abode  of  Athor'),  a 
village  of  Upper  Egypt,  once  a  populous  town, 
near  the  Nile's  left  bank,  in  26°  13'  N.  lat.,  32" 
40'  E.  long.  Its  temple,  one  of  the  finest  and 
best-preserved  structures  of  the  kind  in  Egypt, 
dates  from  the  period  of  Cleopatra  and  the  earlier 
Roman  emperors.     It  measures  220  by  50  feet. 

Dendermonde  (Dendermon'deh ;  Fr.  Termotide), 
a  town  of  Belgium,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Dender  and  the  Scheldt,  18  miles  E.  of  Ghent 
by  rail.  The  fortifications,  destroyed  in  1784, 
were  restored  in  1822.     Pop.  10,200. 

Den  Fenella,  a  romantic  ravine  in  Kincardine- 
shire, near  Laurencekirk. 

Denholm  (Den'mim),  a  Roxburghshire  village, 
on  the  Teviot,  5  miles  NE.  of  Hawick,  with  the 
birthplace  of  the  poet  Leyden.    Pop.  875. 

Denla,  a  port  of  the  Spanish  province  of 
Alicante,  near  Cape  St  Martiii.     Pop.  11,613. 

Deniliquin,  the  principal  place  in  the  Riverine 
district  of  New  South  Wales,  488  miles  SW.  of 
Sydney.    Pop.  4300. 

Denison,  a  city  of  northern  Texas,  3  miles  S. 
of  the  Red  River,  and  73  by  rail  N.  of  Dallas, 
with  manufactures  of  cotton,  flour,  ice,  artificial 
stone,  &c.     Pop.  (1880)  3975  ;  (1900)  11,807. 

Denmark  (Dan.  DanmarTc),  the  smallest  of  the 
three  Scandinavian  kingdoms,  consists  of  the 
peninsula  of  Jutland  and  a  group  of  islands  in 
the  Baltic,  and  is  bounded  by  the  Skager-Rak,  the 
Cattegat,  the  Sound,  the  Baltic,  the  Little  Belt, 
Sleswick,  and  the  North  Sea.  The  sale  of  the 
West  Indies  to  the  United  States  in  1902  waa 
refused  by  the  Landsthing. 

Area  Pop.  m 

in  sq.  m.  1901. 

Copenhagen 77  378,235 

Islands  in  Baltic 5,024  1,007,513 

Peninsula  of  Jutland 9,743  1,063,792 

Fai-oe  Islands 514  15,230 

Total  of  Denmark  Proper.. . .  15,289       2.464,770 

Iceland 39,756  78,470 

Greenland 46.740  11,895 

W.  Indies  (SS.  Croix,  Thomas,  John)       118  30,527 

Total  of  Dependencies 86,614  120^892 


DENMARK 


222 


DENNY 


The  area  of  Denmark  Proper— Jutland,  and  the 
islands  of  Zealand,  Fiinen,  Laaland,  Falster,  &c. 
—with  that  of  the  Faroe  Islands  added,  and  the 
population  are  somewhat  greater  than  half  those 
of  Scotland.  The  population,  with  the  Faroe 
Islands,  was  in  1870, 1,794,723;  in  1880, 1,980,259; 
in  1890,  2,185,235.  Aarhuus,  Odeiise,  and  Aalborg 
are,  besides  tlie  capital  Copenhagen  (Kjobenhavn), 
towns  with  over  30,000  inliabitants. 

Except  in  Bornholm  (q.v.),  the  surface  of  Den- 
mark is  very  similar  in  every  part  of  the  king- 
dom, and  is  uniformly  low,  its  highest  point 
(hi  south-east  Jutland)  being  only  5G4  feet  above 
sea-level.  The  coast  is  generally  flat,  skirted  by 
sand-dunes  and  shallow  lagoons,  especially  along 
the  west  side.  Both  the  continental  portion  and 
the  islands  are  penetrated  deeply  by  numerous 
fjords,  the  largest  being  Limfjord,  which  inter- 
sects Jutland,  and  has  insulated  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  peninsula  since  1825,  when  it 
broke  through  the  narrow  isthmus  which  had 
separated  it  from  the  North  Sea.  There  are 
several  canals.  The  centre  and  west  of  Jutland 
is  nearly  bare  of  wood,  but  in  the  other  parts 
of  the  peninsula  the  forests,  especially  of  beech, 
cover  about  215,000  acres,  and  in  the  islands  over 
291,000  acres.  Peat,  which  is  got  in  abundance 
from  the  bogs,  brown  coal  or  lignite,  and  sea- 
weed are  the  chief  fuel.  The  climate  is  milder, 
and  the  air  more  humid,  than  in  the  more 
southern  but  continental  Germany;  it  is  not 
unhealthy,  except  in  the  low-lying  islands,  such 
as  Laaland,  where  the  short  and  sudden  lieat  of 
the  summer  occasions  fevers. 

The  soils  of  Jutland  are  generally  light,  but 
those  in  the  south-east  part  and  in  the  islands 
are  stronger ;  about  80  per  cent,  of  the  area  of 
Denmark  is  productive,  and  of  the  remainder 
about  one-sixth  is  in  peat-bogs.  Nearly  half  the 
population  is  engaged  in  agriculture  ;  the  land 
for  the  most  part  is  parcelled  out  into  small 
holdings.  A  third  of  the  whole  kingdom  is 
arable,  while  over  two-fifths  is  in  meadow,  pas- 
ture, or  fallow  land.  The  raising  of  cattle  is 
taking  more  and  more  the  place  of  arable  farm- 
ing in  Denmark.  Dairy  produce  has  largely 
developed,  and  the  export  of  butter  greatly  in- 
creased, owing  to  improved  methods  and  the  co- 
operative dairy  system.  Machinery,  porcelain 
and  delf  wares,  and  bricks  are  leading  manufac- 
tures ;  beet-root  sugar  refineries  are  increasing, 
and  the  distilleries,  though  declining,  are  still 
numerous ;  there  are  ironworks,  over  eighty 
tobacco-factories,  and  several  paper-mills ;  and 
there  are  many  large  steam  corn-mills.  Though 
the  peasants  still  continue  to  manufacture  much 
of  what  they  require  within  their  own  homes, 
linens  and  woollens,  as  well  as  wooden  shoes, 
are  now  increasingly  made  in  factories.  The 
principal  articles  of  export  are  cattle,  sheep, 
swine,  butter,  hams,  hides,  wool,  grain,  fish,  eggs, 
meat,  and  wooden  goods.  Among  the  imports 
are  textile  fabrics,  cereals,  and  flour,  manufactures 
of  metal  and  timber,  coal,  oil,  salt,  coff"ee,  sugar, 
and  tobacco.  About  two-thirds  of  the  export 
trade  is  carried  on  in  native  vessels.  The  total 
value  of  the  imports  in  1890-1902  ranged  from 
£17,057,000  in  1890  to  £31,374,100  in  1902,  and  of 
the  exports  in  the  same  period  from  £12,990,000 
in  1890  to  £24,918,800  in  1902.  Tlie  bulk  of  the 
foreign  trade  is  with  Germany,  Great  Britain,  and 
Norway  and  Sweden  ;  tlie  imports  from  Germany 
exceed  those  from  Britain  by  about  a  third, 
whereas  the  exports  to  Britain  are  double  of 
those  to  Germany.  In  1905  there  were  1900  miles 
of  railway,  and  3700  miles  of  telegraph. 


Elementary  education  is  compulsory  for  chil- 
dren  between  the  ages  of  seven  and  fourteen. 
Copenhagen  University  has  1300  students.  The 
establislied  religion  is  Lutheran,  to  which  the 
king  must  belong ;  but  complete  toleration  is 
enjoyed  in  every  part  of  the  kingdom.  Only  1 
per  cent,  of  the  population  (including  about 
4000  Jews)  belong  to  other  forms  of  faith.  The 
government  of  Denmark  is  a  constitutional  mon- 
archy, the  king  being  assisted  by  a  cabinet  of 
seven  ministers.  The  national  assembly  or  Rigs- 
dag  consists  of  the  Folkething  and  Landsthing 
—the  former  partly  nominated  by  tlie  king, 
partly  elected  by  tlie  large  taxpayers,  the  latter 
in  the  proportion  of  one  to  every  16,000  of  the 
population,  elected  for  three  years  by  prac- 
tically universal  suftrage.  The  total  revenue 
for  the  financial  year  1904-5  was  £4,248,112, 
and  the  expenditure  £4,321,690.  In  the  same 
year  the  net  national  debt  was  £13,596,900. 
The  decimal  system  was  introduced  in  1875, 
the  unit  being  the  krone,  or  crown,  of  100  or^e; 
the  average  rate  of  exchange  is  18  kroner  ibo 
the  pound  sterling.  The  Danish  army  at  peace 
strength  is  824  officers  and  about  9000  men  ;  the 
war  strength  is  1448  officers  and  about  60,000  men. 
All  the  able-bodied  men  who  have  reached  the  age 
of  twenty-two  are  liable  to  serve  eight  years  in  the 
regular  army  and  reserve.  The  navy  cojnprises 
9  armoured  vessels,  6  cruisers  and  gun-vessels, 
7  gunboats,  and  34  first  and  second  class  tor- 
pedo-boats, manned  by  266  otficers  and  1137  men. 

The  early  history  of  Denmark  is  lost  in  the 
twilight  of  the  saga-period,  with  its  Vikings  and 
their  valiant  deeds.  The  Danes  coming  from  the 
islands  occupied  the  lands  deserted  by  the  Jutes 
and  Angles  who  had  in  the  5th  century  migrated 
to  England.  The  Danish  monarchy  was  founded 
in  936  by  Gorm  the  Old,  whose  son  became  a 
Christian.  Waldemar  L  (1157-82)  ruled  Norway 
also,  and  conquered  Mecklenburg  and  Pomerania ; 
under  his  son  Waldemar  II.  further  conquests  were 
made  in  German  and  Wendish  lands,  so  that  the 
Baltic  became  a  Danish  sea.  By  the  treaty  of 
Calmar  in  1397,  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark, 
already  under  one  monarch,  Margaret,  were 
formally  united  into  one  state.  In  1448  the 
Danes  elected  as  king  Christian  of  Oldenburg,  a 
descendant  of  their  royal  family,  who  was  also 
Duke  of  Sleswick  and  Holstein  ;  and  his  line  con- 
tinued on  the  throne  till  1863.  Sweden  became 
independent  in  1523.  Lutheranism  was  intro- 
duced into  Denmark  in  1527.  In  1815  Denmark 
had  to  cede  Norway  to  Sweden ;  and  in  1848 
the  Germanic  peoples  of  'the  duchies,'  Sleswick 
and  Holstein,  rebelled  against  Denmark.  For 
the  time  the  Danes  succeeded  in  retaining  the 
duchies,  but  the  controversy,  renewed  in  1863, 
led  to  the  defeat  of  the  Danes  by  Austria  and 
Prussia  (1864),  followed  by  the  incorporation  of 
the  duchies  in  the  Germanic  Confederation,  and, 
after  the  Austro-Prussian  war  of  1866,  in  Prussia. 

See  books  about  Denmark  by  Miss  Otte  (1882), 
by  various  specialists  (1891),  and  by  Miss  Thomas 
(1902) ;  Miss  Brochner's  Danish  Life  in  Town  and 
Country  (1903) ;  and  histories  of  Scandinavia  by 
Dunham  (1835),  Sinding  (1858),  Crichton  and 
Wheaton  (1872),  Otte  (1875),  Nisbet  Bain  (1905). 

Dennewltz  (Den'neh-veetz),  a  village  42  miles 
SSW.  of  Berlin.  Here,  on  6th  September  1813,  the 
Prussians  defeated  the  French,  Saxons,  and  Poles. 

Denny,  a  mining  town  of  Stirlingshire,  5^  miles 
WNW.  of  Falkirk,  on  the  Carron,  opposite  Duni- 
pace,  with  which  since.  1876  it  forms  a  police 
burgh.    Pop.  5161. 


DENNYSTOWN  223 

Dennystown,  a  suburb  of  Dumbarton. 
Dent  du  Midi  (Don^  dii  Mi-dee'),  a  conspicuous 
Alpine  peak  of  Valais  which  abuts  on  the  valley 
of  the  Rhone,  12  miles  S.  of  tlie  east  end  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva  ;  height  10,450  feet. 

Denton,  a  Lancasliire  town,  3i  miles  NNE.  of 
Stockport.     Pop.  (1901)  14,934. 

D'Entrecasteaux  Islands  (Z)on.^<r-cas-<o'),  sinee 
1884  part  of  British  New  Guinea,  lie  north 
of  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  New  Guinea. 
With  an  area  of  1083  sq.  m.,  they  comprise  three 
chief  islands,  and  are  named  after  the  French 
admiral  and  explorer,  IJruni  D'Entrecasteaux 
(1739-93),  who  visited  them  in  1792.  His  name 
is  also  preserved  in  D'Entrecasteaux  Point  on 
the  south-Avest  coast  of  Western  Australia  ;  and 
in  D'Entrecasteaux  Channel,  separating  the 
south  of  Tasmania  from  Brune  Island. 

Denver,  the  capital  of  Colorado,  on  the  South 
Platte  River,  922  miles  W.  of  St  Louis.  It  lies 
on  a  level  plain,  5196  feet  above  the  sea,  beyond 
which  rise  the  snow-capped  peaks  and  deep  blue 
shoulders  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Denver  was 
founded  on  a  barren  Avaste,  dry  and  treeless,  in 
1858,  and  in  1870  the  population  was  4759 ;  in 
1880,  35,629 ;  in  1900,  133,860.  In  thirty  years 
the  mining-camp  had  been  transformed  into  the 
'  Queen  City  of  the  Plains,'  with  stately  buildings 
of  brick  and  yellow  stone,  a)id  wide,  shaded 
streets,  provided  with  the  electric  light,  and  with 
horse,  cable,  and  electric  tram-cars ;  and  it  has 
become  the  meeting-point  of  a  great  network  of 
railways.  It  has  an  abundant  water-supply, 
many  of  the  houses  are  heated  by  steam,  supplied 
by  a  company ;  and  through  the  resident  portion 
streams  of  water  course  past  the  unpaved  foot- 
ways. The  clear  invigorating  air  and  dry  climate 
of  Denver  are  famous  ;  the  mean  animal  tempera- 
ture is  48°  P.,  and  the  rainfall  17  inches.  Among 
the  chief  buildings  are  the  city-hall,  a  handsome 
court-house  and  post-office,  high  school  (1887), 
Episcopal  cathedral,  the  state  capitol  (com- 
menced in  1886,  and  measuring  383  by  313  feet), 
and  the  university.  Denver  is  the  centre  of  a 
great  agricultural  and  mining  district,  and  has  a 
large  trade  in  cattle,  hides,  wool,  and  tallow.  It 
is  chiefly,  however,  to  its  position  as  the  centre 
of  a  great  mining  region  that  Denver  owes  its 
marvellous  progress ;  the  discovery,  in  1878,  of 
the  fabulous  wealth  of  the  Leadville  Hills 
attracted  capital  and  emigration  from  all  parts 
of  the  continent.  It  has  a  United  States  assaying 
mint,  and  is  an  important  ore  market. 

Deoband',  a  town  in  the  United  Provinces, 
15  miles  N.  of  Muzaft'arnagar.     Pop.  20,500. 

Deodar',  a  petty  native  state  in  the  Palanpur 
Superintendeiicy,  Bombay  Presidency.  Area, 
440  sq.  ni.  ;  pop.  25,061. 

Deori  (De-o-ree'),  a  town  in  Nagpur  district,  40 
miles  S.  of  Sagar.    Pop.  8000. 

Deptford,  a  town  of  Kent  and  Surrey,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Thames,  4^  miles  below  Loudon 
Bridge,  now  one  of  the  metropolitan  boroughs.  In 
1885  it  was  constituted  a  parliamentary  borough, 
returning  ore  member.  In  its  royal  dockyard, 
dating  from  Henry  VIII.'s  reign,  Queen  Elizabeth 
knighted  Drake  when  he  returned  from  his  voyage 
round  the  world.  It  was  closed  in  1869,  when 
part  of  its  site  was  fitted  up  by  the  London 
corporation  as  a  foreign  cattle-market.  The  Royal 
Victualling  Yard  is  also  here.  Deptford  was  long 
famous  for  horticulture,  but  the  gardens  have 
mostly  been  built  over  or  used  for  railway  pur- 
poses.   There  is  little  shipbuilding  now,  but  the 


DERBYSHIRE 

General  Steam  Navigation  Company  employ  a 
great  many  men  here,  and  there  are  large  and 
famous  marine  engineering  establishments.  In 
1888-89  the  Electric  Lighting  Company  erected 
buildings  here  for  supplying  London  with  light. 
Peter  the  Great  worked  here  as  a  shipwright. 
Lord  Howard  of  Effijigham,  John  Evelyn,  Admiral 
Benbow,  and  Grinling  Gibbons  lived  here  ;  and 
Marlowe  the  dramatist  was  killed  here,  and  is 
buried  in  St  Nicholas  churchyard.  Deptford  is 
divided  from  Greenwich  by  the  Ravcnsbourne, 
and  over  the  creek  there  is  a  bridge  where  form- 
erly the  depe  ford  crossed  the  river.  Pop.  (1851) 
27,896;  (1881)76,732;  (1901)110,398. 

Derajat',  the  fluvial  portion  of  Daman,  a  strip 
of  territory  between  the  Suliman  Mountains  and 
the  Indus,  was  mostly  incorporated  in  1901  with 
the  North-west  Frontier  Province.— Dera  Ismail 
Khan,  capital  of  a  transferred  district,  is  4^  miles 
W.  of  the  Indus.  Pop.  35,000. -Dera  Ghazi  Khan 
is,  though  2  miles  W.  of  the  Lidus,  still  attached 
to  the  Punjab.    Pop.  28,000. 

Derayeh,  a  town  of  Arabia,  450  miles  NE.  of 
Mecca,  was  the  ca])ital  of  the  Wahabis,  and  had  a 
pop.  of  60,000  prior  to  1819,  when  it  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  Ibrahim  Pasha.     Pop.  1500. 

Derbend'  ('  gateway '),  a  port  and  capital  of  the 
Russian  district  of  Daghestan,  on  the  west  shore 
of  the  Caspian,  140  miles  NW.  of  Baku.  The 
upper  city  forms  the  citadel,  and  contains  the 
splendid  palace  of  the  ancient  khans,  now  the 
seat  of  the  Russian  governor.    Pop.  14,750. 

Derby  (often  Darby),  a  pari. ,  munic. ,  and  county 
borough,  the  capital  of  Derbyshire,  on  the  Der- 
went,  92  miles  SE.  of  Liverpool  and  129  NNW.  of 
London.  The  Roman  station  of  Derventio  was  at 
Little  Chester,  a  northern  suburb.  Derby  was  a 
royal  borough  in  Edward  the  Confessor's  time, 
but  was  first  placed  under  a  mayor  in  1638.  It 
has  returned  two  members  since  1295.  The  tower 
of  All  Saints  (1509-27)  is  a  grand  example  of  Per- 
pendicular architecture,  175  feet  high,  exclusive 
of  the  pinnacles;  the  Roman  Catholic  church  of 
St  Mary  (1835)  is  a  good  specimen  of  Pugin's 
work.  Other  buildings  are  the  town-hall  (1866) ; 
the  free  library  and  nmseum  and  art  gallery,  all 
gifted,  like  a  recreation  ground,  by  Mr  M.  T. 
Bass,  from  1848  to  1883  M.P.  for  Derby;  the 
grammar-school,  a  modern  erection,  but  founded 
in  1162;  and  the  infirmary,  whose  foundation- 
stone  was  laid  by  Queen  Victoria  in  May  1891.  The 
choicely-planted  arboretum  (16  acres),  near  the 
central  railway  station,  was  the  gift  (1840)  of  Mr 
Joseph  Strutt.  Derby  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
Midland  Railway  Company  ;  their  vast  establish- 
ments employ  over  5000  men.  Its  manufactures 
are  silk,  cotton,  elastic  web,  lace,  hosiery,  iron, 
lead,  shot,  spar,  porcelain,  marble,  colours,  and 
chemicals.  Silk,  one  of  its  staple  manufactures, 
was  begun  here  first  in  England  by  John  Lombe 
in  1719.  Porcelain  was  manufactured  here  from 
1756  till  1814;  and  the  Derby  Crown  Porcelain 
Company  has  recently  revived  this  beautiful 
industry  with  much  success.  Richardson,  the 
novelist,  '  Wright  of  Derby,'  the  painter,  and 
Herbert  Spencer,  were  natives  ;  and  Derby  is 
identified  with  the  '  Stoniton '  of  George  Eliot's 
Adam  Bede.    Pop.  (1841)  32,741 ;  (1901)  105,785. 

Derbyshire,  an  inland  county  of  England, 
lying  between  Yorkshire  and  Leicestershire, 
Nottinghamshire  and  Staffordshire.  Its  length 
is  56  miles ;  its  greatest  breadth,  34  miles ;  and 
its  area,  1029  sq.  m.,  or  658,624  acres.  Pop.  (1801) 
161,567;  (1841)  272,202;  (1901)  620,196.  The 
surface   is   much    diversified,   the  south   being 


DEREHAM 


224 


DETROIT 


mostly  flat,  the  east  of  an  undulating  character, 
but  the  north  exceptionally  hilly  and  rugged. 
The  high  land  here,  called  the  Peak  (which  is 
the  name  of  a  district  and  not  of  any  particular 
point  or  mountain),  is  the  southern  termination 
of  the  Pennine  chain,  and  forms  the  watershed 
between  the  Trent  and  the  Mersey.  The  chief 
summits  are  Kinder  Scout  (2082  feet).  Axe  Edge 
(1810),  and  Blakelow  Stones,  Mam  Tor,  and 
Lord's  Seat  (all  about  1700).  North  Derbyshire 
is  justly  celebrated  for  its  picturesque  scenery, 
which  chiefly  centres  in  the  valleys  of  the 
Derwent  and  Wye.  Matlock  and  Buxton,  with 
warm  mineral  springs,  are  the  two  chief  places 
of  resort.  The  other  towns  are  the  four  munici- 
pal boroughs  of  Derby,  Chesterfield,  Glossop,  and 
Ilkeston,  and  Ashbourne,  Bakewell,  Belper,  and 
Wirksworth.  Since  1885  Derbyshire  returns  nine 
members  to  parliament ;  two  for  the  borough 
of  Derby,  and  seven  for  the  county,  who  sit 
respectively  for  Chesterfield,  High  Peak,  Mid 
Derbyshire,  Ilkeston,  North-eastern  Derbyshire, 
Southern,  and  Western.  Besides  important  coal- 
mining, chiefly  in  the  eastern  division,  Derby- 
shire is  singularly  wealthy  in  a  diversity  of 
minerals  and  metals — iron,  lead,  zinc,  manga- 
nese, copper,  gypsum,  pipeclay  and  chert  for 
potteries,  marble,  fluor-spar,  and  alabaster.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  cotton,  silk,  elastic  web, 
worsted,  metallic  goods,  porcelain  and  pottery, 
and  spar  ornaments.  Though  more  a  manufac- 
turing and  mining  than  an  agricultural  county, 
Derbyshire  is  not  undistinguished  for  its  pastoral 
and  corn-growing  properties,  and,  in  the  south, 
for  its  dairies.  Of  the  total  area,  78  per  cent,  is 
under  crops  of  all  kinds,  bare  fallow,  and  grass. 
There  is  much  permanent  pasture  and  large 
sheep-walks  in  the  Peak  district.  Ecclesiasti- 
cally Derbyshire  is,  since  1884,  an  archdeaconry 
of  the  diocese  of  Southwell,  and  is  divided  into 
140  parishes.  There  are  ruined  abbeys  at  Dale 
and  Beauchief,  and  peculiarly  fine  churches  at 
Melbourne,  Ashbourne,  and  Tideswell.  The  Saxon 
crypt  of  Repton,  and  the  churchyard  crosses  of 
Eyam,  Bakewell,  Hope,  &c.,  are  the  oldest 
ecclesiastical  remains.  Of  feudal  and  domestic 
buildings  may  be  named  the  castles  of  Castleton, 
Bolsover,  and  Duffield,  the  manor-house  of  South 
Winfield  (ruin),  Haddon  Hall,  and  Hardwick 
Hall.  Chatsworth(q.v.)  is  unrivalled.  Arbelow, 
near  Youlgreave,  is  the  most  important  'stone 
circle'  in  England  next  to  Stonehenge.  Derby- 
shire's chief  historic  association  is  the  retreat  in 
1745  of  Prince  Charles  Edward,  Derby  being  the 
turning-point  in  his  enterprise.  Natives  have 
been  Flamsteed,  Chantrey,  and  Brindley.  See 
works  by  the  Rev.  J.  C.  Cox  (5  vols.  1876-91), 
Pendleton  (1886),  and  J.  T.  (1892). 

Dereham,  East,  a  pleasant,  thriving  market- 
town  of  Norfolk,  17  miles  (by  rail  22)  WNW.  of 
Norwich.  Here,  in  650,  St  Withberga  founded 
a  nunnery.  It  was  burned  by  the  Danes,  but 
refounded ;  and  its  cruciform  church  remains, 
with  a  detached  belfry  (the  'New  Clocker'),  St 
Withberga's  well,  and  Cowper's  grave.  Bonner 
was  a  vicar ;  Dr  Wollaston  and  Borrow  were 
natives.  Dereham  manufactures  agricultural  im- 
plements.   Pop.  (1851)  3372  ;  (1901)  5545. 

Derg,  LoTJGH,  the  largest  lake  expansion  of 
the  river  Shannon,  between  Tipperary  and  Gal- 
way  and  Clare,  is  24  miles  long,  2  wide  on  an 
average,  and  80  feet  deep.— Another  Lough  Derg, 
in  the  south  of  Donegal  county,  measuring  3 
miles  by  2J,  has  many  small  isles,  and  wild 
dreary  shores.    Saint's  Isle  contains  the  remains 


of  a  priory ;  Station  Island,  the  reputed  entrance 
to  St  Patrick's  Purgatory,  was  long  the  most 
celebrated  place  of  pilgrimage  in  Ireland. 

Derry.    See  Londonderry. 

Derwent,  (1)  a  river  of  Derbyshire,  flowing  60 
miles,  past  Derby,  to  the  Trent,  near  Sawley.— 
(2)  A  river  of  Northumberland  and  Durham,  flow- 
ing 30  miles  to  the  Tyne,  near  Gateshead.— (3)  A 
river  of  Yorkshire,  flowing  57  miles  to  the  Ouse 
at  Barmby-on-the-Marsh. 

Derwent,  the  principal  river  of  Tasmania, 
issues  from  Lake  St  Clair,  in  the  centre  of  the 
island ;  and  winds  130  miles  SE.  to  Storm  Bay 
at  Hobart,  its  estuary  being  4  miles  wide. 

Derwentwater,  a  sheet  of  water,  stretching 
south  from  Keswick,  the  most  beautiful  of  the 
Cumberland  lakes.  Lying  238  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  engirt  by  steep  wooded  crags  and 
hills,  it  is  3  miles  long  by  1  broad,  and  72  feet 
deep.  Near  its  foot  rise  Castle  Hill  (529  feet)  and 
Friar's  Crag,  commanding  exquisite  views ;  whilst 
at  its  head  are  the  Lodore  Falls  and  Borrowdale. 
This  lake  is  an  enlargement  of  the  Derwent 
River,  which  traverses  it  in  its  course  towards 
the  Irish  Sea  at  Workington.  It  has  several 
wooded  isles,  besides  a  remarkable  floating  isle. 

Desertas,  three  rocky  Atlantic  islets,  SB.  of 
Madeira,  visited  by  fishermen  and  herdsmen. 

Deseret.    See  Utah. 

Desirade  (Day-zee-rdhd'),  a  French  West  Indian 
island,  4  miles  E.  of  Guadeloupe.  Area,  10  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  1598,  who  fish  and  cultivate  cotton. 

Des  Moines  (Deh-Moin'),  capital  of  Iowa,  on 
Des  Moines  River,  at  the  mouth  of  Raccoon  River, 
174  miles  W.  of  Davenport  by  rail.  The  river, 
rising  in  the  SW.  part  of  Minnesota,  flows  550 
miles  generally  SB.  to  the  Mississippi.  Founded 
in  1846,  the  city  has  a  fine  state-house  ($3,000,000), 
a  marble  post-office  and  court-house,  a  Baptist 
university,  a  state  library  of  over  22,500  volumes, 
and  a  public  park,  with  fine  groves  of  forest 
trees.  There  are  foundries  and  planing  and  flour- 
ing mills,  besides  manufactories  of  machinery, 
engines,  boilers,  railway  cars,  &c.  Pop.  (1870) 
12,035  ;  (1880)  22,408  ;  (1900)  62,140. 

Desmond,  a  former  district  of  Munster,  com- 
prising the  counties  of  Cork  and  Kerry. 

Desna,  a  navigable  river  of  Russia,  rising  in 
Smolensk  province,  and  flowing  550  miles  SE. 
and  SW.  to  the  Dnieper,  almost  opposite  Kiev. 
It  receives  the  Seim  and  the  Snov. 

Despoblado  (Span.,  'desert'),  a  treeless,  unin- 
habited plateau,  nearly  10,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
on  the  Bolivian  and  Argentine  frontier,  to  the 
north-east  of  Antofagasta. 

Despoto  Dagh.     See  Rhodope, 

Dessau  (Des'soio),  a  town  of  Germany,  capital  of 
the  duchy  of  Anhalt,  on  the  Mulde's  left  bank, 
near  its  junction  with  the  Elbe,  70  miles  SW.  of 
Berlin.  Its  jjrincipal  building  is  the  fine  ducal 
palace  (1748).     Pop.  52,000. 

Desterro,  an  important  port  of  Brazil,  on  the 
N.  coast  of  the  island  of  Santa  Catharina,  240 
miles  NE.  of  Porto  Alegre.    Pop.  30,700. 

Detmold,  capital  of  the  German  principality 
of  Lippe,  on  the  Werre,  47  miles  SW.  of  Hanover 
by  rail.  It  has  an  old  castle,  a  modern  palace, 
and  manufactures  of  tobacco,  cards,  and  carved 
work.  On  a  hill  2  miles  off"  is  Bandel's  colossal 
statue  of  Arminius  (1875).     Pop.  12,250. 

Detroit,  the  chief  commercial  city  and  port  of 
entry  of  Michigan,  on  the  Detroit  River,  125 
miles  by  water,  and  178  by  land,  NW.  of  Clev«. 


DETROIT  RIVER 


225 


DEVONSHIRE 


land,  Ohio,  and  284  ENE.  of  Chicago.  Detroit  is 
substantially  built  upon  rising  ground,  its  streets 
are  broad,  well  paved,  and  shaded  with  trees; 
it  is  well  supplied  with  tlie  best  of  water ;  and 
its  fire,  police,  and  school  departments  are  excel- 
lent. The  principal  manufactures  include  iron 
products,  machinery,  railroad  cars,  flour,  malt 
liquors,  cigars,  leather,  boots  and  shoes,  &c. 
The  public  buildings  embrace  a  Catholic  cathedral, 
a  city-hall  erected  at  a  cost  of  $600,000,  a  Board 
of  Trade  building,  a  United  States  marine  hos- 
pital, &c.  Detroit  is  among  the  oldest  places 
in  the  United  States.  It  came  into  possession 
of  the  French  in  1610,  was  transferred  to  the 
British  in  1763,  and  in  1796  passed  to  the  United 
States.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  city  in  1824. 
Pop.  (1870)  79,577;  (1880)  116,340;  (1900)  285,704. 
Detroit  River,  so  called,  on  whose  north- 
western bank  stands  Detroit  City,  is  the  strait 
through  which  the  waters  of  Lake  St  Clair  and 
of  the  great  upper  lakes  of  the  St  Lawrence 
system  flow  into  Lake  Erie,  and  thence  to  the 
Atlantic.  It  is  20  miles  in  length,  and  at  Detroit 
forms  an  excellent  harbour. 

Dettlngen  {Def ting-en),  a  village  of  Bavaria, 
10  miles  NW.  of  Aschaffenburg  by  rail.  Here, 
on  27th  June  1743,  George  II.  of  England,  com- 
manding English,  Hanoverians,  and  Austrians, 
defeated  the  larger  French  army  under  the  Due 
de  Noailles.— There  is  another  Dettingen  (pop. 
3519)  in  Wiirtemberg,  10  miles  E.  of  Reutlingen. 

Deutschbrod  (Doitch-brod),  a  town  in  Bohemia, 
15  miles  from  the  Moravian  frontier.  Here  in 
1422  the  Hussite  general  Ziska  defeated  the 
Emperor  Sigismund.     Pop.  6436. 

Deutz  (Doitz).    See  Cologne. 

Deux-ponts  (DuJi-pon^').    See  Zweibrucken. 

Deux-Sevres  {Duh-Sehvr').    See  Sevres. 

Dev'enter,  an  old  Hanse  town  of  Holland,  on 
the  Yssel,  11  miles  NNW.  of  Zutphen  by  rail. 
It  has  a  cathedral,  a  fine  town-house,  and 
manufactures  of  iron,  carpets,  and  gingerbread. 
Ixere  Thomas  a  Kempis  and  Erasmus  were  edu- 
cated.    Pop.  26,100. 

Dev'eron,  a  beautiful  salmon  river,  rising  near 
the  Buck  of  Cabrach,  at  an  altitude  of  1847  feet, 
and  winding  62  miles  north-eastward  to  the 
Moray  Firth  at  Banff. 

Devil's  Bridge,  Cardiganshire,  12  miles  E.  by 
S.  of  Aberystwith,  a  double  bridge  over  a  ravine, 
the  lower  one  built  in  the  11th  or  12th  c,  the 
upper  (30  feet  in  span,  and  114  high)  in  1753. 

Devil's  Ditch,  a  great  earthwork  of  Cambridge- 
shire, running  7  miles  south-eastward  from  Reach 
to  Wood-Ditton. 

Devil's  Dyke,  a  kind  of  natural  amphitheatre 
in  the  Downs,  5^  miles  NW.  of  Brighton. 

Devizes,  a  municipal  boroiigh  of  Wiltshire, 
near  the  Kennet  and  Avon  Canal,  50  miles  WSW. 
of  Reading,  and  20  ESE.  of  Bath.  The  old  name 
Divisce  or  Ad  Divisas  marked  the  ancient  bound- 
ary between  the  English  and  Celts ;  but  as  a 
town,  Devizes  owes  its  origin  to  a  splendid  castle 
built  here  by  Bishop  Roger  of  Salisbury  about 
1132.  It  war,  stormed  by  Cromwell  in  1645,  and 
now  is  represented  by  mere  fragments.  There 
are  two  churches  with  much  interesting  Norman 
work ;  a  market-cross  (1814),  commemorating 
God's  judgment  on  a  perjuress  in  1753 ;  a  foun- 
tain with  a  statue  of  Sothern  Estcourt  (1879) ;  a 
good  museum  ;  and  a  large  corn  exchange  (1857). 
From  Henry  VIII. 's  time  till  about  1820  Devizes 
was  a  great  cloth  mart ;  now  its  chief  manufac-  I 
0 


tures  are  tobacco,  agricultural  implements,  and 
other  machinery.  It  returned  two  members  till 
1867,  then  one  till  1885.  Pop.  6600.  See  A  His- 
tory of  Devizes  (1859). 

Devon,  a  Scottish  stream  winding  84  miles 
from  the  Ochils  to  the  Forth  near  Alloa. 

Devonport  (before  1824  called  Plymouth 
Dock),  a  parliamentary,  municipal,  and  county 
borough,  maritime  town,  and  naval  arsenal,  of 
Devonshire,  on  the  estuary  of  the  Tamar  (which 
is  4  miles  long  by  ^  mile  broad,  and  called  the 
Hamoaze),  2  miles  WNW.  of  Plymouth.  It 
stands  on  high  ground,  and  is  separated  from 
its  growing  suburbs  of  Stoke  and  Morice  Town 
by  the  glacis  of  its  fortifications,  once  important, 
but  now  dismantled.  Devonport  owes  its  exist- 
ence to  tlie  dockyard  established  here  by  William 
III.  in  1689,  and  is  one  of  the  chief  naval  arsenals 
in  Britain.  The  government  establishments 
stretch  for  nearly  4  miles  along  the  Hamoaze, 
The  original  dockyard,  extended  from  time  to 
time  until  it  contained  six  building-slips,  was 
supplemented  in  1844  by  the  formation  at  Morice 
Town  of  the  Keyham  Steam  Yard  and  Factory, 
which  communicates  with  the  dockyard  and 
gun-wharf  (designed  by  Vanbrugh)  by  a  tunnel. 
Farther  np  the  river  are  an  engineers'  college, 
seamen's  barracks,  magazines,  and  powder-works ; 
and  the  Hamoaze  itself  contains  many  men-of- 
war.  The  official  residences  of  the  admiral  of 
the  port  and  of  the  lieutenant-governor  of  the 
western  district  are  at  Mount  Wise,  which  is 
fortified.  Here  also  are  the  chief  barracks  of 
the  troops  which  garrison  the  'three  towns'  of 
Plymouth,  Devonport,  and  Stonehouse.  The 
military  hospital  is  on  Stonehouse  Creek.  Pop. 
of  municipal  borough  (1841)  33,820 ;  (1901)  70,437 ; 
of  parliamentary  borough,  wliich  includes  East 
Stonehouse,  and  returns  two  members,  78,059. 

Devonshire,  a  maritime  county  of  south-west 
England  between  the  Bristol  and  the  English 
Channel.  Its  greatest  length  is  70  miles  ;  its 
greatest  breadth,  65 ;  its  coast-line,  about  150 ; 
and  its  area,  2586  sq.  m.,.  of  Avhich  about  three- 
fourths  are  under  cultivation.  The  north  coast 
is  the  boldest,  with  several  hills  over  1000  feet. 
Its  chief  indentation  is  Bideford  Bay,  18  miles 
broad  and  8  deep,  into  which  fall  the  Taw  and 
the  Torridge.  The  south  coast  is  also  lined  with 
cliffs,  chief  among  them  being  Bolt  Head  and 
Start  Point.  Tor  Bay  is  3  by  3^  miles  ;  and  Ply- 
mouth Sound,  the  combined  estuary  of  the  Tamar 
and  Plym,  is  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the 
kingdom.  Devonshire  is  hilly,  the  most  elevated 
parts  being  the  table-lands  of  Dartmoor  in  the 
south-west,  Exmoor  in  the  north-west,  running 
into  Somerset,  and  Blackdown  in  the  east.  These 
are  mainly  open  moor-lands.  Dartmoor  is  very 
rocky ;  the  lower  hills  grassy.  High  Willhayse, 
on  Dartmoor  (2039  feet),  is  the  highest  point. 
Copper,  tin,  lead,  iron,  and  manganese  occur  in 
commercial  quantities,  with  ores  of  several  other 
metals ;  china,  terra-cotta,  potter's,  and  pipe 
clays ;  granites,  marbles,  anthracite,  lignite,  gyp- 
sum, and  other  earthy  minerals.  The  Tamar,  59 
miles,  is  the  longest  of  numerous  rivers,  and 
divides  Devon  from  Cornwall ;  the  Exe,  54  miles, 
rises  in  Somerset.  The  other  rivers  are  the  Dart, 
Teign,  Taw,  Torridge,  and  Plym  (all  rising  in 
Dartmoor),  Exe,  and  Tamar.  The  red  deer  still 
run  wild  on  Exmoor.  The  climate,  especially  in 
the  south,  is  mild  and  humid,  and  not  liable  to 
great  extremes.  Hence,  several  of  the  coast- 
towns  have  become  famous  as  health-resorts— 
notably  Torquay  and  Ilfracombe.    Myrtles  and 


DEWAS 


226 


DIJON 


aloes  commonly  flourish  in  the  open  air ;  and  in 
specially  favoured  spots  oranges  and  lemons,  with 
a  little  protection,  will  thrive  and  fruit.  The 
county  is  most  fertile,  especially  in  the  South 
Hams,  and  on  the  'red  land'  of  tlie  Vale  of 
Exeter.  The  pastures  are  very  rich,  and  dairy- 
farming  and  cattle-breeding  are  prominent  in  its 
agriculture.  The  red  Devon  cattle  are  one  of 
the  leading  breeds ;  and  the  sheep  and  ponies 
of  Dartmoor  and  Exmoor  have  niore  tlian  a  local 
reputation.  '  Clotted  cream '  is  a  special  product. 
There  are  extensive  orchards,  from  which  great 
quantities  of  cider  are  made.  The  fisheries  are 
extensive  and  valuable.  Though  in  the  main 
agricultural,  Devon  has  a  varied  industrial  char- 
acter. Mining  and  quarrying  and  clay-worlcing 
are  of  considerable  importance ;  and  the  manu- 
factures include  serges,  lace,  gloves;  extensive 
potteries ;  manure,  chemical,  and  soap  works ; 
paper-mills,  breweries,  and  distilleries.  The 
chief  towns  are  Exeter,  Plymouth,  Devonport, 
Torquay,  Tiverton,  Barnstaple,  Stonehouse,  Tavi- 
stock, Teignmouth,  Newton,  Dartmouth,  and 
Brixham.  Pop.  (1801)  340,308;  (1841)  532,959; 
(1901)  661,314.  Under  the  Reform  Act  of  1885 
Exeter  returns  one  member,  Plymouth  and  Devon- 
port  two  each,  and  the  rest  of  the  county  is 
divided  into  eight  single-member  constituencies. 
No  county  save  Middlesex  has  given  birth  to  so 
many  great  men— Raleigh,  Drake,  Hawkins, 
John  Davis,  Sir  Humphrey  Gilbert,  Sir  Richard 
Grenville,  Monk,  Marlborough,  Bishop  Jewell, 
Gay,  St  Boniface,  Newcomen,  Wolcott,  Sir  Joshua 
Reynolds,  Coleridge,  Kingsley,  John  Ford,  among 
them.   See  works  by  Worth  (1886)  and  Page  (1893). 

Dewas',  a  protectorate  of  Central  India,  held 
conjointly  by  two  Rajput  chiefs.  Area,  289  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  172,073.  Tlie  capital,  Dewas,  20  miles 
NB.  of  Indore,  has  a  pop.  of  12,921. 

Dewsbury,  a  manufacturing  town  and  muni- 
cipal and  parliamentary  borough  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  at  the  base  of  a  hill,  on 
the  Calder's  left  bank,  32  miles  SW.  of  York,  and 
8  SS W.  of  Leeds.  The  Calder  navigation  connects 
the  town  with  Liverpool  and  Hull.  Dewsbury 
has  a  chamber  of  commerce  (1861),  an  infirmary 
(1883),  a  new  town-hall  (1888),  new  county  courts, 
and  a  grammar-school  (St  Augustine's).  Along 
with  Batley  (q.v.)  it  is  the  centre  of  the  shoddy 
trade.  Blankets,  carpets,  yarns,  and  iron  are 
also  largely  manufactured.  Dewsbury  obtained  a 
municipal  charter  in  1872.  Pop.  of  mun.  borough 
(1861)  18,148;  (1901)  28,060;  of  pari,  borough, 
which,  formed  in  1867,  Includes  Batley  and  Soot- 
hill,  and  returns  one  member,  72,986. 

Dhar,  a  town  of  Central  India,  the  capital  of  a 
protected  state,  33  miles  W.  of  Mhov.  Pop. 
15,000.     Area  of  state,  1740  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  169,474. 

Dharmsala,  a  hill-station  in  the  Punjab,  110 
miles  NE.  of  Lahore.    Pop.  5522. 

Dharwar,  a  town  in  the  southern  Mahratta 
country,  Bombay  presidency,  separated  by  the 
river  Tungabhadra  from  Madras.     Pop.  32,841. 

Dholka,  a  town  of  Bombay  presidency,  22  miles 
SW.  of  Ahmadabad.     Pop.  18,716. 

Dholpore,  a  native  state  of  Rajputana,  Central 
India,  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Chumbul,  with 
an  area  of  1156  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  279,890. 
Capital,  Dholpore,  on  the  Chumbul,  34  miles  S. 
of  Agra  by  rail.  Two  religious  fairs  are  held  every 
year  at  Machkund,  a  lake  3  miles  to  the  west, 
with  114  temples  on  its  banks. 

Dhuheartach,  an  Argyllshire  islet,  15J  miles 
SW.  of  lona,  with  a  lighthouse  (1867-72). 


Dhwalagiri  (Dwalagir'ree,  g  hard),  once  sup- 
posed to  be  the  highest  peak  of  the  Himalayas, 
but  really  at  most  only  the  third  (26,826  feet). 
It  is  in  Nepal,  in  29°  N.  lat.  and  82°  30'  E.  long. 

Diablerets  (De-aVler-ay'),  a  four-peaked  moun- 
tain (10,651  feet)  ofthe  Bernese  Alps,  Switzerland, 
on  the  frontiers  of  Bern  and  Valais.  There  were 
terrible  landslips  here  in  1714  and  1749. 

Diamantina  (Dee-a-man-tee'7ia),  an  episcopal 
town  in  the  Brazilian  province  of  Minas  Geraee  ; 
centre  of  a  rich  diamond  district.    Pop.  13,000. 

Diamond  Harbour,  a  port  on  the  Hooghly,  38 
miles  SSW.  of  Calcutta  by  rail,  41  by  river. 

Diarbek'ir  (anc.  Amida),  a  decayed  town  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Tigris, 
390  miles  NW.  of  Bagdad.  It  is  walled,  and  com- 
manded by  a  citadel  built  on  a  high  basalt  rock, 
against  which  the  flat-roofed  houses  rise  above 
each  other  in  terraces.    Pop.  40,000. 

Didcot,  the  junction  for  Oxford,  53  miles  W. 
by  N.  of  London. 

Diedenhofen.    See  Thionville. 

Diego  Garcia  (De-ay' go),  a  low  coral  island  of 
the  Indian  Ocean,  a  dependency  of  Mauritius,  in 
7°  S.  lat.  and  72°-73°  E.  long.,  extends  30  miles 
in  a  horseshoe  shape,  embracing  between  its  ex- 
tremities three  minor  islets  (the  Chagos  Islands). 
It  is  convenient  for  coaling.     Pop.  700. 

Diego  Suarez,  a  fine  bay  at  the  north  end  of 
Madagascar,  ceded  to  France  by  treaty  in  1885. 

Dieppe  (De-epp',  or  Dyepp"),  a  seaport  in  the 
Frencn  dep.  of  Seine-Inf6rieure,  on  the  English 
Channel,  40  miles  N.  of  Rouen  by  rail.  It  is 
situated  among  chalk-cliff's,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Arques,  and  is  regularly  built.  It  has  a 
castle  (1433,  now  occupied  as  barracks),  a  fine 
Gothic  church  of  the  13th  century,  a  handsome 
bathing  establishment  and  casino,  and  a  harbour 
which  admits  vessels  of  600  tons.  It  manufac- 
tures clocks,  lace,  and  tobacco ;  and  its  carved 
articles  of  horn,  bone,  and  ivory  have  long  been 
famous.  There  are  also  shipbuilding  yards,  dis- 
tilleries, and  important  fisheries.  Dieppe's  pros- 
perity attained  its  zenith  between  the  middle  of 
the  14th  century  and  the  end  of  the  17th  ;  many 
expeditions  sailed  hence  for  the  west  coast  of 
Africa  and  Canada.  But  a  terrible  bombardment 
by  the  English  and  Dutch  destroyed  all  but  two 
or  three  buildings  in  1694;  the  town  never  re- 
covered its  importance,  and  even  before  the  rise 
of  Havre  had  already  sunk  to  a  secondary  port. 
Nevertheless,  steamers  ply  regularly  to  Newhaven. 
Pop.  23,250. 

Diest  (Deest),  a  Belgian  town,  on  the  Demer,  37 
miles  SB.  of  Antwerp.     Pop.  7599. 

Digby,  a  seaport  of  Nova  Scotia,  on  St  Mary's 
Bay,  reputed  for  its  cured  pilchards.     Pop.  1951. 

Digne  (Been),  a  cathedral  city  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Basses- Alpes,  on  the  Bleonne,  70  miles 
NE.  of  Marseilles.     Pop.  6584. 

Dihong.    See  Brahmaputra. 

Dijon  (Dee-zJiong'),  chief  town  in  dep.  of  Cote- 
d'Or,  lies,  spread  out  on  a  fertile  plain,  at  the 
foot  of  Mont  Afrique  (1916  feet),  at  the  junction 
of  the  Ouche  and  Suzon,  and  on  tlie  Canal  de 
Bourgogne,  196  miles  SB.  of  Paris  by  rail.  Its 
importance  as  a  railway  centre  has  rendered  it  of 
consequence  in  the  inner  line  of  French  defences 
towards  the  east,  and  strong  forts  now  crown  the 
neighbouring  hills.  Of  the  mediaeval  defences, 
the  Gothic  castle  built  by  Louis  XI.  still  remains, 
employed  as  a  gendarmerie  barrack ;  formerly  it 
was  a  gtate-prisQn.    Among  the  public  buildings 


DILLINGEN 


227 


DIZFUL 


are  the  massive  Gothic  cathedral,  datirvg  from 
the  13th  century,  with  a  wooden  spire  (1742)  301 
feet  high;  the  churches  of  Notre  Dame  (1252- 
1334)  and  St  Michel  (1529) ;  a  handsome  theatre  ; 
the  palais  de  justice  ;  and  the  former  palace  of  the 
Dukes  of  Burgundy,  which,  commenced  in  1366, 
is  now  the  town-hall,  and  contains  a  rich  museum 
and  a  library.  The  manuftictures  include  beer, 
brandy,  woollen  cloth,  blankets,  mustard, 
candles,  and  pottery,  and  there  is  a  noteworthy 
trade  in  flowers  and  agricultural  produce ;  but 
Dijon's  chief  commercial  importance  is  as  the 
centre  of  the  Upper  Burgundy  wine  trade.  Pop. 
(1872)  40,116 ;  (1901)  65,320.  The  Dibia  of  the 
Romans,  Dijon  in  1007  was  united  to  the  duchy 
of  Burgundy,  of  which  it  became  the  capital.  On 
Charles  the  Bold's  death  (1477)  it  came  to 
France.  In  October  1870  it  capitulated  to  the 
Germans.  Charles  the  Bold,  Crebillon,  Bossuet, 
and  Rameau  were  natives,  and  close  by  is  the 
birthplace  of  St  Bernard,  of  whom  there  is  a 
statue  by  Jouffroy  (1847). 

Dillingen  (Dil'ling-eri),  a  Bavarian  town,  on  the 
Danube,  51  miles  WSW.  of  Ingolstadt.  In  the 
castle  the  bishops  of  Augsburg  formerly  resided, 
and  here  they  founded  a  university  (1554-1804), 
from  1564  an  active  Jesuit  centre.     Pop.  5860. 

Dilman',  a  town  of  Northern  Persia,  75  miles 
W.  of  Tabriz.    Pop.  6000. 

Dilston,  the  ruined  seat  of  the  Jacobite  Earl  of 
Derwentwater,  in  Northumberland,  2^  miles  E. 
by  S.  of  Hexham. 

Dinajpur,  a  town  in  Rajshahi  division  (Kuch 
Behar),  Eastern  Bengal,  on  the  Purnabhaba,  221 
miles  N.  of  Calcutta  by  rail.     Pop.  12,560. 

Dinan  (Deen-on^'),  an  old  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  C6tes-du-Nord,  on  the  Ranee,  30  m.  NW.  of 
Rennes,  and  14  S.  of  St  Malo.  Its  situation,  on 
the  summit  of  a  steep  granite  hill,  with  the 
Ranee  flowing  through  a  valley  250  feet  below,  is 
highly  romantic.  The  valley  is  crossed  by  a  line 
granite  bridge  of  ten  arches.  The  town  is  still 
partly  surrounded  by  its  ivy-covered  walls  ;  and 
the  old  castle  of  the  Dukes  of  Brittany  is  now  in 
part  used  as  a  prison.  A  fine  Romanesque 
church  contains  the  heart  of  Du  Guesclin.  Many 
English  reside  here.  Pop.  8788.  Four  miles  off 
lies  the  village  of  Corseult,  on  an  old  Roman  site, 
where  many  antiquities  have  been  found. 

Dinant(Deen-on*"),atown  of  Belgium,  occupying 
a  narrow  site  between  the  Meuse  and  a  limestone 
hill,  17  miles  S.  of  Namur  by  rail.  On  the  cliff 
above  stands  the  citadel  (1530).  There  are  manu- 
factures of  cotton,  paper,  leather,  iron,  ginger- 
bread, &c. ,  with  black  marble  quarries ;  the  copper 
wares  {Dlnanderie),  belong  to  the  past.  Pop.  8773. 

Dinapore  (Ddndpur),  military  headquarters  of 
the  district  of  Patna  in  Bengal,  on  the  Ganges, 
12  miles  W.  of  Patna.    Pop.  35,000. 

Dinard,  the  most  fashionable  watering-place  in 
Brittany,  on  the  Ranee  estuary  opposite  St  Malo 
(q.v.)  and  St  Servan.     Pop.  6000. 

Dina'ric  Alps,  the  mountains  connecting  the 
Julian  Alps  with  the  Balkan  system ;  the  main 
range,  stretching  SE.,  separates  Dalmatia  from 
Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  The  highest  summits 
are  Orjen  (6225)  and  Dinara  (5940). 

Dlnas  Mowddwy  (Din' as  Mowth'ee),  a  market- 
town  of  Merionethshire,  10  miles  E.  by  S.  of 
Dolgelly.     Pop.  of  Mallwyd  urban  district,  885. 

Din'digal,  a  town  in  the  presidency  of  Madras, 
40  miles  NNW.  of  Madura  by  rail.     Pop.  25,182. 
Dingle,  a  seaport  on  the  north  side  of  Dingle 


Bay,  in  County  Kerry,  Ireland,  27  miles  SW.  of 
Tralee.     Pop.  1964. 

Dingwall  (Scand.,  'court  hill'),  the  county 
town  of  Ross-shire,  near  the  head  of  the  Cromarty 
Firth,  and  at  the  entrance  to  the  valley  of  Strath- 
peff'er,  13^  miles  NW.  of  Inverness  (by  rail  18J). 
A  royal  burgh  since  1226,  it  unites  with  Wick, 
&c.  to  return  one  member.     Pop.  2500. 

Dinkelsbiihl,  an  ancient  walled  town  of  Bavaria, 
19  miles  NNW.  of  Nordlingen.     Pop.  4657. 

Diomede  Islands,  a  group  of  three  small 
islands  in  Behring  Strait,  forming,  as  it  were, 
stepping-stones  between  Asia  and  America. 

Dlrk-Hartog  Island,  measuring  40  miles  by. 
10,  lies  off  the  west  coast  of  Australia.  With 
Peron  Peninsula  to  the  south,  it  encloses  the 
Freycinet  Inlet,  and,  with  two  smaller  islands  to 
the  north,  forms  the  breastwork  of  Shark's  Bay. 

Dirleton,  a  Haddingtonshire  village,  with  a 
fine  ruined  castle,  2^  miles  WSW.  of  North 
Berwick.     Pop.  313. 

Dirschau  (Deer' show),  a  town  of  Prussia,  20 
miles  SSE.  of  Danzig,  on  the  Vistula,  here  crossed 
by  a  railway  viaduct  (1857)  911  yards  long.  Polish 
from  1466  till  1772,  it  now  has  great  railway  works 
and  sugar-factories.    Pop.  13,146. 

Disco,  an  island  on  the  west  coast  of  Green- 
land, in  70°  N.  lat.  It  is  90  miles  long  and  3000 
feet  high,  and  has  good  coal.  The  harbour  of 
Godhavn  is  on  the  south  coast. 

Dismal  Swamp,  measuring  30  miles  from  north 
to  south  by  10  in  breadth,  lies  chiefly  in  Virginia, 
but  partly  in  North  Carolina,  and  in  the  centre 
has  Lake  Drummond,  6  miles  broad.  It  formerly 
was  a  frequent  hiding-place  of  runaway  slaves. 
Its  dense  growth  of  cypress  and  cedar  has  been 
greatly  thinned,  and  part  of  the  region  has  been 
reclaimed.  It  is  intersected  by  a  canal  connecting 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  Albemarle  Sound. 

Diss,  a  market-town  of  Norfolk,  on  a  rising- 
ground  above  a  mere  of  5  acres,  19  miles  SSW.  of 
Norwich.     Skelton  was  rector  here.     Pop.  3763. 

District  of  Columbia,  a  district  of  the  United 
States,  containing  Washington  (q.v.)  and  George- 
town, is  bounded  west  by  the  Potomac,  and  else- 
where by  Maryland.  Area,  60  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1890) 
230,392.  Till  1871  the  district  remained  an  un- 
organised territory,  under  congress ;  but  in  that 
year  a  territorial  government  was  organised,  and 
in  1878  congress  placed  the  whole  control  of  it 
under  three  commissioners,  appointed  by  the 
president  and  approved  by  the  senate. 

Ditmarsh,  or  Dithmarschen,  the  western  dis- 
trict of  Holstein,  low-lying  and  fertile,  between 
the  Eider  and  the  Elbe,  with  an  area  of  531  miles. 

Diu,  a  seaport  situated  at  the  eastern  extremity 
of  a  Portuguese  island  (7x2  miles)  of  the  same 
name,  off  the  south  coast  of  Kathiawar,  180  miles 
NW.  of  Bombay.  Once  a  city  of  50,000  souls,  it 
has  sunk  in  importance  till  now  the  whole  island 
has  but  14,636  inhabitants,  mostly  fishermen. 
Some  magnificent  buildings  still  attest  its  ancient 
splendour,  such  as  the  Jesuit  College  (1601),  now 
a  cathedral.  The  place  has  been  Portuguese 
since  1535,  and  stood  a  famous  siege  in  1545. 

Dixon  Entrance,  a  strait  on  the  west  coast 
of  North  America,  separating  Queen  Charlotte 
Islands  from  the  Prince  of  Wales  Archipelago, 
and  so  dividing  British  territory  from  Alaska. 

Dizful,  a  town  of  Persia,  on  the  river  Diz,  190 
miles  W.  of  Ispahan.  Pop.  35,000.  The  ruins  of 
Susa  lie  14  miles  SSW. 


DJIBOUTIL 


228 


DOMINICAN  REPUBLIC 


Djiboutil  (Jee-hoo'til).    See  Obock. 

Dmitrov,  a  town  of  Russia,  on  a  tributary  of 
the  Volga,  42  miles  N.  of  Moscow.    Pop.  9206. 

Dnieper  (D'nee'pr;  anc.  Borysthenes),  a  river  ris- 
ing near  the  Volga  and  Western  Dwina,  in  the  N. 
of  the  Russian  province  of  Smolensk,  and  flowing 
1330  miles  southward  past  Kleff,  Ekaterinoslav, 
and  Alexandrovsk  to  the  Black  Sea.  Its  em- 
bouchure (increased  by  the  waters  of  the  Bug) 
forms  a  gulf  nearly  50  miles  long,  and  1  to  6 
miles  broad.  Its  principal  aflluents  are  the 
Desna  and  Soj  from  the  east,  and  the  Pripet, 
Beresina,  and  Druz  from  the  west.  At  Dorogo- 
bush  the  stream  becomes  navigable,  but  below 
Kleff  and  at  other  points  traffic  is  interrupted. 
The  produce  of  the  southern  provinces  is  usually 
conveyed  down  the  river  to  ports  on  the  Black 
Sea,  but  many  vessels  pass  annually  from  the 
Dnieper  to  the  Baltic  by  the  Brest-Litovsk  canal 
(50  miles)  and  other  water-ways.  The  stream  is 
permanently  bridged  at  Kieff  only.  At  Smolensk, 
its  waters  are  frozen  from  November  to  April ;  at 
Kieff,  only  from  January  to  the  end  of  March  ; 
and  at  Kherson  it  is  frequently  open  all  the  year. 

Dniester  {D'nees'tr),  a  muddy  river  of  Russia, 
rises  in  the  Carpathian  Mountains,  in  Austrian 
Galicia,  and  flows  650  miles  SSE.,  separating 
Bessarabia  from  Podolia  and  Cherson,  and  enter- 
ing the  Black  Sea  by  a  shallow  shore  lake,  18 
miles  long  and  5  broad. 

Do'ab  (Sanskrit,  '  two  rivers ; '  cf.  Punjab),  a 
term  used  in  India  for  the  country  between  any 
two  rivers,  but  specially  between  the  Jumna 
and  the  Ganges— a  space  extending  from  Alla- 
habad to  the  base  of  the  Himalayas,  a  distance 
of  upwards  of  500  miles,  with  an  average  breadth 
of  55  miles.    It  is  the  granary  of  Upper  India. 

Dobcross,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  Q\  miles  NB. 
of  Ashton-under-Lyne.    Pop.  2990. 

Dobeln,  a  town  of  Saxony,  on  an  island  formed 
by  the  Mulde,  40  miles  SB.  of  Leipzig  by  rail, 
with  foundries.     Pop.  17,972. 

Do'beran,  a  bathing-resort  of  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  2J  miles  from  the  Baltic,  and  25  NE. 
of  Wismar.  It  has  a  ducal  palace  (1232),  is  con- 
nected by  rail  (4  miles)  with  a  sea-bathing  estab- 
lishment, and  has  a  chalybeate  spring.    Pop.  4905. 

Dobrudja  (also  spelt  Dobruja,  Dobrudscha,  Do- 
brogea),  the  south-eastern  portion  of  Roumania, 
between  the  lower  Danube  and  the  Black  Sea, 
transferred  to  Roumania  by  the  Berlin  Congress 
of  1878.  The  north-east  of  this  region  is  occupied 
by  marshes  and  the  Danube's  delta ;  the  rest 
mostly  a  treeless  steppe.  The  climate  is  malari- 
ous.   Area,  6102  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  200,000. 

Dodworth,  a  Yorkshire  township,  2^  miles  W. 
by  S.  of  Barnesley.    Pop.  3100. 

Doesborgh  (Doos'borhh ;  anc.  Drumsburg),  a 
Dutch  fortified  town,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Old 
and  New  Yssel,  noted  for  its  mustard.    Pop.  4484. 

Doggerbank,  an  extensive  flat  sandbank  in 
the  German  Ocean,  between  England  and  Den- 
mark, 100  miles  off  the  Yorkshire  coast.  It  is 
170  miles  long  by  65  broad,  with  a  depth  of  from 
8  to  16  fathoms.  Its  fisheries  are  most  valuable. 
In  October  1904  a  Russian  fleet  on  its  way  to 
the  China  seas  fired  on  English  trawlers  off  the 
Doggerbank,  creating  the  '  Doggerbank  incident.' 

Dogs,  Isle  of,  or  Millwall,  a  low-lying  penin- 
sula on  the  Thames'  left  bank,  formed  by  a  sudden 
bend  of  the  river  opposite  Greenwich. 

Dol,  an  antique  walled  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  10  miles  SB.  of  St  Malo. 


Its  former  cathedral  is  a  granite  building  of  the 
13th  century.  To  the  north  is  the  isolated  Mont 
Dol  (213  feet).     Pop.  3902. 

Dole  (anc.  Dola  Sequanorum),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep,  of  Jura,  the  capital  formerly  of 
Franche-Comte,  on  the  Doubs,  29  miles  SB.  of 
Dijon.  It  has  a  Gothic  cathedral.  Pasteur  was 
born  here.    Pop.  12,973. 

T>0lg&Uj  (Dolgeth'ly ;  'dale  of  hazels '),  capital 
of  Merioneth,  Wales,  on  the  Wnion,  62  miles  SW. 
of  Chester  by  rail.  It  lies  at  the  foot  of  Cader 
Idris,  and  in  summer  is  frequented  by  tourists. 
It  manufactures  coarse  woollens  and  flannels  ;  its 
Welsh  tweed  is  in  great  repute.    Pop.  2437. 

Dollar,  a  town  of  Clackmannanshire,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Ochils,  and  near  the  Devon's  right 
bank,  6  miles  NB.  of  Alloa.  Its  academy,  a 
domed  Grecian  edifice  (1818-67),  founded  under 
the  will  of  Captain  John  M'Nab  (1732-1802), 
a  Dollar  herdboy  and  London  shipowner,  gives 
higher  and  secondary  education  to  800  pupils 
of  both  sexes.  A  mile  north  are  the  noble  ruins 
of  Castle  Campbell,  crowning  an  almost  insulated 
knoll,  with  King's  Seat  (2111  feet)  rising  behind. 
It  belonged  to  the  Argylls  from  1465  till  1805,  in 
1556  sheltered  John  Knox,  and  in  1645  was  burned 
by  Montrose.     Pop.  1607. 

Dollart,  The,  a  gulf  of  the  German  Ocean,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Ems,  between  Hanover  and 
Holland.  It  is  8  miles  long  by  7  broad,  and  was 
formed  by  inundations  of  the  sea  (1277-1362). 

Dolnja  Tuzla(DoZ7i''i/tt  Toos'to),  a  town  of  Bosnia, 
52  miles  (by  rail  154)  NNB.  of  Sarajevo.    Pop.  7189. 

Dolomite  Mountains,  a  region  of  jagged  out- 
lines and  isolated  peaks,  in  the  south-east  of 
Tyrol  and  in  the  Carinthian  Alp  masses — Dolo- 
mite being  a  kind  of  limestone. 

Domin'ica  (Fr.  Dominique),  the  largest  and 
most  southerly  British  island  in  the  Leeward 
group  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  midway  between 
the  French  islands  of  Martinique  and  Guadeloupe. 
Area,  291  sq.  m.  ;  population,  30,000,  mostly 
negroes,  with  a  few  Caribs  and  whites,  and  two- 
thirds  speaking  a  French  patois.  Dominica  is 
of  volcanic  origin,  with  many  hot  and  sulphu- 
reoiis  springs.  In  1880  there  was  a  great  erup- 
tion of  volcanic  ash  from  the  '  Boiling  Lake '  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  island.  The  tem- 
perature is  cool  and  even  chilly  in  the  mountains, 
but  sultry  on  the  coast ;  rain  falls  nearly  every 
month,  and  the  annual  rainfall  is  83  inches. 
Nearly  one-half  of  the  surface  consists  of  wooded 
mountains  and  deep  ravines,  and  at  one  point 
the  surface  attains  6234  feet.  Agriculture  is  con- 
fined to  a  narrow  coast  strip.  The  principal 
product  is  sugar,  but  fruit,  coffee,  cocoa,  and 
timber  also  are  exported,  and  the  fisheries  are 
valuable.  The  capital  is  Roseau,  a  port  on  the 
west  coast,  with  a  pop.  of  4500.  The  majority 
of  the  inhabitants  are  Roman  Catholics.  Dom- 
inica was  discovered  by  Columbus,  on  his  second 
voyage,  on  Sunday  (whence  its  name  '  the  Lord's 
Day '),  3d  November  1493.  In  1648  it  was  declared 
by  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  a  neutral  island  ; 
but  in  1759  it  was  captured  by  England,  and  in 
1763  ceded  by  France,  who,  however,  held  it 
again  in  1778-83,  and  in  1802-14,  when  it  was 
finally  restored  to  Britain. 

Dominican  Republic,  or  Santo  (commonly 
San)  Domingo,  a  state  formed  of  the  eastern 
portion  of  Hayti  (q.v.).  Area,  20,587  sq.  m.,  or 
over  two-thirds  of  the  whole  island  ;  population, 
617,000,  mostly  negroes  or  umlattoes.  Tlie  state 
religion  is  Roman  Catholic ;  the  prevailing  dia- 


DOMINION 


229 


DONGOtA 


lect  is  Spanish.  Civilisation  has  not  reached  a 
high  level ;  but  of  late  years  the  country  has 
made  considerable  progress  under  the  impulse 
of  American  enterprise.  Large  sugar  plantations 
and  factories  have  been  developed  in  the  south 
and  west ;  the  culture  of  tobacco,  cotfee,  and 
cocoa  has  been  greatly  increased  ;  and  the  export 
of  mahogany,  dye-woods,  and  guano  has  been 
revived.  Gold,  silver,  quicksilver,  iron,  and  coal 
have  been  found ;  and  there  is  a  railway  of  72 
miles.  The  president  is  chosen  for  four  years, 
and  the  legislative  power  is  a  congress  of  twenty- 
two  deputies.  The  capital  is  San  Domingo.— 
This  portion  of  the  island  remained  Spanish  when 
the  western  part  was  ceded  to  France  in  1697, 
and  was  united  with  the  neighbouring  state  in 
1795-1808  and  1822-43.  In  1843  it  assumed  a 
separate  standing  as  the  Dominican  Republic, 
reconstituted  in  1865,  after  having  reverted  to 
Spain  (1861-63).  See  works  by  Keim  (Phila- 
delphia, 1871)  and  Hazard  (New  York,  1873). 

Dominion.    See  Canada. 

Domo  d'Os'sola,  a  cathedral  city  of  Piedmont, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Simplon,  near  the  Toce's  right 
bank,  56  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Novara.     Pop.  2300. 

Domremy-la-Pucelle,  Joan  of  Arc's  birthplace, 
a  village  in  the  French  dep.  of  Vosges,  on  the 
Meuse,  8  miles  N.  of  Neufchateau, 

Don,  a  river  of  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
rising  in  the  Penistone  moors  on  the  borders  of 
Derbyshire  and  Cheshire,  and  running  70  miles 
SB.  and  NE.  past  Sheffield,  Rotherham,  Don- 
caster,  and  Thorne,  to  the  Ouse  at  Goole. 

Don,  a  salmon-river  of  Aberdeenshire,  rising 
close  to  the  Banffshire  boundary  in  a  peat-moss 
1980  feet  above  sea-level,  and  winding  82  miles 
eastward  to  the  German  Ocean,  1  jnile  NE.  of 
Old  Aberdeen,  and  not  far  below  the  '  Auld  Brig 
o'  Balgowuie '  (c.  1320),  commemorated  in  Byron's 
boil  Juan.    Its  chief  affluent  is  the  Ury. 

Don  (anc.  Tanais),  a  river  of  Russia,  having 
its  souuce  in  a  small  lake  in  the  government  of 
Tula,  and  flowing  1125  miles  southward  through 
the  governments  of  Tula,  Riazan,  Tambov, 
Voronej,  and  the  country  of  tlie  Don  Cossacks, 
till  it  enters  the  Sea  of  Azov  by  several  mouths, 
of  which  the  Aksai  is  the  most  considerable. 
Among  its  affluents  are  the  Voronej,  Donetz, 
Khoper,  and  Medvieditza.  The  Don  is  navigable 
for  large  boats  below  Voronej,  and  in  its  upper 
course  is  connected  by  canal  and  railway  Avith 
the  Volga.    Its  waters  abound  in  fish. 

Donabyii,  a  town  of  Burma,  on  the  Irawadi,  35 
miles  S.  of  Henzada.    Pop.  3273, 

Dona  Francisca,  a  Gennan  colony  in  the 
Brazilian  province  of  Santa  Catharina,  14  miles 
from  its  port,  Sao  Francisco.  Area,  97  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  18,000.    Chief  town,  Joinville  (pop.  2000). 

Donaghadee  (Donahadee'),  a  seaport  of  County 
Down,  19  miles  E.  of  Belfast  and  21^  SW.  of 
Portpatrick  in  Scotland.     Pop.  2SS6. 

Donauworth  (Do-now-verf),  a  decayed  town  of 
Bavaria,  at  the  confluence  of  Wornitz  and  Danube, 
25  miles  NNW.  of  Augsburg  by  rail.  Pop.  3857. 
Marlborough  carried  the  intrenched  camp  of  the 
French  and  Bavarians  near  here  in  1704 ;  and 
here  in  1805  the  French  defeated  the  Austrians. 

Don  Benito,  a  town  of  Spain,  near  the  Guadi- 
ana,  69  miles  E.  of  Badajoz  by  rail.    Pop.  15,172. 

Doncaster,  a  municipal  borough  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  and  an  important  railway 
junction,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Don,  33  miles 
S.  of  York,  and  156  NNW.  of  London.    Fine  old 


elms  line  the  broad  and  level  road  from  the  town 
to  the  racecourse.  Doncaster  is  well  built,  and 
the  High  Street  is  a  mile  long.  The  parish 
church  was  rebuilt  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott,  after 
destruction  by  fire,  in  1853-58,  at  a  cost  of 
£43,128.  Its  noble  tower  is  170  feet  high.  The 
water-works,  constructed  in  1880,  were  opened 
at  a  cost  of  £180,000.  The  town  has  manufac- 
tures of  iron,  brass,  sacking,  linen,  and  agri- 
cultural machines.  The  locomotive  and  carriage 
works  of  the  Great  Northern  Railway  are  at  Don- 
caster. The  agricultural  trade  is  large,  and  there 
is  a  corn-market.  Pop.  (1851)  12,042;  (1881)' 
21,130 ;  (1901)  28,932.  Doncaster  was  the  ancient 
Danum,  and  lay  on  the  Roman  road  from  York  to 
Lincoln,  It  was  the  Dona  Castre  of  the  Saxons, 
The  Saxon  Northumbrian  kings  had  a  palace  here, 
Doncaster  was  burned  by  lightning  in  759,  and 
frequently  ravaged  by  the  Danes.  It  has  long 
been  famous  for  its  annual  races,  begun  in  1703, 
and  held  a  mile  south-east  of  the  town  in  the 
second  week  of  September.  Colonel  St  Leger,  in 
1776,  founded  stakes  which  have  been  yearly  run 
for  by  the  best  horses  in  England,  See  Tomlin- 
son's  History  of  Doncaster  (1887), 

Dondra  Head,    See  Ceylon. 

Donegal  (Don-eh-gawV ;  '  fort  of  the  stranger '), 
a  seaport  in  the  south  of  Donegal  county,  at  the 
Eske's  mouth,  on  a  shallow  creek  of  Donegal 
Bay  (a  valuable  fishing-ground,  especially  for 
herrings),  157  miles  NW.  of  Dublin.  It  has  ruins 
of  a  castle  and  of  a  Franciscan  monastery  (1474), 
and  near  it  is  a  chalybeate  spa.     Pop.  1213. 

Donegal,  a  maritime  county  of  Ulster,  washed 
by  the  Atlantic  on  the  north  and  west.  Its 
greatest  length  is  84  miles,  its  greatest  breadth, 
41 ;  area,  1870  sq.  m.  The  bold  and  rugged  coast- 
line (166  miles  long)  is  indented  by  many  deep 
bays  and  loughs,  and  fringed  with  numerous 
islands.  The  surface  generally  is  mountainous, 
moory,  and  boggy,  with  many  small  lakes  and 
rivers  ;  here  is  excellent  fishing.  The  highest 
hill,  Erigal,  rises  2462  feet,  and  several  others 
exceed  2000  feet.  The  largest  stream  is  the 
Foyle,  running  16  miles  north-east  into  Lough 
Foyle.  Lough  Derg  is  the  largest  lake.  Beauti- 
ful granites,  unsurpassed  freestone,  and  white 
marble  are  utilised.  The  climate  in  most  parts 
is  moist,  raw,  and  boisterous.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  woollens,  worsted  stockings,  worked 
muslins,  and  kelp,  and  extensive  fisheries.  Pop. 
(1841)  296,448;  (1901)  173,625—76  per  cent. 
Catholics.  Donegal  sends  four  members  to  parlia- 
ment. The  towns  are  small,  the  chief  being 
Lifl"ord,  the  county  town,  Ballyshannon,  Letter- 
kenny,  Rathmelton,  and  Donegal.  Till  1612,  when 
James  L  planted  Ulster  with  English  and  Scotch 
settlers,  the  south  part  of  Donegal  was  called 
Tyrconnel,  and  belonged  to  the  O'Donnels. 
Donegal  has  many  ruins  and  traces  of  forts, 
religious  houses,  and  castles,  and  of  the  palace  oi 
the  North  Irish  kings  on  a  hill  near  Lough  Swilly. 
Near  Derry  is  the  coronation -stone  of  the  ancient 
Irish  kings.  Tory  Isle,  towards  the  entrance  to 
Lough  Swilly,  contains  the  remains  of  seven 
churches,  two  stone  crosses,  and  a  round  tower. 

Doneraile,  a  market-town  of  County  Cork,  on 
the  Awbeg,  5  miles  SE.  of  Buttevant.   Pop.  790. 

Dongarpur  (Dungarpur),  a  town  of  Rajputana, 
Central  India,  340  miles  N.  of  Bombay.  It  is  the 
capital  of  a  protected  state,  with  an  area  of  1440 
sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  180,000. 

Don'gola,  New,  or  Ord^,  a  town  of  Nubia,  on 
the  Nile's  left  bank,  above  the  third  cataract,  and 
750  miles  S.  of  Cairo,  with  a  citadel,  and  a  pop. 


DONNYBROOK 


230 


DOBSETSHIEE 


of  10,000.  In  the  operations  against  the  Mahdi, 
in  1884-85,  the  town  was  employed  by  the  British 
as  a  base  ;  in  March  1886  the  British  forces  were 
withdrawn,  and  Dongola,  with  all  Nubia,  fell  into 
the  possession  of  the  Sudanese. — Old  Dongola  is 
a  ruined  town  on  the  Nile's  right  bank,  75  miles 
SSE.  of  New  Dongola.  The  capital  of  the  king- 
dom of  Dongola,  it  was  destroyed  by  the  Mame- 
lukes in  1820. 

Donnybrook,  a  former  village  and  parish,  now 
mostly  embraced  in  the  borough  of  Dublin,  till 
1855  celebrated  for  a  fair  notorious  for  fighting, 
which  was  chartered  by  King  John. 

Doon,  an  Ayrshire  river,  made  classic  by  Burns, 
issues  from  Loch  Enoch,  and  runs  north-west, 
through  Loch  Doon,  a  gloomy  sheet  of  water,  6 
miles  long  by  |  mile  wide,  past  Dalmellington, 
Burns's  Monument,  and  Alloway  Kirk,  and  falls 
into  the  Firth  of  Clyde  2  miles  S.  of  Ayr.  Its 
whole  length  is  30  miles. 

Dor,  or  Mont  Dore  (erroneously  Mont  d'Or), 
a  chain  of  the  Auvergne  Mountains  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Puy-de-D6me.  Puy-de-Sancy  is  the  highest 
peak  of  Central  France  (6190  feet). 

Dorak-el-Atek,  a  town  of  Persia,  on  the  Jer- 
rahi,  55  miles  E.  of  Basra.    Pop.  8000. 

Dor'cliester,  a  municipal  borough,  the  county 
town  of  Dorsetshire,  on  the  Frome,  8  miles  N.  of 
Weymouth,  and  110  by  rail  (by  road  119)  WSW. 
of  London.  Till  1867  it  returned  two  members 
to  parliament,  till  1885  one.  It  carries  on  a  trade 
in  ale  and  beer,  cattle,  cereals,  and  butter ;  and 
has  a  free  grammar-school  (founded  1579),  a 
county  museum,  a  guildhall  (1848),  a  corn 
exchange  (1867),  and  a  bronze  statue  (1889)  of  the 
Dorset  poet,  the  Rev.  W.  Barnes.  Pop.  (1841) 
3249 ;  (1901)  9458.  Dorchester  was  the  Roman 
Durnovaria  or  Durinum,  a  walled  town  with  a 
fosse,  and  a  chief  Roman  British  station.  Part 
of  the  wall,  6  feet  thick,  still  remains.  Near 
Dorchester  are  the  remains  of  the  most  perfect 
Roman  amphitheatre  in  England,  218  by  163 
feet,  and  30  feet  deep,  the  seats  cut  in  the 
chalk  for  13,000  spectators  ;  as  also  a  Roman 
camp,  and  a  large  British  station  with  three 
earthen  ramparts,  IJ  mile  in  circuit,  and  pierced 
by  intricate  passages,  and  enclosing  barrows. 
The  inner  rampart  is  60  feet  high.  It  is  sup- 
posed that  this  great  camp,  one  of  the  largest 
in  the  kingdom,  was  the  Dunium  of  Ptolemy  and 
the  origin  of  Dorchester.  In  1645  Cromwell  made 
the  town  his  headquarters,  and  in  1685  Judge 
Jeffreys  held  his  '  bloody  assize '  here,  and  sen- 
tenced 292  rehels  to  death. 

Dorchester,  an  Oxfordshire  village,  9  miles  SE. 
of  Oxford,  was  the  seat  of  the  Mercian  bishops 
from  the  7th  century  till  1073,  when  the  see  was 
transferred  to  Lincoln,  Its  Augustinian  abbey 
church  (mainly  13th  century)  is  lavishly  orna- 
mented. Pop.  of  parish,  852.  See  J.  H.  Parker's 
History  of  Dorchester  (1882). 

Dorchester,  formerly  a  separate  town  of  Mas- 
sachusetts, 4  miles  S.  of  Boston,  was  in  1869 
annexed  to  that  city. 

Dordogne(Z)or-do?i'),  adep.  in  the  SW.  of  France, 
formed  of  the  ancient  Guiennese  district  of  Peri- 
gord,  with  small  portions  of  Agenais,  Limousin, 
and  Angoumois.  Area,  3530  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1861) 
501,687  ;  (1901)  448,545.  It  derives  its  name  from 
the  river  Dordogne,  which,  after  a  course  of  305 
miles  (185  navigable),  unites  with  the  Garonne  to 
form  the  large  estuary  of  the  Gironde.  Dordogne 
has  five  arrondissements— Bergerac,  Nontron, 
Eerigueux  (the  capital),  Riberac,  and  Sarlat. 


Dordrecht.    See  Dort. 

Dorking,  a  pleasant  old-fashioned  market-town 
of  Surrey,  stands  in  a  picturesque  valley  near  the 
base  of  Box  Hill  (590  feet),  24  miles  SSW.  of 
London.  Its  new  church,  with  a  spire  210  feet 
high,  is  a  memorial  to  Bishop  Wilberforce,  who 
met  his  death  riding  over  the  Downs  near  Dork- 
ing (1873).  Deepdene,  the  lovely  seat  of  '  Anas- 
tasius'  Hope,  where  Beaconsfleld  wrote  Coningsby, 
Is  close  by.  Since  1904  there  is  a  bishop-sufifragan. 
Pop.  7800. 

Dornbirn,  an  Austrian  town  in  the  Vorarlberg, 
7  miles  S.  of  Biegenz.     Pop.  13,100. 

Dornoch  {Bor'nohh),  county  town  of  Sutherland, 
40  miles  NNE.  of  Inverness,  stands  near  the  en- 
trance to  Dornoch  Firth,  which,  running  22  miles 
inland,  separates  Sutherland  from  Ross-shire.  It 
has  splendid  golf-links,  handsome  county  build- 
ings, and  the  former  cathedral  of  the  see  of 
Caithness  (1245),  which,  burned  in  1570,  was  re- 
built for  the  parish  church  in  1837.  The  last 
witch  burned  in  Scotland  suffered  at  Dornoch  in 
1722.  It  was  made  a  royal  burgh  in  1628,  and 
with  Wick,  &c.  returns  one  member.    Pop.  614. 

Dorogoi  (Dorohoi),  a  town  of  Roumania,  in  the 
extreme  north  of  Moldavia,  on  the  Shishja,  70 
miles  NW.  of  Jassy.    Pop.  14,000. 

Dorp,  a  manufacturing  place  in  Rhenish 
Prussia,  on  the  Wupper,  now  forming  part  of 
the  town  of  Solingen. 

Dor'pat  (or  Dkrpt,  Russian  Jurjev),  a  town  in 
the  Russian  province  of  Livonia,  on  the  Einbach, 
here  crossed  by  a  fine  granite  bridge,  165  miles 
(247  by  rail)  SW.  of  St  Petersburg.  The  Dom- 
berg  Hill  was  formerly  occupied  by  the  citadel, 
cathedral,  and  bishop's  palace,  on  whose  site 
now  rise  an  observatory,  the  university  library, 
schools  of  anatomy,  &c.,  with  tasteful  gardens ; 
and  close  by  are  the  other  university  buildings 
and  the  town-house.  The  university,  founded  in 
1632  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  was  re-established 
by  Alexander  I.  in  1802,  and  since  1887  has  been 
thoroughly  Russianised.  It  has  five  faculties, 
above  70  teachers,  and  about  2000  students. 
There  is  a  notable  botanical  garden.  Dorpat  was 
a  Hanse  town  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries, 
and  until  1704  was  alternately  captured  by  Swedes, 
Poles,  and  (finally)  Russians.  It  possesses  large 
printing  establishments,  breweries,  and  manufac- 
tories of  cigars,  tiles,  and  pianofortes.  Pop. 
42,500—80  per  cent.  German. 

Dor'setshire,  or  Dorset,  a  county  on  the  Eng- 
lish Channel,  between  Hampshire  and  Devon- 
shire. Its  greatest  length  is  58  miles ;  its  greatest 
breadth,  40 ;  and  its  area,  998  sq.  m.,  or  627,265 
acres,  of  which  a  third  is  arable,  a  ninth  waste, 
and  the  rest  pasture.  The  coast-line  is  75  miles 
long,  Avith  fine  cliffs  and  headlands.  St  Alban's 
Head  (354  feet  high)  and  Golden  Cap  (619  feet 
high)  are  among  the  highest  coast  points  between 
Dover  and  Land's  End.  About  midway  in  the 
coast-line  is  the  so-called  Isle  of  Portland,  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  the  remarkable 
Chesil  Bank  (q.v.).  Chalk  downs  run  along  the 
south  coast,  and  through  the  middle  of  the  county 
nearly  from  east  to  west.  The  highest  point  is 
Pillesden  Pen  (934  feet).  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Stour  and  the  Frome.  The  chief  mineral  pro- 
ductions are  the  celebrated  Purbeck  and  Portland 
building-stones,  and  white  china  and  pipe  clays. 
At  Swanage  is  found  the  celebrated  Purbeck 
marble,  seen  in  many  English  cathedrals.  The 
climate  is  mild.  The  chalk  hills  or  downs  are 
covered  with  short  fine  pasture,  on  which  numbers 


!)Ollf 


231 


bOVE 


of  Southdown  sheep  are  fed.  The  soil  is  chiefly 
sand,  gravel,  clay,  and  chalk.  Pop.  (1841) 
175,054;  (1871)  195,537;  (1881)  190,979;  (1901) 
202,962.  The  county  has  sent  four  members  to 
parliament  since  1885,  when  Dorchester,  Brid- 
port,  Poole,  Weymouth  and  Melcombe  Regis, 
Shaftesbury,  and  Wareham,  formerly  sending  up 
ten  members,  ceased  to  be  separate  constituencies. 
Dorsetshire  has  ancient  British  and  Roman  re- 
mains, as  stone  circles,  cromlechs,  barrows,  camps, 
an  amphitheatre,  three  Roman  stations,  and  a 
chambered  long  barrow,  known  as  Gray  Mare  and 
Colts,  near  Gorwell.  There  are  some  remains  of 
40  abbacies,  priories,  hospitals,  &c.  The  ruins  of 
Corfe  Castle  (q.v.)  are  among  the  grandest  in 
England.  The  scenery  of  Dorsetsliire  has  been 
rendered  familiar  to  many  outside  the  county  by 
the  works  of  Barnes  and  Hardy.  See  works  by 
Hutchins  (2  vols.  1774  ;  3d  ed.  4  vols.  1861-73), 
Worth  (2d  ed.  1889),  Mayo  (1885),  and  Moule  (1894). 

Dort,  or  Dordrecht,  a  Dutch  town  on  an 
island  formed  by  the  Maas,  10  miles  SE.  of 
Rotterdam  by  rail.  An  inundation  in  1421, 
which  destroyed  over  70  villages  and  drowned 
100,000  people,  separated  its  site  from  the  main- 
land. Founded  in  1013,  it  is  one  of  the  oldest, 
as  it  once  was  the  richest  of  the  trading  towns 
of  Holland.  Among  its  chief  buildings  are  a 
Gothic  cathedral  (1863)  and  a  fine  town-hall 
(1339).  The  largest  East-Indiamen,  and  gigantic 
wood-rafts  which  come  down  the  Rhine  from  the 
Black  Forest  and  Switzerland,  are  accommodated 
in  its  roomy  harbour.  Close  by  are  shipyards, 
corn  and  saw  mills,  and  manufactories  of  oil, 
sugar,  ironwares,  and  machinery.  Pop.  (1874) 
25,577  ;  (1901)  38,800.  Here  in  1572,  the  revolted 
States  of  Holland  held  their  first  assembly ;  and 
here  in  1618-19  sat  the  Protestant  Synod  of  Dort, 
which  condemned  the  doctrines  of  Arminius. 
The  brothers  De  Witt,  Cuyp,  and  Ary  Scheffer 
were  natives  ;  of  the  last  there  is  a  statue  (1862). 

Dortmund  (Dort'moont),  chief  town  of  West- 
phalia, in  the  fertile  Hellweg  plain,  near  the 
Emscher,  74  miles  NNE.  of  Cologne  by  rail.  It 
is  the  mining  headquarters  of  Westphalia,  and 
an  important  railway  centre ;  and  it  has  iron 
and  steel  works,  and  manufactures  of  mining 
material,  nail-making  and  other  machines,  safes, 
thread,  bricks,  timber,  and  flour,  besides  over 
30  breweries,  most  of  the  beer  being  exported. 
Figuring  from  the  8th  century  as  Therotinanni, 
or  Dorpvmnde,  it  became  a  free  Hanse  town, 
but  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815  at  the  congress 
of  Vienna.  An  aged  linden  marks  the  site  of  the 
famous  free  court  of  the  Vehmgericht ;  but  since 
the  walls  were  removed  in  1863,  the  general 
aspect  of  the  town  has  become  quite  modern. 
Pop.  (1846)  8732  ;  (1900)  142,418. 

Douarnenez  (Doo-ar-ne-nai/),  a  French  port  of 
Finistere,  on  the  Bay  of  Douarnenez,  8  miles 
NW.  of  Quimper  by  rail.  It  is  important  for  the 
sardine-fishery,  and  has  a  pop.  of  12,250. 

Douay  (Fr.  Doo-ay',  by  English  Catholics  Dow'- 
ay ;  the  Roman  Duacuni),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Nord,  on  the  river  Scarpe,  20  m.  S.  of  Lille 
by  rail.  A  great  military  town,  it  is  strongly  forti- 
fied, contains  an  important  arsenal,  a  cannon- 
foundry,  and  a  school  of  artillery.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  hotel-de-ville,  the  public  library, 
containing  100,000  volumes  and  3000  MSS.,  the 
museum,  hospital,  and  artillery  barracks.  The 
manufactures  include  lace,  cotton,  oil,  soap,  and 
iron  machinery.  Pop.  (1872)  21,703 ;  (1901)  29,172. 
During  the  middle  ages  Douay  was  a  constant  bone 
of  contention  between  the  Flemish  counts  and 


the  French  rulers.  It  became  the  seat  of  a  uni- 
versity (1562),  of  a  great  English  Catholic  college 
(1568),  and  of  a  Scotch  Catholic  college  (1594), 
which  came  to  an  end  at  the  French  Revolution, 
Douay  having  passed  with  the  rest  of  Flanders 
under  the  dominion  of  Spain,  but  been  taken  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  1667. 

Doubs  (Doo&),  a  dep.  of  France,  on  theE.  frontier, 
adjoining  Switzerland  and  Alsace.  Area,  2010 
sq.  m.  ;  population,  296,000.  It  is  traversed  by 
the  river  Doubs  (total  length,  270  miles),  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Saone.  Doubs  is  divided  into  the 
four  arrondissements  of  Besangon  (the  capital^, 
Baume-les-Dames,  Montbeliard,  and  Pontarlier. 

Douglas,  the  capital  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  a  sea- 
port and  favourite  watering-place,  is  so  called 
from  its  being  situated  near  the  junction  of  two 
streams— the  Dhoo  (black)  and  Glass  (gray).  It 
lies  on  a  picturesque  bay,  on  the  east  side  of 
the  island,  75  miles  NW.  of  Liverpool,  46  W.  of 
Barrow,  and  94  NE.  of  Dublin.  The  old  town, 
on  the  south-western  edge  of  the  bay,  presents 
with  its  narrow  tortuous  streets  a  vivid  contrast 
to  the  handsome  modern  terraces  and  villas  which 
occupy  the  rising  ground  beyond,  and  the  ground 
facing  the  north  of  the  bay.  It  possesses  an 
excellent  landing  pier ;  another  pier  and  break- 
water, constructed  of  concrete  cement  blocks, 
was  opened  in  1879 ;  the  new  street  and  charming 
promenade  following  the  line  of  the  bay  is  one 
of  its  most  agreeable  features.  Conspicuous  in 
the  centre  of  the  crescent  of  the  bay  stands  Castle 
Mona,  built  by  the  fourth  Duke  of  Athole,  but 
now  converted  into  a  first-class  hotel  and  winter 
gardens.  The  Tower  of  Refuge,  a  picturesque 
object,  occupies  a  dangerous  rock  in  the  southern 
area  of  the  bay,  called  Conister,  and  was  erected 
in  1833  for  the  safety  of  shipwrecked  mariners. 
The  foundation-stone  of  an  Eiff"el  tower  was  laid 
in  1890,  and  the  Douglas  Head  Marine  Drive 
opened  in  1891.     Pop.  (1851)  9880  ;  (1901)  19,125. 

Douglas,  a  decayed  town  of  Lanarkshire,  on 
Douglas  Water,  11  miles  SSW.  of  Lanark.  Of 
the  old  kirk  of  St  Bride,  the  burial-place  of  the 
Douglases  till  1761,  only  the  choir  and  a  spire 
remain.  Modern  Douglas  Castle  (Earl  of  Home), 
I  mile  NNE.,  is  a  poor  successor  to  Scott's 
'Castle  Dangerous,'  now  represented  by  little 
more  than  a  tower.    Pop.  1218. 

Douglas,  a  small  town  of  County  Cork,  Ireland, 
4  miles  SE.  of  Cork.    Pop.  764. 

Doune  (Doon),  a  village  of  Perthshire,  on  the 
Teith,  9  miles  NW.  of  Stirling  by  rail.  Pop.  930. 
Doune  Castle,  built  by  Murdoch,  Duke  of  Albany, 
in  the  early  part  of  the  15th  century,  is  now  a  mag- 
nificent ruin.  It  is  described  in  Scott's  Waverley, 
and  was  reduced  to  ruins  by  Hawley's  dragoons  in 
1746.  A  mile  to  the  west  is  Deanston  (pop.  723), 
with  its  cotton-mills,  long  managed  by  the  philan- 
thropist, James  Smith  (1789-1850),  the  promoter 
of  'deep  draining  and  thorough  ploughing.' 

Douro  (Dooro ;  Span,  fonn  Duero),  a  large  river 
of  Spain  and  Portugal,  rises  in  the  Pico  de  Urbion 
(7369  feet),  in  Old  Castile,  30  miles  NW.  of  Soria. 
Thence  it  winds  490  miles  SE.,  W.,  SW.,  and  W. 
to  the  Atlantic  below  Oporto.  It  is  navigable  to 
Torre  de  Moncorvo,  90  miles. 

Dove,  a  river  rising  4  miles  SW.  of  Buxton,  and 
flowing  45  miles  S.  and  SE.  along  the  borders  of 
Derby  and  Stafford  shires  to  the  Trent,  at  New- 
ton Solney.  It  was  the  favourite  fishing  stream 
of  Izaak  Walton,  who  lived  here  with  Charles 
Cotton  ;  and  it  is  still  beloved  of  anglers.— Dove- 
dale  is  a  romantic  glen,  forming  the  course  of 


DOVER 


bRAKENBERGE 


this  '  princess  of  rivers '  for  3  miles,   between 
Thorpe  Mill  and  Mill  Dale,  below  Alstonfield. 

Dover,  a  Cinque  Port  and  parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough  of  Kent,  77^  miles  by  rail 
ESE,  of  London.  It  is  not  only  a  charmingly 
situated  watering-place,  but,  being  the  nearest 
point  of  the  English  coast  to  France,  is  a  seaport 
of  growing  importance.  Great  harbour  exten- 
sions, costing  over  £5,000,000,  were  in  progress 
in  189S-1908.  Tlie  National  Harbour  will  cover 
685  acres,  the  Commercial  Harbour  75.  Dover, 
see  of  a  bishop-suffragan  since  1898,  is  the  seat 
of  the  packet  service  for  Calais  and  Ostend.  The 
fortifications  comprise  Dover  Castle,  on  the  chalk- 
cliffs,  375  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea;  Fort 
Burgoyne  on  the  north  side  of  the  town,  Archclitfe 
Fort  to  the  west,  and  the  batteries  on  the  Western 
Heights,  where  large  barracks  are  situated.  There 
are  also  remains  of  a  Roman  pharos  or  lighthouse, 
and  of  a  Romano-British  church,  which  has  been 
restored.  Dover  has  a  new  town-hall  (1883),  a  mu- 
seum,  a  hospital,  a  new  promenade  pier  (1893),  900 
ft.  long,  &c.  It  is  chiefly  dependent  on  its  shipping 
trade  and  its  attraction  as  a  watering-place,  but 
shipbuilding  and  sail  and  rope  making  are  carried 
on ,  and  there  are  also  flour  and  paper  mills.  Since 
1885  it  returns  but  one  member.  Pop.  (1841) 
17,795 ;  -(1901)  41,782.  The  name  (Roman  Vortus 
Duris;  Norman  Dovere)  is  from  the  Celtic  '  Dour,' 
the  name  of  the  small  river  which  runs  through 
the  town.  Fortified  by  William  the  Conqueror, 
during  whose  reign  it  was  nearly  burned  down, 
noted  as  the  place  of  King  John's  submission  to 
the  pope,  besieged  by  the  French,  held  during 
the  Civil  War  by  the  parliamentarians,  threat- 
ened by  the  first  Napoleon,  and  celebrated  as 
the  headquarters  of  the  Lord  Wardens  of  the 
Cinque  Ports,  Dover  holds  a  distinguished  place 
in  English  history.  Three  submarine  cables  con- 
nect it  with  the  Continent,  and  here  is  the 
entrance  to  the  proposed  Channel  Tunnel. 

Dover,  (1)  the  capital  of  Delaware,  U.S.,  on 
Jones's  Creek,  48  miles  S.  of  Wilmington  by  rail. 
Pop.  3811.— (2)  The  oldest  town  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, founded  in  1623,  on  the  Cocheco  River,  68 
miles  N.  by  E.  of  Boston  by  rail,  with  large  cotton- 
mills  and  print-works,  and  manufactures  of  boots 
and  shoes,  woollens,  and  iron.    Pop.  13,790. 

Dover,  Strait  of  (Fr.  Pas  de  Calais),  the 
channel  between  England  and  France,  connecting 
the  English  Channel  and  the  North  Sea,  whose 
tides  meet  here.  It  is  18  to  25  miles  broad,  and 
6  to  29  fathoms  deep.     See  Channel  (English), 

Dovercourt,  a  watering-place  forming  a  southern 
extension  of  Harwich  (q.v.).     Pop.  2720. 
Doveron.    See  Deveron. 
Dovrefjeld  (Dov'reh-fyeld),  part  of  the  moun- 
tainous plateau  of  Norway,  connecting  the  Kiolen 
Mountains  with  the  Jotun  Fjelde.     The  average 
elevation  ranges    from  2650  to  3600  feet;    the 
highest  point  is  Snehsetten  (7566). 
Dowlais.     See  Mebthyr-Tydvil. 
Dowlatabad.    See  Daulatabad. 
Dovrn,  a  maritime  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
south-east  of  the  province  of  Ulster,   50  miles 
long  (NE.  to  SW.)  and  35  broad.    Area,  612,399 
acres;   pop.  (1841)368,143;  (1881)  272,107;  (1901) 
205,889  (80,024  Presbyterians,  64,467  Catholics, 
and  47,130  Episcopalians).     Tlie  coast-line  of  67 
miles,  or  139  counting  inlets  and  islets,  is  in- 
dented by  Belfast   Lough,    Strangford   Lough, 
Dundrura  and  Carlingford  Bays.     The  Mourne 
Mountains  cover  90  sq.  m.  in  the  south,  and  rise 
in  Slieve  Donard  to  2796  feet.    The  other  parts 


are  mostly  undulating  and  hilly,  with  plains  and 
fine  meadows  along  the  rivers.  The  chief  rivers 
are  the  Upper  Bann  and  the  Lagan.  The  Newry 
Canal  admits  vessels  of  50  tons,  and  with  the 
Ulster  Canal  opens  comnnmication  through 
almost  all  Ulster.  Nearly  one-half  of  the  entire 
area  is  under  crop,  mostly  oats,  potatoes,  turnips, 
wheat,  flax,  and  barley.  The  chief  manufacture 
is  linen,  especially  the  finer  fabrics.  Down  con- 
tains 70  parishes,  and  since  1885  sends  four 
members  to  parliament,  besides  one  for  Newry 
borough.  Other  towns  are  Downpatrick,  New- 
townards,  Banbridge,  Lisburn,  Holy  wood,  and 
Donaghadee.  On  tlie  top  of  Slieve  Croob  (1755 
feet)  are  twenty-three  stone  cairns. 

Down,  a  village  of  Kent,  16  miles  SSE.  of 
London,  residence  from  1842  of  Charles  Darwin, 

Downham  Market,  a  town  of  Norfolk,  on  the 
Ouse,  in  a  flat  fen  country,  11  miles  S,  by  W,  of 
Lynn,    Pop.  2637. 

Downpatrick,  or  simply  Down,  the  capital  of 
County  Down,  near  the  influx  of  the  Quoyle  into 
the  south-west  end  of  Lough  Strangford,  27  miles 
SB.  of  Belfast.  It  takes  name  from  St  Patrick, 
and  is  the  seat  of  the  diocese  of  Down,  united 
with  Dromore  in  1842.  It  returned  a  member 
till  1885.     Pop.  (1861)  4317  ;  (1901)  2993. 

Downs  (Fr.  dunes,  from  Celtic  dun,  'a  hill'),  a 
term  applied,  like  dems  in  Norfolk,  to  hillocks 
of  sand  thrown  up  by  the  sea  or  the  wind  along 
the  sea-coast.  It  is  also  a  general  name  for  any 
undulating  tract  of  upland  too  light  for  cultiva- 
tion, and  covered  with  short  grass.  It  is  spe- 
cially applied  to  two  broad  ridges  of  undulating 
hills  south  of  the  Thames,  beginning  in  the 
middle  of  Hampshire,  and  running  eastward,  the 
North  DoAvns  through  the  middle  of  Surrey  and 
Kent  to  Dover  (about  120  miles),  and  the  South 
Downs  through  the  south-east  of  Hampshire 
and  near  the  Sussex  coast  to  Beachy  Head  (about 
80  miles).  Between  them  lies  the  valley  of  the 
Weald.  The  highest  point  of  the  North  Downs 
is  Inkpen  Beacon  (1011  feet) ;  and  of  the  South 
Downs,  Butser  Hill  (888).  These  uplands  are 
covered  with  fine  short  pasture,  which,  from  its 
aromatic  quality,  forms  excellent  feeding-ground 
for  the  famous  Southdown  sheep. 

Downs,  The,  a  roadstead  off  the  east  coast  of 
Kent,  opposite  Ramsgate  and  Deal,  between 
North  and  South  Foreland,  and  protected  ex- 
ternally by  the  Goodwin  Sands  (q.v.).  This 
large  natural  harbour  of  refuge  is  8  miles  by 
6,  with  an  anchorage  of  4  to  12  fathoms.  It 
is  unsafe  only  in  south  winds.  The  obstinate 
but  indecisive  sea-fight  of  the  Downs  was  fought 
with  the  Dutch  in  June  1666. 

Downton,  a  Wiltshire  town,  on  the  Avon,  here 
split  into  three  branches,  6  miles  SSE.  of  Salis- 
bury. It  has  an  Early  English  market-cross,  a 
cruciform  church,  an  agricultural  college  (1880), 
and  a  singular  earthwork  (the  Moot);  whilst  2 
miles  north  is  Trafalgar  House,  presented  in  1814 
by  the  nation  to  Lord  Nelson's  brother  and  suc- 
cessor.    Pop.  of  parish,  3430. 

Drachenfels  ('Dragon's  Rock'),  a  peak  (1056 
feet)  of  the  Siebengebirge,  on  the  Rhine's  right 
bank,  8  miles  SE.  of  Bonn.  It  commands  a 
glorious  prospect,  and  may  be  gained  by  a  moun- 
tain railway  (1883), 

Dv&g[ngaiin(Dra-geen-yon^'),  capital  of  the  dep. 
of  Var,  and  at  the  base  of  the  wooded  Malmont 
(2151  feet),  51  m,  by  rail  NE,  of  Toulon,    Pop.  8904, 

Drakenberge  (Drdh'ken-ber-geh,  g  hard;  in 
Dutch,    the    '  Dragon    Mountains '),    the   range 


DRAMMEN 


233 


DROITWICH 


in  the  east  of  South  Africa,  between  Cape  Colony 
and  the  Vaal  River.  From  29°  S.  lat.  the  three 
chains  which  form  the  southern  portion  unite  and 
extend  north-eastward  in  one  mass,  its  liighest 
points  the  Mont  aux  Sources  and  Catkin  Peak 
(10,360  feet).  The  range  is  crossed  by  Van  Reenen 
(5415)  and  De  Beers  (5635)  passes. 

Drammen,  a  seaport  of  Norway,  33  miles  SW- 
of  Christiania  by  rail,  on  the  Dramselv,  which 
here  discharges  its  waters  through  the  Drams- 
fiord  into  the  Gulf  of  Cliristiania,  and  which 
is  crossed  here  by  three  bridges,  one  of  them 
345  yards  long.  There  are  sawmills  and  chicory 
factories.    Pop.  24,100. 

Drave  (Ger.  Drmi),  a  river  of  Austria,  rising 
in  the  Tyrol,  at  an  altitude  of  5477  feet,  and 
flowing  447  miles  ESE.,  through  or  along  the 
borders  of  Styria,  Croatia,  Slavonia,  and  Hungary, 
till,  10  miles  below  Essek,  it  falls  into  the  Danube. 
At  first  a  mountain-torrent,  from  Villach  down- 
wards (379  miles)  it  is  navigable. 

Drayton,  West,  a  Middlesex  parish,  with  a 
racecourse,  3  miles  S,  of  Uxbridge.    Pop.  1118. 

Drayton-in-Hales.    See  Market-Drayton. 

Dren'the,  a  frontier  province  of  the  Nether- 
lands, bordering  on  Hanover ;  area,  1030  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  158,000. 

Dresden,  the  capital  of  Saxony,  is  situated  in 
a  charming  valley  on  the  Elbe,  116  miles  SE.  of 
Berlin,  and  62  ESE.  of  Leipzig.  The  Altstadt 
and  Friedrichstadt  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Elbe, 
and  the  Neustadt  and  Antonstadt  on  the  right 
or  northern  bank,  are  united  by  the  Augustus 
Bridge  (1727-29),  and  the  Albert  Bridge  (1875-77), 
and  by  the  Marienbriicke,  which  is  at  once  a  rail- 
way and  a  carriage  bridge.  The  Brilhl  Terrace 
(1738),  on  the  Elbe's  south  bank,  is  a  charming 
promenade.  The  museum  (1847-54)  contains  col- 
lections of  engravings  (400,000  examples)  and 
drawings,  besides  the  famous  picture-gallery.  The 
last,  which  owes  its  origin  chiefly  to  Augustus  III. 
of  Saxony,  who  purchased  the  Modena  gallery  in 
1745,  contains  about  2400  paintings,  mainly  by 
Italian  and  Flemish  masters.  The  gem  of  the 
collection  is  Raphael's  '  Sistine  Madonna ; '  other 
masterpieces  being  Titian's  'Tribute  Money,'  and 
Correggio's '  Magdalene '  and  '  La  Notte.'  Adjoin- 
ing the  museum  is  the  Zwinger,  a  remarkable 
rococo  building  of  1711-22,  designed  as  the  vesti- 
bule of  an  elaborate  palace,  and  containing  valu- 
able collections  of  casts,  zoology,  mineralogy,  &c. 
The  Johanneum,  erected  as  royal  stables  at  the 
end  of  the  16th  century,  now  accommodates  the 
historical  museum,  founded  in  1833,  the  gallery 
of  arms,  and  the  priceless  collection  of  porcelain. 
The  Augusteum,  or  collection  of  antiquities, 
chiefly  Roman  objects  of  the  Imperial  times,  and 
the  Royal  Public  Library,  are  deposited  in  the 
Japanese  Palace,  built  in  1715  in  the  Neustadt. 
The  library  contains  nearly  350,000  volumes, 
20,000  maps,  and  4000  MSS.  The  '  Green  "Vault ' 
in  the  royal  palace  contains  a  valuable  collec- 
tion of  precious  stones,  pearls,  and  curios,  and 
articles  in  gold,  silver,  ivory,  &c.  The  list  of  art 
treasures  in  Dresden  may  be  closed  with  the 
collection  of  antiques  (chiefly  ecclesiastical),  and 
the  gallery  of  casts  of  the  works  of  the  sculptor 
Rietschel,  both  in  the  '  Lustschloss '  (1680),  in 
the  Grossen  Garten,  a  handsome  public  park,  350 
acres  in  extent.  Other  buildings  not  yet  men- 
tioned are  the  royal  palace,  a  large  and  rambling 
edifice,  begun  in  1534 ;  the  prince's  palace  (1718) ; 
the  Briihl  Palace  (1737) ;  the  town-house  (1741-45) ; 
and  the  magnificent  new  theatre  (1871-78).  Of  the 
chvirches,  the  finest  are  the  Frauenkirche  (lr726- 


34),  with  a  lofty  dome  and  lantern  320  feet  high  ; 
the  Roman  Catholic  church  (1737-56),  in  an  elabor- 
ate baroque  style,  adorned  on  the  exterior  with 
sixty-four  statues  ;  the  Sophienkirche  (1351-57), 
restored  and  provided  with  towers  in  1865-69 ;  and 
the  Kreuzkirche  (1764-85).  The  Synagogue  (1838- 
40)  is  also  noteworthy.  The  most  important  in- 
dustries are  the  manufactures  of  gold  and  silver 
articles,  artificial  flowers,  machinery,  chemicals, 
paper-hangings,  artists'  canvas  and  colours, 
chocolate,  &c. ;  and  straw-plaiting,  brewing,  and 
market-gardening.  The  so-called  '  Dresden  china ' 
is  manufactured  not  at  Dresden  but  at  Meissen. 
Pop.  (1871)  177,087  ;  (1900)  395,849. 

Dresden  is  of  early  Slavonic  origin.  Henry  the 
Illustrious  made  it  his  capital  in  1270,  and  after 
the  division  of  the  Saxon  lands  in  1485  it  became 
the  seat  of  the  Albertine  line,  and  its  prosperity 
gradually  increased.  It  suffered  severely  dur- 
ing the  Seven  Years'  War ;  and  again  in  1813,  whou 
the  Allies  were  repulsed  by  Napoleon,  but,  after 
he  had  left,  forcecl  the  city  to  capitulate.  Dur- 
ing the  revolution  of  1849,  also,  very  great  dam- 
age was  inflicted  upon  the  town,  which  was 
occupied  by  the  Prussians  in  1866  during  their 
war  with  Austria. 

Dreux  (nearly  Dreh ;  anc.  Durocassis),  a  town  in 
the  dep.  of  Eure-et-Loir,  on  the  Blaise,  27  miles 
NNW.  of  Chartres  by  rail.  It  lies  at  the  foot 
of  a  hill  crowned  with  the  ruins  of  the  castle 
of  the  Counts  of  Dreux  ;  from  among  them  rises 
a  beautiful  chapel,  erected  by  the  mother  ot 
Louis-Philippe  in  1816,  to  which  were  removed 
in  1876  the  remains  of  him  and  other  members 
of  the  House  of  Orleans  who  had  died  in  exile. 
Pop.  8920.  In  1562  the  Constable  Montmorency 
defeated  the  Huguenots  here,  and  took  the  Prince 
of  Conde  prisoner. 

Driflaeld,  Great,  the  chief  town  in  the  Wolds, 
East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  11  miles  N.  of  Beverley 
by  rail,  is  connected  with  Hull,  19  miles  S.,  by  a 
canal.  It  manufactures  flour,  linseed-cake,  and 
artificial  manures.    Pop.  5703. 

Drlghllngton,  a  township  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  5  miles  SE.  of  Bradford,  with 
worsted-spinning  and  coal-mining.     Pop.  4322. 

Drogheda  (Droh'he-da),  a  seaport  of  Louth,  built 
mostly  on  the  Boyne's  north  bank,  4  miles  from 
its  mouth,  32  N.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  The  Boyne 
is  crossed  here  by  a  railway  viaduct  95  feet  high. 
There  are  linen  and  cotton  manufactures,  iron- 
works, tanneries,  breweries,  and  salt-works,  and 
a  considerable  export  trade,  chiefly  with  Liver- 
pool (140  miles  distant).  Vessels  of  500  tons  reach 
the  quay,  and  barges  of  50  tons  ply  19  miles  up 
the  Boyne  to  Navan.  Pop.  (1851)  16,845  ;  (1901) 
12,765,  almost  all  Catholics.  Till  1885  Drogheda 
returned  one  member.  From  the  14th  to  the  17th 
centuries,  Drogheda  (or  Tredah)  was  the  chief 
military  station  in  Leinster.  In  1649  Cromwell 
stormed  the  town  and  massacred  the  garrison  ;  in 
1690  Drogheda  surrendered  to  William  III.  See 
D'Alton's  History  of  Drogheda  (2  vols.  1844). 

Drohobycz  (Dro'ho-bitch),  a  town  of  Austria,  in 
Galicia,  50  miles  SW.  of  Lemberg,  with  salt-works, 
paraffin-factories,  and  dyeworks.     Pop.  19,714. 

Droitwich  (DroWitch),  a  municipal  borough  in 
Worcestershire,  on  the  Salwarpe,  6  miles  NNE.  of 
Worcester.  Originally  British,  and  probably  the 
Roman  Salince,  it  was  called  Wych  from  the  salt- 
springs,  to  which  Droit  was  afterwards  prefixed, 
expressing  a  legal  right  to  them.  Its  brine- 
springs  yield  over  100,000  tons  of  salt  a  year; 
and  the  saline  baths  arc  visited  annually  by 


DRdMS 


234 


t)tJBLlM 


thousands.  Droitwich  returned  one  member  till 
1885.  Pop.  4201.  See  Bainbrigg's  Droitwich  Salt 
Springs  (1873). 

Drome,  a  dep.  of  France,  on  the  east  bank  of 
the  Rhone.  Area,  2508  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1866) 
324,231 ;  (1901)  294,704.  It  is  divided  into  the 
four  arrondissements  of  Valence  (the  capital), 
Montelimar,  Die,  and  Nyons. 

Dromore,  a  town,  with  linen  manufactures,  in 
County  Down,  on  the  Lagan,  17  miles  SW.  of 
Belfast.  It  is  still  the  seat  of  a  Catholic  diocese, 
but  its  Episcopal  one  was  in  1842  united  with 
Down.  Jeremy  Taylor  was  Bishop  of  Dromore, 
and  lies  buried  here  in  his  cathedraL    Pop.  2309. 

Dronfield,  a  town  of  Derbyshire,  6  miles  NNW. 
of  Chesterfield.  It  has  large  edge-tool  factories 
and  neighbouring  collieries.    Pop.  3838. 

Dronthelm.    See  Trondhjem. 

Droylsden,  Lancashire,  a  suburb  of  Manchester, 
3 J  miles  E.  of  it,  with  railway  station.  Pop.  11,000. 

Dnimclog,  a  moorland  tract  in  west  Lanark- 
shire, 6  miles  SE.  of  Strathaveu.  Here,  2^  miles 
B.  of  Loudon  Hill,  Claverhouse  was  defeated  on 
the  1st  June  1679  by  200  Covenanters. 

Dnunlan'rig  Castle,  a  seat  (1689)  of  the  Duke 
of  Buccleuch  (till  1810  Queeusberry),  in  Upper 
Nithsdale,  17  miles  NW.  of  Dumfries.  See  a 
work  by  Ramage  (1876). 

Drummond  Castle.    See  Crieff. 

Drammond.  Island,  the  most  westerly  of  the 
Manitoulin  chain,  in  Lake  Huron,  belongs  to 
Chippewa  county,  Michigan.  It  measures  20 
miles  by  10. 

Dnunore,  a  Wigtownshire  seaport,  17^  miles 
S.  by  E.  of  Stranraer.     Pop.  459. 

Dryburgh,  a  beautiful  ruined  Premonstraten- 
sian  abbey,  in  Berwickshire,  5  miles  ESE.  of 
Melrose,  on  the  Tweed,  here  crossed  by  a  sus- 
pension bridge.  It  contains  the  dust  of  Sir 
Walter  Scott  and  his  son-in-law  Lockhart. 
Founded  in  1150  by  David  I.,  it  was  more  or 
less  destroyed  by  the  English  in  1822, 1385,  1544, 
and  1545.  See  Spottiswoode's  Liber  de  Dryburgh 
(Bannatyne  Club,  1847). 

Dryfe  Water,  a  Dumfriesshire  stream  flowing 
18^  miles  to  the  Annan,  near  Lockerbie. 

Dryhope,  a  ruined  peel-tower  in  Selkirkshire, 
I  mile  N.  of  St  Mary's  Loch.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  the  '  Flower  of  Yarrow.' 

Dubitza,  a  fortified  town  of  Bosnia,  on  the 
Unna,  10  miles  from  its  confluence  with  the 
Save.    Pop.  3000. 

Dublin,  a  maritime  county  in  the  province  of 
Leinster.  Area,  354  sq.  m.,  six-sevenths  being 
in  cultivation,  and  one-fortieth  in  wood.  The 
coast,  much  indented  with  creeks  and  bays,  is  70 
miles  long,  and  off  it  lie  several  islands.  Dublin 
Bay,  one  of  the  finest  in  the  kingdom,  is  6  miles 
broad,  with  a  sweep  of  16  miles,  and  has  precipi- 
tous hills,  500  feet  high,  both  at  the  north  and 
south  ends.  The  surface  inland  is  mostly  a  rich 
level  plain,  with  slight  undulations,  but  rising  in 
the  south  in  a  hill-range,  its  highest  point 
Kippure,  2473  feet.  North  of  this  range  the  only 
prominent  eminence  is  the  Hill  of  Howth,  563  feet. 
The  chief  river  is  the  LifTey,  running  through 
Dublin  city  into  Dublin  Bay.  There  are  copper 
and  lead  mines  near  the  Scalp  ;  granite  and  lime- 
stone are  much  quarried.  There  are  many  mineral 
springs.  ■''*'  t  most  important  at  Lucan.  In  the 
,  norjjk^^"^*- ost  are  grazing  and  meadow  farms, 
r-rfftfeV^  Donard  w^^^  ^-^^^  ^^^^^^^  dairy-farms,  and 


nursery-gardens.  Dublin  is  the  best  cultivated 
county  in  Ireland.  Along  the  coast  there  are 
important  fisheries.  The  towns  are  Dublin  and 
Kingstown.  Pop.  (1841)  372,775 ;  (1901)  448,200 
—78  per  cent,  are  Catholics.  Dublin  sends  eight 
members  to  parliament — two  for  the  county, 
four  for  the  city,  and  two  for  the  university. 

Dublin  (Irish  Duhh-linn,  '  black  pool ; '  the 
Eblana  of  Ptolemy),  the  capital  of  Ireland,  stands 
on  the  river  Liff"ey,  where  it  falls  into  Dublin 
Bay,  in  53°  20'  38"  N.  lat.,  and  6°  17'  30"  W.  long. 
It  is  64  miles  W.  of  Holyhead,  138  W.  of  Liver- 
pool, 223  SSW.  of  Glasgow,  and  245  NW.  of 
Bristol.  Some  of  Dublin  is  built  on  land  re- 
claimed from  the  sea,  and  the  ground  is  generally 
flat.  The  river,  running  from  west  to  east, 
divides  the  city  into  two  almost  equal  portions. 
The  fashionable  quarter  is  to  the  south-east  of 
the  city ;  the  principal  shops  are  in  the  centre 
of  the  town ;  and  there  are  many  good  private 
houses  in  the  suburbs.  The  city  is  surrounded 
by  a  '  Circular  Road '  of  nearly  9  miles  in  length. 
The  most  important  street  is  Sackville  Street, 
which  is  700  yards  long  and  40  broad ;  at  its 
north  end  stands  the  Rotunda,  with  Rutland 
Square  ;  in  its  centre  the  beautiful  Ionic  portico 
of  the  General  Post-office,  and  Nelson's  Monu- 
ment (134  feet  high);  while  on  the  south  it  is 
terminated  by  O'Connell  Bridge,  and  a  wedge- 
like block  of  houses  formed  by  the  converging 
sides  of  Westmoreland  and  D'Olier  Streets.  A 
peculiar  feature  of  Dublin  is  its  squares,  which 
are  very  numerous,  spacious,  and  well  kept.  St 
Stephen's  Green,  the  largest,  laid  out  with  great 
taste  as  a  People's  Park  by  the  Guinness  family, 
occupies  an  area  of  nearly  20  acres,  and  is  about 
a  mile  in  circuit.  Somewhat  smaller,  but  more 
fashionable,  are  Merrion  Square  (13  acres),  and 
Fitzwilliam  Square.  The  large  park  and  quad- 
rangles of  Trinity  College  occupy  more  than  40 
acres.  Leinster  House,  once  the  town  mansion 
of  the  Dukes  of  Leinster,  now  the  home  of  the 
Royal  Dublin  Society,  has  been  added  to  by  the 
erection  of  a  National  Art  Gallery  and  a  Museum 
of  Natural  History.  New  buildings  for  a  Science 
and  Art  Museum  and  a  National  Library  were 
opened  in  1890,  having  cost  over  £100,000. 
Among  the  other  public  edifices  may  be  men- 
tioned the  Bank  of  Ireland  (formerly  the  Houses 
of  Parliament),  Trinity  College,  the  Custom- 
house, and  the  Four  Courts,  which,  from  the 
boldness  of  their  design,  and  the  massiveness  of 
their  proportions,  have  a  very  imposing  eff'ect. 
The  Castle  (the  Lord  Lieutenant's  official  resi- 
dence) has  no  pretensions  to  architectural  beauty. 
The  Chapel  is  interesting,  and  contains  some 
fine  carved  work  of  Grinling  Gibbons.  Dublin  is 
remarkable  in  possessing  two  Protestant  cathe- 
drals. St  Patrick's,  founded  in  1190,  was  re- 
stored in  1865  by  the  munificence  of  Sir  Benjamin 
Lee  Guinness ;  and  Christ  Church,  dating  from 
1038,  but  not  raised  to  cathedral  rank  till  1541, 
is  a  smaller  but  more  beautiful  edifice,  also  re- 
stored in  1878  by  Mr  Henry  Roe.  There  are 
monuments  of  William  III.  in  College  Green 
(once  a  green,  but  now  a  paved  street);  of 
Nelson,  the  Duke  of  Wellington,  Goldsmith, 
Burke,  Grattan,  O'Connell,  &c. 

Within  the  limits  of  the  Circular  Road,  the 
Liff"ey  is  crossed  by  twelve  bridges  (four  of  iron), 
and  throughout  the  whole  extent  of  the  city  the 
banks  of  the  river  are  faced  with  granite  walls 
and  parapets.  On  each  side  of  these  '  quays,'  2^ 
miles  long,  there  is  a  roadway,  with  houses  and 
shops.  The  quay  proper  extends  eastward  from 
the   Butt   Bridge.    Near  the   Custom-house,  a 


DUBOVKA 


235 


DULUTS 


strikingly  handsome  classic  building  of  native 
granite,  are  large  doclcs  in  communication  with 
the  Royal  and  Grand  Canals  ;  the  former  connect- 
ing Dublin  with  the  North  Shannon  and  the  west 
of  Ireland,  the  latter  with  the  southerly  portion 
of  the  same  river  and  tlie  sea.  A  large  basin, 
the  '  Spencer  Dock,'  was  opened  in  1S73  ;  and  the 
harbour  has  been  much  improved  by  the  com- 
pletion of  two  large  breakwaters,  the  North  and 
South  '  Walls.'  There  is  a  bar  at  the  nioutli  of 
the  harbour,  but  even  there  the  least  depth  at 
low  tide  is  about  11  feet.  The  chief  manufacture 
is  porter,  of  which  nearly  half  a  million  hogs- 
heads are  annually  exported,  '  Guinness  '  being, 
of  course,  the  most  important.  Next  in  order 
is  whisky,  and  tlieu  poplin.  The  municipal 
affairs  are  under  the  control  of  a  town  council, 
which  consists  of  a  lord  mayor,  fifteen  aldermen, 
and  forty-live  councillors.  The  city  sends  four 
members  to  parliament,  the  university  two.  Pop. 
(1688)  64,500  ;  (1804)  167,899  ;  (1841)  232,726 ;  (1881) 
249,602 ;  (1901)  290,638. 

The  university  of  Dublin,  with  a  single  college 
(Trinity),  was  founded  in  1591,  and  has  a  teaching- 
stall'  of  more  than  80,  and  over  1000  students. 
Among  its  former  alumni  have  been  Berkeley, 
Brady,  Lord  Cairns,  Congreve,  Curran,  Farquhar, 
Goldsmith,  SirW.  Hamilton,  Lever,  Magee,  Moore, 
Swift,  Tate,  Toplady,  and  Ussher.  There  is  also  a 
Roman  Catholic  university  (since  1854).  The 
Royal  University  of  Ireland,  which  superseded 
in  1880  the  Queen's  University,  is  not  a  teaching 
body,  but  resembles  the  university  of  London  ; 
it  has  its  seat  here.  For  the  humbler  classes 
much  has  been  done  by  the  National  Board,  by 
the  Church  Education  Society,  Roman  Catholic 
brotherhoods  and  sisterhoods  sucli  as  the 
Christian  Brothers,  and  other  agencies.  There 
are  two  botanic  gardens  —  one  at  Glasnevin, 
belonging  to  the  Royal  Dublin  Society,  and  one 
at  Ballsbridge,  connected  with  the  university. 
The  environs  of  Dublin  are  especially  beautiful. 
Rathmines,  a  southern  suburb,  has  become  a  large 
township,  and,  together  with  Monkstown,  Kings- 
town, and  Killiney,  is  the  favourite  residence  of 
the  wealthier  part  of  the  mercantile  community. 
Glasnevin,  on  the  north,  has  memories  of  Swift, 
Addison,  Steele,  Tickell,  Thomas  Parnell,  and 
Thomas  Sheridan  ;  its  cemetery,  opened  in  1832, 
is  classic  ground,  and  contains  the  aslies  of  Curran, 
O'Connell  (under  a  round  tower  150  feet  high), 
and  C.  S.  Parnell.  The  Phoenix  Park  is  a  magnifl- 
cent  area  of  nearly  2000  acres,  finely  timbered. 
Dublin,  as  a  whole,  with  its  fine  bay — often  com- 
pared to  the  Bay  of  Naples — its  splendid  park, 
massive  public  buildings,  wide  streets,  spacious 
squares,  regular  quays,  and  beautiful  environs, 
is  one  of  the  handsomest  capitals  in  Europe. 

The  ancient  history  of  Dublin  is  mainly  legend, 
but  we  know  that  in  the  9tli  century  the  Danes 
took  the  place,  and  it  was  in  their  hands  for  the 
most  part  until  the  English  Conquest.  Henry 
II.  held  his  court  there  in  1171 ;  the  English 
residents  were  almost  extirpated  in  the  rising  of 
'  Black  Monday '  in  1207.  In  1689  James  II.  held 
a  parliament  in  Dublin,  and  the  town  was  im- 
mediately afterwards  occupied  by  William  III. 

See  histories  of  the  city,  by  J.  Warburton  (2 
vols.  1818)  and  J.  T.  Gilbert  (3  vols.  1854-59) ;  of 
the  university,  by  W.  Taylor  (1845),  D.  C.  Heron 
(1847),  Stubbs  (1889;,  and  Maliaflfy  (1903);  also 
The  Book  of  Trinity  College  (1892). 

Dubovka,  a  town  in  the  Russian  province  of 
Saratov,  on  the  Volga.    Pop.  13,300. 
Dubuque  {Doo-buke'),  a  city  of  Iowa,  on  right 


bank  of  the  Mississippi,  built  partly  on  bluffs 
rising  200  feet  above  the  river,  which  is  here 
crossed  by  an  iron  railway  bridge,  198  miles 
WNW.  of  Chicago.  It  has  an  Episcopal  and  a 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a  city-hall,  a  custom- 
house of  marble,  and  a  German  Presbyterian 
seminary.  It  is  a  seat  of  manufactures,  and 
has  a  large  river  and  railway  trade.  Julien 
Dubuque,  a  French  trader,  engaged  in  lead- 
mining  here  as  early  as  1788 ;  but  the  first  per- 
manent settlement  was  made  in  1833.  Poi>.  (1870) 
18,434 ;  (1900)  36,297. 

Ducato,  Capk  (Doo-kdh'to),  an  abrupt  headland 
at  the  south-west  extremity  of  Leukas  or  Santa 
Maura,  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands. 

Duddingston,  a  Midlothian  village,  2^  miles 
SE.  of  Edinburgh.  Pop.  330.  Duddingston  Loch 
measures  580  by  267  yards. 

Duddon,  a  river  of  Cumberland  and  Lanca- 
shire, flowing  20  miles  to  the  Irish  Sea  near 
Brougliton-in-Furness.  Wordsworth's  sonnets 
have  made  it  famous. 

Dudley,  a  parliamentary,  municipal,  and  county 
borough  in  a  detached  part  of  Worcestershire  and 
the  south  of  Staffordsliire,  26  miles  NNE.  of 
Worcester,  and  8i  WNW.  of  Birmingham.  Situ- 
ated in  the  heart  of  tlie  '  Black  Country,'  it  is 
a  thriving  town  with  coal-mining,  busy  brass  and 
iron  foundries,  glass  and  brick  works,  besides 
tanning  and  brewing.  One  of  the  largest  single 
iron  industries  is  nail-making.  A  chief  ornament 
of  the  place  is  the  Renaissance  drinking- fountain, 
erected  in  1867  by  the  late  Earl  of  Dudley,  a 
statue  of  whom  was  erected  in  1888.  On  a  hill 
to  the  nortli-east  are  the  beautiful  ruins  of  an 
old  castle,  said  to  have  been  founded  in  the  8th 
century  by  Dodo,  a  Saxon  prince,  and  the  keep 
of  which  dates  from  the  13th  century.  It  was 
burned  in  1750.  Near  it  are  remains  of  a  Cluniac 
priory  (1161).  The  vicinity  yields  abundant  lime- 
stone, which  is  wrought  out  of  cavei-ns,  and 
brought  to  the  kilns  through  a  tunnel  If  mile 
long,  carried  through  the  basalt  of  the  Castle 
Hill.  Pop.  of  parliamentary  borough  (1851) 
37,962  ;  (1901)  96,988,  of  whom  48,733  were  in  the 
municipal.  Dudley  has  returned  one  member 
since  1832,  the  parliamentary  boundary  being 
extended  in  1867 ;  the  municipal  borough  dates 
from  1865.     See  a  work  by  Twamley  (1867). 

Duff  House.    See  Banff. 

Dufl3.eld,  a  town  of  Derbyshire,  on  the  Der- 
went,  4  miles  N.  of  Derby.     Pop.  of  parish,  19601 

Dufftown,  a  police-burgh  of  Banffshire,  65 
miles  NW.  of  Aberdeen.     Pop.  1869. 

Duisburg  (Doo'is-hoorg),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  16  m.  N.  of  DUsseldorf  by  rail,  in  a  fertile 
district  between  the  Ruhr  and  Rliine,  with  both 
of  wliich  it  is  connected  by  a  canal.  Its  manufac- 
tures include  tobacco,  soda,  sulphuric  acid,  soap, 
candles,  starcli,  and  sugar  ;  and  in  and  near  it  are 
great  ironworlcs  and  coal-mines.  Pop.  (1816) 
4508  ;  (1900)  92,730  (nearly  half  Protestants). 

Dukeries.    See  Worksop. 

Dukinfield,  a  Cheshire  sub-district,  mostly 
within  Stalybridge  parliamentary  borough. 

Dulcigno  (Dool-cheen'yo ;  Serb  Ultschin),  a  port 
of  Montenegro,  20  miles  SW.  of  Scutari,  and  till 
1880  a  Turkish  town.    Pop.  5000. 

Duluth  (Doo-looth'),  a  city  of  Minnesota,  the 
capital  of  St  Louis  county,  at  the  west  end  of 
Lake  Superior,  156  miles  NNE.  of  St  Paul.  It 
has  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  United 
States,  protected  by  a  natural  breakwater  known 


DTJLVERTON 


236 


DUMFRIESSHIRE 


as  Minnesota  Point,  which  is  7  miles  long  and 
about  750  feet  broad ;  and  great  improvements 
have  been  effected  in  the  matters  of  dredging,  the 
construction  of  piers,  and  the  extension  of  deep- 
water  navigation  to  the  falls  of  the  St  Louis 
River,  15  miles  from  the  lake.  The  ship-canal 
(depth  about  23  feet)  through  Minnesota  Point 
forms  the  chief  entrance  way  between  Lake 
Superior  and  the  harbour.  Duluth  contains  a 
custom-house,  United  States  land  office,  large 
steam  sawmills,  a  steam-forge,  stock-yards,  &c. 
Advantageously  situated  at  the  head  of  naviga- 
tion of  the  great  chain  of  lakes,  and  with  im- 
mense deposits  of  iron,  granite,  and  freestone  in 
the  immediate  vicinity,  it  has  rapidly  increased 
in  population  and  in  wealth.  Grain,  flour,  iron 
ore,  and  lumber  are  the  main  exports.  Pop.  (1880) 
3483  ;  (1890)  33,115  ;  (1900)  52,970. 

Dulverton,  a  town  of  Somerset,  on  the  Barle, 
12  miles  NNW.  of  Tiverton.    Pop.  1265. 

Dulwich  iPuVlitch),  a  suburb  of  London,  in  the 
north-east  of  Surrey,  4 J  miles  S.  of  St  Paul's 
Cathedral,  and  a  little  to  the  west  of  Sydenham. 
It  consists  chiefly  of  villa  residences,  and  is  noted 
for  its  college  and  picture-gallery.  The  college 
was  founded  in  1619  by  Edward  Alleyn,  the  actor, 
and  comprises  almshouses,  upper  and  lower 
schools,  a  chapel,  &c.,  the  upper  school  trans- 
ferred in  1870  to  new  buildings,  erected  at  a  cost 
of  nearly  £100,000.  The  picture-gallery  was  be- 
queathed by  the  painter  Sir  Peter  Francis  Bour- 
geois (1756-1811).  Dulwich  was  in  1885  included 
in  Camber  well  parliamentary  borough.  Pop. 
97,320.  See  works  by  Hovenden  (1873),  Blanch 
(1877),  Galer  (1891),  and  W.  Young  (1891). 

Dumbarton,  or  Dunbabton,  the  county  town 
of  Dumbartonshire,  lies  mainly  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Leven,  a  little  above  its  influx  to  the 
Clyde,  and  15  miles  WNW.  of  Glasgow.  Its 
chief  public  building  is  the  Burgh  Hall  and 
Academy,  a  French-Gothic  pile  of  1866,  restored 
since  the  fire  of  1883  ;  and  there  are  a  pier  on  the 
Clyde  (1875),  and  a  public  park  of  32  acres  (1885), 
gifted  to  the  town  at  a  cost  of  £20,000.  Dum- 
barton ranks  merely  as  a  sub-port ;  but  its  ship- 
building, with  the  subsidiary  industries,  has 
attained  important  dimensions  since  the  opening 
of  the  great  shipyards  of  Messrs  M'Millan  (1834) 
and  Messrs  Denny  (1844).  Between  the  town  and 
the  Clyde  rises  the  Rock  of  Dumbarton  (280  feet), 
a  double-peaked,  basaltic  eminence,  which  is 
crowned  by  the  castle,  a  building  of  no  great 
strength  now  or  architectural  merit,  but  one 
of  the  four  Scottish  fortresses  that  must  be 
maintained  in  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Union. 
Dumbarton  was  made  a  free  royal  burgh  in  1222, 
and  unites  with  the  other  four  Kilmarnock  burghs 
to  return  one  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  (1851) 
5445 ;  (1901)  19,985.  The  capital  of  the  Britons 
of  Strathclyde,  Dumbarton  was  termed  by  them 
Alcluith  ('height  on  the  Clyde'),  by  the  Gaels 
Dunbreatan  ('fort  of  the  Britons');  and  the 
history  of  its  Rock  extends  over  more  than  a 
thousand  years,  from  its  capture  by  Picts  and 
Northumbrians  (756),  by  Vikings  (870),  to  Wallace's 
captivity  here  (1305),  the  child  Queen  Mary's 
residence  (1548),  and  its  daring  surprise  by  Craw- 
ford of  Jordanhill  (1571). 

Dumbartonsliire,  a  Scottish  county,  25  miles 
long  and  IJ  to  15^  miles  broad,  with  an  area  of 
270  sq.  m.,  of  which  30  belong  to  a  detached 
south-eastern  portion.  Loch  Lomond  (22  by  5 
miles)  lies  on  the  eastern  boundary,  and  sends  off 
the  Leven  7  miles  to  the  Clyde  ;  the  southern  is 
washed  by  the  Clyde's  broadening  estuary ;  and 


the  western,  for  17  miles  by  its  offshoot.  Loch 
Long,  which  forms  with  the  Gare  Loch  (7  miles 
by  7  furlongs)  the  wooded  Rosneath  peninsula. 
The  surface,  almost  everywhere  hilly  or  moun- 
tainous, culminates  in  Ben  Vorlich  (3092  feet); 
and  the  scenery,  with  its  sea-lochs,  lake,  woods, 
and  glens,  is  lovely  as  that  of  few  regions  in 
Scotland.  Coal  is  mined  in  the  detached  portion, 
which  nowhere  exceeds  480  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  climate  is  mild  and  humid.  Barely  a  fourth 
of  the  entire  area  is  in  tillage  ;  but  many  sheep 
and  cattle  are  reared.  Colquhoun  of  Luss  is 
much  the  largest  proprietor.  Rosneath  Castle 
is  a  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Argyll,  Since  1728  bleach 
and  print  fields,  dyeing  and  cotton  works,  have 
multiplied  in  the  Vale  of  Leven  ;  shipbuilding  is 
an  important  industry.  The  chief  towns  are 
Dumbarton,  Helensburgh,  Kirkintilloch  (in  the 
detached  portion),  Alexandria,  Renton,  and  Bon- 
hill.  Dumbartonshire  returns  one  member. 
Anciently  part  of  the  Levenach  or  Lennox,  it 
retains  some  vestiges  of  Antoninus'  Wall,  and 
has  memories  of  St  Patrick,  Bruce,  Rob  Roy, 
Smollett,  and  Henry  Bell.  Pop.  (1801)  20,710; 
(1881)  75,333 ;  (1901)  113,865.  See  works  by  J. 
Irving  (1860-79)  and  Sir  W,  Fraser  (1860-74), 

Dumdum  (Dam  Damd),  a  Bengal  municipality, 
4^  miles  NE.  of  Calcutta.  Here  in  1857  was  the 
first  open  manifestation  by  the  sepoys  against 
the  greased  cartridges.    Pop.  18,000. 

Dumfries',  the  county  town  of  Dumfriesshire, 
the  '  Queen  of  the  South,'  stands  on  the  Nith's 
left  bank,  and  is  connected  with  its  Kirkcud- 
brightshire suburb  of  Maxwelltown  by  three 
bridges,  of  which  the  middle  one  was  founded 
about  1280  by  Devorgilla  Baliol.  By  rail  it  is  90 
miles  S.  by  W.  of  Edinburgh,  and  33  WNW.  of 
Carlisle.  Corbelly  Hill,  in  Maxwelltown,  on 
which  are  a  Catholic  convent  (1882)  and  an 
observatory,  commands  a  splendid  view  of  the 
surrounding  hills,  the  Solway  Firth,  and  the 
Cumberland  mountains.  Dumfries  itself  is 
scattered  somewhat  irregularly  over  a  gentle 
elevation.  It  is  built  of  red  sandstone,  and 
among  its  chief  edifices  are  the  Scottish  baronial 
county  buildings  (1866);  the  new  post-office 
(1888) ;  the  Mid  Steeple  (1707) ;  Greyfriars'  Church 
(rebuilt  1867),  with  a  spire  of  164  feet;  the 
Academy  (1802);  and,  in  St  Michael's  church- 
yard, the  mausoleum  (1815)  of  Robert  Burns, 
whose  small  house  still  stands,  and  a  statue  of 
whom  was  erected  in  1882.  The  Crichton  Insti- 
tution (1835-70)  is  a  lunatic  asylum;  rather 
nearer  is  the  infirmary  (1871).  The  manufacture 
of  tweeds,  introduced  in  1847,  is  the  leading 
industry.  Hosiery  ranks  next;  and  there  is  a 
busy  trade  in  pork  and  live-stock.  The  opening, 
however,  of  the  railways  in  1850-69  has  greatly 
diminished  the  river  traffic,  though  large  sums 
had  been  spent  in  improving  the  14  miles  of  the 
Nith's  channel  between  the  town  and  the  Solway. 
Dumfries  was  made  a  royal  burgh  by  David  I., 
and  it  unites  with  Annan,  Kirkcudbright,  Loch- 
maben,  and  Sanquhar  in  returning  one  member. 
Pop.  (1851)  13,166  ;  (1901)  17,079.  For  the  town's 
memories  of  Bruce  and  Burns,  of  Border  wars, 
and  of  both  the  '15  and  the  '45,  see  W.  M'Dowall's 
History  of  Dumfries  (2d  ed.  1873). 

Dumfriesshire,  a  Scottish  Border  county, 
bounded  SB.  by  Cumberland,  and  S.  for  21  miles 
by  the  Solway  Firth.  Its  greatest  length,  from 
east  to  west,  is  47  miles  ;  its  breadth  varies  be- 
tween 13  and  32  miles ;  and  its  area  is  1103  sq, 
m.  From  Clydesdale  and  Tweeddale  it  is  shut  off 
by  a  sinuous  rim  of  high  green  rounded  moun- 


DtfNA 


237 


DUNDEE 


tains— Lowther  Hill  (2377  feet),  Qiieensberry 
(2285),  Hartfell  (2651),  White  Coomb  (2095),  and 
Ettrick  Pen  (2269),  Thence,  though  broken  by 
Cairnkinna  (1S13  feet),  Birrenswark  (920),  and 
some  lesser  eminences,  the  surface  has  a  general 
southward  slope  to  the  dead  level  of  Lochar 
Moss,  a  peat  bog,  10  by  3  miles,  now  largely 
reclaimed.  Three  beautiful  rivers,  the  Nith, 
Annan,  and  Esk,  all  run  to  the  Solway  ;  and  all 
but  the  first  belong  wholly  to  Dumfriesshire. 
At  Moffat  are  mineral  springs.  Besides  seven 
lakes  round  Lochmaben,  there  is  'dark  Loch 
Skene '  (|  by  J  mile  ;  1680  feet  above  sea-level), 
which  has  its  outlet  by  a  waterfall,  the  Grey 
Mare's  Tail,  The  Enterkin  Pass  has  been  ren- 
dered famous  by  Defoe  and  Dr  John  Brown,  The 
minerals  include  coal  (at  Sanquhar  and  Canon- 
bie),  limestone,  antimony,  and  (at  Wanlockliead) 
lead,  silver,  gold.  The  climate  is  mild.  Only  32 
per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  is  arable,  the  uplands 
being  pastoral  or  waste.  Sheep,  cattle,  and  pigs 
are  largely  reared ;  and  there  are  valuable 
salmon-fisheries.  Tlie  county  returns  one  mem- 
ber to  parliament.  Towns  and  villages  are  Dum- 
fries, Annan,  Lochmaben,  Sanquhar,  Moffat, 
Lockerbie,  Langholm,  Ecclefechan,  Thornhill,  and 
Gretna  Green.  Among  the  numerous  antiquities 
are  the  Roman  station  at  Birrenswark,  the  Ruth- 
well  Cross,  Lincluden  convent,  and  the  castles 
of  Lochmaben  and  Caerlaverock.  Among  its 
worthies  are  Bruce,  Allan  Cunningham,  Thomas 
Carlyle,  and  by  residence,  Robert  Burns.  Pop. 
(1801)  54,597  ;  (1881)  76,140  ;  (1901)  72,571. 

Diina.    See  Dwina. 

Diinaburg  (DUnaboorg'),  a  fortified  town  of 
Western  Russia,  the  capital  formerly  of  Polish 
Livonia,  on  the  Diina,  in  the  government  of  Vit- 
ebsk, 127  miles  SE.  of  Riga  by  rail.    Pop.  69,633. 

Dunbar,  a  town  on  the  rocky  coast  of  Hadding- 
tonshire, backed  by  the  Lammermuirs,  29  miles 
E.  of  Edinburgh  by  rail.  Little  remains  of  its 
sea-built  castle,  the  stronghold  from  1072  to  1435 
of  Gospatric  and  his  descendants,  the  Earls  of 
Dunbar  and  March.  In  1339  '  Black  Agnes  '  held 
it  for  six  weeks  against  the  English  ;  but  it  was 
dismantled  in  1568,  the  year  after  Queen  Mary's 
abduction  hither  by  Both  well.  Dunbar  was  tlie 
scene,  too,  of  Cromwell's  great  victory  over  Leslie, 
3d  September  1650.  Fishing  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry, and  the  new  Victoria  Harbour  was  formed 
in  1844.  Dunbar  was  created  a  royal  burgh  by 
David  II.,  and  till  1885  it  united  with  Hadding- 
ton, &c.  to  return  one  member.    Pop.  358L 

Dunbarton.    See  Dumbarton. 

Dunblane,  a  town  of  Perthshire,  on  the  left 
bank  of  Allan  Water,  5  miles  N.  of  Stirling  by 
rail.  Founded  by  St  Blane,  a  7th-century  bishop, 
its  church  was  rebuilt  in  1141  by  David  I.  as  a 
cathedral ;  but  except  for  the  Romanesque  four 
lower  stages  of  the  steeple  (128  feet),  that  cathe- 
dral is  now  a  First  Pointed  edifice  of  a  hundred 
years  later— its  glory  the  west  window,  than 
which  Mr  Ruskin  knew  'nothing  so  perfect  in 
its  simplicity.'  The  choir  was  restored  in  1873  ; 
the  ruinous  nave  in  1893.  In  1661  the  saintly 
Robert  Leigliton  chose  Dunblane  as  the  poorest 
and  smallest  of  Scotland's  sees  ;  his  path  near  the 
river  still  bears  the  name  of  the  Bishop's  Walk, 
and  the  library  which  he  bequeathed  to  his 
diocese  is  still  preserved  in  the  town.  There  are 
also  an  antique  bridge,  a  mineral  spring,  and  a 
fine  hydropathic  (1876) ;  2J  miles  to  the  east  is 
the  battlefield  of  Sherift^muir.     Pop.  2516. 

Duncannon,  a  coast-village  of  County  Wexford, 
9  roiles  SE.  of  Waterford. 


Duncansbay  Head,  a  promontory,  210  feet 
high,  forming  the  north-east  extremity  of  Caith- 
ness, 18  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Wick. 

Dundalk  (Dun-dawk^),  a  thriving  seaport,  the 
capital  of  County  Louth,  on  Dundalk  Bay,  55 
miles  N.  of  Dublin.  It  has  salt-works,  a  dis- 
tillery, an  iron-foundry,  flax-spinning,  tanning, 
and  shipbuilding.  The  harbour  has  been  much 
improved.  Pop.  (1871)  11,327;  (1901)13,076.  Dun- 
dalk sent  one  member  to  parliament  till  1885. 
It  was  taken  by  Edward  Bruce  (1315),  Cromwell 
(1649),  and  Schomberg  (1689). 

Dundas',  (l)  a  baronial  castle,  dating  from  the 
11th  to  tlie  15th  century,  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  near  South  Queensferry,  the  seat* 
from  about  1124  till  1875  of  the  Dundas  family. 
— <2)  A  town  of  Wentworth  county,  Ontario,  at 
the  head  of  Burlington  Bay,  at  the  west  of  Lake 
Ontario,  with  mills  and  manufactories.  Pop. 
3709.— <3)  An  island  of  British  Columbia,  40 
miles  NE.  of  Queen  Charlotte  Island.— (4)  A 
group  of  nearly  500  coral  islets  (also  called  Juba 
Islands),  off  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  in  about 
1°  S.  lat.,  with  only  one  safe  harbour.- (5)  A  strait, 
18  miles  wide,  in  North  Australia,  separating 
Melville  Island  from  Coburg  Peninsula. 

Dundee  (Lat.  Taodunum,  '  hill  or  fort  on  the 
Tay '),  a '  city '  (since  1889)  of  Forfarshire,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  estuary  of  the  Tay,  here  2  miles  broad, 
10  miles  from  the  sea,  and  50  NNE.  of  Edinburgh. 
It  stands  mostly  on  the  slope  between  Dundee 
Law  (571  feet  high)  and  Balgay  Hill  and  the  Tay. 
Its  most  striking  architectural  features  are  the 
Roman  Ionic  town-hall  (1734),  by  the  'Elder 
Adam,'  with  a  spire  140  feet  high ;  the  Albert 
Institute,  free  library,  &c.  (1865-89),  in  15th- 
century  Gothic,  from  designs  by  Sir  Gilbert 
Scott ;  the  Royal  Exchange  (1856),  in  the  Flemish 
pointed  style  of  the  15th  century ;  the  Eastern 
Club  House  ;  the  Kinnaird  Hall,  holding  2000 
people ;  the  infirmary ;  the  Justiciary  and 
Sheriff  Court  Buildings ;  the  Town's  Churches, 
with  the  old  steeple  (156  feet).  Dundee  University 
College,  instituted  by  Miss  Baxter  for  the  educa- 
tion of  both  sexes  in  science,  literature,  and  fine 
art,  was  opened  in  1883,  and  incorporated  with 
St  Andrews  University  in  1889.  Dundee  has 
several  public  parks,  one  of  which,  the  gift  of  Sir 
David  Baxter,  on  a  beautiful  slope  to  the  east,  is 
37  acres  in  extent ;  another  of  60  acres,  to  the 
west,  occupies  the  hill  of  Balgay.  Dundee  is  the 
chief  seat  in  Great  Britain  of  the  manufacture  of 
coarse  linen  fabrics  (Osnaburgs,  sheetings,  ducks, 
dowlas,  drills,  canvas,  and  cordage).  Manufac- 
tures of  jute  are  also  carried  on  here  on  an 
immense  scale.  Dundee  besides  is  famous  for 
its  manufacture  of  marmalade  and  other  con- 
fectionery ;  and  it  is  the  centre  of  the  whale  and 
seal  fishing  trade  of  Great  Britain.  Shipbuilding 
(both  wood  and  iron)  and  machine-making  are 
carried  on.  Besides  the  tidal  harbour,  Dundee  has 
magnificent  wet-docks,  two  graving-docks,  and  a 
slip  for  large  vessels.  The  docks  have  been  erected 
at  a  cost  of  upwards  of  £700,000 ;  and  the  ton- 
nage of  vessels  entering  the  port  exceeds  in  some 
years  half  a  million.  The  direct  railway  com- 
munication of  Dundee  with  the  south,  established 
in  1878  by  the  Tay  Bridge,  was  interrupted  on 
28th  December  1879,  when  a  great  part  of  the 
bridge  and  a  passenger-train  passing  over  it  were 
thrown  into  the  river.  A  new  and  more  sub- 
stantial bridge  was  built,  20  yards  higher  up  the 
river,  at  a  somewhat  lower  elevation,  and  was 
opened  for  traffic  in  1887.  It  is  3593  yards  long, 
and  has  a  clear  height  above  high-water  mark  of 


DUNDONALD 


238 


DUNKIRK 


77  feet.  Pop.  (1841)  63,732  ;  (1901)  161,173.  Dun- 
dee returns  two  meniV)er.s.  Since  1892  its  chief 
magistrate  is  styled  Lord  Provost.  Edward  I. 
■was  here  twice.  Wallace  is  said  to  have  taken 
the  castle  In  1297,  and  Bruce  demolished  it  in 
1313.  The  Duke  of  Lancaster  burned  Dundee  in 
1385,  and  the  Marquis  of  Montrose  pillaged  it  in 
1645.  On  the  refusal  of  Dundee  to  submit  to 
Cromwell,  General  Monk,  in  1651,  sacked  and 
burned  it,  massacring  1000  citizens  and  soldiers, 
and  filling  60  vessels  Avith  booty,  which  were 
totally  wrecked  on  their  voyage  to  England. 
Dundee  was  one  of  the  first  Scotch  towns  to 
adopt  the  Reformation.  Wishart  the  martyr 
preached  here  during  the  plague  of  1544. 

See  works  by  Thomson  (1847),  Beatts  (1873-82), 
Maclaren  (1874),  Norrie  (1876),  Hay  (1880),  Millar 
(1887),  Maxwell  (1884-92),  and  Lamb  (1895). 

Dundon'ald,  a  village  of  Ayrshire,  b^  miles  SW. 
of  Kilmarnock.  Its  castle,  now  a  ruin,  was  the 
death-place  of  Robert  IT.,  and  gives  the  title  of 
Earl  to  the  Cochrane  family. 

Dundrennan,  a  ruined  Cistercian  abbey  (1142), 
5  miles  ESE.  of  Kirkcudbright. 

Dundrum  Bay,  an  inlet  of  the  Irish  Sea,  in 
County  Down,  5  miles  S.  of  Downpatrick.  It  is 
13  miles  wide  at  the  entrance,  and  only  5  miles 
long,  forming  a  long  curve  into  tlie  shore. 

Dunedln  (Dun-ee'din),  capital  of  the  provincial 
district  of  Otago,  and  the  chief  commercial  city 
in  NeAv  Zealand,  at  the  head  of  Otago  Har- 
bour, on  the  east  side  of  South  Island,  towards 
its  southern  extremity.  It  is  190  miles  by  sea 
from  Lyttelton,  and  150  from  Invercargill  (139 
by  rail).  Since  its  foundation  by  members  of  the 
Free  Church  of  Scotland  in  1848,  the  city  has 
rapidly  increased  in  importance,  chiefly  after  the 
discovery  in  1861  of  extensive  gold-fields  in  the 
neighbourhood.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  There  are  many 
fine  churches  and  buildings,  one  of  the  finest  the 
new  Bank  of  New  Zealand  (1882),  Other  edifices 
are  the  post-office,  hospital,  government  build- 
ings, mechanics'  institute,  lunatic  asylum,  &c. ; 
and  there  are  also  the  Botanical  Gardens,  the 
grounds  of  the  Acclimatisation  Society,  a  carriage- 
drive  through  the  reserve  called  the  Town  Belt, 
which  encircles  the  city,  and  a  fine  racecourse, 
near  Ocean  Beach,  2  miles  distant.  The  high 
school  and  the  university  are  flourishing  institu- 
tions. Woollens  are  manufactured.  Since  the 
opening  and  deepening  of  the  new  Victoria 
Channel  from  Port  Chalmers,  large  steamers  can 
approach  the  wharf.  The  city  was  to  have  been 
named  New  Edinburgh,  but  by  a  happy  sugges- 
tion of  Dr  William  Chambers  of  Edinbiirgh,  its 
name  was  changed  to  Dunedin,  the  Celtic  de- 
signation of  the  Scottish  capital.  Pop.  (1871) 
14,857  ;  (1901)  24,879,  or,  with  suburbs,  52,390. 

Dunfanagby,  a  Donegal  seaport,  40  miles  NW. 
of  Strabane.     Pop.  460. 

Dunfermline,  a  '  city '  of  Fife,  16  miles  N W.  of 
Edinburgh,  and  20  E.  by  S.  of  Stirling.  It  stands 
on  a  long  swelling  ridge,  3  miles  from  and  800 
feet  above  the  Forth,  and,  backed  by  the  Cleish 
Hills  (1240  feet),  presents  a  striking  aspect  from 
the  south.  It  is  a  place  of  hoar  antiquity,  from 
1057  till  1650  a  frequent  residence  of  Scotland's 
kings,  and  for  more  than  two  centuries  their 
place  of  sepiilture.  Malcolm  Canmore  here 
founded  in  1072  a  priory,  which  David  I.  re- 
modelled in  1124  as  a  Benedictine  abbey.  The 
nave  alone  of  its  church,  Romanesque  to  Third 
Pointed  in  style,  was  spared  at  the  Reformation, 
and  now  forms  a  stately  vestibule  to  the  New 


Abbey  Church  (1818-21),  in  building  which  Robert 
Bru(;e's  grave  was  discovered.  There  are  ruins 
of  the  *  frater-house '  or  refectory,  of  the  '  pended 
tower,'  and  of  the  royal  palace  (c.  1540) ;  but 
of  Malcolm's  Tower  only  a  shapeless  fragment  is 
left,  and  the  '  Queen's  House '  (1600)  was  wholly 
demolished  in  1797.  Nor  otherwise  is  there  any- 
thing older  than  the  great  fire  of  1624 ;  indeed, 
the  churches  and  the  public  buildings  are  almost 
all  of  quite  recent  erection.  There  are  the  Gothic 
corporation  buildings  (1876-79) ;  the  county 
building  (1807-50);  St  Margaret's  Hall  (1878), 
with  a  fine  organ ;  the  Carnegie  Public  Library 
(1881)  ;  the  Carnegie  Baths  (1877) ;  and  the  hand- 
some new  high  school  (1886).  The  staple  in- 
dustry is  damask  linen-weaving,  which,  dating 
from  1716,  now  in  some  years  turns  out  goods  to 
the  value  of  a  million  sterling.  Bleaching,  iron- 
founding,  &c.  are  also  carried  on.  Dunfermline 
was  made  a  royal  burgh  in  1588,  and  unites  with 
the  other  four  Stirling  burghs  to  return  one 
member  to  parliament.  In  1902-3  Mr  Carnegie 
made  over  £500,000  to  be  held  in  trust  for 
behoof  of  the  town.  Pop.  (1801)  5484 ;  (1881) 
17,085  ;  (1901)  25,250.  For  Dunfermline's  wor- 
thies, St  Margaret,  Robert  Henrysoun,  Charles 
I.,  Ralph  Erskine,  Sir  Noel  Paton,  and  Mr 
Andrew  Carnegie,  and  for  its  many  memories, 
of  kings,  Scottish  and  English,  of  Cromwellian 
victory  and  Jacobite  skirmish,  reference  may  be 
made  to  works  by  Chalmers  (1844-59),  Hender- 
son (1879),  and  Beveridge  (1888). 

Dungannon,  a  municipal  borough  in  County 
Tyrone,  40  miles  W.  of  Belfast  by  rail.  It  manu- 
factures linen  and  coarse  earthenware  ;  and  near 
it  are  large  lime-quarries  and  collieries.  Till  1885 
it  returned  one  member.  Dungannon  was  the 
chief  seat  of  the  O'Neils  till  1607.  Its  castle  was 
destroyed  in  1641.     Pop.  3694. 

Dungarpiir.    See  Dongarpur. 

Dungarvan,  a  Waterford  seaport,  141  miles 
SW.  of  Dublin.  Pop.  (1861)  8614;  (1901)  4850, 
chiefly  engaged  in  fishing.  It  has  remains  of  an 
Augustinian  abbey,  founded  in  the  7th  c.  by  St 
Garvan,  and  of  walls  erected  by  King  John,  who 
also  built  the  castle,  now  used  as  barracks.  Till 
1885  it  returned  one  member.  Dungarvan  Bay  is 
3  miles  long  and  3  wide,  and  1  to  5  fathoms  deep. 

Dungeness,  a  headland  on  the  south  coast  of 
Kent,  10^  miles  SE.  of  Rye,  with  a  lighthouse. 

Dunglven,  a  Londonderry  market-town,  on  the 
Roe,  9  miles  S.  of  Limavady.     Pop.  630. 

Dunipace.    See  Denny. 

Dunkeld',  a  town  of  Perthshire,  16  miles  NNW. 
of  Perth.  It  lies  in  a  deep  romantic  hollow,  on 
the  great  east  pass  (of  Birnam,  q.v.)  to  the  High- 
lands, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tay,  here  spanned 
by  Telford's  handsome  bridge  (1805-9).  A  Culdee 
church  was  founded  here  about  815  ;  and  in  1107 
Alexander  I.  revived  the  bishopric,  one  of  whose 
holders  was  Gawin  Douglas  (1474-1522),  translator 
of  Virgil's  jEneid.  The  Cameronians  successfully 
held  the  place  against  5000  Highlanders,  21st 
August  1689.  The  cathedral  was  built  between 
1318  and  1501,  and  comprises  nave,  choir  (now 
the  parish  church),  chapter-house,  and  tower, 
with  the  Wolf  of  Badenoch's  monument  (1394). 
The  Duke  of  Athole's  beautiful  grounds  include 
the  cathedral ;  Craigvinean  and  Craig-y-Barns ; 
50  miles  of  walks,  and  30  miles  of  drives ;  falls  of 
the  Bran  (upper  one  80  feet) ;  and  20  sq.  m.  of 
larchwood.     Pop.  (1831)  1471 ;  (1901)  586. 

Dunkery  Beacon.    See  Exmoor. 

Dunkirk,  or  Dunkerque,  the  most  northerly 


DUNKIRK 


239 


DURAZZO 


seaport  of  France,  on  the  Strait  of  Dover,  In  the 
dep.  of  Nord,  189  miles  N.  of  Paris  by  rail,  and 
67  W.  of  Ghent.  It  is  a  very  strong  place,  as 
well  from  recent  fortification  works,  as  from  the 
ease  with  which  the  surrounding  country  can  all 
be  laid  under  water.  As  a  seaport,  both  naval 
and  mercantile,  it  is  also  a  place  of  much  conse- 
quence ;  and  great  harbour- works  have  been 
carried  out  under  the  law  of  1879,  which  author- 
ised an  expenditure  of  £2,000,000.  The  town 
itself  is  well  built  and  cleanly,  Flemish  rather 
than  French  ;  its  principal  features,  the  Gothic 
church  of  St  Eloi,  the  fine  detached  belfry  (196 
feet),  and  the  statue  of  Jean  Earth.  Dunkirk 
has  manufactures  of  linen,  leather,  cotton,  soap, 
beet-root  sugar,  &c. ;  also  metal-foundries,  salt- 
refineries,  great  snipbuilding-yards,  and  cod  and 
herring  fisheries.  Since  becoming  a  free  port  in 
1826,  it  has  also  carried  on  a  good  trade  in  wine 
and  liqueurs.  Pop.  (1872)  34,342  ;  (1901)  40,329. 
Dunkirk  is  said  to  owe  its  origin  to  the  church 
built  by  St  Eloi  in  the  7th  century,  in  the  midst 
of  the  dreary  sand-hills  or  dunes,  and  hence  its 
name,  '  Church  of  the  Dunes.'  It  was  burned  by 
the  English  in  1388,  taken  by  Cromwell  in  1658, 
but  sold  to  Louis  XIV.  by  Charles  II.  for  5,000,000 
francs  in  1662. 

Dunkirk,  a  port  of  New  York,  on  Lake  Erie, 
40  miles  SW.  of  Buffalo  by  rail,  with  a  good 
harbour  and  a  busy  lake  traffic.    Pop.  11,620. 

Dunlavin,  a  Wicklow  market-town,  26  miles 
SSW.  of  Dublin.     Pop.  480. 

Dunlop',  an  Ayrshire  village,  8  miles  NNW.  of 
Kilmarnock.  Its  cheese  since  1855  is  almost 
superseded  by  the  Cheddar  process.    Pop.  474. 

Dunluce,  a  ruined  castle  on  the  Antrim  coast, 
3J  miles  E.  of  Portrush. 

Dunmanway,  a  town  of  County  Cork,  Ireland, 
30  miles  SW.  of  Cork.     Pop.  1775. 

Dunmore,  a  Stirlingshire  village,  8  miles  ESE. 
of  Stirling.  Near  it  are  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of 
Dunmore,  and  a  pottery. 

Dunmore,  a  coal-mining  town  of  Penn- 
sylvania, 2  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  Scranton. 
Pop.  12,590. 

Dunmow,  Great,  a  market-town  of  Essex,  on 
the  Chelnier,  39  miles  NNE.  of  London.— At 
Little  Dunmow,  2  miles  ESE.,  are  remains  of  a 
stately  Augustinian  priory,  founded  in  1104. 
The  Dunmow  Flitch  of  Bacon  was  a  prize  insti- 
tuted in  1244  by  Robert  Fitzvvalter,  as  a  prize  for 
contented  married  couples  after  a  year's  probation. 

Dunmurry,  a  town  of  County  Antrim,  Ireland, 
5  miles  SW.  of  Belfast.     Pop.  1105. 

Dunnet  Head,  in  Caithness  (q.v.). 

Dunnottar  Castle,  tlie  ruined  seat  of  the 
Keiths,  Earls  Marisclial  of  Scotland,  on  the  Kin- 
cardineshire coast,  U  mile  S.  of  Stonehaven.  It 
crowns  a  sea-washed  rock  160  feet  high,  shel- 
tered the  Scottish  regalia  in  1651,  and  in  1685 
was  the  prison  of  167  Covenanters. 

Dunoon,  an  Argyllshire  watering-place,  ex- 
tending, with  Hunter's  Quay  and  Kirn,  3  miles 
along  the  west  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  and  7 
miles  W.  of  Greenock.  The  seat  of  a  castle  of 
the  Stewarts,  in  1563  it  received  a  visit  from 
Queen  Mary,  and  in  1643  was  the  place  where 
thirty-six  Lamonts  were  cruelly  hanged  by  the 
Campbells.  But  the  present  well-built  town  has 
wholly  arisen  since  1822— with  its  steamboat- 
piers,  its  esplanade,  its  half-dozen  churches,  its 
numerous  handsome  villas,  and  the  Convalescent 
Homes  (1869).  Pop.  (1841)  1296 ;  (1901)  6779— a 
Dumber  sometimes  doubled  by  smnmer  visitors. 


Dunrobln  Oastle,  the  Duke  of  Sutherland's 
seat,  on  the  Sutherland  coast,  2  miles  NE.  of 
Golspie.     It  was  built  between  1098  and  1851. 

Duns,  a  police-burgh  of  Berwickshire.,  44  miles 
ESE.  of  Edinburgh  (by  rail  56),  since  1853  has 
divided  with  Greenlaw  the  rank  of  county  town. 
Thomas  Boston  was  a  native ;  and  on  round 
turf-clad  Duns  Law,  which  rises  700  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  280  above  the  town,  the  Covenanters 
encamped  in  1639.    Pop,  2298. 

Dunsin'ane,  one  of  the  Sid  law  Hills  in  Perth- 
shire,  1012  feet  high,  8^  miles  NE.  of  Perth. 
On  its  top  are  remains  of  a  prehistoric  fortress— 
'  Macbeth's  Castle,' 

Dunslnk,  a  hill  4  miles  NW.  of  Dublin,  the 
site  of  the  observatory  of  Trinity  College. 

Dun'stable,  a  town  of  Bedfordshire,  at  the  east 
base  of  the  Chiltern  chalk-hills  or  Dunstable 
Downs,  36  miles  NW.  of  London  by  rail.  An  old- 
fashioned,  brick-built  place,  with  two  main  streets 
crossing  at  right  angles,  it  has  the  fine  church, 
partly  Norman,  of  an  Augustinian  priory,  which 
in  1110  was  the  scene  of  tlvG  earliest  miracle  play 
on  record,  so  that  Duiistable  claims  to  be  the 
birthplace  of  the  English  drama.  It  has  also  an 
ancient  celebrity  for  larks  and  for  .straw-plait, 
which  still  is  the  staple  industry.  The  grammar- 
school  (1715)  was  rebuilt  in  1888,  at  a  cost  of 
£10,000.  Dunstable,  which  .stood  at  the  inter- 
section of  Watling  and  Icknield  Streets,  was  the 
site  of  an  Eleanor  Cross  (demolished  1643),  and 
the  scene  of  Queen  Catharine's  divorce  by 
Cranmer.  It  was  made  a  municipal  borough  in 
1864.     Pop.  5513. 

Dunstafifnage,  a  ruined  castle  of  Argyllshire, 
3|  miles  NNE.  of  Oban. 

Dunstanburgh,  a  ruined  castle  (1315)  on  the 
Northumbrian  coast,  7  miles  NE.  of  Alnwick. 

Dunster,  a  town  of  Somerset,  24  miles  WNW. 
of  Bridgwater.     Pop.  of  parish,  1114, 

Duntooher,  a  town  of  Dumbartonshire,  9  miles 
NW.  of  Glasgow,  with  cotton-mills.    Pop.  2124. 

Dunvegan,  the  Macleods'  castle  in  Skye,  on  a 
sea-loch,  23  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Portree. 

Dunwich,  a  Suffolk  coast-village  of  213  inhabit- 
ants, 4J  miles  S.  of  Southwold.  Made  the  epis- 
copal see  of  the  Anglic  Southfolk  in  630,  it  be- 
came a  large  place,  but  has  mostly  been  swept 
away  by  the  sea.  It  returned  two' members  till 
1832,  and  till  1883  was  a  municipal  borough. 

Dupplin,  the  castle  (1832)  of  the  Earl  of  Kin- 
noull,  in  Perthshire,  6  miles  SW.  of  Perth.  Here 
Edward  Baliol  defeated  the  Regent  Mar  (1332). 

Diippel,  or  Dybbol,  a  village  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Sleswick-Holstein,  15  miles  NE.  of 
Flensburg.  In  1848  its  fortifications  were  stormed 
by  the  Germans ;  and  again  in  1864,  by  the 
Prussians,  after  a  month's  bombardment. 

Dura  Den,  betAveen  Cupar  and  St  Andrews, 
Fife,  a  small  glen  traversed  by  a  tributary  of  the 
Eden,  and  famous  for  the  numerous  and  beauti- 
fully preserved  fossil  fish  entombed  in  its  yellow 
sandstone.     See  Dr  Anderson's  Dura  Den  (1859). 

Durance  (DU-ron^ss'),  a  river  of  SE.  France, 
rises  in  the  dep.  of  Hautes-Alpes,  and  flows  225 
miles  to  the  Rhone,  3  miles  below  Avignon. 

Durango  (called  also  Guadicma  and  Cindad  de 
Victoria),  an  episcopal  city  of  Mexico,  on  a  dry 
plateau,  6700  feet  above  sea-level,  500  miles  NW. 
of  the  city  of  Mexico.  Pop.  27,000.  Area  of  state 
of  Durango,  42,373  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  370,000. 

Durazzo  (Serb  Dratsch,  Albanian  Durresi ;  anc. 


DURBAN 


240 


DtJSSELDORF 


Epidamnos  or  Dyrrachium),  a  decayed  port  of 
Turkish  Albania,  on  the  Adriatic,  50  miles  S.  of 
Scutari.     Pop.  1200. 

Durban,  the  seaport  of  Natal,"  is  situated  on 
the  northern  shore  of  a  nearly  landlocked  tidal 
bay.  It  was  laid  out  in  1834  by  the  Dutch,  who 
had  formed  a  republic  in  Natal  before  the 
British  under  Sir  Benjamin  D'Urban  occupied 
it  in  1842.  Its  public  buildings  include  a  town- 
hall,  museum,  library,  theatre,  &c.  The  Town 
Gardens  form  a  conspicuous  open  space  in 
the  middle  of  the  town,  and  besides  the 
Botanical  Gardens,  there  are  two  public  parks 
and  a  good  racecourse.  The  residences  are 
chiefly  situated  on  the  Berea,  a  low  range  of  hills 
overlooking  the  town.  The  climate,  though 
hot,  is  healthy  ;  and  the  town  is  well  supplied 
with  water  and  tramways.  Harbour- works  (1888- 
91)  have  made  the  inner  harbour  (4700  acres) 
accessible  to  large  vessels.  Durban  is  the  termi- 
nus of  railways  into  the  Transvaal  and  Orange 
River  provinces.  Pop.  (1866)  4991 ;  (1904)  67,850. 
See  the  history  of  the  town  by  Ingram  (1900). 

Durdans,  The,  Lord  Rosebery's  seat,  Epsom, 
Surrey. 

Diiren  (Roman  Marcodurum),  an  ancient  town 
of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Roer,  18  miles  E.  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  It  manufactures  cloth,  iron, 
paper,  sugar,  &c.     Pop.  27,740. 

Durham,  a  maritime  county  in  the  north-east 
of  England,  between  the  Tyne  and  Tees.  It  has  32 
miles  of  coast,  generally  low,  and  an  area  of  1012 
sq.  m.,  two-thirds  being  arable.  The  surface  is 
hilly,  and  slopes  to  the  east.  In  the  west,  which 
is  waste  but  rich  in  minerals,  are  branches  of  the 
Pennine  chain,  rising  in  Kilhope  Law  (2196  feet). 
Collier  Law  (1678),  and  Pontop  Pike  (1018).  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Wear,  Tyne,  and  Tees,  navi- 
gable respectively  for  12,  15,  and  10  miles.  The 
valuable  Durham  coalfield  measures  25  by  10 
miles.  Other  mineral  products  are  limestone, 
black  marble,  freestone,  ironstone,  firestone,  slate, 
millstone,  grindstone,  iron  pyrites,  fluor-spar,  zinc, 
and  lead.  The  principal  lead-mines  are  in  Teesdale 
and  Weardale;  and  there  are  many  large  iron- 
furnaces.  Durham  has  the  largest  coal  production 
of  any  county  in  England,  the  annual  output  being 
nearly  30,000,000  tons,  and  the  number  of  persons 
employed  above  or  below  ground  at  the  mines 
being  over  100,000.  The  chief  shipping  ports  are 
Stockton-on-Tees,  South  Shields,  Sunderland,  and 
Hartlepool.  The  Teeswater  or  Holderness  breed 
of  cattle  and  the  Durham  horses  are  alike  famed. 
Many  sheep  are  pastured  on  the  hills.  There  are 
manufactures  of  iron,  coke,  pottery,  glass,  alkalies 
and  chemicals,  and  salt,  and  much  shipbuilding 
at  Jarrow,  Sunderland,  South  Shields,  Hartlepool, 
and  Stockton.  Coal  is  the  chief  export.  Durham 
is  one  of  the  three  counties  palatine,  the  other 
two  being  Lancaster  and  Cliester.  It  is  divided 
into  four  wards  and  269  civil  parishes,  and  is 
entirely  in  the  diocese  of  Durham.  Pop.  (1801) 
149,384;  (1841)  307,963;  (1881)  867,576;  (1901) 
1,187,324.  The  chief  towns  are  Durham,  the 
county  town,  Sunderland,  Darlington,  Gateshead, 
South  Shields,  Stockton,  and  Hartlepool.  The 
county  includes  eight  parliamentary  divisions, 
each  returning  one  member;  and  the  following 
parliamentary  boroughs :  Sunderland  (2  members) 
and  Darlington,  Durham,  Gateshead,  Hartlepool, 
South  Shields,  and  Stockton  (each  1).  There  are 
extensive  remains  of  Roman  stations  at  Lanches- 
ter,  Binchester,  and  Ebchester.  Durham  formed 
part  of  the  Saxon  kingdom  of  Northumbria  (547- 
827).    Subsequently  it  si^ffered  severely  from  the 


incursions  of  the  Scots.  See  works  by  R.  Surtees 
(4  vols.  1816-40),  Fordyce  (2  vols.  1855-57),  W.  H. 
Smith  (1885),  Boyle  (1892),  and  Lapsley  (1900). 

Durham,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  bor- 
ough, near  the  middle  of  Durham  county,  12 
miles  S.  of  Newcastle,  is  built  around  a  steep 
rocky  hill  86  feet  high,  nearly  encircled  by  the 
Wear,  and  crowned  by  the  cathedral  and  castle. 
Ancient  walls  partly  enclose  the  hill,  from  which 
are  fine  views  of  the  fertile  wooded  country 
around,  and  of  the  suburbs  across  the  river. 
The  chief  manufactures  are  mustard,  carpets,  and 
iron.  In  the  vicinity  are  coal-mines  and  coke- 
ovens.  Since  1885  Durham  has  returned  only 
one  member.  Pop.  (1841)  14,151  ;  (1901)  14,679. 
Durham  arose  about  995,  when  Bishop  Aldhun 
brought  hither  St  Cuthbert's  bones  fr«n  Ripon, 
and  built  a  church  to  enshrine  them.  On  the 
site  of  this  church,  Bishop  William  de  Carilef  in 
1093  began  the  present  cathedral,  one  of  the 
noblest  specimens  of  Norman  architecture,  alike 
from  situation  and  from  structure,  that  massive 
pile—'  half  church  of  God,  half  castle  'gainst  the 
Scot.'  Added  to  at  various  periods  up  till  1500, 
it  has  an  extreme  length  of  510  feet,  and  a  breadth 
across  the  transepts  of  175  feet ;  whilst  the  height 
of  the  central  tower  is  214  feet,  and  of  the  two 
western  towers  138  feet.  The  cathedral  con- 
tains the  tombs  of  St  Cuthbert  and  Bede.  The 
castle,  formerly  the  residence  of  the  bishops  of 
Durham,  but  now  occupied  by  the  university, 
was  founded  about  1072,  by  the  Conqueror,  but 
has  received  many  alterations  and  additions.  The 
dormitory  of  the  monastery,  now  the  new  library 
of  the  cathedral,  is  one  of  the  finest  in  England. 
The  see  extends  over  the  county  of  Durham 
(Northumberland  having  been  detached  in  1882 
to  form  the  diocese  of  Newcastle);  among  its 
bishops  have  been  Bek,  Aungerville,  Wolsey, 
Cosin,  Butler,  and  Lightfoot.  The  university 
of  Durham  was  opened  for  students  in  1833  ;  and 
a  royal  charter  in  1837  empowered  it  to  bestow 
degrees.  It  has  two  ^collegiate  establishments- 
University  College  and  Bishop  Hatfield's  Hall. 
The  Colleges  of  Medicine  and  of  Physical  Science 
at  Newcastle-on-Tyne  are  affiliated  with  Durham. 

Durlsdeer,  a  parish  of  upper  Nithsdale,  21 
miles  NNW.  of  Dumfries.  In  its  church  are 
interesting  monuments  of  the  Queensberry  family. 

Ditrkheim  (Diirlifhime),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Bavaria,  6  miles  SW.  of  Mannheim.    Pop.  6311. 

Durlach  (Door'laJik),  a  town  of  Baden,  on  the 
Pfinz,  4  miles  B.  of  Carlsruhe  by  rail.    Pop.  11,350. 

Diirrenstein  (Diir'ren-stine),  a  village  of  Lower 
Austria,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  45  miles 
WNW.  of  Vienna.  In  its  ruined  castle,  Richard 
Coeur-de-Lion  was  confined  by  Leopold  of  Austria 
for  three  months.    Pop.  650. 

Durrcw,  a  market-town  of  Queen's  county,  2 
miles  NW.  of  Attanagh  station.    Pop.  557. 

Dursley,  a  town  of  Gloucestershire,  near  the 
Coteswold  hills,  15  miles  SW.  of  Gloucester  by 
rail.    Pop.  of  parish,  2369. 

Diisseldorf,  the  chief  town  of  the  populous 
district  of  Diisseldorf,  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  at  the  influx  of  the 
Dlissel,  24  miles  NNW.  of  Cologne.  Its  ramparts 
were  converted  into  promenades  in  1802;  its 
streets  are  regular  and  spacious,  while  the  squares 
and  garden-grounds  in  and  near  the  town  are 
tastefully  laid  out  and  embellished  with  fountains 
and  statues.  Diisseldorf  has  developed  its  trade 
and  industries,  but  its  chief  importance  is  still 
as  an  art  centre.     In   the  market-place  rises  a 


DWARKA 


241 


EASTBOURNE 


colossal  equestrian  statue  of  the  Elector  Johann 
Wilhelui,  wlio  founded  a  famous  picture-gallery 
here  'in  1C90,  most  of  which,  however,  was 
removed  to  Munich  in  1805.  The  Diisseldorf 
Academy  was  founded  in  1767,  and  attained 
great  eminence  during  1822-59,  under  the  manage- 
ment of  Cornelius  and  Schadow.  The  present 
building,  an  imposing  Renaissance  edifice,  with 
a  facade  520  feet  in  length,  was  finished  in  1879. 
The  Art  Hall  (1881)  contains  a  gallery  of  modern 
paintings.  Among  the  other  principal  buildings 
are  the  old  electoral  palace  (1710-1846 ;  burned 
1872) ;  the  present  palace,  the  residence  of  the 
governor  of  the  province  ;  the  government  house, 
the  observatory,  town-hall  (1567),  theatre,  gym- 
nasium, public  library  (50,000  vols.),  St  Andrew's 
(1629),  formerly  the  church  of  the  Jesuits,  and 
St  Lambert  (14th  c).  The  Hofgarten  is  one 
of  the  finest  public  gardens  in  Germany.  The 
iron  and  cotton  industries  of  Diisseldorf  are  very 
important,  and  it  has  also  manufactures  of  piano- 
fortes, paper,  soap,  beer,  chemicals,  tobacco, 
chocolate,  glass,  &c.,  besides  mills  of  all  kinds, 
and  photographic,  lithographic,  printing,  and 
other  industries.  Pop.  (1875)  80,750;  (1885) 
115,190;  (1900)  213,767— mostly  Catholics.  Made 
a  town  by  the  Duke  of  Berg  in  1288,  Diisseldorf 
became  the  capital  of  the  duchy  in  1385  ;  in  1609 
passed  to  the  Palatinate ;  and  in  1815  it  was 
united  to  Prussia.  The  brothers  Jacobi,  Heine, 
Varnhagen  von  Ense,  and  Cornelius  were  natives. 

Dwarka,  a  town  with  a  lighthouse  near  the 
north-west  corner  of  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar, 
235  miles  SW.  of  Ahmedabad.    On  an  eminence 


stands  a  great  temple  of  Krishna,  visited  annually 
by  10,000  pilgrims.    Pop.  5000. 

Dwlna,  two  important  rivers  of  Russia.— (1) 
The  Northern  Dwina  is  formed  by  the  Suchona 
and  the  Jug,  two  streams  rising  in  the  govern- 
ment of  Vologda,  and  uniting  in  60°  46'  N.  lat., 
40°  20'  E.  long.  It  flows  north-westward  through 
a  flat  country,  to  the  Gulf  of  Archangel,  which 
it  enters  by  three  principal  mouths,  of  which 
only  the  easternmost  is  navigable.  Its  length  ig 
450  miles  (with  the  Suchona,  760).  The  chief 
tributaries  are  the  Vaga,  Emza,  Pinega,  and  Vyt- 
chegda,  the  last  625  miles  long  (500  navigable). 
The  river  is  free  from  ice  from  May  to  October. 
Its  waters  are  rich  in  fish. — (2)  The  Western 
Dwina  (Ger.  Dilna)  rises  in  the  government  of 
Tver,  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  Volga  and 
the  Dnieper,  and  flows  580  miles  WSW.  and 
WNW.  to  the  Gulf  of  Riga,  being  navigable  from 
the  Mezha's  confluence,  although  shallows  and 
rapids  greatly  iinpede  traffic.  It  is  connected  by 
canals  with  the  Black  Sea,  the  Caspian,  the  Gulf 
of  Finland,  &c. 

Dyrrhachium.    See  Durazzo. 

Dy'sart,  an  old-fashioned  seaport  of  Fife,  on 
the  Firtli  of  Forth,  2^  miles  NE.  of  Kirkcaldy, 
much  of  whose  extended  municipal  burgh  lies 
within  Dysart's  parliamentary  boundary.  It  owes 
its  name  (Lat.  desertum,  '  a  solitude  ')  to  St  Serfs 
cave  near  Dysart  House,  Lord  Rosslyn's  seat. 
James  V.  made  it  a  royal  burgfi,  and  with  Kirk- 
caldy, &c.,  it  returns  one  member.  Pop.  of  royal 
burgh,  8539;  of  parliamentary,  15,256. 

Dzungaria.    See  Zungaria. 


AGLE,  an  island   of  County  Mayo,  3 
miles  SW.  of  Erris  Head. 

Eaglehawk,  a  gold-mining  town  of 
Victoria,  4  miles  NNW.  of  Bendigo. 
Pop.  8315. 

Eaglesham,  a  Renfrewshire  village,  8J  miles 
S.  of  Glasgow.    Pop.  (1861)  1769  ;  (1901)  686. 

Ealing,  a  municipal  borough  (1901)  of  Middle- 
sex, 5|  miles  W.  of  Paddington  by  rail.  It  is  the 
birthplace  of  Huxley.    Pop.  36,000. 

Earlestown,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  5  miles  N- 
of  Warrington.  It  has  manufactures  of  sugar, 
iron,  &c.     Pop.  8000. 

Earlsferry,  a  decayed  royal  burgh  of  Fife, 
just  W,  of  Elie  (q.v.).     Pop.  with  Elie,  1000. 

Earlston,  or  Ercildoune,  a  Berwickshire 
village,  4  miles  NNE.  of  Melrose.  It  manufac- 
tures ginghams,  woollens,  &c.,  and  has  a  frag- 
ment of  the  'Rhymer's  Tower,'  the  traditional 
abode  of  Thomas  the  Rhymer ;  1  mile  S.  is  Cow- 
denknowes,  with  its  '  bonny  broom.'    Pop.  1060. 

Earn,  a  river  and  loch  in  the  south  of  Perth- 
shire, in  the  finely-wooded,  beautiful  valley  of 
Strathearn.  Lying  306  feet  above  sea-level.  Loch 
Earn  extends  6^  miles  eastward,  is  3J  to  6Jt  fur- 
longs wide,  and  600  feet  deep  ;  and  sends  off"  the 
river  Earn  46  miles  eastward,  past  Comrie,  Crieff", 
and  Bridge  of  Earn,  to  the  Tay's  estuary,  7  miles 
SE.  of  Perth. 

Easdale,  an  Argyllshire  island,  in  the  Firth  of 
Lorn,  16  miles  SW.  of  Oban.  It  contains  IJ  sq. 
m.,  and  is  separated  from  the  much  larger  Seil 
Island  by  a  channel  400  yards  wide.  Its  slate- 
quarries  date  from  about  1630,  and  extend  to  a 
depth  of  220  feet  below  sea-level.  Pop.  284. 
P 


Easingwold,  a  town  in  the  North  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  13  miles  NNW.  of  York.    Pop.  1932. 

East  Anglia.    See  Anglia. 

Eastbourne,  a  favourite  Sussex  watering-place, 
in  the  Rape  of  Pevensey,  nearly  midway  between 
Brighton  and  Hastings,  and  66  miles  S.  of  London. 
Roman  remains  bear  witness  to  its  antiquity, 
but  nothing  is  known  of  its  ancient  history.  In 
Domesday  it  is  called  Borne  (after  the  burn  or 
stream  which  still  flows  here).  The  fine  12th- 
century  church  clearly  belonged  to  a  much  more 
important  place  than  the  four  groups  of  houses 
and  cottages  which  constituted  the  fishing-hamlets 
of  East-Borne,  South-Borne,  Meads,  and  Sea- 
Houses,  not  a  century  ago.  The  last  generation 
has  witnessed  the  growth  of  the  modern  water- 
ing-place, which  now  challenges  comparison,  in 
respect  of  its  attractions  to  visitors  and  advan- 
tages to  residents,  with  any  of  its  south-coast 
rivals.  Its  air  is  singularly  healthy,  and  on  tha 
hillside  bracing  ;  whilst  the  close  vicinity  of  tha 
bold  promontory  of  Beachy  Head  and  the  '  front- 
hills  '  of  the  South  Downs  affords  unusual  facili- 
ties for  exercise.  Defended  by  a  redoubt  of 
eleven  guns  and  other  fortifications,  the  sea-front 
boasts  a  parade  two  miles  long,  laid  out  in 
spacious  terraces  in  three  tiers,  bordered  by 
creeping  plants.  The  streets  are  broad  and  lined 
with  trees  ;  and  there  are  a  pier  1000  feet  long, 
the  Devonshire  Park,  the  Devonshire  Baths, 
theatre,  cricket,  football,  and  other  clubs,  ad- 
mirable golf-links,  electric-lighting,  &c.  A  large 
part  of  the  improvements  is  due  to  the  late  Duke 
of  Devonshire,  but  the  town  has  also  taken  an 
enterprising  share  in  them.  The  town-hall,  cost- 
ing £46,000,  was  opened  in  1886,  and  the  Princess 
Alice  Memorial  Hospital  in  1883.  Eastbourne 
was  incorporated  as  a  borough  in  1882-     Pop. 


EAST  CAPE 


242 


ECCLESFIELD 


(1821)  2007;  (1861)  5795;  (1901)  43,344.  See 
Chambers'  Handbook  for  Eastbourne  (23d  ed.  1893). 
East  Cape,  the  name  of  the  south-eastern  ex- 
tremity of  New  Guinea,  in  Goschen  Strait,  and 
of  the  most  easterly  headlands  of  Madagascar, 
the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand,  and  Siberia. 
The  last,  on  Behring  Strait,  in  169°  38'  W.  long., 
is  the  easternmost  extremity  of  Asia. 
East  Dereham.    See  Dereham. 

Easter  Island,  a  lonely  Pacific  islet  in  27°  8' 
S.  lat.,  and  109°  24'  W.  long.  Discovered  by 
Roggeveen  on  Easter  Day  1722,  and  visited  in 
1773  by  Captain  Cook,  it  is  47  sq.  m.  in  area; 
is  entirely  volcanic,  with  many  extinct  craters 
rising  more  than  1000  feet;  and  is  fertile,  but 
badly  off  for  water.  Sheep  and  cattle  grazing 
was  started  by  a  French  firm  in  Tahiti,  after 
the  departure  in  1878  of  the  missionaries,  with 
800  natives  (fair  Polynesians),  for  the  Gambian 
Archipelago,  500  having  been  shipped  to  Tahiti 
four  years  earlier,  and  most  of  the  adults  kid- 
napped by  Peruvians  in  1863  to  work  the  guano 
deposits.  Thus  the  pop.  has  dwindled  from  3000 
to  150.  The  555  rude  stone  statues,  for  which 
Easter  Island  is  famous,  are  thought  to  have 
been  effigies,  not  idols.  Thin-lipped,  disdainful 
of  aspect,  and  capped  by  crowns  of  red  tufa, 
they  are  3  to  70  feet  high  (16  on  an  average),  and 
stand  on  seaward  platforms,  200  to  300  feet  long, 
of  Cyclopean  masonry.  There  are  besides  nearly 
a  hundred  stone  houses  with  walls  5  feet  thick, 
and  interiors  bearing  paintings  of  birds,  animals, 
&c.  In  September  1888  Chili  annexed  Easter 
Island  for  a  convict  settlement.  See  Thomson's 
Report  of  the  U.S.  National  Museum  (Wash.  1892). 

Eastern  Roumelia.    See  Bulgaria. 

Eastham,  a  township  of  Cheshire,  on  the 
Mersey,  6^  miles  SE.  of  Birkenhead  by  rail. 
Near  Eastham  is  the  seaward  terminus  of  the 
Manchester  Ship  Canal.     Pop.  1029. 

East  Indies,  The,  include  the  two  great  penin- 
sulas of  southern  Asia,  and  all  the  adjacent  islands 
from  the  delta  of  the  Indus  to  the  northern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Philippines.  For  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  see  Holland. 

Eastleigh  and  Bishopstoke,  a  Southampton 
urb.  dist. ,  5  miles  NE.  of  Southampton.    Pop.  9320. 

East  Liverpool,  a  town  of  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio 
River,  44  miles  WNW.  of  Pittsburgh  by  rail. 
Pop.  (1880)  5568  ;  (1900)  16,485. 

East  London,  a  South  African  seaport,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Buffalo  River,  700  miles  E.  of 
Capetown,  with  a  large  trade.  It  is  the  terminus 
of  a  railway  to  the  interior.    Pop.  (1904)  25,220. 

East  Lothian.     See  Haddingtonshire. 

East  Main,  a  region  of  the  Hudson  Bay  terri- 
tory, constituted  a  Canadian  territory  in  1897 
under  the  name  of  Ungava,  and  comprising  the 
peninsula  of  Labrador  (q.  v.)  except  tlie  Atlantic 
coast  strip  (attached  to  Labrador)and  the  southern 
part  (attached  to  Quebec).  The  East  Main  or  Slade 
River  enters  James  Bay  after  a  course  of  400  miles. 

Easton,  capital  of  Northampton  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, stands  in  the  fork  between  the  Dela- 
ware and  Lehigh  rivers,  67  miles  N.  of  Phila- 
delphia by  rail.  It  carries  on  a  considerable 
transport  trade  by  rail  and  canal,  and  has  found- 
ries, rolling-mills,  and  manufactures  of  locks, 
wire,  rope,  flour,  &c.  Easton  is  the  seat  of 
Lafayette  (Presbyterian)  College  (1832).  Pop. 
(1880)  11,924  ;  (1890)  14,481 ;  (1900)  25, 238. 

East  Orange,  a  manufacturing  and  residential 
city  of  New  Jersey,  adjoining  Orange,  and  13 
miles  E.  of  Jersey  City.    Pop.  21,600. 


East  Providence,  a  town  of  Rhode  Island, 
separated  from  Providence  by  the  Blackstona 
•River.    Pop.  12,540. 

East  River,  the  strait  between  Long  Island 
Sound  and  New  York  Harbour,  separating  Brook- 
lyn (q.v.)  and  New  York.  It  is  10  miles  long, 
^  mile  wide  at  the  narrowest,  and  navigable  by 
the  largest  ships. 

East  St  Louis,  a  town  of  Illinois,  connected 
with  St  Louis,  Missouri,  by  a  bridge  over  the 
Mississippi.     Pop.  (1880)  9185  ;  (1900)  29,655. 

Eastwood,  an  urban  dist.  in  the  county,  and  8 
miles  N  W.  of  the  town,  of  Nottingham.   Pop.  4820. 

Eaton  Hall,  3J  miles  S.  of  Chester,  the  Duke 
of  Westminster's  splendid  Gothic  seat  (1803). 

Eau  Claire  (0  Clair),  capital  of  Eau  Claire 
county,  Wisconsin,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eau  Claire 
River,  and  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Chip- 
pewa River,  183  m.  NW.  of  Madison  by  rail.  It 
has  a  vast  trade  in  lumber,  and  numerous  saw- 
mills, besides  planing-mills,  foundries,  machine- 
shops,  &c.     Pop.  (1870)  2293  ;  (1900)  17,517. 

Eaux  Bonnes  (0  Bonn),  a  French  watering- 
place,  in  a  gorge  of  the  Pyrenees,  2454  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  29  miles  S.  of  Pau.  Pop.  765,  with 
6000  to  10,000  visitors  in  the  season  (July  to 
August).  The  springs,  both  hot  (53°  to  91°  F.)  and 
cold,  contain  sulphur  and  sodium,  and  are  used 
for  disorders  of  the  chest  and  respiratory  organs. 

Eaux  Chaudes  (0  Shoad),  a  watering-place  of 
France,  27  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Pau,  situated  in  a 
narrow  Pyrenean  valley,  2215  feet  above  sea-leveL 
Its  sulphurous  waters  (50°  to  93°  F.)  are  useful 
for  catarrh,  rheumatism,  and  skin-diseases. 

Ebal.    See  Gerizim. 

Ebbsfleet.    See  Ramsgate. 

Ebbw  Vale  (Ebboo),  an  urban  sanitary  district 
of  Monmouthshire,  21  miles  NNW.  of  Newport, 
lies  in  the  middle  of  a  rich  iron  and  coal  district, 
and  has  numerous  ironworks.    Pop.  21,025." 

Eberswalde  (Ay'bers-val'deh),  an  industrial 
town  of  Prussia,  28  miles  NB.  of  Berlin  by  rail, 
withmanufactoriesofnails,  paper,  &c.  Pop.  23,241. 

Eboli  (Eb'o-lee;  anc.  Eburi),  a  town  of  Italy,  49 
miles  SE.  of  Naples  by  rail.     Pop.  10,000. 

Eboracum.    See  York. 

Ebro  (Lat.  Hiberus),  a  Spanish  river,  rising  at 
an  altitude  of  2778  feet,  in  Santander  province, 
within  20  miles  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Thence 
it  flows  442  miles  SE.  to  the  Mediterranean  below 
Tortosa.  The  mouth  is  choked  up  with  sand,  but 
the  San  Carlos  canal  has  been  carried  through  the 
delta.  Affluents  are  the  Najerilla,  Jiloca,  and 
Guadalope  from  the  right,  and  the  Aragon,  Gallego, 
and  Segre  from  the  left.  Narrow  and  sometimes 
rocky,  its  course  is  obstructed  by  shoals  and 
rapids ;  but  this  is  partly  remedied  by  Charles 
V.'s  Imperial  Canal,  extending  from  Tudela  to 
40  miles  belov/  Saragossa. 

Ecbat'ana.    See  Hamadan. 

Ecclefechan  (Ek'kel-feh'han),  a  Dumfriesshire 
village,  20  m.  NW.  of  Carlisle.  Tlie  house  iu 
which  Carlyle  was  born  (4th  Dec.  1795)  still  stands, 
and  in  the  churchyard  of  the  U.P.  church  he  was 
laid  beside  his  father  and  mother.     Pop.  786. 

Eccles,  a  municipal  borough  (incor.  1892),  4 
miles  W.  of  Manchester.    Pop.  (1901)  34,369. 

Ecclesfield,  a  township  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  6  miles  N.  of  Sheffield,  with  which  it 
is  now  partly  incorporated.  The  chief  industries 
are  cutlery  and  coal-mining. 


ECCLESHALL 


243 


EDAY 


Eccleshall,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  Ti  miles 
NW.  of  Stafford.    Pop.  of  parish,  3778. 

EcclesMll,  a  town  of  Yorksliire,  on  the  Aire, 
in  1899  incorporated  witli  Bradford. 

Echuca  (formerly  Hopwood's  Ferry),  a  town 
of  Victoria,  on  a  peninsula  formed  by  the  Murray 
and  Campaspe  rivers,  150  n-iiles  N.  of  Melbourne 
by  rail.  It  has  considerable  trade  in  red-gum 
timber,  wool,  and  wine,  and  important  river 
traffic  by  steamer.  A  roadway  and  railway  bridge, 
1905  feet  long  (cost  £124,000),  connects  it  with 
Moama  in  New  South  Wales.    Pop.  4234. 

Ecija  (Ay-the^ha),  a  Spanish  city,  in  the  prov- 
ince of  Seville,  34  miles  SW.  of  Cordova  by  rail. 
An  old  Roman  and  Moorish  town,  it  is  popularly 
known,  on  account  of  the  great  heat,  as  the 
'Frying-pan  of  Andalusia.'    Pop.  26,037. 

Eckmiihl,  a  little  village  on  the  Laber,  in 
Bavaria,  15  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Ratisbon.  Here, 
on  22d  April  1809,  Napoleon  defeated  the  Arch- 
duke Charles  of  Austria. 

Ecuador',  a  republic  of  South  America,  so 
named  from  its  position  on  the  equator,  lies  be- 
tween 1°  23'  N.  and  4°  45'  S.  lat.,  and  in  about 
73°-81°  W.  long.  Bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
Pacific,  it  is  inserted  like  a  wedge  between 
Colombia  and  Peru.  But  its  only  certain  limits 
are  those  defined  by  the  ocean,  where  it  has  a 
seaboard  of  some  400  miles ;  most  of  the  frontier 
east  of  the  Andes  has  never  been  determined. 
The  area,  often  stated  at  160,000,  is  really  under 
120,000  sq.  m.  (i.e.  rather  less  than  the  United 
Kingdom),  including  the  2940  of  the  Galapagos 
Islands  (q.v.).  The  total  population  is  stated  at 
1,400,000,  of  whom  1,000,000  may  be  Indians, 
100,000  of  European  stock,  and  300,000  of  mixed 
blood.  The  principal  cities  are  Quito,  the  capital 
(80,000  inhabitants),  Guaj'aquil,  the  chief  port 
(50,000),  Cuenca  (30,000),  Riobamba,  Lataeunga, 
and  Ambato.  Ecuador  consists  of  three  divisions 
—the  lowlands  west  of  the  Andes,  the  mountain- 
ous plateau  of  the  interior,  and  the  less  elevated 
forest-country  to  the  east.  Besides  the  main 
range  of  the  Andes  (q.v.),  forming  the  backbone 
of  the  country,  there  is  an  outer  range,  with 
peaks  rising  to  15,000  feet ;  from  the  cordillera 
proper  numerous  long  spurs,  attaining  a  height 
of  14,000  feet,  are  thrown  out  towards  the  east, 
between  which  rise  great  affluents  of  the  Amazons, 
while  the  coast-range  possesses  only  short  and 
very  precipitous  spurs.  The  principal  mountains 
of  Ecuador  either  are  or  have  been  volcanoes. 
Tunguragua  (16,690  feet)  broke  out  in  1887; 
Pichincha  is  by  no  means  extinct ;  Cotopaxi  (q.v.) 
and  Sangai  (17,465)  are  constantly  active.  Of  the 
coast-streams  the  principal  are  the  Guayaquil 
River,  and  the  Rio  Esmeraldas ;  east  of  the 
Andes  the  chief  rivers  are  the  Napo  and  its  afflu- 
ents, flowing  into  the  Maranon.  In  mineral 
wealth  Ecuador  has  been  ranked  amongst  the 
poorest  states  of  South  America ;  but  gold  is 
wrought,  and  silver,  quicksilver,  iron,  copper, 
zinc,  asphalt,  and  petroleum  occur,  as  well  as 
graphite  and  anthracite. 

Ecuador  is  an  agricultural  country.  The  eastern 
winds  become  saturated  as  they  pass  over  the 
Atlantic  and  up  the  Amazons  ;  and  their  moisture 
is  almost  ceaselessly  precipitated  as  they  ap- 
proach the  snowy  peaks  of  the  Andes,  producing 
a  dense  growth  of  vegetation  on  the  eastern  foot- 
hills. On  the  other  side  also,  where  the  rain- 
clouds  of  the  Pacific  are  caught,  the  gorges  of  the 
western  spurs  become  very  hothouses.  Natural 
eabanas  or  open  plains  are,  however,  found  on  the 
western  lowlands.    Sarsaparilla,  balsams,  caout- 


chouc, vegetable  ivory,  and  wax  are  collected,  and 
coftee,  rice,  cotton,  tobacco,  &c.  are  grown,  but  in 
smaller  quantities ;  while  the  trade  in  cinchona 
promises  soon  to  be  a  thing  of  the  past,  owing  to 
the  reckless  destruction  of  the  trees.  The  plateau 
region  and  large  tracts  to  the  east  are  compara- 
tively healthy ;  the  valleys  on  the  Pacific  side 
are  commonly  full  of  disease.  In  the  interior 
there  is  a  very  small  thermometric  range,  and  a 
perpetual  spring  reigns  in  the  uplands.  The 
fauna  is  rich  :  the  mannnalia  include  the  jaguar, 
puma,  ounce,  ocelot,  deer,  tapir,  peccary,  capy- 
bara,  and  several  species  of  monkeys  and  bats ; 
fish  abound,  both  in  the  rivers  and  along  the 
coast ;  and  among  reptilia  are  the  boa  constrictor, 
turtles,  and  alligators.  Chiefly,  however,  is  Ecua- 
dor the  paradise  of  birds  (ranging  from  the  condor 
to  the  humming-bird)  and  insects.  The  live-stock 
includes  cattle,  sheep,  horses,  mules,  donkeys, 
and  llamas. 

The  state  religion,  to  the  exclusion  of  every 
other,  is  the  Roman  Catholic ;  and  in  no  country 
have  the  Jesuits  had  such  a  paramount  influence 
as  in  Ecuador,  or  employed  it  so  well.  Quito 
possesses  a  university  and  an  institute  of  sciences 
(1884),  with  three  faculties.  The  manufactures  are 
limited  to  coarse  cloths,  kerosene,  ice,  and  the  pre- 
paration of  spirits  from  the  sugar-cane,  and  of  flour 
or  starch  from  the  yuca  or  cassava  root.  Guaya- 
quil is  famed  for  its  hammocks  and  Panamd  hats, 
made  from  the  fibre  of  the  '  pit^ '  jjlant.  Commerce 
is  sadly  handicapped  by  the  want  of  roads.  There 
are  only  about  60  miles  of  railway  open  ;  but  the 
chief  towns  have  been  connected  by  telegraph,  and 
there  are  even  telephones  in  Quito  and  elsewhere. 
The  value  of  the  exports,  chiefly  cocoa,  coffee,  veg- 
etable ivory,  caoutchouc,  and  hides,  varies  from 
£1,200,000  to  £2,300,000  per  annum  ;  the  imports, 
chiefly  cottons,  other  textiles,  and  provisions,  vary 
between  the  same  limits.  Great  Britain,  the 
United  States,  Germany,  and  France  have  large 
shares  in  the  trade.  Exports  to  Britain  vary 
from  £72,000  to  £220,000  a  year,  and  imports 
from  Britain  from  £260,000  to  £300,000. 

Constituted  as  an  independent  state  on  the 
dissolution  of  Bolivar's  Colombia  (q.v.),  the  Re- 
public of  the  Equator  has,  in  little  more  than 
half  a  century,  passed  through  a  succession  of 
violent  political  changes  that  render  its  history 
equally  difficult  and  profitless  to  follow.  Under 
its  last  constitution  the  executive  is  vested  in  a 
president,  elected  for  four  years,  with  a  vice- 
president,  a  cabinet  of  four  ministers,  and  a 
council  of  state ;  the  legislative  power  is  en- 
trusted to  a  senate  and  house  of  representatives. 
The  army  consists  of  3340  officers  and  men,  and 
there  is  a  navy  of  one  steel  transport,  two  gun- 
boats, and  a  cruiser.  The  finance  of  the  coinitry 
is  in  hopeless  embarrassment :  the  revenue,  some 
£670,000,  is  usually  exceeded  by  the  expenditure. 
The  foreign  debt  is  stated  at  £700,000,  and  there 
are  heavy  arrears  of  interest. 

See  Hassaurek,  Four  Years  ar>wng  Spanish 
Americans  (New  York,  1867 ;  3d  ed.  1881) ;  Sim- 
son,  Travels  in  the  Wilds  of  Ecuador  (1887) ;  Col. 
Church's  Report  to  the  U.S.  Government  in  1883 ; 
Whymper's  Great  Andes  of  the  Equator  (1892). 

Edam,  a  town  of  Holland,  13  miles  NNB.  ot 
Amsterdam.     Its  specialty  is  cheese.     Pop.  5824. 

Edar,  a  Rajput  state  of  Guzerat  in  the  Mahi 
Kantha  agency,  tributary  to  Baroda,  and  subject 
to  Bombay.  Area,  4966  sq.  m. ;  pop.  258,429. 
Edar,  its  capital,  has  6223  inhabitants. 

Eday,  an  Orkney  island,  13^  miles  NNB.  of 
Kirkwall.    Area,  11  sq.  m. ;  pop.  547. 


EDDYSTONE 


244 


EDINBURGH 


Eddystone,  a  group  of  gneiss  rocks,  daily  sub- 
merged by  the  tide,  in  the  English  Channel, 
9  miles  off  the  Cornish  coast,  and  14  SSW.  of 
Plymouth  Breakwater.  The  rocks  lie  in  50°  10' 
54"  N.  lat.,  and  4°  15'  53"  W.  long.,  and  have  12 
to  150  fathoms  water  around.  The  frequent  ship- 
wrecks on  these  rocks  led  to  the  erection  of  a 
wooden  lighthouse,  100  feet  high,  by  Winstanley, 
1696-1700.  The  great  storm  of  20th  November 
1703  completely  washed  it  away,  with  the  archi- 
tect. A  similar  lighthouse  (1706-9)  was  burned 
in  1755.  The  next,  constructed  by  Smeaton  in 
1757-59,  was  built  of  blocks,  generally  one  to 
two  tons  weight,  of  Portland  oolite,  encased  in 
granite,  the  granite  being  dovetailed  into  the 
solid  rock,  and  each  block  into  its  neighbours. 
The  tower,  85  feet  high,  had  a  diameter  of  26| 
feet  at  the  base,  and  15  feet  at  the  top.  Tlie 
light  was  visible  at  a  distance  of  13  miles.  As 
the  rock  on  which  it  was  built  is  undermined 
by  the  action  of  the  waves,  the  foundation  of 
another  was  laid  on  a  diflferent  part  of  the  reef 
in  1879.  The  new  lighthouse,  completed  in  1882 
by  Sir  James  N.  Douglass,  F.R.S.,  is,  like  its 
predecessor,  ingeniously  dovetailed  throughout. 
Its  dioptric  apparatus  gives,  at  an  elevation  of 
133  feet,  a  light  equal  to  159,600  candles,  and 
visible  to  a  distance  of  17^  miles.  Snieaton's 
lighthouse  was  taken  down  to  the  level  of  the 
first  room  as  soon  as  the  new  one  was  completed, 
the  removed  upper  portion  being  re-erected  on 
Plymouth  Hoe. 

Eden,  a  river  of  Westmorland  and  Cumber- 
land, rising  in  the  Pennine  chain,  and  running 
65  miles  north-north-west,  past  Appleby  and 
Carlisle,  to  a  fine  estuary  at  the  head  of  the 
Solway  Firth.  There  is  another  Eden  in  Sussex 
and  Kent  (12  miles  long),  a  third  in  Fife  (29^),  and 
a  fourth  in  Berwickshire  (23^). 

Edenderry,  a  town  of  King's  county,  37J  miles 
W.  of  Dublin.    Pop.  1677. 

Edenhall,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Musgraves 
in  Cumberland,  4  miles  NE.  of  Penrith.  Here 
is  still  preserved  the  famous  'Luck  of  Edenhall,' 
an  old  painted  glass  goblet  (a  chalice  originally) 
said  to  have  been  snatched  from  the  fairies ;  on 
its  safety  the  welfare  of  the  house  depends. 

Edenkoben,  a  town  of  the  Bavarian  Palatinate, 
6  miles  No  of  Landau.    Pop.  6008. 

Edessa  (Arabic  Er-Ruha,  called  by  travellers 
Orfa),  a  very  ancient  city,  in  the  north  of  Meso- 
potamia, between  Aleppo  and  Diarbekir,  78  miles 
SW.  of  the  latter  town.  Made  a  Roman  military 
colony  (216  a.d.),  it  was  an  early  seat  of  Chris- 
tianity, but  Was  conquered  by  the  Moslems  in 
638.  It  was  twice  wrested  from  them  (1031-86 
and  1097-1144) ;  in  1147  it  was  laid  waste ;  and 
all  who  were  not  massacred  were  sold  as  slaves. 
Since  1515  it  has  formed  a  portion  of  the  Turkish 
dominions.  Edessa  has  numerous  mosques  and 
bazaars;  manufactures  of  cotton  goods,  gold- 
smiths' wares,  and  morocco  leather,  and  a  large 
trade.  Easterns,  to  whom  it  is  the  residence  of 
Abraham,  regard  it  as  a  sacred  city.  Pop.  20,000, 
of  whom  2000  are  Armenian  Christians. 

Edfu  (Coptic  Atbo,  Egypt.  Teb,  Gr.  Apollino- 
polis  Magna),  a  town  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the 
Nile's  left  bank,  in  25°  N.  lat.,  and  32°  45'  E.  long. 
It  contains  the  remains  of  two  temples :  the  larger 
(451  by  250  feet)  is  the  best-preserved  monument 
of  its  kind  in  Egypt,  and  was  founded  by  Ptolemy 
IV.  Philopator  about  210  B.C.    Pop.  2000. 

Edgbaston,  a  western  suburb  of  Birmingham. 


The  Oratory  here  (1849)  was  founded  by,  and  till 
his  death  was  the  home  of.  Cardinal  Newman. 

Edgehill,  a  hill-ridge  on  the  border  of  Warwick 
and  Oxford  shires,  14  miles  SSE.  of  Warwick. 
A  tower,  erected  in  1760,  marks  the  scene  of  the 
indecisive  battle,  the  first  in  the  Great  Rebellion, 
which  was  fought  on  Sunday,  23d  October  1642, 
between  12,000  royalists  under  Cliarles  I.  and 
10,000  parliamentarians  under  the  Earl  of  Essex. 

Edge-water,  once  a  town  of  Staten  Island,  since 
1897  included  in  Richmond  borough  of  New  York, 

Edgeworthstown,  a  town  of  County  Longford, 
67^  miles  AVNW.  of  Dublin.  It  was  the  home  of 
Maria  Edgeworth.    Pop.  570. 

Edgware,  a  village  of  Middlesex,  Hi  miles 
NW.  of  King  s  Cross  station.  In  a  forge  here, 
where  he  had  taken  refuge  from  the  rain,  Handel 
conceived  his  'Harmonious  Blacksmith.'  Pop. 
of  parish,  864. 

Edinburgh  (Et^'diw-ftw-ro),  capital  of  Scotland, 
and  county  town  of  Midlothian,  situated  in  55" 
57'  N.  lat.,  3°  11'  W.  long.  By  rail  393  miles 
NNW.  of  London,  44  to  47J  E.  of  Glasgow,  it 
stands  2  miles  from  the  Firth  of  Forth,  on  a  series  of 
ridges,  and  is  overlooked  by  Arthur's  Seat  and 
other  hills  (see  Edinburghshire),  to  the  foot  of 
which  it  has  now  extended ;  of  hills  within  the 
city  itself  the  highest  are  the  Castle  Rock  (437 
feet)  and  the  Calton  (349).  Although  the  Castle 
Rock,  which  for  centuries  was  considered  an 
almost  impregnable  fortress,  must  have  been  a 
place  of  refuge  and  of  arms  from  the  earliest 
times,  Edinburgh  is  first  noticed  in  history  in  the 
beginning  of  the  7th  century,  as  a  stronghold  of 
Northumbria,  from  whose  king  Edwin  it  is  said 
to  derive  its  name.  In  1093  its  castle  figures  in 
the  story  of  St  Margaret,  queen  of  Malcolm  Can- 
more,  and  the  little  Norman  chapel  on  the 
summit  of  the  rock,  dedicated  to  her  memory,  is 
the  oldest  building  connected  with  the  city.  In 
1128  David  I.  founded  the  abbey  of  Holyrood, 
about  a  mile  east  of  the  castle,  and  round  it  grew 
up  the  little  burgh  of  the  Canongate,  which 
maintained  its  separate  municipality  until  1856. 

To  the  east  of  the  castle,  where  the  ground 
slopes  down  from  the  rock  in  a  narrow  'hog's 
back,*  there  grew  up  the  town  of  Edinburgh.  In 
1329  it  Avas  made  a  burgh  by  Robert  the  Bruce, 
by  a  charter  which  also  granted  the  town  the 
right  of  establishing  a  port  at  Leith,  2  miles 
distant ;  thus  began  the  vassalage  of  the  port  to 
the  capital,  which  continued  until  1838,  when 
Leith  was  made  a  burgh.  It  was  during  the  15th 
century,  under  the  Stewart  dynasty,  that  Edin- 
burgh began  to  be  recognised  as  the  capital,  and 
parliament  regularly  met  here,  at  first  within  the 
great  hall  of  tlie  castle,  and  afterwards  in  the  City 
Tolbooth,  until  in  1631  the  present  Parliament 
House  was  erected.  James  V.  further  confirmed 
its  choice  as  the  capital  by  building  a  palace 
within  the  abbey  of  Holyrood  ;  and  by  establish- 
ing, in  1532,  the  Court  of  Session,  as  a  supreme 
court  of  justice  for  Scotland.  In  1450  the  first 
wall  Avas  built ;  and  in  1513,  after  the  defeat  at 
Flodden,  an  extended  wall  was  erected  to  include 
the  suburb  of  the  Cowgate,  which  had  meantime 
arisen  in  the  valley  to  tlxe  south.  The  town 
was  defended  on  the  west  by  the  castle ;  on  the 
north  by  a  morass,  called  the  '  Nor'  Loch  ; '  and 
on  the  east  and  south  by  the  city  wall.  As  the 
population  increased,  the  houses  rose  higher  and 
higher,  until  the  town  abounded  in  great  '  lands ' 
of  houses,  which,  being  erected  on  the  steep  sides 
of  the  'hog's  back,'  had  entrances  from  two 
levels,  and  rose  to  ten,  twelve,  and  even  fourteen 


EDINBURGH 


245 


EDINBURGHSHIRE 


Btories  in  height.  In  1583  the  university  was 
founded ;  shortly  after  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  the  town  wall  was  broken  down  in 
every  direction,  and  the  Nor'  Loch  was  drained ; 
whilst  access  was  given  to  the  country  sloping 
down  to  the  Firth  of  Forth,  on  which  arose  the 
New  Town,  by  the  erection  in  1763-72  of  the  North 
Bridge  (rebuilt  in  1894-95),  In  1785  the  valley  to 
the  south,  in  which  lies  the  Cowgate,  was  bridged, 
and  the  town  spread  southwards.  In  1815-19 
another  bridge  was  thrown  over  a  deep  hollow  on 
the  north-east,  and  the  Calton  Hill  was  connected 
with  the  city  ;  while  in  1827-36  George  IV.  Bridge 
was  built  across  the  Cowgate  parallel  to  the 
South  Bridge. 

The  modern  city  now  spreads  on  every  side 
round  the  steep  ridge  to  which  for  centuries  she 
was  confined.  It  is  especially  fortunate  in  its 
open  spaces  and  public  parks.  The  Princes  Street 
gardens  occupy  the  site  of  the  old  Nor'  Loch,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Castle  Rock ;  the  range  of  the 
Meadows  and  Links— the  remains  of  the  once 
extensive  Burgh  Muir — divides  the  town  proper 
fronj  the  southern  suburbs  ;  the  old  royal  hunt- 
ing-ground attached  to  Holyrood— the  King's 
Park  and  Arthur's  Seat — is  open  to  the  citizens  ; 
on  the  north  are  the  Botanic  Gardens  and  the 
Arboretum  (1824-81) ;  and  on  the  south  Blackford 
Hill  and  the  Braids  have  been  added  (1884-89)  to 
the  town  property  devoted  to  recreation.  The 
view  from  either  Arthur's  Seat  or  Blackford  Hill 
is  a  very  noble  and  extensive  one ;  that  from 
the  latter  eminence  is  finely  described  in  Scott's 
Marmion. 

Edinburgh  has  many  buildings  famous  in 
history,  or  important  from  their  architectural 
merit.  Tlie  Abbey  and  Palace  of  Holyrood,  the 
latter  rebuilt  by  Sir  William  Bruce  of  Kinross  in 
1671-79,  and  the  former  represented  by  its  ruined 
chapel,  are  a  jnemorial  of  the  old  Scottish 
monarchy ;  of  the  castle,  the  earliest  portion, 
the  old  JParliament  Hall,  was  restored  (1888-92) 
by  the  late  Mr  William  Nelson,  publisher,  while 
the  Queen  Mary  portion  contains  the  Scottish 
regalia;  St  Giles'  Church,  the  old  parish  church 
of  Edinburgh,  dating  most  of  it  from  the  15th 
century,  was  restored  by  the  late  Dr  William 
Chambers,  the  work  being  completed  in  1883 ; 
the  Parliament  House,  erected  in  1633  for  the 
Scottish  parliament,  is  now  used  as  the  '  Outer 
House '  of  the  Supreme  Courts,  and  adorned  with 
many  fine  portraits  and  statues  belonging  to  the 
Faculty  of  Advocates ;  John  Knox's  House  is 
the  '  manse '  used  by  the  great  Reformer  while 
minister  of  the  town  ;  the  beautiful  17th-century 
building  of  Heriot's  Hospital  is  now  (since  1885) 
used  as  a  technical  school.  Many  of  the  modern 
buildings  are  fine.  The  Episcopal  Cathedral  of 
St  Mary's,  opened  in  1879,  is  one  of  the  largest 
churches  built  in  Britain  since  the  Reformation  ; 
and  many  of  the  other  churches  are  handsome 
buildings  ;  while  the  National  Gallery  (1850-58), 
the  Royal  Institution  (1823-36),  the  Museum  of 
Science  and  Art  (1861-89),  the  National  Portrait 
Gallery  and  Antiquarian  Museum  (1885-90),  the 
Blackford  Observatory  (1893-95),  and  many  of  the 
banks,  insurance-offices,  clubs,  and  public  schools 
are  fine  buildings,  and  occupy  sites  made  remark- 
able by  the  broken  nature  of  the  ground  on 
which  the  city  is  built.  Among  its  numerous 
monuments  are  the  graceful  Gothic  spire  (1844) 
in  memory  of  Sir  Walter  Scott,  and  the  Prince- 
Consort  Memorial  (1876). 

Edinburgh  has  been  long  known  for  its  educa- 
tional institutions,  and  these  draw  many  inhabit- 
ants to  the  city  for  the  benefits  they  offer.    At 


the  head  of  these  is,  of  course,  the  university, 
founded  in  1582,  and  comprising  the  faculties  of 
arts,  science,  divinity,  law,  medicine,  and  music, 
with  50  chairs  and  over  3000  students.  The 
present  university  buildings  were  begun  in  1789 
from  designs  by  the  elder  Adam,  and  completed 
in  1887  by  the  addition  of  a  dome.  New  medical 
buildings  were  opened  in  1884,  a  students'  union 
in  1889,  and  the  M'Ewan  college  hall  in  1895. 
Besides  the  university  there  are  theological  halls 
connected  with  the  United  Free,  Episcopal, 
and  other  churches,  and  normal  schools  for  train- 
ing teachers.  The  High  School  and  Academy, 
and  many  of  the  private  schools,  have  also 
attained  a  high  reputation ;  but  the  most  note- 
worthy feature  perhaps  is  the  exceptionally  large 
sum  which  is  annually  derived  for  educational 
purposes  from  bequests  left  by  citizens.  Among 
the  principal  is  the  trust  founded  by  George 
Heriot  in  Charles  I.'s  time,  which  now  yields 
£30,000  per  annum,  applied  by  the  Act  of  1885 
to  the  Heriot- Watt  Technical  College,  and  to 
the  maintenance  of  a  Science  and  Technical 
School ;  the  trusts  under  the  charge  of  the 
Merchant  Company  of  Edinburgh,  with  an 
annual  income  of  £40,000,  applied  principally 
to  middle-class  education ;  and  the  Fettes  en- 
dowment, applied  to  higher-class  education  on 
the  English  model.  In  libraries  Edinburgh 
is  rich,  having  besides  the  University  Library 
(200,000  vols,  and  5000  MSS.),  the  magnificent 
collection  of  over  350,000  volumes  belonging 
to  the  Faculty  of  Advocates,  and  the  valuable 
library  of  the  Society  of  Writers  to  the  Signet, 
amounting  to  nearly  90,000  volumes.  A  free 
public  library  was  also  erected  in  1887-89,  the 
building  being  a  gift  of  Mr  Andrew  Carnegie  of 
Pittsburgh,  U.S.  The  Royal  Infinnary  (1736), 
which  occupies  spacious  new  buildings  of  1870- 
80,  is  a  necessary  adjunct  to  the  great  medical 
school,  and  is  one  of  the  most  admirably  appointed 
hospitals  in  Europe. 

Edinburgh,  as  a  residential  town,  is  probably 
the  most  important  shopkeeping  centre  out  of 
London  ;  it  is  not  in  any  great  measure  a  manufac- 
turing town,  its  most  important  industries  being 
brewing,  printing,  and  publishing.  It  has  been 
known  for  its  printers  since  1507,  when  Walter 
Chepman  set  up  the  first  Scottish  printing-press. 
The  publishing  of  books,  with  the  subsidiary 
businesses  of  printing,  bookbinding,  and  type- 
founding,  is  now  a  most  important  industry; 
the  publications  of  Messrs  Blackwood,  Chambers, 
Nelson,  and  numerous  other  firms  are  well  known ; 
and  the  book-factories  are  exceptionally  large 
and  well  appointed.  Tliere  are  many  paper-mills 
near  the  city ;  and  in  or  near  it  tliere  are  dis- 
tilleries, india-rubber  manufactories,  tanneries, 
and  nurseries.  Edinburgh  is  a  great  railway 
centre,  and,  besides  suburban  railways,  has  a 
complete  cable  system  of  tramways.  It  is  divided, 
for  municipal  purposes,  into  sixteen  wards,  and 
for  parliamentary  purposes  into  four  divisions. 
Portobello  was  incorporated  in  1896,  and  Granton 
in  1900.  Pop.  (1831)  136,548  ;  (1861)221,846  ;  (1901) 
316,837. 

See  works  by  Maitland  (1753),  Arnot  (1779), 
Sir  D.  Wilson  (1847 ;  new  ed.  1892),  Drununond 
(1879),  R.  L.  Stevenson  (1878),  Grant  (1880-82), 
Sir  A.  Grant  (for  university,  1884),  Lees  (for  St 
Giles',  1889),  Mrs  Olipliant  (1890),  Hutton  (1891). 
Geddie  (1900),  Olipliant  Smeaton  (1904),  and  Miss 
11.  Masson  (1904). 

Edinburghshire,  or  Midlothian,  a  Scottish 
county,  extending  12  miles  along  the  low  southern 
shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth.    Its  -greatest  length 


EDIN'S  HALL 


246 


EGYPT 


from  east  to  west  is  36  miles ;  its  greatest  breadth, 
24 ;  and  its  area,  367  sq.  m.  Tlie  surface  has  a 
general  southward  rise  to  the  Pentlands,  cul- 
minating in  Scald  Law  (1898  feet),  and  the  Moor- 
foot  Hills,  whose  highest  point  is  Blackhope 
Scar  (2136),  Intermediate  eminences  are  Arthur's 
Seat  (822),  Blackford  Hill  (500),  Corstorphine 
Hill  (520),  Craiglockhart  (550),  the  Braid  Hills 
(698),  and  the  Dalmahoy  Crags  (800).  The  streams 
— Esk,  Water  of  Leith,  and  Almond— all  flow  to 
the  Forth,  with  the  exception  of  Gala  Water, 
which  runs  to  the  Tweed.  Coal  has  been  largely 
mined  for  nearly  three  centuries  ;  and  ironstone, 
oil-shale,  and  fireclay  are  also  raised.  There  are 
large  quarries  of  sandstone  at  Craigleith  and  else- 
where. Agriculture  is  highly  advanced,  though 
only  57  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  is  in  cultiva- 
tion. Near  Edinburgh  are  large  market-gardens 
and  sewage-meadows ;  and  on  the  Esk  and  the 
Water  of  Leith  there  are  paper-mills.  The 
county  returns  one  member  to  parliament,  and 
contains  the  parliamentary  burghs  of  Edinburgh, 
Leith,  Portobello,  and  Musselburgh,  besides  the 
police-burghs  of  Dalkeith,  Bonnyrigg,  Lasswade, 
Loanhead,  and  Penicuik.  Pop.  (1801)  122,597; 
(1841)  225,454 ;  (1901)  487,554.  Midlothian's  four 
battlefields  are  Roslin,  Pinkie,  Carberry  Hill, 
and  Bullion  Green ;  its  antiquities  are  the  Cat- 
stane,  the  Boman  remains  of  Inveresk  and  Cra- 
mond,  Roslin  Chapel,  and  the  castles  of  Borth- 
wick,  Crichton,  Craigmillar,  &c.  See  works  by 
Small  (2  vols.  1883),  and  Miss  Warrender  (1890). 

Edin's  Hall,  a  ruined  broch  in  Berwickshire, 
on  Cockburnlaw,  4^  miles  NNW.  of  Duns. 

Edmonton,  an  urban  district  of  Middlesex,  10^ 
miles  NNE.  of  Liverpool  Street  Station,  London. 
Lamb  spent  his  last  years  here,  and  is  buried 
in  the  churchyard;  and  here,  too,  is  the  'Bell,' 
where  John  Gilpin  did  not  dine.  Pop.  of  parish 
(1861)  10,936  ;  (1891)  36,351 ;  (1901)  46,899. 

Edmonton,  the  capital  of  the  Canadian  prov- 
ince of  Alberta,  as  defined  in  1905,  is  situated  on 
the  North  Saskatchewan  River,  whicli  is  navigable 
hither  from  Winnipeg.     Pop.  3000. 

Ednam,  a  Roxburgh  parish,  on  the  Eden,  2J 
miles  NNE.  of  Kelso.  The  poet,  James  Thomson, 
was  a  native. 

Edom  (Heb.,  'red'),  a  name  applied  to  the 
whole  country  extending  from  the  Dead  Sea 
southwards  to  the  Gulf  of  Akabah.  Its  chief 
town,  Sela,  stood  on  the  eastern  slope  of  Mount 
Hor  (4320  feet),  the  highest  peak  of  Mount  Seir, 
other  towns  being  Maon  (now  Maan),  Bozrah 
(now  Buseirah),  Punon,  and  the  seaports  Elath 
and  Ezion-geber  on  the  Gulf  of  Akabah. 

Edwardesabad,  a  town  and  cantonment  in 
the  Kuram  Valley,  50  miles  up  from  the  Indus, 
named  from  Sir  Herbert  Edwardes,  who  reduced 
the  tribes  here  to  order.     Pop.  10,000, 

Edzell  Castle,  Forfarshire,  7  miles  N.  by  W,  of 
Brechin,  a  ruined  seat  of  the  Lindsays. 

Eecloo,  a  town  of  Belgium,  on  the  Li^ve,  12 
miles  NW,  of  Ghent  by  rail.  It  manufactures 
woollens,  cottons,  &c.     Pop.  13,164, 

Eel  Pie  Island,  Middlesex,  in  the  Thames, 
opposite  Twickenham, 

Egba,  an  African  state  or  territory  on  the 
borders  of  Dahomey  and  the  Yoruba  country. 

Eger  (Ay'ger;  g  hard),  a  Bohemian  town,  on 
the  river  Eger,  66  miles  NW.  of  Pilsen  by  rail. 
It  was  formerly  a  border  fortress  of  some  import- 
ance, but  its  fortifications  were  razed  in  1809  ;  it 
is  now  a  great  railway  centre.    The  ruins  of  the 


imperial  burg  consist  of  a  square  black  tower,  a 
chapel,  and  part  of  the  great  hall.  The  indus- 
tries include  weaving,  brewing,  shoemaking,  &c. 
In  the  town-house  Wallenstein  was  murdered 
(1634).  Eger  was  taken  by  the  Swedes  in  1631 
and  1647,  and  by  the  French  in  1742.  Pop. 
27,148.— The  river  Eger  rises  12  miles  NW.  of 
the  town,  in  the  Fichtelgebirge,  at  an  altitude  of 
2362  feet  and  flows  190  miles  ENE.  to  the  Elbe 
opposite  Leitmeritz.     See  also  Eklau. 

Egerdlr,  a  small  town  of  Konieh  vilayet,  Asia 
Minor,  gives  name  to  a  beautiful  fresh-water 
lake,  30  miles  long,  between  the  Sultan  Dagh  and 
northern  oft'shoots  of  the  Taurus  Mountains. 

Egg.    See  EiGO. 

Egga,  an  African  trading  town  on  the  Niger, 
in  Gando,  since  1900  part  of  (British)  Northern 
Nigeria.    Pop.  15,500. 

Egham,  a  Surrey  village  on  the  Thames,  1^ 
mile  W.  by  S.  of  Staines.  Pop.  of  parish  (1861) 
4864  ;  (1901)  11,895. 

Egilshay,  an  Orkney  island,  11  miles  N.  of 
Kirkwall.    Area,  2 J  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  142. 

Eglinton  Castle,  the  seat  (1798)  of  the  Earl  of 
Eglinton,  in  Ayrshire,  2J  miles  N.  of  Irvine. 
Here  was  held  the  Eglinton  Tournament  (1839). 

Egremont  (Eg're-mojit),  a  Cumberland  market- 
town,  on  the  Ehen,  6  miles  SB.  of  Whitehaven, 
whither  it  sends  by  rail  the  iron  ore  mined  in  the 
neighbourhood.  On  an  eminence  to  the  west 
stands  the  ruined  castle,  the  legend  of  whose 
horn  Avas  sung  by  Wordsworth.  Pop.  of  parish, 
6105.— (2)  A  NW.  suburb  of  Birkenhead. 

Egripo.    See  Eubcea. 

Egypt,  a  country  in  North-east  Africa,  extend- 
ing from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  first  cataract 
of  the  Nile  at  Assouan,  from  31°  36'  to  24°  6'  N. 
lat.  The  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
Aigyptos,  perhaps  a  transliteration  of  Hakeptah, 
'the  city  of  Ptah'— i.e.  Memphis.  In  Hiero- 
glyphics and  Coptic,  it  was  called  Keini  (Black 
Land),  from  the  colour  of  the  soil ;  the  Hebrew 
Mizraim  is  still  preserved  in  the  Arabic  Misr. 
Egypt  is  literally,  what  Herodotus  termed  it, 
'  the  gift  of  the  Nile ; '  for  it  extends  only  so  far  as 
the  annual  inundation  of  the  river  spreads  its 
layer  of  alluvial  sediment,  brought  down  from 
the  washing  of  the  Abyssinian  mountains,  and 
turning  the  barren  rock  into  cultivable  soil. 
Geologically  and  ethnologically,  Egypt  is  con- 
fined to  the  bed  of  the  flooded  Nile,  a  groove 
worn  by  water  in  the  desert ;  and  the  bordering 
deserts  and  the  southern  provinces  of  Nubia 
and  the  Soudan  towards  the  equator  form  no 
part  of  the  Egypt  of  nature  or  of  history,  though 
from  time  to  time  they  have  been  politically 
joined  to  it.  Thus  limited,  Egypt  occupies  little 
more  than  11,000  sq.  m.,  or  about  a  third  of  the 
area  of  Ireland,  and  from  Wady  Haifa  to  the 
Mediten-anean,  with  the  desert,  the  area  is  nearly 
400,000  sq.  m. 

The  Nile,  after  breaking  through  the  rocky 
barrier  at  Assouan,  pursues  a  northerly  course, 
varied  by  only  one  considerable  bend  near 
Thebes,  until,  a  few  miles  north  of  Cairo,  it 
divides  into  two  main  streams,  terminating  in 
the  Rosetta  and  Damietta  mouths,  through 
which,  after  a  course  of  3300  miles,  it  pours 
during  '  high  Nile '  some  seven  hundred  thousand 
million  cubit  metres  daily  into  the  Mediterra- 
nean Sea.  The  other  five  mouths  which  existed 
in  antiquity  have  silted  up ;  the  triangular  or 
A-shaped  district  enclosed  by  them,  formed  the 
Delta,  now  called  Lower  Egypt,    The  basin  of 


EGYPT 


247 


EGYPT 


the  Nile  is  bounded  by  the  smooth  rounded 
ranges  of  the  Arabian  hills  (which  are  not  in 
the  Arabian  peninsula,  but  in  Egypt,  between 
the  Nile  and  the  Red  Sea)  on  the  east,  and  the 
Libyan  on  the  west ;  neither  rising  as  a  rule 
higher  than  300  feet  above  the  sea-level,  though 
near  Thebes  the  eastern  hills  attain  an  altitude 
of  1200  feet.  One  great  physical  peculiarity  of 
Egypt  is  the  general  absence  of  rain  ;  occasional 
showers  have  indeed  become  more  frequent  of 
late  years,  but  the  land  still  depends  for  irriga- 
tion upon  the  annual  overflow  of  the  Nile.  The 
reservoir  worlds  at  Assouan  and  Assiout  (1902  ;  see 
Nile)  add  greatly  to  the  cultivable  area.  The 
climate  is  remarkably  mild,  especially  south 
of  the  Delta  and  in  the  desert ;  from  Cairo 
to  Alexandria  the  air  contains  more  moisture, 
while  the  Mediterranean  coast  is  subject  to  rain, 
and  infected  by  the  belt  of  salt-marshes.  Froni 
June  till  February  cool  northerly  winds  prevail ; 
then  till  June  comes  a  period  of  easterly,  or, 
still  worse,  hot  southerly  sand-winds  called  the 
Khamasin.  The  simoom  is  a  rare  but  violent 
sand-wind.  Earthquakes  are  occasionally  felt. 
The  temperature  in  winter  in  the  shade  averages 
50°  to  60°  F.,  and  in  the  heat  of  summer  90°  to 
100°  in  Lower  Egypt,  10°  higher  in  the  upper 
valley.  The  most  remarkable  phenomenon  is 
the  regular  increase  of  the  Nile,  fed  by  the  fall 
of  the  tropical  rains.  In  the  middle  of  July  the 
♦red  water'  appears  in  Egypt,  and  the  rise  may 
be  dated  from  that  time  ;  it  attains  its  maxi- 
mum (an  average  rise  of  36  feet  at  Thebes,  of  25 
at  Cairo)  at  the  end  of  September,  and  begins  to 
decline  visibly  in  the  middle  of  October,  loses 
half  its  height  by  January,  and  subsides  to  its 
minimum  in  April.  By  the  end  of  November, 
the  irrigated  land,  over  which  the  water  has 
been  carefully  equalised  by  drains  and  embank- 
ments, has  dried  and  is  sown  ;  soon  it  is  covered 
with  green  crops,  which  are  reaped  in  March. 
Except  in  the  dry  air  of  the  valley  and  desert, 
Egypt  is  by  no  means  remarkably  healthy. 

The  signal  peculiarity  of  the  vegetation  of  the 
Nile  Valley  is  the  absence  of  woods  and  forests. 
Even  clumps  of  trees  (except  palms)  are  rare. 
The  date  and  the  doom  palm,  the  sycamore, 
acacia,  tamarisk,  and  willow  are  the  commonest 
trees.  Ainong  fruit-trees,  the  vine,  fig,  pome- 
granate, orange,  and  lemon  abound  ;  apricots, 
peaches,  and  plums  are  of  poor  flavour ;  Indian 
figs  (prickly  pears)  and  bananas  have  been  nat- 
uralised ;  and  water-melons  are  at  once  the  meat 
and  drink  of  the  people  in  the  hot  days.  Of 
flowers,  the  lotus,  or  water-lily,  has  long  been 
famous.  The  lack  of  jungle  or  cover  of  any  sort 
accounts  for  the  poverty  of  the  Egyptian  fauna. 
The  hypena,  jackal,  wolf,  fox,  hare,  rabbit,  jerboa, 
lynx,  ichneumon,  and  weasel  are  common  enough ; 
the  antelope  is  the  chief  quarry ;  but  the  wild  ass 
and  wild  cat  are  almost  extinct ;  and  the  croco- 
dile, like  the  hippopotamus,  scared  by  European 
rifles,  is  beating  a  retreat  to  the  tropics.  The 
ordinary  beasts  of  burden  are  the  ass  and  camel ; 
and  there  are  buffaloes  and  short-horned  cattle ; 
goats  also  are  common.  There  are  three  or  four 
varieties  of  vultvire ;  eagles,  falcons,  hawks,  and 
kites  are  common,  as  is  also  the  ibis.  Of  reptiles, 
besides  the  vanishing  crocodile,  lesser  saurians — 
chameleons  and  lizards — abound.  Serpents  are 
numerous,  and  among  these  the  dreaded  cobra 
and    the    cerastes.      The    Nile    is    full   of   fish, 

fenerally  of  rather  poor  flavour.  The  Sacred 
beetle  (Scarabceus  sacer)  is  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable insects.  The  scorpion's  sting  is  some- 
times  fatal.    Egypt  is  essentially  an  agricultural 


country,  and  in  some  parts,  by  the  aid  of  regu- 
lated  artificial  irrigation,  the  rich  alluvial  deposit 
will  bear  as  much  as  three  crops  in  the  year. 
"Wheat  is  the  principal  cereal ;  but  barley,  maize, 
durra,  beans,  lentils,  clover,  &c.  are  also  largely 
grown,  with  very  little  trouble  beyond  the  man- 
agement of  the  water.  The  extensive  culture 
of  papyrus,  which  anciently  supplied  material 
for  paper,  has  in  modern  times  been  superseded 
by  that  of  the  sugar-cane,  cotton,  indigo,  and 
tobacco. 

In  ancient  as  in  modem  times  Egypt  was 
always  divided  into  the  Upper  and  the  Lower,  or 
the  Southern  and  the  Northern ,  country.  For  the 
divisions  of  the  territory  outside  Egypt  proper, 
annexed  in  1876,  and  abandoned  in  1885,  extend- 
ing as  far  south  as  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  see 
Soudan.  The  population  of  the  country,  placed 
at  7,000,000  under  the  Pharaohs,  in  1844  was 
2,500,000;  in  1859,  5,125,000;  and  in  1897, 
9,734,405  in  Egypt  proper.  There  are  about 
10,000  schools  (seven-eighths  elementary),  with 
17,000  teachers  and  228,000  pupils  ;  the  govern- 
ment has  under  its  immediate  direction  150 
schools,  including  schools  for  law,  medicine,  agri- 
culture, and  engineering.  Of  the  inhabitants 
92'23  per  cent,  are  native  Mohammedans;  the 
Copts  are  600,000,  and  the  rest  include  Beda- 
wis  (Bedouins),  Negroes,  Abyssinians,  Turks, 
Syrians,  Armenians,  Jews,  Greeks,  and  other 
Europeans.  The  dominant  population  in  anti- 
quity appears  almost  certainly  to  have  been 
of  mixed  origin,  part  Asiatic  and  part  Nigritic ; 
and  there  seems  to  have  been  an  aboriginal 
race  of  copper  colour,  with  rather  thin  legs, 
large  feet,  high  cheek-bones,  and  large  lips. 
The  chief  towns  of  Egypt  proper  are  Cairo 
(pop.  570,062);  Alexandria  (319,766);  Tantah 
(57,289);  Port  Said  and  Assiout,  over  40,000; 
Zagazig,  Mansourah,  Damietta,  and  Fayoum,  over 
30,000 ;  and  Kena,  27,500.  There  are  in  Egypt  about 
113,000  foreigners,  including  38,000  Greeks,  24,000 
Italians,  20,000  Englishmen,  and  14,000  French- 
men. The  Egyptian  army  is  under  the  command 
of  an  English'  general,  and  oflicered  partly  by 
Englishmen  and  partly  by  Egyptians ;  its  total 
strength  is  18,000,  while  the  English  army  of 
occupation,  which,  since  the  rebellion  of  1882,  has 
remained  in  Egypt,  has  a  strength  of  over  5500. 
The  finance  of  Egypt  has  improved  enormously 
under  British  management,  irrigation  and  cotton 
cultivation  greatly  helping ;  the  revenues  have 
been  increased,  the  burdens  on  the  people  greatly 
lightened.  The  revenue  in  1903  was  £E11,000,000, 
the  expenditure  £B10,975,000 ;  in  1904  the  revenue 
was  over£E13,000,000,  being  two  millionsin  excess 
of  the  estimates.  The  chief  sources  of  revenue  are 
the  land-tax,  the  tobacco  monopoly,  and  customs ; 
the  principal  items  of  expenditure  are  the  ser- 
vice  of  the  debt  and  the  internal  administration. 
The  total  debt  of  Egypt  amounted  in  1904  to 
£E102,186,920,  the  interest  on  which  was  met 
by  a  total  charge  of  £E4,384,549  in  the  year's 
budget,  including  the  tribute  to  Turkey  (£665,041). 
The  total  exports  in  1889-1903  (chiefly  cotton, 
cotton-seed,  beans,  sugar,  and  grain)  increased 
from  £E7,020,000  to  £E19,118,487  (of  which  over 
one-half  went  to  Britain);  the  imports  (mainly 
cotton  goods  and  other  textiles,  machinery,  and 
coal)  from  £E11,950,000  to  £E16,753,190  (about 
a  third  from  Britain).  Some  cotton  is  now  ex- 
ported to  the  United  States.  The  railway 
system  embraces  over  1450  miles,  connecting 
Alexandria  and  Damietta  with  Cairo  and  the 
Suez  Canal,  and  extending  up  the  Nile  Valley  as 
far  south  as  Siout;  the  telegraphs  reach  2562 


EHRENBREITSTEIN 


248 


EISENBEltG 


ftiiles,  and  there  is  a  telephone  between  Cairo 
and  Alexandria. 

The  epoch  of  Menes,  the  earliest  known  point 
in  Egyptian  history,  is  variously  calculated  at 
from  5004  B.C.  to  3892.  Egypt  was  in  the  height 
of  its  glory  under  the  19th  dynasty,  to  which 
Rameses  I.  and  II.,  and  Meneptah  (son  of  the 
latter,  and  probably  the  Pharaoh  of  Exodus)  be- 
longed. The  Persians  conquered  Egypt  in  527 
B.C.,  Alexander  the  Great  in  332  B.C.,  and  the 
Romans  after  31  B.C.  The  Arab  and  Moslem 
conquest  took  place  in  641  a.d.  Napoleon  in- 
vaded the  country  in  1798 ;  and  a  new  epoch 
in  recent  Egyptian  history  began  with  the  able 
reign  of  Mohammed  All  (Mehemet  Ali)  in  1805. 
Ismail  Pasha,  his  grandson,  obtained  in  1867  the 
title  of  Khedive,  and  made  extensive  conquests 
in  the  Eastern  Soudan,  but  was  deposed  by  the 
Sultan  in  1879,  at  the  instance  of  the  western 
powers,  and  succeeded  by  his  son  Tewfik.  In 
1881  came  the  revolt  by  Arabi  Pasha,  suppressed 
at  Tel-el-Kebir  by  Britain,  whose  troops  now 
occupied  Egypt.  France  having  withdrawn.  The 
troubles  with  the  Mahdi  fall  between  1881  and 
1885,  the  year  of  Gordon's  death.  Egypt,  still 
nominally  a  tributary  province  of  the  Ottoman 
empire,  became  under  Ismail  practically  an 
autonomous  state  under  an  hereditary  Khedive. 
Since  the  occupation  in  1882  British  influence 
is  supreme,  and  the  Khedive,  wlio  has  a  native 
ministry,  is  not  allowed  to  contravene  the  advice 
of  the  British  minister  resident  (Lord  Cromer). 
Under  Abbas  II.  (from  1892),  who  at  first  strove 
to  escape  from  British  control,  the  prosperity  of 
the  country  has  increased  rapidly;  and  the  Anglo- 
French  agreement  of  1904  removed  the  most 
serious  embarrassment  to  tlie  administration. 

For  ancient  Egypt,  see  works  by  Sharpe,  Wil- 
kinson, Brugsch,  Mariette,  Maspero,  and  others  ; 
for  modern  Egypt,  S.  L.  Poole  (1881),  Mackenzie 
Wallace  (1883),'Fraser  Rae  (1892),  Miliier  (1892), 
Steevens  (1898),  Cameron  (1898),  Silva  White 
(1899),  Worsfold  (1900),  and  Dicey  (1902). 

Ehrenbreltstein(^2/-ren-&H<e's<ine),  atown  and 
fortress  of  Prussia,  is  situated  on  the  Rhine's 
right  bank,  directly  opposite  Coblenz,  with  which 
it  is  connected  by  a  bridge  of  boats  and  an  iron 
railway-viaduct.  Pop.  5299.  The  fortress  (1672) 
crowns  a  precipitous  rock,  387  feet  above  the 
river.  The  French  vainly  besieged  it  in  1688, 
but  captured  it  in  1799,  and  in  1801  blew  up  the 
works.  It  was  assigned  to  Prussia  in  1815,  and 
in  1816-26  was  thoroughly  fortified. 

Ehrenfeld,  a  busy  town  of  Prussia,  since  1888 
incorporated  with  Cologne,  manufactures  glass- 
wares, railway  fittings,  chemicals,  bricks,  &c. 
Pop.  about  30,000. 

Elbenstock,  a  town  of  Saxony,  41  miles  SSW. 
of  Chemnitz  by  rail.  It  has  since  1775  become  a 
centre  of  lace-making  industry.    Pop.  7913. 

Eichstatt  (Thh-statt),  a  town  of  Bavaria,  in  a 
deep  valley  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Altmiihl,  67 
miles  NNW.  of  Munich.  Here  are  the  palace  of  the 
Dukes  of  Leuchtenberg,  the  cathedral  (1259),  the 
town-house  (1444),  and,  on  a  neighbouring  emi- 
nence, the  ruined  Wilibaldsburg.     Pop.  7631. 

Eider  (Tder),  a  river  of  N.  Germany,  forming 
the  boundary  line  between  Sleswick  on  the  north 
and  Holstein  on  the  south,  rises  south-west  of 
Kiel,  and  winds  117  miles  westward  to  the  North 
Sea  at  Tonning.  It  is  navigable  to  Rendsburg, 
whence  the  Eider  Canal  (constructed  1777-84) 
stretches  east  to  Kiel  Harbour  in  the  Baltic. 

Eifel,  The  (T'/el),  a  bleak  plateau  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  between  the  Rhine,  Moselle,  and  Rore. 


Its  surface,  1500  to  2494  feet  in  altitude,  is  for 
the  inost  part  broadly  undulating,  and  diversi- 
fied by  crater-like  depressions  and  volcanic  peaks 
and  ridges,  whilst  towards  its  edges  it  is  seamed 
by  deep,  wooded,  rocky  ravines. 

Eigg,  or  Egg,  a  Hebridean  island,  7^  miles  W. 
of  the  mainland  of  Inverness-shire,  and  5  SW.  of 
Skye.  With  an  utmost  length  and  breadth  of  6J 
and  4  miles,  it  is  12  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  culminates 
in  the  remarkable  Scuir  of  Eigg  (1346  feet),  near 
which  are  columnar  cliffs  like  those  of  Staffa. 
Pop.  (1851)  546;  (1901)  211.  Here  in  617  St 
Donnan  and  fifty  more  monks  from  lona  were 
killed ;  and  here,  towards  the  close  of  the  16th 
century,  200  Macdonalds  were  smoked  to  death 
in  a  cave  by  Macleod. 

Eil,  Loch,  a  sea-loch  of  Argyll  and  Inverness 
shires.  It  consists  of  Upper  Loch  Eil  (6|  miles 
X  I  mile),  striking  eastward,  and  Lower  Loch 
Eil  (9|  miles  x  2  miles),  striking  south-westward. 
The  latter  is  rather  part  of  Loch  Linnhe. 

Eildons,  a  triple-crested  height  in  Roxburgh- 
shire, S.  of  Melrose,  whose  middle  and  highest 
peak  (1385  feet)  commands  a  glorious  view. 

Eilenburg  (Flen-boorg),  a  manufacturing  town 
of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  an  island  in  the  river  Mulde, 
15  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Leipzig.     Pop.  16,032. 

Eimeo  (Fr.  Moored),  one  of  the  French  Society 
Islands,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  10  miles  WNW. 
of  Tahiti.  Area,  51  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1500.  It  con- 
sists of  deep  fertile  valleys  and  abrupt  wooded 
hills.  Here  Christianity  was  introduced  in  Poly- 
nesia; and  here  the  South  Sea  College  of  the 
London  Missionary  Society  was  established. 

Einbeck,  or  Eimbeck,  a  decayed  town  of  Han- 
over, on  the  lime,  23  miles  N.  of  Gottingen  by 
rail.  It  was  noted  in  the  15th  century  for  its 
beer  {Eimhecker  Beer,  whence  '  Bock ').    Pop.  7991. 

Elnsiedeln  (Ine-zee'deln),  a  town  in  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Schwyz,  27  miles  SE.  of  Zurich  by  rail. 
It  makes  great  numbers  of  prayer-books,  images, 
rosaries,  &c.,  but  is  chiefly  celebrated  for  its 
Benedictine  abbey  (10th  c. ;  rebuilt  1719),  to 
which  some  200,000  pilgrims  resort  annually  to 
the  shrine  of  a  black  image  of  the  Virgin,  the 
14th  September  being  the  principal  day  in  the 
year.  Near  the  town  the  French  defeated  the 
Austrians,  14t^i  August  1799.    Pop.  8501. 

Eisenach  (Fzen-ahJi),  a  town  of  Saxe- Weimar, 
is  beautifully  situated  at  the  north-western 
verge  of  the  Thuringian  Forest,  69  miles  by  rail 
SE.  of  Cassel,  and  49  W.  of  Weimar.  It  has  a 
ducal  palace  (1742),  now  used  as  a  court-house ; 
a  spacious  market-place,  and  manufactures  of  art 
pottery,  leather,  &c.  Bach,  of  whom  a  statue 
was  erected  in  1884,  was  a  native;  and  Fritz 
Renter  died  here  in  1874.  Population,  above 
31,000.  On  an  eminence  rising  600  feet 
above  the  town,  engirt  by  forests,  stands  the 
Wartburg,  founded  in  1067,  and  till  1440  the 
castle  of  the  Landgrave  of  Thuringia.  It  is 
famous  as  the  spot  where  the  Minnesingers 
assembled  to  hold  a  poetic  contest  ('the  war  of 
the  Wartburg ')  about  1207  ;  as  the  home  of  St 
Elizabeth  (1511-27);  and  as  the  ten  months' 
asylum  to  which  Luther  was  carried  by  the 
Elector  of  Saxony  (May  1521).  The  chapel  in 
which  Luther  preached,  and  the  chamber  in 
which  he  discomfited  the  Evil  One  by  throwing 
the  inkstand  at  his  head,  are  pointed  out.  The 
pile  war,  magnificently  restored  in  1847-70. 

Eisenterg,  a  town  of  Saxe-Altenburg,  between 
the  Saale  and  Elster,  36  miles  SE.  of  Leipzig. 
Pop.  8901. 


EISENERZ 


249 


ELCH6 


Elsen«rz,  a  mining  town  of  Austria,  in  the 
north  of  Styria,  20  miles  NW,  of  Bruck.  It 
stands  in  a  narrow  mountain-valley  at  the  north 
foot  of  the  Brzberg  (5011  feet),  a  mountain  so  rich 
in  iron  ore  that  the  ininers  quarry  the  rock  from 
the  outside.    Pop.  6050. 

Eisenstadt,  a  town  of  Hungary,  26  miles  SE. 
of  Vienna.  The  Esterhazy  palace  (1683-1805) 
here  containsa  valuable  library.     Pop.  2972. 

Eisleben  (Ize-lay'ben),  Luther's  birthplace,  a 
mining-town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  24  miles  WNW. 
of  Halle.  Population,  above  24,000.  The  house 
in  which  Lutlier  was  born  was  partially  burnt 
in  1689,  but  was  restored,  as  also  have  been 
the  house  in  which  he  died,  the  church  (Peter- 
Paulskirche)  where  he  was  christened,  and  an- 
other (Andreaskirche)  in  Avhich  he  preached.  In 
1883,  his  quaterceiitenary,  a  bronze  statue  was 
unveiled  of  the  Reformer,  and  a  new  gymnasium 
inaugurated,  successor  to  the  one  which  he 
founded  two  days  before  his  death. 

Ekaterinburg,  a  fortified  town  of  Russia,  on 
the  east  slope  of  the  Urals,  and  on  the  Isset,  312 
miles  SE.  of  Perm  by  rail.  It  has  two  cathedrals, 
and  a  mint  for  copper  coinage,  and  is  in  the 
centre  of  the  Ural  mining  districts.  Its  manu- 
factures include  iron,  coi)per,  machinery,  soap, 
candles,  and  linen.     Pop.  56,750. 

Ekaterinodar,  a  Russian  town,  capital  of  the 
country  of  the  Kuban  Cossacks,  on  the  Kuban 
River,  100  miles  from  its  mouth.  It  has  a  cathe- 
dral and  a  military  hospital.    Pop.  66,308, 

Ekaterinoslav,  a  government  in  South  Russia, 
reaching  in  the  south-east  to  the  Sea  of  Azov. 
Area,  26,050  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  2,153,543.— The  capital, 
Ekatei'inoslavC  Catharine's  fame '),  on  the  Dnieper, 
323  N.  by  E.  of  Sebastopol  by  rail,  has  a  cathedral 
and  large  tobacco-factories.  It  was  founded  in 
1784  by  Prince  Potemkin  for  the  summer  resi- 
dence of  the  Empress  Catharine  II.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Madame  Blavatsky,     Pop.  121,200. 

Ekhmim,  or  Ikhmim  (anc.  Apu  or  Khemmis, 
Greek  Panopolis),  a  town  of  Upper  Egypt  (pop. 
15,000),  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Nile,  15  miles 
S.  of  Girgeh. 

Ekowe,  the  capital  of  Zululand  (q.v.). 

Ekron,  the  northernmost  of  the  five  great 
cities  of  the  Philistines,  on  the  borders  of  Judah 
and  Dan. 

El  Araish,  or  Laraish,  a  seaport  of  Morocco, 
45  miles  SSW.  of  Tangier ;  pop.  5000. 

El  Arlsh,  an  Egyptian  town  (pop.  17,000),  on 
the  Mediterranean,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wady- 
el-Arish,  held  to  mark  the  boundary  between 
Egypt  and  Syria,  Africa  and  Asia. 

Elba  (Gr.  jEtlmlia,  Lat.  Jlva),  an  Italian  island 
in  the  Mediterranean,  6  miles  off  the  coast  of 
Tuscany.  Area,  85  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  26,997.  The 
coast  is  precipitous,  the  interior  traversed  by 
three  ranges  which  reach  3380  feet.  The  chief  in- 
dustry is  iron-mining  ;  serpentine,  chalk,  granite, 
and  marble  also  are  quarried,  while  salt  is  pro- 
duced from  salt-pans.  Much  wine  is  made,  and 
the  tunny-fisheries  are  important.  Porto  Ferrajo, 
the  capital,  has  a  pop.  of  5391.  Elba  was  the 
place  of  Napoleon's  exile,  1814-15. 

El  Hassan,  a  town  of  Turkey,  in  central 
Albania,  75  miles  SSE.  of  Scutari.    Pop.  15,000. 

Elbe  (the  Roman  Alhiss.n(!i  the  Bohemian  Lahe), 
an  important  river  of  northern  Europe.  It  is 
formed  by  numerous  streams  which  rise  on  the 
southern'  side  of  the  Riesengebirge,  a  range  on 
the  borders  of  Bohemia,  and  unite  at  an  eleva- 


tion of  2230  feet  above  sea-level.  Thence  it  winds 
725  miles  north-westward  through  Bohemia, 
Saxony,  An  halt,  and  Hanover,  passing  Pirna, 
Dresden,  Meissen,  Torgau,  Wittenberg,  Magde- 
burg, Harburg,  and  Hamburg,  until  it  empties 
itself  into  the  North  Sea  at  Cuxhaven,  where 
it  attains  a  breadth  of  upwards  of  10  miles. 
Here  the  tide  rises  about  10  feet ;  it  is  felt  100 
miles  up  the  river.  The  Elbe  is  navigable  for 
525  miles,  as  far  as  Melnik,  but  for  sea-vessels 
only  up  to  Hamburg  (84  miles) ;  and  it  drains  an 
area  of  55,000  sq.  m.,  of  which  two-thirds  is 
German  territory.  Of  its  fifty  and  more  tribu- 
taries, the  most  important  are  the  Moldau,  Eger, 
Mulde,  Saale,  and  Havel  (with  the  Spree) ;  and 
in  connection  with  these  is  a  fine  system  of 
canals.  The  Elbe  is  divided  into  several  branches 
between  Hamburg  on  the  north,  and  Harburg 
on  the  south,  by  the  numerous  islands  that  there 
interrupt  its  course  ;  and  between  Hamburg  and 
the  sea  the  sandbanks  and  shoals  leave  only 
a  very  narrow  channel,  4  to  5  fathoms  deep. 
The  scenery  of  the  Elbe,  although  generally 
pleasing,  is  not  remarkable,  except  in  the  Saxon 
Switzerland,  above  Dresden,  where  the  river's 
course  is  between  fantastic  sandstone  cliflfs, 

Elberfeld,  one  of  the  manufacturing  capitals 
of  Germany,  on  the  Wupper,  an  affluent  of  the 
Rhine,  16  miles  ENE.  of  Dlisseldorf.  It  is  fam- 
ous for  its  dyeing,  bleaching,  and  calico-printing 
establishments,  also  for  its  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  cotton,  silks,  tapes,  ribbons,  thread,  lace, 
buttons,  fancy  woollen  goods,  &c.  Its  Turkey- 
red  dyeworks  are  especially  noted.  There  are 
also  manufactures  of  machinery,  iron  and  steel 
wares,  pianofortes,  paper,  and  carpets,  besides 
large  breweries.  For  miles  around  an  immense 
niunber  of  weavers  are  labouring  for  the  Elber- 
feld factories.  Pop.  (1875)  80,599  ;  (1890)  125,890 ; 
(1900)156,966. 

Elbeuf  (nearly  El-huf),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Seine-Infdrieure,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Seine,  14  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Rouen  by  rail.  The 
manufactures  of  cloth,  flannel  fabrics,  billiard 
cloth,  and  light  woollens  of  every  colour  and 
description,  employ  some  25,000  men  here  and  in 
the  neighbouring  towns  (Caudebec,  &c.),  and  the 
annual  output  of  the  district  is  valued  at  from 
85,000,000  to  95,000,000  francs.  Pop.  (1872) 
22,503  ;  (1901)  18,164. 

Elblng,  a  town  of  "West  Prussia,  48  miles  by 
rail  ESE.  of  Danzig,  on  the  navigable  Elbing, 
which  enters  the  Frisches  Half  5  miles  to  the 
north.  Founded  in  the  13th  century  by  colonists 
from  Liibeck  and  Bremen,  it  has  a  14th-century 
church,  and  a  public  library  with  over  25,000 
volumes.  A  canal  connects  it  with  the  Dreventz, 
a  tributary  of  the  Vistula,  and  in  1877-84  a  mole 
was  constructed  in  the  harbour,  3500  yards  long 
and  5J  wide.  Steamshijjs  and  torpedo-boats  are 
built  here ;  and  there  are  large  iron  and  brass 
rolling-mills,  and  tinware,  machine,  and  cigar 
factories,  &c.  The  linen  industry  and  the  export 
of  lampreys  are  also  of  importance.  Pop.  (1875) 
33,572  ;  (1900)  52,520. 

Elburz  {El-boor^),  a  mountain-range  of  Persia, 
running  for  450  miles  along  the  southe-n  border 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  culminating  in  Mount 
Demavend  (q.v.).— Elburz  is  also  the  name  of 
the  loftiest  summit  of  the  Caucasus  (q.v.). 

Elche  (El'tchayX  a  Spanish  town,  13  miles  SW. 
of  Alicante  by  rail,  fringed  by  an  encircling  grove 
of  nearly  100,000  palms,  which  gives  the  place  an 
appearance  half  Moori.sh.  It  has  a  fine  collegiate 
church,  with  a  lofty  tiled  dome.    Pop.  29,636. 


ELCHINGEN 


250 


ELLESMERE 


Elchingen  (Ellih'ing-en),  a  Bavarian  village, 
near  the  Danuoe,  5  miles  NE.  of  Uliii.  Here,  on 
14th  October  1805,  Ney  defeated  the  Austrians. 

Elcho  Castle,  a  ruin,  Perthshire,  on  the  Tay, 
5Jmile3ESE.  of  Perth. 

Elderslie,  a  Renfrewshire  village,  2\  miles  W. 
by  S.  of  Paisley.  It  is  the  traditional  birthplace 
of  Wallace. 

Eldon,  a  Durham  township,  3^  miles  SE.  of 
Bishop  Auckland. 

Elephanta  (native  Ghdrdpuri),  an  island  over 
4  miles  in  circuit,  in  the  liarbour  of  Bombay,  6 
miles  E.  of  the  city,  and  4  from  the  mainland. 
It  owed  its  European  name  to  a  large  figure  of 
an  elephant  near  its  former  landing-place,  which, 
after  1814,  gradually  sank  into  a  shapeless  mass. 
Of  its  far-famed  Brahraanic  rock-caves  (9th  c), 
four  are  coinplete,  or  nearly  so ;  the  most  im- 
portant is  the  Great  Temple,  still  used  by  the 
Hindus  on  Sivaite  festivals.  It  is  hewn  out  of 
a  hard  trap-rock,  and  measures  130  feet  either 
way.  The  most  striking  of  its  many  sculptures 
is  a  three-headed  bust  of  Siva,  nearly  18  feet  high 
and  23  feet  round  the  eyes. 

Elephantine  (Arab.  Gezirat  Asxodn  or  Gezirat-ez- 
Zahr,  '  isle  of  flowers '),  a  small  island  of  the  Nile, 
with  remains  of  an  ancient  city,  lying  opposite  to 
Assouan  (q.v.),  on  the  confines  of  Egypt  and 
Nubia,  in  24°  5'  N.  lat.,  and  32°  34'  B.  long.  Its 
ruins  were  much  demolished  in  1822. 

Eletz.    See  Jeletz. 

Eleusls,  an  ancient  town  of  Attica,  on  the  Bay 
of  Eleusis,  opposite  Salamis.  It  was  the  seat  of 
the  worship  of  Ceres,  whose  mystic  rites  were 
performed  here  with  great  pomp.  Its  site  is  now 
occupied  by  the  little  village  of  Lefsina,  10^ 
miles  WNW.  of  Athens  by  rail. 

Eleu'thera,  one  of  the  Bahamas  (q.v.),  has  an 
area  of  238  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  7010. 

Elgin  (El' gin;  gr  hard),  county  town  of  Elgin- 
shire, 5  m.  by  rail  SSW.  of  its  port,  Lossiemouth, 
37  ENE.  of  Inverness,  178  N.  of  Edinburgh.  It  lies 
on  the  Lossie,  in  the  '  garden  of  Scotland  ; '  and 
while  it  retains  a  few  quaint  old  houses,  a  cross 
(restored  1888),  and  its  ruined  cathedral,  it  has 
brightened  up  much  during  the  19th  century. 
The  Elgin  Institution  was  erected  in  1832  as  an 
almshouse  and  school,  out  of  £70,000  bequeathed 
by  General  Anderson.  Other  edifices  are  Gray's 
Hospital  (1819)  and  the  adjoining  asylum  (1834- 
65),  the  county  buildings  (1866),  the  court-house 
(1841),  the  market  buildings  (1850),  the  academy 
(1800),  and  the  parish  church  (1828),  with  a  tower 
112  feet  high.  The  once  glorious  Gothic  cathe- 
dral (1224-1538)  was  289  feet  long  by  120  across 
the  transept,  with  two  western  towers,  and  a 
loftier  central  spire  (198  feet).  It  was  partially 
burned  in  1270,  and  again  in  1390  by  the  '  Wolf  of 
Badenoch  ;'  was  dismantled  in  1568  ;  and  in  1711 
was  finally  reduced  to  ruins  by  the  fall  of  the 
great  tower.  The  chapter-house,  with  its 
'  prentice  pillar,'  is  noteworthy.  Little  remains 
of  the  royal  castle,  which  in  1296  lodged  Edward 
I.  of  England  ;  its  ruins  are  surmounted  by  a 
monument  (1839-55)  to  the  last  Duke  of  Gordon. 
A  royal  burgh  since  the  reign  of  David  I.  (1124- 
53),  Elgin  unites  with  Banft,  Macduff,  Peterhead, 
Inverurie,  Cullen,  and  Kintore  to  return  one 
member.     Pop.  (1831)  4493  ;  (1901)  S460. 

Elgin,  a  city  of  Illinois,  on  the  Fox  River,  36 
miles  WNW.  of  Chicago,  with  large  watch-works 
and  manufactures  of  carriages  and  agricultural 
machinery.    Pop.  (1880)  8787  ;  (1900)  22,433. 


Elginshire,  or  Moray,  a  Scottish  county  ex- 
tending 33  miles  along  the  low  shore  of  tha  Moray 
Firth.  It  is  34  miles  long,  and  488  sq.  m.  in  are^a, 
a  former  detached  portion  having  in  1870  been 
annexed  to  Inverness-shire,  whilst  a  correspond- 
ing portion  was  transferred  froni  that  county  to 
Elginshire.  The  surface  has  a  general  southward 
ascent,  and  attains  a  niaxinunu  altitude  of  2328 
feet.  Rivers  are  the  Spey,  Lossie,  and  Findhorn ; 
and  of  several  small  lakes  much  the  largest  is 
Lochindorb  (2  miles  by  5  furlongs).  West  of  the 
Findhorn's  mouth  are  the  sand-dunes  of  Culbin, 
due  to  drifting  chiefly  in  1694,  and  some  of  them 
rising  118  feet.  Agriculture  is  liighly  advanced 
over  AU  the  flat  fertile  lower  tract.  Elgin  and  Nairn 
shires  return  one  member  to  parliament.  Pop. 
(1801)  27,760;  (1841)  35,012;  (1901)  44,800.  Tlie 
ancient  province  of  Moray  included  the  counties 
of  Elgin  and  Nairn,  with  parts  of  Banff  and  In- 
verness. Antiquities  are  Kinloss  Abbey  (1150), 
Pluscarden  Priory  (1230),  a  Romanesque  church  at 
Birnie,  and  the  castles  of  Duffus,  Lochindorb, 
and  Spynie.     See  the  history  by  Rampini  (1897). 

Elgon,  a  volcanic  mountain  mass,  40  miles 
square,  in  British  East  Africa,  50  miles  NNE. 
of  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  first  visited  by  Jo.seph 
Thomson  in  1883 ;  highest  point  of  the  crater's 
rim,  14,100  feet  above  the  sea.  The  southern 
slopes  show  a  series  of  vast  caves,  partly  artificial. 

Elie,  a  watering-place  of  Fife,  23  miles  NE.  of 
Eilinburgh.    Pop.  with  Earlsferry  (q.v.)  1000. 

Eliock  House,  the  birthplace  of  the  '  Admir- 
able' Crichton,  in  Dumfriesshire,  3  njiles  SE.  of 
Sanquhar. 

Elizabetgrad,  a  fortified  town  of  South  Russia, 
in  the  government  of  Kherson,  283  miles  by  rail 
NE.  of  Odessa.  Soap-boiling,  tallow-refining,  and 
candle-making  are  carried  on.  Elizabetgrad  was 
founded  in  1754,  and  named  after  the  Empress 
Elizabeth.     Pop.  63,418. 

Elizabeth  City,  capital  of  Union  county,  Ncav 
Jersey,  and  formerly  capital  of  the  state,  lies  5 
miles  SSW.  of  Newark  by  rail,  with  one  quarter 
(Elizabethport)  on  Staten  Island  Sound.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  large  Singer  sewing-machine  factory, 
and  of  manufactories  of  oilcloth,  pottery,  iron- 
wares, hats,  combs,  &c.  Elizabethport  has 
steamboat  communication  with  New  York  City, 
12  miles  NW.,  and  ships  much  anthracite  coal. 
A  great  drawbridge  over  Staten  Island  Sound, 
800  feet  long,  with  a  draw-span  500  feet  long, 
connects  New  Jersey  here  with  the  Stateu  Island 
shore.     Pop.  (1880)  28,229 ;  (1900)  52,130- 

Elizabetpol,  a  town  of  Russian  Transcaucasia, 
on  a  tributary  of  the  Kur.    Pop.  19,000. 

Elkhart,  a  town  of  Indiana,  at  the  junction  of 
the  St  Joseph  and  Elkhart  rivers,  101  miles  E.  by 
S.  of  Chicago  by  rail,  with  manufactures  of  paper, 
machinery,  flour,  starch,  &c.     Pop.  15,360. 

Elland,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, on  the  river  Calder,  3  miles  SE.  of  Halifax 
by  rail.  It  has  cloth-mills,  and  valuable  stone- 
quarries  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  12,000. 

Ellen's  Isle.     See  Katrine  (Loch). 

Elleray,  the  Westmorland  seat  of  Prof.  Wilson 
('  Christopher  North '),  close  to  Windermere 
village. 

EUesmere,  a  Shropshire  town,  near  a  beautiful 
lake  or  mere  of  120  acres,  19  miles  NNW. 
of  Shrewsbury.  Population,  2000.  The  EUes- 
mere Canal,  connecting  the  Severn  and  the 
Mersey,  passes  here.  It  is  carried  across  the 
Dee  and  the  Vale  of  Llangollen  by  Telford's 
EUesmere  Aqueduct  (1605),  1007  feet  long  and 


ELLESMERE  LAND 


251 


ELY 


127  high.  Ellesniere  Port,  at  its  mouth,  on  the 
Mersey,  is  on  tlie  Manchester  Sliip  Canal. 

EUesmere  Land,  part  of  the  Arctic  territory 
west  of  Smith  Sound, 

Ellice  Islands,  in  the  South  Pacific,  due  N.  of 
Fiji,  and  SW.  of  Samoa,  extend  for  360  miles 
from  NW.  to  SB.  between  5^  and  11°  S.  lat.,  and 
176°  and  180°  E.  long.  They  consist  of  nine 
groups  of  atolls  or  coral  islands,  one  of  which 
groups,  known  specially  as  Ellice  Islands  (the 
main  island  in  it  being  Funafuti),  was  discovered 
in  1819  by  the  American  Captain  Peyster.  An- 
other had  previously  been  discovered  in  1781. 
The  islands  grow  little  but  cocoa-nut  trees,  copra 
being  the  main  export.  Pop.  2500  Polynesians, 
mostly  Christianised. 

Ellichpur,  a  town  in  the  north  of  Berar,  at  one 
time  capital  of  the  Deccan,  and  said  to  have  con- 
tained 40,000  houses.  Its  buildings  include  a 
ruinous  palace,  a  fort,  and  several  handsome 
tombs  of  the  nawabs.  The  military  cantonment 
of  Paratwada  is  2  miles  distant.    Pop.  36,240. 

Ellisland,  Burns's  farm  in  Dumfriesshire,  on 
the  Nith's  right  bank,  6  miles  NNW.  of  Dumfries. 

Ellon,  an  Aberdeenshire  village,  on  the  Ythan, 
20  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Aberdeen.    Pop.  1554. 

EUora,  a  village  in  the  Nizam's  donimions,  13 
miles  NW.  of  Aurungabad.  Of  its  wonderful 
rock-cut  temples,  which  date  from  the  7th  cen- 
tury, there  are  34  of  a  large  size,  Buddhist, 
Brahmanical,  and  Jain.  Some  are  cave-temples 
proper ;  but  others  are  vast  buildings  hewn  out 
of  the  solid  granite  of  the  hills,  having  an  ex- 
terior as  well  as  an  interior  architecture. 

EUore  (Elur),  a  town  in  the  Godavari  district, 
Madras,  on  the  Jammaler  River,  255  miles  N.  of 
Madras,  with  manufactures  of  woollen  carpets 
and  saltpetre.     Pop.  39,382. 

Ellsworth,  a  port  of  entry  in  Maine,  on  the 
river  Union,  28  miles  SE.  of  Bangor,  with  a  large 
lumber  trade.     Pop.  4304. 

EUwangen  (Ell-vang'en),  a  towji  of  Wiirtemberg, 
on  the  Jagst  River,  55  miles  N.  of  Ulm.  Pop. 
4993.  Hohen-BUwangen,  an  old  castle  close  by, 
has  been  an  agricultural  school  since  1843. 

Elm,  a  Swiss  village  in  Glarus  canton,  with 
1000  inhabitants  when,  in  1881,  the  whole  of  the 
northern  side  of  Tshingel  Peak  (10,230  feet) 
crashed  down  upon  it. 

Elmalu,  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  in  the  province 
of  Konieh,  45  miles  W.  of  Adalia.     Pop.  25,000. 

Elmina,  a  British  settlement  on  the  Gold 
Coast,  W.  of  Cape  Coast  Castle.  First  settled  by 
merchants  of  Dieppe,  it  came  to  the  Portuguese 
in  1471,  to  the  Dutch  in  1637,  and  in  1872  to  the 
British,  who  destroyed  the  native  town  during 
the  Ashanti  war.    Pop.  6000. 

Elmlra,  capital  of  Chemung  county,  New  York, 
on  the  Chemung  River,  149  miles  ESE.  of  Buftalo 
by  rail.  It  manufactures  iron  rails,  railway  and 
other  carriages,  flour,  leather,  woollens,  boots, 
&c.     Pop.  (1870)  15,863  ;  (1900)  35,672. 

Elmshorn,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Sleswick-Holsteiii,  on  a  navigable  feeder  of  the 
Elbe,  20  milbs  NW.  of  Hamburg.    Pop.  15,000. 

El  Obeid.    See  Obeid  (El). 

Elopura.    See  Borneo. 

El  Paso  del  Norte  (FA  Pdh'zo  del  Nor'tay,  '  the 
pass  of  the  north '),  or  El  Paso,  a  town  of  Mexico, 
on  the  Rio  Grande's  right  bank,  1232  miles  NNW. 
of  Mexico  City  by  rail.  Pop.  6000.— On  the 
opposite  bank  is  El  Paso,  capital  of  El  Paso 
county,  Texas.      Population,  16,100. 


Elphln,  a  town  (once  episcopal)  of  Roscommon, 
9  miles  SW.  of  Carrick-on-Shannon.     Pop.  855. 

Elsass-Lothringen.     See  Alsace-Lorraine. 

Elsinore  (Dan.  Helsingdr),  a  seaport  of  Den- 
mark, on  the  island  of  Zealand,  and  on  the 
western  shore  of  the  Sound,  at  its  narrowest 
part,  2^  miles  nearly  due  west  of  Helsingborg  in 
Sweden,  and  37  by  rail  N.  of  Copenhagen.  The 
harbour  (enlarged  in  1883-84)  has  18  to  20  feet  of 
water,  and  the  roadstead  outside  affords  excellent 
anchorage.  Pop.  14,082.  Saxo  Grammaticus  was 
born  here,  and  here  too  Shakespeare  lays  the 
scene  of  Hamlet.  A  little  east  of  the  town  is  the 
castle  of  Kronborg,  built  by  Frederick  II.  rn 
1580,  while  to  the  north-west  stands  the  royal 
castle  of  Marienlyst. 

Elster,  the  name  of  two  rivers  of  Germany. 
The  White  Elster  rises  at  the  foot  of  the  Elster 
Mountains,  on  the  NW.  boundary  of  Bohemia, 
and  flows  122  miles  N.  to  the  Saale,  above  Halle, 
in  Prussian  Saxony.  The  Black  Elster  rises  in 
Saxony,  south  of  Elstra,  and  flows  112  miles 
NW.  to  the  Elbe,  9  miles  SE.  of  Wittenberg. 

Elstow,  Bunyan's  birthplace,  1^  mile  S.  of 
Bedford. 

Elstree,  a  village  on  the  south  border  of  Herts, 
7  miles  S.  of  St  Albans,  with  a  noted  school. 
Pop.  750.  In  a  gig  on  the  road  near  Elstree, 
Thurtell  in  1823  shot  Weare ;  and  the  '  Gills 
Hill  murder'  and  trial  largely  occupied  con- 
temporary literature. 

Elswlck,  a  western  part  of  Newcastle,  forming 
three  wards  of  the  county  borough.  Here  are 
the  works  of  Sir  W.  G.  (Lord)  Armstrong.  The 
engineering  section  dates  from  1847,  tlie  ord- 
nance-works from  1857.  Blswick  Park,  including 
Elswick  Hall,  was  opened  as  a  recreation  ground 
in  1878. 

Eltham,  seat  formerly  of  a  royal  palace  in 
Kent,  now  part  of  the  metropolitan  borough  of 
Woolwich  (q.v.). 

Elton,  a  shallow,  oval-shaped  salt  lake  of 
Russia,  62  sq.  m.  in  area,  is  situated  in  the 
government  of  Astrakhan,  in  lat.  48°  56'  N.,  and 
long.  46°  40'  B.  The  annual  yield  of  salt  ranges 
between  88,000  and  96,000  tons. 

Elvas,  the  strongest  fortified  city  of  Portugal, 
near  the  Spanish  frontier,  10  miles  W.  of  Badsyoz 
by  rail.     Pop.  13,471. 

Ely  (Ea'lie),  a  city  of  Cambridgeshire,  crowns  a 
low  eminence  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ouse,  amid 
the  fen-land,  16  miles  NNB.  of  Cambridge,  and  30 
SE.  of  Peterborough.  Here,  in  673,  St  Ethel- 
dreda  founded  a  mixed  monastery,  which,  burned 
in  870  by  the  Danes,  was  refounded  in  970  as  a 
Benedictine  abbey.  That  abbey  a  century  later 
became  Hereward's  'camp  of  refuge,'  until,  in 
1071,  Abbot  Thurstan  had  to  surrender  to  the 
Conqueror.  In  1083  the  first  Norman  abbot  laid 
the  foundation  of  the  present  church,  which  was 
made  a  cathedral  in  1109,  and  which,  as  we  see 
it  to-day,  is  one  of  the  most  glorious  shrines  in 
Christendom.  A  cruciform  structure,  537  feet 
long  by  179  feet  across  the  great  transepts,  it 
ofl"ers  examples  of  all  styles  of  Gothic,  from  early 
Norman  to  late  Perpendicular,  and  is  a  growth  of 
more  than  four  centuries.  There  is  the  western 
tower,  225  feet  high  (1174-1382) ;  the  late  Norman 
nave  (1150-89),  208  by  78  feet,  with  modern 
painted  ceiling ;  the  richly  sculptured  choir 
(1234-1533);  and  at  the  crossing,  the  exquisite 
Decorated  '  octagon '  and  lantern  (1322-42),  built 
by  Alan  de  Walsinghani  on  the  fall  of  the  great 
central  tower.    This,  '  the  only  Gothic  dome  in 


EMBA 


252 


ENGLAND 


existence,'  rises  to  a  height  of  170  feet.  The  13th- 
century  Giiesten  Hall  is  now  the  deanery,  and 
the  '  Ely  Porta,'  or  great  gateway  (1380),  houses 
a  grammar-school  founded  by  Henry  VIII.  in 
1541.  The  Bishop's  Palace  is  a  fine  brick  Tudor 
building.  Cromwell  lived  here  1636-40.  There 
is  a  weekly  market;  and  oil,  earthenware,  and 
clay-pipes  are  manufactured.  The  population  is 
about  7700.  The  'Isle'  of  Ely  contains  also 
March  and  Wisbeach,  and  is  355  sq.  m.  in  area. 
Till  1837  it  was  a  county  palatine. 

Emba,  a  river  in  the  Kirghiz  territory,  Asiatic 
Russia,  flowing  450  miles  SW.  to  the  Caspian. 

Embrun  {On^bru-nF' ;  anc.  Ebrodunuvi),  a  forti- 
fied town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Hautes  Alpes,  on 
the  Durance,  and  at  the  base  of  Mont  St  Guil- 
laume  (8344  feet),  23  iniles  B.  of  Gap  by  rail. 
The  cathedral  of  its  former  see  (374-1802)  has  a 
lofty  Romanesque  tower.    Pop.  3857. 

Emden,  the  chief  commercial  town  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Hanover,  a  little  below  the 
embouchure  of  the  Ems  into  Dollart  Bay,  77 
miles  WNW.  of  Bremen  by  rail.  Walled  and 
moated,  it  is  well  built,  with  several  lofty  antique 
houses  in  the  Dutch  style,  and  is  intersected  by 
numerous  canals.  A  canal  runs  south  from  the 
town  to  Dollart  Bay,  a  distance  of  two  miles ; 
but  it  is  navigable  at  high-water  only,  and  then 
only  by  vessels  of  14  feet  draught.  The  finest 
building  is  the  town-hall  (1574-76).  Emden  has 
a  large  shipping  trade  and  several  manufactures  ; 
the  principal  industry,  however,  is  shipbuilding. 
Pop.  17,020,  Emden  belonged  originally  to  East 
Friesland,  and  after  various  vicissitudes  was 
created  a  free  imperial  town  under  Dutch  pro- 
tection in  1595,  but  in  1744  passed  to  Prussia. 
After  belonging  successively  to  Holland,  France, 
and  Hanover,  it  again  became  Prussian  in  1866. 

Emilia,  a  compartimento  of  Central  Italy,  com- 
prising the  provinces  of  Bologna,  Ferrara,  Forli, 
Modena,  Parma,  Piacenza,  Ravenna,  and  Reggio 
Emilia.  Through  them  passed  the  ancient  Via 
Emilia,  and  hence  the  name. 

Emmerich  (Em'rmr-ihh),  an  old  town  of  Rhen- 
ish Prussia,  on  the  Rhine,  94  miles  by  rail  B.  of 
Rotterdam.  It  manufactures  iron,  glass,  tobacco, 
&c.  The  seat  of  a  famous  Jesuit  seminary  from 
1592  to  1811,  its  pop.  dwindled  from  40,000  in  the 
15th  century  to  8000 ;  it  is  now  11,000. 

Em'poli,  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the  Arno,  22  miles 
WSW.  of  Florence.     Pop.  6719. 

Emporia,  capital  of  Lyon  county,  Kansas,  on 
the  Neosho,  a  tributary  of  the  Cottonwood  River, 
61  miles  SSW.  of  Topeka  by  rail.     Pop.  8551. 

Ems,  a  river  of  north-west  Germany,  rises  in 
Westphalia,  on  the  south-west  slope  of  the  Teuto- 
burger  Wald,  and  flows  205  miles  NW.  and  N.  to 
Dollart  Bay,  an  estuary  of  the  German  Ocean. 
It  is  navigable  as  far  as  Greven  (139  miles),  and 
canals  connect  it  with  the  Lippe  and  Jade. 

Ems,  or  Bad  Ems,  a  German  bathing-place 
known  to  the  Romans,  on  the  river  Lahn,  10 
miles  BSE.  of  Coblenz  by  rail.  Pop.  6431,  a 
number  more  than  doubled  by  patients.  Its 
warm  mineral  springs  (80-135°)  contain  soda  and 
carbonic  acid  gas.  Here,  in  1870,  Benedetti  got 
his  final  answer  from  King  William. 

Emsworth,  a  small  seaport  of  Hampshire,  2 
miles  BSE.  of  Havant.     Pop.  1881. 

Enara,  an  isleted  lake  in  the  extreme  north  of 
Finland,  550  sq.  m.  in  area. 

Enarea,  or  Limmu,  a  kingdom  of  Africa,  SW. 
of  Shoa,  with  an  area  of  over  1100  sq.  m.,  and 


40,000  inhabitants.  It  is  a  land  of  forest-clad 
hills,  over  8000  feet  high,  their  slopes  covered 
with  the  wild  coftee-plant.  Its  people,  a  stem 
of  the  Gallas,  are  mostly  Mohammedans.  The 
chief  town  is  Saka,  near  the  river  Gibbe. 

Enderby  Land  lies  in  65°  57'  S,  lat.,  47°  20' 
B.  long.,  discovered  by  the  whaler  John  Briscoe 
in  1831,  and  named  after  his  employer,  Samuel 
Enderby,  an  adventurous  London  merchant,  the 
grandfather  of  Chinese  Gordon. 

Endor,  a  village  of  Palestine,  4  miles  S,  of 
Tabor,  now  a  poor  mud  hamlet. 

Endrick,  a  Stirlingshire  stream,  winding  20 
miles  westward  to  the  foot  of  Loch  Lomond, 

Enfield,  a  town  of  Middlesex,  13  miles  N.  of 
London.  The  government  small-arms  factory 
here  is  capable  of  turning  out  5000  rifles  a  week  ; 
the  ordinary  output  is,  however,  about  1800. 
Pop.  (1851)  9453  ;  (1891)  31,532  ;  (1901)  42,738. 

Engadine  (Eng'ga-deen),  a  famous  valley  in  the 
Swiss  canton  of  the  Grisons,  and  one  of  the  loftiest 
inhabited  regions  in  Europe,  extends  65  miles 
NNB.  along  the  Inn  and  its  lakes,  from  the  foot 
of  Mount  Maloja  to  the  village  of  Martinsbruck. 
It  is  divided  into  two  portions— the  Upper  En- 
gadine towards  the  south-west,  and  the  Lower 
Engadine  to  the  north-east,  the  latter  the  wilder 
and  bleaker  of  the  two.  The  Iim  has  many 
villages  upon  its  banks,  the  highest  of  which,  St 
Moritz,  is  6090  feet  above  sea-level,  while  the 
lowest,  Martinsbruck,  is  3343  feet.  Most  of  these 
villages  have  of  late  years  become  health  and 
pleasure  resorts.  Pop.  11,600,  almost  all  of  the 
Reformed  Church.  The  language  most  generally 
spoken  is  the  Ladin  (a  corruption  of  Latin),  a 
Romance  tongue,  resembling  Italian. 

Enghien  {On'-ghe-an^'),  a  watering-place  and 
summer-resort,  7  miles  N.  of  Paris,  on  a  small 
lake.  It  has  five  sulphur-springs,  good  for  the 
skin  and  throat.  Pop.  2670.— (2)  In  the  Belgian 
province  of  Hainault,  a  busy  manufacturing  place 
(beer,  salt,  lace,  linen,  and  cloth).    Pop.  4387. 

England  is  the  southern,  the  larger,  and  by 
far  the  more  populous  portion  of  Great  Britain, 
the  largest  and  most  important  of  European 
islands.  Separated  from  Belgium,  Holland,  Ger- 
many, and  Denmark  by  the  North  Sea,  from 
France  by  another  'streak  of  silver  sea,'  the 
Channel,  and  from  Ireland  by  St  George's  Chan- 
nel and  the  Irish  Sea,  the  kingdom  of  England 
and  Wales  has  only  one  short  land  frontier,  that 
towards  Scotland.  In  shape  it  forms  an  irregular 
triang;le,  of  which  the  eastern  side  measures  in 
a  straight  line  350  miles,  the  southern  325  miles, 
the  western  425 ;  but  its  shores  are  so  deeply 
indented  by  bays  and  estuaries  as  to  make  the 
coast-line  longer  in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the 
land  than  in  any  other  country  but  Scotland  and 
Greece.  The  area  of  the  British  Islands  (120,832 
sq.  m.)  is  less  than  ^Jrjth  of  the  land-surface  of 
the  world.  The  colonies  and  dependencies  of 
the  empire  of  which  England  is  the  centre  now 
cover  about  a  fifth  of  the  land-area  of  the  globe. 
England  without  Wales  (50,823  sq.  m.)  is  about 
the  size  of  Roumania,  less  than  a  fourth  of  France 
or  of  Gennany,  and  but  little  larger  than  the 
single  state  of  New  York  (49,170  sq.  m.);  and 
England  with  Wales  (58,186)  is  not  equal  in  area 
to  the  state  of  Georgia  (59,475),  nor  a  fourth  of 
the  size  of  Texas.  Twenty-eight  of  the  states  or 
territories  in  the  Union  are  each  larger  than 
England,  several  much  larger  than  the  whole 
United  Kingdom.  Her  name  England  owes  to 
the  EngU  or  Angles,  who  with  the  kindred  Jutes 


ENGLAND 


253 


ENGLAND 


(Gedtas)  and  Saxons  (Scaxe)  descended  on  Albion 
or  Britain,  inhabited  by  Celts  and  Celticised 
Iberians,  and  conquered  and  occupied  the  greater 
part  of  it  in  the  5th-8th  centuries.  These  kindred 
peoples  all  learned  to  call  themselves  Englisc 
or  English,  and  by  Englaland  they  understood 
the  whole  area  now  occupied  by  them — an  area 
which  in  the  7th  century  extended  from  the  Forth 
to  the  English  Channel.  South-eastern  Scotland, 
as  occupied  by  Angles,  and  not  by  Saxons  or 
Jutes,  was  in  the  stricter  sense  English ;  and 
the  people  of  the  non-Celtic  parts  of  Scotland, 
though  now  markedly  differing  from  the  southern 
English,  are  in  blood  and  in  mental  and  physical 
type  at  least  as  English  in  the  wider  sense  as 
the  people  of  Oxford  or  Kent.  Political  circum- 
stances led  the  English  and  Anglicised  Celts  of 
North  Britain  beyond  Solway  and  Tweed  to  be- 
come the  subjects  of  the  alien  Scottish  king,  but 
their  language  they  still  called  Inglis,  as  distin- 
guished from  the  Gaelic  of  their  Highland  fellow- 
countrymen. 

The  people  of  the  southern  kingdom  constitute 
nearly  three-fourths  of  the  inhabitants  of  the 
three  kingdoms ;  the  English  language  in  some 
form  is  that  of  all  but  a  small  minority  in  any 
of  the  three  ;  the  English  literature  is  the  com- 
mon inheritance  of  the  whole ;  the  constitution 
and  polity  of  England,  slightly  modified,  is  the 
British  constitution  luider  which  the  three  king- 
doms have  unitedly  become  glorious.  Hence  it 
is  not  strange  that  not  merely  by  Englishmen, 
but  by  all  foreigners,  the  name  of  England  is 
used  for  what,  after  the  union  of  the  crowns  of 
Scotland  and  England  in  1603,  became  officially 
Great  Britain,  and  even  for  the  Avhole  empire, 
which,  since  the  Irish  Union  of  ISOl,  is  strictly 
the  United  Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land. For  the  physical  features,  geology,  cli- 
mate, and  statistics  of  England,  see  Great 
Britain. 

The  area  of  England  without  Wales  is  50,823 
sq.  m.  ;i  that  of  Wales,  7363 ;  together,  58,186. 
So  that,  as  the  area  of  the  United  Kingdom,  with 
Scotland,  Ireland,  Man  and  the  Channel  Islands, 
is  120,382,  England  alone  covers  42  per  cent,  of 
the  whole,  Wales  6,  and  England  and  Wales  48 
per  cent.  The  pop.  of  England  and  Wales  in 
1650  is  estimated  to  have  been  5,450,000.  In 
1750  it  was  probably  6,400,000.  From  that  date 
the  increase  was  rapid  ;  and  the  census  of  1801 
showed  a  pop.  of  8,892,536.  In  1841  the  pop. 
of  England  alone  was  15,002,443 ;  in  1851  it  was 
16,921,888  :  in  1861, 18,954,444 ;  in  1871,  21,495,331 ; 
in  1881,  24,613,926.  At  the  census  of  1891,  Eng- 
land had  27,483,490,  and  Wales  1,519,035,  or 
together  29,002,525.  In  1901  the  populatfon  of 
England  was  30,807,243,  and  of  Wales  1,720,600 ; 
together  32,527,843,  making  78*4  per  cent,  or 
three-fourths  of  the  total  population  of  the 
United  Kingdom.  The  density  of  the  pop.  in 
England  is  greater  than  in  any  other  European 
country  (disregarding  Monaco)  save  Saxony  (725 
per  sq.  ni.)  and  Belgium  (589).  In  1901  it  was 
for  England  alone  606  per  sq.  m.  ;  for  England 
and  Wales,  558  ;  for  Scotland,  only  150.  In  Eng- 
land and  Wales  there  were,  in  1901,  33  towns 
with  more  than  100,000  inhabitants,  in  Scot- 
land only  4,  in  Ireland  2.  In  England  there  were 
75  above  50,000,  in  Scotland  7,  in  Ireland. 3. 
For  the  Welsh  counties,  see  Wales  ;  for  the  area 
of  the  English  counties  in  square  miles,  see  the 
articles  on  the  counties.  In  1901  the  area  (in 
acres)  and  the  pop.  of  the  historic  English  coun- 
ties were  as  in  the  following  table  (meanwhile, 
under  the  Local  Government  Act  of  1888,  a  county 


of  London  had  been  created  for  administrative 
purposes  out  of  Middlesex  and  adjoining  coun- 
ties, with  an  area  of  75,442  acres,  and  a  pop.  of 
4,536,541,  included  in  the  following  table  in  the 
old  counties) : 

Counties.  Area.  Population. 

Bedford 294,983  171,240 

Berks 462,210  256,.909 

Buckingham 477,151  195,764 

Cambridge 524.935  190,682 

Cheshire 657,123  815,099 

Cornwall 863,665  322,334 

Cumberland 970,161  266,9:i3 

Derby 658,624  620,322 

Devon 1,655,208  661,314 

Dorset 627,265  202,938, 

Durham 647,592  1,187.361 

Essex 987,032  1,085,771 

Gloucester 783,699  634,729 

Hampshire 1,037,764  797.634 

Hereford 532,<»18  114,380 

Hertford 405,141  250,152 

Huntingdon 229,515  57,771 

Kent 995,392  1,348,841 

Lancashire 1,208,154  4,406,409 

Leicester 511,907  434,019 

Lincoln 1,767,879  498,858 

Middlesex 181,317  3.585,323 

Monmouth 370.350  292,317 

Norfolk 1,356,173  460,120 

Northampton 629,912  338,088 

Northumberland 1,290,312  603,498 

Nottingham 527,752  514,578 

Oxford 483,621  181,120 

Rutland 94,889  19,709 

Shropshire 844.565  239,324 

Somerset 1,049,812  508,256 

Stafford 748,433  1,234,506 

Suffolk 944,060  384,293 

Surrey 485,129  2,012,744 

Sussex 933,269  605,202 

Warwick 566,271  897,835 

Westmorland 500,906  64,303 

Wiltshire 866,677  273,869 

Worcester 472,453  488,338 

York 3  882,851  3,584,762 

Total  of  England 2,527,070       30,807.243 

Total  of  the  12  Welsh  Counties..  4,712,281         1,720,600 

Total  of  England  and  Wales ....  87,239,351       32,527,843 

The  situation  of  Britain  has  been  shown  to  be 
in  the  very  centre  of  the  land-masses  of  the 
globe,  a  very  great  advantage  for  commerce  and 
navigation  ;  England,  being  nearer  the  European 
shores,  enjoys  the  advantage  in  higher  measure 
than  its  sister-kingdoms.  Its  seas  are  less  stormy, 
and  it  has  a  greatly  more  developed  system  of 
navigable  rivers.  The  north-west  of  England  is 
mountainous  and  hilly,  the  east  and  south  mainly 
a  plain  crossed  by  lines  of  low  hills.  The  fer- 
tility of  England  is  much  greater  than  that  of 
Scotland  or  Ireland,  especially  that  of  the  wheat- 
bearing  area  of  eastern  England.  The  agricul- 
turally productive  area  of  England  is  estimated 
at  80  per  cent,  of  its  total,  and  of  Wales  60  per 
cent.,  whereas  that  of  Scotland  is  only  28-8  per 
cent.,  and  of  Ireland  74.  England,  whose  sur- 
face has  been  said  for  variety  to  be  an  epitome 
of  Europe,  is  very  rich  in  minerals,  of  which  coal 
and  iron  are  incomparably  the  most  imi)ortant, 
making  nine-tenths  in  value  of  the  whole.  The 
output  of  coal  and  iron  in  England  is  vastly 
greater  than  in  Scotland,  and  Ireland  is  excep- 
tionally poor  in  both. 

England  (peopled  by  a  mixed  race  descended 
from  pre- Aryan  ' Euskarians,'  Celts,  'Anglo- 
Saxons,'  Danes,  Normans,  and  other  elements) 
became  the  special  home  and  headquarters  of  agri- 
cultural enterprise,  mineral  production,  machine- 
making  of  all  kinds  and  steam-power,  of  com- 
merce, navigation,  and  shipping.  But  the  great 
and  rapid  advance  which  made  the  commerce 
and  manufactures  of  England  the  wonder  of  thQ 


ENGLAND 


254 


Spinal 


world  dates  only  from  the  later  half  of  the  18th 
century,  and  is  largely  owing  to  tlie  unparalleled 
development  of  machinery,  the  use  of  steam  as 
a  motive  power,  improved  communication,  and 
later,  steam-navigation,  railways,  and  electricity. 
It  is  very  observable  that  the  local  distribution 
of  the  great  industries  of  England  has  changed 
very  greatly  since  the  17th  century.  At  the 
Revolution  period,  most  of  the  greater  towns  of 
England  were  in  the  south  and  east ;  but  these 
have  now  been  long  outstripped  by  northern 
rivals,  and  what  were  then  important  manufac- 
turing towns  have  in  many  cases  sunk  into 
mere  villages.  Now  English  manufacturing  in- 
dustries have  most  of  their  special  seats  in  the 
north  and  midlands.  The  greater  wealth  of 
England  as  compared  with  Scotland  and  Ire- 
land may  be  shown  by  a  few  miscellaneous 
figures  as  to  textile  industry,  the  collecting  of 
customs,  and  the  assessments  for  income-tax. 
There  are  in  the  United  Kingdom  about  7200 
textile  factories,  of  which  6185  are  in  England, 
750  in  Scotland,  and  265  in  Ireland.  Of  the  total 
trade  (exports  and  imports)  90-6  per  cent,  falls  to 
England  and  Wales,  7*7  per  cent,  to  Scotland, 
and  1-7  per  cent,  to  Ireland.  Of  the  coal  raised 
in  the  United  Kingdom  in  1902  (227,084,871  tons) 
Scotland  produced  34,115,309  tons.  Though  this 
indicates  with  approximate  accuracy  the  move- 
ment of  shipping,  it .  is  true  that  a  share  of 
the  vessels  in  English  ports  belongs  to  Scottish 
owners,  and  Scotland  builds  in  some  years  almost 
as  large  a  tonnage  as  England  does.  The  total 
amount  of  the  annual  value  of  property  and  pro- 
fits assessed  to  income-tax  in  1901-2  in  the  United 
Kingdom  was  £866,993,453;  the  share  of  England 
being  £749,127,300  ;  of  Scotland,  £83,515,877 ;  and 
of  Ireland,  £34,350,276. 

On  England,  besides  the  histories,  and  the 
books  cited  at  Great  Britain,  see  for  physical 
geography  works  by  A.  Geikie,  Seeley,  Hull, 
Ramsay,  Green,  &c.,  and  works  named  in 
Anderson's  Book  of  British  Topography  (1881) ; 
also  Escott,  England  (1879;  2d  ed.  1886); 
Grant  White,  England  Without  and  Within  (1881) ; 
Thorold  Rogers,  Agricultriral  Prices  in  England 
(1866-93) ;  T.  H.  Ward,  The  Beign  of  Queen  Vic- 
toria; W.  Besant,  Fifty  Years  Ago  (1887);  W. 
Cunningham,  The  Groxoth  of  English  Industry  and 
Commerce  (1882  ;  2d  ed.  1890). 

England,  New.    See  New  England. 

English  Channel.    See  Channel  (English). 

English  Harbour,  a  port  of  Antigua  (q.v.). 

English  River,  (l)  an  estuary  on  the  west 
side  of  Delagoa  Bay ;  (2)  another  name  for  the 
Churchill  River  (q.v.). 

Enkhuizen  (Enk-hoi'zen),  a  town  of  North  Hol- 
land, one  of  the  '  dead  cities  of  the  Zuider  Zee,' 
35  miles  NNE.  of  Amsterdam.  It  was  the  first 
town  to  throw  oflf  the  Spanish  yoke  (1572),  and 
was  Paul  Potter's  birthplace  (1625).     Pop.  6751, 

Enna.    See  Castrogiovanni. 

Ennerdale  Water,  a  Cumberland  lake  (2^  miles 
X  i  mile),  7i  miles  ESE.  of  Whitehaven. 

Ennis,  a  municipal  borough  of  County  Clare, 
on  the  Fergus,  151  miles  WSW.  of  Dublin  by 
rail.  Here  are  the  Catholic  cathedral  of  Killaloe 
diocese,  a  fine  court-house,  the  Clare  lunatic 
asylum,  large  flour-mills,  a  school  founded  by 
Erasmus  Smith  (1689),  a  column  to  O'Connell 
(1863),  and  a  memorial  to  the  'Manchester 
martyrs.'  Till  1885  Ennis  returned  one  member. 
Pop. (1851) 7840  ;  (1901) 5093. 

Bnuiscorthy,  a  Wexford  market-town,  on  the 


navigable  Slaney,  78  miles  S.  of  Dublin  by  rail. 
It  has  a  Norman  castle,  a  church  by  Pugin,  with 
a  good  spire,  and  a  large  corn-trade.  Popula- 
tion, about  5500.  Cromwell  took  Enniscortliy 
in  1649 ;  and  the  rebels  from  Vinegar  Hill  stormed 
and  burned  it  in  1798. 

Enniskillen,  a  municipal  (till  1885,  also  parlia- 
mentary) borough,  the  capital  of  County  Fer- 
managh, 87  miles  WSW.  of  Belfast,  is  beautifully 
situated  on  an  isle  in  the  river  between  Upper 
and  Lower  Loughs  Erne.  It  has  barracks,  a 
lofty  monument  to  Sir  Lowry  Cole,  the  Royal 
Portora  School,  and  a  manufacture  of  straw- 
plait.  Population,  about  5500.  Enniskillen 
is  famous  for  the  victory,  in  1689,  of  William 
III.  over  James  II.  The  Enniskilleners,  or  6th 
Dragoons,  were  drawn  from  the  brave  defenders 
of  the  town. 

Enns,  an  Austrian  river,  rises  in  Salzburg,  12 
miles  S.  of  Radstadt,  and  flows  190  miles  (only 
20  navigable)  northward  to  the  Danube  below 
Linz.     It  receives  the  Salza  and  the  Steier. 

Enoch,  a  little  lonely  loch  of  Kirkcudbright- 
shire, 6  miles  SSW.  of  the  head  of  Loch  Doon. 

Enos  (anc.  ^nos),  a  Turkish  seaport,  on  a 
rocky  isthmus  near  the  Maritza's  mouth,  85  miles 
NW.  of  Gallipoli.    Pop.  8000. 

Enschede  (En-shay' deh),  a  town  of  Holland,  30 
miles  ENE.  of  Zntphen.  Rebuilt  since  the  fire 
(1862),  it  has  yarn  and  cotton  mills.    Pop.  27,600. 

En'terkin,  a  Dumfriesshire  (q.v.)  burn,  rising 
on  Lowther  Hill,  and  running  5i  miles  SSW.  to 
the  Nith  between  Sanquhar  and  Thornhill,  with 
a  descent  of  1720  feet. 

Entrecasteaux.    See  D'Entrecasteaux. 

Entre  Douro  e  Minho  (Entray  Booro-ay- 
Meen'yo),  or  simply  Minho,  a  province  of  NW. 
Portugal,  is  bounded  N.  by  the  river  Minho,  and 
S.  by  the  Douro.  Area,  2810  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
1,014,768.  It  comprises  three  districts,  Braga, 
Vianna,  and  Oporto  (the  capital). 

Entre  Rios  (Entray  Beefos,  '  between  rivers'),  a 
province  in  the  'Mesopotamia  Argentina,'  be- 
tween the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay.  Area,  29,021 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  350,000.     Capital,  Parand. 

Eperies  (Ay-pay-ree-esh' ;  Slovak  Pressova),  an 
old  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Tarcza,  150  miles 
NE.  of  Pesth  by  rail.  A  fire  of  7th  May  1887 
destroyed  400  houses.  It  inanufactures  earthen- 
ware, linens,  and  woollens ;  and  in  the  vicinity 
are  the  Sovar  salt-works.    Pop.  15,139. 

fipemay  (Ay-per-nay'),  a  French  town  in  Marne, 
the  headquarters  of  the  wines  of  Champagne,  on 
the  Marne's  left  bank,  19  miles  WNW.  of  Chalons. 
It  manufactures  earthenware,  hosiery,  refined 
sugar,  and  leather.  Pop.  (1872)  12,877;  (1891) 
18,252  ;  (1901)  19,243. 

Eph'esus,  an  ancient  Ionic  city  of  Asia  Minor 
in  Lydia,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Cayster,  cele- 
brated for  the  famous  temple  of  the  Ephesian 
Diana,  the  largest  Greek  temple  ever  built.  It 
was  the  seat  of  one  of  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia, 
and  the  scene  of  a  great  church  council  in  431, 
but  perished  utterly  during  the  later  Byzantine 
einpire.  There  is  now  a  Avretched  village, 
Ayasaluk,  on  its  site ;  the  ancient  ruins  include 
the  theatre,  the  odeon,  and  the  temple,  exca- 
vated by  Mr  Wood  in  1869-74. 

fipinal  (Ay-pee-ndM),  capital  of  the  French  dep. 
of  Vosges,  at  the  western  base  of  the  Vosges  Moun- 
tains, on  the  Moselle,  46  miles  SSE.  of  Nancy 
by  rail.  It  has  a  ruined  castle,  a  church  founded 
about  960,  and  manufactures  of  cotton,  paper. 


EPIRUS 


255 


&c.    Pop.  (1872)  10, 938 ;  0  ?>01)  21 ,  8<>2,  an  increase 
largely  due  to  the  influx  of  Alsatians. 

Epirus  (Ep-l'rus),  a  mountainous  region  of 
the  Balkan  Peninsula,  between  Mount  Pindus 
and  the  Ionian  Sea.  Peopled  largely  since  the 
14th  century  by  Albanians,  it  formed  latterly  a 
part  of  the  Turkish  vilayet  of  Janina.  Under 
pressure  from  the  great  powers,  Turkey  ceded  the 
portion  east  of  the  river  Arta  to  Greece  in  1881. 

Epping,  a  market-town  of  Essex,  at  the  north 
end  of  Epping  Forest,  16  miles  NNE.  of  London. 
It  is  noted  for  its  cream,  butter,  sausages,  and 
I)ork.  Population,  4000.  —  Epping  (formerly 
Waltham)  Forest  once  covered  all  Essex,  and 
extended  almost  to  London.  Enclosures  gradu- 
ally curtailed  it  from  60,000  acres  to  12,000  in 
1793,  and  to  less  than  4000  in  1871,  when  the 
corporation  of  London  undertook  the  preserva- 
tion of  all  that  was  left,  and  the  recovery  of  the 
more  recent  enclosures.  As  an  outcome  of  their 
exertions,  and  at  a  cost  of  about  £500,000,  the 
Queen  declared  5600  acres  of  Epping  Forest  free 
to  the  public  on  6th  May  1882,  Reached  easily 
from  Loughton,  Chingford,  and  other  stations, 
Epping  Forest  is  still  a  glorious  place  alike  for 
naturalist  and  mere  holiday-maker.  Its  9  sq.  m. 
of  almost  unbroken  woodland,  which  at  High 
Beech  or  Queen  Victoria's  Wood  attain  379  feet 
above  sea-level,  form  oae  of  the  most  extensive 
and  beautiful  pleasure-grounds  in  Europe.  Separ- 
ated by  a  stream  from  Epping  Forest  is  Hainault 
Forest  (the  'garden  fair'  of  Mr  Besant),  dis- 
afforested in  1851.  Here,  till  1820,  stood  Fairlop 
Oak,  the  scene  of  a  July  fair,  as  famous  in  its  way 
as  the  old  Epping  stag-hunt  on  Easter  Monday. 
See  works  by  Buxton  (1884)  and  Fisher  (1887). 

Epsom,  a  market-town  of  Surrey,  on  the  margin 
of  the  Banstead  Downs,  15  miles  SSW.  of  London. 
The  sulphate  of  magnesia  springs,  which  made 
Epsom  so  fashionable  a  resort  in  the  later  half 
of  the  17th  century,  gave  name  to  the  Epsom 
salt  formerly  manufactured  from  them.  Tlie 
Royal  Medical  College  (1851),  on  the  Downs, 
provides  education  for  the  sons  of  medical  men, 
and  affords  a  home  to  decayed  members  of  the 
profession  and  their  widows.  Pop.  (1841)  3533  ; 
(1901)  10,915.  On  the  Downs,  1^  mile  S.  of  the 
town,  the  famous  horseraces  are  held  yearly; 
tlie  Derby  stakes  dating  from  1780. 

Epworth,  a  Lincolnshire  market-town,  in  the 
'  Isle '  of  Axholme,   10  miles  NNW.   of  Gains- 
borough.   John  Wesley  was  a  native.    Pop.  2500. 
Ercildoune.    See  Earlston. 
Erdington,  an  urban  district  of  Warwickshire, 
5  miles  NE.  of  Birmingham.    Pop.  16,368. 

Erebus,  Mount,  an  active  volcano  (12,760  feet) 
in  Victoria  Land,  discovered  in  1841  by  Ross. 

Eregll  (Heraclea),  a  port  on  the  Black  Sea  coast 

of  Asia  Minor,  125  miles  E.  of  tlie  Bosporus,  and 

terminus  of  the  Bagdad  railway  scheme.    Pop.  700. 

Eretria,  an  ancient  trading  town  on  the  SW. 

coast  of  Euboea. 

Erfurt  (Er-foorf),  a  city  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
once  capital  of  Thuringia,  stands  in  a  highly  culti- 
vated plain,  on  the  Gera,  13  m.  W.  of  Weimar  by 
rail.  Till  1873  it  was  strongly  fortified.  Its  two 
citadels,  the  Petersberg  and  the  Cyriaksburg,  were 
formerly  monasteries.  The  cathedral  is  one  of  the 
most  venerable  Gothic  buildings  in  Germany,  with 
a  very  rich  portal,  and  a  bell  cast  in  1497,  and 
weighing  13J  tons.  The  monastery  of  St  Augus- 
tine, famous  as  the  residence  of  Luther,  whose 
cell  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1872,  was  converted 
in  the  year  1819  into  a  foundling  asylum.     From 


1378  to  1816  Erfurt  was  the  seat  of  a  university, 
of  which  the  academy  of  sciences  and  the  library 
(60,000  volumes  and  1000  MSS.)  alone  remain. 
The  growing  of  flowers  and  vegetables,  and  an 
extensive  trade  in  flower-seeds  are  carried  on. 
The  principal  manufactures  are  woollen,  silk, 
cotton,  and  linen  goods,  lamps,  machines,  shoes, 
beer,  malt,  &c.  Pop.  (1871)  43,616;  (1900) 
85,190.  Erfurt,  originally  called  Erpesford  or 
Erpesfurt,  was  made  a  bishopric  in  741.  In  the 
15th  century  its  woollen  and  linen  manufactures 
raised  it  to  the  position  of  one  of  the  foremost 
cities  of  Germany.  Since  1803  (except  during 
1806-14)  it  has  belonged  to  Prussia. 

Ergasteria,  a  mining  town  of  Attica,  near 
Cape  Colonna,  with  ancient  lead  and  silver 
works,  reopened  in  1864.    Pop.  6500. 

Ericht,  Loch,  a  lonely  lake  between  Perth  and 
Inverness  shires,  1  mile  from  Dalwhinnie  station, 
and  60  miles  NW,  of  Perth.  Lying  1153  feet 
above  sea-level,  it  stretches  14|  miles  SSW,, 
is  512  feet  deep,  is  overliung  by  Ben  Alder 
(3757  feet),  and  sends  off  a  stream  6  miles  to 
Loch  Rannoch.— Another  Ericht  runs  10  miles 
SB,  to  the  Isla  near  Coupar- Angus. 

Erid'anus.    See  Po. 

Erie  (Edry),  the  most  southern  of  the  five  great 
lakes  which  empty  themselves  by  the  St  Law- 
rence, separates  the  province  of  Ontario,  in  Can- 
ada, from  Michigan,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and  New 
York.  It  receives  at  its  western  extremity  the 
waters  of  Lakes  Superior,  Michigan,  and  Huron 
by  the  river  Detroit,  and  discharges  them  at  its 
north-east  by  the  Niagara  into  Lake  Ontario. 
With  a  length  of  240  miles,  Erie  has  a  breadth 
varying  from  30  to  nearly  60  miles,  with  an  area 
of  9960  sq,  m.  It  is  8|  feet  below  Lake  Huron, 
and  326  and  573  respectively  above  the  Ontario 
and  the  Atlantic,  The  shores  are  for  the  most 
part  low  and  clayey.  At  its  south-western  ex- 
tremity are  several  wooded  islands,  the  largest 
14  miles  in  circumference.  It  is  by  far  the  shal- 
lowest of  the  five  great  lakes.  Its  mean  depth  is 
70  feet,  its  maximum  210  feet ;  and  from  this  com- 
parative shallowness  and  the  consequent  liability 
to  a  heavy  ground-swell,  as  well  as  the  small 
number  of  good  harbours,  the  navigation  is 
difficult  and  dangerous ;  still  the  amount  of  traffic 
is  enormous.  It  is  connected  by  one  canal  with 
the  Hudson,  and  by  more  than  one  with  the 
Ohio ;  while,  on  the  British  side,  it  communi- 
cates with  the  Ontario  by  means  of  the  ship- 
channel  of  the  Welland  Canal.  From  the  begin- 
ning of  December  it  remains  more  or  less  frozen 
till  March  or  April.  Lake  Erie  was  the  scene  of 
a  naval  defeat  of  the  British  by  the  Americans, 
September  10,  1813. 

Erie,  the  capital  of  Erie  county,  Pennsylvania, 
on  Lake  Erie,  88  miles  SW.  of  Buffalo,  and  95 
NE.  of  Cleveland.  It  is  a  port  of  entry  and  im- 
portant centre  of  trade,  its  harbour,  one  of  the 
largest  and  best  on  the  lake,  being  formed  by  an 
island  4  miles  long,  whose  name,  Presque  Isle 
(Fr.,  'peninsula'),  preserves  the  memory  of  its 
having  been  once  connected  with  the  mainland. 
The  belt  of  water  thus  sheltered  forms  a  natural 
harbour ;  it  is  now  protected  by  a  breakwater,  is 
3  to  4  miles  long  and  1  mile  wide,  and  varies  in 
depth  from  9  to  25  feet.  The  town's  important 
industrial  works  include  oil-refineries,  tanneries, 
iron-foundries,  paper,  flouring,  and  planing  mills, 
factories  for  railroad  cars,  engines  and  boilers, 
&c.  It  is  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop's  see.  A 
natural-gas  well  was  opened  here  in  1889.  Pop. 
(1870)  19,646  ;  (1880)  27,787  ;  (1900)  52,733. 


ERIN 


256 


Erin.    See  Ireland. 

Eriskay,  an  Inverness-shire  island,  2  miles  S. 
of  South  Uist.  Here  Prince  Charles  Edward 
landed,  23d  July  1745.     Pop.  474. 

Erith,  a  town  of  Kent,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Thames,  15J  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Charing  Cross. 
It  is  a  summer-resort  for  Londoners,  and  the 
headquarters  of  several  yacht  clubs  ;  in  the  Erith 
and  Plumstead  Marshes  are  large  powder-maga- 
zines, the  scene  of  a  great  explosion  (1864).  Here 
the  Grace  de  Dieu  was  built  in  1515.  Pop.  of 
parish  (1851)  3231 ;  (1901)  25,296.  See  C.  J.  Smith's 
History  of  Erith  (1873). 

Eritrea.    See  Italy. 

Erivan'  (Persian  Reivdn),  the  fortified  capital 
of  a  Transcaucasian  government,  on  the  elevated 
plain  to  the  north  of  Ararat,  on  the  river  Sanga, 
3432  feet  above  sea-level.  The  town  dates  pro- 
bably from  the  7th  century  a.d.  ;  in  later  years  it 
was  held  alternately  by  Persians  and  Turks. 
Pop.  29,000,  The  province  has  an  area  of  10,165 
sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  805,000,  nearly  all  Armenians 
and  Tartars.    See  Etchmiadzin. 

Erlangen  (Er'lang-en),  a  town  of  Bavaria,  on 
the  Regnitz,  12  miles  N.  of  Nuremberg.  As  old 
as  the  10th  century,  it  owes  its  prosperity  to  the 
settlement  here  of  French  Huguenots  (1685),  and 
to  its  university  (1743),  which  is  celebrated  as  a 
school  of  Protestant  theology,  and  attended  by 
from  600  to  900  students.  A  statue  of  its  founder, 
the  Margrave  Frederick  of  Brandenburg-Baireuth, 
WHS  erected  in  the  market-place  in  1843.  There 
are  manufactures  of  hosiery,  gloves,  mirrors^ 
tobacco,  and  especially  beer.  Burned  in  1449 
and  1632,  Erlangen  came  to  Bavaria  in  1809. 
Pop.  25,000. 

Erlau  {Er'low:  Hung.  Eger),  a  city  of  Hungary, 
on  the  Erlau,  89  miles  NE.  of  Pesth.  It  has  a 
domed  cathedral,  built  since  1837  at  a  cost  of 
£67,000,  and  328  feet  long ;  a  lyceum  (1761-99), 
with  library  and  observatory  ;  a  hospital  (1830)  ; 
and  two  warm  baths.  The  Erlau  red  wine  is 
the  best  of  Hungary.     Pop.  25,427. 

Ermeland  (Er'meh-lant),  a  district  of  the  old 
province  of  Prussia,  inland  of  the  Frisches  Hafif. 

Ermenonville  {Erm'non^veeV),  a  village  18  miles 
NNB.  of  Paris.    Rousseau  died  here. 

Erne,  a  river  of  Ulster,  rising  in  Lough  Gowna, 
on  the  borders  of  Longford  and  Cavan  counties, 
and  flowing  72  miles  north-west,  through  Loughs 
Oughter  and  Erne,  to  Donegal  Bay.  Lough  Erne 
extends  40  miles  through  Fermanagh  county, 
consisting  of  two  lakes,  the  Upper  and  Lower, 
which  are  joined  by  a  network  of  channels  10 
miles  long.  Both  are  studded  with  green  hilly 
islands,  and  teem  with  salmon  and  trout. 

Erroman'go,  one  of  the  New  Hebrides  (q.v.), 
the  scene  of  the  martyrdom  of  the  missionary 
John  Williams. 

Eryx,  the  ancient  name  of  a  mountain  in  NW. 
Sicily,  near  Drepanum  (mod.  Trapani),  with  a 
famous  temple  of  Venus,  hence  called  Eryclna, 

Erzberg.    See  Eisenerz. 

ErzerCim  (Er-zer-oom'),  a  town  in  Turkish 
Armenia,  not  far  from  the  Kara-Su,  or  western 
source  of  the  Euphrates.  It  stands  6200  feet 
above  sea-level,  surrounded  by  mountains.  In 
spite  of  the  Transcaucasian  Railway,  Erzerum 
is  still  an  entrepot  between  Europe  and  the 
interior  of  Asia,  particularly  Persia.  It  imports 
shawls,  silk  goods,  cotton,  tobacco,  rice,  indigo, 
&c.,  and  exports  corn,  sheep  and  cattle,  horses, 
mules,  gall-nuts,  and  copper   and    iron  wares. 


Pop.  40,000.  Erzerilm,  which  passed  to  the  Turka 
in  1517,  had  early  in  the  19th  century  100,000 
inhabitants  ;  but  it  suftered  much  iu  the  wars  of 
1829,  1854-55,  and  1877-78. 

Erzgebirge  (Ertz'ge-bir'ge,  g  hard  ;  '  Ore  Moun- 
tains '),  a  mountain-chain  stretching  SW.  and  NB. 
for  96  miles  on  the  confines  of  Saxony  and 
Bohemia,  from  the  Elbe  valley  to  the  Fichtel- 
gebirge,  and  culminating  in  the  Keilberg  (4052 
feet)  and  Fichtelberg  (3980).  Silver  and  lead  are 
the  chief  metals  ;  next  come  tin,  iron,  cobalt. 

Esbjerg  (Es-byerg ;  g  hard),  a  port  of  Denmark, 
the  best  on  tlie  west  coast  of  Jutland,  with  a 
large  export  trade  in  cattle,  &c.,  mostly  to  Eng- 
land. Its  harbour  was  rebuilt  in  1868-74,  and 
the  pop.  lias  grown  from  4000  to  15,000. 

Eschscholtz  Bay  (Esh-sholtz),  the  innermost 
part  of  Kotzebue  Sound,  in  Alaska.  It  was  named 
after  the  naturalist  Eschscholtz  (1793-1834),  who 
sailed  with  Kotzebue. 

EsGbvrege  (Esh'vay-ge ;  g  hard),  a  town  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  on  the  Werra, 
40  miles  ESE.  of  Cassel  by  rail.    Pop.  9892. 

Eschweiler  (Esh'vei-ler),  an  industrial  town  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  8  miles  ENB.  of  Aix-la-Chapelle, 
has  important  iron,  zinc,  and  tin  works,  machine- 
shops,  tanneries,  &c.    Pop.  22,889. 

Escorial,  or  Escurial  (Span.,  'mining  rub- 
bish,' cf.  scorim),  an  immense  royal  palace, 
inausoleum,  and  monastery  of  Spain,  31  miles 
NW.  of  Madrid,  on  the  south-eastern  slope  of 
the  Sierra  Guadarrama,  at  an  altitude  of  3700 
feet.  Of  dark-gray  granite,  stern  and  forbidding 
of  aspect,  it  was  built  by  Philip  II.  in  1563-84, 
partly  to  provide  a  royal  burying-place  for  the 
kings  of  Spain,  partly  to  commemorate  his 
victory  over  the  French  at  St  Quentin  on  St 
Lawrence's  day,  10th  August  1557.  Its  general 
shape  is  that  of  a  quadrangular  parallelogram, 
706  feet  long  by  550  broad,  with  a  smaller  square 
projecting  from  the  east  side,  in  shape  thus  some- 
what resembling  St  Lawrence's  gridiron.  At  each 
corner  rises  a  tower  200  feet  high ;  and  in  the  centre 
a  cupola  312  feet.  The  library,  once  one  of  the 
richest  in  Europe,  still  contains  over  32,000  vols, 
and  4500  valuable  MSS.,  including  1900  written  in 
Arabic.  In  the  palace  the  most  interesting 
apartment  is  the  cell  of  Philip  II.,  in  which  he 
spent  his  last  days.  The  Escorial  was  for  the 
second  time  greatly  injured  by  fire  in  1872. 

Esdraelon  (Ez-dra-ee'lon),  or  Plain  of  Jezreel, 
a  fertile  valley  of  Palestine,  constituting  the  basin 
of  the  Kishon,  extends  westwards  from  Mount 
Hermon  to  the  slopes  of  the  Carmel  range. 
Here  Gideon  defeated  the  Midianites,  and  here 
in  1799  the  Turks  were  defeated  by  the  French. 

Esher,  a  pretty  village  of  Surrey,  on  the  Mole, 
15  miles  SW.  of  London  by  rail.  Here  are  Esher 
Place,  a  brick  gate-tower  of  Wolsey's  palace,  and 
Claremont  (q.v.).     Pop.  10,000. 

Esk  (Cymric  wysg,  Gael,  uisge,  •  water,'  akin  to 
Exe),  the  name  of  several  small  Scotch  rivers. 
The  Dumfriesshire  Esk,  formed  by  the  Black 
and  White  Esks  (12  and  14  miles  long),  runs  22 
miles  SSE.,  next  5  furlongs  along  the  Border, 
and  lastly  8  miles  SSW.  through  Cumberland  to 
the  head  of  t"he  Solway  Firth.  It  passes  Lang- 
holm and  Longtown,  receives  the  Tarras,  Liddel, 
&c.,  and  affords  capital  fishing. — The  Edinburgh- 
shire Esk,  formed  by  the  North  and  South  Esks 
(17  and  19  miles  long),  flows  4  miles  northward 
to  the  Firth  of  Forth  at  Musselburgh.  Its 
scenery  is  very  pretty,  the  northern  branch  pass- 
ing Habbie's  Howe,  Roslin,  Hawthornden,  and 


ESKI-DJUMNA 


257 


ESTHONIA 


Melville  Castle.  — In  Forfarshire  tlie  South  Esk 
runs  49  miles  SE.  and  B.  to  the  North  Sea  at 
Montrose,  and  the  North  Esk  29  miles  SE.  to  a 
point  4  miles  N.  of  Montrose ;  both  give  earls' 
titles  to  branches  of  the  Carnegie  family— South- 
esk  (1633)  and  Northesk  (1662).— There  is  an  Esk 
in  SW.  Cumberland,  and  one  in  the  Cleveland 
district  of  Yorkshire. 

Eskl-Djumna,  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  20  miles 
WSW.  of  Sluunla.     Pop.  10,038. 

Eskilstuna,  55  miles  W.  of  Stockholm,  is  a  very 
important  centre  of  the  Swedish  iron  and  steel 
industries,  and  is  \ery  famous  for  its  cutlery. 
Pop.  15,000. 

Eskl-Shehr,  an  important  railway  junction  in 
the  NW.  of  Asia  Minor,  165  miles  W.  of  Angora. 
Pop.  20,000. 

Eski-Zagra,  a  town  of  Eastern  Roumelia,  at 
the  southern  base  of  the  Balkans,  70  miles  NNW. 
of  Adrianople.     Pop.  20,000. 

Esla,  a  northern  tributary  of  the  Douro. 

Esmeraldas  (Span.,  'Emeralds'),  the  most 
northerly  maritime  province  of  Ecuador.  Area, 
5200  sq.  m. ;  pop.  14,600.— The  capital,  Esmer- 
aldas (pop.  3000),  stands  10  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  navigable  river  Esmeraldas. 

Esn6,  a  town  of  Upper  Egypt,  on  the  Nile's 
left  bank,  36  miles  above  Luxor,  with  some  in- 
teresting remains  of  antiquity.     Pop.  16,000. 

Espir'ito  Santo  (Port.,  'Holy  Spirit"),  a  mari- 
time province  of  Brazil.  Area,  17,053  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  131,562.    Capital,  Victoria. 

Espir'itu  Santo,  (l)  the  largest  and  most  west- 
erly island  of  the  New  Hebrides,  with  an  area  of 
1868  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  20,000.— (2)  An  island 
in  the  Gulf  of  California,  80  miles  N,  of  La  Paz,— 
(3)  A  cape  of  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

Esquimalt,  a  port  with  docks  at  the  south 
end  of  Vancouver  Island,  on  Juan  de  Fuca  Strait, 
5  miles  W.  of  Victoria.  Till  Canada  assumed 
military  and  naval  responsibility  in  1905,  it  was 
used  as  a  British  naval  station.  Its  admirable 
harbour,  connected  by  rail  with  the  coalfield  of 
Nanaimo,  has  increased  since  the  opening  of  the 
Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  and  the  connected 
Japanese  and  Australian  mail  routes.    Pop.  1500. 

Essek  (Roman  Mursia),  the  capital  of  Slavonia, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Drave,  12  miles  above 
its  confluence  with  the  Danube,  and  189  S.  of 
Pesth  by  rail.  It  has  been  the  seat  of  a  bishopric 
since  335  a.d.    Pop.  23,000. 

Essen,  a  town  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  22  miles  by 
rail  NE.  of  Diisseldorf,  stands  in  the  midst  of  a 
rich  coal  and  iron  district.  It  possesses  numer- 
ous establishments  for  manufacturing  iron,  chief 
among  them  being  the  celebrated  Krupp  works 
and  cannon-foundries,  whose  hands  have  risen  from 
74  men  in  1848  to  over  30,000.  There  are  other 
manufactures.  Pop.  (1875)54,852  ;  (1900)182,100. 
Although  its  industrial  activity  is  recent,  the 
town  itself  dates  from  the  foundation  of  the 
Benedictine  nunnery  in  873. 

Essendon,  in  Victoria,  5  miles  NW.  of  Mel- 
bourne, has  a  pup.  of  16,000. 

Essequi'bo,  the  most  westerly  of  the  great 
rivers  of  British  Guiana,  rises  in  the  Acarai  Moun- 
tains, 40  miles  N.  of  the  equator,  and  after  a 
course  of  620  miles  enters  the  Atlantic,  forming 
an  estuary  15  miles  wide,  in  which  lie  numerous 
fertile  islands,  but  the  entrance  to  which  is  much 
silted  up.  Navigable  for  35  miles  only,  owing 
to  cataracts,  it  receives  a  number  of  large  tribu- 
taries, as  the  Rupununi,  and  the  united  Cuyuni 

Q 


and  Mazaruni ;  on  the  Potaro,  another  aflSuent, 
is  the  grand  Kaieteur  Fall,  741  feet  in  sheer 
descent,  discovered  in  1870. 

Essex,  a  county  in  the  east  of  England,  washed 
by  the  North  Sea,  and  separated  from  Kent  by 
the  Thames  estuary,  from  Suffolk  by  the  Stour. 
Measuring  57  miles  from  east  to  west,  and  44 
from  north  to  south,  it  has  an  area  of  1657  sq.  m. 
The  low  flat  seaboard  is  close  on  100  miles  long, 
deeply  indented  by  shallow  creeks,  and  much  of 
it  fringed  by  desolate  salt-marshes.  Inland  the 
surface  becomes  gently  undulating  or  even  hilly, 
with  Danbury  Hill  (317  feet),  Laindon  Hill  (378), 
and  High  Beech  (350),  and  in  the  NW.  nearly  500 
feet.  The  rivers  are  the  Thames,  Stour,  Lea,  Stort, 
Colne,  Blackwater,  Crouch,  Roding,  and  Chelmer 
—rivers  that  sometimes  flood  the  low-lying  lands. 
In  1884  an  earthquake,  proceeding  from  north- 
east to  south-west,  did  almost  £10,000  damage. 
Nearly  79  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  is  in  cultiva- 
tion. Epping  Forest  (q.v.)  is  a  mere  remnant 
of  the  once  wide  woodlands,  whose  total  area  ia 
now  reduced  to  less  than  44  sq.  m.  Fishing  is 
not  very  actively  prosecuted ;  and  the  Colne 
has  long  been  famous  for  its  oysters.  Brewing 
i*?  an  important  industry,  especially  at  Romford ; 
but  outside  of  the  metropolitan  area  there  are  no 
great  manufactures.  Essex  since  1877  has  been 
included  in  the  new  diocese  of  St  Albans,  and 
since  1885  has  returned  one  member  to  parlia- 
ment for  each  of  its  eight  divisions— South-west 
or  Walthamstow,  South  or  Romford,  West  or 
Epping,  North  or  Saffron  Walden,  North-east  or 
Harwich,  East  or  Maldon,  South-east,  and  Mid 
or  Chelmsford.  Chelmsford  is  the  county  town  ; 
and  towns  other  than  the  above  are  Colchester, 
Stratford,  Barking,  Braintree,  Brentwood,  Cogges- 
hall,  Dunmow,  Halstead,  Harlow,  Ilford,  Ongar, 
Witham.  Pop.  (1801)  227,682;  (1881)  576,434; 
(1901)  1,085,771.  Essex  was  named  after  the  East 
Saxons.  Castle  Hedingham  and  Audley  End  are 
famous  mansions.  Among  Essex  worthies  liave 
been  Tusser,  John  Ray,  Quarles,  Sydney  Smith, 
and  Isaac  Taylor.  See  works  by  Morant  (1768), 
Suckling  (1845),  E.  Walford  (1882),  and  Barrett 
(1892). 

Essex,  a  manufacturing  village  of  Middlesex 
county,  Connecticut.     Pop.  2530. 

Esslingen  (Ess'ling-en),  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg, 
on  the  Neckar,  9  miles  by  rail  ESE.  of  Stutt- 
gart. The  chief  buildings  are  the  old  citadel; 
the  Liebfrauen  Cliurch  (1440),  with  a  beautiful 
spire  246  feet  high  ;  the  old  (1430)  town-house, 
and  the  new  (1742).  It  has  great  machine-shops, 
and  manufactures '  Esslingen  champagne,'  besides 
woollens,  cotton  and  woollen  yarns,  lackered  iron, 
&c.     Population,  30,000. 

Essouan.    See  Assouan. 

Es'te  (anc.  Ateste),  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the 
southern  slope  of  the  Euganean  Hills,  17  miles 
SSW.  of  Padua.     Pop.  6979. 

Estella,  an  ancient  city  of  Spain,  on  the  Ega, 
27  miles  SW.  of  Pamplona.    Pop.  6648. 

Estepa,  a  town  of  Spain,  60  miles  ESE.  of 
Seville.     Pop.  8965. 

Estepona,  a  maritime  town  of  Spain,  26  miles 
NNE.  of  Gibraltar.    Pop.  9934. 

Esthonla,  called  by  the  natives  Wlroma,  the 
most  northerly  of  the  Baltic  provinces  of  Russia, 
is  bounded  S  by  Livonia,  W.  and  N.  by  the 
Baltic.  Area,  7818  sq.  m. ;  pop.  415,000.  A  large 
part  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  forests,  moors, 
and  small  lakes ;  rivers  are  numerous,  but  mostly 
small  and  sluggish  in  flow ;  erratic  boulders  of 


ESTHWAITE  WATER 


258 


ETON 


granite  are  common  everywhere.  The  chief  town 
is  Revel  (q.v.).  The  population  consists  of  two 
divisions,  the  Esths  and  the  Esthlanders.  The 
latter  are  a  mixed  race  of  immigrants,  the  Ger- 
man element  strongly  preponderating.  The 
Esths,  a  people  of  Finnish  race,  constitute  the 
peasantry,  some  290,000  in  number,  and  the 
original  possessors  of  the  soil.  About  440,000 
of  this  people  are  also  found  in  Livonia,  and 
11,500  more  in  the  governments  of  St  Petersburg, 
Pskov,  and  Vitebsk.  In  spite  of  six  centuries  of 
slavery  to  their  German  lords,  the  Esths  have  pre- 
served their  national  characteristics— language, 
customs,  clothing,  dwelling,  physical  attributes. 
In  religion  they  are  mostly  Lutherans,  though 
the  Russians  are  making  strenuous  efforts  to  bring 
them  over  to  the  Greek  Church.  Esthonia  was 
conquered  by  Waldemar  II.  of  Denmark  in  1219  ; 
but  in  1346  it  was  sold  to  the  Teutonic  Knights, 
and  incorporated  with  Livonia.  From  1561  it  be- 
longed to  Sweden,  in  1710  it  was  seized  by  Peter 
the  Great.  Serfdom  was  abolished  in  Livonia  in 
1816,  and  in  Esthonia  in  1819. 

Esthwaite  Water,  a  lake  of  Lancashire,  2  miles 
long  by  ^  mile  wide,  extending  from  Hawkshead 
towards  the  W.  shore  of  Windermere. 

Estremadu'ra,  a  district  of  Spain,  lying  be- 
tween Portugal  and  New  Castile,  and  watered 
by  the  Tagus  and  the  Guadiana.  It  was  divided 
in  1833  into  the  provinces  of  Badajoz  and  Cdceres. 
Area,  16,701  sq.  m. ;  pop.  845,000. 

Estremadura,  a  Portuguese  province  contain- 
ing Lisbon.     Area,  6876  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,232,600. 

Estremoz,  a  town  of  Portugal,  23  miles  NE.  of 
Evora.    It  makes  porous  red  jars.    Pop.  7575. 

Eszek.  See  Essek. 
'  i^tampes  (Ay-ton^p),  a  French  town  of  Seine- 
et-Oise,  35  miles  SSW.  of  Paris  by  rail.  An 
ancient  place,  with  a  street  4  miles  long,  it  has  a 
fragment  of  a  royal  castle  (c.  1160),  a  statue  of 
the  naturalist  Geoffroy  Saint-Hilaire,  a  mediaeval 
h6tel-de-ville,  large  flour-mills,  market-gardens, 
&c.     Pop.  8860. 

Eta'wah,  a  town  of  the  Doab,  picturesquely 
situated  among  the  ravines  near  the  Jumna's  left 
bank,  70  miles  SE.  of  Agra.  Cloth,  horn  combs, 
and  sweetmeats  are  manufactured.  Close  by  are 
some  famous  Hindu  temples,  and  the  ghats  lead- 
ing to  the  river  are  lined  with  handsome  shrines. 
Pop.  42,793. 

Etchmiadzin,  a  monastery  near  Erivan,  the 
ecclesiastical  metropolis  of  the  Armenians  since 
302  A.D. 

Ethiopia,  a  term  of  ancient  geography,  some- 
what vaguely  and  variously  used.  Originally,  all 
the  nations  inhabiting  the  southern  part  of  the 
globe,  as  known  to  the  ancients,  or  rather  all 
men  of  dark-brown  or  black  colour,  were  called 
Ethiopians  (assumed  by  the  Greeks  to  be  from 
the  two  Greek  words  aitM  dps,  and  to  mean 
•  burnt- face ; '  but  more  probably  a  form  of 
an  unknown  Egyptian  word).  Later,  this  name 
was  given  more  particularly  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  countries  south  of  Libya  and  Egypt,  on  the 
Upper  Nile,  extending  from  10°  to  25°  N.  lat.,  28° 
to  40°  E.  long.— the  present  Nubia,  Sennaar, 
Kordofan,  Abyssinia.  The  nucleus  of  the  king- 
dom of  Ethiopia,  wJiich  already  powerful  about 
1000  B.C.,  fell  under  Egyptian  power  about  760, 
was  conquered  by  Cambyses  of  Persia  in  530,  and 
became  Roman  and  Christian  in  due  time,  was 
Meroe  on  an  island  in  the  Nile ;  and  the  dominant 
people,  the  Ethiopians  proper,  were  a  Semitic 
people  originally  from  the  other  side  of  the  Red 


Sea,  speaking  the  Ethiopian,  a  well-marked 
Semitic  dialect,  closely  akin  to  old  Sabeean,  a 
form  of  Arabic.    See  Abyssinia. 

Etive  (Et'iv),  a  salmon-river  and  a  sea-loch  of 
Argyllshire.  The  river  runs  from  a  loch  on  the 
Moor  of  Rannoch,  near  Kingshouse  Inn,  15  miles 
south-westward  to  the  loch,  which  itself  extends 
lOi^  miles  south-westward,  then  8|  westward,  until 
at'Dunstaffnage  Castle,  3  j  miles  NNE.  of  Oban,  it 
merges  in  the  Firth  of  Lome.  Narrowing  from 
li  mile  to  less  than  2  furlongs  at  Connel  Ferry, 
its  reef-barred  entrance,  where  the  depth  too 
decreases  from  420  feet  to  6  at  low-water,  this 
loch  offers  a  good  example  of  an  ancient  sub- 
merged glen.  Its  scenery  is  magnificent,  the 
upper  reach  closely  engirt  by  mountains,  of  which 
the  loftiest  are  Ben  Cruachan  (3689  feet)  and  Ben 
Starav   (3541).      See    Ardchattan    and    Dun- 

STAFFNAGE. 

Etna  (modern  Sicilian  Monte  Gibello— the 
last  part  of  the  name  being  the  Arabic  Jebel 
Italianised),  an  isolated  volcanic  mountain  close 
to  the  east  coast  of  Sicily,  with  a  base  90  miles  in 
circumference,  and  a  height  of  10,850  feet.  It 
slopes  gently  up  to  a  single  cone,  containing  the 
crater,  a  chasm  1000  feet  in  depth  and  from  2  to 
3  miles  in  circumference.  The  regularity  of  the 
slope  is,  however,  broken  on  the  east  by  an  im- 
mense gully,  4  or  5  miles  in  diameter,  and  2000  to 
4000  feet  deep.  Many  secondary  cones  are  dotted 
all  over  the  flanks  of  the  mountain,  the  principal 
being  the  Monti  Rossi,  450  feet  high,  twin  peaks 
which  were  cast  up  in  1669.  The  slopes  are 
divided  into  three  sharply  defined  zones,  the 
cultivated,  the  woody,  and  the  desert  region. 
This  last,  extending  from  about  6300  feet  up- 
wards, is  a  dreary  waste  of  black  lava,  scorise, 
ashes,  and  sand,  covered  during  the  greater  part 
of  the  year  with  snow.  The  wooded  region, 
which  stretches  down  to  the  line  of  2000  feet,  is 
planted  with  forests  of  chestnuts,  beeches,  birches, 
pines,  maples,  and  oaks.  Below  this  lies  the 
cultivated  zone,  a  thickly  peopled  region  of  great 
fertility.  The  ascent  is  usually  made  from 
Catania  (q.v.),  a  town  on  the  coast  to  the  south. 
In  1169  Catania  was  destroyed ;  in  1329  a  new 
crater  opened  near  the  Val  del  Bove  ;  in  1444  the 
cone  fell  into  the  crater ;  in  1537  two  villages 
perished ;  from  1603  to  1620  Etna  was  almost 
continually  in  activity  ;  and  in  1666  three  new 
craters  were  formed.  In  1669  a  chasm  12  miles 
long  opened  in  the  flank  of  the  mountain  ;  in  1755 
a  large  flood  of  water  was  poured  down  from  the 
eastern  gully ;  in  1852-53  there  was  a  violent 
nine  months'  eruption,  when  a  torrent  of  lava,  6 
miles  long  by  2  broad,  and  some  12  feet  in  depth, 
was  ejected.  In  1880  an  observatory  was  built 
on  the  south  side  of  the  mountain,  9075  feet 
above  the  sea,  being  the  highest  inhabited  house 
in  Europe  (nearly  1000  feet  higher  than  the  hos- 
pice of  the  Great  St  Bernard). 

See  Rodwell,  Etna  and  its  Eruptions  (1878) ;  and 
Sartorius  von  Waltershausen,  Der  Aetna,  edited 
by  Von  Lasaulx  (2  vols.  Leip.  1880). 

Eton,  a  town  in  the  south  of  Buckinghamshire, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Thames,  21  miles  WSW. 
of  London.  It  lies  opposite  to  Windsor,  in  Berk- 
shire, and  is  included  in  its  parliamentary  borough. 
Eton  College  was  founded  by  Henry  VI.  in  1440, 
and  its  beautiful  buildings  were  completed  in 
1525,  though  many  additions  have  been  made 
from  time  to  time,  notably  in  1889.  The  boys 
number  about  1000,  of  whom  70  are  king's 
scholars  or  collegers,  and  the  rest  oppidans. 
Famous  Etonians  have  been  Bolingbroke,  Boyle, 


ETRETAT 


259 


TJTREKA 


Canning,  Chatham,  Derby,  Fielding,  Fox,  Glad- 
stone, Gray,  Hallam,  Kinglake,  Lyttelton,  Mil- 
man,  Porson,  Praed,  Pusey,  Shelley,  the  Wal- 
poles,  Wellesley,  and  Wellington.  Pop.  3300.  See 
works  by  Lyte,  Creafsy,  Jesse,  Lnbboclc  (1899), 
Benson,  Ciist,  and  Glutton  Brock  (1900). 

Etretat  (Aytr-tdh'),  a  Norman  watering-place, 
18  miles  NE.  of  Havre.     Pop.  2000. 

Etniria,  the  country  inhabited  or  ruled  by 
the  Etruscans,  a  very  ancient  people  of  Italy. 
Lying  west  of  the  Tiber  and  the  Apennines,  and 
including  the  Arno  valley,  it  was  a  confederation 
of  twelve  cities  or  states.  Some  of  these  cities 
are  now  deserted  sites,  marked  only  by  vast 
cemeteries  and  the  remains  of  cyclopean  walls, 
wliile  others  still  retain  more  or  less  of  their  old 
importance.  See  works  by  Dennis  (2d  ed.  1878);, 
K.  O.  Muller  (1877),  and  Jules  Martha  (1888). 

Etruria,  a  village  of  Staffordshire,  in  the 
nninicipal  borough  of  Hanley.  Here,  on  13th 
June  1769,  Josiali  Wedgwood  and  Tliomas  Bent- 
ley  opened  their  celebrated  Etruria  potteries,  so 
named  after  the  Etruscan  ware.    Pop.  8000. 

Etset.    See  Adioe. 

Ettrick  Water,  a  stream  of  Selkirkshire,  rising 
on  Capel  Fell,  and  winding  32  miles  north-east- 
ward to  the  Tweed,  3  miles  below  Selkirk,  and  5 
from  the  influx  of  its  chief  affluent,  the  Yarrow. 
In  Ettrick  churchyard,  towards  the  stream's 
source,  lie  Boston  and  Hogg  the  '  Ettrick  Shep- 
herd.' Ettrick  Forest,  erst  so  '  fair,'  now  treeless 
and  pastoral,  included  all  Selkirkshire,  with  parts 
of  Peebles  and  Edinburgh  shires. 

Bvi{dh;  nearly  Uh),  a  French  tovm  of  Seine-Infe- 
rieure,  on  the  Bresle,  2  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
21  NE.  of  Dieppe  by  rail.  The  Chateau  d'Eu 
(1578),  a  low  red  brick  building,  with  high  roofs 
of  slate,  was  purchased  by  Mademoiselle  de  Mont- 
pensier  in  1675;  eventually,  in  1821,  it  came  to 
Louis-Philippe,  who  here  received  Queen  Victoria 
in  1843.  In  1874  Viollet-le-Duc  restored  it  for  the 
Comte  de  Paris.    Pop.  4900. 

Eubcea  (anc.  Euboia,  Turk.  Egripo,  Ital.  Negro- 
ponte),  an  island  of  Greece  in  the  iEgean  Sea,  runs 
98  miles  south-eastward  parallel  to  the  mainland, 
its  breadth  varying  from  30  miles  to  4.  Area. 
1457  sq.  m.,  or  a  little  smaller  than  Suffolk! 
About  midway  along  its  west  shore,  the  strait 
(Euripus)  separating  Euboea  from  the  main- 
land contracts  to  120  feet,  and  is  spanned  by  a 
bridge,  resting  on  a  rocky  islet  in  the  middle. 
The  island  is  traversed  longitudinally  by  a  chain 
of  wooded  mountains,  culminating  in  Mount 
Delphi  (5725  feet).  Iron  and  copper  occur  in  the 
mountains ;  and  at  Carystos,  in  the  south  of  the 
island,  the  jnarble  called  cipolino  is  quarried. 
Hot  springs  (sulphur)  exist  in  the  north.  The  east 
coast  is  steep  and  rocky ;  the  west  side  of  the 
island  slopes  gradually.  The  chief  towns  are 
Chalcis  on  the  west  coast  and  Carystos  (pop. 
4119)  on  the  south  coast.  Pop.  of  "the  island, 
110,000,  mostly  Greeks  and  Albanians.  Eubcea 
was  successively  subjugated  by  the  Athenians, 
by  Philip  of  Macedon,  by  the  Romans,  by  the 
Venetians  (1351),  and  by  the  Turks  (1470) ;  since 
1830  it  has  been  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece. 

Euganean  Hills,  a  range  of  well-wooded  hills, 
lying  SW.  of  Padua  in  Northern  Italy,  and  cul- 
minating in  Monte  Venda  (1749  feet).  On  their 
slopes  stand  several  villas,  amongst  them  Pe- 
trarch's house  at  Arqua. 

Eupatorla  (formerly  Koslov),  a  Russian  seaport, 
on  a  bay  in  the  west  of  the  Crimea,  40  miles  NW. 


of  Simferopol.  The  principal  building  is  the 
Tartar  mosque  (1552).    Pop.  13,416. 

Eupen,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the 
Vedre,  close  to  the  Belgian  frontier,  and  12  miles 
by  rail  S.  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  It  has  flourishing 
woollen  manufactures,  besides  dyeworks,  machine- 
shops,  breweries,  &c.  French  refugees  settled  at 
Eupen  after  the  peace  of  Luneville  (1801);  in 
1814  it  came  from  Limburg  to  Prussia.  Pop. 
15,441,  almost  all  Catholics. 

Euphrates  (Pers.  Ufratu,  Heb.  Phrat,  Syr. 
Ephrat,  Arab.  Furat),  the  largest  river  in  Western 
Asia,  has  its  source  in  the  heart  of  Armenia  in 
the  Kara-Su  (270  miles)  and  the  Murad  (300  mil'es), 
of  which  the  former  rises  NE.  of  Erzenim,  and 
the  latter  over  130  miles  to  the  east,  near  Lake 
Van— uniting  close  to  Keban  Maadin  (2664  feet 
above  the  sea).  The  united  stream  breaks  through 
the  Taurus  in  a  succession  of  rapids  and  cataracts 
for  about  40  miles.  Flowing  south  and  then 
south-east,  it  separates  Mesopotamia  from  Syria 
and  the  deserts  of  Syrian  Arabia,  and  is  joined 
by  the  Tigris  at  Kurna.  The  joint  river,  taking 
the  name  of  the  Shat-el-Arab,  empties  itself 
by  several  arms  (only  one  of  which  is  navig- 
able by  large  vessels)  into  the  Persian  Gulf, 
60  miles  beloAv  Basra,  after  a  course  of  fully 
1700  miles.  The  principal  of  its  few  tribu- 
taries are  the  Sajur,  Balik-su,  and  Khabur,  be- 
sides the  Persian  river  Kanin,  which  enters 
the  estuary  at  Mohammera.  The  chief  towns 
now  on  its  banks  are  SumeysAt,  Bir,  Ana,  Hit, 
and  Hilla,  Basra  lying  really  on  a  creek  a  short 
distance  from  the  main  stream ;  the  river  be- 
tween Ana  and  Hit  is  studded  with  islands, 
many  of  them  inhabited.  The  Euphrates  is  more 
or  less  navigable  for  light  craft  as  far  as  Bir 
(nearly  1200  miles) ;  war-vessels  can  ascend  to 
the  junction  at  Kurna  (120  miles).  In  ancient 
times,  when  canals  and  embankments  regulated 
the  river's  inundations,  these  exercised  the  same 
beneficial  effect  on  the  country  as  those  of  the 
Nile  on  Egypt.  Numerous  remains  of  ancient 
cities  are  still  to  be  traced  near  the  banks,  such 
as  the  famous  site  of  Babylon,  and  the  Birs 
Nimnid.  In  1831  Captain  F.  R.  Chesney,  R.A., 
descended  the  Euphrates,  and  established  the 
fact  that  the  river  was  navigable  for  vessels  of 
moderate  draught,  at  least  as  high  up  as  Ana. 
He  maintained  that  this  was  the  shortest  and  best 
route  to  Bombay,  and  in  1835  he  commanded  a 
second  and  equally  successful  expedition.  Two 
attempts,  however,  to  establish  a  railway,  in  1856 
and  1862,  both  collapsed,  though,  as  an  alter- 
native to  the  Suez  Canal,  and  as  an  instrument 
for  opening  up  a  rich  but  neglected  country,  the 
Euphrates  Valley  route  would  still  be  a  valuable 
channel  of  commercial  and  military  communica- 
tion for  the  British  empire.  See  works  by  Chesney 
(1850),  Cameron  (1888),  and  Ains worth  (1888). 

Euro  (Ohr;  nearly  Ehr),  a  dep.  of  Normandy, 
south  of  the  dep.  of  Seine-Inferieure.  Area,  2290 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1846)  423,247  ;  (1901)  334,781.  The 
river  Eure,  which  gives  it  name,  flows  141  miles 
to  the  Seine.  The  dep.  is  divided  into  the  five 
arrondissements  of  Evreux  (the  capital),  Louviers, 
Les  Andelys,  Bernay,  and  Pont-Audemer. 

Eure-et-Loir  {Ehr-ay-Lwar),  a  dep.  of  France, 
south  of  the  preceding ;  area,  2260  sq.  m.  Pop. 
(1872)  282,622  ;  (1901)  275,433.  It  is  divided  into 
four  arrondissements,  Chartres  (the  capital), 
Chateaudnn,  Dreux,  and  Nogent-le-Rotrou. 

Eureka,  (l)  a  port  and  capital  of  Humboldt 
county,  California,  on  Humboldt  Bay,  with 
lumber-mills  ;  pop.  7658.— <2)  A  town,  capital  of 


EURIPUS 


260 


EUROPE 


Eureka  county,  Nevada,  90  miles  by  rail  S.  of  the 
Palisades  station  on  the  Central  Pacific  Railroad. 
Here  are  silver  and  lead  mines ;  pop.  1000. 

Euri'pus.    See  Chalcis,  Eubcea. 

Europe,  historically  and  politically  the  most 
important  of  the  five  great  divisions  of  the  world, 
is,  next  to  Australasia,  the  smallest  in  area, 
but  Asia  alone  exceeds  it  in  population.  Geo- 
graphers are  agreed  that,  apart  from  its  history 
and  significance  for  the  history  of  civilisation,  it 
should  be  regarded  rather  as  a  peninsula  of  Asia, 
or  as  a  portion  of  the  great  joint  Eurasian  con- 
tinent ;  for  in  regard  to  physical  geography,  fauna, 
and  flora,  it  is  difficult  to  draw  a  sharp  line  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia.  On  three  sides  Europe 
is  bounded  by  sea— north  by  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
west  by  the  Atlantic,  south  by  the  Mediterranean, 
Sea  of  Marmora,  and  Black  Sea.  But  on  the  east 
the  Urals,  Ural  River,  and  Caspian,  though  com- 
monly assumed  as  the  boundary  towards  Asia,  do 
not  mark  a  precise  limit  in  respect  of  climate, 
flora,  fauna,  or  physical  conditions  generally; 
the  governments  of  Perm  and  Orenburg  in  Euro- 
pean Russia  extend  far  beyond  the  Urals.  Between 
the  Caspian  and  the  Black  Sea,  the  ridge  of  the 
Caucasus  seems  a  convenient  dividing  line  be- 
tween Europe  and  Asia,  but  the  Manytch  de- 
pression is  really,  from  the  geographical  point 
of  view,  a  more  correct  boundary;  physically 
the  whole  lieutenancy  of  the  Caucasus  is  part 
of  Asia.  It  is  more  curious  that  North  Africa 
and  South  Europe  are  very  closely  related  in 
many  respects,  geological  and  biological.  It  has 
even  been  said  that  the  mountains  of  Auvergne 
divide  northern  France  more  sharply  from  Pro- 
vence than  the  Mediterranean  (q.v.)  does  south- 
ern Provence  from  Morocco  and  Algeria. 

Various  etymologies  have  been  proposed  for  the 
name  Europe.  The  old  mythological  one  was  that 
it  was  named  from  Europa— the  Phoenician  damsel 
whom  the  enamoured  Zeus,  in  the  form  of  a  bull, 
bore  off"  to  Crete.  Another  was  that  it  came 
from  Eurus,  the  south-east  wind.  A  third  notes 
that  the  name  is  first  applied,  not  to  the  whole 
continent,  but  (in  the  Homeric  Hymn  to  Apollo) 
to  the  mainland  of  Thrace,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Peloponnesus  and  the  Greek  islands,  and 
suggests  that  Europe  therefore  means  Broad 
Land  (eurus  dps,  'broad  face').  Of  late  the 
tendency  is  to  assume  that  the  name  was  first 
given  by  Phoenician  traders,  and  is  from  the 
word  Erebh,  'darkness'— i.e.  the  land  of  sunset, 
of  the  west.  The  area  to  which  the  name  of 
Europe  was  applied  grew  with  the  extension  of 
Greek  geographical  knowledge. 

Europe  has  a  total  length  from  Cape  St  Vincent 
on  the  south-west  to  the  mouth  of  the  Kara  River 
on  the  north-east  of  3400  miles  ;  and  from  North 
Cape  in  Norway  to  Cape  Matapan,  the  southern- 
most point  of  Greece,  a  total  breadth  of  2400 
miles.  The  continent  of  Europe,  irrespective  of 
islands,  lies  within  36°  20'— 71°  10'  N.  lat.,  and  9° 
30'  W.— 66°  30'  E.  long.  Its  area  is  estimated  at 
3,800,000  sq.  m.,  being  about  a  third  of  that  of 
Africa,  a  fourth  of  that  of  America,  and  a  fifth  of 
that  of  Asia.  It  does  not  greatly  exceed  the 
total  area  of  the  United  States.  Its  indented 
coast-line  is,  owing  to  the  number  of  deep  inlets 
and  gulfs,  more  extensive  in  proportion  to  its 
size  than  that  of  any  other  great  natural  division 
of  the  globe,  and  is  estimated  to  measure  little 
less  than  50,000  miles.  It  has  a  pop.  of  above 
892,000,000,  whicli  gives  an  average  of  over  103 
for  every  square  mile. 

Tlie  body  of  the  European  continent  divides 


itself  naturally  into  two  great  portions— the 
great  plain  in  the  north-east,  and  the  highlands 
from  near  the  centre  towards  the  south-west, 
the  mountainous  peninsula  of  Scandinavia  lying 
apart  from  either.  The  plain  occupies  about  two- 
thirds  of  the  continent,  reaching  from  the  eastern 
boundary,  north  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  south  to  the 
Caucasus  and  the  Black  Sea,  and  westward  over 
the  whole  extent  of  the  continent.  In  shape  this 
plain  resembles  a  triangle ;  its  base  rests  on  the 
eastern  boundary,  and  it  may  be  said  to  reach 
its  apex  on  the  shores  of  Holland.  It  separates 
the  two  mountain-systems  of  Europe — the  Scandi- 
navian system  (highest  summit  7566  feet)  on  the 
north,  and  on  the  south  the  system  of  southern 
Europe.  The  mass  of  the  Alps,  covering  an  area 
of  nearly  100,000  sq.  m.,  forms  the  centre  of  the 
mountain-system  of  southern  and  western  Europe, 
and  stretches  down  on  four  sides  towards  France, 
Germany,  Hungary,  and  Italy  ;  the  highest  sum- 
mit being  15,732  feet.  The  other  chief  mountain- 
masses  are  the  Carpathians  (8343  feet),  the  Bal- 
kans (9750),  the  Apennines  (9574),  the  Pyrenees 
(11,170),  and  the  Sierra  Nevada  (11,670),  and  in 
Sicily,  Etna  (10,850). 

Europe  is  surrounded  by  water  on  three  sides. 
The  White  Sea  comes  in  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  ; 
the  German  Ocean  (with  the  Baltic)  and  the  Medi- 
terranean from  the  Atlantic.  The  most  import- 
ant peninsulas  are  in  the  north  Scandinavia,  and 
in  the  south  the  Crimea,  Turkey  and  Greece,  Italy, 
and  Spain.  Except  Iceland,  the  islands  cluster 
closely  round  the  mainland,  the  chief  being  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland,  Iceland,  Nova  Zembla,  Sar- 
dinia, Corsica,  and  Crete.  The  lakes  of  Europe 
are  small  as  compared  with  those  of  Africa  or 
America,  the  largest  being  Ladoga  and  Onega  in 
Russia,  and  Wener  in  Sweden,  The  Volga  (1977 
miles),  the  Danube  (1740),  the  Ural  (1450),  the 
Don  (1125),  the  Kama  (1050),  the  Petchora  (975), 
and  the  Rhine  (760)  are  the  largest  rivers  of 
Europe.  The  details  of  the  geography  of  Europe 
are  given  under  the  names  of  its  several  political 
divisions,  and  of  its  lakes,  rivers,  and  mountains. 

In  respect  of  climate,  by  far  the  greater  portion 
of  the  area  of  Europe  belongs  to  the  northern 
section  of  the  temperate  zone,  though  parts  of 
Norway,  Sweden,  and  Russia  lie  within  the  Arctic 
Circle.  The  southern  parts  of  Spain,  Sicily,  and 
Greece  are  some  twelve  degrees  from  the  northern 
tropic.  The  natural  history  of  Europe  very  much 
agrees  with  that  of  the  corresponding  latitudes  of 
Asia.  The  most  northern  regions  have  the  arctic 
flora  and  fauna  ;  whilst  the  natural  history  of 
the  most  southern  countries  assumes  a  subtrop- 
ical character.  The  temperature  of  tlie  western 
and  northern  parts  of  Europe  being  raised  by 
the  Gulf  Stream  and  the  winds  from  the  great 
mass  of  dry  and  desert  land  in  Africa  above  what 
is  elsewhere  found  in  similar  latitudes,  the  flora 
and  fauna  exhibit  a  corresponding  character, 
affected,  however,  by  the  great  amount  of  mois- 
ture derived  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  also 
to  a  still  greater  degree  by  the  comparative  uni- 
formity of  temperature  which  the  proximity  of 
the  ocean  produces.  The  effect  of  the  last-men- 
tioned causes  is  so  great  that  the  northern  limit 
of  some  plants  is  sooner  reached  on  the  shores 
of  the  Atlantic  than  in  the  more  central  parts 
of  Europe,  where  the  winters  are  much  colder, 
and  the  average  temperature  of  the  year  is  lower. 
Of  this  the  vine  and  maize  are  notable  examples. 
Plants  which  require  a  mild  winter  will  not  grow 
in  the  north— and  scarcely  even  in  the  centre  of 
Europe— but  they  advance  along  the  western 
coast  under  the  influence  of  the  maritime  climate. 


EUROPE 


261 


EVANSTON 


Thus,  the  myrtle— although  not  indigenous— 
grows  even  in  the  south  of  England.  Amongst 
plants  the  date-palm,  and  amongst  animals  a 
species  of  ape,  are  found  in  the  south  of  Europe 
(the  ape  only  on  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar) :  whilst 
some  strictly  African  birds  are  frequent  visitants, 
and  many  birds — as  the  cuckoo,  swallow,  stork, 
&c. — are  common  to  Europe  and  Africa,  inhabit- 
ants in  summer  even  of  very  northern  regions,  and 
returning  in  winter  to  the  warm  south.  Of  the 
plants  now  most  commonly  associated  in  our 
thoughts  with  the  southern  countries  of  Europe, 
many  have  probably  been  introduced  from  Africa 
or  from  the  East.  This  has  probably  been  the 
case  even  with  the  myrtle,  and  cei-tainly  has  been 
the  case  with  the  vine,  olive,  orange,  lemon,  fig, 
peach,  almond,  apricot,  &c.  Some  fruits  are  cer- 
tainly indigenous  to  Europe,  as  the  apple,  pear, 
plum,  and  cherry,  although  even  of  these  the  first 
improved  varieties  may  have  been  introduced  from 
the  East.  Among  the  wild  animals  of  Europe, 
the  bison  is  still  reckoned  ;  and  the  ox  existed  at 
no  very  remote  period  in  a  truly  wild  state.  The 
reindeer  inhabits  the  extreme  north ;  the  elk, 
the  stag,  the  fallow-deer,  and  the  roebuck  are 
found  in  more  southern  regions  ;  the  ibex  or 
bouquetin  exists  on  the  high  central  mountains  ; 
two  species  of  antelope — the  chamois  of  the  Alps, 
and  the  saiga  of  the  Russian  plains — connect  the 
European  fauna  with  the  Asiatic  and  African.  Of 
mammals  peculiar  to  Europe,  the  most  notable 
are  the  chamois,  musk  rat,  and  fallow-deer,  while 
the  civet,  ichneumon,  and  porcupine  are  not 
found  in  any  other  part  of  the  pahvarctic  region 
but  in  Europe.  Of  carnivorous  animals,  the  most 
noteworthy  are  the  bear,  wolf,  fox,  and  lynx. 
The  European  seas  afford  valuable  fisheries,  par- 
ticularly of  herring  and  of  cod  in  the  north,  and 
of  tunny,  anchovy,  &c.  in  the  Mediterranean. 

The  European  races  belong  in  the  main  to  the 
various  branches  of  the  great  Aryan  stock,  though 
in  few  European  countries  is  there  a  pure  race — 
the  admixture  of  various  stocks  being  in  some 
cases  very  great  and  close.  But,  generally  speak- 
ing, Celtic  blood  is  most  largely  found  in  France 
(especially  in  Brittany,  where  a  Celtic  tongue  is 
still  spoken)  and  parts  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland ;  Teutonic  peoples  occupy  Germany, 
Switzerland,  Holland,  part  of  Belgium,  part 
of  Austria,  Denmark,  Norway  and  Sweden,  Ice- 
land, and  Great  Britain.  Slavonic  races  are 
found  in  Austria,  Prussia,  the  Balkan  penin- 
sula, and  Russia.  Romanic  language  and  blood 
are  prominent  in  Italy,  France,  Spain  and  Por- 
tugal, and  Roumanian  The  Greeks  belong  to  the 
same  Greco-Italian  branch  of  the  Ai-yans  as  the 
Italians.  Non-Aryan  peoples  are  the  Finns, 
Lapps,  and  Samoyedes  of  the  north  and  north- 
east, various  Turanian  tribes  in  tlie  east  of  Russia, 
the  Hungarians  and  the  Turks,  and  the  Basques 
of  the  Pyrenees ;  and  a  strong  element  of  pre- 
Aryan  blood  is  also  to  be  traced  in  other  parts 
of  western  Europe,  as  in  Ireland  and  Britain. 
The  most  obvious  method  of  classifying  races  is 
language.  By  this  test,  some  105,000,000  Euro- 
peans are  Teutonic  (German,  English,  Dutch, 
Flemish,  Swedish,  Norwegian,  Danish) ;  95,000,000 
Slavs  (Russian,  Polish,  Czech,  Slovak,  Serb,  Croat, 
Slovenian,  Bulgarian);  100,000,000  Romance- 
speaking  (French,  Italian,  Spanish,  Portuguese, 
Roumanian,  Walloon,  Rhsetian) ;  3,000,000  Letts 
and  Lithuanians ;  5,250,000  Greeks  and  Albanians ; 
8,600,000  Celtic  (Welsh,  Breton,  Irish,  Gaelic, 
Manx);  1,050,000  Armenians,  Ossetians,  and  Gyp- 
sies. Some  18,000,000  are  non- Aryan  (Magyars, 
Finns,     Ugrians,     Tartars,     Turks,     Kalmucks, 


Basques,  Circassians,  &c.,  and  Maltese).  Upwards 
of  fifty  languages  are  spolien  in  Europe.  But 
language  is  by  no  means  a  sure  test  of  race ; 
thus,  the  Normans  quickly  took  to  speaking  the 
Romance  tongue  of  their  Romanised  Gallic  sub- 
jects, whilst  the  French— Celts,  with  a  strong 
infusion  of  Frankish-Germanic  blood,  and  a 
smaller  infusion  of  Italic  blood— speak  a  modified 
Latin  tongue.  Many  parts  of  tlie  German-speak- 
ing area  are  mainly  Wendish  or  Prussian  (Slavonic) 
in  blood.  The  Bulgarians,  speaking  a  Slavonic 
tongue,  are  originally  Ugro-Finnic.  South  Ger- 
many is  probably  more  Celtic  and  less  Teutonic 
than  northern  France. 

The  table  gives  a  comparative  view  of  the 
states  of  Europe,  their  areas,  and  populations  in 
1900-5 : 

St*t««-  EnSsh'i' m.    Population. 

Andorra 175  6,000 

Austria-Hungary  with  Bosnia.  264,204  46,901,871 

Belgium 11,373  6,693,548 

Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Roumelia  37,860  3,733,189 

Denmark 1.5,289  2,464,770 

France 204.092  38,(i41,333 

Germany 208,070  56.356,246 

Great  Britain  and  Ireland 120,979  41,605,323 

Greece 25,041  2,433,806 

Holland 12,648  5,179,138 

Italy 110,623  32,449,754 

Liechtenstein 70  9,434 

Luxemburg 998  2.36,543 

Monaco 8  15,180 

Montenegro 3,630  228,000 

Portugal 34,038  5,428,800 

Roumania 48,307  5,912,.520 

Russia  (in  Europe) 2,095,504  106,264,136 

San  Marino 32  9,537 

Servia 19,050  2,493,770 

Spain 197,670  18,078,500 

Sweden  and  Norway 297,321  7,376,321 

Switzerland 15,976  3,315,443 

Turkey  (in  Europe) 64,200  6,400,149 

Tlie  density  varies  from  589  per  sq.  m.  in  Bel- 
gium (606  in  England  without  Wales,  and  1897  in 
Monaco,  which  is  mainly  two  towns)  to  34  in 
Andorra,  and  25  in  Sweden  and  Norway. 

Europe  is  practically  a  region  of  monotheists  : 
though  there  are  Buddhist  Kalmucks  in  South 
Russia,  and  Pagans  amongst  the  Lapps,  Finns, 
Samoyedes,  and  Tcheremisses.  The  Turks,  some 
Russian  Tartars,  many  Albanians,  and  some  Slavs 
are  Mohammedans  (6,600,000),  and  there  are  nearly 
7,000,000  Jews;  but  the  bulk  of  Europeans  are 
professing  Christians.  The  Catholic  Church  may 
number  some  156,600,000  adherents,  the  Greek 
Church  80,000,000,  while  the  various  Protestant 
communions  number  about  76,000,000. 

See  the  relevant  portions  of  Reclus,  Kloden, 
and  Stanford's  Compendium  of  Geography  (1886), 
J.  Geikie's  Prehistoric  Europe  (1880),  J.  Sime's 
Geography  of  Europe  (1889) ;  Freeman's  Historical 
Geography  of  Europe  (1881),  and  his  General  Sketch 
of  European  History  (187  6)  a.nd.  Primer  of  the  History 
of  Europe  (1876) ;  the  Histories  by  Lodge  (1886), 
Dyer  (1877),  and  Fyff"e  (1884-90)  ;  and  the  annual 
Statesman's  Yearbook  and  Almanach  de  Gotha. 

Eurotas  (mod.  Iri  or  Vasilo),  the  chief  river  of 
Laconia  in  Greece,  rising  in  Arcadia,  and  flowing 
past  Sparta  to  the  Laconian  Gulf. 

Euston,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Grafton,  in 
Suff^olk,  4^  miles  SE.  of  Thetford. 

Eutaw  Springs,  a  small  affluent  of  the  Santee 
River,  in  South  Carolina.  Near  it,  in  the  last 
serious  battle  in  the  war  of  independence,  8th 
September  1781,  the  Americans  were  repulsed 
after  a  desperate  engagement. 

Euxine.     See  Black  Sea. 

Evanston,  a  city  of  Illinois,  on  Lake  Michigan, 


EVANSVILLE 


262 


EXMOOR  FOREST 


12  miles  N.  of  Cliicago  by  rail,  witli  the  Garrett 
Biblical  Institute,  the  North-western  University 
(Methodist),  &c.     Pop.  19,250. 

Evansville,  a  port  of  entry  and  capital  of 
Vanderburg  county,  Indiana,  on  the  Ohio,  162 
miles  ESE.  of  St  Louis  by  rail,  with  a  city-hall, 
a  court-house,  a  handsome  post-office  and  custom- 
house, and  a  public  library  and  art  gallery.  Coal 
and  iron  ore  abound  near  by,  and  the  town  has 
a  large  number  of  mills,  foundries,  &c.  Pop. 
(1870)  21,830;  (1880)  29,280;  (1900)  59,007. 

Evanton,  a  Ross-shire  village,  6  miles  NB.  of 
Dingwall.     Pop.  490. 

Evenlode,  a  river  of  Gloucester  and  Oxford 
shires,  flowing  35  miles  SB.  to  the  Thames. 

Everest,  Mount,  a  peak  of  the  Himalayas,  in 
Nepal,  and  the  highest  ascertained  point  on  the 
globe's  surface,  attains  29,002  feet  above  the  sea, 
in  27°  59'  12"  N.  lat.,  and  86°  58'  6"  E.  long.  It 
was  named  in  honour  of  Sir  George  Everest 
(1790-1866),  surveyor-general  of  India. 

Everett,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Massachu- 
setts, 8  miles  N.  of  Boston.  Pop.  (1880)  4154 ; 
(1890)  11,068;  (1900)  24,336. 

Everglades,  a  large  shallow  lake  or  marsh  In 
southern  Florida,  enclosing  thousands  of  densely- 
wooded  islets,  with  many  alligators. 

Eversley,  a  Hampshire  parish,  13  miles  NB. 
of  Basingstoke.  Charles  Kingsley  was  rector 
from  1842  till  his  death  in  1875,  and  he  rests  in 
the  churchyard. 

Everton,  a  NB.  district  of  Liverpool. 

Evesham  (Eevz'am),  a  borough  of  Worcester- 
shire, on  the  right  bank  of  the  navigable  Avon, 
15  miles  SB.  of  Worcester.  It  lies  in  a  fertile 
vale,  and  the  chief  industry  is  market-gardening. 
There  are  a  fine  modern  bridge,  public  gardens, 
water- works  (1884),  a  16th-century  guildhall, 
&c.  ;  the  stately  Benedictine  abbey  (709)  is  re- 
presented chiefly  by  a  beautiful  Perpendicular 
belfry  (1533).  Till  1867  Evesham  returned  two 
members,  till  1885  one.  Simon  de  Montfort  was 
defeated  here,  4th  August  1265.  Pop.  (1851)  4605 ; 
(1901)  7101.     See  May's  History  of  Evesham  (1845). 

E'vora  (anc.  Ebora),  the  capital  of  the  Portu- 
guese province  of  Alemtejo,  72  miles  E.  of  Lisbon 
by  rail.  It  is  surrounded  by  ruinous  walls,  and 
unfinished  modern  fortifications  as  yet.  A  very 
ancient  city,  it  has  an  archiepiscopal  cathedral 
(1186)  and  a  wealth  of  Roman  antiquities  (a 
temple  of  Diana,  a  still-used  aqueduct,  and  a 
beautiful  tower,  dating  from  70  B.C.).  There  are 
some  manufactures  of  cotton,  cloth,  and  hats, 
and  a  trade  in  wine.     Pop.  15,046. 

Evreux  (Ev-ruh' ;  named  from  the  anc.  Eburo- 
vices),  the  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of  Eure,  in  the 
fertile  valley  of  the  Iton,  a  feeder  of  the  Eure, 
67  miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  Paris.  Among  its 
buildings  are  the  cruciform  cathedral  (11th  to 
18th  c);  St  Taurin's,  with  the  13th-century 
shrine  of  that  saint,  the  first  Bishop  of  Evreux  ; 
the  episcopal  palace  (1484);  and  the  'Tour  de 
I'Horloge,'  of  the  same  century.  Evreux  manu- 
factures paper,  linen,  &c.  Pop.  (1872)  10,702; 
(1901)  14,920.  At  the  neighbouring  village  of 
Vieil  Evreux  excavations  have  disclosed  remains 
of  a  theatre,  an  aqueduct,  baths,  «fec. 

Ewe,  a  river  and  sea-loch  of  NW.  Ross-shire, 
the  former  running  3i  miles  from  Loch  Maree  to 
the  sea-loch  (10  x  3  miles)  at  Poolewe. 

Ewes  Water,  a  Duinfriesshire  stream,  flowing 
8  miles  S.  by  W.  to  the  Esk  at  Langholm. 


Exe,  a  river  of  Somerset  and  Devon,  rising 
in  Exmoor,  and  flowing  54  miles  SB.  and  S.  to 
the  English  Channel  at  Exmouth.  The  lower  5 
miles  form  a  tideway  a  mile  broad,  with  wooded 
shores.  An  ancient  canal  connects  the  estuary 
with  Exeter.  Tributaries  are  the  Barle  (24  miles), 
which  also  rises  in  Exmoor,  Batham,  Loman, 
Culm,  and  Creedy.  The  Exe  passes  Dulverton, 
Bampton,  Exeter,  and  Topsham. 

Ex'eter,  the  capital  of  Devonshire,  171  miles 
by  rail  WSW.  of  London,  and  75  SW.  of  BristoL 
Dominated  by  higher  hills,  it  is  built  on  the 
summit  and  slopes  of  a  flat  ridge,  rising  150  feet 
from  the  left  bank  of  the  Exe ;  and,  having  been 
modernised  chiefly  in  its  suburbs,  it  is  a  pleasant 
antique  city.  The  quaint  old  High  and  Fore 
Streets,  crossed  by  North  and  South  Streets, 
still  follow  the  line  of  the  Ickneld  Way ;  and  the 
walls  in  great  part  remain,  though  their  four 
gateways  were  demolished  between  1769  and  1819, 
and  though  Rougemout  Castle  (1068)  was  almost 
all  swept  away  in  1774.  In  932  Athelstan  founded 
here  a  Benedictine  monastery,  and  hither  in  1050 
Edward  the  Confessor  translated  the  western 
bishopric  from  Crediton ;  but  St  Peter's  Cath- 
edral was  not  begun  till  sixty-two  years  after- 
wards. Measuring  408  feet  by  76  (or  140  across 
the  transepts),  and  66  feet  high,  it  is  a  long,  low 
edifice,  with  massive  transeptal  towers— a  feature 
imitated  at  Ottery  St  Mary,  but  otherwise  unique. 
These  towers,  140  feet  high,  are  the  original  Nor- 
man ones,  but  tlie  rest  of  the  pile,  rebuilt  between 
1280  and  1369,  is  mainly  in  the  purest  Geometrical 
Decorated.  Special  features  are  the  exterior 
western  screen  (c.  1388),  adorned  with  sixty-seven 
statues  of  saints  and  princes ;  the  beautiful  choir- 
screen  (1324),  surmounted  by  the  fine  organ  (1665) ; 
the  minstrels'  gallery  (1353) ;  a  clock,  dating  from 
1317  or  earlier ;  the  Great  Peter  bell,  brought 
from  Llandafi"  in  1482,  recast  in  1616,  and  weigh- 
ing 12,500  lb. ;  and  the  chapter-house  (1420-78), 
containing  8000  MSS.  and  early  books.  The 
picturesque  guildhall  (1464)  has  a  cinque-cento 
fagade  (1593) ;  of  modern  buildings,  the  most 
noteworthy  are  the  Devon  and  Exeter  Hospital 
(1743),  the  Lunatic  Asylum  (1865),  and  the  Albert 
Memorial  Museum  (1868).  The  chief  public  walk 
is  Northernhay.  A  ship-canal  (1563-1827)  extends 
5  miles  to  the  tideway  at  Topsham ;  and  Exeter 
has  large  nurseries  and  manufactures  of  gloves, 
agricultural  implements,  &c.,  besides  being  the 
chief  mart  of  'Honiton'  lace.  The  'ever  loyal 
city '  got  its  earliest  charter  from  Henry  II.  some 
time  prior  to  1162  ;  in  1537  was  made  a  county  of 
itself,  in  1888  a  county  borough  ;  and  in  1885  lost 
one  of  its  two  members.  Pop.  in  1901  of  mun. 
borough  (as  extended  in  1900)  47,185;  pari, 
borough,  53,141.  The  Celtic  Caerwisc,  the 
Roman  Isca  Damnoniorum,  and  in  876  the  Exan- 
ceaster  of  the  West  Saxons,  who  till  926  shared  it 
Avith  the  Britons,  Exeter  was  six  times  captured 
between  876  and  1646,  and  three  other  times 
besieged.  Natives  were  Archbishop  Baldwin, 
Cardinal  Langton  (doubtfully),  John  Vowel  or 
Hoker,  the  historian  of  Exeter  (1525-1601),  the 
Judicious  Hooker,  Sir  Thomas  Bodley,  and 
Henrietta  of  Orleans.  See  works  by  P.  Freeman 
(1873),  E.  Freeman  (1887),  and  Worthy  (1892). 

Exmoor  Forest,  in  the  west  of  Somersetshire 
and  north-east  of  Devon,  is  a  wild,  mostly  un- 
cultivated waste,  consisting  of  long  ranges  of 
steep  hills  and  lonely  valleys,  and  bordered  by 
deep  wooded  glens.  The  hills  rise  in  Dunkery 
Beacon  to  1707  feet,  in  Chapman  Barrow  to  1540, 
and  in  Span  Head  to  1610.    The  '  forest '  proper 


EXMOUTH 


263 


FALAISE 


Is  about  25  sq.  ra.  in  area,  but  with  the  adjacent 
commons  Exmoor  extends  over  100.  The  out- 
lines are  less  bold  and  rugged,  and  the  general 
aspect  far  less  stern  and  desolate  than  that 
of  Dartmoor,  ribbed  and  spread  with  granite. 
Though  '  improvements  '  were  attempted  in  1818, 
and  many  trees  planted  by  Mr  J.  Knight,  who 
had  purchased  the  forest  from  the  crown,  Exmoor 
is  still  in  the  main  covered  with  grass,  bracken, 
and  heather,  with  dangerous  bogs  near  the  hill- 
tops. Where  it  ranges  down  to  the  coast  near 
Lynton,  the  scenery  is  very  bold  and  picturesque. 
The  Exe,  Barle,  Mole,  and  the  two  Lyns  are  the 
chief  streams  rising  here.  Gold  has  been  found 
in  Northmolton  parish,  and  copper-mines  have 
been  worked  there  from  time  to  time.  There  is 
a  native  breed  of  very  small  ponies,  known  as 
Exmoor  ponies,  stout  and  hardy,  as  well  as  a 
local  breed  of  horned  sheep  of  high  quality  ;  and 
Exmoor  is  the  only  place  in  England  where  the 
red  deer  still  run  wild.  Staghounds  have  been 
kept  here  and  stag-hunting  followed  since  at 
least  1598.  Exmoor  is  the  chief  scene  in  Black- 
more's  Lorna  Doone,  whicli  is  based  largely  on 
local  traditions,  and  which  abounds  with  admir- 
able descriptions  of  its  most  characteristic 
scenery.  See  also  works  by  H.  B.  Hall  (1849), 
C.  P.  Collyns  (1862),  J.  Fortescue  (1886),  B.  J. 
Rawle  (1893),  and  F.  J.  Snell  (1903). 

Exmouth,  a  Devonshire  watering-place,  at  the 
east  side  of  the  mouth  of  the  Exe,  11  miles  by 
rail  SSE.  of  Exeter.  A  sheltered  spot,  with  fine 
climate,  good  beach,  and  beautiful  views,  it  had 
dwindled  from  a  considerable  seaport  to  a  poor 
fishing- village,  when,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
18th  century,  it  rose  into  repute  as  a  seaside 
resort ;  and  now  it  has  terraces,  hotels,  baths, 
promenades,  and  pleasure-grounds  along  the  sea- 
shore, and   docks   constructed   in  1869.     Pop. 


(1851)  5123 ;  (1901)  10,485.   See  Webb's  MemoncUs 
0/ Exmouth  (1873). 

Ezuma.    See  Bahamas. 

Eyam  (pron.  Eem),  a  village  in  North  Derby- 
shire, 5  miles  N.  of  Bakewell,  with  a  population 
of  996,  chiefly  engaged  in  lead-mining.  By  a 
visitation  (1665-66)  of  the  plague,  then  raging  in 
London,  260  out  of  a  population  of  350  perished. 
See  Wood's  History  of  Eyam  (4th  ed.  1865). 

Eye  (A.S.  ig,  '  island '),  a  municipal  borough  of 
Suftblk,  20  miles  N.  of  Ipswich.  It  has  a  fine 
Perpendicular  flint-work  church,  with  a  tower 
101  feet  high,  a  small  ruined  castle,  a  corn 
exchange,  and  a  grammar-school.  Till  1885  *it 
retui-ned  one  member.    Pop.  2004. 

Eyemouth,  a  fishing-town  of  Berwickshire,  8 
miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Berwick-on-Tweed.  A 
new  harbour  was  formed  in  1885-87.    Pop.  2476. 

Eylau  (I'loiv),  a  town  (pop.  3546),  23  miles  S. 
of  Konigsberg  by  rail.  Here  Napoleon  repulsed 
the  Russians  and  Prussians,  February  8,  1807. 
The  place  is  called  Preussisch-Eylau,  to  distin- 
guish it  from  Deutsch-Eylau  (pop.  4574),  89  miles 
NE.  of  Bromberg. 

Eyre,  Lake,  a  salt  lake  of  South  Australia, 
lying  due  N.  of  Spencer  Gulf,  at  an  altitude  of  79 
feet,  and  with  an  area  of  3706  sq.  m.  Except  in 
the  rainy  season,  it  is  generally  a  mere  salt-marsh. 
Eyre  discovered  it  in  1840, 

Eyrecourt,  a  Galway  village,  12  miles  SE.  of 
Ballinasloe. 

Eyrla  Peninsula,  a  rich  pastoral  district  on 
the  south  coast  of  South  Australia,  triangular  in 
shape,  its  base  being  formed  by  the  Gawler 
Range,  whilst  its  sides  are  washed  by  Spencer 
Gulf  and  the  Great  Australian  Bight. 


^ABRIANO  (Fabreedh'no),  a  cathedral  city 
of  Italy,  at  the  eastern  base  of  tlie  Apen- 
nines, 44  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Ancona. 
It  has  paper  and  parchment  manufac- 
tories (established  1564).     Pop.  5593. 

Faenza  (Fah-en'tza;  anc.  Faventia),  an  Italian 
town,  31  miles  SE.  of  Bologna  by  rail,  has  an 
imposing  cathedral,  an  arcaded  market-place,  and 
numerous  palaces.  Its  manufacture  of  glazed  and 
coloured  earthenware  vessels  (Ital.  tnajoUca,  Fr. 
faience)  has  declined,  and  its  chief  industries  now 
are  silk,  linen,  and  paper.    Pop.  18,998. 

Fahlun.    See  Falun. 

Faifley,  an  eastern  suburb  of  Duntocher  (q.v.), 
Dumbartonshire.    Pop.,  with  Hardgate,  966. 

Fail,  Ayrshire,  IJ  mile  NNW.  Of  Tarbolton, 
the  seat  of  a  friary  (1252). 

Fallsworth,  a  Lancashire  township,  4J  miles 
NE.  of  Manchester.     Pop.  14,150. 

Faioum.    See  Fayum. 

Falrford,  a  village  of  Gloucestershire,  9  miles 
E.  of  Cirencester.  Its  fine  15th-century  church 
is  famous  for  its  splendid  twenty-eight  stained- 
glass  windows,  often  attributed  to  Diirer,  but 
really  of  Flemish  workmanship.  Keble  was  a 
native.     Pop.  of  parish,  1403. 

Fair  Head,  or  Benmore,  a  precipitous  pro- 
montory (036  feet)  of  the  north  coast  of  Antrim, 
Ireland,  opposite  Rathlin  Isle. 

Fair  Isle,  a  solitary  Shetland  island,  24  miles 
SSW,  of  Sumburgh  Head.  It  is  3  miles  long  by 
2  broad,  and  3  sq.  m.  in  area,  with  high  rocky 


cliffs  and  promontories,  rising  to  480  feet  in  the 
Sheep  Craig.  Pop.  223,  chiefly  engaged  in  fish- 
ing, or  knitting  parti-coloured  woollen  articles — 
the  latter  art  said  to  have  been  learnt  from  sailors 
of  the  flagship  of  the  Spanish  Armada,  Avhich 
was  shipwrecked  here  (1588). 

Fairlie,  a  coast-village  of  Ayrshire,  on  the 
Firth  of  Clyde,  2|  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Largs.  It  is 
famous  for  its  yacht-building.    Pop.  671. 

Falrlight,  a  Sussex  coast-parish,  2  J  miles  ENE. 
of  Hastings. 

Faimilee,  a  Selkirkshire  mansion,  on  the  Tweed, 
5J  miles  NNW.  of  Selkirk.  Alison  Cockburn, 
author  of  The  Flowers  of  the  Forest,  was  born  here. 

Faizabad  (Fyzaiad'),  capital  of  the  Central 
Asian  state  of  Badakhshan  (q.v.),  on  the  Kokcha, 
180  miles  NE.  of  Kabul.  It  is  noted  for  its  rubies. 
—For  the  Indian  town,  see  Fyzabad. 

Faizpur,  a  town  of  Bombay  presidency,  200 
miles  E.  of  Surat.    Pop.  9640. 

Fakenham,  a  Norfolk  market-town,  on  the 
Wensum,  9J  miles  S.  of  Wells.  Pop.  of  parish, 
2900.— Great  Fakenham,  a  Suffolk  parish,  on 
the  Brandon,  5|  miles  SSE.  of  Thetford,  is 
described  by  Bloomfleld  in  his  Farmer's  Boy. 
Pop.  205. 

Falaise,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Cal- 
vados, on  the  Ante,  23  miles  (by  rail  31)  SSE.  of 
Caen.  Crowning  a  rocky  platform,  Avith  steep 
cliff  or  falaise,  stands  the  noble  ruined  castle  of 
the  dukes  of  Normandy,  the  birthplace  of 
William  the  Conqueror.    Pop.  7109. 


fALc6N 


264 


PARINGDON 


Falc6n,  a  maritime  state  of  Venezuela  (q.v.). 

Faleme,  an  important  tributary  of  the  Senegal, 
rising  in  Futa-Jallon,  and  flowing  northward  to  a 
point  above  Bakel. 

Falkirk,  a  town  of  Stirlingshire,  3  miles  SW. 
of  its  seaport  Grangemouth,  22  NE.  of  Glasgow, 
and  26  WNW.  of  Edinburgh.  Including  now  the 
suburbs  of  Grahamston,  Bainsford,  Laurieston, 
and  Camelon,  it  was  constituted  a  parliamentary 
burgh  in  1832,  and  with  Airdrie,  Hamilton, 
Lanark,  and  Linlithgow  returns  one  member. 
Its  parish  church— the  Eglais  Bhrec,  Varia  Capella, 
or  Faw  ('  speckled ')  Kirk  of  chartularies  and  local 
tradition— was  rebuilt  in  1810.  The  famous  cattle 
'trysts'  or  fairs,  where  stock  was  sold  to  an 
annual  value  of  £1,000,000,  have  been  largely 
superseded  by  the  weekly  auctions.  The  iron 
manufacture  is  carried  on  busily  at  Carron  (q.v.) 
and  elsewhere.  Pop.  (1851)  8752  ;  (1901)  29,280. 
At  Falkirk  on  22d  July  1298  Edward  I.  disas- 
trously defeated  Wallace,  and  on  17th  January 
1746  Prince  Charles  Edward  defeated  Hawley. 
Antoninus'  Wall  (q.v.)  is  the  chief  antiquity. 

Falkland,  a  royal  burgh  (since  1458)  of  Fife, 
at  the  NE.  base  of  the  steep  East  Lomond  Hill 
(1471  feet),  22  miles  N.  of  Edinburgh.  Nothing 
remains  of  the  old  castle  of  the  Earls  of  Fife,  in 
which  David,  Duke  of  Rothesay,  was  starved  to 
death  (1402) ;  but  there  are  stately  remains  of  the 
later  royal  palace  (c.  1450-1542).  It  was  the  death- 
place  of  James  V.  Witli  the  estate  and  a  modern 
mansion  (1844),  it  was  purchased  in  1888  by  the 
Marquis  of  Bute,  and  by  him  elaborately  restored. 
Pop.  1045.  See  Wood's  Historical  Description  of 
Falkland  (Kirkcaldy,  1888). 

Falkland  Islands,  a  British  colony  in  the 
South  Atlantic,  lying  between  51°  and  53°  S.  lat. 
and  57°  and  62°  W.  long.,  250  miles  B.  of  Pata- 
gonia. The  group  consists  of  East  Falkland 
(2849  sq.  m.)  and  West  Falkland  (1990  sq.  m.), 
with  about  100  small  islands,  besides  the  depen- 
dency of  South  Georgia  (q.v.).  Many  of  the 
islands  are  occupied  only  by  myriads  of  penguins. 
Pop.  (1871)  811;  (1901)  2043.  The  shores  are 
deeply  indented,  and  contain  many  good  har- 
bours ;  the  surface  culminates  in  Mount  Adain 
(2315  feet) ;  small  streams  and  lakes  are  numer- 
ous ;  there  are  no  trees,  nor  is  coal  found,  but 
peat  is  plentiful.  The  climate  is  healthy,  resem- 
bling that  of  the  Orkneys,  but  is  characterised  by 
severe  gales  and  abundance  of  moisture.  The 
chief  industry  is  sheep-breeding.  Wool,  frozen 
meat,  live  sheep,  tallow,  skins,  and  hides  are 
exported.  The  capital  is  Stanley  (pop.  694),  on 
East  Falkland.  The  group,  sighted  by  Davis  in 
1592,  was  renamed  in  1689  by  Captain  Strong  after 
his  friend  Lord  Falkland.  It  was  definitely  occu- 
pied by  Great  Britain  in  1833,  and  utilised  as  a 
penal  colony  until  1852. 

Fall  River,  a  busy  manufacturing  city  and 
port  of  entry  of  Massachusetts,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Taunton  River,  49  miles  S.  of  Boston  by 
rail.  It  has  a  deep  and  capacious  harbour,  and 
is  well  built,  the  handsome  city-hall  and  many 
other  buildings  being  constructed  of  a  fine 
granite  quarried  in  the  vicinity.  Fall  River  is 
noted  for  its  cotton-mills,  other  manufactures 
being  nails  and  machinery.  Abundant  water- 
power  is  supplied  by  a  tributary  of  the  Taunton, 
which  falls  130  feet  in  its  last  half-mile.  Pop. 
(1870)  26,766  ;  (1880)  48,961 ;  (1900)  104,863. 

Falmouth,  a  Cornish  seaport,  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Fal's  estuary,  18  miles  NNE.  of  the  Lizard, 
and  66  by  a  branch  line  (1863)  WSW.  of  Plymouth. 
The  harbour,  one  of  the  best  in  England,  is  5 


miles  long  by  1  to  2  miles  wide,  and  12  to  18 
fathoms  deep.  The  entrance  is  defended  on  the 
west  by  Pendennis  Castle  (c.  1544),  which  crowns 
a  rock  198  feet  high,  and  which  in  1646  surren- 
dered to  Fairfax  after  a  five  months'  siege ;  on 
the  east,  by  St  Mawes  Castle  (1543).  Pop.  of 
municipal  borough  (1881)  5973;  (1901)  11,789 
(within  boundary  as  extended  in  1892) ;  of  the 
parliamentary  borough  of  Penryn  and  Falmouth, 
since  1885  returning  only  one  member,  16,296. 
From  1688  to  1850  Falmouth  was  a  principal 
packet-station  for  foreign  mails.  There  is  a  con- 
siderable pilchard-fishery.  The  chief  exports  are 
tin,  copper,  pilchards,  and  fuel.  Here  orange 
and  lemon  trees  yield  plenty  of  fruit  on  open 
garden-walls.  Falmouth  has  arisen  since  1613, 
and  was  incorporated  in  1661;  once  it  was  a 
stronghold  of  Quakerism.  See  works  by  C.  J. 
(Truro,  1876)  and  Caroline  Fox  (1882). 

False  Bay.    See  Cape  Colony. 

False  Point,  a  cape  and  a  good  harbour  of 
Bengal,  43  miles  E.  of  Cuttack  by  canal. 

Falster,  a  Danish  island  in  the  Baltic,  south 
of  Zealand.     Area,  183  sq.  m. ;  pop.  34,212. 

Falun,  or  Fahlun,  a  town  of  Sweden,  57  miles 
W.  of  Gefle  by  rail.  It  has  for  over  six  centuries 
been  famous  for  its  copper-mines,  though  the 
annual  yield  of  ore  has  dwindled  from  3150  tons 
in  1650  to  about  400  tons.  The  excavations  ex- 
tend for  miles  underground.     Pop.  9507, 

Famagosta,  or  Famagusta,  a  decayed  seaport 
on  the  east  coast  of  Cyprus,  on  the  supposed  site 
of  ancient  Arsinoe.    Pop.  3500. 

Fanning,  or  American  Island,  a  coral  island 
in  the  Pacific,  lying  in  3°  51'  N.  lat.  and  159°  22' 
W.  long.  It  was  formally  annexed  by  Britain  in 
1888.  Area,  15  sq.  m. ;  pop.  150.  The  name 
Fanning  Islands  is  sometimes  given  to  the  group 
comprising  Fanning,  Christmas,  New  York  or 
Washington,  Jarvis,  and  Palmyra  Islands. 

Fano  (Fdh-no;  Lat.  Fanum  Fortunce,  from  the 
temple  of  Fortune  commemorating  Hasdrubal's 
defeat  on  the  Metaurus),  a  seaport  of  Italy,  on 
the  Adriatic,  29  miles  NW.  of  Ancona  by  rail. 
It  has  a  cathedral,  and  a  marble  triumphal  arch 
raised  in  honour  of  Augustus.    Pop.  9984. 

Fareliam,  a  market-town  and  watering-place 
of  Hampshire,  on  a  creek  at  the  north-west  end 
of  Portsmouth  harbour,  9  miles  NW.  of  Ports- 
mouth. It  has  earthenware  manufactures  and 
shipbuilding.     Pop.  (1851)  3451 ;  (1901)  8246. 

Farewell,  Cape,  a  bluff  nearly  1000  feet  high, 
on  an  island  off  the  southern  extremity  of  Green- 
land, in  59°  44'  N.  lat.  and  43°  54'  W.  long. 

Fargo,  capital  of  Cass  county,  North  Dakota, 
on  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  254  miles  W.  of 
Duluth  by  rail.  From  an  insignificant  village  in 
1874  it  has  become  the  commercial  centre  of  the 
state.  Flour  is  the  chief  manufacture.  A  fire 
in  1893  did  immense  damage.    Pop.  9664. 

Faribault  (Far-ee-bo'),  capital  of  Rice  county, 
Minnesota,  on  the  Cannon  River,  53  miles  S.  of 
St  Paul  by  rail.  It  manufactures  flour,  bricks, 
furniture,  &c.     Pop.  7520. 

Faridkot  (Fa-reed-kote'),  one  of  the  Sikh  cis- 
Sutlej  states,  SE.  of  Firozpur.  Area,  643  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  125,040.  The  town  of  Faridkot  (pop.  6593) 
is  60  miles  SSE.  of  Lahore. 

Faridpur,  a  town  in  the  delta  of  the  GangeSj 
110  miles  NE.  of  Calcutta.     Pop.  10,263. 

Faringdon,  a  town  of  Berks,  36  miles  WNW.  of 
Reading.     Pop.  of  parish,  3133. 


FARNBOROUGH 


265 


FAVERSHAM 


Famborough,  a  village  on  the  east  border  of 
Hampshire,  32  miles  SW.  of  London,  contains 
part  of  the  camp  of  Aldershot  (q.v.).  Near  it  is 
Farnborough  Hill,  the  residence  of  the  Empress 
Eugenie,  with  the  mausoleum  whither  the  remains 
of  her  husband  and  her  son  were  removed  from 
Chiselhurst  in  1888. 

Fame,  Fearne,  or  Feme  Isles,  or  the  Staples, 
a  group  of  seventeen  islets  and  rocks  (area,  80 
acres  ;  pop,  40),  2  to  5  miles  off  the  North- 
umbrian coast,  opposite  Bamborough.  There 
are  two  lighthouses,  and  on  House  Island  are 
remains  of  a  Benedictine  priory,  dedicated  to  St 
Cuthbert.  Here  Grace  Darling  rescued  the  sur- 
vivors of  the  Forfarshire  (1838). 

Famham,  a  town  of  Surrey,  on  the  Wey,  38 
miles  SW.  of  London  by  rail.  The  old  castle  of 
the  bishops  of  Winchester,  razed  by  Henry  III., 
and  afterwards  rebuilt,  was  garrisoned  by  Charles 
I.,  and  restored  in  1684  to  its  present  state  by 
Bishop  Morley.  A  handsome  Italian  town-hail 
was  built  in  18(30.  Moor  Park,  the  seat  of  Sir 
William  Temple,  with  memories  of  Swift  and 
'Stella,'  is  in  the  vicinity;  so,  too,  are  the 
remains  of  Waverley  Abbey  (1128),  whose  Annates 
Waverlienses  suggested  to  Scott  the  name  of  his 
first  romance.  The  chief  trade  is  in  hops,  a  very 
fine  variety  being  grown  here.  Toplady  and 
Cobbett  were  natives.  Aldershot  Camp  (q.v.)  is 
3  miles  NE.     Pop.  6545. 

Famvrorth,  a  Lancashire  township,  12  miles 
ESE.  of  Liverpool.  It  manufactures  sail-canvas, 
watches,  files,  &c.   Pop.  (1861)  8720 ;  (1901)  25,925. 

Faro,  the  capital  of  the  Portuguese  province 
of  Algarve,  on  the  south  coast,  behind  three 
islands  which  form  a  good  roadstead.  It  was 
burned  by  the  English  in  1596,  and  partly  de- 
stroyed by  the  earthquake  of  1755.    Pop.  8671. 

Faroe  Islands  (Dan.  Faar-Oer, '  sheep  islands '), 
a  Danish  group  of  islands,  twenty-two  in  number, 
of  which  seventeen  are  inhabited,  lying  between 
the  Shetlands  and  Iceland,  200  miles  NW.  of  the 
former,  in  61°  25'— 62°  25'  N.  lat.,  and  6°  19'— 
7°  40'  AV.  long.  Area,  513  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1850) 
9150 ;  (1901)  15,230.  Seaward  they  present  pre- 
cipitous cliffs,  1000  to  2300  feet  high,  whilst  in- 
land they  rise  into  flat-topped  pyramidal  moun- 
taiiis,  which  attain  2502  feet  in  Stromo  and  2895 
in  Ostero.  The  currents  that  run  through  the 
sounds  are  swift  and  dangerous  ;  storms  and 
whirlwinds  are  frequent ;  and  the  harbours  and 
anchorages  in  the  fjords  and  bays  are  not  very 
secure,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  nearly  always 
free  from  ice.  The  islands  yield  peat  and  coal. 
Trees  there  are  none,  owing  to  the  storms ; 
timber  for  building  purposes  is  imported  from 
Norway.  The  principal  sources  of  wealth  are 
sheep-farming,  wild-fowling,  and  fishing ;  and 
the  products  of  these,  including  wool,  feathers, 
salt  and  dried  fish,  train-oil,  and  skins,  are  the 
principal  exports.  The  largest  islands  are 
Stromo  (28  miles  long  by  8  broad),  Ostero, 
Vaago,  Sando,  and  Siidero.  The  capital  of  the 
group  is  Thorshavn  in  Stromo,  with  984  inhabit- 
ants ;  Kirkebo,  on  the  same  island,  was  formerly 
the  seat  of  a  bishop.  The  inhabitants,  of  Norse 
descent,  are  Lutherans,  and  speak  an  Old  Norse 
dialect,  though  modern  Danish  is  the  language 
of  law-courts,  churches,  and  schools.  Since  1854 
they  have  enjoyed  a  certain  amount  of  self- 
government.  From  the  time  of  their  first  coloni- 
sation in  the  9th  century  the  Faroe  Islands  be- 
longed to  Norway  down  to  1380,  in  which  year 
they  passed  to  Denmark. 

Farrar,  a  river  of  Ross  and  Inverness  shires, 


flowing  28  miles  eastward,  and  uniting  with  the 
Glass  to  form  the  Beauly. 

Farringford,  Freshwater,  near  the  western 
extremity  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  2^  miles  SW.  of 
Yarmouth,  a  home  from  1853  of  the  poet  Tenny.son. 

Fars,  or  Farsistan  (anc.  Persis),  a  sparsely 
peopled  province  of  Persia,  bordering  on  the 
Persian  Gulf.  Area,  53,500  sq.  m.  The  capital  is 
Shiraz  ;  the  port,  Bushire,  on  the  Persian  Gulf. 

Farsley,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 4  miles  NE.  of  Bradford.     Pop.  5580. 

Farukhabad,  a  city  of  the  United  Provinces  of 
India,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  83  miles 
NW.  of  Cawnpore.     Pop.  68,000. 

Fasano  (Fa-zdh'no),  a  town  of  Italy,  35  miles 
NW.  of  Brindisi  by  rail.    Pop.  16,941. 

Fasher,  a  province  of  Dar-Fur  (q.v.). 

Fash'oda,  a  town  in  the  Shilluk  country,  on  an 
island  in  the  White  Nile,  60  miles  below  the 
mouth  of  the  Sobat  tributary. 

Fasque,  a  Kincardineshire  mansion  (Sir  J.  R. 
Gladstone),  If  mile  N.  by  W.  of  Fettercairn. 

Fast  Castle,  a  ruin  on  the  Berwickshire  coast, 
4^  miles  N  W.  of  Coldingham.  It  is  Scott's  '  Wolfs 
Crag'  in  the  Bride  of  Lammermoor. 

Fastnet  Liglitlioiise,  on  a  rock  4  miles  SW. 
of  Cape  Clear  (q.v.),  with  a  revolving  light  148 
feet  above  high-water,  and  visible  for  18  miles. 

Fatehganj  ('Victory  Market'),  two  villages 
in  the  United  Provinces  of  India.  (1)  East 
Fatehganj,  23  miles  SB.  of  Bareilly,  was 
founded  by  the  Nawab  of  Oudh  to  commem- 
orate a  British  victory  over  the  Rohillas  in  1774. 
— (2)  AVest  Fatehganj,  35  miles  NW.  of  the 
former,  was  the  scene  of  another  victory  over 
the  Rohillas  in  1794. 

Fatehgarh,  the  cantonment  and  administrative 
headquarters  of  Farukhabad  district,  3  miles  E. 
of  Farukhabad  city,  forming  with  it  one  muni- 
cipality. There  ai-e  many  native  Christians.  A 
British  military  station  since  1802,  the  place  was 
attacked  by  Holkar  in  1804,  and  here  in  1857 
over  200  Europeans— men,  women,  and  children 
—were  massacred  by  the  rebels.    Pop.  12,435. 

Fatehpur,  (l)  capital  of  a  district  in  the  United 
Provinces,  70  miles  NW.  of  Allahabad.  Pop. 
20,179.— (2)  A  lortilied  town  of  Rajputana,  145 
miles  NW.  of  Jaipur.     Pop.  14,731. 

Fatehpur  Sikri,  a  ruined  capital  of  the  Mogul 
empire,  founded  by  Akbar  in  1570,  but  soon 
after  abandoned  for  Agra,  23  miles  to  the  east. 
There  are  imposing  remains  of  ancient  buildings. 

Fatshan,  an  important  manufacturing  city  of 
China,  6  miles  SW.  of  Canton.     Pop.  450,000. 

Fauldhouse,  a  mining-town  of  Linlithgowshire, 
7  miles  WSW.  of  West  Calder.     Pop.  2762. 

Fa  vara,  a  town  of  Sicily,  4  miles  SE.  of  Gir- 
genti.    Pop.  15,983. 

Faversham,  an  ancient  municipal  borough  and 
river-port  of  Kent,  52  miles  by  rail  ESE.  of 
London,  and  10  WNW.  of  Canterbury.  It  has 
a  valuable  oyster-fishery,  aud^lie  creek  on  which 
it  stands  admits  vessels  of  200  tons.  In  the 
vicinity  are  important  powder-mills.  Pop.  (1851) 
4595  ;  (1901)  11,290.  As  Favresfield  it  was  a  seat 
of  the  Saxon  kings,  where  Athelstan  in  930  held 
a  Witenagemot.  It  has  scanty  remains  of  a 
Clugniac  abbey  founded  (1147)  by  King  Stephen, 
whose  tomb  is  pointed  out  in  the  parish  church, 
a  fine  cruciform  building,  with  a  spire  148  feet 
high.  Near  it  is  the  house  of  '  Arden  of  Fevers- 
ham,'  whose  murder  by  his  wife  in  1551  forms 


FATAL 


^6 


FERNIEHIRST 


the  theme  of  an  anonymous  tragedy  (1592).  A 
grammar-school  (1527)  was  rebuilt  outside  the 
town  in  1879.  In  16S8  James  II.  was  seized  at 
Faversham,  attempting  to  flee  to  France.  See 
local  histories  by  Jacob  (1774)  and  Giraud  (1876). 

Fayal  (Fl-al'),  one  of  the  Azores  (q.v.),  with  an 
area  of  69  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  26,264,  attains 
3000  feet  in  height,  and  on  its  SE.  coast  has  a 
safe  bay  with  the  town  of  Horta. 

Fayetteville,  capital  of  Cumberland  county, 
Nortli  Carolina,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Cape  Fear  River,  82  miles  by  rail  (55  direct)  S.  of 
Raleigh.    Pop.  4822. 

Fayy6m,  or  Fayoum  (2^-2/oo??i' ;  Egypt.  Phiom, 
'  marsh-land '),  a  district  of  Egypt  (pop.  360,000), 
a  nearly  circular  basin  or  oasis,  about  30  miles 
in  diameter,  or  840  sq.  m.  in  area,  sunk  beneath 
the  level  of  the  Libyan  desert,  50  miles  SW. 
of  Cairo,  and  connected  with  the  Nile  Valley  by 
a  narrow  pass,  through  which  an  ancient  canal 
pours  the  fertilising  water  which  renders  the 
Fayyum  one  of  the  most  productive  parts  of 
Egypt.  The  irrigation  was  anciently  regulated 
by  a  large  reservoir,  called  Lake  Moeris  (q.v.), 
and  the  overflow  now  forms  the  large  sheet  of 
brackish  water,  35  miles  long,  known  as  the 
Birket-el-Karn,  which  marks  the  eastern  boundary 
of  the  oasis.  On  the  banks  of  Lake  Moeris  was 
the  fainous  'labyrinth,'  reckoned  one  of  the 
wonders  of  the  world — a  vast  palace  whose 
remains  are  seen  in  the  ruins  near  the  brick 
pyramid  of  Hawara.  For  recent  explorations 
in  FayyQm,  see  Petrie's  Hawara,  Biahma,  and 
ArsinoeilSSd),  and  Gren  fell's  Fayum  Totvns  (1901). 

Fear,  Capk,  the  most  southerly  point  of  North 
Carolina,  forms  the  southern  extremity  of  Smith's 
Island,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cape  Fear  River.— 
Cape  Fear  River,  formed  by  the  Deep  and  Haw 
rivers,  runs  250  miles  SE.  to  the  Atlantic. 

Fearne  Islands.    See  Farne. 

Feather  River,  California,  rises  in  two  forks 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  flows  250  miles  S.  to 
the  Sacramento. 

Featherstone,  a  township  of  Yorkshire,  2^ 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Pontefract.  In  a  coal-.strike 
riot  here  (1893)  two  men  were  killed  and  six 
others  wounded.     Pop.  12,093. 

Fecamp  (Fay-kon^'),  a  town  and  seaport  in 
the  French  dep.  of  Seiue-Inferieure,  28  miles 
NNE.  of  Havre  by  rail.  It  has  a  fine  abbey 
church  (c.  1220),  cotton-mills,  sugar-refineries, 
tanneries,  shipbuilding- yards,  &c.  Pop.  (1872) 
12,651 ;  (1901)  15,206. 

Fehrbellin,  a  town  of  Prussia,  with  1920inhabit- 
ants,  40  miles  NW.  of  Berlin  by  rail.  Here  the 
Great  Elector  defeated  the  Swedes  in  1675.  A 
tower  (1879)  marks  the  battlefield. 

Felaniche,  or  Felanitx,  a  town  of  the  island 
of  Majorca.     Pop.  12,053. 

Felegyhaza,  a  town  of  Hungary,  80  miles  SE. 
of  Pesth  by  rail.     Pop.  33,406. 

Felixstowe,  a  coast- village  of  Suffolk,  lOj  miles 
by  rail  SE.  of  Ipswich.  It  is  named  from  a  priory 
(1105),  dedicated  to  St  Felix,  a  Burgundian,  the 
first  bishop  of  Dunwich  (631-647).  With  a  fine 
beach  for  bathing,  a  pier,  good  golf-links,  and 
many  Roman  remains  near  by,  the  place  is 
rapidly  becoming  a  popular  resort.  Pop.  with 
Walton,  1  mile  to  the  west,  5815. 

Felstead,  an  Essex  village,  3|-  miles  ESE.  of 
Dunmow.  It  has  a  richly-endowed  grammar- 
school  (1554).     Pop.  of  parish,  1959. 


Feltre  (Fel'tray),  a  town  of  northern  Italy,  19 
miles  SW.  of  Belluno  by  rail.     Pop.  6715. 

Femern,  an  island  of  Sleswick-Holstein.  Area, 
71  sq.  III.  ;  pop.  9800. 

Fenny-Stratford,  a  town  of  Bucks,  on  the 
Ouzel,  7  miles  S.  of  Newport-Pagnell.    Pop.  4800. 

Fens.    See  Bedford  Level. 

Fenwick,  an  Ayrshire  village,  on  Fenwick 
Water,  4J  miles  NNE.  of  Kilmarnock.    Pop.  329. 

Feodosia,  or  Theodosia.    See  Kaffa. 

Ferentino  (Ferentee'no),  a  town  of  Italy,  55 
miles  by  rail  SB.  of  Rome.     Pop.  7679. 

Ferghana  (Fergd'na),  a  province  of  Russian 
West  Turkestan,  formerly  the  khanate  of  Kho- 
kand,  lies  among  the  western  ranges  of  the  Tian- 
Shan  mountain  complex.  Area,  28,222  sq.  m. : 
pop.  1,500,000.  The  chief  towns  are  Khokand 
(the  former  capital),  Marghilan  (the  present 
capital),  Namangan,  and  Aiidijan. 

Fergns,  a  river  of  County  Clare,  flowing  25 
miles  SE.  to  the  Shannon. 

Fermanagh  (Ferman'a),  an  Irish  county  in  the 
south-west  of  Ulster,  45  miles  long  by  29  broad  ; 
area,  714  sq.  m.,  one-fourth  arable  and  one- 
half  pasture.  The  siu-face  is  mostly  a  succession 
of  hills,  culminating  in  Belmore  (1312  feet). 
Some  coal,  iron,  and  marble  occur.  The  chief 
river  is  the  Erne.  Fermanagh  is  divided  into  8 
baronies  and  23  parishes ;  it  returns  two  mem- 
bers. Pop.  (1851)  116,047  ;  (1901)  65,430  (36,198 
Catholics).     Enniskillen  is  the  county  town. 

Fermo  (anc.  Firmum),  a  town  of  Italy,  36  miles 
SSE.  of  Ancona.  It  is  the  seat  of  an  archbishop, 
and  once  had  a  university.  Pop.  6692.  Its  port 
is  Porto  San  Giorgio  (pop.  3114),  on  the  Adriatic. 

Fermoy,  a  town  in  County  Cork,  Ireland,  on 
the  Blackwater,  here  spanned  by  a  noble  bridge 
(1866),  19  miles  NE.  of  Cork  city.  In  the  12th 
century  it  became  the  seat  of  a  Cistercian  abbey  ; 
but  the  present  town  was  the  creation  of  a  Scotch 
merchant  towards  the  close  of  the  18th  century. 
It  contains  a  Catholic  cathedral,  St  Colman's 
College,  and  barracks  for  3000  men.  Pop.  (1861) 
8705 ;  (1901)  6126. 

Femandina  (Fernandez na),  a  port  of  entry 
and  capital  of  Nassau  county,  Florida,  on  an 
island  28  miles  NNE.  of  Jacksonville.  It  is  the 
seat  of  the  Episcopal  bishop  of  Florida,  and  a 
popular  bathing-resort.     Pop.  3562. 

Fernando  Noronha  {Noron'ya),  a  Brazilian 
volcanic  island  in  the  Atlantic,  in  3°  50'  S.  lat., 
and  32°  25'  W.  long.  Measuring  5J  by  \\  miles, 
it  is  cultivated  by  2000  Brazilian  convicts. 

Fernando  Po,  an  island  on  the  west  coast  of 
Africa,  in  the  Bight  of  Biafra,  and  in  2°  39'  N.  lat. 
Area,  739  sq.  m.  Its  northern  half  is  almost 
entirely  occupied  by  the  volcanic  peak  (9300  feet) 
known  to  the  English  as  Mount  Clarence,  to  the 
Spaniards  as  Pico  Santa  Isabel.  The  island  is 
covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation.  The  average 
annual  temperature  at  Santa  Isabel,  the  capital 
(pop.  1500),  is  78°  F.  The  island  is  inhabited 
by  25,000  Bubis,  a  Bantu  tribe,  and  some  negroes. 
Discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1472,  the  island 
has  belonged  successively  to  Spain  (1777-1827), 
England,  and  Spain  (since  1841). 

Ferney,  a  village  of  1104  inhabitants,  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Ain,  4^  miles  NW.  of  Geneva,  and 
2  miles  W.  of  the  lake.  Here  Voltaire  spent  the 
last  twenty  years  of  his  life. 

Ferniehirst,  a  castle  on  Jed  Water,  Roxburgh* 
shire,  2  miles  S.  of  Jedburgh. 


F£RNILEE 


267 


PifE 


I 


Femilee,    See  Fairnilee, 

Fern  Isles.    See  Farne. 

Ferns,  a  Wexford  village,  on  the  Bann,  7  miles 
N.  of  Bnuiscorthy.     Pop.  490. 

Ferozabad,  &c.    See  Firozabad,  &c. 

Ferrandina  {Ferrmidee'na),  a  town  of  Italy,  43 
miles  ESE.  of  Potenza  by  rail.    Pop.  7325. 

Ferrara  (Ferrdh'ra),  capital  of  the  Italian  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name,  in  the  marshy  delta  of 
the  Po,  30  miles  from  the  Adriatic,  and  29  NE.  of 
Bologna  by  rail.  First  made  a  walled  city  in  G04, 
it  still  is  fortified  with  walls,  bastions,  ditches,  and 
a  citadel.  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  small  university 
(1264),  and  the  old  ducal  palace  of  the  Estes, 
built  in  the  Gothic  style  in  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries.  Under  the  patronage  of  the  Dukes  of 
Bste,  Ferrara  produced  a  good  school  of  painters  ; 
in  literature  it  is  closely  associated  with  Tasso, 
Ariosto,  and  Guarini,  who,  as  well  as  Savonarola, 
was  born  at  Ferrara.  At  the  height  of  its  pros- 
perity, Ferrara  had  100,000  inhabitants.  It  was 
subject  to  the  House  of  Este  from  the  close  of  the 
12th  century  until  1598,  when  it  passed  to  Pope 
Clement  VIII.  In  1860  it  was  incorporated  in 
the  kingdom  of  Italy.    Pop.  40,695. 

Ferro,  or  Hierro,  the  most  westerly  of  the 
Canary  Islands  (q.v.),  was  selected  as  a  first 
meridian  by  a  scientific  congress  called  together 
at  Paris  by  Richelieu  in  1G30. 

Ferrol,  a  Spanish  seaport  in  Galicia,  stands  on 
a  narrow  arm  of  the  sea,  11  miles  by  water  and 
33  by  rail  NE.  of  Corunna.  A  poor  fishing-town 
until  1752,  It  is  now  one  of  the  strongest  fortified 
places  in  the  kingdom,  its  large  arsenal  compris- 
ing dockyards,  naval  workshops,  &c.  The  liar- 
bour  is  safe  and  capacious,  and  has  a  very  narrow 
entrance,  defended  by  two  forts.  The  town 
manufactures  naval  stores,  linen,  cotton,  and 
leather.  In  1805  a  French  fleet  was  defeated  by 
the  English  off  Ferrol,  which  was  taken  by  the 
French  in  1809  and  1823,  and  in  1872  was  the 
scene  of  a  republican  rising.     Pop.  25,000. 

Ferryden,  a  Forfar  fishing-village,  at  the  South 
Esk's  mouth,  opposite  Montrose.     Pop.  1382. 

Ferryport.    See  Tayport. 

Fesa,  or  Fasa,  a  town  of  Persia,  60  miles  SE. 
of  Shiraz.     Pop.  18,000. 

Festinlog,  a  village  of  Merionethshire,  North 
Wales,  22  miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  Bala,  and  3^  S. 
of  Blaenau-Festiniog.  Standing  amid  waterfalls 
and  mountains  (the  loftiest  Moelwyn,  2529  feet), 
it  is  a  great  tourist  centre.  Blaenau-Festiniog, 
27  miles  SSW.  of  Llandudno  Junction,  and  13 
NE.  of  Port  Madoc  by  the  '  Toy  Railway '  (1869), 
is  a  town  of  recent  growth,  inhabited  chiefly  by 
slate-quarrymen.  Population  (1851)  3460  ;  (1881) 
11,274  ;  (1901)  11,435. 

Fettercairn,  a  Kincardineshire  village,  12  miles 
NNAV.  of  Montrose,     Pop.  358. 

Fettes  College  (Fet'tez),  a  fine  Gothic  public 
school  (1870),  on  the  N.  side  of  Edinburgh. 

Fez,  or  more  properly  Faz,  the  second  capital 
of  the  sultanate  of  Morocco,  lies  in  a  hill-girt 
valley,  100  miles  E.  of  Rabat  on  the  Atlantic. 
With  crumbling  walls,  and  narrow,  dirty,  sunless 
streets,  Fez  has  for  over  a  thousand  years  been  one 
of  the  sacred  cities  of  Islam,  renowned  for  its  uni- 
versity and  schools  of  learning.  The  university, 
attached  to  the  venerated  mosque  of  the  Cherubim 
or  of  Muley  Edris,  is  frequented  by  700  pupils 
from  all  parts  of  the  Mohammedan  world,  and 
has  about  forty  professors.  Attached  to  this 
mosque  is  a  library,  containing  30,000  MSS.    The 


extensive  palace  of  the  sultan  is  now  partly 
in  ruins.  Although  thus  falling  into  decay,  Fez 
is  nevertheless  one  of  the  busiest  commercial 
towns  of  north-west  Africa ;  its  merchants  im- 
port European  manufactured  wares,  which  they 
despatch  by  caravans  to  Timbuktu  and  the  in- 
terior of  Africa,  and  export  fruits,  gums,  gold, 
morocco  leather,  fez  caps,  pottery,  and  gold  and 
silver  wares.  The  pop.  is  very  variously  esti- 
mated from  150,000  to  54,000.  Fez  was  founded 
by  Muley  Edris  in  808.  From  1086  it  was  the 
capital  of  an  Almoravid  independent  kingdom, 
and  ranked,  both  as  a  sacred  city  and  for  its 
learning,  as  one  of  the  first  cities  of  Islam.  But 
from  the  date  of  its  incorporation  with  Moroccd, 
in  1548,  it  began  to  decay. 

Fezzan,  a  Turkish  province  (since  1842)  to  the 
south  of,  and  politically  attached  to,  Tripoli. 
Extending  some  390  miles  N.  and  S.,  and  300  E. 
and  W.,  between  24°  and  29°  N.  lat.  and  12°  and 
18°  E.  long.,  Fezzan  belongs  to  the  desert  region 
of  North  Africa.  It  consists  of  a  huge  depres- 
sion, fenced  in  on  all  sides  except  the  west  by 
ranges  of  lulls  (2000  to  3000  feet  high),  and 
traversed  by  barren,  stony,  shelterless  plateaus, 
between  which  lie  long  shallow  valleys,  contain- 
ing numerous  fertile  oases.  Tlie  entire  region 
slopes  gently  towards  the  east.  The  oases, 
mostly  depressions  in  the  valleys,  are  the  only 
cultivated  spots,  where  a  little  grain  and  a  few 
vegetables  are  raised,  and  where  grows  the  date- 
palm,  the  principal  source  of  food.  The  climate 
is  on  the  whole  uniform  and  healthy,  although 
malarial  fever  is  very  frequent.  Fezzan  is  both 
hotter  in  summer  and  colder  in  winter  than 
Tripoli ;  its  temperature  ranges  from  23°  to  112°, 
the  annual  mean  being  70°  P.  The  atmosphere 
is  very  dry ;  rain  scarcely  ever  falls.  There  is 
no  export  trade  except  in  soda,  obtained  from 
extensive  salt  lakes  north-west  of  Murzuk.  The 
50,000  inhabitants  are  a  mixed  race.  They  are 
immoral  and  idle,  but  honest  and  good-natured. 
In  religion  they  are  Sunnite  Mohammedans.  The 
principal  town  is  Murzuk  (pop.  6500). 

Flchtelgebirge  (Fihh'tel-ge-beer'geh,  g's  hard), 
a  mountain-system  of  NE.  Bavaria,  once  covered 
with  pines  (Fichte,  'pine'),  the  watershed  of 
the  Elbe,  Rhine,  and  Danube.  It  culminates  in 
Schneeberg  (3461  feet)  and  Ochsenkopf  (3334). 

Fldra,  an  islet  with  a  lighthouse,  2*  miles 
WNW.  of  North  Berwick. 

Field  Place.    See  Horsham. 

Fiesole  (Fyay'zo-lay ;  Lat.  Fcesulce),  one  of  the 
most  ancient  of  Etruscan  cities,  3  miles  NE.  of 
Florence.  It  has  a  cyclopean  wall,  a  Roman 
amphitheatre,  a  cathedral  (1028),  &c.     Pop.  2000. 

Fife,  a'peninsular  Scottish  county,  washed  by 
the  Firth  of  Tay,  the  German  Ocean,  and  the 
Firth  of  Forth.  Its  extreme  length  is  42  miles, 
its  extreme  breadtli  21,  and  its  area  513  sq.  m. 
The  surface  bfi'ers  a  succession  of  cultivated  vales 
and  hills,  the  most  prominent  eminences  being 
the  East  and  West  Lomonds  (1471  and  1713  feet). 
Largo  Law  (965),  and  Burntisland  Bin  (632). 
Almost  the  only  streams  are  the  Eden  (30  miles 
long)  and  the  Leven  (16) ;  whilst  of  seven  lakelets 
the  chief  are  Kilconquhar  Loch  (4  by  3  furlongs) 
and  Lindores  Loch  (7  by  3).  Coal  is  largely 
mined,  besides  shale,  ironstone,  limestone,  and 
freestone.  The  soil  is  some  of  it  very  fertile, 
especially  in  the  Howe  of  Fife,  or  Stratheden  ; 
and  whilst  barely  one-fourth  of  the  whole  of 
Scotland  is  In  cultivation,  in  Fife  the  proportion 
is  nearly  three-fourths.  Many  towns  and  fishing- 
villages  skirt  its  shores — Culross,  Inverkeithing, 


FIFE  NESS 


268 


FINLAND 


Burntisland,  Kinghorn,  Kirkcaldy,  Dysart,  Leven, 
Largo,  Elie,  St  Mouans,  Pittenweeni,  the  An- 
struthers,  Kilrenny,  Crail,  St  Andrews,  Ferry- 
port,  Newport,  and  Newburgli.  Inland  lie  Cupar, 
Dunfermline,  Falkland,  Lochgelly,  &c.  Under 
those  towns,  as  also  under  Balcarres,  Balnierino, 
Cults,  Leuchars,  Lindores,  and  Magus  Muir,  are 
noticed  the  manufactures,  the  chief  antiquities, 
the  illustrious  natives,  and  the  outstanding  points 
in  the  peaceful  history  of  the  '  Kingdom  of  Fife.' 
Fife  returns  two  members  to  parliament.  Pop. 
(1801)  93,743  ;  (1841)  140,140  ;  (1901)  218,840.  See 
works  by  Sibbald  (1710),  Wood  (1862),  M.  Mackay  ' 
(1890),  Geddie  (1894),  and  A.  H.  Millar  (1895). 

Fife  Ness,  the  eastmost  point  of  Fife,  is  a  low 
headland.  A  mile  NNE.  in  the  sea  is  the  danger- 
ous Carr  Reef,  with  (since  1886)  a  lightship. 

Figeac  (Fee-zhak'X  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Lot,  32  miles  ENE.  of  Cahors.     Pop.  5770. 

Figueira  (Fee-gay' ee-ra).  a  watering-place  in  the 
Portuguese  province  of  Beira,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Mondego,  23  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Coimbra.  Pop.  5470. 

Figueras  (Fee-gay'ras),  a  town  in  the  north-east 
corner  of  Spain,  25  miles  N.  of  Gerona  by  rail, 
below  the  fortress  of  San  Fernando.    Pop.  12,170. 

Fiji  Islands  (Fee-jee),  a  British  crown  colony 
of  the  South  Pacific  Ocean,  in  15°— 22°  S.  lat. 
and  176°  E.— 178°  W.  long.  Their  nearest  neigh- 
bours are  the  Tonga  or  Friendly  Islands,  200  to 
.300  miles  to  the  south-east ;  and  they  are  about 
700  from  New  Caledonia,  1100  from  Auckland 
in  New  Zealand,  1700  from  Sydney,  and  4700 
from  San  Francisco.  The  island  of  Rotumah, 
250  miles  N.  by  W.,  has  been  since  1881  included 
in  the  colony.  The  islands  were  sighted  in  1643 
by  Tasman  ;  and  Turtle  Island  (or  Vatoa),  in  the 
extreme  south-east,  was  discovered  by  Cook  in 
1773 ;  but  the  Fiji  or  Viti  Archipelago  was  little 
known  before  the  19th  century.  In  1804  some 
escaped  convicts  from  Australia  are  said  to  have 
settled  here ;  in  1835  Wesleyan  missionaries  first 
came  over  from  Tonga ;  and  trade  in  beche-de- 
mer,  sandalwood,  &c.,  gradually  led  to  a  small 
■white  settlement.  In  1858  the  sovereignty  of  the 
islands  was  offered  to  Great  Britain  by  the  chief 
Thakombau ;  but  it  was  not  till  1874  that  they 
were  taken  over.  The  governor  is  also  H.M. 
Commissioner  for  the  Western  Pacific. 

The  Fiji  Islands,  over  200  in  number,  lie  in  a 
ring,  open  on  the  southern  side.  On  the  west 
and  north  are  the  two  large  islands  of  Viti  Leva 
(4250  sq.  m.)  and  Vanua  Levu  (2400),  with  a 
group  of  small  islands  and  reefs  outside  them ; 
and  on  the  east  there  is  a  long  string  of  small 
islands.  The  total  area  of  the  colony  (including 
Rotumah)  is  7435  sq.  m.,  or  about  the  same  as 
Wales.  Since  1882  the  capital  has  been  Suva, 
with  a  fine  harbour,  on  the  south  coast  of  Viti 
Levu ;  till  then  Levuka,  on  the  little  island  of 
Ovalau,  off  the  east  coast  of  Viti  Levu,  also 
possessing  a  good  harbour,  was  the  European 
capital.  The  Fiji  Islands  are  of  volcanic  forma- 
tion, the  shape  of  the  mountains  (the  highest  of 
which  attain  4500  feet)  and  the  existence  of  hot 
springs  testifying  to  volcanic  agency ;  and  they 
are  surrounded  by  coral  reefs,  which  act  as  nat- 
ural breakwaters.  They  are  well  supplied  with 
harbours,  and  have  an  abundant  water-supply, 
a  rich  soil,  and  a  climate  which,  though  tropical 
and  somewhat  enervating  to  Europeans  (who  are 
subject  to  dysentery),  is  not  unhealthy  or  ex- 
treme. They  suff"er,  however,  from  the  ravages  of 
hurricanes,  and  earthquakes  occasionally  occur. 
Besides  bananas,  bread-fruit,  cocoa-nut  palms, 
&c.,  the  products  include  sugar,  grown  with  the 


help  of  Indian  and  Polynesian  labour,  maize, 
cotton,  vanilla,  tea,  and  coff"ee.  Tlie  pop.  in  1901 
was  117,870,  of  wliom  2440  were  Europeans,  and 
94,000  native  Fijians.  They  are  in  race  akin  to 
the  Papuans,  but  an  admixture  of  the  lighter 
Polynesians  has,  especially  in  the  eastern  islands, 
leavened  the  native  Melanesian  breed.  The 
Fijians  were  notoriously  ferocious  cannibals  ;  but 
now  the  Christian  religion  is  almost  universal  in 
the  islands,  the  adherents  of  the  Wesleyans  being 
estimated  at  over  100,000,  and  of  the  Roman 
Catholics  at  more  than  10,000.  The  revenue, 
derived  mainly  from  customs  duties  and  native 
taxation,  has  varied  from  £65,000  in  1867  to 
£132,513  in  1902,  in  which  last-mentioned  year 
the  expenditure  amounted  to  £113,341.  The  ex- 
ports have  a  total  annual  value  of  from  £350,000  to 
£550,000 ;  of  imports  from  £250,000  to  £350,000. 
Sugar,  in  spite  of  the  depression  of  the  industry, 
is  far  the  most  important  export,  and  next  to  it 
in  value  come  cocoa-nuts  (mainly  in  the  dried 
form  known  as  copra)  and  fruit.  The  export 
of  cotton  has  greatly  diminished,  but  that  of  tea 
has  increased.  The  trade,  both  import  and  ex- 
port, is  almost  entirely  with  New  South  Wales, 
New  Zealand,  and  Victoria. 

See  works  by  Seemann  (1862),  Forbes  (1875), 
Home  (1881),  and  Miss  Gordon  Gumming  (1881). 

Filey,  a  rising  watering-place  on  the  east  coast 
of  Yorkshire,  9  miles  SE.  of  Scarborough  by  rail, 
occupies  a  picturesque  site  on  cliff's  overlooking 
Filey  Bay.  It  has  a  spa  and  an  ancient  cruci- 
form church.  Pop.  (1851)  1511 ;  (1901)  3003,  en- 
gaged mainly  in  fishing. 

FincMey,  a  Middlesex  urban  district,  7J  miles 
NNW.  of  London.     Pop.  22,126. 

Findhorn,  (1)  a  beautiful  Scottish  river,  rising 
among  the  Monadhliath  Mountains  at  an  altitude 
of  2800  feet,  and  running  62  miles  north-eastward 
through  Inverness,  Nairn,  and  Elgin  shires,  till 
it  enters  the  Moray  Firth  at  Findhorn  village  by 
a  triangular  lagoon,  2  miles  long  and  2f  wide. 
Its  waters  abound  in  salmon  and  trout.  At  one 
jjlace  it  rose  nearly  50  feet  in  the  disastrous 
floods  of  August  1829,  known  as  the  'Moray 
floods.'— (2)  An  Elginshire  seaport,  5  miles  N. 
of  Forres.     Pop.  486. 

Findlay,  capital  of  Hancock  county,  Ohio, 
37  miles  SW.  of  Fremont,  with  foundries,  flour- 
mills,  &c.     Pop.  (1880)  4633 ;  (1900)  17,613. 

Findochty,  a  Banff"shire  fishing-village,  3^ 
miles  W.  by  N,  of  Cullen.     Pop.  1501. 

Findon,  a  Kincardineshire  fishing-village,  6 
miles  S.  of  Aberdeen.  The  well-known  Findon 
(Finnan)  haddocks  were  first  cured  here. 

Fingal's  Cave.    See  Staffa. 

Flnhaven,  a  ruined  castle,  Forfarshire,  5i  miles 
NNE.  of  Forfar. 

Finistere  (Fee-nis-tair' ;  Lat.  finis  terra;,  'land's 
end'),  a  western  dep.  of  France,  comprehend- 
ing a  part  of  the  former  duchy  of  Brittany,  and 
washed  on  three  sides  by  the  English  Channel 
and  the  ocean.  Area,  2585  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1872) 
642,963 ;  (1901)  773,014.  It  is  divided  into  the 
five  arrondissements  of  Brest,  Chateaulin,  Mor- 
laix,  Quimper  (the  chief  town),  and  Quimperle. 

Finisterre,  Cape,  a  promontory  at  the  north- 
western extremity  of  Spain,  off"  which  Anson 
defeated  the  French  (1747). 

Finland  (Finnish  Siiomi  or  Suomenmaa,  'the 
land  of  fens  and  lakes '),  a  grand-duchy  annexed 
to  Russia  in  1809,  which,  though  nominally  en- 
joying administrative  autonomy,  has  (since  1890 


FINLAND 


269 


HROZPUR 


especially)  been  deprived  of  many  of  its  most 
cherished  privileges.  Finland,  which  from  the 
13th  to  the  19th  century  belonged  to  Sweden, 
lies  between  eO'-TO"  N.  lat.  and  20°-32°  E.  long. 
Area,  144,255  sq.  m.  (a  sixth  larger  than  the 
United  Kingdom);  pop.  (1901)  2,744,952,  of  whom 
2,353,000  were  of  the  native  Finnish  race,  350,000 
Scandinavians,  6000  Russians,  and  the  rest  Ger- 
mans and  Lapps.  All  but  50,000  Greek  and 
500  Roman  Catholics  are  Lutlierans.  The  in- 
liabitants  of  Helsingfors,  the  capital  (pop. 
97,051),  are  mostly  of  Swedish  descent,  as  is 
also  the  case  at  Abo  (39,238),  and  all  along  the 
south  and  west  coasts.  About  80  per  cent, 
are  agriculturists,  mostly  peasant-proprietors. 
The  coast  is  much  indented,  and  studded  with 
thousands  of  small  islands,  whilst  the  interior 
of  the  country  is  dotted  with  countless  lakes, 
some  of  vast  size,  and  mostly  connected  with 
each  other  naturally  or  artificially  by  means  of 
canals.  About  12  per  cent,  of  the  total  area 
is  occupied  by  lakes,  and  15  per  cent,  by 
marsh  and  bog.  The  largest  of  the  lakes— 
besides  Lake  Ladoga,  of  which  part  belongs  to 
Russia — are  Lakes  Saima,  Enare,  Kemi,  Ulea, 
and  Paijanne.  The  Saima  consists  of  120  large 
lakes  and  several  thousand  smaller  ones,  all 
connected,  and  having  a  natural  outlet  into 
Lake  Ladoga,  over  the  famous  Imatra  Falls  or 
Rapids — the  finest  in  Europe  both  from  the 
scenery  and  vohime  of  water.  Lake  Saima  is 
likewise  connected  with  the  Gulf  of  Finland  by 
means  of  a  splendid  canal  86  miles  long,  with 
twenty-eight  locks  for  a  fall  of  250  feet.  The 
highest  mountain  is  Haldefjall,  in  Lapland  (4126 
feet  high),  near  the  frontier  of  Norway.  From 
the  lack  of  mountain-ranges,  the  rivers  are  unim- 
portant, the  principal  being  the  Kemi  and  Uled 
in  the  north,  and  the  Kymmene  in  the  south. 
In  spite  of  rocks  and  rapids,  they  are  well  suited 
for  floating  logs  from  the  forests  of  the  interior, 
they  drive  many  mills,  and  are  also  rich  in  fish. 
The  forests  cover  three-fifths  of  the  land-surface, 
and  more  than  half  of  them  belong  to  the  state. 
Of  cereals,  rye  is  the  most  grown,  then  barley, 
oats,  and  wheat ;  this  latter,  however,  rarely 
ripens  beyond  lat.  61°.  The  potato  flourishes  as 
far  north  as  lat.  69°.  Among  wild  animals  we 
find  the  bear,  wolf,  fox,  lynx,  ermine,  otter,  and 
hare  ;  the  elk  and  beaver  are  now  rare.  Seals  are 
plentiful  along  the  coast,  as  also  in  the  Saima 
and  Ladoga  lakes.  Reindeer  are  employed  in 
the  far  north.  Finnish  horses  are  remarkable 
for  their  speed,  hardihood,  and  docility.  Of 
birds  there  are  211  species,  and  of  fish  80  species. 
The  climate  of  Finland  is  very  rigorous  in  winter, 
even  on  the  south  coast,  where  20°  and  25°  below 
zero  (Fahrenheit)  are  often  registered  ;  but  it  is 
generally  healthy,  and,  owing  to  the  proximity  of 
the  sea,  it  is  far  milder  than  North  Russia.  The 
summer,  though  short,  is  occasionally  very  hot 
in  June  and  July.  The  ground  is  generally 
covered  with  snow  from  the  middle  of  November 
till  April ;  then  follows  a  brief  spring,  accom- 
panied by  a  rapid  growth  of  vegetation.  The 
emperors  of  Russia  are  grand-dukes  of  Finland. 
The  country  is  governed  by  the  grand-duke,  the 
senate,  and  the  diet.  The  senate  consists  of  20 
members,  appointed  by  the  grand-duke  from 
among  his  Finnish  subjects.  The  diet  consists 
of  four  chambers— nobles,  clergy,  burgesses, 
and  peasantry;  the  nobles  having  hereditary 
legislative  rights,  whilst  the  others  are  elected 
by  constituents.  In  the  end  of  1905  the  em- 
peror restored  Finnish  autonomy  and  the  powers 
that    had    been    withdrawn    from    the    native 


senate  and  diet;  in  1899-1903  a  series  of  edicts 
transferred  some  of  the  powers  of  the  senate 
to  the  governor-general,  introduced  the  Russian 
military  system,  and  made  Russian  (to  the  general 
still  a  quite  unknown  tongue)  an  official  language 
along  with  Finnish  and  Swedish  (tlie  latter  the 
literary  language  of  the  educated).  Education 
in  Finland  is,  taking  all  things  into  considera- 
tion, very  advanced,  upwards  of  90  per  cent,  of 
the  population  being  able  to  read  and  write ; 
the  university  of  Helsingfors  has  about  2500 
students. 

The  railways  of  Finland  have  a  total  length  of 
4723  miles.  The  revenue  in  1903  was  £3,858,157, 
whilst  the  expenditure  left  a  large  balance.  The 
public  debt  of  Finland  amounted  in  1903  to 
£5,367,300,  nearly  all  expended  on  public  works, 
education,  and  the  like,  and  is  more  than  balanced 
by  the  state  property.  Finland  has  a  thriving 
commercial  marine.  The  value  of  the  exports 
(timber,  butter,  paper  being  the  most  important) 
in  1902  was  £4,100,000.  The  imports  amounted  to 
£5,396,000,  the  chief  items  being  cereals,  iron  and 
steel,  cofi"ee,  textiles,  and  sugar.  Nearly  half  of 
Finland's  trade  is  with  Russia;  Germany  being 
second,  and  Great  Britain  third  on  the  list. 
Large  quantities  of  iron  are  found  in  Finland, 
and  copper,  tin,  silver,  and  gold  exist.  Physically 
the  Finns  proper  are  a  strong,  hardy  race,  with 
round  faces,  square  shoulders,  fair  hair,  and  blue 
eyes,  though  intermarriage  with  Scandinavians 
and  Russians  has  in  many  cases  caused  varia- 
tions. Ethnographically  they  belong  to  the 
Ugro-Finnic  (Mongolian)  stock,  and  their  lan- 
guage is  akin  to  that  of  the  Lapps,  the  Voguls 
and  Ostiaks  in  Siberia,  and  the  Magyars  in  Hun- 
gary. Their  chief  literary  monument  is  the 
Kalevala,  an  ancient  epic  poem  composed  of  in- 
numerable popular  traditions  and  songs  in  the 
rhythm  imitated  by  Longfellow  in  Hiawatha. 

See  the  Kalevala  translated  by  J.  M.  Crawford 
(1888) ;  J.  C.  Brown,  The  People  of  Finland  in 
Archaic  Times  (1893) ;  works  on  Finland  in  French 
or  German  by  Koskinen  (1863),  Ignatius  (1878), 
Jonas  (1886),  Fisher  (1899),  De  Windt  (1902),  and 
Frederiksen  (1902). 

Finland,  Gulf  of,  the  eastern  arm  of  the  Baltic 
Sea,  receives  the  waters  of  the  great  lakes  Onega 
and  Ladoga,  and  is  shallow  and  only  very  slightly 
salt.  The  navigation  on  the  northern  or  Finnish 
coast  is  very  dangerous,  on  account  of  the  numer- 
ous islands  and  shoals. 

Flnmarken,  the  most  northern  province  of 
Norway.  Area,  18,295  sq.  m. ;  pop.  33,000,  prin- 
cipally Lapps.    The  capital  is  Hammerfest. 

Finnan.    See  Glenfinnan  and  Findon. 

Finsbury,  a  parliamentary  borough  of  north 
London,  with  three  one-member  divisions  (Hol- 
born,  Central,  East);  the  two  latter  form  since 
1899  the  metropolitan  borough  of  Finsbury. 

Finsteraarhorn  (Finsterdhi-'horn),  the  highest 
peak  (14,026  feet)  of  the  Bernese  Alps. 

Flnsterwalde  (Finsterval'deh),  a  town  of 
Prussia,  71  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Berlin.    Pop.  10,720. 

Flntry  Hills,  Stirlingshire,  1676  feet  high,  and 
17  mUes  N.  by  E.  of  Glasgow. 

Flr'miny,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Loire, 
9  miles  SW.  of  St  Etienne  by  rail.  It  has  rich 
coal-mines,  and  manufactures  nails,  ribbons, 
buttons.  &c.    Pop.  18,000. 

Firozabad,  a  decayed  town  of  India,  North- 
west Provinces,  24  miles  E.  of  Agra.     Pop.  16,023. 

Flrozpur,  or  Ferozepore,  a  town  in  the 
Punjab,  3J  miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Sutlej. 


FIROZSHAH 


270 


FLINT 


Founded,  it  is  said,  by  Firoz  Shah  (1351-87),  it 
had  sunk  into  insignificance  before  it  became 
in  1835  a  British  possession ;  but  since  then  it 
has  regained  much  of  its  former  consequence. 
It  possesses  the  largest  arsenal  in  the  Punjab, 
and  a  church  in  memory  of  those  who  fell  iu  the 
Sikh  wars  (1845-46).     Pop.  50,000. 

Firozshah,  a  battlefield  in  Firozpur  district, 
12  miles  from  the  Sutlej's  left  bank,  the  scene 
of  the  capture  by  the  British  of  the  Sikh  camp, 
December  21,  1845. 

Fisherrow.    See  Musselburgh. 

Fisher's  Hill,  in  the  Shenandoah  valley,  Vir- 
ginia, 30  miles  S.  of  Winchester.  Here  Sheridan 
defeated  the  Confederates,  21st  September  1864. 

Fishguard,  a  Pembrokeshire  (q.v.)  seaport,  one 
of  the  seven  Pembroke  boroughs,  14^  miles  N.  of 
Haverfordwest.  The  French  made  a  small  de- 
scent here  in  1797.     Pop.  1886. 

Fishkill-on-Hudson,  or  Fishkili.  Landing, 
opposite  Newburgh,  and  58  miles  N.  of  New  York, 
was  in  1776-86  a  great  military  depot.    Pop.  3700. 

Fitchburg,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  on  the 
Nashua  River,  50  miles  WNW.  of  Boston.  Pop. 
(1880)  12,429  ;  (1900)  31,581. 

Fitzroy,  the  largest  river  of  Western  Australia, 
flows  380  miles  to  the  southern  end  of  King 
Sound. 

Fiume  (pron.  Fn'ma ;  Illyr.  MTca,  Lat.  Fanum 
Sti  Viti  ad  flumen),  a  great  seaport  of  Hungary, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Fiumara,  142  miles  WSW.  of 
Agram  by  rail,  and  35  miles  ESB.  of  Trieste  across 
the  Istrian  peninsula,  stands  at  the  head  of  the 
beautiful  Gulf  of  Quarnero,  in  the  Adriatic,  where 
the  Julian  Alps  end.  Its  extensive  industries  in- 
clude manufactures  of  paper,  torpedoes,  tobacco 
(government  factory,  with  over  2000  hands),  sails, 
ropes,  chemicals,  starch,  and  liqueurs,  besides  a 
large  petroleum-refinery,  rice  and  flour  mills,  &c. 
The  tunny-fisheries  of  the  Gulf  also  are  valuable. 
Fiume's  chief  importance,  however,  is  as  the 
entrepot  of  a  great  and  steadily  increasing  com- 
merce. A  free  port  from  1717  till  1891,  it  has  a 
harbour  with  a  lighthouse  and  several  break- 
waters, which  was  greatly  improved  by  the  Hun- 
garian government  in  the  years  following  1872, 
when  new  moles  and  quays  with  warehouses,  and 
petroleum  and  other  docks,  were  added,  at  a  cost 
of  upwards  of  a  million  sterling,  with  the  im- 
mediate eff'ect  of  increasing  the  trade  (mainly 
transit)  fivefold  within  the  next  twelve  years. 
Pop.  39,000. 

Flamborough  Head,  a  Yorkshire  promontory, 
forming  the  northern  horn  of  Bridlington  Bay, 
18  miles  SE.  of  Scarborough  (by  road  24).  It 
terminates  a  range  of  steep  chalk-cliffs,  300  to  400 
feet  high,  and  pierced  with  many  caverns.  On 
the  Head  is  a  lighthouse,  214  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  80  feet  high,  seen  21  miles  off.  Across  the 
peninsula  runs  the  so-called  Danes'  Dyke,  really 
an  ancient  British  earthwork. 

Flanders  (Flemish  Vlaenderen),  the  country  of 
the  Flemings,  a  territory  lying  adjacent  to  the 
North  Sea,  between  the  Scheldt  and  the  Somme, 
which  embraced  the  present  Belgian  provinces  of 
East  and  West  Flanders,  the  southern  portion  of 
Zealand  in  Holland,  and  the  greater  part  of 
ancient  Artois  in  France. 

Flannan  Islands,  or  The  Seven  Hunters,  a 
small  group  of  uninhabited  islets  off  the  outer 
Hebrides,  20  miles  NW.  of  Gallon  Head  in  Lewis. 

Flatbush,  a  former  village  of  Long  Island,  ad- 
joining (now  part  of)  Brooklyn,  with  an  asylum. 


Flattery,  Cape,  a  headland  of  Washington 
state,  U.S.,  washed  NE.  by  the  Strait  of  Juan  de 
Fuca,  and  SW.  by  the  Pacific. 

Fleche,  La  (Fhhsh),  a  French  town,  in  Sarthe, 
on  the  Loir,  60  miles  NW.  of  Tours  by  rail. 
It  manufactures  paper,  oil,  leather,  &c.,  and 
since  1764  has  been  the  seat  of  a  famous  mili- 
tary school  {Prytame),  founded  in  1607  as  a 
Jesuit  college,  where  Prince  Eugene  and  Descartes 
were  educated.  Here,  too,  are  the  heart  and  a 
statue  (1857)  of  Henri  IV. ;  and  here  David  Hume 
spent  three  years  (1734-37).    Pop.  9375. 

Fleetwood,  a  seaport  and  military  station  of 
Lancashire,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Wyre,  21  miles 
NW.  of  Preston  by  rail.  Founded  in  1836,  it  has 
an  excellent  harbour,  and  is  a  favourite  resort 
for  sea-bathing.  A  new  dock  was  opened  in  1877. 
Steamers  ply  daily  to  and  from  Belfast,  and  there 
is  a  regular  service  to  the  Isle  of  Man.  Rossall 
School  (q.v.)  is  2  miles  to  the  SW.  Pop.  (1851) 
3121  ;  (1901)  12,082. 

Flensborg,  a  seaport  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Sleswick-Holstein,  at  the  extremity  of  Flens- 
borg Fjord,  an  inlet  of  the  Baltic,  19  miles  N.  of 
the  town  of  Sleswick.  It  has  iron  and  machine 
works,  copper  and  zinc  factories,  shipbuilding- 
yards,  &c. ;  fishing  and  fish-curing  are  also 
carried  on.     Pop.  50,000. 

Flers  (Flayr),  a  French  town,  in  Orne,  41 
miles  S.  of  Caen  by  rail,  with  large  cotton  and 
linen  spinning,  bleaching,  and  dyeing  works.  Its 
old  castle,  burned  down  in  the  Chouan  war,  has 
been  restored.    Pop.  14.000. 

Fletchlng,  a  Sussex  parish,  8  miles  N.  of  Lewes. 
Gibbon  is  buried  in  the  church. 

Fleurus  (nearly  Fleh-reece'),  a  town  (pop.  5084) 
of  the  Belgian  province  of  Hainault,  on  the 
Sambre,  15  miles  W.  of  Namur.  Three  great 
battles  have  been  fought  here  :  (1)  in  1622,  when 
the  Germans  defeated  the  Spaniards  ;  (2)  in  1690, 
when  the  French  routed  the  allied  Germans  and 
Dutch;  and  (3)  in  1794,  when  the  French,  under 
Jourdan,  defeated  the  Austrians  and  their  allies. 

Flint,  the  county  town  of  Flintshire,  North 
Wales,  on  the  left  side  of  the  Dee's  estuary,  13 
miles  NW.  of  Chester.  In  the  vicinity  are  exten- 
sive alkali-works,  besides  copper- works,  collieries, 
and  lead-mines.  Pop.  (1851)  3296 ;  (1901)  4625. 
It  unites  with  Caergwrle,  Caerwys,  Holywell, 
Mold,  Overton,  Rhuddlan,  and  St  Asaph  to 
return  one  member.  Flint  Castle,  built  by 
Edward  I.,  was  captured  by  the  parliament  in 
1643,  and  dismantled  in  1647.  Here  Richard  11, 
surrendered  to  Bolingbroke,  19th  August  1899. 
See  Taylor's  History  of  Flint  (1873). 

Flint,  a  maritime  county  of  North  Wales, 
bounded  NE.  by  the  river  Dee,  and  N.  by  the 
Irish  Sea.  The  main  portion  of  the  county  is  26 
miles  long  by  10  to  12  broad,  and  the  detached  hun- 
dred of  Maelor,  lying  8  miles  SE.  of  the  main  part, 
measures  9  miles  by  5.  Area,  289  sq.  m.  The 
coast  is  low  and  sandy,  but  along  the  Dee  estuary 
fertile.  The  county  is  bisected  by  a  low  range  of 
hills  stretching  almost  due  north.  Coal,  iron, 
lead,  copper,  calamine,  zinc,  and  limestone  are  the 
chief  mineral  products.  There  are  numerous  well- 
watered  and  picturesque  valleys.  The  uplands 
afford  good  pasturage.  The  Dee  in  the  east  and 
the  Clwvd  in  the  west  of  the  county  are  the  prin- 
cipal rivers.  Pop.  (1801)  39,469;  (1881)  80,587; 
(1901)  81,725.  Flintshire  returns  one  member  to 
parliament.  The  chief  towns  are  Flint,  Mold,  St 
Asaph,  Holywell,  and  Hawarden. 

Flint,  capital  of  Genesee  county,  Michigan,  on 


FLINT  RIVER 


271 


FLORES 


the  Flint  River,  64  miles  NNW.  of  Detroit  by 
rail,  with  sawmills  and  manufactures  of  beer, 
flour,  bricks,  paper,  machinery,  &c.    Pop.  13,100. 

Flint  River,  in  Georgia,  U.S.,  rises  10  miles  S. 
of  Atlanta,  and  flowing  southward  400  miles  (150 
navigable  for  steamboats),  unites  with  the  Chat- 
tahoochee to  form  the  Appalachicola  (q.v.). 

Flintshire.    See  Flint. 

Flodden  Field,  a  battlefield  on  the  northern 
slope  of  Flodden  Hill,  one  of  the  eastern  and  low- 
est of  the  Cheviots,  6  miles  S.  of  Coldstream. 
Here,  on  9th  September  1513,  the  Scots  met 
with  a  grievous  defeat  at  the  hands  of  the  English 
under  the  Earl  of  Surrey.  They  lost  from  5000 
to  12,000  men,  including  King  James  IV.  and  the 
flower  of  his  nobility. 

Florence  (Lat.  Florentia;  Ital.  Firenze),  a  city 
of  Italy,  capital  of  the  former  duchy  of  Tuscany, 
194  miles  NW.  of  Rome,  and  62  E,  of  Leghorn. 
Pop.  (1881)  of  town,  1.32,039,  of  commune,  109,001 ; 
in  1901,  205,589.  The  Arno,  spanned  by  four 
fine  bridges,  divides  the  city  into  two  unequal 
parts,  the  chief  on  the  northern  bank  of  the  river. 
Beyond  the  line  of  the  ancient  walls  (now  razed) 
are  thickly  peopled  suburbs,  and  a  lovely,  fertile, 
and  healthy  neighbourhood,  encircled  by  sloping 
hills,  and  studded  with  picturesque  villas  and 
fruitful  vineyards  and  gardens.  The  massive  and 
austere  forms  of  Florentine  architecture  impart 
an  air  of  gloomy  grandeur  to  the  streets,  for  the 
most  part  regular  and  well  kept.  The  Duomo  or 
Cathedral  was  founded  in  1298,  and  built  from 
the  plans  of  Arnolfo  di  Cambio,  Giotto,  and 
Brunelleschi ;  the  fagade  was  completed  in  1887. 
The  church  contains  sculptures  by  Ghiberti, 
Luca  della  Robbia,  Michael  Angelo,  Sansovino, 
Bandinelli,  and  other  famous  artists.  At  the 
side  of  the  cathedral  springs  Giotto's  famous 
Campanile  ;  and  in  front  is  the  octagonal  Baptis- 
tery of  San  Giovanni,  with  the  glorious  bronze 
gates  in  basso-rilievo  by  Ghiberti.  The  church 
of  the  Santa  Croce,  the  Pantheon  of  Florence 
(built  in  1294— architect,  Arnolfo),  contains 
monuments  to  Galileo,  Dante,  Macchiavelli, 
Michael  Angelo,  Alfieri,  &c.  The  church  of  San 
Lorenzo,  consecrated  in  393  by  St  Ambrose,  and 
rebuilt  by  Brunelleschi  in  1425,  contains  in  its 
New  Sacristy  the  two  famous  monuments  by 
Michael  Angelo  to  Julian  and  Lorenzo  de'  Medici. 
The  Medicean  chapel,  gorgeous  with  the  rarest 
marbles  and  most  costly  stones,  agate,  lapis 
lazuli,  chalcedony,  fee,  stands  behind  the  choir. 
Annexed  to  the  church  of  San  Lorenzo  is  the 
Laurentian  Library,  with  its  inexhaustible  store 
of  rare  MSS.,  founded  by  Giulio  de'  Medici.  The 
beautiful  church  of  Santa  Maria  Novella,  formerly 
Dominican,  dates  from  1278  to  1360,  and  has 
famous  frescoes  by  Cimabue,  Orcagna,  Filippino 
Lippi,  and  Ghirlandajo.  The  church  of  San 
Marco  dates  from  1436;  adjoining  it  is  the 
former  monastery  of  San  Marco,  now  secularised 
as  a  museum.  Fra  Angelico,  Savonarola,  and  Fra 
Bartolommeo  were  inmates,  and  it  is  still  adorned 
with  the  famous  frescoes  of  Fra  Angelico. 
Amongst  the  numerous  palaces  II  Bargello,  long 
a  prison,  now  a  national  museum,  was  formerly 
the  abode  of  the  republican  magistrate,  the 
Podesta.  The  Palazzo  Vecchio,  the  seat  of  the 
old  republican  government,  is  an  imposing  mass 
of  building,  surmounted  by  a  lofty  tower  260  feet 
high.  Adjoining  the  palace  is  the  Piazza  della 
Signoria,  a  square  with  fine  statues,  and  a  noble 
arcade,  the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi,  under  the  porticoes 
of  which  are  magnificent  groups  of  sculpture. 
The  Palazzo  degli  IJffizi   contains   archives   of 


public  offices,  also  the  MagliabecchI  Library,  now 
united  with  that  of  the  Pitti  Palace  to  form  a 
national  library  of  300,000  volumes  and  15,000 
MSS.  On  the  second  floor,  in  a  suite  of  twenty- 
three  rooms,  is  contained  the  famous  Florentine 
gallery  of  art,  rich  in  paintings,  engravings, 
sculpture,  bronzes,  coins,  gems,  and  mosaics — 
one  apartment,  the  Tribuna,  containing  the  rarest 
treasures  of  the  collection.  The  Palazzo  Pitti, 
formerly  the  grand-ducal  residence,  boasts  of  a 
superb  gallery  of  paintings ;  behind  it  are  the 
beautiful  Boboli  Gardens.  The  Palazzo  Riccardi 
is  the  residence  of  the  prefect.  The  Palazzo 
Strozzi  is  a  fine  type  of  Tuscan  architecture. 
The  Instituto  di  Studi  Superiori  has  adopted  tlie 
ordinary  university  curriculum,  and  confers 
various  degrees.  The  School  of  Social  Science, 
the  school  of  art,  the  musical  institute,  the 
hospital  of  Santa  Maria  Nuova  with  its  ancient 
college  of  medicine  and  surgery,  the  Academy  of 
the  Fine  Arts,  the  Museum  of  Natural  History, 
deserve  mention,  as  do  the  Accademia  della 
Crusca  and  the  Accademia  dei  Georgofili.  There 
are  nearly  a  dozen  theatres.  Florence  is  the  see 
of  an  archbishop,  the  seat  of  a  prefecture  and  of 
ntimerous  provincial  courts,  as  well  as  the  mili- 
tary headquarters  of  the  district.  The  chief 
industrial  occupations  of  the  Florentines  are  the 
fabrication  of  silk  and  woollen  textures,  and  of 
straw-plaiting  for  hats,  &c.,  jewellery,  and  ex- 
quisite mosaics  in  rare  stones.  The  Florentines 
are  famous  for  their  caustic  wit  and  natural  gifts 
of  eloquence,  as  well  as  for  their  shrewd  thrifti- 
ness  and  unflagging  labour.  Tlie  beauty  of  the 
city  and  neighbourhood,  her  grand  historical 
monuments,  and  her  unique  collections  of  art, 
attract  many  foreigners  to  fix  their  residence 
here. 

Florence  originated  in  the  old  Etrurian  town  of 
Fiesole  (q.v.),  on  the  hill  behind,  was  a  Roman 
military  colony  under  Sulla,  but  was  not  an  im- 
portant place  till  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  when 
it  was  governed  by  a  duke.  By  the  11th  century 
the  Florentines  were  wealthy  traders,  and  the 
city  had  practically  republican  government— at 
first  aristocratic,  but  gradually  becoming  more 
popular.  In  1215  Florence  became  involved  in 
the  deadly  feud  of  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  and 
was  never  free  from  the  contests  of  these  and 
other  factions,  native  or  alien,  till  the  family  of 
the  Medici  secured  supreme  power  at  the  close  of 
the  15th  century.  Her  liberty  was  extinguished, 
but  luider  the  Medici  the  city  was  the  focus  of 
literature  and  art.  In  1569  the  Medici  became 
grand-dukes  of  Tuscany,  with  Florence  as  their 
capital;  and  Tuscany,  after  several  changes  of 
dynasty,  became  part  of  the  Italian  kingdom  in 
I860,  Florence  being  the  capital  of  Italy  from  1864 
till  1871.  Among  Florentine  worthies  have  been 
Dante,  Boccaccio,  Machiavelli,  Guicciardini, 
Amerigo  Vespucci,  and  Florence  Nightingale. 
Savonarola  laboured  and  was  executed  here ;  to 
the  Florentine  school  belong  the  painters  Cima- 
bue, Orcagna,  Masaccio,  Gliirlandajo,  the  Lippis, 
Andrea  del  Sarto,  Carlo  Dolci ;  the  sculptors 
Luca  della  Robbia,  Donatello,  and  Ghiberti ; 
and  tlie  musicians  Lully  and  Cherubini. 

See  works  by  T.  A.  Trollope  (1865),  Mrs  Oliphant 
(1876),  Yriarte  (1882),  A.  J.  C.  Hare  (5th  ed.  1901), 
Villari  (1895),  Grant  Allen  (1897),  E.  G.  Gardner 
(1900),  and  Goffe  (1905). 

Florence,  a  town  in  the  Staffordshire  Potteries, 
2  miles  SW.  of  Newcastle-under-Lyme. 

Floras,  (1)  one  of  the  Sunda  islands  in  the  East 
Indies,  lying  due  south   from  Celebes.     Area, 


FLORIDA 


272 


FOLIGNO 


6026  sq.  m. ;  pop.  250,000.  It  is  heavily  timbered, 
and  mountainous  in  the  interior.  The  western 
half,  Mangarai,  is  subject  to  a  native  chief;  the 
eastern  half,  known  as  Endeh,  belongs  to  Hol- 
land. The  trade  is  principally  in  tortoiseshell, 
cinnamon,  sandalwood,  and  edible  birds'-nests. 
— <2)  An  island  of  the  Azores  (q.v.),  where  in  1591 
Sir  Richard  Grenville  in  the  little  Revenge  held  at 
bay  fifteen  Spanish  war-ships  till  his  own  was  a 
mere  wreck— the  subject  of  a  noble  poem  by 
Tennyson. 

Flor'ida,  called  the  'Everglade  State'  and 
'Peninsula  State,"  lies  in  the  extreme  SE.  of  the 
United  States,  between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  and  bounded  N.  by  Georgia  and  Ala- 
bama. The  state  is  nearly  400  miles  long,  84 
miles  in  mean  breadth,  and  58,680  sq.  m.  in  area 
(about  one-fifteenth  water  surface).  Florida  has 
nineteen  navigable  rivers  (1000  miles  in  all),  with 
many  swamps,  marshes,  lakes,  and  ponds.  Of  the 
lakes  the  largest  is  Okeechobee,  a  shallow  fresh- 
water expanse  of  about  1000  sq.  m. ;  the  Ever- 
glades (q.v.)  form  a  delta-like  expansion  of  this 
lake.  The  long  coast-line  is  dotted  with  innmner- 
able  islands  and  keys.  In  climate  and  products 
Florida  is  like  a  great  tropical  island.  It  is 
cooled  by  sea-breezes  from  the  gulf,  making  the 
climate  remarkably  equable ;  and  the  state  is  a 
favourite  winter-resort,  both  for  tourists  and 
invalids,  although  malarial  fevers  prevail  in  some 
parts,  and  yellow  fever  has  occasionally,  as  in  1889, 
visited  the  seaports  heavily.  The  range  between 
the  mean  summer  and  winter  temperature  is  only 
about  20° ;  the  greatest  recorded  extremes  are  105° 
and  10°  F.  The  soil,  while  much  of  it  seems  a 
sterile  sand,  is  helped  to  fertility  by  the  mois- 
ture, the  rainfall  being  about  54  inches  annually. 
Large  areas  are  devoted  to  orange  orchards,  while 
lemons,  limes,  grapes,  pine-apples,  bananas,  pears, 
guavas,  figs,  &c.  grow  with  equal  luxuriance  ;  and 
coffee,  rice,  cotton,  and  tobacco  are  natural  pro- 
ducts. Cocoa-nuts  also  are  grown  in  the  sub- 
tropical region.  Market-gardening  has  become  im- 
portant. Florida  is  not  rich  in  minerals.  Mineral 
springs  are  numerous.  Large  tracts  of  alluvial 
swamp  and  shallow  lake-lands  are  being  reclaimed 
by  drainage.  Next  to  these  are  the  low  hummocks 
or  bottom-lands,  dry  enough  for  cultivation,  and 
producing  large  crops  of  cotton,  sugar-cane, 
grain,  fruits,  and  vegetables.  The  high  hum- 
mocks have  a  dark,  gray  soil,  very  rich  at  first, 
but  soon  running  out  if  not  kept  well  fertilised. 
Then  come  first-class  pine,  oak,  and  hickory 
lands,  sandy,  but  containing  a  good  deal  of  lime. 
There  is  a  second-class  pine  land  that  is  barren, 
but  supplies  a  tolerably  good  pasturage.  Indian 
corn  is  largely  raised.  In  the  central  and 
southern  parts  the  black  bear,  the  cougar,  the 
panther,  wild-cats,  wolves,  foxes,  raccoons, 
opossums,  fish-otters,  deer,  and  smaller  game  are 
at  home ;  alligators,  turtles,  and  manatees  are 
found  in  the  waters.  The  lumber  trade,  the 
preparation  of  naval  stores,  turpentine,  tar, 
rosin,  pitch,  and  cigar-making  are  amongst 
the  industries;  all  along  the  coast  there  are 
valuable  fisheries,  oysters  abound  in  many  parts, 
and  the  inland  waters  also  teem  with  fish  ;  and 
the  evaporation  of  salt,  the  production  of  cotton- 
seed oil  and  meal,  the  manufacture  of  fertilisers, 
and  sponge  and  coral  fisheries  are  profitable  pur- 
suits. The  chief  towns  are  Key  West,  Jacksonville, 
Pensacola,  Tampa,  St  Augustine,  and  Tallahassee 
(the  capital).  The  State  College  is  at  Lake  City. 
Pop.  (1870)  187,748;  (1880)  269,493;  (1890)391,422; 
(1900)  528,542,  of  whom  230,730  were  negroes. 

Florida  was  discovered  on  Easter  Day  (Pasciw, 


Florida),  1512,  by  Juan  Ponce  de  Leon.  In 
1539  it  was  explored  by  De  Soto,  and  in  1565  a 
body  of  French  Calvinists  were  butchered  or 
driven  out  by  the  Spaniards.  Spanish  till  1763, 
English  from  1763  till  1781,  and  Spanish  again 
till  1819,  it  was  acquired  by  the  United  States 
and  became  a  territory  ;  it  was  admitted  into  the 
Union  as  a  state  in  1845.  In  1835-42  it  was  the 
theatre  of  a  desperate  war  with  the  aborigines 
rSeminoles).  In  the  civil  war  the  state  took  the 
Confederate  side,  and  was  not  readmitted  to  the 
Union  till  1868. 

See  Davidson,  TTie  Florida  of  To-day  (1889); 
Whitehead,  The  Camp-fires  of  the  East  (1891); 
Powell,  The  American  Siberia  (in  reference  to  the 
convict  camps  here,  1892), 

Florida,  capital  of  an  Uruguayan  dep.,  67  miles 
N.  of  Montevideo  by  rail.  Pop.  2500.— The  dep. 
has  an  area  of  4650  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  40,600. 

Florida  Strait,  the  channel  separating  the 
American  state  of  Florida  from  Cuba  and  the 
Bahamas.  It  is  310  miles  long,  50  to  100  miles 
wide,  and  2220  to  5070  feet  deep.  The  Gulf 
Stream  flows  through  it. 

Floors  Castle.    See  Kelso. 

Fliielen,  a  village  at  the  southern  end  of  the 
Lake  of  Lucerne,  on  the  St  Gothard  Road  and 
the  St  Gothard  Railway. 

Flushing  (Dutch  Vlissingen),  a  strong  Dutch 
fortress  and  seaport,  on  the  south  coast  of  the 
island  of  Walcheren,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Western 
Scheldt,  87  miles  SW.  of  Rotterdam.  Formerly 
an  important  naval  station,  it  was  converted 
into  a  commercial  harbour  in  1865-73.  A  daily 
service  of  steamers  connects  Flushing  with  Queen- 
borough  in  Kent  (8  hours'  passage).  There  is  a 
royal  dockyard  here ;  and,  since  1875,  a  large 
floating-dock.     Pop.  18,565. 

Flushing,  since  1897  included  in  the  City  of 
New  York,  is  in  Long  Island,  on  Flushing  Bay,  a 
branch  of  Long  Island  Sound. 

Fly,  a  river  of  New  Guinea,  flowing  to  the 
west  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Papua,  and  forming  at 
its  mouth  a  wide  delta.  I'irst  ascended  for  90 
miles  by  MacFarlane  and  D'Albertis  in  1875,  it 
was  explored  in  1885  by  Everill  for  200. 

Foch'abers,  a  village  of  Elginshire,  on  the 
Spey,  7  miles  ESE.  of  Elgin.  Milne's  Free 
School  (1846)  is  the  chief  edifice.  A  mile  north 
is  Gordon  Castle,  the  old  '  Bog  of  Gight,'  the  seat 
now  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond  and  Gordon. 
Pop.  981. 

Foggla  (Fodfa),  capital  of  an  Italian  province, 
76  miles  NW.  of  Bari  by  rail.  Supposed  to  have 
been  built  from  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  Arpi, 
it  has  a  cathedral  dating  from  1172,  but  partially 
rebuilt  after  an  earthquake  in  1731.    Pop.  53,852. 

Fohr,  a  fertile  island  in  the  North  Sea,  off"  the 
west  coast  of  Sleswick.  Area,  28  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
4350,  Frisians  by  race.  The  chief  town  is  Wyk 
(pop.  1063). 

Foix  (Fwah),  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of 
Ariege,  in  a  Pyrenean  valley,  44  miles  S.  of  Tou- 
louse by  rail.  Of  the  ancient  castle  of  the  counts 
of  Foix  (1362)  there  remain  only  three  towers. 
The  town  has  iron  and  steel  works.     Pop.  6177. 

Fokshanl,  a  town  of  Roumania,  on  the  Milkoff, 
a  tributary  of  the  Sereth,  123  miles  by  rail  NE. 
of  Bucharest.    Pop.  25,290. 

Foldvar,  Duna,  a  town  of  Hungarv,  on  the 
Danube,  48  miles  S.  of  Pesth.     Pop.  12,720. 

Follgno  (Foleen'yo),  a  cathedral  city  of  central 
Italy,  25  miles  SE.  of  Perugia.    Pop.  9753. 


FOLKESTONE 


273 


FORMOSA 


Folkestone,  a  municipal  borough,  seaport,  and 
watering-place  of  Kent,  7k  miles  WSW.  of  Dover, 
and  71^  ESE.  of  London.  Built  on  uneven 
ground,  at  the  foot  of  hills  575  feet  high,  it  has 
rapidly  extended  and  improved  since  the  opening 
of  the  railway  (1844),  and  of  a  daily  service  of 
steam-packets  to  Boulogne.  The  harbour  is 
much  used  by  boats  employed  in  the  herring  and 
mackerel  fisheries.  In  the  vicinity  are  the 
remains  of  Roman  entrenchments.  Harvey,  the 
discoverer  of  the  circulation,  was  a  native,  and 
a  statue  of  him  was  erected  in  1881.  Folkestone 
is  included  in  the  parliamentary  borough  of 
Hythe  (q.v.).    Pop.  (1851)  6726  ;  (1901)  30,650. 

Fond  du  Lac  (Fon^  dii  Lac.-  Fr.,  'end  of  the 
lake'),  capital  of  a  Wisconsin  county,  at  the 
southern  end  of  Lake  Winnebago,  63  miles  NNW. 
of  Milwaukee  by  rail.  It  carries  on  a  large  trade 
in  lumber,  and  is  supplied  with  water  by  numer- 
ous artesian  wells.    Pop.  15,024. 

Fondi  (Fon'dee),  a  walled  cathedral  city  of  Italy, 
14  miles  NW.  of  Gaeta.     Pop.  6773. 

Fonse'ca,  a  bay  on  the  Pacific  coast  of  Central 
America,  the  proposed  tenninus  of  a  projected 
interoceanic  railway  through  Honduras. 

Fontalnebleau  {FonHehn-hW),  a  French  town 
in  Seine-et-Marne,  near  the  Seine's  left  bank,  37 
miles  SB.  of  Paris.  It  is  chiefly  famous  for  its  royal 
chateau,  and  the  beautiful  forest,  65  sq.  m.  in 
area,  that  surrounds  it.  The  chateau,  said  to 
have  been  founded  by  Robert  the  Good  towards 
the  end  of  the  10th  century,  was  rebuilt  in  1169 
by  Louis  VII.,  and  enlarged  by  Louis  XL  and 
his  successors.  After  being  allowed  to  fall  into 
decay,  it  was  repaired  and  embellished  by  Francis 
I.,  Henry  IV.,  Napoleon  I.,  and  Louis-Philippe. 
Pop.  10,078. 

FontaraWa,  or  Fuenterrabia,  a  picturesque 
old  frontier  town  of  Spain,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Bidassoa,  opposite  the  French  town  of  Hendaye, 
below  the  west  extremity  of  the  Pyrenees.  It 
was  long  an  important  fortress,  often  taken  and 
retaken.  In  the  Roland  legend,  it  is  associated 
with  the  defeat  at  Roncesvalles  (q.v.).    Pop.  4713. 

Fontenay-le-Comte  (Fonn'nay-le-konH'),  a  town 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Vendee,  on  the  river 
Vendee,  27  miles  NE.  of  La  Rochelle.  It  has  a 
beautiful  Romanesque  church,  with  a  Gothic 
spire  311  feet  high ;  a  fountain  from  which  it  is 
said  to  have  derived  its  name  ;  and  manufactures 
of  hats,  woollens,  linen,  &c.    Pop.  8369. 

Fontenoy,  a  village  (pop.  857)  of  Belgium,  5 
miles  SE.  of  Tournay.  Here,  on  11th  May  1745, 
the  French  under  Marshal  Saxe,  defeated  the 
allies  (English,  Dutch,  and  Austrians)  under  the 
Duke  of  Cumberland.  The  victory  was  in  great 
measure  due  to  the  courage  of  the  *  Irish  Brigade ' 
in  the  French  army. 

Fontevrault  (FonH-e-vro'),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Maine-et-Loire,  8  miles  SE.  of 
Saumur.  A  celebrated  abbey  was  founded  here 
in  1099  ;  the  12th-century  church  contains  sepul- 
chral monuments  to  Henry  II.  of  England,  his 
queen,  Eleanor  of  Guienne,  Richard  Coeur-de- 
Lion,  and  Isabella,  the  queen  of  John.  Since 
1804  the  monastic  buildings  have  been  used  as  a 
prison  for  2000  convicts.    Pop.  1571. 

Foochow  (Fu-Ckdu),  capital  of  the  Chinese 
province  of  Fu-chien,  with  suburbs  extending  to 
the  river  Min,  25  miles  above  its  mouth.  The 
town  proper  is  surrounded  with  walls  nearly  30 
feet  high,  and  10  feet  wide  at  the  top.  The  river 
is  thronged  with  floating  houses,  and  is  crossed 
by  a  great  bridge,  329  yards   long.     The   Min 


provides  an  easy  communication  with  the  interior, 
Avith  which  a  large  trade  is  carried  on  in  timber, 
paper,  and  cotton  and  woollen  goods ;  and  the 
port,  opened  to  foreign  commerce  in  1842,  is  one 
of  the  principal  tea-markets  and  mission  stations 
in  China.  The  imports  are  chiefly  opium,  cotton 
goods,  and  lead.  There  are  manufactories  of  silk 
and  cotton  fabrics  and  paper;  and  on  an  island 
3  miles  down  the  stream  there  is  a  large  govern- 
ment arsenal  managed  by  Europeans.  The  French 
bombarded  Foochow  in  1884.    Pop.  630,000. 

Forbach,  a  manufacturing  town  in  Lorraine, 
6  miles  SW.  of  Saarbruck.  Here,  on  6th  August 
1870,  the  French  had  to  retreat.    Pop.  8842. 

Fordoun,  a  Kincardineshire  parish,  6  miles  N. 
by  E.  of  Laurencekirk. 

Foreland,  North  and  South,  two  promontories 
of  England,  on  the  east  coast  of  Kent,  between 
which  are  the  Downs  and  Goodwin  Sands. 

ForTar,  the  county  town  of  Forfarshire,  at  the 
E.  end  of  Forfar  Loch,  14  miles  NNE.  of  Dundee. 
It  was  a  royal  residence  as  early  as  the  reign  of 
Malcolm  Canmore,  whose  son,  David  I.  (1124-53), 
made  it  a  royal  burgh ;  but  in  1308  Bruce  razed 
the  castle — its  site  is  marked  by  the  town-cross 
of  1684.  The  making  of  brogues  by  the  '  Forfar 
souters '  is  a  thing  of  the  long  past ;  and  linen  is 
now  the  leading  manufacture.  The  Reid  public 
hall  (1869)  may  be  noticed,  and  the  Reid  public 
park  (1894).  With  Montrose  and  three  other 
burghs  it  returns  one  member.  Pop.  of  the  royal 
burgh  (1901)  12,117. 

For'farshire,  or  Angus,  a  Scottish  county, 
washed  on  the  east  by  the  German  Ocean,  on  the 
south  by  the  Firth  of  Tay.  It  has  an  utmost 
length  and  breadth  of  36  and  36^  miles,  and  an 
area  of  890  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  finely  diversified, 
the  rich  plain  of  Strathmore— the  Howe  of  Angus 
—dividing  the  Sidlaw  Hills  (1399  feet)  from  the 
Grampian  Braes  of  Angus  in  the  north-west,  which 
culminate  in  Cairn  na  Glasha  (3484  feet)  on  the 
Aberdeenshire  boundary,  and  exceed  2000  feet  in 
twenty-two  other  summits.  The  chief  streams 
are  the  North  and  South  Esks  and  the  Isla ;  and 
Loch  Lee  (9  by  2  furlongs)  is  the  largest  of  several 
small  lakes.  Somewhat  less  than  half  of  the 
entire  area  is  in  cultivation,  and  more  than  one- 
nineteenth  under  wood.  Linen  and  jute  are  the 
staple  manufactures  of  the  towns.  These  include 
Dundee,  Montrose,  Arbroath,  Brechin,  Forfar, 
Broughty-Ferry,  Kirriemuir,  and  Carnoustie. 
The  county  returns  one  member  to  parliament. 
Pop.  (1801)  99,053;  (1841)  170,453;  (1901)284,082. 
The  antiquities  include  vitrified  and  other  hill- 
forts,  cairns  and  standing-stones,  weems,  Roman 
camps,  the  sculptured  stones  of  Meigle,  Aber- 
lemno,  St  Vigeans,  Glamis,  &c.,  the  ruins  of 
Restennoth  priory  and  Arbroath  abbey,  the  round 
tower  of  Brechin,  and  the  old  castles  of  Glamis, 
Edzell,  Finhaven,  Airlie,  &c.  See  Warden's 
Angus  or  Forfarshire  (4  vols.  1880-83). 

Forll  (For'lee;  anc.  Forum  Livii),  an  Italian 
city  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines,  40  miles  SE. 
of  Bologna  by  rail.  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  citadel 
(1361,  now  a  prison),  and  manufactures  of  silk, 
shoes,  hats,  and  cloth.    Pop.  39,442. 

Formia  (anc.  Formice;  formerly  Moladi  Ga^ta), 
a  seaport  of  Italy,  on  the  Gulf  of  Gaeta,  with 
the  ruins  of  Cicero's  villa.    Pop.  8551. 

Formosa  (Chinese  Taiwan),  an  island  lying 
off  the  coast  of  China,  from  which  it  is  separ- 
ated by  the  FH-chien  Strait,  90  to  220  miles 
wide.  It  has  a  maximum  length  of  235  miles,  a 
varying  breadth  of  70  to  90  miles,  and  an  area 


FORMOSA 


274 


FORTROSE 


of  14,978  sq.  m.  The  backbone  of  the  island 
is  formed  of  a  range  of  densely-wooded  moun- 
tains, which  culminate  in  Mount  Morrison 
(12,847  feet).  Eastward  of  this  range  lies  a  nar- 
row strip  of  mountainous  country,  presenting  to 
the  Pacific  a  precipitous  clift'-wall  with  in  many 
places  a  sheer  descent  of  from  5000  to  7000  feet. 
West  of  the  range  is  a  broad  alluvial  plain.  The 
rainfall  of  the  northern,  central,  and  eastern 
portions  of  the  island  is  heavy.  The  mean  tem- 
perature of  summer  is  80°  to  90°  F.  ;  of  winter, 
50°  to  60°.  Malarial  fever  is  prevalent  in  the 
north,  and  violent  typhoons  are  very  common  at 
certain  seasons.  The  island  is  famous  for  its 
rich  vegetation.  Of  animal  life  there  are  at  least 
forty-three  species  of  birds  peculiar  to  the  island, 
whilst  insects  are  scarce,  and  noxious  wild  animals 
few.  The  principal  commercial  products  are  tea, 
sugar,  coal,  turmeric,  rice,  sweet  potatoes,  ground- 
nuts, bamboos,  grasses,  tobacco,  timber,  and 
sesamum-seed.  In  the  south  the  staple  crops  are 
sugar  and  turmeric,  and  in  the  north  tea.  The 
hnports  consist  principally  of  opium,  cotton  and 
woollen  piece  goods,  and  lead.  Sulphur,  iron, 
and  petroleum  also  exist,  but  are  not  worked  to 
any  extent.  Camphor,  once  the  chief  product, 
has  again  under  Japanese  rule  become  an  im- 
portant product ;  and  since  1895,  when  Formosa 
was  ceded  by  Cliina  to  Japan,  tlie  Japanese  have 
done  marvels  for  the  development  of  the  island- 
in  mining,  roads,  artesian  wells,  railways,  post- 
offices,  savings-banks,  sanitation,  liospitals,  and 
education.  The  savage  tribes  of  the  interior 
have  been  reduced  to  order,  not  without  some 
trouble.  (See  Formosa  Past  and  Present,  1903, 
by  J.  W.  Davidson.)  Formosa  forms  a  province 
of  Japan  under  its  Cliinese  name  of  Taiwan. 
Taiwan  and  Takow  are  ports  on  the  soutli-west, 
and  Tamsui  and  Keluug  on  the  north.  The  in- 
habitants, 2,810,000  in  1905,  consist  of  Chinese 
settlers  and  of  aborigines,  mainly  of  Malayan 
and  Negrito  descent,  with  some  25,000  Japanese. 
The  Pescadores,  a  group  of  islands  with  10,000 
inhabitants,  20  miles  to  the  west,  were  ceded  to 
Japan  at  the  same  time  as  Formosa.  In  the  14th 
century  the  Chinese  established  several  colonies 
in  Formosa.  Although  Portuguese  and  Spanish 
navigators  began  to  visit  the  island  in  the  16th 
century,  the  first  European  people  to  establish 
themselves  on  it  were  the  Dutch,  who  in  1624 
built  Fort  Zealandia,  near  the  modern  Taiwan. 
They  were,  however,  expelled  in  1661  by  a  Chinese 
adventurer,  Koscinga,  who  retained  possession  of 
the  island  for  twenty-two  years.  Some  years 
later  a  regular  Chinese  colonisation  of  the  western 
half  of  the  island  was  carried  through.  Subse- 
quently the  island  became  notorious  for  piracy, 
and  for  its  ill  treatment  of  shipwrecked  crews. 

Formosa,  a  territory  in  the  extreme  north  of 
Argentine  Republic,  formed  in  1884.  The  capital 
is  Formosa  (1000  inhabitants),  on  the  Paraguay, 
100  miles  NNE.  of  Corrientes. 

For'res,  a  royal  burgh  of  Elginshire,  5  miles  S. 
of  Findhorn  village  on  the  Moray  Firth,  and  25 
ENE.  of  Inverness,  with  which  and  Nairn  and 
Fortrose  it  returns  a  member.  On  its  Castle 
Hill,  a  royal  residence  from  1189  to  1371,  stands 
an  ^elisk  (1857),  65  feet  high,  to  the  Crimean 
hero,  Dr  Thomson  of  Cromarty ;  on  wooded 
Cluny  Hill  are  a  hydropathic  and  the  Nelson 
tower  (1806),  70  feet  high.  Sueno's  Stone  is  a 
sculptured  monolith  ascribed  to  the  year  900; 
the  "Witch's  Stone  recalls  Macbeth's  meeting  with 
the  weird  sisters  near  Forres,     Pop.  4313. 

Forst,  a  town   of  Prussia,  80  miles  SE.  of 


Berlin  by  rail,  with  manufactures  of  buckskins, 
cloth,  and  leather.    Pop.  83,539. 

Fortaleza,  the  official  name  of  Ceara  (q.v.),  an 
important  seaport  of  Brazil. 

Fort  Augustus,  a  village  on  the  Caledonian 
Canal,  at  the  head  of  Loch  Ness,  33  miles  SW.  of 
Inverness.  In  1730  General  Wade  named  a  fort 
here  after  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  Sold  to  Lord 
Lovat  (1857),  it  was  presented  to  the  Benedic- 
tines, and  in  1876-90  converted  into  a  stately 
abbey.     Pop.  611. 

Fort  de  France  (formerly  Fort  Royal),  capital 
of  Martinique  (q.v.),  in  the  French  West  Indies, 
on  the  west  coast.     Pop.  8000. 

Fort  Dodge,  capital  of  Webster  county,  Iowa, 
85  miles  NW.  of  Des  Moines.  It  has  important 
manufactures  and  coal-mines.    Pop.  12,170. 

Fortevlot,  the  ancient  capital  of  the  Picts. 
Its  site  is  7  miles  SW.  of  Perth. 

Fort  Garry.    See  Winnipeg. 

Fort  George,  a  fortress  12  miles  NE.  of  Inver- 
ness, on  a  low  sandy  projection  into  the  Moray 
Firth,  hero  only  1  mile  broad.  Built  in  1748  at 
a  cost  of  £160,000,  it  covers  12  acres,  and  can 
accommodate  2180  men. 

Fortli,  a  river  and  firth  of  Scotland.  The  river 
is  formed  by  two  head-streams,  Duchray  Water 
and  the  Avondhu,  which,  rising  on  and  not  far 
from  Ben  Lomond,  at  altitudes  of  3000  and  1900 
feet,  run  14  and  9  miles  to  a  confluence  near 
Aberfoyle,  the  Avondhu  traversing  Lochs  Chon 
and  Ard.  From  their  confluence,  80  feet  above 
sea-level,  the  Forth  itself  winds  39  miles  to 
Stirling,  then  12^  (the  '  Links  of  Forth ')  to  Alloa, 
the  distances  in  a  straight  line  being  only  18J 
and  5|  miles.  It  receives  the  Teith,  Allan  Water, 
and  Devon,  and  traverses  or  divides  Stirling, 
Perth,  and  Clackmannan  shires.  The  Firth  of 
Forth  extends  51  miles  eastward  from  Alloa 
to  the  German  Ocean,  between  Clackmannan- 
shire and  Fife  on  the  north,  and  Stirlingshire 
and  the  Lothians  on  the  south.  It  has  a 
width  of  i  mile  at  Kincardine,  3  miles  above 
Bo'ness,  IJ  at  Queensferry,  5  between  Granton 
and  Burntisland,  17  at  Prestonpans,  and  8J  at 
Elie.  Its  waters,  3  to  37  fathoms  deep,  encircle 
the  islands  of  Inchkeith  (fortified  1878-81),  Inch- 
colm  (with  a  ruined  abbey),  Cramond,  &c.,  whilst 
at  the  entrance  are  the  Bass  Rock  (q.v.)  and  the 
Isle  of  May,  on  which  last  and  on  Inchkeith  are 
lighthouses.  Rivers  falling  into  it  are  the  Carron, 
Avon,  Almond,  Water  of  Leith,  Esk,  and  Leven. 
White  fish  are  plentiful.  In  1882-90  a  great 
cantilever  railway  bridge  was  erected  across  the 
firth  at  Queensferry.  It  consists  of  two  main 
spans  of  1700  feet  each,  and  two  of  675,  its  total 
length,  inclusive  of  piers,  being  8296  feet,  or  a 
little  over  1^  mile.  The  clear  headway  under  the 
centre  of  the  bridge  is  152  feet  at  high-water, 
and  the  highest  part  of  the  bridge  is  361  feet. 
Designed  by  Fowler  and  Baker,  the  bridge  with 
approaches  cost  £3,368,000.  Above  the  bridge  is 
the  roadstead  of  St  Margaret's  Hope,  and  Rosyth, 
the  new  naval  base  (1904). 

Fort  Madison,  capital  of  Lee  county,  Iowa,  on 
the  Mississippi,  19  miles  SW.  of  Burlington,  with 
manufactures  of  chairs,  boots,  &c.    Pop.  9300. 

Fortrose,  a  watering-place  of  Ross-shire,  on  the 
inner  Moray  Firth,  10  miles  NNE.  of  Inverness  by 
a  railway  (1894).  With  capital  links  and  good 
bathing,  it  is  one  of  the  Inverness  burghs ;  and 
its  two  portions,  Chanonry  and  Rosemarkie,  were 
constituted  a  royal  burgh  in  1590.  The  seat  of  a 
Oolumban  monastery  in  the  6th  century,  of  the 


FORT  ROYAL 


275 


FRANCE 


bishopric  of  Rosa  from  1124,  it  retains  the  south 
aisle  and  chapter-house  of  a  fine  cathedral,  de- 
molished to  furnish  materials  for  Cromwell's 
fort  at  Inverness.    Pop.  1005. 

Fort  Royal.    See  Fort  de  France. 

Fort  Scott,  capital  of  Bourbon  county,  Kansas, 
on  the  Marmitou  River,  98  miles  S.  of  Kansas  City. 
It  has  foundries,  machine-shops,  &c.    Pop.  11,940. 

Fort  St  David,  a  ruined  fortress  (British  from 
1690)  on  the  coast  of  Madras  presidency,  100  miles 
S.  of  Madras,  on  the  outskirts  of  Cuddalore. 
Clive  became  its  governor  in  1756. 

Fort  St  George.    See  Madras. 

Fort  Sumter.    See  Sumter. 

Fortunate  Islands.    See  Canaries. 

Fort  Wayne,  capital  of  Allen  county,  Indiana, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  St  Joseph  and  St  Mary's 
rivers,  which  form  the  Maumee,  and  on  the 
Wabash  and  Brie  Canal,  148  miles  ESE.  of  Chicago. 
It  is  an  important  railway  centre,  and  manufac- 
tures organs,  woollens,  engines,  &c.  It  is  the  seat 
of  a  Catholic  bishop,  and  has  Methodist  (1846) 
and  Lutheran  (1850)  colleges.  Pop.  (1870)  17,718 ; 
(1890)  35,392  ;  (1900)  45,115. 

Fort  William,  a  police-burgh  and  great  tourist 
centre  of  Inverness-shire,  near  the  head  of  salt- 
water Loch  Linnhe,  the  west  base  of  Ben  Nevis, 
and  the  south  end  of  the  Caledonian  Canal,  66 
miles  SSW.  of  Inverness.  A  fort,  built  here  by 
Monk  in  1655,  and  rebuilt  in  1690,  was  vainly 
besieged  by  the  Jacobites  in  1746.  It  was  dis- 
mantled about  1860,  and  in  1890  made  room  for 
the  station  of  the  West  Highland  Railway  from 
Glasgow.    Pop.  2087.     See  also  Calcutta. 

Fort  Worth,  capital  of  Tarrant  county,  Texas, 
on  the  west  fork  of  the  Trinity  River,  83  miles 
W.  of  Dallas  by  rail,  with  several  mills,  and  a 
trade  in  cotton.    Pop.  (1880)  6663  ;  (1900)  26,688. 

Fossa'no,  a  town  of  North  Italy,  15  miles  NE. 
of  Cuneo  by  rail.  It  has  a  cathedral  and  a  14th- 
century  castle.    Pop.  7959. 

Fossombro'ne  (anc.  Forum  Sempronii),  a  cathe- 
dral city  of  Italy,  on  the  Metauro,  10  miles  E. 
of  Urbino.     Pop.  4266. 

Fotheringhay,  a  village  of  Northamptonshire, 
on  the  Nen,  9  miles  SW.  of  Peterborough.  Its 
castle,  founded  shortly  after  the  Conquest,  in 
which  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  was  beheaded  in 
1587,  was  allowed  to  fall  into  decay  after  James 
I.'s  accession  to  the  English  throne. 

Fougeres,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Ille-et- 
Vilaine,  23  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Vitre.  It  has  a 
picturesque  old  castle,  granite-quarries,  and  manu- 
factures of  sailcloth,  leather,  &c.  Here  the  Ven- 
deans  defeated  the  republicans  in  November  1793. 
Pop.  20,000. 

Foula,  a  lonely  island  of  Shetland,  16  miles 
WSW.  of  the  nearest  point  of  the  mainland. 
Measuring  3J  by  2^  miles,  it  is  5  sq.  m.  in  area, 
and  culminates  in  the  Sneug  (1372  feet).  The 
Old  Red  Sandstone  cliffs  on  its  north-west  side, 
rising  1220  feet  almost  sheer  from  the  sea,  are 
denizened  in  the  breeding  season  by  myriads  of 
sea-fowl — puffins,  kittiwakes,  and  the  rare  great 
skua  or  '  bonxie, '  which  formerly  was  preserved 
by  the  islanders  to  keep  down  the  eagles.  The 
only  landing-place  is  at  the  flshing-hamlet  of 
Ham,  on  the  south-east.  Foula  was  the  last 
island  where  the  old  Norse  tongue  lingered  on 
into  the  19th  century.    Pop.  230. 

Fountains  Abbey,  one  of  the  largest  and  best- 
preserved  monastic  edifices  in  England,  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  3  miles  SW.  of  Ripon. 


Founded  for  Cistercians  in  1132,  it  was  not  com- 
pleted till  the  16th  century. 

Fourchambault  (Foor-shong-bo),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Nievre,  5  miles  NNW.  of  Nevers, 
near  the  Loire,  here  crossed  by  a  suspension 
bridge.  There  are  large  iron-foundries,  nail- 
works,  and  wire-works.    Pop.  6126. 

Four  Lakes,  a  chain  of  deep  lakes  (Mendota, 
Menona,  Waubesa,  and  Kegonsa)  in  Dane  county, 
Wisconsin,  connected  by  short  outlets.  Madison, 
the  state  capital,  stands  on  an  isthmus  between 
Mendota  and  Menona. 

Fourmies,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Nord, 
12  miles  SE.  of  Avesnes  by  rail,  with  mines,  iron- 
works, and  mills.  There  were  great  labour  riots 
here  in  1891.    Pop.  (1861)  3422 ;  (1901)  13,828. 

Fowey,  or  Foy,  an  old  Cornish  town,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  river  Fowey,  11  miles  SSB.  of 
Bodmin.  It  is  the  '  Troy  Town '  and  the  home 
of  Quiller- Couch.  Pilchards  are  cured,  and 
'china-stone'  and  iron  ore  exported  from  its 
harbour.     Pop.  2657. 

Fox  Channel,  the  northern  portion  of  Hudson 
Bay,  washing  the  western  shores  of  Baffin  Land, 
and  named  from  Luke  Fox,  an  English  navigator, 
who  explored  Hudson  Bay  in  1631. 

Fox  Islands.    See  Aleutian  Islands. 

Foyers  (Fl'ers),  a  stream  of  Inverness-shire, 
running  9  miles  N.  to  the  east  side  of  Loch  Ness, 
10^  miles  NE.  of  Fort  Augustus.  During  the 
last  li  mile  it  descends  400  feet,  and  forms  two 
magnificent  cascades,  40  and  165  feet  high. 

Foyle,  Lough,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  on  the 
north  coast  of  Ireland,  between  Londonderry  and 
Donegal  counties.  It  is  15  miles  long,  1  mile 
wide  at  its  entrance,  and  10  miles  along  its  south 
side.  Vessels  of  600  tons  ascend  the  lough,  and 
also  as  far  as  Derry,  its  principal  tributary  the 
Foyle,  which,  formed  near  Liflbrd  by  the  Finn 
and  the  Mourne,  has  a  NNE.  course  of  72  miles. 

Fraga,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Cinca,  63  miles 
ESE.  of  Saragossa.  Here,  in  1134,  the  Moors 
defeated  Alfonso  I.  of  Aragon.    Pop.  7110. 

Framingham,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  on  the 
Sudbury  River,  24  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Boston  by 
rail.  The  township  includes  Saxonville  and  South 
Framingham,  with  manufactures  of  blankets  and 
straw  goods.    Pop.  11,300. 

Framlingham  ('strangers'  town'),  a  Suffolk 
market-town,  22  miles  NNE.  of  Ipswich  by  a 
branch  line.  The  fine  flint- work  church,  restored 
in  1888-89,  has  a  tower  90  feet  high,  and  con- 
tains noble  altar-tombs  of  the  Howards  (the 
third  Duke  of  Norfolk,  the  poet  Earl  of  Surrey, 
&c.).  Separated  by  the  Mere  from  the  red-brick 
Albert  middle-class  college  (1864)  rises  the  great 
Edwardian  castle,  the  stronghold  successively  of 
Bigods,  Mowbrays,  and  Howards,  and  Queen 
Mary's  refuge  after  Edward  VI. 's  death.  Pop. 
2515.     See  Hawes's  History  of  Framlingham  (1798). 

Francavllla,  a  town  of  Italy,  22  miles  WSW.  of 
Brindisi.    Pop.  18,559. 

France,  occupying  a  most  advantageous  posi- 
tion between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Mediterranean, 
is  a  compact  hexagonal  mass,  bounded  N.  by  the 
Channel  and  the  Strait  of  Dover,  NE.  by  Belgium 
and  Luxemburg,  E.  by  Lorraine,  Alsace,  Switzer- 
land, and  Italy,  S.  by  the  Mediterranean  Sea 
and  Spain,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Pyrenees,  and  W.  by  the  Atlantic.  Its  utmost  ex- 
tremities are  comprised  between  51°  5' — 42°  20'  N. 
lat.  and  the  4°  42'  W.— 7°  39'  E.  long.  ;  its  greatest 
dimensions  being  606  miles  from  N.  to  S.,  556 


FRANCE 


276 


FRANCE 


miles  from  W.  to  E.,  and  675  miles  from  NW.  to 
SE.  As  diminished  in  1871  by  the  loss  of  Alsace 
and  part  of  Lorraine  (5590  sq.  m.),  France  covers, 
by  the  measurement  of  1894,  an  area  of  206,381 
sq.  m. — one-eighteenth  part  of  Europe.  Pop. 
(1872)  36,102,921  ;  (1901)  38,961,945,  or  about  one- 
tenth  of  the  population  of  Europe. 

France,  formerly  divided  into  same  30  prov- 
inces (Normandy,  Brittany,  Champagne,  Bur- 
gundy, Auvergne,  Languedoc,  Provence,  &c. — 
see  the  separate  articles),  was  at  the  Revolu- 
tion re-distributed  into  deps.  named  generally 
after  the  rivers.  These  deps.,  mostly  between 
1500  and  2500  sq.  m.  in  area,  are,  including  Corsica 
and  the  territory  of  Bel  fort,  87  in  number, 
and  each  is  separately  discussed  in  this  work. 
Exoept  the  island  of  Corsica,  which,  geogra- 
phically and  ethnologically,  belongs  rather  to 
Italy,  France  has  no  islands  of  importance.  The 
islands  off  the  Mediterranean  coast,  as  well  as 
those  off  Brittany,  are  practically  but  small  de- 
tached fragments  of  the  mainland  ;  while  the 
Channel  Islands,  situated  between  Brittany  and 
the  Cotentin  peninsula,  belong  to  Great  Britain. 

The  possessions  of  France  outside  of  Europe, 
both  colonies  and  protected  countries,  cover  an 
aggregate  of  4,000,000  sq.  m.,  and  have  a  pop. 
of  more  than  51,000,000  inhabitants.  Of  them 
Algeria  (q.v.)  is  rapidly  becoming  a  part  of 
France  proper,  and  is  considered  as  such  for 
nearly  all  administrative  purposes.  The  large 
territory  of  Tunis  has  since  1881-83  been  under 
French  protection.  By  a  treaty  signed  in  1885 
Madagascar  was  placed  under  the  protection  of 
France,  which  also  now  holds  a  large  area  in 
West  Africa,  in  Guinea,  the  Ivory  Coast,  and  on 
the  Gaboon  and  Congo.  In  Asia,  Tonkin  was 
annexed  to  France  in  1884,  and  Annam  placed 
under  its  protectorate,  and  portions  of  Siam 
acquired  in  1893.  The  details  of  the  French 
colonies  and  protectorates  are  given  in  the  sub- 
joined table : 

Area  p 

In  Asia—                                       in  sq.  m.  *^°P- 

French  India 196  273,000 

Cochin-China 22,000  2,968,600 

Tonkin  and  Laos 144,400  7,641,900 

Annam 52,100  6,124,000 

Cambodia 37,400  1,500,000 

In  Africa — 

Algeria 184,474  4,739,300 

Tunis 51,000  1,900,000 

Western  Sahara 1,544,000  2,550,000 

Senegal 80,000  1,800,000 

Senegambia  and  Niger 210,000  3,000,000 

French  Guinea 95,000  2,200,000 

IvoryCoast 116,000  2,000,000 

Dahomey.... 60,000  1,000,000 

Congo 1,160,000  10,000,000 

Somali  Coast 45,000  200,000 

Reunion 966  173,200 

Comoro  Isles 620  47,000 

Mayotte 140  11,640 

Madagascar 227,950  2,505,240 

In  America — 

Guiana 30,500  32,910 

Guadelouiie,  &c 688  182,110 

Martinique 380  203,780 

St  Pierre  and  Miquelon 92  6,250 

In  Oceania — 

New  Caledonia,  &c 7,650  51,410 

Establishments,  Oceania 1,520  29,000 

Total 4,072,076  51,139,340 

A  general  idea  of  the  leading  geographical 
features  of  France  can  be  given  in  a  few  words. 
Its  territory  embodies  highlands  in  the  south 
and  south-east  only :  in  the  south  it  comprises 
the  northern  slopes  of  the  Pyrenees,  and  towards 


the  south-east  frontier  part  of  the  Alps.  The 
remainder  of  the  territory  is  nearly  equally 
divided  between  extensive  lowlands  in  the  north- 
west and  a  great  plateau,  which  covers  the  south- 
eastern half,  but  is  separated  from  the  Alps  by 
the  broad  and  deep  valley  of  the  Lower  Rhone. 
The  climate  of  France,  its  vegetation,  the  dis- 
tyribution  of  its  population,  and  its  very  history 
have  been  determined  by  these  leading  features 
of  its  orography. 

The  extensive  mass  of  elevated  plains  which 
rises  between  the  lowlands  of  the  Mediterranean 
coast  and  those  sloping  towards  the  Atlantic 
reaches  a  heiglit  of  from  3000  to  4000  feet  in  its 
higher  central  parts  only  ;  several  chains,  partly 
of  volcanic  origin,  piled  over  its  surface,  attain 
from  5000  to  6000  feet;  while  the  river-valleys 
are  dug  so  deeply  into  the  plateau  that  it  often 
assumes  a  hilly  aspect.  The  whole  slopes  gently 
towards  the  north-west,  gradually  melting  into 
the  lowlands  of  the  Garonne,  the  Loire,  and  the 
Seine ;  but  the  plateau  has  a  short  steep  slope 
towards  the  valley  of  the  Rhone  and  the  Medi- 
terranean coast,  and  the  southern  part  of  that 
slope  is  fringed  by  the  Cevennes  Mountains, 
which  raise  their  granitic  and  crystalline  sum- 
mits to  more  than  5000  feet  above  the  sea 
(Mont  Mezenc,  5754  feet).  This  lofty  chain 
separates  two  entirely  different  worlds— the 
fertile,  sunny,  and  warm  plains  of  the  Lower 
Rhone  and  Languedoc  from  the  plains  of  the 
Rouergue,  dreary,  cold,  and  3000  feet  high,  upon 
which  only  rye  is  grown,  and  flocks  of  sheep  find 
rich  grazing-grounds.  The  sunny  slopes  of  the 
Monts  du  Beaujolais,  turned  towards  the  Saone, 
are  covered  with  rich  vineyards ;  while  the 
plateau  to  the  west  of  them  is  dotted  with  iron- 
works, coal-mines,  and  manufacturing  cities. 
The  Vosges,  although  making  a  steep  descent  to 
the  valley  of  the  Rhine,  rise  but  gently  over 
the  plateau,  their  highest  points  being  not  more 
than  from  3300  to  4000  feet  above  the  sea  (the 
Ballon  de  Soultz,  4579  feet,  is  now  on  German 
territory).  The  Massif  Central  of  Auvergne, 
the  highest  part  of  the  plateau,  covers  nearly 
one-seventh  of  France's  total  area,  and  is  a 
region  of  granites,  gneisses,  and  crystalline 
slates  fringed  by  Jurassic  deposits,  and  dotted 
on  its  surface  with  extinct  volcanic  cones  sur- 
rounded by  wide  sheets  of  lava.  The  heights 
of  the  Massif  Central,  suffering  as  they  do  from 
a  protracted  winter,  have  but  a  poor,  rapidly- 
diminishing  population.  The  forests  which  once 
covered  them  have  mostly  been  destroyed,  save 
in  the  picturesque  Margeride  chain,  and  only 
flocks  of  sheep  graze  on  their  meagre  pasture- 
grounds.  The  Gausses  receive  rain  in  abundance, 
but  are  exceedingly  dry— the  water  rapidly  dis- 
appearing in  the  numberless  crevices  of  the  soil. 
A  narrow  passage  near  Belfort  (la  Troupe  de 
Belfort),  utilised  by  both  the  canal  which  con- 
nects the  Sa6ne  with  the  Rhine  and  the  railway 
which  leads  from  Paris  to  Switzerland,  separates 
the  Vosges  from  tlie  limestone  plateaus  of  the 
Jura,  part  of  which  belongs  to  France.  Since 
the  annexation  of  Savoy  in  1860  the  Alps  of 
Savoy,  as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  main  chain, 
including  Mont  Blanc  (15,780  feet),  belong  to 
France.  The  Pyrenees,  a  wild  complex  of  lofty 
chains,  extends  for  a  length  of  260  miles  between 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 
A  plateau,  from  1600  to  2000  feet  high  (Lanne- 
mezan),  spreads  out  at  the  northern  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees.  Its  limestone  soil  is  exceedingly  dry, 
and  its  grazing-lands  have  to  be  irrigated. 
The  whole  of  north-western  France,  with  the 


FRANCE 


277 


FRANCE 


exception  of  a  few  hilly  tracts  In  La  Vendee,  Brit- 
tany, and  Normandy,  is  occupied  by  wide  plains 
which  constitute  the  real  wealth  of  the  country. 
Taking  them  in  order  from  the  south-west,  we 
have  lirst  the  Landes— a  wide  triangular  space 
between  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  the  Adour,  and  the 
Loire,  covered  with  Pliocene  sands,  which  would 
be  an  immense  marshy  fever-den,  bordered  by 
shifting  sands  on  the  sea-coast,  if  it  were  not 
intersected  by  canals,  and  the  sands  were  not 
fixed  by  plantations  of  trees.  The  Adour 
River  fringes  the  Landes.  The  Dordogne  and 
the  Garonne  join  to  form  the  Gironde,  which 
is  a  true  marine  estuary,  with  the  left  bank 
bordered  by  the  low  hills  of  Mcdoc,  covered 
with  vineyards  yielding  every  year  not  less  than 
2,200,000  gallons  of  the  finest  wines.  The  mono- 
tony of  the  rich  plains  between  the  Gironde  and 
the  Loire,  which  include  the  old  province  of 
Poitou,  is  broken  by  the  dreary  hills  of  the 
Gatine,  a  link  between  the  chains  of  Margeride 
and  Limousin  and  the  hilly  tracts  of  Brittany. 
Next  we  have  the  immense  plains  watered  by 
the  Loire,  which  becomes  a  great  river  after 
receiving  the  AUier,  and  has  a  drainage  area 
covering  one-fifth  of  the  area  of  France.  The 
peninsula  of  Brittany  is  formed  by  two  ridges 
of  granitic  hills,  from  1000  to  1200  feet  high, 
separated  by  a  region  of  crystalline  slates.  Its 
scenery  and  moist  climate,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  Cotentin  peninsula,  remind  one  of  England. 
The  plateaus  of  Normandy  (Le  Perche),  which 
rise  from  1000  to  1300  feet  above  the  surrounding 
plains,  are  also  covered  with  beautiful  meadows, 
cornfields,  and  forests,  and  French  agriculture 
reaches  there  its  highest  development.  The  Seine 
separates  them  from  the  cretaceous  chalky  plains 
of  the  Caux,  which  raise  their  cliff's  over  the 
Channel,  and  are  deeply  cleft  by  valleys  of  a 
remarkable  fertility.  The  wide  Tertiary  basin 
which  the  Seine  and  its  tributaries  water  has  from 
remote  antiquity  been  the  dominant  portion  of 
historical  France.  Numerous  large  cities,  as 
Auxerre,  Sens,  Troyes,  Chdlons,  Rheinis,  Laon, 
Rennes,  and  Paris,  are  situated  either  on  the 
Seine  or  on  its  right-bank  tributaries  which 
water  the  fertile  plains  of  Champagne.  Havre 
is  the  gi-eat  port  at  the  mouth  of  the  river. 
Artois  and  French  Flanders  are  low  tracts 
of  land  to  some  extent  conquered  from  the 
sea.  They  have  a  flourishing  agriculture,  vast 
coalfields,  and  a  great  industry  in  their  chief 
cities.  At  the  other  extremity  of  France  the 
lowlands  of  the  south  occupy  the  sea-coast  and 
the  broad  valley  of  the  Rhone,  along  which  they 
extend  between  the  Alps  and  the  plateau,  as  far 
north  as  Lyons,  to  be  continued  farther  north 
by  the  valley  of  the  Saone.  The  littoral  of  Pro- 
vence has  no  great  fertility,  and,  except  the 
stony  or  marshy  plains  in  the  neighbourhood  of 
the  Rhone,  there  is  but  a  narrow  strip  of  land 
left  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea-coast, 
which  is  utilised  for  vineyards  and  fruit-gardens. 
The  eastern  part  of  the  coast,  acquired  from  Italy 
in  1860,  is  well  known  for  its  mild  climate  and 
rich  vegetation,  which  render  Nice,  Villefranche, 
Cannes,  and  Mentone  the  chief  resort  of  the 
invalids  of  Europe. 

France  enjoys  on  the  Avhole  a  very  fine  climate ; 
not  so  continental  as  that  of  central  Europe,  nor 
so  maritime  as  that  of  England.  If  we  omit  the 
high  hilly  tracts  of  the  Alps  and  the  Pyrenees, 
the  coldest  region  of  France  is  evidently  that  of 
the  high  plateau  with  its  cold  winters,  though 
it  has  hot  summer  days.  The  climate  of  Brittany 
is  very  much   like  that  of  the  south-west  of 


England ;  v/hile  that  of  the  plains  on  the  Bay 
of  Biscay  is  warm  and  dry,  and  Pau,  on  the 
slopes  of  the  Pyrenees,  has  the  deserved  reputa- 
tion of  a  sanitary  station.  The  climate  of  Lan- 
guedoc  and  Provence  assumes  to  some  extent  an 
African  character — a  temperate  winter  is  suc- 
ceeded by  a  burning  hot  summer,  moderated 
from  time  to  time  by  the  mistral. 

The  dominant  language  of  France  is  French,  a 
Romance  tongue  developed  out  of  the  lingua 
Romana  rustica  of  the  Roman  conquerors,  which 
displaced  the  native  Celtic  tongues,  and  was 
afterwards  modified  in  vocabulary  and  phonetics 
(but  not  in  structure)  by  the  invading  Teutonic 
Franks,  who  gave  their  own  name  both  to  the 
language  and  to  the  country.  In  the  south  the 
ProveuQal,  another  Romance  type,  is  still  the 
popular  dialect.  In  the  north-west  the  ancient 
Celtic  Breton  tongue  survives  ;  and  in  the  south- 
west the  distinct  and  peculiar  Basque  language 
is  spoken  in  the  dep.  of  Basses  Pyrenees.  Flem- 
ish is  spoken  in  French  Flanders  ;  the  "Walloons 
speak  their  own  Romance  dialect  in  the  north- 
east of  France ;  and  German  is  still  spoken  in 
some  districts  of  those  parts  of  Alsace  and  Lor- 
raine still  left  to  France.  The  character  of  the 
French  people  combines  the  impressionability, 
the  vivacity,  the  rapidity  of  conception,  and  the 
artistic  feeling  of  the  men  of  the  south  with  the 
persistence,  laboriousuess,  and  rationalism  of  the 
men  of  the  north. 

Pop.  (1801)  27,349,003  ;  (1831)  32,569,223  ;  (1861) 
37,382,225  ;  (1872)  36,102,921— the  decrease  being 
mainly  due  to  the  war  with  Germany  and  loss 
of  territory  ;  (1881)  37,672,048  ;  (1891)  38,343,192 ; 
(1901)  38,961,945.  But  between  1886  and  1891 
there  was  an  actual  decrease  in  55  of  the  depart- 
ments. The  annual  increase  throughout  France 
is  notably  slower  than  in  the  other  chief  coun- 
tries of  Europe,  and  its  low  rate  is  due  to  the 
relatively  small  number  of  married  people,  and  to 
the  small  proportion  of  children  in  each  family — 
217  births  per  1000  inhabitants  (1902),  as  against 
29  in  Great  Britain,  and  over  40  in  Germany.  This 
low  birth-rate  does  not  hold  good  for  all  France  : 
tlie  small  yearly  increase  of  the  total  population 
is  chiefly  due  to  the  more  numerous  births  in 
the  north  and  centre.  Frenchmen  emigrate  but 
little.  Still,  the  last  census  showed  300,000 
Fi-enchmen  in  Algeria  ;  besides,  there  are  200,000 
in  the  Argentine  Republic  and  Uruguay,  110,000 
in  the  United  States,  54,000  in  Switzerland, 
45,000  in  Belgium,  and  more  than  20,000  in 
Spain.  On  the  other  hand,  no  less  than  1,087,800 
foreigners  (chiefly  Belgians,  Italians,  Germans, 
Spaniards,  and  Swiss)  were  returned  in  the 
census  of  1901  as  living  in  France.  In  1850,  75 
per  cent,  of  the  population  lived  in  the  country, 
and  25  only  in  the  cities ;  but  at  present  some 
37*4  per  cent,  live  in  the  cities.  Migration  is 
especially  active  into  Paris  and  its  neighbour- 
hood, and  to  the  seaports.  In  1901  over  7,500,000 
people  lived  in  the  seventy-one  chief  cities  having 
each  more  than  30,000  inhabitants ;  and  fifteen 
cities  have  pops,  of  more  than  100,000 :  Paris 
(2,715,000),  Marseilles  (491,000),  Lyons  (459,100), 
Bordeaux  (257,600),  Lille  (210,700),  Toulouse,  St 
iStienne,  Roubaix,  Nantes,  Le  Havre,  Rouen, 
Rheims,  Nice,  Nancy,  and  Toulon.  Nearly  one- 
half  of  the  population  still  live  by  agriculture. 

The  land-holdings  are  subdivided  into  small 
plots  of  less  than  five  acres  apiece  on  an  average, 
and  this  subdivision  is  the  .source  of  many  draw- 
backs. Cereals  cover  about  25  per  cent,  of  the 
territory.  Beet -root  for  sugar  covers  about 
850,000    acres.     The    terrible    ravages    of    the 


FRANCE 


278 


FRANCE 


phylloxera  have  reduced  the  area  under  vineyards 
from  6,382,000  acres  in  1875  to  little  more  than 
4,000,000  in  1901.  One  of  the  most  promising 
features  of  French  agriculture  is  the  liigh  develop- 
ment of  nursery-gardening,  which  achieves  most 
remarkable  results  in  variety  and  richness  of 
crops.  The  exports  of  cattle,  butter,  eggs,  cheese, 
and  poultry,  especially  to  England,  are  very 
large.  The  fisheries  are  of  great  importance  for 
France,  both  the  deep-sea  fishery  (especially 
about  Newfoundland)  and  also  the  coast  fisheries. 
There  are  over  600  mines  of  all  kinds  at  work 
in  France,  and  the  total  annual  vahie  of  the 
products  is  over  £22,000,000.  The  metal  ores 
raised  annually  suffice  to  turn  out  in  all  about 
5,000,000  tons  of  iron,  61,500  tons  zinc,  20,600 
tons  lead,  10,000  tons  antimony,  and  3500  tons 
copper.  Ores  to  the  value  of  over  £3,000,000  are 
imported  annually  into  France.  Tlie  coal-mines 
scattered  over  the  north,  the  region  of  the  Upper 
Loire,  and  in  Languedoc,  doubled  their  produce 
between  1870  and  1900,  and  now  produce  over 
82,000,000  tons  annually,  while  over  11,000,000 
tons  are  imported. 

Manufactures  have  made  rapid  progress  during 
the  19th  century.  The  textile  industry  gives 
occupation  to  at  least  2,000,000  persons.  In  silks 
France  has  no  longer  the  monopoly  she  formerly 
had;  but  she  still  occupies  the  first  rank, 
especially  with  regard  to  the  finer  stuffs  and  the 
production  of  new  ones.  Then  there  are  also 
sugar-works,  chemical  industries,  potteries,  paper- 
mills,  and  industries  connected  with  furniture, 
dress,  carriages,  and  all  possible  articles  of 
luxury.  In  the  small  industries,  which  occupy 
two-thirds  of  the  French  industrial  workers,  the 
artistic  taste  and  inventive  genius  of  the  nation 
are  especially  apparent.  Paris  is  the  world's 
emporium  for  such  small  industries. 

The  highways  in  France  as  a  rule  are  kept  in 
an  excellent  state,  and  no  less  than  120,000  miles 
of  routes  nationales,  and  twice  as  many  miles  of 
district  roads,  are  the  feeding-arteries  of  the 
network  of  railway  lines,  which  covered  an 
aggregate  length  of  24,250  miles  in  1902.  The 
navigable  rivers  and  canals  have  a  length  of 
6510  miles.  The  French  mercantile  marine  is 
behind  not  only  those  of  Britain,  the  United 
States,  and  Norway,  but  even  of  Germany  and 
Italy.  Nevertheless,  three-fourths  of  the  French 
coasting  and  foreign  trade  is  carried  on  under 
the  flag  of  the  republic.  France  is  an  illustra- 
tion of  the  fact  that  a  country  having  a  well- 
developed  agriculture  may  be  very  wealthy 
without  having  a  great  foreign  trade.  During 
the  years  1881-1902  the  annual  foreign  trade 
varied  in  value  from  £161,040,000  to  £240,000,000 
for  the  imports,  and  from  £123,524,000  to 
£224,000,000  for  the  exports.  The  chief  import 
is  raw  produce,  and  the  chief  item  of  export  is 
manufactured  goods.  Raw  silk,  cotton,  and 
wool  are  imported  both  for  home  use  and  for 
re-exportation  in  the  shape  of  stuffs.  Hides 
are  imported  to  be  manufactured  into  fine 
leather,  gloves,  or  shoes ;  timber  leaves  France 
in  the  shape  of  artistic  furniture,  &c.  France 
imports,  as  already  said,  a  good  deal  of  coal  and 
iron  ore,  as  well  as  of  colonial  wares,  cattle, 
cereals,  and  other  alimentary  substances.  None 
of  the  French  colonies  is  a  source  of  enrichment 
to  the  mother-country. 

The  unit  of  French  administration  is  the  com- 
mune, which  administers  its  own  local  affairs  by 
means  of  an  elected  municipal  council  and  an 
elected  mayor.  Every  ten  to  fifteen  communes 
constitute  a  mnton,  and  next  conaes  the  arron- 


dissement,  or  district,  composed  of  not  more 
than  nine  cantons;  this  has  its  own  elected 
council,  entrusted  with  the  assessment  of  the 
local  taxes,  and  subject  to  the  sub-prefect.  Four 
arrondissements  on  an  average  compose  a  de- 
partment.  Each  dep.  has  a  '  general  council ' 
elected  by  universal  suffrage— each  canton  elect- 
ing one  councillor.  The  general  councils  have 
wide  powers  as  regards  taxation  and  the  proTno- 
tion  of  institutions  of  public  utility ;  but  their 
decisions  are  jealously  controlled  by  the  prefect 
(prefet),  who  is  the  representative  of  the  state  in 
the  dep.  The  legislative  functions  of  the  central 
government  are  vested  in  the  Chamber  of  Deputies 
and  the  Senate  ;  and  the  executive  power  in  the 
ministry  and  the  President  of  the  Republic.  A 
formidable  army  of  functionaries  stands  under 
the  central  government,  in  subjection  to  the 
prefects,  who  themselves  are  wholly  under  the 
authority  of  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior,  and 
exercise  a  powerful  influence  on  the  results  of 
the  elections  through  their  subordinates. 

Tliere  is  complete  religious  toleration  in  France, 
but  till  the  separation  of  church  and  state,  in 
1905,  three  faiths  were  supported  by  tlie  state— 
the  Jewish  as  well  as  the  Roman  "Catholic  and 
Protestant,  in  proportion  to  numbers.  There 
has  been  no  religious  census  in  France  since  1872, 
but  it  is  estimated  that  about  three-fourths  of  the 
population  are  (nominally  at  least)  Roman  Catlio- 
lic ;  the  Protestants  are  estimated  at  2,000,000, 
chiefly  Calvinist,  and  the  Jews  at  about  80,000. 
The  statistics  for  1903  show  an  aggregate  of 
42,000priests,  besides  4376  teachersand  8500  pupils 
in  ecclesiastical  seminaries.  Compulsory  and  free 
primary  education  has  been  introduced  under  the 
control  of  the  state  ;  the  privileges  of  the  church 
have  been  abolished ;  and,  instead  of  religious 
teaching,  the  teaching  of  '  civic  morality '  from 
handbooks  issued  by  the  state  has  been  intro- 
duced. But  there  is  constant  controversy  on  the 
relation  of  the  schools  to  the  church.  Private 
schools  of  all  degrees  are  permitted,  provided 
the  teachers  pass  the  obligatory  examinations. 
France  is  divided  into  seventeen  educational  dis- 
tricts called  academies,  the  rectors  of  which  are 
entrusted  with  the  administration  of  higher  and 
secondary  education,  as  also  with  the  inspection 
of  the  primary  schools.  Each  educational  dis- 
trict has  an  academic  council,  and  each  dep.  has 
a  council.  Nearly  one-tenth  of  the  recruits  are 
still  illiterate.  Secondary  education,  which  may 
be  classical,  scientific,  or  technical,  is  provided 
for  in  upwards  of  110  lycees  and  250  colleges  for 
boys,  and  71  lycees  and  colleges  for  girls,  the  latter 
of  quite  recent  introduction.  Under  the  law  of 
1901  (which  caused  much  debate),  about  14,000 
clerical  sciiools  had  been  closed  in  1904,  but  more 
than  one-lialf  of  these  had  been  re-opened  under 
l)rivate  direction.  Higher  education,  given  in  the 
/ac«Z(^s  (universities),  is  of  a  high  standard,  and 
almost  quite  free.  The  chief  centres  are  at  Paris, 
Lyons,  Bordeaux,  Toulouse,  Montpellier,  Nancy, 
Lille,  Nantes,  and  Grenoble ;  but  most  of  these 
have  only  three,  two,  or  even  one  of  the  four 
separate  faciiltes  (law,  medicine,  natural  science, 
literature).  Indeed,  there  is  but  one  University 
of  France,  officially  so  called,  which  comprises 
the  facultes  at  all  the  various  centres.  Altogether, 
these  have  1600  professors  and  about  18,000 
students.  The  clergy  have  their  own  'free 
universities.'  Various  special  institutions,  such 
as  the  College  de  France,  the  Museum  of  Natural 
History,  the  Polytechnic  School,  and  many  others, 
have  a  high  reputation  of  long  standing. 

At  the  outbreak  of  the  Gennan  war  of  1870-71 


I 


FRANCE 


279 


tHANCfi 


France  met  the  invaders  with  less  than  400,000 
men  and  1250  guns  ;  and  it  was  not  till  after  the 
fall  of  Napoleon  that  700,000  men,  mostly  un- 
trained and  very  badly  provisioned,  could  be 
brought  into  the  field.  The  whole  system  was 
totally  reorganised  in  1872-89.  Every  French- 
man twenty  years  old,  if  not  infirm,  or  exempted 
from  service  for  educational  reasons,  must  enter 
the  army  and  serve  three  years  in  the  active 
army,  ten  in  the  reserve,  six  in  the  territorial 
army,  and  six  in  the  territorial  reserve.  Nearly 
300,000  young  men  are  called  out  every  year,  and 
more  than  200,000  enter  the  ranks.  The  army 
numbers  600,000  men  and  has  643,000  horses  in 
time  of  peace.  But  in  war  it  can  be  raised  to 
2i  million  men  ;  and  IJ  million  more,  all  having 
received  military  training,  may  be  added  to  the 
number.  The  French  navy  is  second  only  to  that 
of  Great  Britain.  It  consists  of  43  ironclad 
battle-ships  (first,  second,  and  third  class),  65 
cruisers  (armoured  or  protected),  over  200  gun- 
boats and  desti-oyers,  and  50  submarines,  with  a 
total  strength  of  over  51,000  men. 

The  chief  source  of  revenue  is  indirect  taxation 
(excise,  registry,  customs,  and  stamps),  which 
forms  about  62  per  cent,  of  the  revenue ;  the 
direct  taxation  (land,  trade  licenses,  personal 
property,  and  doors  and  windows)  comes  next 
and  makes  15  per  cent,  of  the  revenue ;  the 
monopolies  (such  as  tobacco)  and  the  remunera- 
tive services  (e.g.  the  post-ofiice)  supply  20  per 
cent,  of  the  yearly  income,  and  all  these  sources 
together  have  yielded  annually  during  the  ten 
years  1898-1903  over  3500  million  francs 
(£140,000,000).  But,  as  the  expenditure  usually 
exceeds  the  income,  extraordinary  sources  of 
revenue— chiefly  loans— have  frequently  to  be 
resorted  to.  Between  1869  and  1905  the  ordi- 
nary revenue  had  jnore  than  doubled,  irrespec- 
tive of  these  'comptes  speciaux'  or  budgets  for 
special  purposes.  The  French  debt  is  now  heavier 
than  that  of  Great  Britain,  and  the  more  so  as 
France  pays  much  higher  interest  on  it.  In  1903 
the  total  debt  was  calculated  at  30,345  million 
francs  (£1,213,825,200),  and  the  interest  and  an- 
nuities at  1216  million  francs  (£48,677,400).  The 
aggregate  debts  of  the  separate  municipalities 
reach  about  3800  million  francs.  Paris  is  one  of 
the  most  heavily  indebted  cities  of  Europe. 

At  the  dawn  of  history  what  is  now  France 
was  occupied  by  a  multiplicity  of  tribes,  belong- 
ing to  several  different  races;  but  the  Celtic 
Gauls  were  the  dominant  people,  and  held  the 
greater  part  of  the  country.  The  Ligurians 
occupied  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Mediterranean 
shores  ;  the  Iberians  or  Basques  held  the  south- 
west; and  in  the  north-east  were  the  Belgse, 
who  seem  to  have  been  Germanic  immigrants 
who  had  adopted  a  Celtic  tongue,  or  Celts  who 
had  been  in  some  respects  Gennanised  or  mixed 
with  Germans.  The  Gauls  were  sufficiently 
energetic  to  have  conquered  North  Italy  and  ter- 
rorised Rome  from  the  5th  century  b.c.  to  the 
middle  of  the  3d  century  B.C.,  and  even  pushed 
victorious  armies  into  Thrace  and  Galatia.  But 
the  Romans  conquered  the  Cisalpine  Gauls  about 
225  B.C.,  and  by  150  had  conquered  the  south 
of  Transalpine  Gaul  (Provence) ;  and  in  58-50  b.c. 
Julius  Caesar  conquered  the  sixty-four  different 
states  in  Gaul,  and  from  that  time  the  Gauls 
rapidly  adopted  the  Roman  polity,  the  Latin 
speech,  and  Roman  manners.  From  the  4th  cen- 
tury A.D.  on,  Romanised  Gaul— now  Christian- 
was  invaded  by  swarms  of  Teutonic  barbarians,  of 
whom  the  Visigoths  founded  a  state  in  the  south- 
west of  Gaul,  the  Burgundians  in  the  valleys  of 


the  Sa6ne  and  Rhone,  and  the  Franks  in  the 
north-east.  Chlodwig  or  Clovis,  the  Frank, 
laid  the  foundations  of  the  future  kingdom  of 
France,  and  established  the  Merovingian  dynasty ; 
but  the  Franks,  like  the  other  German  invaders, 
speedily  adopted  the  language,  laws,  manners, 
and  Christian  religion  of  their  Celtic  subjects. 
Charlemagne  established  a  military  monarchy 
from  the  Ebro  to  the  Elbe  and  the  North  Sea, 
which  fell  to  pieces  under  his  Carlovingian  suc- 
cessors. In  the  10th  century  the  Rhine  became 
the  eastern  boundary  of  France,  and  Paris  its 
capital ;  and  the  Northmen  occupied  Normandy, 
now  called  after  them.  In  the  12th  cen- 
tury the  kings  of  England,  dukes  also  of 
Normandy,  acquired  by  inheritance  or  m.arriage 
Brittany,  Maine,  Touraine,  Poitou,  Guienne,  and 
Gascony,  and  were  more  powerful  in  France 
than  the  native  kings.  Philippe  Auguste  (1180- 
1223)  recovered  much  of  this  area  from  the 
English  John,  and  at  the  end  of  the  Hundred 
Years'  War  (1451)  only  Calais  remained  to  Eng- 
land of  all  her  continental  possessions.  Under 
Louis  XI.  and  Charles  VIII.  (1461-98),  last  of  the 
Valois  kings  in  the  direct  descent,  the  hold  of 
France  on  Maine,  Anjou,  Provence,  and  part  of 
Burgundy  (the  dukedom)  was  definitely  estab- 
lished. Francis  I.,  of  the  Valois- Angouleme 
house,  secured  all  Burgundy  for  France.  The 
horrors  of  the  Huguenot  wars  were  put  an  end  to 
by  Henry  IV.  of  Navarre,  first  of  the  Bourbons, 
who  passed  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1598)— to  be 
revoked  by  Louis  XIV,,  whose  minister  Richelieu 
crushed  the  Fronde  insurrection,  and  put  all 
powers  and  classes  under  the  heel  of  the  monarch. 
Wars  disastrous  to  France  in  the  middle  of  the 
18th  century  deprived  her  of  her  power  in  India, 
which  fell  to  Britain  ;  and  by  the  peace  of  Paris 
in  1763,  she  ceded  to  Britain  Nova  Scotia,  Cape 
Breton,  Canada,  and  the  Mississippi  Valley  (New 
France),  as  well  as  the  islands  of  Grenada,  St 
Vincent,  Dominica,  and  Tobago.  The  ancien 
regime  disappeared  in  the  Revolution  (1789- 
99);  as  First  Consul  (1799)  Napoleon  paved 
his  way  to  the  Empire  (1804)  with  its  military 
glories  and  the  extension  of  French  domination 
over  Italy,  Spain,  the  Netherlands,  and  parts  of 
Germany.  After  the  disastrous  Russian  cam- 
paign (1812)  the  empire  fell,  and  the  Bourbons 
were  restored  in  the  person  of  Louis  XVIII.  (1814). 
The  '  Hundred  Days '  of  Napoleon's  recovered 
popularity  and  power  ended  with  Waterloo  (1815) 
and  his  abdication,  and  the  renewed  restoration 
of  the  Bourbons.  The  elder  line  of  Bourbons  was 
superseded  by  Louis-Philippe,  the  citizen  king, 
at  the  'July  Revolution'  of  1830.  The  Second 
Republic  commenced  with  the  '  February  Revolu- 
tion '  of  1848,  and  was  succeeded  in  1852  by  the 
coup  d'etat  and  the  second  empire  of  Napoleon  III., 
which  fell  in  the  disasters  of  the  Franco-German 
war  of  1870-71.  The  Third  Republic  had  to  sup- 
press the  Commune,  pay  the  milliards  to  Ger- 
many, and  cede  Alsace-Lorraine.  Since  then  the 
Republic  has  been  on  the  whole  confirmed  in  the 
affections  of  the  nation.  The  colonial  posses- 
sions of  France  in  Indo-China  and  in  Africa  were 
greatly  extended  in  the  last  decades  of  the  19th 
century.  The  alliance  with  Russia  (1895)  was 
followed  in  1905  by  the  entente  cordiale  with 
Britain ;  and  1905  saw  the  disestablishment  of 
the  RoTnan  Catholic  Church. 

See  France  as  It  is,  by  Lebon  and  Pelletier 
(1888) ;  French  and  English,  by  Hamerton  (1889) ; 
Modern  France,  by  Bodley  (1898) ;  France  of  To- 
day,  and  The  French  at  Home,  by  Miss  Betham 
Edwards    (1892-1905);    La    France    Coloniale, 


fRANC£ 


FRANZ-JOSEF  LAUD 


by  Rainbaud  (Gth  ed.  1893).  For  the  history  of 
France,  besides  the  French  works  by  Michelet, 
Martin,  Guizot,  Thierry,  Thiers,  Lamartine, 
Louis  Blanc,  and  Taine,  dealing  with  the  whole 
or  with  periods  (several  of  them  translated),  see 
Kitchin's  History  of  France  (1873-77),  and  the 
short  works  by  Mrs  Brook  and  Miss  Yonge  ; 
Carlyle's  French  Revolution  (1837),  and  Morse 
Stephens's  French  Revolution  (2  vols.  1886-92). 

France,  Isle  de.    See  Mauritius. 

Franche  Oomte,  an  old  French  province  in  the 
basin  of  the  Rhone,  comprising  the  present  deps. 
of  Doubs,  Haute-Saone,  and  Jura.  Its  capital 
was  Besangon. 

Francisco,  San.    See  San  Francisco. 

Franconia,  a  loosely  connected  aggregate  of 
districts  and  territories  lying  chiefly  within  the 
basins  of  the  Rhine,  Main,  and  Neckar.  The 
name  was  officially  disused  from  1806  to  1837, 
when  the  three  northern  divisions  of  Bavaria 
were  called  Upper,  Middle,  and  Lower  Franconia. 

Fra'neker,  a  town  of  the  Netherlands,  9  miles 
WSW.  of  Leeuwarden  by  rail.  It  was  the  seat  of 
a  university  from  1585  to  1810.     Pop.  6920. 

Prankenberg,  a  town  of  Saxony,  32  miles  SW. 
of  Dresden.  It  jnanufactures  cottons,  woollens, 
silk-stulTs,  &c.    Pop.  12,898. 

Frankenhausen,  a  town  of  Germany,  in 
Bchwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  on  the  Wipper,  27 
miles  NNW.  of  We-imar.  It  has  brine-springs 
and  a  hospital  for  scrofulous  children ;  and  in 
the  vicinity  are  the  Kyff'hauser  and  Falkeuburg 
with  Barbarossa's  Cave.     Pop.  5985. 

Frankenstein,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  87 
miles  SSW.  of  Breslau.    Pop.  8117. 

Frankenthal,  a  town  of  the  Bavarian  Palatin- 
ate, 7  miles  SW.  of  Worms  by  rail,  and  3^  W.  of 
the  Rhine  by  a  canal.  It  manufactures  sugar, 
machinery,  corks,  &c.    Pop.  16,942. 

Frankfort,  the  capital  of  Kentucky,  on  the 
Kentucky  River,  29  miles  NW.  of  Lexington  by 
rail.  It  contains  a  state-house  built  of  Kentucky 
marble,  the  state  library,  penitentiary,  distilleries, 
flour-mills,  and  a  cotton-factory.    Pop.  9892. 

Frankfort-on-the-Maln  (Ger.  Frankfurt-am- 
Main),  a  wealthy  commercial  city  in  the  Prussian 
province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  long  a  free  city,  the 
place  of  election  of  the  Gennan  emperors,  and 
seat  of  the  Diet  (1816-66),  is  situated  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Main,  22  miles  from  its  confluence 
with  the  Rhine  at  Mainz,  and  112  SE.  of  Cologne 
by  rail.  Pop.  (1800)  40,000  ;  (1875)  103,315  ;  (1900) 
288,989.  The  fortitications  have  given  place  to 
ornamental  promenades ;  the  river  is  bordered  by 
broad  quays;  and  the  ancestral  house  of  the 
Rothschilds  is  now  the  solitary  relic  of  the  fam- 
ous Juden-Gasse,  the  ghetto  of  Frankfort.  The 
Gothic  Romer  or  town-house  (1405-16)  contains 
the  Kaisersaal  or  imperial  hall.  The  coronation 
took  place  in  the  cathedral  of  St  Bartholomew 
(13th  to  16th  centuries).  The  palace  of  the 
Prince  of  Thum  and  Taxis  (1730)  was  the  meeting- 
place  of  the  North  German  Diet,  while  the  Con- 
stituent Assembly  of  1848-49  met  in  the  church 
of  St  Paul.  The  Saalhof  stands  on  the  site  of  an 
earlier  palace  of  the  Carlovingian  kings ;  the 
chapel  dates  from  the  12th  century.  The  new 
exchange  was  opened  in  1879,  the  opera-house  in 
1880,  and  there  are  several  other  imposing  new 
public  buildings.  One  of  the  squares  is  adorned 
with  a  statue  of  Goethe,  a  native  ;  in  another  is 
the  elaborate  Gutenberg  monument,  commemorat- 
ing the  invention  of  printing.    Frankfort  is  con- 


nected with  the  suburb  of  Sachsenhausen,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Main,  by  seven  bridges  (three 
railway  bridges),  the  oldest  of  which  was  built  in 
1342.  The  city  lies  at  the  junction  of  seven  rail- 
ways, which  since  1888  have  converged  in  the 
new  Central  Station,  one  of  the  largest  and  hand- 
somest in  Europe.  Its  commerce  has  at  all  times 
been  considerable ;  and  in  the  16th  century  its 
spring  and  autumn  fairs  were  among  the  most 
important  in  Europe.  The  chief  articles  of  trade 
are  colonial  wares,  iron  and  steel  goods,  leather, 
hides,  skins,  coals,  wine,  and  beer.  The  manu- 
facturing industry  has  largely  developed  since 
the  town  became  Prussian.  Sewing-machines 
and  other  machinery,  chemicals,  soap  and 
perfumery,  iron  goods,  straw  and  felt  hats  are 
among  the  chief  manufactures.  Its  chief  im- 
portance, however,  is  due  to  its  position  as  one 
of  the  leading  money-markets  of  the  world. 

The  capital  from  843  till  889  of  the  eastern 
Prankish  kingdom,  and  the  place  of  election  of 
the  German  emperors  from  1152,  Frankfort  in 
1257  was  made  the  first  free  city  of  the  Gennan 
empire,  and  it  also  became  the  most  important. 
The  city  embraced  the  Reformation  in  1530 ;  for 
awhile  lost  its  independence  (1810-13);  and  in 
1866,  having  espoused  the  Austrian  cause  in  the 
seven  weeks'  war,  was  seized  by  the  Prussians, 
and  incorporated  with  Prussia.  The  peace  of 
Frankfort,  which  ended  the  Franco-German  war 
of  1870-71,  was  signed  10th  May  1871  at  the 
Swan  Hotel  by  Prince  Bismarck  and  Jules  Favre. 
See  works  by  Home  and  Grotefend  (1882-84). 

Frankfort-on-the-Oder,  a  town  of  Prussia,  51 
miles  ESE.  of  Berlin,  is  a  handsome,  well-built 
town,  with  three  suburbs,  one  of  which  lies  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Oder,  and  is  connected 
with  the  remainder  of  the  town  by  a  wooden 
bridge.  The  university,  founded  in  1506,  was  in 
1811  incorporated  with  that  of  Breslau.  The  manu- 
factures embrace  machines,  hardware,  organs, 
chemicals,  stoneware,  sugar,  tobacco,  si)irits, 
leather,  paper,  &c.  Pop.  (1875)  47,176 ;  (1900) 
61,852.  A  flourishing  member  of  the  Hanseatic 
League  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries,  Frankfort 
since  then  has  been  several  times  besieged.  At 
Kunersdorf,  4^  miles  E.,  on  August  12,  1759, 
Frederick  the  Great  suff'ered  a  great  defeat  from 
the  Russo- Austrian  forces. 

Franklin,  capital  of  Venango  county,  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  the  Alleghany  River,  123  miles  by  rail 
(65  direct)  N.  of  Pittsburgh,  with  machine-shops, 
flour-mills,  and  oil-refineries.  Its  chief  trade  is  in 
petroleum,  obtained  in  the  vicinity.   Pop.  7221. 

Franzensbad,  or  Franzensbrunn,  a  watering- 
place  on  the  north-west  frontier  of  Bohemia,  3 
miles  NW.  of  Eger  by  rail.  There  are  a  number 
of  mineral  springs.  Pop.  2308,  increased  by  7000 
visitors  during  the  season. 

Franz-Josef  Land,  an  archipelago  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  north  of  Nova  Zembla,  between 
80°  and  83°  N.  lafc.  It  consists  of  two  large  masses 
of  land,  Wilczek  Land  to  the  east,  and  Zichy 
Land  to  the  west,  separated  by  Austria  Sound 
and  its  north-east  arm,  Rawlinson  Sound.  Be- 
tween these  sounds  lies  Rudolf  Land,  whilst  to 
the  north  of  this  again  comes  Petermann  Land, 
and  to  the  north-west  King  Oscar  Land.  The 
southern  shores  are  deeply  indented  with  fjords  ; 
and  the  whole  archipelago,  which  rises  into 
isolated  flat-topped  or  dome-shaped  mountains 
of  basalt,  5000  feet  high,  is  sheeted  with  ice. 
Owing  to  the  open  water  round  its  shores  in 
summer,  and  tlie  comparative  abundance  of  its 
animal  life — bears,  walruses,  foxes,  and  numerous 


FRASCATI 


281 


FREISTADTL 


birds  occurring— Franz- Josef  Land  is  regarded  as 
a  favourable  base  whence  to  reach  the  North  Pole. 
It  was  discovered  and  partly  explored  by  Payer 
and  Weyprecht  in  1873-74 ;  and  its  southern 
shores  were  explored  by  Leigh  Smith  in  1880-82. 

Frasca'tl,  a  town  of  Italy,  with  many  splendid 
villas,  15  miles  SE.  of  Rome  by  rail,  stands  on 
the  slope  of  the  Albau  Hills,  not  far  from  the  site 
of  ancient  Tusculum.  Cardinal  York  was  bishop 
of  Frascati,  and  his  brother,  Charles  Edward, 
died  here  in  1788.    Pop.  7134. 

Fraser  or  Great  Sandy  Island  lies  off  the 
east  coast  of  Queensland,  in  Australia. 

Fraserburgh,  a  fishing-town  of  Aberdeenshire, 
47  miles  N.  of  Aberdeen  by  a  branch  line  (1865). 
It  stands  on  a  bay,  2J  miles  wide,  immediately 
south  of  Kinnaird  Head,  on  which  are  the 
Frasers'  old  castle,  a  lighthouse  now,  and  the 
mysterious  'Wine  Tower,'  with  a  cave  below. 
It  was  founded  as  Faithlie  in  1569  by  Alexander 
Fraser  of  Philorth,  Lord  Saltoun's  ancestor,  and 
in  1601  was  erected  into  the  free  port  of  Fraser- 
burgh. There  are  a  handsome  town-house  (1855), 
a  restored  market-cross,  a  public  hall,  &c.  ;  but 
hardly  a  trace  remains  of  an  abortive  university 
(1592).  The  harbour  has  been  much  extended 
since  1855,  and  the  rapid  growth  of  the  place  is 
due  to  the  development  of  the  herring-fishery. 
Pop.  (1861)  3472  ;  (1901)  9105. 

Fraser  River,  the  principal  stream  of  British 
Columbia,  is  formed  by  two  branches,  which 
unite  near  Fort  George,  in  54°  N.  lat.  and  122° 
45'  W.  long.  ;  thence  the  river  flows  800  miles 
southward  to  the  Georgian  Gulf,  just  north  of 
the  international  boundary  of  49°  lat.  Its  chief 
aflluent  is  the  Thompson  River.  The  rich 
alluvial  deposits  of  gold  along  the  Eraser's  lower 
basin  first  attracted  emigration  to  British  Col- 
umbia ;  the  lower  valley  contains  some  of  the 
best  farming  land  in  the  province.  The  salmon- 
canneries  are  also  important.  Steamboats  can 
ascend  for  100  miles. 

Fraserville,  or  Riviere  du  Loup,  a  town  and 
watering-place  of  Quebec,  on  the  Riviere  du  Loup 
at  its  confluence  with  the  St  Lawrence,  127  miles 
from  Quebec.    Pop.  4570. 

Fratta-Maggiore,  a  town  of  Italy,  9  miles  by 
rail  N.  of  Naples.    Pop.  10,848. 

Fraustadt  (Polish  Wszowa),  a  town  of  Prussia, 
14  miles  NB.  of  Glogau  by  rail.  Near  here 
Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  routed  the  Saxons,  13th 
February  1706.    Pop.  7378. 

Fray  Bentos  (oflSicially  Independencia),  capital 
of  the  Uruguayan  dep.  of  Rio  Negro,  on  the 
Uruguay  River,  72  miles  SSW.  of  Paysandu. 
Here  is  the  great  Liebig  meat-factory.   Pop.  5500. 

Fredericia,  a  Danish  seaport  on  the  east  coast 
of  Jutland,  at  the  northern  entrance  to  the  Little 
Belt.  Founded  by  Frederick  III.  in  1652,  in  1657 
it  was  stormed  and  razed  by  the  Swedes,  nor  was 
it  refortified  until  1709.  It  suff"ered  during  the 
wars  of  1848-49  and  1864.     Pop.  13,042. 

Frederick,  a  city  of  Maryland,  61  miles  W.  by 
N.  of  Baltimore  by  rail,  with  a  college  (1797), 
foundries,  tanneries,  flour-mills,  &c.    Pop.  9193, 

Fredericksburg,  a  town  of  Virginia,  on  the 
Rappahannock,  61  miles  N.  of  Richmond,  with 
flour,  paper,  and  sumach  mills,  &c.    Pop.  5528. 

Frederlcton,  capital  of  the  province  of  New 
Brunswick,  Canada,  stands  on  the  St  John  River, 
58  miles  NNW.  of  the  port  of  St  John.  It  is 
the  seat  of  an  Anglican  bishop  and  of  a  uni- 
versity.    Pop.  721  & 


Frederikshald,  a  fortified  seaport  of  Norway, 
on  the  Idde  Fjord,  near  the  Swedish  border,  85 
miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Christiania.  It  was  burned 
down  in  1826.  To  the  south-east  stands  the 
never-captured  fortress  of  Frederiksteen  (1661), 
before  which  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden  was  killed 
(1718).     Pop.  12,000. 

Frederikshavn,  a  port  of  Jutland,  ou  the 
Cattegat,  52  miles  NB.  of  Aalborg.    Pop.  6891. 

Frederikstad,  a  seaport  of  Norway,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Glommen,  58  miles  S.  of  Christiania 
by  rail.     Pop.  14,217. 

Freeport,  capital  of  Stephenson  county,  Illi- 
nois, on  the  Pecatonica  River,  121  miles  WNW.  gf 
Chicago  by  rail.     Pop.  13,189. 

Free-town,  capital  of  Sierra  Leone  (q.v.),  on 
the  north  side  of  the  peninsula,  5  miles  from  the 
Atlantic.  Founded  as  Granvilletown  in  1787,  it 
is  enclosed  by  a  range  of  wooded  hills.  The 
climate  is  unhealthy,  especially  for  Europeans. 
Pop.  35,000,  almost  all  negroes. 

Freiberg,  a  mining-town  of  Saxony,  on  the 
northern  slope  of  the  Erzgebirge  Mountains,  20 
miles  SW.  of  Dresden.  Its  cathedral,  successor 
to  one  burned  in  1484,  contains  tombs  of  the 
Saxon  electors  of  the  Albertine  line,  and  has  a 
Romanesque  portal  called  the  Golden  Gate.  The 
town  owes  its  origin  to  its  silver-mines,  dis- 
covered about  1163,  and  has  a  famous  school  of 
mines  (1765).  The  mineral  ores  extracted  near 
Freiberg  are  silver,  bismuth,  nickel,  cobalt,  zinc, 
arsenic,  &c.  The  manufactures  comprise  gold 
and  silver  ware,  wire,  chemicals,  machines, 
leather,  and  cigars.  Pop.  (1875)  23,559;  (1890) 
28,955  ;  (1900)  30,175.     [Frl-berg.] 

Freiburg,  or  (French)  Fribourg,  a  Swiss  can- 
ton, bounded  N.  and  E.  by  Bern,  and  S.  and  W. 
by  Vaud  and  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel,  with  three 
enclaves  in  Vaud.  Area,  644  sq.  m.  ;  population, 
128,000,  principally  French-speaking  and  Catliolic. 
—The  capital  is  Freiburg,  or  Fribourg,  19  miles 
by  rail  SW.  of  Bern,  on  the  Sarine  or  Saane,  here 
spanned  by  a  suspension  bridge  (1834),  870  feet 
long.  St  Nicholas  Church,  dating  from  1283,  has 
one  of  the  finest-toned  organs  in  Europe,  and  a 
lofty  belfry.  Since  1889  there  is  here  an  academy 
with  faculties,  like  a  university.    Pop.  16,840. 

Freiburg  in  Breisgau,  a  town  of  Baden,  on 
the  western  edge  of  the  Black  Forest,  32  miles 
NNB.  of  Basel.  It  is  an  open,  well-built  town  ; 
the  walls  and  ditches  with  which  it  was  formerly 
surrounded  have  been  converted  into  promenades 
and  vineyards.  Th©  beautiful  Gothic  cathedral 
(1122-1513)  has  a  western  steeple,  381  feet  high. 
The  university  (1455)  has  106  professors  and 
teachers  and  over  800  students.  The  chief  manu- 
factures are  serving  silk,  cotton  and  thread, 
buttons,  artificial  beads,  chicory,  paper,  par- 
quetry, &c.  Population,  over  61,500,  of  whom 
more  than  one-half  are  Protestants.  Founded  in 
1091  by  the  Duke  of  Zaliringen,  and  created  a 
town  in  1115,  Freiburg  has  repeatedly  changed 
masters ;  twice  it  was  given  over  to  France 
(1679-97  and  1744-48).  In  1806  it  fell  to  Baden ; 
and  in  1848  the  Baden  revolutionists  were 
defeated  here  by  the  troops  of  tlie  German 
confederation. 

Freising,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Isar,  22 
miles  NNE.  of  Munich  by  rail.  It  has  a  beautiful 
cathedral  (1160)  and  a  former  episcopal  palace 
(now  a  theological  seminary);  whilst  close  by 
is  a  Benedictine  abbey  (725-1803),  now  a  royal 
model-farm.    Pop.  9550. 

Freistadtl  (Hung.  GaJgocz),  a  market-town  of 


FREJUS 


282 


FROME 


Hungary,  40  miles  NE.  of  Presburg  by  rail,  on 
the  Waag,  opposite  the  fortress  and  prison  of 
Leopoldstadt.     Pop.  8409. 

Frejus  {Frd-zhus;  anc.  Forum  Julii),  a  town  in 
the  French  dep.  of  Var,  a  mile  inland  from  the 
Mediterranean,  and  22  miles  SW.  of  Cannes  by 
rail.  The  birthplace  of  Agricola,  it  has  traces 
of  a  lighthouse,  walls,  an  amphitheatre  (restored 
1869),  and  other  Roman  remains.  The  old  har- 
bour, in  which  Augustus  stationed  the  300  galleys 
captured  at  Actium,  is  silted  up.  Here,  or  rather 
at  the  new  harbour  of  St  Raphael,  1^  mile  off. 
Napoleon  landed  on  his  return  from  Egypt  in 
1799,  and  embarked  for  Elba  in  1814.    Pop.  4634. 

Fremantle,  the  principal  seaport  of  Western 
Australia,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Swan  River,  12 
miles  SW.  of  Perth  by  rail.  It  was  named  after 
Captain  Fremantle,  R.N.  (1829).    Pop.  20,450. 

Fromont',  (1)  capital  of  Dodge  county,  Ne- 
braska, on  the  Platte  River,  42  miles  WNW.  of 
Omaha  by  the  Union  Pacific  Railway.  Popula- 
tion, about  7500.— (2)  Capital  of  Sandusky  county, 
Ohio,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the  Sandusky 
River,  30  miles  SE.  of  Toledo  by  rail.  It  manu- 
factures flour,  iron,  lime,  &c.    Pop.  8500. 

French  Congo.    See  Gaboon. 

French  Guiana.    See  Guiana. 

French  River,  a  stream  of  Ontario,  flowing  60 
miles  from  Lake  Nipissing  to  Georgian  Bay  in 
Lake  Huron. 

Frendraught,  Aberdeenshire,  11  miles  ENE. 
of  Huntly,  an  old  mansion,  the  treacherous 
burning  of  whose  tower  in  1630  cost  the  lives  of 
Viscount  Aboyne  and  five  others. 

Freshwater,  a  parish  at  the  western  extremity 
of  the  Isle  of  Wight.    See  Farrinqford. 

Fresnillo,  a  mining-town  of  Zacatecas  state, 
Mexico,  7200  feet  above  sea-level.    Pop.  15,000. 

Fresno,  capital  of  Fresno  county,  California, 
in  the  centre  of  an  irrigated  raisin-growing  dis- 
trict, 207  miles  SE.  of  San  Francisco  by  rail. 
Pop.  (1880)  1113  ;  (1900)  12,47a 

Preston,  a  Suffolk  parish,  on  the  Orwell,  Z\ 
miles  S.  of  Ipswich.    Here  is  Freston  Tower. 

Friars  Carse,  a  mansion  near  the  Nith,  6^ 
miles  NNW.  of  Dumfries. 

Fribourg.    See  Freiburq. 

Friedland,  (1)  a  town  of  East  Prussia,  on  the 
Alle,  26  miles  SE.  of  Konigsberg,  with  3182  in- 
habitants. Here  Napoleon,  on  14th  June  1807, 
defeated  the  Russian  and  Prussian  forces.— (2) 
A  town  in  the  north-east  of  Mecklenburg,  with 
5502  inhabitants. — (3)  A  manufacturing  town  in 
the  north  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Wittig,  16  miles 
N.  of  Reichenberg  by  rail,  with  a  pop.  of  4817. 
From  the  last  Wallenstein  took  his  ducal  title. 

Friedrichroda,  a  town  of  Thuringia  in  the 
charming  Schilfwasser  valley,  13  miles  SW.  of 
Gotha  by  rail,  is  a  summer-resort  for  some  7000 
visitors.  Here  is  the  Duke  of  Gotha's  beautiful 
country  seat,  Reinhardsbrunn.    Pop.  4146. 

Friedrichsdorf,  a  town  of  Hesse-Nassau,  on 
the  southern  slope  of  the  Taunus,  3  miles  NE. 
of  Homburg.  Pop.  1189— French-speaking  de- 
scendants of  a  Huguenot  colony  (1687). 

Friedrichsruh  (Fre'driks-roo),  the  castle  and 
estate  of  Bismarck,  in  Lauenburg,  Sleswick-Hol- 
stein,  16  miles  SE.  of  Hamburg. 

Friendly  Islands,  or  Tonga  Group,  lie  250 
miles  ESE.  of  Fiji,  number  32  inhabited  and 
about  150  small  islands,  and  consist  of  three 
sub-groups,  with  a  collective  area  of  only  385 


sq.  m.  Tonga-tabu  (130  sq.  m.)  is  the  largest ;  and 
next  in  importance  are  Eooa,  Vavu,  Namuka  and 
Lefuka,  Tofoa,  Late,  and  Kao.  The  great  majority 
are  of  coral  formation ;  but  some  are  volcanic ; 
there  are  several  active  volcanoes,  such  as  Tofoa 
(2781  feet)  and  Late  (1787) ;  and  earthquakes  are 
frequent.  A  treaty  was  conclude<l  with  Germany 
in  1876,  with  Great  Britain  in  1879  ;  and  a  Berlin 
convention  (1S86)  provides  for  the  neutrality  of 
this  archipelago.  The  Friendly  Islands  were  dis- 
covered by  Tasman  in  1643,  but  named  by  Cook, 
who  visited  them  in  1777.  Both  these  navigators 
found  the  soil  highly  cultivated,  and  the  people 
apparently  unprovided  with  arms.  Among  the 
products  of  the  islands  are  copra,  tropical  fruits, 
cofl'ee,  sponges,  cocoa-nuts,  and  arrowroot.  The 
flora  resembles  that  of  the  Fiji  group ;  but  the 
native  aiuinals  are  very  few.  The  Friendly 
Islands  were  first  visited  by  missionaries  in  1797  ; 
in  1827  the  work  of  evangelisation  fell  into  the 
hands  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists  ;  and  now 
almost  all  the  islanders  (who,  unlike  the  Fijians, 
belong  to  the  fair  Polynesian  stock)  are  Wes- 
leyans.  Many  can  speak  English,  and  schools 
are  numerous.  In  mental  development,  skill 
in  house-building,  and  in  the  preparation  of 
weapons,  dress,  &c.,  they  are  superior  to  other 
South  Sea  islanders.  They  are,  however,  de- 
creasing in  numbers ;  once  estimated  at  50,000, 
they  had  dwindled  to  18,960  in  1900.  The  various 
islands  in  1845  were  brought  under  the  rule  of 
one  chief.  King  George  (1818-93),  and  in  1899 
recognised  as  practically  a  British  dependency. 
See  Basil  Thomson's  Savage  Island  (1902). 

Frlesland,  or  Vriesland  (Fres'land;  anc. 
Frisia),  in  its  widest  sense,  as  the  country  of  the 
Frisian  race,  included  the  provinces  of  Zealand, 
North  and  South  Holland,  part  of  Utrecht,  Fries- 
land  proper  (1280  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  342,290),  and  Gron- 
ingen  in  Holland,  together  with  Prussian  East 
Friesland  (1200  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  239,960)  and  a  part 
of  Oldenburg,  the  western  coast  of  Sleswick  be- 
tween the  Eider  and  the  Tondern,  and  the 
islands  of  Sylt,  Fohr,  Nordstrand,  and  others. 

Frisches  HaflF  ('  Fresh- water  Bay '),  a  Prussian 
lagoon,  SE.  of  the  Gulf  of  Danzig,  50  miles  long, 
4  to  11  broad,  and  332  sq.  m.  in  area. 

Friuli  (Fre-oo'le;  Lat.  Forum  Jidii),  a  once 
independent  duchy  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of 
Venice.  With  a  total  pop.  of  about  700,000,  and 
a  total  area  of  3470  sq.  m.,  it  is  divided  between 
Austrian  Friuli  (the  districts  of  Gorz,  Gradisca, 
and  Idria)  and  Italian  Friuli  (the  province  of 
Udine  and  the  district  of  Portogruaro). 

Frobisher  Bay,  an  inlet  opening  westward 
near  the  mouth  of  Davis  Strait,  into  the  territory 
called  by  Frobisher  Meta  Incognita,  at  the  south- 
ern end  of  Baffin  Land.  It  is  200  miles  long  by 
above  20  wide,  with  rugged  mountainous  shores. 

Frodsham,  a  market-town  of  Cheshire,  near 
the  confluence  of  the  Weaver  and  Mersey,  10 
miles  NE.  of  Chester.     Pop.  2333. 

Frogmore,  in  the  Little  Park,  Windsor,  Berks, 
with  the  mausoleum  of  the  Prince-Consort. 

Frohsdorf,  a  village  in  Lower  Austria,  on  the 
Leitha,  30  miles  S.  of  Vienna.  Its  splendid  castle 
from  1844  till  1883  was  the  residence  of  the 
Comte  de  Chambord. 

Frome,  a  market-town  of  Somerset,  on  the 
Frome,  a  branch  of  the  Avon,  12  miles  S.  of  Bath 
(19  by  rail).  Its  parish  church  is  a  fine  Decorated 
building,  with  a  spire  120  feet  high,  stations  of 
the  cross,  and  the  grave  of  Bishop  Ken.  Frome's 
specialties  are  broadcloths  and  other  fine  wool- 


PRONTIGNAN 


283 


FtJRSTENWALDE 


lens,  and  it  also  produces  cards  for  dressing 
cloth,  ale,  silk,  &c.  Population,  a  little  over 
11,000.  Till  1S85  Frome  returned  one  member. 
The  forest  of  Selwood  was  in  the  vicinity. 

Frontignan  {Frong-teen-yong),  a  town  of  the 
French  dep.  of  Herault,  12  miles  SW.  of  Mont- 
pellier,  famed  for  its  muscatel  wine.    Pop.  4744. 

Frosino'ne  (anc.  Frusino),  a  town  of  Italy,  60 
miles  SE.  of  Rome.    Pop.  9018. 

Frozen  Strait,  a  passage,  15  miles  wide,  separ- 
ating Southampton  Island,  in  the  north  of  Hudson 
Bay,  from  Melville  Peninsula. 

Fuca,  or  Juan  de  Fuca,  Strait,  a  passage 
separating  Washington  state  from  Vancouver 
Island,  and  connecting  the  Pacific  Ocean  with 
the  Gulf  of  Georgia.  It  contains  several  islands, 
one  of  which,  San  Juan,  was  awarded  in  1872  by 
the  emperor  of  Germany  to  the  United  States  ; 
and  it  and  several  neighbouring  islands  now  form 
a  county  of  Washington  state. 

Fti-chau.    See  Foochow. 

Fucino  (Foo-che'no),  Lake  of  (anc.  Fucinus 
Lacus),  or  Lago  di  Cela'no,  a  lake  of  Italy,  in 
the  province  of  Aquila,  61  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  2172 
feet  above  sea-level.  Being  only  75  feet  deep  and 
having  no  constant  outflow,  it  was  subject  to 
sudden  risings,  which  inundated  the  surrounding 
regions.  In  44-54  a.d.  the  Emperor  Claudius 
cut  a  subterranean  channel,  nearly  3  miles  long, 
through  Monte  Salviano.  This  tunnel,  however, 
soon  became  obstructed ;  and  as  the  lake  had 
been  steadily  rising  from  1783,  a  new  canal  was 
made  (1852-62).  By  1875  the  lake  was  dry  ;  it  is 
now  under  cultivation. 

Fuego,  TiERRA  DEL.    See  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

Fuente  Alamo,  a  town  of  Spain,  20  miles  S.  of 
Murcia.     Pop.  8167. 

Fuente  Ovejuna,  a  small  walled  town  of 
Spain,  45  miles  NW.  of  Cordova.    Pop.  9698. 

Fuenterrabia.    See  Fontarabia. 

Fuentes  de  Oiioro,  a  village  of  Salamanca, 
Spain,  on  the  Portuguese  frontier,  15  miles  WSW. 
of  Ciudad  Rodrigo.  Pop.  1342.  Here,  on  5th 
May  1811,  Wellington  defeated  Massena. 

Fiihnen.    See  FiJnen. 

Puji-san.    See  Fusiyama. 

Fu-kian,  or  Ftj-chien,  an  eastern  maritime 
province  of  China. 

Fukul,  an  important  town  in  the  main  island 
of  Japan,  about  75  miles  NNB.  of  Kioto,  noted 
for  its  silk  manufactures.  It  is  a  clean  and 
cheerful  city,  and  has  several  Christian  missions. 
Pop.  45,000. 

Fukuoka,  a  town  on  the  NW.  coast  of  Kiu-shiu 
Island,  Japan,  65  miles  NNE.  of  Nagasaki,  with 
considerable  commerce  in  silk,  &c.     Pop.  67,000. 

Fukushima,  a  town  in  the  main  island  of 
Japan,  about  75  miles  B.  of  Niigata.  It  is  an 
important  centre  for  trade  in  silkworms'  eggs 
and  raw  silk.     Pop.  21,000. 

Fulda,  a  town  of  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  on  the  river  Fulda,  67  miles  NE.  of 
Frankfort-OM-the-Main.  Its  famous  Benedictine 
abbey  was  founded  by  St  Boniface,  the  'Apostle 
of  Germany,'  in  the  8th  century  ;  from  the  10th 
century  it  had  a  primacy  over  all  the  abbeys  of 
Germany.  The  cathedral,  six  times  destroyed 
by  fire,  was  rebuilt  in  1704-12.  In  1734-1804 
Fulda  had  a  university.    Pop.  17,000. 

Fulham,  one  of  the  metropolitan  and  par- 
liamentary boroughs   (returning   one   member) 


of  London,  in  the  south  of  Middlesex,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Thames,  4^  miles  SW.  of  Charing 
Cross.  Here  since  1141  has  been  the  palace  of 
the  bishops  of  London,  but  the  present  building 
is  mostly  not  more  than  a  century  old.  The 
church  is  ancient,  and  contains  the  tombs  of 
many  of  the  bishops.  Fulham  also  has  memories 
of  Bodley,  Florio,  Richardson,  Hallam,  Crotch, 
and  Albert  Smith. 

Fnllarton,  a  suburb  of  Irvine  (q.v.). 

FuUarton  House,  IJ  mile  ESE.  of  Troon,  a 
seat  of  the  Duke  of  Portland. 

Fulnek,  a  town  of  Moravia,  10  miles  NNW.  of 
Neutitschein.  Pop.  3692.  Fulnek  was  formerly 
a  principal  seat  of  the  Moravian  Brethren,  and 
gave  its  name  to  Fulneck  in  Yorkshire,  5^  miles 
E.  of  Bradford,  where  a  Moravian  settlement 
was  established  in  1748. 

Funchal  (Foon'tchal),  the  capital  of  Madeira,  on 
the  south  side  of  the  island,  is,  in  spite  of  its 
exposed  harbour  and  roadstead,  the  chief  port 
and  commercial  town  of  the  island.    Pop.  37,606. 

Fundy,  Bay  of,  an  arm  of  the  Atlantic,  separ- 
ating Nova  Scotia  from  New  Brunswick,  and 
branching  at  its  head  into  Chignecto  Bay  and 
Minas  Basin.  It  has  an  extreme  breadth  of  45 
miles  and  a  length  up  to  Chignecto  Bay  of  140 
miles ;  it  receives  the  St  John,  the  principal 
river  of  New  Brunswick,  and  the  St  Croix,  which 
separates  that  province  from  Maine.  The  tides 
rush  in  with  impetuous  force,  rising  60  to  70  feet. 

Fiinen,  or  FOhnen  (Dan.  Fyen),  the  largest  of 
the  Danish  islands  after  Zealand,  is  separated 
from  Sleswick  and  Jutland  on  the  W.  by  the 
Little  Belt,  and  from  Zealand  on  the  E.  by  the 
Great  Belt.  Area,  1135  sq.  m. ;  pop.  206,528. 
The  coast  is  flat  and  sandy,  indented  on  the 
north  by  the  deep  Odense  Fjord.  The  interior  is 
flat,  except  towards  the  south  and  west,  where 
a  range  of  hills  rises  to  420  feet.  The  principal 
towns  are  Odense,  Svendborg,  and  Nyborg. 

Flinfhaus,  a  south-western  suburb  of  Vienna. 

Flinfkirchen  ('Five  Churches,'  from  the  five 
mosques  built  during  the  Turkish  occupation, 
in  the  16th  century ;  Hungarian  Pecs),  a  free 
town  of  Hungary,  on  the  vine-clad  southern 
slope  of  the  Mecsek  Mountains,  139  miles  S.  by 
W.  of  Pesth  by  rail.  It  has  a  Romanesque 
cathedral  (1136),  and  manufactures  of  leather, 
woollens,  flannels,  majolica,  &c.  Pop.  (1881) 
28,801;  (1900)42,730. 

Fumeaux  Islands,  a  group  of  barren  islands 
in  Bass  Strait,  between  Australia  and  Tasmania, 
Flinders  Island  being  the  largest.  About  300 
inhabitants,  of  mixed  breed,  capture  seals  and 
sea-birds.  The  group  takes  its  name  from  Fiu:- 
neaux,  who  discovered  it  in  1773. 

Fumes,  a  town  of  Belgium,  16  miles  by  rail 
E.  by  N.  of  Dunkirk.     Pop.  5322. 

Fumess,  a  district  in  the  north-west  of  Lan- 
cashire, forming  a  peninsula  between  Morecambe 
Bav  and  the  Irish  Sea.  The  chief  town  is  Barrow- 
in-Furness  (q.v.).  The  ruin  of  Fumess  Abbey, 
2  miles  from  !Barrow,  is  a  fine  example  of  transi- 
tion Norman  and  Early  English.  Founded  in 
1127  for  the  Benedictines,  it  afterwards  became 
a  Cistercian  house.  See  J.  Richardson's  Fumess, 
Past  and  Present  (Barrow,  1880). 

Furruckabad.    See  Farukhabad. 

Fiirstenwalde,  a  town  of  Prussia,  on  the 
Spree,  30  miles  SE.  of  Berlin.  It  has  breweries, 
a  large  malting-house,  &c.     Pop.  16,664. 


FURTH 


284 


GAINSBOROUGH 


Pllrth,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Rednitz  and  Peguitz,  5  miles  NW.  of 
Nuremberg  by  the  earliest  German  railway 
(1835).  It  is  famous  for  its  mirrors,  tinsel,  lead 
pencils,  combs,  optical  instruments,  metal  toys, 
&c.  Pop.  (1875)  27,360;  (1900)  54,820,  mainly 
Protestants.  Burned  to  the  ground  in  1634  and 
1680,  Fiirth  fell  to  Bavaria  in  1806. 

Fury  and  Hecla  Strait,  in  70°  N.  lat., 
separates  Melville  Peninsula  from  Cockburn 
Island,  and  connects  Fox  Channel  with  the 
Gulf  of  Boothia.  It  was  discovered  by  Parry 
in  1822,  and  named  after  his  ships. 

Fusan,  one  of  the  ports  of  Corea,  on  the 
south-east  shore  of  the  peninsula,  has  long  been 
practically  a  Japanese  settlement,  under  a  treaty 
of  1876.  The  imports  include  Manchester  goods, 
salt,  and  Japanese  wares ;  the  exports,  rice, 
beans,  hides,  &c. 

Fusaro,  Lake  of  (anc.  Acherusia  Paliis),  a 
small  brackish  lake  of  Italy,  11  miles  W.  of 
Naples.  It  is  near  the  site  of  the  ancient  Cumse, 
and  during  the  Roman  empire  its  banks  were 
studded  with  villas.  Oysters  have  been  culti- 
vated here  since  Roman  times. 

Fusiyama  (properly  Fuji-san),  a  sacred  vol- 
cano, the  loftiest  mountain  of  Japan,  stands  on 


the  main  island,  60  miles  SW.  of  Tokio,  and 
rises  12,365  feet  above  sea-level,  with  a  crater 
500  feet  deep.     Its  last  eruption  was  in  1707. 

Futa  Jallon,  a  large  area  under  French  pro- 
tection lying  NB.  of  Sierra  Leone,  and  forming 
the  'hinterland'  to  the  coastal  region  of  French 
Guinea  (with  which  it  is  sometimes  included). 
The  area  is  30,000  sq.  m.,  and  the  pop.  (who  are 
of  the  Fulah  stock)  some  600,000.  It  is  a  hilly, 
healthy  country,  lying  round  a  lofty  mountain 
mass,  and  contains  some  of  the  head-streams  of 
the  Gambia,  the  Senegal,  and  the  Niger. 

Futehgunge,  &c.    See  Fatehganj,  &c. 

Fyne,  Loch,  an  Argyllshire  sea-loch,  running 
40  miles  N.  and  NE.  from  the  Sound  of  Bute  to 
beyond  Inveraray.  It  is  1  to  5  miles  broad,  and 
40  to  70  fathoms  deep.  On  the  west  side  it 
sends  off  Loch  Gilp  (2J  x  1|  miles)  leading  to  the 
Crinan  Canal.  The  herrings  of  Loch  Fyne  are 
held  in  high  estimation. 

Fyzabad.  (better  Faizabad),  a  city  of  Oudh,  on 
the  Gogra,  78  miles  E.  of  Lucknow  by  rail. 
Built  on  part  of  the  site  of  Ajodhya  (q.v.),  it  was 
the  capital  of  Oudh  from  1760  to  1780,  but  is  now 
greatly  fallen  from  its  old-time  splendour.  It 
maintains,  however,  an  active  trade.  Pop.  54,927. 
—For  the  capital  of  Badakhshan,  see  Faizabad. 


:ABLONZ,  a  town  of  the  north  of  Bo- 
hemia, 6  miles  SE.  of  Reicheuberg. 
Its  glass  manufactures  employ  some 
12,000  men.  Pop.  21,100. 
Gaboon  and  French  Ck)ngp,  a  French 
colony  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  between  the 
Atlantic  and  the  middle  Congo.  Its  north  bound- 
ary touches  the  German  colony  of  the  Cameroons ; 
from  below  Brazzaville  to  the  entrance  of  the 
Ubangi  (Mobangi),  the  Congo  is  the  boundary  on 
the  south-east  and  east,  and  the  Ubangi  for  an 
indefinite  distance  ;  below  Brazzaville  to  the  sea, 
the  south  boundary  is  formed  by  the  river  Tshi- 
loango  and  the  water-parting  between  the  Congo 
and  the  Kwilu.  Its  area  is  estimated  at  250,000 
sq.  m.,  and  the  population— very  loosely— at 
5,000,000.  The  coast  is  tolerably  uniform,  the 
principal  indentations  being  Corisco  Bay  and  the 
estuaries  of  the  Gaboon  and  Ogowe  in  the  north- 
west. These  last  are  with  the  Kwilu  the  principal 
rivers.  The  Gaboon,  not  a  river,  but  an  estuary, 
10  miles  wide  at  its  entrance,  penetrates  40  miles 
inland,  with  a  width  of  from  6  to  12  miles.  On 
the  north  bank  is  the  settlement  of  Libreville, 
The  climate  pn  the  coastal  strip  is  extremely 
unhealthy ;  mean  annual  temperature,  83°  F. 
On  the  inland  plateau  (2600  feet  above  sea- 
level)  it  is  better.  Amongst  the  exports  figure 
timber,  gum,  ivory,  gutta-percha,  palm  oil  and 
kernels,  earth-nuts,  sesamum,  and  malachite ; 
other  products  are  brown  hematite,  quicksilver, 
sugar-cane,  cotton,  and  bananas.  The  principal 
imports  are  salt,  spirits,  gunpowder,  guns,  to- 
bacco, cotton  goods,  and  iron  and  brass  wares. 
The  people  belong  for  the  most  part  to  tribes  of 
the  Bantu  stock.  This  part  of  Africa  was  dis- 
covered by  the  Spaniards  in  the  15th  century. 
The  French  made  their  first  settlement  on  the 
Gaboon  estuary  in  1842  ;  twenty  years  later  they 
extended  their  sway  to  the  Ogow6.  But  they 
seem  never  to  have  attached  any  importance  to 
the  colony  until  after  De  Brazza  began  to  explore 
it  in  1876-86.  The  principal  towns  are  Libreville 
(the  capital),  Franceville,  Loango,  and  Brazzaville. 


Gad'ames,  or  Ghadames  (the  Cydavius  of  the 
Romans),  an  oasis  and  town  of  Africa,  on  the 
northern  border  of  the  Sahara,  in  30°  9'  N.  lat.  and 
9°  17'  B.  long.  The  gardens  owe  their  fertility  to 
a  hot  spring  (89'  F.).  The  town  is  an  entrepdt  for 
manufactures  and  foreign  goods  from  Tripoli  to 
the  interior,  and  for  ivory,  beeswax,  hides,  ostrich- 
feathers,  gold,  &c.,  from  the  interior  to  Tripoli. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Gad'ara,  a  ruined  town  of  Syria,  in  the  Deca- 
polis,  a  few  miles  SB.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee.  For 
its  exploration  by  Schumacher,  see  his  Northern 
'Ajltin  (1890). 

Gades.    See  Cadiz. 

Gadshlll,  3  miles  N  W.  of  Rochester,  commands 
a  splendid  prospect,  and  was  the  scene  of  Fal- 
stafTs  famous  encounter  with  the  'rogues  in 
buckram  suits.'  Gadshill  Place,  an  old-fashioned 
red-brick  house  here,  which  Dickens  coveted  as 
a  boy,  was  bought  by  him  in  1856,  and  was  his 
home  from  1860  till  his  death  in  1870. 

Ga'eta  (Lat.  Caieta),  a  strongly  fortified  mari- 
time town  of  Italy,  picturesquely  situated  on  a 
lofty  promontory,  50  miles  NW.  of  Naples.  On 
the  summit  of  the  promontory  stands  the  circular 
Roland's  tower,  said  to  be  the  mausoleum  of 
Plancus,  the  friend  of  Augustus.  The  beauty  of 
the  Bay  of  Gaeta,  which  almost  rivals  that  of 
Naples,  has  been  celebrated  by  Virgil  and  Horace. 
Often  besieged,  Gaeta  in  1848-49  was  the  refuge 
of  Pope  Pius  IX. ;  in  1860-61  of  Francis  II.  of 
Naples.  The  citadel  contains  the  tomb  of  the 
Constable  Bourbon^  killed  at  the  taking  of  Rome 
in  1527.     Pop.  17,848. 

Gaeta,  Mola  di.    See  Formia. 

Gaillac,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Tarn, 
32  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Toulouse.    Pop.  7910. 

Gaillard,  Chateau.    See  Andelys. 

Gainesville,  a  town  of  Texas,  34  miles  W.  of 
Sherman.     Pop.  7563. 

Gainsborough,  a  market-town  of  Lincolnshire, 
on  the  Trent's  right  bank,   21  miles  above  its 


GAIRLOCH 


285 


GALILEE 


embouchure  in  the  Humber,  and  16  miles  by  rail 
NW.  of  Lincohi.  It  has  a  parish  church,  rebuilt 
in  1736,  with  the  exception  of  a  fine  12th-century 
tower ;  a  manor-house,  built  by  John  of  Gaunt, 
and  now  forming  part  of  the  corn  exchange  ;  and 
a  grammar-school  (1589).  Vessels  drawing  12  feet 
of  water  can  ascend  the  Trent  to  Gainsborough, 
which  manufactures  linseed  cake  and  oil,  malt, 
cordage,  and  machinery.  Pop.  (1851)7506  ;  (1001) 
17,660.     See  the  history  by  Stark  (2d  ed.  1843). 

Galrloch,  an  inlet  of  the  sea  on  the  west  coast 
of  Ross-shire,  6  miles  in  length,  which  gives  name 
to  a  parish  and  village.  See  J.  H.  Dixon,  The 
Gairloch  (1888). 

Gairney  Bridge,  a  place  1|  mile  SSE.  of  Kin- 
ross, where  the  first  Secession  presbytery  met  in 
1733.    An  obelisk  marks  it. 

Galabat,  a  settlement  or  state  of  Negroes  from 
Dar-Fftr  and  Wadai,  situated  just  beyond  the 
western  frontiers  of  Abyssinia.     Pop.  20,000. 

Galacz.    See  Galatz. 

Galapa'gos  (Span.  Galapagos,  'tortoises'),  a 
group  of  volcanic  islands,  lying  on  the  equator, 
600  miles  W.  of  Ecuador,  to  which  they  belong. 
The  islands  all  possess  English  names— probably 
bestowed  by  the  buccaneers.  The  group  consists 
of  seven  principal  islands,  with  about  half-a-dozen 
of  lesser  size,  and  innumerable  islets  and  rocks  ; 
the  area  is  estimated  at  2940  sq.  m.,  of  which 
Albemarle  Island  embraces  over  half.  Rising  to 
a  height  of  nearly  5000  feet,  the  islands  are  covered 
with  a  dense  vegetation  on  the  south  side ;  on 
the  northern  they  are  barren  and  forbidding  in 
aspect,  the  lower  parts  covered  entirely  with  ashes 
and  lava  or  with  prickly  scrub.  Darwin  puts 
the  number  of  craters  in  the  group  at  2000  ;  some 
appear  to  be  not  yet  extinct.  The  archipelago 
was  annexed  by  Ecuador  in  1832.  Charles  Island 
and  Chatham  Island  are  now  occupied  by  agri- 
cultural colonists,  the  chief  crop  being  sugar. 
Pop.  400. 

Galashiels,  a  town  of  Selkirkshire,  the  chief 
seat  in  Scotland  of  the  Scotch  tweed  manufac- 
ture, occupies  2J  miles  of  the  narrow  valley  of 
the  Gala,  immediately  above  its  junction  with 
the  Tweed.  It  is  33^  miles  SSE.  of  Edinburgh, 
and  4  WNW.  of  Melrose.  In  the  15th  century 
it  is  spoken  of  as  'the  forest-steading  of  Gala- 
shiels;' and  its  tower,  demolished  about  1814, 
was  then  occupied  by  the  Douglases.  In  1599 
it  was  made  a  burgh  of  barony,  having  then  400 
inhabitants.  As  early  as  1581  cloth  was  manu- 
factured here,  but  so  great  has  been  the  progress 
of  the  tweeds  trade  of  the  town  during  the 
19th  century,  that  the  annual  value  of  its 
woollen  manufactures  rose  from  £1000  in  1790 
to  £1,250,000  in  1890.  The  town  has  also  dye- 
works,  iron-foundries,  engineering  works,  and 
boot-factories.  In  1808  Galashiels  was  made  a 
parliamentary  burgh,  with  Hawick  and  Selkirk 
returning  one  member.  Pop.  (1881)  2209  :  (1871) 
10,312  ;  (1891)  17,367  ;  (1901)  13,615. 

Galata,  a  suburb  of  Constantinople  (q.v.). 

Galatla,  in  ancient  geography,  a  country  in  the 
heart  of  Asia  Minor. 

Galatina,  a  town  of  Italy,  13  miles  SW.  of 
Lecce.    Pop.  8720. 

Galatz,  a  river-port  of  Moldavia,  the  commer- 

Lcial  centre  of  the  Roumanian  kingdom,  on  the 
Daniibe's  left  bank,  85  miles  from  its  Sulina  mouth, 
and  166  by  rail  NB.  of  Bucharest.  It  has  a  dock- 
yard, grain-stores,  and  manufactures  of  iron, 
copper,  wax  candles,  and  soap.  Pop.  (1869) 
36,000;  (1900)62,850. 
I 


Gala  Water,  a  Scottish  stream  rising  among 
the  Moorfoot  Hills,  and  winding  21  miles  SSE., 
past  Stow  and  Galashiels,  till,  after  a  total  de- 
scent of  800  feet,  it  falls  into  the  Tweed,  a  little 
below  Abbotsford,  and  2^  miles  W.  of  Melrose. 
In  its  valley,  the  ancient  Wedale,  Skene  localises 
one  of  Arthur's  battles ;  its  '  braw,  braw  lads ' 
are  famous  in  song. 

Galena,  a  city  of  Illinois,  on  the  Fevre  River, 
6  miles  above  its  junction  with  the  Mississippi, 
and  133  WNW.  of  Chicago  by  rail.    Pop.  5035. 

Galesburg,  a  city  of  Illinois,  53  miles  WNW. 
of  Peoria  by  rail.  It  has  foundries,  machine- 
shops,  and  agricultural  manufactories,  and  is  the 
seat  of  the  Lombard  University  (Universalist, 
1857)  and  of  Knox  College  (Congregational,  1841). 
Pop.  (1860)  4959  ;  (1900)  18,600. 

Galesville,  a  post-village  of  Wisconsin,  15 
miles  ENE.  of  Winona,  with  a  Methodist  uni- 
versity  (1855).     Pop.  810. 

Galicia,  formerly  a  kingdom  and  afterwards  a 
province  in  the  north-west  of  Spain.  With  an 
area  of  11,340  sq.  m.,  it  has  been  divided  since 
1833  into  the  minor  provinces  of  Coruna,  Lugo, 
Orense,  and  Pontevedra,  whose  joint  pop.  is  now 
close  on  2,000,000. 

GallcIa  (Polish  Halicz),  an  Austrian  province 
lying  between  the  Carpathians  and  Russian 
Poland.  Area,  30,300  sq.  m. ;  population, 
7,300,000,  almost  all  of  Slavonic  race,  the  west- 
ern part  being  occupied  mainly  by  Poles,  the 
eastern  by  Ruthenians.  In  religion  about  2^ 
millions,  mostly  Ruthenians,  belong  to  the  Greek 
Church,  and  nearly  2|  millions,  chiefly  Poles, 
to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church.  The  south- 
ern portion  of  the  country  is  a  high  terrace, 
flanking  the  northern  face  of  the  Carpathians. 
Thence  the  land  slopes  away  northwards,  through 
a  low  hilly  region,  to  the  deep  plains  of  the 
Dniester  and  the  Vistula.  There  are  many  large 
rivers — those  in  the  west  being  feeders  of  the 
Vistula,  those  in  the  east  of  the  Danube  and 
Dniester.  One-fourth  of  the  surface  is  covered 
with  forests.  Salt  is  the  most  important  min- 
eral ;  but  coal,  iron  ore,  sulphur,  lead,  zinc,  and 
petroleum  are  also  extracted.  There  are  about 
thirty-five  mineral  springs,  most  of  them  con- 
taining sulphur.  Lemberg  (the  capital)  and 
Cracow  are  the  chief  towns.  The  western  portion 
of  the  country  belonged  from  1382  till  1772  to 
Poland ;  in  1846  Cracow,  with  its  territory,  was 
given  up  to  Austria,  and  annexed  to  Galicia. 

Gallcz.    See  Halicz. 

Galilee,  Sea  of,  called  also  Lake  of  Gennesaret 
and  Sea  of  Tiberias  (in  O.  T.  Sea  of  CMnnereth  or 
Cinneroth),  a  lake  in  north  Palestine,  13  miles 
long'.by  6  broad.  Its  surface  lies  682  feet  below 
sea-level,  at  the  bottom  of  a  volcanic  basin  ;  its 
maximum  depth,  heretofore  given  at  820  feet, 
was  in  1890  fixed  at  148  feet  by  M.  Barrois. 
Although  the  Jordan  runs  into  it  red  and  turbid 
from  the  north,  and  many  warm  and  brackish 
springs  also  find  their  way  thither,  its  Avaters 
are  cool,  clear,  and  sweet.  The  shores  on  the 
east  and  north  sides  are  bare  and  rocky  ;  on  the 
west  they  are  covered  with  luxuriant  vegetation. 

In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  Galilee  (Heb.  Galil, 
'  circle ')  embraced  the  whole  northern  portion  of 
Palestine  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  Jordan. 
It  was  divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Galilee, 
the  former  hilly  and  well  wooded,  the  latter  level 
and  very  fertile.  At  that  time  it  was  mainly 
inhabited  by  Syrians,  Phoenicians,  Arabs,  and 
Greeks,  with  a  few  Jews.    The  principal  towns 


GALION 


286 


GALWAY 


were  Tiberias  and  Sepphoris ;  those  that  figure  in 
the  gospels  are  Cana,  Capernaum,  Nazareth,  and 
Nain.  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  the 
despised  Galilee  became  the  refuge  of  the  proud 
doctors  of  Jewish  law,  and  the  city  of  Tiberias 
the  seat  of  Rabbinical  learning.  Galilee  now 
forms  part  of  the  pashalic  of  Damascus,  in  the 
Turkish  province  of  Syria,  and  is  remarkable  for 
its  beauty  and  fertility.  See  Dr  S.  Merrill,  Galilee 
in  the  Time  of  Christ  (new  ed.  1885). 

Gallon,  a  town  of  Ohio,  58  miles  N,  by  B.  of 
Columbus,  with  cigar- factories,  machine-shops, 
railroad-shops,  &c.    Pop.  732(j. 

Galla  Ooimtry,  a  region  south  of  Abyssinia 
and  west  of  Somaliland,  inhabited  by  two  or 
three  millions  of  fierce,  energetic,  mainly  heathen 
Gallas,  some  of  whom  have  been  Mohammedanised, 
and  others,  on  the  Abyssinian  frontiers,  profess 
a  corrupt  Christianity.  Many  parts  of  southern 
Abyssinia  are  held  by  Gallas,  who  belong  prob- 
ably to  the  Hamitic  stock. 

Galle,  or  Point  de  Galle,  a  fortified  seaport 
of  the  south-west  extremity  of  Ceylon,  stands  on 
a  low  rocky  promontory,  and  has  a  good  harbour. 
It  has  lost  its  former  importance  as  a  coaling  and 
transhipping  station;for  the  great  lines  of  ocean- 
steamers  since  the  completion  of  the  breakwater 
at  Colombo.     Pop.  40,000.  i 

Galle'go,  a  principal  affluent  of  the  Ebro. 

Gallip'oli  (Greek  Kallipolis),  a  cathedral  city 
of  southern  Italy,  on  a  steep  insulated  rock  in 
the  Gulf  of  Taranto,  connected  with  the  main- 
land by  a  bridge,  59  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Brindisi. 
It  has  a  fortified  harbour  protected  by  a  mole, 
and  exports  olive-oil.    Pop.  11,000. 

Galllpoli  (anc.  Kallipolis),  a  seaport  of  Turkey, 
on  the  peninsula  of  the  same  name  (the  ancient 
Thracian  Chersonesus),  at  the  north-eastern  ex- 
tremity of  the  Dardanelles,  90  miles  S.  of  Adrian- 
ople,  and  130  WSW.  of  Constantinople.  It  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  Turkish  fleet.     Pop.  25,000. 

Galloway,  an  extensive  district  of  south-west 
Scotland,  once  somewhat  larger,  but  now  en- 
tirely comprised  in  the  shire  of  Wigtown  and 
stewartry  of  Kirkcudbright.  It  is  70  miles  long 
by  40  at  its  utmost  breadth,  and  contains  the 
greatest  diversity  of  scenery — mountain,  lake, 
and  stream,  as  well  as  dreary  waste  and  almost 
pathless  moor.  The  province  owes  its  name  to 
the  fact  that  the  natives  were  called  Gall-Gael, 
or  foreign  Gaels,  at  first  because  of  their  falling 
under  the  foreign  rule  of  the  Anglians ;  but  as 
the  Picts  of  Galloway  they  continued  to  be 
known  so  late  as  the  Battle  of  the  Standard  in 
1138.  See  works  by  Sir  Andrew  Agnew  (2d  ed. 
1893)  and  M'Kerlie  (1870-91). 

Galloway,  Mull  of,  a  bold  headland,  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  peninsula  called  the 
Rhinns  of  Galloway,  in  Wigtownshire,  and  the 
most  southern  point  of  Scotland,  23  miles  S.  of 
Stranraer.  It  is  IJ  mile  long,  and  J  mile  broad, 
and  rises  to  210  feet  at  its  eastern  extremity,  on 
which  stands  a  lighthouse,  60  feet  high,  whose 
light  is  visible  23  nautical  miles. 

Galston,  an  Ayrshire  village,  5  miles  SE.  of 
Kilmarnock  by  rail.  It  manufactures  muslins  and 
lace,  and  has  neighbouring  coal-pits.    Pop.  4885. 

Gait,  a  town  of  Ontario,  Canada,  on  the  Grand 
River,  25  miles  by  rail  E.  by  N.  of  Hamilton.  It 
manufactures  flouj,  machines,  cast-iron,  paper, 
leather,  &c.  Gait  was  founded  in  1816.  Pop. 
8000,  mostly  of  Scotch  descent. 

Galtee  Mountains,  a  range  of  Tipperary  and 
Limerick,  attaining  3008  feet  in  Qalteemore. 


Galveston,  a  seaport  of  Texas,  on  Galveston 
Island,  at  the  opening  of  Galveston  Bay  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  214  miles  ESE.  of  Austin  by  rail. 
The  island  is  a  low  strip  of  land,  30  miles  long  by 
3  broad ;  the  bay  extends  northward  from  the 
city  to  the  mouth  of  the  Trinity  River,  a  dis- 
tance of  35  miles,  and  has  a  breadth  of  from  12  to 
18  miles.  The  city  contains  a  Catholic  cathedral, 
the  Catholic  University  of  St  Mary,  and  the 
Texas  Medical  College ;  and  it  has  foundries, 
mills,  and  machine-shops.  Since  the  hurricane  and 
flood  of  1900,  its  harbour  is  protected  by  a  sea-wall 
and  other  works.  The  foreign  trade  (£21,000,000 
in  1901)  is  mainly  the  export  of  cotton  and  cotton- 
seed oil.     Pop.  (1850)  4177  ;  (1900)  37,790. 

Galway,  a  maritime  county  of  Ireland,  in  the 
province  of  Connaught,  and,  after  Cork,  the 
largest  of  all  the  Irish  counties.  Area,  1,569,505 
acres,  of  which  a  little  more  than  one-half  is 
arable.  Pop.  (1831)  414,684  ;  (1871)  248,458  ;  (1881) 
241,662  ;  (1901)  192,549  (187,220  Catholics).  It  is 
watered  in  the  east  by  the  Shannon,  the  Suck, 
and  their  feeders ;  and  in  the  west  by  Loughs 
Mask  and  Corrib,  and  by  the  streams  which  fall 
into  them  and  Galway  Bay.  In  the  south  are  the 
Slieve-Baughta  Mountains ;  and  in  the  west  are 
the  Maara-Turk  Mountains,  and  the  Twelve  Pins 
(2395  feet).  South-west  from  Lough  Corrib  to  the 
sea  is  the  district  called  Connemara,  which  con- 
tains vast  bogs,  moors,  lakes,  and  morasses. 
North-east  of  Connemara  is  Joyce's  Country,  and 
south-east  of  it  is  lar-Connaught,  or  Western 
Connaught.  The  shore  is  much  broken,  with 
many  islands  and  bays.  Agriculture  and  fishing 
are  the  chief  pursuits.  Raths  and  cromlechs  are 
numerous  ;  there  are  seven  round  towers  ;  whilst 
of  many  monastic  ruins  the  finest  is  that  of 
Knockmoy,  near  Tuam.  Since  1885  Galway 
county  has  returned  four  members  to  parliament. 

Galway  Bay  is  an  inlet  of  the  Atlan-tic,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Ireland,  between  the  counties  of 
Galway  and  Clare.  It  is  a  noble  sheet  of  water, 
30  miles  long  from  W.  to  E.,  and  10  in  average 
breadth,  and  is  sheltered  by  the  Aran  Isles. 

Galway,  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  Ireland,  a  seaport,  and  county  of 
itself,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Corrib,  on  the  north 
shore  of  Galway  Bay,  50  miles  NNW.  of  Limerick, 
and  127  W.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  The  old  town  is 
poorly  built  and  irregular.  In  the  wall  of  a 
house  here  is  the  'Lynch  Stone,'  where  in  1493 
'  Mayor  Lynch '  had  his  own  son  hanged  for  the 
murder  of  a  Spaniard.  The  new  town  consists  of 
well-planned  streets,  and  is  built  on  a  rising- 
ground  which  slopes  gradually  toward  the  sea 
and  the  river.  A  suburb,  called  Claddagh,  is 
inhabited  by  fishermen.  Galway  is  the  see  of 
a  Catholic  bishop.  The  principal  buildings  are 
the  cruciform  church  (Episcopal)  of  St  Nicholas 
(1320),  St  Augustine's  Catholic  Church  (1859), 
the  county  court-house,  &c.  Queen's  College 
(1849)  has  eighteen  professors  and  about  a  hun- 
dred students ;  its  quadrangular  buildings  are 
spacious  and  handsome.  Galway  has  flour-mills, 
a  distillery,  a  foundry,  extensive  salmon  and 
sea  fishing,  a  good  harbour,  with  docks  that 
admit  vessels  of  500  tons,  and  a  lighthouse.  The 
exports  consist  mainly  of  agricultural  produce, 
wool,  and  black  marble.  Galway  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.  Pop.  (1851)  20,686  ;  (1881) 
15,471 ;  (1901)  13,426  (nine-tenths  Catholics). 
Galway  was  taken  by  Richard  de  Burgh  in  1232, 
by  Sir  Charles  Coote  in  1652,  and  in  1691  by 
General  Ginckell.  See  Hardiman's  History  of  th« 
Town  and  County  qf  Galway  (Dublin,  1820), 


GAMBIA 


287 


GARAYE 


Gambia,  a  river  of  western  Africa,  the  more 
southerly  of  the  two  great  streams  of  Senegambia, 
enters  the  Atlantic  after  a  course  of  over  1400 
miles,  by  an  estuary  which  in  some  parts  measures 
nearly  27  miles  across,  but  contracts  to  little 
more  than  2  at  the  mouth.  It  is  navigable  from 
June  to  November  for  vessels  of  150  tons  up  to 
Barraconda,  400  miles  from  the  sea.— The  British 
settlement  of  Gambia  occupies  the  banks  of  the 
river  as  far  up  as  Georgetown.  Its  actual  area  is 
about  69  sq.  m. ;  but  an  additional  protected 
area,  consisting  of  a  strip  on  both  sides  of  the 
river,  was  added  in  1890,  making,  after  conces- 
sions to  the  French  in  1904,  a  total  area  of 
over  3000  sq.  m.  Pop.  of  settlements,  14,000 
(some  200  Europeans) ;  with  protectorate,  90,000. 
The  climate  is  'fairly  healthy  during  the  dry 
months.'  The  staple  product  is  the  ground-nut ; 
other  products  being  hides,  rice,  cotton,  beeswax, 
kola  nuts,  and  india-rubber,  and  there  is  an  active 
entrepot  trade  with  the  neighbouring  French 
settlements  in  cotton  goods,  spirits,  rice,  kola 
nuts,  and  hardware.  Formerly  a  dependency  of 
Sierra  Leone,  the  settlement  was  created  an 
independent  colony  in  1843,  a  portion  of  the  West 
African  Settlements  in  1876,  and  a  separate  govern- 
ment in  1888.  It  is  now  practically  shut  in  by 
French  territory.  The  settlement  is  connected 
with  Europe  by  telegraph  cables,  and  the  Liver- 
pool mail-steamers  call  fortnightly.  In  February 
1894  a  small  British  expedition  to  punish  a  slave- 
raiding  Mandingo  chief  received  a  check,  an 
event  which  led  to  decisive  measures. 

Gambler  Islands,  or  Mangari£va,  a  Polynesian 
group  of  six  larger  and  several  smaller  islands, 
under  a  French  protectorate,  in  23°  8'  S.  lat.  and 
134°  55'  W.  long.    Area,  15  sq.  m. ;  pop.  445. 

Gamrun.    See  Gombroon. 

Gand.    See  Ghent. 

Gandak,  a  river  of  India,  rises  in  the  Nepal 
Himalayas,  and  flows  SE.  between  the  North- 
west Provinces  and  Bengal,  to  the  Ganges  at  Patna. 

Gandamak,  an  Afghan  village,  between  Kabul 
and  Peshawar,  where  in  1842  the  last  remnant  of 
the  British  force  from  Kabul  was  massacred. 
Here  a  treaty  was  signed  with  Yakub  Khan  in  1879. 

Gandersheim  (Gan'ders-hlm),  a  town  of  2507 
inhabitants  in  Brunswick,  30  miles  N.  of  Gottin- 
gen  by  rail.  Its  famous  abbey  (852)  gave  the  title 
of  abbess  to  the  daughters  of  German  princes, 
and  until  1803  was  itself  a  principality. 

Gandia,  a  town  of  Spain,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Alcov,  and  47  miles  SSE.  of  Valencia  by  rail. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Gando,  a  Fulah  state  of  the  western  Soudan, 
lying  west  of  Sokoto,  and  on  both  sides  of  the 
Niger  north  of  Borgu ;  most  of  it  is  now,  since 
1900,  within  (British)  Northern  Nigeria,  while  the 
western  part  is  in  the  French  Sahara.— Gando, 
50  miles  SW.  of  the  town  of  Sokoto,  is  the  capital ; 
the  trading  town  on  the  Niger  is  Egga  (q.v.). 

Gandolfo.    See  Castel  Gandolfo. 

Ganges,  the  great  river  of  northern  India, 
rises  in  Garhwal  in  30°  56'  4"  N.  lat.  and  79°  6'  40" 
E.  long.,  issuing,  under  the  name  of  the  Bhagir- 
athi,  from  an  ice-cave  8  miles  above  Gangotri 
and  13,800  feet  above  sea-level.  A  few  miles 
below  Gangotri  it  receives  the  Jahnavi,  and  133 
miles  from  its  source  the  Alaknanda,  from 
which  point  the  united  stream  is  known  as  the 
Ganges.  From  Sukhi,  where  it  bursts  through 
the  Himalayas,  it  flows  south-west  to  Hardwar, 
and  thence  winds  south-east  to  Allahabad,  where 
it  is  joined    by  the  Jumna.    Hence  the  great 


river  rolls  on,  past  the  holy  city  of  Benares, 
and  across  the  plains  of  Behar,  fea  by  the  Son, 
the  Gandak,  and  the  Kusi.  It  then  turns  sharply 
to  the  southward,  and  begins  to  throw  out  the 
branches  which  enclose  the  level  delta,  at  a  point 
220  miles  from  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  main 
channel,  called  the  Padma  or  Padda,  runs  south- 
east to  Goalanda,  where  it  is  met  by  the  main 
stream  of  the  Brahmaputra,  and  the  vast  con- 
fluence of  waters  flows  in  a  broad  estuary,  the 
Meghna,  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  near  Noakhali. 
Between  this  most  easterly  mouth,  and  the  Hugh 
or  Hooghly  (q.v.),  the  most  westerly  and  the 
great  channel  of  navigation,  lies  the  delta, 
with  a  multitude  of  mouths  and  channels.  ThB 
delta  in  its  upper  angle  is  very  fertile,  but  in  the 
south,  towards  the  sea,  the  country  is  a  desolate 
waste  of  swamps  (see  Sundarbans),  intersected 
by  a  network  of  canals.  The  Ganges  has  a  total 
length  of  1557  (by  the  Hugli  mouth,  1509)  miles ; 
its  drainage  basin  embraces  over  390,000  sq.  m. 
In  spite  of  the  shoals  and  rapids  that  lie  above 
Allahabad,  it  is  in  some  sense  navigable  from  the 
point  where  it  enters  the  lowlands,  near  Har- 
dwar; and  its  stream,  which  never  fails  in  the 
hottest  summer,  distributes  fertility  throughout 
its  course,  and  even  its  inundations  spread  over 
the  fields  a  rich  top-dressing  of  alluvial  silt.  The 
ruined  or  decayed  cities  near  its  banks,  however, 
bear  mute  witness  to  the  loss  inflicted  by  the  con- 
stant changes  which  take  place  in  the  river-bed. 
The  Ganges  excels  all  the  great  rivers  of  India 
in  sanctity;  from  the  source  down  to  the  sea 
every  foot  of  'Mother  Gauge's'  course  is  holy 
ground,  to  bathe  in  her  waters  will  wash  away 
sin,  to  die  and  be  buried  on  her  banks  secures 
free  entry  to  eternal  bliss. 

The  Ganges  Canal,  opened  in  1854,  is  an  im- 
portant irrigation  work  and  navigable  channel, 
extending,  on  the  right  of  the  Ganges,  from 
Hardwar  to  Cawnpore,  with  a  long  branch  to 
Hamirpur  on  the  Jumna.  The  main  canal  is  445 
miles  in  length.  The  Lower  Ganges  Canal,  planned 
in  1866,  and  begun  in  1873,  is  a  southward  exten- 
sion of  the  main  line  to  Allahabad. 

GangI,  a  town  of  Sicily,  18  miles  SSE.  of 
Cefalu.     Pop.  11,935. 

Gan-hwuy,  or  An-hui,  an  eastern  inland  prov- 
ince of  China,  crossed  by  the  Yang-tsze-Kiang. 

Ganjam,  a  town  of  Madras  presidency,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rishikuliya,  18  miles  NE.  of  Ber- 
hampur.     Pop.  5037. 

Gannat,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Allier, 
245  miles  SSE.  of  Paris  by  rail.    Pop.  5187. 

Gantang  Pass,  18,295  feet  high,  leads  eastward 
from  the  Bashahr  hill  state,  across  the  Himalayas 
into  Chinese  territory. 

Gantnr.    See  Guntur. 

Gap  (anc.  Vapincum),  the  capital  of  the  French 
dep.  Hautes  Alpes,  on  the  Luye,  2424  feet  above 
sea-level,  47  miles  SE.  of  Grenoble.  It  has  a 
cathedral  (rebuilt  since  1866).    Pop.  8898. 

Garabit,  a  point  on  the  railway  from  Mar- 
vejols  (Loz^re)  to  Neussargues,  10  miles  S.  of  St 
Flour,  in  the  French  dep.  of  Cantal,  where  the 
line  crosses  a  gorge  through  which  the  waters  of 
the  Truyere  run,  401  feet  below  the  rails.  The 
Eiff"el  viaduct  here  is  1852^  feet  long,  and  crosses 
the  river  by  an  arch,  with  a  span  of  541^  feet. 

Garamantes.    See  Fezzan. 

Garaye,  La,  a  ruined  chateau  in  Brittany,  2 
miles  from  Dinan.  Its  last  owners,  Claude  Tous- 
saint  and  his  countess,  in  the  first  half  of  the 


GARD 


288 


gasf£ 


18th  century  converted  it  into  a  hospital,  which 
forms  the  theme  of  the  Hon.  Mrs  Norton's  poem, 
« The  Lady  of  La  Garaye '  (1862). 

Gard,  a  French  dep.  on  the  Mediterranean,  and 
bounded  E.  by  the  Rhone,  with  an  area  of  2245  sq. 
m.,  one-third  arable.  It  is  divided  into  the  ar- 
rondissements  of  Alais,  Nimes  (the  capital),  Uzes, 
and  Vigan.     Pop.  (1861)  422,107  ;  (1901)  418,470. 

Garda,  Lago  di  (Roman  Lacus  Benaciis),  a 
beautiful,  clear  lake,  the  largest  of  Italy,  lies 
between  Lombardy  and  Venetia,  its  northern  end 
extending  into  the  Austrian  Tyrol.  Situated  226 
feet  above  sea-level,  it  has  an  area  of  115  sq.  m., 
a  greatest  length  of  35  miles,  a  breadth  of  2  to 
11  miles,  and  a  maximum  depth  of  967  feet ;  the 
surface  is  studded  with  many  islands.  It  is 
drained  by  the  Mincio,  a  tributary  of  the  Po. 
The  mild  climate  and  the  beauty  of  the  vicinity 
have  caused  its  shores  to  be  lined  with  villas. 

Gardala,  or  Ghardaia,  a  town  in  the  Algerian 
Sahara,  stands  on  a  conical  hill,  in  an  oasis- 
valley  full  of  date-palms,  82  miles  WNW.  of 
Wargla.  In  1882  a  garrisoned  fort  was  established 
here  by  the  French.    Pop.  38,782. 

Gardelegen,  an  old  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
on  the  Milde,  28  miles  (53  by  rail)  NNW.  of 
Magdeburg.    Pop.  7358. 

Garden  City,  in  Long  Island,  now  part  of 
Queens  borough.  New  York,  was  laid  out  as  a 
town  of  model  villas  by  the  New  York  million- 
aire, A.  T.  Stewart  (1803-76).— Garden  City  is 
the  name  given  to  a  model  city  planned  on  an 
estate  acquired  at  Letchworth,  near  Hitchin  in 
Herts,  the  amenities  of  country  life  being  speci- 
ally secured. 

Gardenstown,  a  Banffshire  fishing-village,  8 
miles  ENE.  of  Banff.  It  was  founded  in  1720 
by  A.  Garden,  Esq.,  of  Troup.  Pop.  (1861)  507 ; 
(1891)1109. 

Gardiner,  a  port  of  Maine,  on  the  Kennebec 
River,  56  miles  NNE.  of  Portland.     Pop.  5491. 

Gardner,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  70  miles 
WNW.  of  Boston  by  rail,  with  manufactures  of 
wooden  wares.    Pop.  10,820. 

Gareloch.    See  Dumbartonshire. 

Garelochhead,  a  Dumbartonshire  village  at 
the  head  of  the  Gareloch,  7J  miles  NNW.  of 
Helensburgh  by  rail.    Pop.  577. 

Gargano  (anc.  Gargdnus),  a  mountainous  pen- 
insula, the  'spur'  of  Italy,  in  the  province  of 
Foggia,  jutting  out  30  miles  into  the  Adriatic, 
and  attaining  5110  feet  in  Monte  Calvo, 

Garhmukhtesar,  a  town  in  the  North-west 
Provinces,  on  the  Ganges,  26  miles  SE.  of  Meerut, 
with  four  shrines  of  Ganga,  and  a  fair,  which 
attracts  200,000  pilgrims.    Pop.  6305. 

Garhwal,  a  native  state  in  the  United  Pro- 
vinces of  Agra  and  Oudli,  on  the  borders  of  Tibet ; 
area,  4164  sq.  m. ;  pop.  270,000.  Also  an  adjoin- 
ing British  district  in  the  United  Provinces  ; 
area,  5629  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  450,000. 

Gariep.    See  Orange  River. 

Garlgliano  (anc.  Liris;  Liri  still  in  its  upper 
course),  a  river  of  Italy,  rises  in  the  Abruzzi, 
and  flows  90  miles  S.  to  the  Gulf  of  Gaeta.  It 
is  navigable  below  Pontecorvo.  On  its  banks 
in  1503  the  Spaniards  defeated  the  French. 

Garloch,  a  district  of  mid-Aberdeenshire. 

Garleton  Hills,  a  range  (590  feet),  IJ  mile  N. 
of  Haddington,  crowned  with  a  column  to  the 
Earl  of  Hopetoun,  the  Peninsular  hero.    Ruined 


Garleton  or  Garmylton  Castle,  at  its  N.  base,  was 
perhaps  Sir  David  Lyndsay's  birthplace, 

GarliestOWTi,  a  Wigtownshire  seaport,  9i  miles 
by  rail  SSE.  of  Wigtown.  It  was  founded  about 
1760  by  Lord  Garlics  (the  seventh  Earl  of  Gallo- 
way).    Pop.  532. 

Garmoutll,  an  Elginshire  seaport,  5  miles  N. 
by  W.  of  Fochabers.  Charles  II.  landed  here 
in  1650.     Pop.  535. 

Garmylton.    See  Garleton. 

Garnkirk,  a  Lanarkshire  village,  with  fireclay-' 
works,  4  miles  WNW.  of  Coatbridge.    Pop.  871. 

Gamock,  an  Ayrshire  stream  flowing  21  miles 
southward  to  the  Firth  of  Clyde  at  Irvine. 

Garnqueen,  a  Lanarkshire  village,  2J  miles  N. 
by  W.  of  Coatbridge.     Pop.  1660. 

Garo  Hills,  a  mountainous  district  forming 
the  SW.  corner  of  Assam,  with  an  area  of  3270 
sq.  m,,  and  a  pop.  of  138,300. 

Garonne  (anc.  Garumna),  the  principal  river 
of  south-west  France,  rises  within  the  Spanish 
frontier  in  the  Val  d'Aran,  at  the  base  of  Mount 
Maladetta,  in  the  Pyrenees,  6142  feet  above  sea- 
level.  About  26  miles  from  its  source  it  enters 
the  French  territory  in  the  dep.  of  Haute  Gar- 
onne, and  flows  NE.  and  NW.  until,  joined  by 
the  Dordogne,  20  miles  below  Bordeaux,  and 
widening  afterwards  into  the  Gironde  estuary, 
it  enters  the  Atlantic  at  the  Pointe  de  Grave. 
The  estuary,  the  largest  in  France,  is  nearly  50 
miles  long.  The  total  length  of  the  river  is 
346  miles  ;  it  drains  an  area  of  22,020  sq.  m.  Its 
navigation,  which,  however,  is  much  impeded 
above  Toulouse,  commences  for  small  craft  at 
Caz^res  ;  ocean  steamers  go  up  to  Bordeaux.  Ita 
principal  affluents  are  the  Tarn,  Lot,  and  Dor- 
dogne, on  the  right ;  and  on  the  left,  the  Save, 
Gers,  and  Baise.  At  Toulouse  it  is  joined  by  the 
Canal  du  Midi,  running  eastward  to  the  Mediter- 
ranean ;  and  the  river's  own  canal  lateral,  start- 
ing also  from  Toulouse,  runs  120  miles  along 
the  right  bank. 

Garonne,  Haute,  a  dep.  in  the  south  of 
France,  embracing  portions  of  ancient  Gascony 
and  Languedoc.  Area,  2428  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1872) 
479,362 ;  (1901)  439,769.  It  is  divided  into  the 
four  arrondissements  of  Toulouse  (the  capital), 
Muret,  St  Gaudens,  and  Villefranche. 

Garry.    See  Glengarry. 

Garscadden,  a  Dumbartonshire  village,  3  miles 
WNW.  of  Maryhill.     Pop.  524. 

Garstang,  a  Lancashire  market-town,  on  the 
Wyre,  10^  miles  S.  of  Lancaster.    Pop.  800. 

Garston,  a  Lancashire  town,  on  the  Mersey, 
4  miles  SE.  of  Liverpool,  to  which  it  was  added 
in  1902  (pop.  in  1901,  17,289). 

Gartsherrie.    See  Coatbridge. 

Gasconade,  a  river  of  Missouri,  winding  200 
miles  north-eastward  to  the  Missouri  River,  35 
miles  below  Jefferson  City. 

Gascony,  an  ancient  district  of  SW.  France, 
now  included  in  the  deps.  of  Land  es,  Gers,  Hautes- 
Pyrenees,  and  the  south  portions  of  Haute- 
Garonne,  Tarn-et-Garonne,  and  Lot-et-Garonne, 

Gask,  a  Perthshire  parish,  8  miles  WSW.  of 
Perth,  Its  lairds  were  the  Jacobite  Oliphants, 
to  whom  belonged  Lady  Nairne,  the  song-writer. 

Gaspe,  a  peninsula  of  Quebec  province,  pro- 
jecting into  the  Gulf  of  St  La^vrence,  between 
the  river  St  Lawrence  on  the  N.  and  the  Bay  of 
Chaleurs  on  the  S.— Gasp^  Basin,  where  Cartier 


GASTEIN 


289 


GENAZZANO 


landed  in  1584,  is  a  port  in  Gaspe  Bay,  now  the 
seat  of  fisheries.    Pop.  426. 

Gastein,  a  romantic  valley  (pop.  4000)  in  the 
south  of  the  Austrian  ducliy  of  Salzburg,  28 
miles  long,  with  many  small  villages.  The  chief, 
Wildbad-Gastein,  is  visited  every  summer  by 
some  5000  guests  to  drink  of  its  seven  warm 
springs.  Here,  on  14th  August  1865,  a  conven- 
tion was  signed  between  Austria  and  Prussia 
for  the  partition  of  Sleswick-Holstein. 

Gatchina,  a  town  of  Russia,  30  miles  by  rail 
SSW.  of  St  Petersburg.  It  has  porcelain  manu- 
factures, barracks,  and  a  palace  long  the  favourite 
residence  of  Alexander  III.,  and  guarded  with 
extraordinary  care.    Pop.  15,063. 

Gatehouse-of-Fleet,  a  pretty  Kirkcudbright- 
shire river-port,  on  the  Fleet,  9  miles  WNW.  of 
Kirkcudbright.    Pop.  1026. 

Gateshead,  a  town  on  the  northern  verge  of 
the  county  of  Durham,  and  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Tyne,  opposite  Newcastle.  Governed  for 
centuries  by  a  chief  bailiff  appointed  by  tlie 
prince-bishop  of  the  palatinate,  aided  by  popu- 
larly elected  burgesses,  Gateshead  became  a 
parliamentary  borough  (sending  one  member)  in 
1832,  a  municipal  borough  in  1835,  and  a  county 
borough  in  1888.  Pop.  (1831)  15,177;  (1851) 
25,568;  (1881)  65,855;  and  (1901)  109,888.  The 
two  towns  are  intimately  coiuiected  by  a  splen- 
did suspension  bridge  (1871)  at  Redheugh ;  by 
Stephenson's  celebrated  .high-level  road  and 
railway  bridge  (1849) ;  and  by  a  swing-bridge 
(1876),  which  opens  to  allow  the  passage  of  ships. 
Engine-works,  shipyards,  electric  cable,  hempen 
and  wire  rope  manufactories,  chemical  works, 
cement-works,  glass-works,  and  ironworks  em- 
ploy many  of  the  inhabitants.  The  town-hall 
and  free  library  are  among  the  architectural 
ornaments  of  the  borough,  which  also  has  a 
grammar-school  (1700),  King  James's  Hospital 
(1611)  for  poor  brethren,  a  public  park  at  Salt- 
well  (1874),  public  libraries  (1886),  high  schools, 
swimming-baths,  «&c.  St  Mary's  Church  in  1080 
was  the  scene  of  the  murder  of  Bishop  Walcher ; 
and  at  Gateshead  Defoe  wrote  Robinson  Crusoe. 
The  quarries  yielding  the  world-famous  New- 
castle grindstones  are  worked  at  Gateshead  Fell. 
See  Welford's  History  of  Newcastle  and  Gateshead 
(2  vols.  1884-85). 

Gath,  one  of  the  five  chief  cities  of  the  Philis- 
tines, was  situated  on  the  frontiers  of  Judah. 
Its  site  is  probably  the  Blanche  Garde  of  the 
Crusaders,  who  built  a  castle  here. 

Gatineau,  a  river  of  Quebec,  Canada,  issuing 
from  a  chain  of  lakes  just  N.  of  48°  N.  lat.,  flows 
400  miles  SSW.  to  the  Ottawa  River,  a  mile  below 
Ottawa  City. 

Gatschlna,  Gatshina.    See  Gatchina. 

Gattonslde,  a  Tweedside  village,  opposite 
Melrose,  famous  for  its  fruit. 

Gauhati.    See  Assam. 

Gaul.    See  France. 

Gaur,  or  Lakhnauti,  the  medijeval  capital  of 
Bengal,  whose  ruins  still  cover  a  space  of  seven 
miles  by  two,  on  a  branch  of  the  Ganges,  and 
include  Hindu  buildings  and  interesting  15th- 
century  mosques,  besides  extensive  reservoirs, 
channels,  and  embanked  roads. 

Gaya,  a  town  of  Bengal,  on  the  Phalgu,  57 
miles  S.  of  Patna  by  rail.  It  is  a  place  of  the 
greatest  sanctity,  from  its  associations  with  Bud- 
dha, and  is  annually  visited  by  100,000  Hindu 
pilgrims.    Pop.  72,350. 

S 


Gaya,  the  wine  suburb  of  Oporto  (q.v.). 

Gaza,  one  of  the  five  chief  cities  of  the  ancient 
Philistines,  situated  in  the  south-west  of  Pales- 
tine, 3  miles  from  the  sea,  on  the  borders  of  the 
desert  which  separates  Palestine  from  Egypt. 
In  333  B.C.  it  was  taken  after  a  five  months'  siege 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  from  then  to  1799, 
when  the  French  captured  it,  it  witnessed 
the  victories  of  the  Maccabees,  Calif  Abu-bekr 
the  Templars,  and  the  heroic  Saladin.  Constan- 
tine  the  Great,  who  rebuilt  the  town,  made  it 
the  seat  of  a  bishop.  The  modern  Guzzeh  is  a 
collection  of  mere  villages,  its  only  building  of 
interest  the  great  mosque.    Pop.  25,000. 

Gebweiler  (Fr.  Giiebwiller),  a  town  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  at  the  foot  of  the  Vosges,  15  miles 
SSW.  of  Colmar,  has  cotton-spinning,  dyeworks, 
machine-factories,  and  vineyards.    Pop.  13,395. 

Gedrosia.    See  Beluchistan. 

Geelong  (g  soft),  a  city  of  Victoria,  on  the  south 
side  of  Corio  Bay,  45  miles  SW.  of  Melbourne  by 
rail.  The  river  Barwon  forms  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  the  city,  and  3  miles  farther  spreads  into  the 
Connewarre  Lakes,  falling  into  the  sea  at  Point 
Flinders.  The  gold  discoveries  in  1851  added  to 
the  prosperity  of  Geelong,  which  had  been  incor- 
porated as  a  town  in  1849,  and  became  a  princi- 
pal seat  of  the  wool  trade— the  first  woollen  mill 
in  Victoria  being  erected  here.  Alongside  of  the 
railway  jetty  the  largest  ships  can  load  and  dis- 
charge, and  through  the  bar  at  the  entrance  to 
Corio  Bay  a  channel  has  been  dredged  for  steamer 
traffic.  The  industries  include  the  manufacture 
of  woollen  cloths  and  paper,  meat-preserving, 
tanning,  rope-making,  fishing,  &c.  The  Exhibi- 
tion Hall  and  general  produce  exchange,  theatre, 
and  assembly-rooms  combined,  stands  in  the 
market-square.  The  city  has  two  parks,  botanical 
gardens,  government  buildings,  a  town-hall,  a 
post-office  (1889),  an  excellent  hospital,  a  chamber 
of  commerce,  &c.  Corio  Bay  is  a  favourite  bathing- 
resort.     Pop.  (1871)  22,618  ;  (1901)  25,000. 

Geelvlnk  Bay  penetrates  125  miles  southward 
into  the  western  arm  of  New  Guinea.  Islands 
protect  its  entrance,  155  miles  wide. 

Geestemiinde,  a  Prussian  seaport,  at  the 
Geeste's  confluence  with  the  Weser,  just  SE.  of 
Bremerhaven.  Its  docks  and  wharves  were  con- 
structed in  1857-63.     Pop.  20,120. 

Gefle,  a  town  of  Sweden,  on  an  inlet  of  tlie 
Gulf  of  Bothnia,  71  miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  of 
Upsala.  Rebuilt  since  its  destruction  by  fire  in 
1869,  it  has  a  castle  (16th  and  18th  c),  ship- 
building yards,  and  manufactures  of  sailcloth, 
cotton,  and  tobacco,  and  fisheries.  It  ranks  third 
among  Sweden's  commercial  towns,  exporting 
iron,  timber,  and  tar,  and  importing  corn  and 
salt.     Pop.  (1874)  16,787  ;  (1900)  29,522. 

Gelderland.    See  Guelderland. 

Gelllvara,  a  great  Swedish  iron-mining  centre, 
145  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  LuleS,  at  the  head  of 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.     Pop.  13,000. 

Gelnhausen,  a  town  of  Prussia,  on  a  hill,  26 
miles  NE.  of  Frankfort-on-Main.    Pop.  5000. 

Gelsenklrchen  (g  hard),  a  modern  manufactur- 
ing town  of  Westphalia,  4  miles  NW.  of  Bochum. 
It  OAves  to  coal  and  iron  its  rise  from  a  mere  village 
since  1860.     Pop.  (1880)  14,615  ;  (lOOO)  36,935. 

Gemmi  Pass  (g  hard),  a  narrow  Alpine  path, 
nearly  2  miles  long  and  7553  feet  high,  connect- 
ing the  Swiss  cantons  of  Bern  and  Valois. 

Genazza'no,  a  town  27  miles  E.  of  Rome,  con- 
taining an  old  castle  of  the  Colonnas,  and  a  far- 
famed  pilgrimage-chapel.    Pop.  4008. 


GENESEE 


290 


GENOA 


a  river  rising  in  Pennsylvania,  and 
flawing  nearty  200  miles  north  through  western 
New  York  into  Lake  Ontario,  7  miles  N.  of 
Rochester.  Three  of  its  extraordinary  falls  occur 
within  1^  mile ;  two  being  68  and  90  feet  high, 
and  the  Portage  Falls  110  feet.  The  river  has 
also  a  sheer  fall  of  95  feet  at  Rochester,  utilised 
for  water-power ;  and  another  cascade,  a  few  miles 
below,  is  almost  as  high. 

Geneva  (Fr.  Genhve,  Ger.  Genf,  Ital.  Gimvra), 
a  canton  m  the  south-west  of  Switzerland, 
bounded  S.,  E.,  and  W.  by  the  territories  of 
France.  Area,  108  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1900)  131,674, 
about  half  being  Catholics,  and  85  per  cent. 
French-speaking.  It  is  watered  by  the  Rhone 
and  Arve,  which  unite  2  miles  from  the  south- 
west extremity  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.  The  sur- 
face is  hilly,  chief  eminences  being  the  steep 
Saleve  (4528  feet)  and  the  Reculet  (5631). 

Geneva,  the  capital,  is  situated  at  the  exit  of 
the  Rhone  from  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  388  miles 
by  rail  SE.  of  Paris.  A  Gallic  town  originally, 
Geneva  acknowledged  Roman  supremacy  in  120 
B.C.  ;  passed  backwards  and  forwards  from  and 
to  Burgundy ;  was  made  a  bishop's  seat  in 
the  4th  century  ;  and  having  secured  Freiburg 
(1519)  and  Bern  (1526)  for  allies,  finally  won  its 
complete  independence  from  Savoy,  a  few  years 
later  accepting  Protestantism.  In  1535  Calvin 
arrived  at  Geneva,  and  began  his  reconstitution 
of  the  political  and  social  life  of  the  republic, 
which  created  it  one  of  the  chief  strongholds  of 
Protestantism  in  Europe.  Formerly  Geneva  was 
walled,  and  consisted  of  clusters  of  narrow  streets ; 
but  since  the  accession  of  the  radical  party  to 
power  in  1847  the  town  has  been  almost  entirely 
rebuilt  in  modern  style.  The  ancient  ramparts 
have  been  removed,  streets  widened  and  well 
paved,  and  new  and  commodious  quays  con- 
structed along  the  lake  and  river.  In  its  course 
through  the  town  the  Rhone  forms  two  islands, 
on  one  of  which  still  exists  an  antique  and 
picturesque  cluster  of  buildings ;  on  the  other, 
laid  out  as  a  public  pleasure-ground,  is  a  statue 
of  Rousseau.  In  the  Place  des  Alpes  is  a  sumptu- 
ous monument  to  Duke  Charles  XI.  of  Bruns- 
wick, who,  dying  here  in  1873,  left  16,500,000 
francs  to  the  city.  Famous  as  a  theological, 
literary,  and  scientific  centre,  Geneva  has  given 
birth  to  Rousseau ;  to  the  physicist  De  Saussure  ; 
to  the  naturalist  Bonnet  and  the  Pictets ;  to 
Necker,  the  French  minister  of  finance  ;  to  the 
humorist  Toepffer  ;  and  to  the  sculptor  Pradier. 
The  principal  edifices  are  the  Transition  cathe- 
dral of  St  Peter  (1124) ;  the  town-hall,  in  which 
the  Alabama  arbitrators  met  in  1872 ;  the 
academy,  founded  by  Calvin  in  1559,  with  a 
library  of  110,000  volumes,  and  in  1873  converted 
into  a  university  (with  over  700  students);  the 
magnificent  theatre  (1879);  the  Rath  Museum 
(1824-26) ;  the  Fol  Museum,  with  Greek,  Roman, 
and  Etruscan  antiquities ;  the  Athenaeum, 
devoted  to  the  fine  arts ;  and  the  museum 
of  natural  history,  &c.  The  staple  manufactures 
of  the  town  are  watches,  musical-boxes,  and 
jewellery.     Pop.  (1870)  61,486  ;  (1901)  105,139. 

Geneva,  a  town  of  New  York,  at  the  north  end 
of  Seneca  Lake,  26  miles  W.  of  Auburn  by  rail, 
with  flouring-mills  and  manufactures  of  engines, 
boilers,  &c.  It  is  the  seat  of  Hobart  College 
(Episcopal,  founded  in  1824).     Pop.  10,450. 

Geneva,  Lake  of,  or  Lake  Leman  (Lacvs 
Lemanus),  situated  between  Switzerland,  to 
which  the  larger  portion  belongs,  and  France. 
It;  lies  1218  feet  above  sea-level,  and  curves  45 


miles  westward,  in  the  form  of  a  crescent.  Its 
greatest  breadth  is  9  miles,  its  area  223  sq.  m., 
and  its  maximum  depth  1092  feet.  The  lake 
abounds  in  fish.  The  Pays  de  Vaud  shore  is 
celebrated  by  Rousseau  and  Byron,  while  the 
names  of  Voltaire  and  Madame  de  Stael  are 
connected  with  Ferney  and  Coppet  at  the  Geneva 
extremity.  Gibbon's  with  Lausanne.  The  south- 
ern French  shore  rises  solemn  and  stern,  with 
the  mountains  of  Savoy  in  the  background  ;  Mont 
Blanc,  thougli  60  miles  distant,  is  often  reflected 
in  the  water.  The  tidal  phenomenon  called 
seiches  has  been  studied  in  the  lake.  The  Rhone 
enters  it  at  the  upper  end,  turbid  and  yellow, 
and  leaves  it  at  the  town  of  Geneva  as  clear  as 
glass,  and  of  a  deep  blue  tint. 

Gennesaret,  Sea  of.    See  Galilee. 

Genoa  (Ital.  Genova,  Fr.  Genes,  anc.  Genua),  a 
city  of  Italy,  situated  on  the  Mediterranean  gulf 
of  the  same  name,  at  the  foot  of  the  Apennines, 
is  the  capital  of  a  province  and  the  most  import- 
ant seaport.  By  rail  it  is  801  miles  SE.  of  Paris, 
171  NB.  of  Marseilles,  and  93  SSW.  of  Milan. 
Pop.  (1900)  237,490.  The  slopes  of  the  hills 
behind  the  city  down  to  the  shore  are  covered 
with  buildings,  terraced  gardens,  and  orange  and 
pomegranate  groves ;  while  the  bleak  summits 
of  the  loftier  ranges  rising  still  farther  back  are 
capped  with  strong  forts,  batteries,  and  out- 
works. The  fine  semicircular  harbour,  with  a 
diameter  of  rather  less  than  a  mile,  is  protected 
seawards  from  the  south  and  south-east  winds 
by  two  piers.  In  front  of  this  inner  harbour 
another  one  has  been  made  by  the  construction 
of  two  outer  moles.  In  1889  graving-docks  and 
other  works  were  completed.  On  the  north  side 
of  the  port  is  a  naval  harbour  and  a  marine 
arsenal ;  and  on  the  east  side  the  warehouses  of 
the  former  (until  1867)  free  i)ort.  Genoa  is  the 
commercial  outlet  for  a  wide  extent  of  country, 
of  which  the  chief  exports  are  rice,  wine,  olive- 
oil,  silk  goods,  coral,  paper,  macaroni,  and  marble. 
The  imports  are  principally  raw  cotton,  wheat, 
sugar,  coal,  hides,  coff'ee,  raw  wool,  fish,  petro- 
leum, iron,  machinery,  and  cotton  and  woollen 
textiles.  The  annual  exports  (by  sea)  of  Genoa 
are  valued  at  nearly  £4,000,000,  while  the  imports 
are  returned  at  more  than  £15,000,000.  About 
5800  vessels,  of  2,970,000  tons  burden,  enter 
annually,  and  about  5750  of  2,979,000  tons  clear. 
The  principal  industrial  establishments  of  the 
city  embrace  ironworks,  cotton  and  cloth  mills, 
macaroni-works,  tanneries,  sugar-refineries,  and 
vesta  match,  filigree,  and  paper  factories.  Genoa 
benefited  greatly  bv  the  opening  of  the  St  Gothard 
Railway.  From  70,000  to  200,000  emigrants  sail 
every  year  from  Genoa  for  South  America, 

While  strikingly  grand  as  viewed  from  the  sea, 
and  so  far  worthy  of  being  entitled  Genova  la 
Superba,  Genoa  is  in  reality  built  awkwardly  on 
irregular  rising  ground,  and  consists  of  a  labyrinth 
of  narrow  and  intricate  lanes.  Of  the  palaces 
the  most  famous  are  the  former  palace  of  the 
doges,  now  the  meeting-place  of  the  senate ;  and 
the  Doria,  presented  in  1529  to  the  great  Genoese 
citizen  Andrea  Doria.  Foremost  amongst  the 
churches  stands  the  cathedral,  a  grand  12th- 
century  pile  in  the  Italian  Gothic  style.  The 
marble  municipal  palace  and  the  palace  of  the 
Dogana  must  also  be  mentioned.  The  university 
(with  nearly  1000  students),  originally  built  in 
1623,  reorganised  in  1812,  has  a  library  of  116,000 
volumes.  To  Columbus,  Genoa's  most  famous 
son,  there  is  a  fine  monument  (1862)  by  Lanzio. 
A  great  mediaeval  republic,  the  rival  of  Pisa  and 


GENOA 


291 


GEORGIAN  BAY 


Venice,  Genoa  in  1768  ceded  Corsica  to  France, 
and  in  1802  was  made  a  French  dep.,  in  1815  a 
province  of  Piedmont.  See  vrorks  by  Bent  (1880) 
and  W.  W.  Johnson  (1892). 

Genoa,  Gulf  of,  a  large  indentation  in  the 
northern  shore  of  the  Mediterranean,  north  of 
Corsica,  has  between  the  towns  of  Oneglia  on  the 
west  and  Spezia  on  the  east  a  widtli  of  nearly  90 
miles,  with  a  depth  of  about  SO  miles. 

Gensan,  or  Wonsan,  a  town  and  port  of  Corea, 
at  the  head  of  an  arm  of  Broughton  Bay,  near  the 
middle  of  the  east  coast  of  the  peninsula.  Pop. 
20,000,  including  3000  Japanese. 

Gentilly  (Zhang-te-ye),  a  southern  suburb  of 
Paris,  at  the  foot  of  Bicetre  hill.     Pop.  7450. 

Genza'no,  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the  Via  Appia,  IG 
miles  SE.  of  Rome.    Pop.  5800. 

George,  a  division  of  the  western  province  of 
Cape  Colony,  on  the  south  coast,  east  of  Cape- 
town. Area,  2600  sq.  m. ;  pop.  11,000.  The 
town  of  George  stands  6  miles  N.  of  the  coast, 
and  has  a  pop.  of  over  2000.  On  the  coast  is  the 
port  of  Mossel  Bay. 

George,  Lake,  or  Horicon,  a  beautiful  lake, 
32  miles  long,  near  the  eastern  border  of  New 
York  state.  It  discharges  to  Lake  Champlain,  is 
studded  with  hundreds  of  islands,  and  on  its 
shores  has  several  favourite  summer-resorts, 
especially  the  village  of  Caldwell  or  Lake  George. 
In  the  battle  of  Lake  George  the  French  and 
Algonquins  were  utterly  defeated  by  the  English 
and  Iroquois,  8th  September  1755. 

Georgetown,  a  port  of  entry  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  on  the  Potomac,  2  miles  above  Wash- 
ington, at  the  head  of  navigation.  Here  the 
Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal  crosses  the  Potomac 
by  a  great  viaduct  1446  feet  long.  Containing 
many  educational  institutions,  one  of  them  a 
Roman  Catholic  college  (1789),  it  is  now  included 
within  the  limits  of  Washington,  and  is  regularly 
styled  West  Washington. 

Georgetown  (formerly  the  Dutch  Stabroek), 
capital  of  British  Guiana,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Demerara  River,  near  its  mouth.  It  consists 
of  wide,  clean  streets,  intersecting  at  right 
angles ;  the  brightly  painted  wooden  houses, 
with  their  verandas,  are  generally  raised  on  piles 
a  few  feet  above  the  unhealthy  soil,  and  em- 
bosomed in  trees,  of  which  the  cabbage-palm  and 
cocoa-nut  are  the  chief.  Some  of  the  streets  are 
traversed  by  canals,  with  bridges  at  the  cross 
streets.  The  principal  public  edifices  are  the 
government  building,  the  cathedral,  the  Queen's 
College,  and  a  museum  and  library.  There  are 
botanical  gardens,  two  markets,  a  short  railway 
to  Mahaica,  a  good  harbour,  a  lighthouse,  and 
fortifications  ;  the  foreign  trade  is  virtually  that 
of  the  colony.  Population,  54,000,  of  whom  only 
about  5500  are  whites. 

Georgetown.    See  Penanq. 

Georgia,  the  most  southerly  of  the  original 
thirteen  states  of  the  American  Union,  is  bounded 
by  Tennessee,  North  and  South  Carolina,  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  Florida,  and  Alabama.  It  has 
an  area  of  59,475  sq.  m.— a  little  more  than  the 
area  of  England  and  Wales ;  and  its  low-lying 
and  sandy  coast  is  bordered  with  islands.  'The 
state  falls  into  five  physical  divisions  :  (1)  The 
Sea  Islands,  famous  for  their  cotton,  and  covered 
with  a  growth  of  oak,  palmetto,  magnolia,  cedar, 
pine,  and  myrtle ;  (2)  the  Swamp  Region,  con- 
sisting of  rich  alluvial  lands  and  deltas,  verdant 
with  a  dense  and  semi-tropical  vegetation,  and 
admirably  fitted  for  rice-culture ;  (3)  the  Pine 


Barrens,  with  a  thin  soil,  sheltered  by  vast 
forests  of  pitch-pine ;  (4)  Middle  Georgia,  fertile, 
salubrious,  hilly,  crowned  with  forests  of  oak 
and  hickory,  the  home  of  the  short-staple  cotton- 
plant,  a  fine  fruit  region,  and  yielding  Indian 
corn,  oats,  wheat,  and  other  cereals ;  and  (5) 
Cherokee  Georgia,  abounding  in  mountains,  with 
fertile  valleys,  streams,  and  waterfalls.  Rivers 
emptying  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  are  the  Sa- 
vannah, the  Great  Ogeechee,  and  the  Altamaha, 
with  the  Oconee  and  the  Ocmulgee.  Belonging 
to  the  Gulf  system  are  the  Chattahoochee,  the 
Flint,  and  the  Alapaha. 

With  the  exception  of  the  swamp-region  in  the 
south  and  south-east  of  the  state,  the  climate  is 
salubrious  and  agreeable.  The  mean  temperature 
is  78°  in  summer  and  47°  in  winter ;  the  annual 
rainfall  nearly  50  inches.  In  the  lowlands  oranges 
and  other  semi-tropical  fruits  readily  mature, 
whilst  in  the  uplands  peaches,  apples,  pears,  &c. 
flourish  ;  and  fruits  and  market  vegetables  are 
exported  to  the  North.  Game  is  .still  plentiful. 
Sea-fowl  throng  the  coast  and  estuaries,  alli- 
gators are  numerous  in  the  rivers,  and  food- 
fishes,  oysters,  clams,  turtle,  &c.  are  abundant. 
Food-fishes  have  largely  disappeared  from  the 
streams,  and  the  pearl-bearing  unio  is  now  seldom 
seen.  The  mineral  wealth  includes  gold,  coal, 
iron,  copper,  silver,  and  lead  ores,  marble,  granite, 
slate,  gypsum,  limestone,  &c.,  and  occasional 
diamonds  and  other  precious  stones.  Prior  to 
the  civil  war,  the  inhabitants  were  almost  ex- 
clusively engaged  in  agriculture  and  commerce ; 
but  more  recent  industries  are  the  lumber,  iron, 
and  steel  trades,  and  extensive  cotton,  woollen, 
and  other  manufactures.  The  chief  agricultural 
products  of  Georgia  are  cotton  (about  1,300,000 
bales  yearly),  rice,  Indian  corn,  wheat,  oats, 
sweet  potatoes,  sugar,  and  tobacco.  From  the 
ports  of  Savannah,  Darien,  Brunswick,  and  St 
Mary  shipments  of  lumber  and  naval  stores  are 
annually  increasing.  Atlanta  is  the  capital,  and 
Savannah  the  commercial  metropolis ;  Augiista, 
Macon,  Columbus,  and  Athens  are  other  cities. 
Pop.  (1790)  82,548;  (1860)  1,057,286;  (1880) 
1,542,180;  (1900)  2,216,000,  slightly  more  than 
one-half  whites.  The  colony  of  Georgia,  named 
from  George  II.,  was  founded  by  James  Ogle- 
thorpe in  1733,  as  a  refuge  for  poor  debtors  and 
religious  refugees.  It  has  long  been  regarded  as 
the  Empire  State  of  the  South. 

Georgia,  the  name  formerly  applied  to  the 
central  portion  of  what  is  now  Russian  Trans- 
caucasia (q.v.),  bounded  by  the  Caucasian  moun- 
tains on  the  north,  and  on  the  south  by  the 
Armenian  mountains.  The  Russian  name  is 
Gruzia ;  the  Persian  Gurjestan,  from  which  fonn 
the  name  Georgia  probably  arose,  it  being  perhaps 
a  corruption  of  Guria,  the  name  of  one  of  the 
western  provinces.  An  independent  kingdom 
from  the  time  of  Alexander  the  Great,  and 
earlier,  Georgia  was  united  with  Russia  between 
1799  and  1829.  It  now  is  mainly  included  in  the 
governments  of  Kutais,  Tiflis,  and  Elizabethpol. 
The  Georgians,  who  speak  agglutinative  lan- 
guages, form  the  southern  group  of  Caucasian 
peoples.  Their  numbers  are  variously  estimated 
at  something  over  or  under  a  million.  See 
Wardrop,  The  Kingdom  of  Georgia  (1888). 

Georgia,  Gulf  of,  an  ann  of  the  Pacific,  30 
miles  broad  and  nearly  250  long,  between  Van- 
couver's Island  and  British  Columbia,  communi- 
cating with  the  ocean  by  Queen  Charlotte's 
Sound  and  the  Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca. 

Georgian  Bay.    See  Huron  (Lake). 


GEORGSWALDE 


292 


GERMANY 


G^orgswalde,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  112  miles  N. 
of  Prague,  with  a  mineral  spring.    Pop.  9604, 

Gera  {Gd-ra),  the  capital  of  the  small  Gennan 
principality  of  Reuss-Schleiz,  on  the  White 
Elster,  42  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Weimar  by  rail. 
Nearly  destroyed  by  Are  in  1780,  it  has  broad 
and  regular  streets ;  its  older  buildings  include 
a  castle  and  a  fine  town-hall.  There  are  wool- 
len factories,  cotton-works,  dyeing  and  printing 
works,  manufactures  of  machinery,  leather,  to- 
bacco, beer,  &c.  Pop.  (1843)  11,300;  (1880) 
27,118;  (1900)  45,650,  nearly  all  Protestants. 

Gerace  (Jd-rd-chd),  a  town  of  southern  Italy, 
4  miles  from  the  sea,  and  37  (58  by  rail)  NE.  of 
Reggio.  It  has  a  cathedral,  rebuilt  afterthe  earth- 
quake of  1783,  and  a  trade  in  wine.     Pop.  5265. 

G6rardmer  (*  Queen  of  the  Vosges  '),  a  holiday 
resort  much  frequented  by  Parisians,  and  famous 
for  its  cheeses,  in  the  French  dep.  of  Vosges, 
82  miles  SB.  of  Spinal  by  rail.    Pop.  9197. 

Ger'asa,  a  ruined  city  of  Palestine,  among  the 
mountains  of  Gilead,  20  miles  E,  of  the  Jordan. 

Gerlzim  and  Ebal,  the  two  highest  mountains 
in  the  central  Palestine  chain,  are  separated  from 
each  other  by  a  deep  narrow  valley,  in  which 
stands  the  town  of  Nabulus,  the  ancient  Shechem, 
the  metropolis  of  the  Samaritan  sect.  The  tops 
are  about  3000  feet  above  sea-level,  with  a  fertile 
valley  between  1500  feet  deep. 

German  Ocean.    See  North  Sea. 

Germantown,  a  former  borough  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, included  since  1854  in  the  limits  of  Phila- 
delphia. Here  an  attack  by  Washington  on  the 
British  camp,  4th  October  1777,  was  repulsed. 

Germany  (from  Lat.  Germania)  is  the  English 
name  of  the  country  which  the  natives  call 
Deutschland,  and  the  French  L'Allemagne.  The 
word  is  sometimes  used  to  denote  the  whole 
area  of  the  European  continent  within  which 
the  Germanic  race  and  language  are  dominant. 
In  this  broad  sense  it  includes,  besides  Germany 
proper,  parts  of  Austria,  Switzerland,  and  per- 
haps even  of  the  Netherlands  ;  but  in  the  present 
article  the  name  is  to  be  understood  as  denoting 
the  existing  Germanic  empire,  of  which  Prussia 
is  the  head.  Germany  occupies  the  central  por- 
tions of  Europe,  and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  by 
the  North  Sea,  the  Danish  peninsula,  the  Baltic, 
Russia,  Austria,  Switzerland,  'France,  Belgium, 
and  the  Netherlands.  Its  area  is  211,168  sq.  m., 
or  about  ■j'gth  of  that  of  all  Europe— slightly 
larger  than  France,  but  not  twice  as  large  as 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Germany  is  com- 
posed of  a  federation  of  twenty-five  states,  with 
one  imperial  territory  (Reichsland),  which  vary 
enormously  in  area  and  influence.  Thus,  while 
Prussia  alone  exceeds  the  British  Islands  in  area, 
Bavaria  is  almost  as  large  as  Scotland,  Wtirtem- 
berg  is  larger  than  Wales,  and  Baden  and  Saxony 
are  neither  of  them  equal  to  Yorkshire.  Waldeck 
is  about  equal  to  Bedford,  and  Reuss-Greiz  is 
smaller  than  Rutland,  the  smallest  English 
county.  The  Duke  of  Sutherland's  estates  (1838 
sq.  m.)  are  larger  in  area  than  all  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz,  or  than  all  Brunswick,  respectively  tenth 
and  ninth  in  size  of  the  Gennan  states.  The 
Duke  of  Buccleuch's  Scottish  estates  alone  (676 
sq.  m.)  exceed  in  area  Saxe-Altenburg  or  any  of 
the  eleven  smaller  states.  In  1901  Berlin,  the 
capital  of  the  empire,  had  1,888,848  inhabitants; 
next  come  Hamburg,  705,738 ;  Munich,  Dresden, 
Leipzig,  and  Breslau,  with  oveir  400,000 ;  Cologne, 
372,529.  There  are  26  other  towns  with  between 
100,000  and  200,000;   and   175   towns  between 


20,000  and  100,000.  The  population  of  the  Ger- 
man empire  at  the  census  of  1871  was  41,058,792; 
in  1880,  45,234,061;  in  1885,  46,855,704;  in  1901, 
56,367.178. 


States. 


Area  in 
sq.  m. 
Kingdoms— 

1 .  Prussia 136.073 

2.  Bavaria 29.632 

3.  Saxony 5.856 

4.  Wurtemberg 7,619 

Grand-duchies— 

6.  Baden 5,891 

6.  Hesse 3,000 

7.  Mecklenburg-Schwerin 5,197 

8.  Saxe- Weimar 1,404 

9.  Mecklenburg-Strelitz 1,144 

10.  Oldenburg 2,508 

Duchies — 

11.  Brunswick 1,441 

12.  Saxe-Meiningen 964 

13.  Saxe-Altenburg 517 

14.  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 765 

15.  Anhalt 917 

Principalities — 

16.  Schwarzburg-Sondershausen..  337 

17.  Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt 367 

18.  Waldeck 438 

19.  Reuss-Grelz 123 

20.  Reuss-Schleiz 323 

21.  Schaumburg-Lippe 133 

22.  Lippe-Detmold 475 

Free-Towns— 

23.  Lubeck 116 

24.  Bremen 100 

25.  Hamburg 160 

Reichsland — 

26.  Alsace-Lorraine 5,668 


Pop.  in  1901. 

34.472.509 
6.176,057 
4.202.216 
2,169.480 

1.867,944 
1.119,893 
607,770 
362,873 
102,602 
399.180 


250,731 
194.914 
229,550 
816.085 


93.059 
67.918 
68,396 

139,210 
4:3.132 

138.952 

96,775 
224,882 
768.349 


211.168   66,367,178 

Germany  presents  two  very  distinct  physical 
formations.  (1)  A  range  of  high  tableland,  occu- 
pying the  centre  and  southern  parts  of  the 
country,  interspersed  with  numerous  ranges  and 
groups  of  mountains,  the  most  important  of 
which  are  the  Harz  and  Teutoburgerwald,  in  the 
north ;  the  Taunus,  Thliringerwald,  Erzgebirge, 
and  Riesengebirge,  in  the  middle  ;  and  the  Black 
Forest  (Schwarzwald),  Rauhe  Alb,  and  Bavarian 
Alps  in  the  south  (with  the  Zugspitz,  the  highest 
point  in  Germany,  9665  feet  high) ;  and  contain- 
ing an  area  of  110,000  sq.  m.  (2)  A  vast  sandy 
plain,  which  extends  from  the  centre  of  the 
empire  north  to  the  German  Ocean,  and  from  the 
Netherlands  into  Russia,  contains  an  area  of 
about  98,000  sq.  m.,  and  is  varied  by  slight 
terrace-like  elevations  marked  by  summits  of 
500  to  800  feet  high.  A  large  portion  of  the  plain 
is  occupied  by  sandy  tracts  interspersed  with 
deposits  of  peat ;  but  other  parts  are  moderately 
fertile,  and  admit  of  successful  cultivation. 

The  surface  of  Germany  may  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  three  drainage  basins.  The  Danube 
(q.v.)  from  its  source  in  the  Black  Forest  to  the 
borders  of  Austria  belongs  to  Germany  ;  and 
through  its  channel  the  waters  of  the  greater 
part  of  Bavaria  are  poured  into  the  Black  Sea. 
By  far  the  greater  part  of  the  surface  has  a 
northern  slope,  and  belongs  partly  to  the  basin 
of  the  North  Sea,  partly  to  that  of  the  Baltic. 
The  chief  German  streams  flowing  into  the  North 
Sea  are  the  Rhine  (q.v.),  with  its  tributaries  the 
Neckar,  Main,  Lahn,  Sieg,  Wupper,  Ruhr,  and 
Lippe  on  the  right,  and  the  111  and  Moselle  on 
the  left;  the  Weser  and  the  Elbe.  Into  the 
Baltic  flow  the  Oder,  Vistula,  Merael,  and  Pregel. 
The  natural  and  artificial  waterways  of  Ger- 
many are  extensive,  especially  in  the  northern 
plain,  and  connect  the  rivers  flowing  into  the 
Baltic  and  the  North  Sea  with  those  flowing  into 
the  English  Channel  and  the  Black  Sea.  The 
North  Sea  and  Baltic  Ship  Canal,  from  Bruns- 


GERMANY 


GERMANY 


biittel  at  the  mouth  of  the  Elbe  to  Kiel  (1887- 
95),  is  intended  chiefly  for  war-ships.  Numerous 
lakes  occur,  but  few  of  them  are  of  any  great 
size.  The  so-called  '  Haffs '  of  the  north  coasts 
are  landlocked  salt-water  lagoons  or  coast-lakes. 
Mineral  springs  occur  principally  in  Nassau, 
Wlirtemberg,  Baden,  Bavaria,  and  Rhenish 
Prussia.  The  climate  of  Gernxany  presents  less 
diversity  than  a  first  glance  at  the  map  might 
lead  one  to  infer,  for  the  greater  heats  of  the 
more  southern  latitudes  are  considerably  modi- 
fied by  the  hilly  character  of  the  country  in  those 
parallels,  while  the  cold  of  the  northern  plains  is 
mitigated  by  their  vicinity  to  the  ocean. 

The  mineral  products  of  Germany  are  very 
rich  and  varied,  and  their  exploitation  forms  a 
most  inxportant  industry.  The  chief  mining  and 
smelting  districts  are  in  Silesia,  on  the  Lower 
Rhine,  in  the  Upper  Harz,  and  in  Saxony.  Silver 
is  found  in  the  Upper  Harz  and  Saxony.  Iron 
occurs  in  luimerous  mountain-ranges,  especially 
in  Upper  Silesia  and  in  Rhenish  Westphalia. 
Alsace  and  Lorraine  contain  a  great  part  of  per- 
haps the  largest  iron-deposit  in  Europe,  which 
stretches  into  France  and  Luxemburg.  The 
iron  of  the  Thiiringerwald  is  fine,  though  not 
abundant.  The  chief  coalfields  are  in  Silesia, 
Westphalia  (on  the  Ruhr),  and  Saxony— the  first 
containing  the  largest  coalfield  in  Europe. 
Prussia  yields  nearly  one-half  of  the  zinc  annu- 
ally produced  in  the  world.  Lead  is  found  in 
the  Harz,  in  other  parts  of  Prussia,  and  in 
Saxony.  A  little  copper  is  mined  at  Mansfeld. 
Tin  and  tungsten  are  yielded  by  the  Erzgebirge  ; 
manganese  at  Wiesbaden ;  quicksilver  in  West- 
phalia ;  antimony  in  Tliuringia.  Salt  is  pro- 
duced at  Halle,  Stassfiirt,  and  other  parts  of 
Prussia.  Germany  is  rich  in  clays  of  all  kinds, 
from  the  finest  to  the  coarsest :  the  porcelain  of 
Meissen,  the  pottery  of  Thuringia,  and  the  glass 
of  Silesia  and  Bavaria  are  celebrated.  Building- 
stone  is  well  distributed ;  marble,  alabaster, 
slates,  and  lithographic  stones  also  occur;  and 
cobalt,  arsenic,  sulphur,  saltpetre,  alum,  gypsum, 
bismuth,  pumice-stone,  Tripoli  slate,  kaolin, 
emery,  ochre,  and  vitriol  are  all  among  the 
exports  of  Germany.  The  average  value  of  the 
total  production  of  the  chief  minerals  is  over 
£65,000,000  a  year.  All  the  ordinary  cereals 
are  extensively  cultivated  in  the  no'rth,  and 
potatoes  are  exported.  Hemp  and  flax,  madder, 
woad,  and  saff'ron  grow  well  in  the  central  dis- 
tricts, and  the  vine  is  cultivated  in  suitable 
localities  as  far  north  as  51°.  Tobacco  and  chicory 
are  largely  grown.  Magdeburg  is  the  centre  of 
a  large  beet-root  growing  industry.  About  50  per 
cent,  of  the  total  area  is  arable  ground ;  15  per 
cent,  is  occupied  by  heath,  meadow,  and  pasture  ; 
and  26  per  cent,  is  forest,  9  per  cent,  being  un- 
productive. The  most  extensive  forests  are  found 
in  central  Germany,  while  the  deficiency  of  wood 
in  the  north-west  parts  of  the  great  plain  is  in 
some  degree  met  by  the  abundance  of  turf. 

The  forests  of  northern  and  central  Germany 
abound  in  small  game ;  some  still  shelter  wild 
boars.  The  Bavarian  Alps  shelter  the  chamois, 
the  red  deer  end  wild  goat,  the  fox  and  marten. 
Wolves  are  still  found  in  Bavaria,  eastern  Prussia, 
and  Lorraine.  In  the  plains  of  the  north  storks, 
wild  geese,  and  ducks  are  abundant.  Both  fresh 
and  salt  water  fisheries  are  diligently  taken 
advantage  of.  Forestry  receives  almost  as  much 
attention  in  Germany  as  agriculture.  The  oldest 
and  most  important  of  the  German  industrial 
arts  are  the  manufactures  of  linen  and  woollen 
goods.    The  chief  localities  for  linen  production 


are  the  mountain-valleys  of  Silesia,  Lusatia,  West- 
phalia, and  Saxony  (for  thread-laces) ;  while 
cotton  fabrics  are  principally  made  in  Rhenish 
Prussia  and  Saxony.  The  same  districts,  together 
with  Pomerania,  Bavaria,  Alsace,  Wlirtemberg, 
and  Baden,  manufacture  the  choicest  woollen 
fabrics,  including  damasks  and  carpets.  The 
silk  industry  has  its  central  point  in  Rhenish 
Prussia,  specially  about  Diisseldorf.  Germany 
rivals  France  in  the  production  of  satins.  Jute- 
spinning  is  carried  on  in  Brunswick,  at  Meissen, 
and  at  Bonn  ;  thread  is  manufactured  in  Saxony, 
Silesia,  and  the  Rhine  provinces ;  and  hosiery 
is  most  largely  produced  in  Saxony  and  Thur- 
ingia. The  making  of  toys  and  wooden  clocks, 
and  wood-carving,  which  may  be  regarded  as 
almost  a  speciality  of  German  industry,  flourish 
in  the  hilly  districts  of  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  the 
Black  Forest.  Paper  is  made  chiefly  in  the 
districts  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Amsberg,  and  Lieg- 
nitz,  and  in  Saxony.  Tanning  is  prominent  in 
the  south-west.  The  best  iron  ancl  steel  manu- 
factures belong  to  Silesia,  Hanover,  and  Saxony. 
Silesia  probably  possesses  the  finest  glass-manu- 
factories, but  those  of  Bavaria  are  also  important ; 
while  Saxony  and  Prussia  stand  pre-eminent  for 
the  excellence  of  their  china  and  earthenware. 
Augsburg  and  Nuremberg  dispute  with  Munich 
and  Berlin  the  title  to  pre-eminence  in  silver, 
gold,  and  jewellery  work,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  scientific  and  musical  instruments;  while 
Leipzig  and  Munich  claim  the  first  rank  for 
typefounding,  printing,  and  lithography.  The 
trading  cities  of  northern  Gennany  nearly  mono- 
polise the  preparation  of  beet-root  sugar,  tobacco, 
snuff",  &c.,  and  the  distillation  of  spirits  from 
the  potato  and  other  roots ;  while  vinegar  and 
oils  are  prepared  in  central  and  southern  Ger- 
many.   Prussia  and  Bavaria  produce  most  beer. 

In  1898-1903  the  total  annual  value  of  German 
imports  fluctuated  from  £271,983,800  (in  1898)  to 
£316,057,300  (in  1903).  The  exports  for  the  same 
years  varied  from  £200,528,250  (in  1898)  to 
£256,518,550  (in  1903).  Great  Britain,  Russia, 
Austria,  Belgium,  the  Netherlands,  and  France 
contributed  more  of  the  German  imports  than 
any  other  countries;  Great  Britain,  Austria,  the 
Netherlands,  and  France  took  more  of  the  ex- 
ports. In  1893-1903  German  exports  to  Britain 
varied  from  £26,364,849  to  £34,533,390  a  year, 
according  to  British  Board  of  Trade  returns  ;  but, 
as  much  German  produce  comes  through  Hol- 
land and  Belgium,  from  10  millions  to  14  mil- 
lions have  to  be  added  to  the  figures  given.  The 
German  mercantile  fleet  is  the  fourth  in  the 
world,  being  excelled  only  by  those  of  Great 
Britain,  the  United  States,  and  Norway.  In  her 
commercial  policy  Germany  has  of  late  years 
committed  herself  more  and  more  to  protection. 
The  silver  mark,  superseding  guldens  and  thalers, 
is  almost  exactly  equal  to  a  shilling  in  value,  and 
gold  is  now  the  monetary  standard.  Since  1872 
the  metrical  system  of  weights  and  measures 
has  been  in  use.  The  length  of  railways  in  the 
empire  in  1904  was  34,314  miles,  of  which  total  all 
but  3111  belonged  to  the  state.  The  postal  and 
telegraphic  systems  of  all  the  German  states, 
except  Bavaria  and  Wlirtemberg,  are  now  under 
a  central  imperial  administration. 

The  German-speaking  inhabitants  of  the  empire 
number  upwards  of  51,500,000 ;  but  a  consider- 
able proportion  of  these  are  not  of  the  Germanic 
stock.  Among  the  peoples  retaining  their  own 
language  (about  4i  millions)are  Poles  (exclusively 
in  eastern  and  north-eastern  Prussia),  3,329,000; 
Wends  (in  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  Saxony), 


GERMANY 


294 


GERMANY 


93,000  ;  Czechs  (in  Silesia),  107,000  ;  Lithuanians 
(in  eastern  Prussia),  103,000  ;  Danes  (in  Sleswick), 
141,000  ;  French  (in  Rhenisli  Prussia,  Alsace,  and 
Lorraine)  and  Walloons  (about  Aix-la-Chapelle 
in  Rhenish  Prussia),  224,000.  The  Germans  are 
divided  into  High  and  Low  Germans ;  the  lan- 
guage of  the  former  is  the  cultivated  language  of 
all  the  German  states  ;  that  of  the  latter,  known 
as  Piatt- Deutsch,  is  spoken  in  the  north  and 
north-west.  It  is  computed  that  there  are  about 
25,000,000  persons  of  German  race  and  language 
beyond  the  boundary  of  the  empire,  of  whom 
9  millions  are  in  Austria,  2^  in  the  United  States, 
2J  in  Switzerland,  400,000  in  Poland  (besides 
800,000  German  Jews).  There  are  also  many  in 
the  Volga  country,  in  middle  and  south  Russia, 
Roumania,  and  Turkey.  The  average  density  of 
the  population  of  Germany  is  269 '9  per  sq.  m. 
The  most  densely  populated  country  of  the 
empire  is  Saxony,  with  743-4  per  sq.  m.  ;  the  most 
sparsely  populated  is  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  with 
90'7  per  sq.  m.  The  concentration  of  the  popu- 
lation in  large  towns  has  not  gone  so  far  in 
Germany  as  in  some  other  countries.  After 
1830  emigration  from  Germany  steadily  swelled  ; 
the  highest  total  (220,798)  was  reached  in  1881. 
Between  1830  and  1892,  4,750,000  emigrants  left 
the  country,  five-sevenths  of  whom  were  bound 
for  the  United  States  of  North  America.  In  the 
succeeding  ten  years  to  1903  the  total  number 
of  emigrants  was  347,618,  of  whom  303,201  went 
to  the  United  States.  There  are  about  50,000 
persons  of  German  birth  in  England  and  Wales. 
To  balance  this  efflux  of  native  blood  there 
were,  in  1900,  778,698  foreigners  in  the  Ger- 
man empire,  of  whom  371,023  were  Austrians,  and 
16,173  British  subjects.  In  the  last  decade  of  the 
19th  century  there  were  large  extensions  of  Ger- 
man territory  abroad.  In  1884-99  the  following 
regions  became  German  possessions  or  came  under 
German  protection  :  In  Africa,  Togoland,  Came- 
roon, German  South-west  Africa,  and  German 
East  Africa ;  total  area,  931,460  sq.  m. ;  total  pop. 
13,047,000.  In  Asia,  Kiao-chau  Bay;  area,  200 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  32,000.  In  the  Pacific,  German  New 
Guinea  (Kaiser  Wilhelm  Land,  Bisn)arck  Archi- 
pelago, Caroline  Islands,  Pelew  Islands,  Marianne 
Islands,  Solomon  Islands),  Marshall  Islands,  &c., 
Samoan  Islands  ;  total  area,  96,160  sq.  m.  ;  total 
pop.  443,000. 

Education  is  more  systematically  cultivated  in 
Germany  than  in  any  other  country  of  Europe. 
Besides  the  Lyceum  at  Braunsberg,  there  are 
21  universities:  Heidelberg,  Wiirzburg,  Leipzig, 
Rostock,  Greifswald,  Freiburg,  Munich,  Tubin- 
gen, Marburg,  Konigsberg,  Jena,  Giessen,  Kiel, 
Gottingen,  Erlangen,  Berlin,  Breslau,  Halle, 
Bonn,  Strasburg,  and  Mtinster.  Berlin  had  356 
professors  and  teachers  and  5371  students  in 
1891-92.  Of  the  universities,  14  are  Protestant 
in  the  theological  faculty,  four  are  Roman 
Catholic,  and  three  are  mixed.  There  are  also 
9  polytechnic  institutions ;  nearly  1400  gym- 
nasia, realschulen,  &c. ;  numerous  special  schools 
of  technology,  agriculture,  forestry,  mining,  com- 
merce, military  science,  &c.  ;  seminaries  for 
teachers  and  preachers;  and  about  60,000  ele- 
mentary schools.  Among  the  military  recruits 
only  -05  per  cent,  are  illiterate.  Public  libraries, 
museums,  botanical  gardens,  art-collections,  pic- 
ture-galleries, schools  of  music  and  design,  and 
academies  of  arts  and  sciences  are  to  be  met 
with  in  most  of  the  capitals,  and  in  many  of  the 
country  towns,  upwards  of  200  of  which  possess 
theatres.  The  chief  centres  of  the  book  and  pub- 
lishing trade  are  Leipzig  and  Stuttgart.    Protes- 


tantism predominates  in  the  north  and  middle, 
and  Roman  Catholicism  in  the  south,  east,  and 
west,  although  very  few  states  exhibit  exclusively 
either  form  of  faith.  The  Protestants  belong 
chiefly  to  the  Lutheran  confession,  except  in 
Hesse,  Anhalt,  and  the  Palatinate,  where  the 
Reformed  or  Calvinistic  Church  predominates. 
A  union  between  these  two  churches  has  taken 
place  in  Prussia.  The  total  number  of  Protestants 
in  1900  was  35,231,104,  of  Catholics  20,321,441,  of 
Jews  586,948,  the  rest  being  '  other  Christians '  or 
'unclassified.' 

In  1871  the  Prussian  military  system  was  ex- 
tended to  the  whole  empire ;  and  alterations  have 
since  been  introduced,  especially  (in  the  way  of 
strengthening  the  army)  in  1893.  Every  German 
who  is  capable  of  bearing  arms  must  be  in  the 
standing  army  for  seven  years  (generally  his 
twenty-first  to  his  twenty-eighth  year).  Three 
(in  some  cases  two)  of  these  years  must  be  spent 
in  active  service,  and  the  remainder  in  the  army 
of  reserve.  He  then  spends  five  years  in  the 
first  class  of  the  Landwehr,  after  which  he  be- 
longs to  the  second  class  till  his  thirty-ninth 
year.  Besides  this,  every  German,  from  seven- 
teen to  twenty-one,  and  from  thirty-nine  to 
forty-five,  is  a  member  of  the  Landsturm,  a  force 
only  to  be  called  out  in  the  last  necessity.  Those 
who  pass  certain  examinations  require  to  serve 
only  one  year  with  the  colours.  The  whole  of 
the  land  forces  of  the  empire  form  a  united  army 
under  the  command  of  the  emperor  in  war  and 
peace.  The  imperial  army,  on  its  peace  footing, 
consisted  at  the  end  of  1904  of  24,374  officers, 
582,498  rank  and  tile,  and  105,885  horses.  On  its 
war  footing,  3,000,000  trained  men  would  be  avail- 
able. In  1905  the  imperial  fleet  comprised  126 
vessels,  with  a  total  tonnage  of  509,460  tons.  Of 
these  21  were  sea-going  ironclads,  8  armoured 
guardships,  12  armoured  gunboats,  10  first-class 
cruisers,  32  smaller  cruisers,  and  over  120  torpedo- 
boats.  This  fleet  was  manned  by  37,889  officers 
and  men.  The  seafaring  population  of  Germany 
are  liable  to  service  in  the  navy  instead  of  in  the 
army. 

The  revenue  of  the  German  empire  is  derived 
(1)  from  the  customs  dues  on  tobacco,  salt,  and 
beet-root  sugar,  which  are  entirely  made  over  to 
it  by  all  the  states ;  from  those  on  brandy  and 
malt,  which  are  also  assigned  by  most  of  the 
states  ;  from  taxes  on  playing-cards  and  stamps, 
from  posts,  telegraphs,  and  railways,  the  imperial 
bank,  and  various  miscellaneous  sources ;  (2) 
from  extraordinary  sources— as  votes  for  public 
buildings  and  loans ;  and  (3)  from  the  propor- 
tional contributions  of  the  varioiis  states.  The 
chief  items  of  expenditure  are  the  maintenance 
of  the  Reichstag  and  various  government  offices, 
the  army  and  navy,  posts  and  telegraphs,  rail- 
ways, justice,  pensions,  and  other  miscellaneous 
claims.  The  revenue  and  expenditure  in  the  year 
1903-4  balanced  at  a  little  over  £120,000,000.  The 
public  debt  of  the  empire  in  the  year  1905  was 
just  about  £150,000,000. 

The  empire,  as  reconstituted  in  1871,  possesses 
the  exclusive  right  of  legislation  on  all  military 
and  naval  affairs ;  on  civil  and  criminal  law  for 
general  application ;  on  imperial  finance  and 
commerce ;  on  posts,  telegraphs,  and  railways 
in  so  far  as  the  interests  of  the  national  defence 
and  general  trade  are  concerned.  In  all  disputes 
that  arise  among  the  individual  states,  the  im- 
perial jurisdiction  is  supreme  and  final.  There 
are  two  legislative  bodies  in  the  empire— the 
Bundesrath,  or  Federal  Council,  the  members  of 
which  are  annually  appointed  by  the  govern- 


GERMANY 


295 


ghXts 


ments  of  the  various  states ;  and  the  Reichstag, 
the  members  of  which  are  elected  by  universal 
suffrage  and  ballot  for  a  period  of  three  years. 
The  former  deliberates  on  proposals  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  the  latter,  and  on  the  resolutions  re- 
ceived from  it.  The  Reichstag  contains  approxi- 
mately one  member  for  every  131,600  inhabitants ; 
in  1905  there  were  397  members.  They  are  un- 
paid, but  enjoy  various  privileges  and  immunities. 
The  Reichstag  at  present  falls  into  no  fewer  than 
sixteen  parties  or  groups  (conservatives,  national 
liberals,  social  democrats,  &c.). 

When  first  in  the  4th  century  B.C.  the 
Romans  heard  of  new  peoples  of  common  kin 
whom  they  called  Germani,  the  German  tribes 
were  living  between  the  Elbe  and  Rhine  and  to 
the  north  of  the  Main.  In  58  b.c.  Caesar  drove 
back  the  Germans  who  had  crossed  the  Rhine. 
Successful  Roman  incursions  were  made  into 
Germany  under  Augustus ;  but  in  6  a.d.  the 
German  tribes  rose  under  Arminius  (Hermann) 
and  utterly  destroyed  Varus  and  his  legions. 
Henceforth  the  Romans  were  in  the  main  con- 
tent to  hold  a  strip  of  territory  from  the  Lower 
Rhine  to  the  Upper  Danube,  arid  to  guard  the 
frontiers  of  the  empire  against  German  raids. 
From  the  3d  century  on  this  became  imposs- 
ible, and  in  the  4th,  the  Germans  continued  to 
force  their  way  into  Roman  territory.  The 
settlement  of  the  Franks  in  the  north  of  Gaul 
founded  the  French  nation  and  the  German 
empire,  or  rather  the  '  Holy  Roman  Empire,'  or 
Germany.  Charlemagne,  who  received  the  im- 
perial crown  from  the  pope  in  800,  extended  his 
dominions  north  over  the  heathen  Saxons  and 
as  far  east  as  Hungary.  Under  his  successors 
France  and  Germany  fell  apart,  and  in  911  the 
national  diet  of  the  Germans  claimed  and  secured 
the  right  of  electing  their  emperor,  who  could 
not  assume  the  imperial  title  till  crowned  by 
the  pope.  At  this  period  there  were  in  Germany 
five  nations — the  Franks,  Saxons,  Bavarians, 
Swabians,  and  Lorrainers.  A  duke  of  Franconia 
was  emperor  911-918 ;  his  rival  and  successor, 
Henry,  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  Henry's  son  Otho 
extended  the  empire  over  northern  Slavs,  Mag- 
yars, and  into  Lombardy.  Burgundy  was  added 
by  Conrad  II.,  first  of  a  new  Franconian  dynasty, 
in  1030,  and  his  successor  temporarily  annexed 
Denmark,  Bohemia,  and  Hungary.  Henry  IV., 
of  this  line,  was  constantly  at  feud  with  Pope 
Gregory  VII.  ;  but  it  was  under  Conrad  III., 
first  of  the  Hohenstaufen  dynasty,  that  the  wars 
of  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines,  between  pope  and 
emperor,  so  disastrously  weakened  the  empire. 
His  nephew  Barbarossa  was  more  concerned 
about  his  interests  in  Italy  and  the  Crusades  than 
about  the  internal  well-being  of  Germany.  From 
the  accession  in  1273  of  Rudolf,  first  of  the 
Hapsburgs,  till  1806,  the  Austrian  princes  were 
emperors  almost  without  break,  and  the  imperial 
crown  was  all  but  hereditary  (see  Austria).  The 
emperor  Charles  V.  was  also  king  of  Spain,  and 
lord  of  the  Netherlands  and  of  great  part  of 
Italy.  The  influence  of  the  Reformation  and  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  was  to  weaken  the  imperial 
power,  and  cut  up  the  empire  into  a  crowd  of 
petty  factions  and  almost  independent  states  : 
at  one  time  there  were  as  many  as  300  states  in 
the  empire.  Alsace  and  Lorraine  were  lost  to 
the  empire  in  1648-97.  The  Napoleonic  wars 
reconstructed  the  map  of  Germany.  In  1806  the 
emperor  resigned  the  German  crown  and  con- 
tented himself  with  being  Emperor  of  Austria ; 
and  the  Confederation  of  the  Rhine  was  formed 
under  French  influence,  to  be  succeeded  in  1815 


by  the  German  Confederation,  which  comprised 
virtually  all  Germany,  including  German  Austria, 
in  35  states,  with  a  diet  at  Frankfort.  The 
political  discontents  of  1848  and  1849  led  to  not 
a  few  local  insurrectionary  movements  which 
were  swiftly  crushed,  and  followed  by  a  period 
of  severe  reaction  and  repression.  The  rivalries 
of  Austria  and  Prussia  for  pre-eminence  in  the 
Confederation,  ended  at  Koniggratz  (1866)  with 
the  exclusion  of  Austria  from  Germany.  The 
great  Franco-German  war  of  1870-71  led  to  the 
re-annexation  of  Alsace-Lorraine  and  the  con- 
stitution of  the  new  German  empire,  with  the 
kings  of  Prussia  as  hereditary  emperors.  German 
colonial  extension  began  in  1884.  Commerce  has 
vastly  developed.  Tlie  alliance  of  Germany  with 
Austria  and  Italy  (to  balance  Russia  and  France), 
tlie  strengthening  of  the  army  (in  spite  of  the 
Socialists,  who  polled  3,000,000  votes  in  1903), 
diplomatic  energy  at  Constantinople  and  Peking, 
and  the  great  increase  of  the  fleet  are  keynotes 
of  recent  policy. 

See  books  on  Germany  by  Baring-Gould  (1881), 
Whitman  (1889),  Dawson  (1893),  '  Veritas' (1902), 
Schierbrand  (1904) ;  histories  by  Sime  (1874)  and 
E.  F.  Henderson  (1904)  ;  Bryce's  Holy  Roman 
Empire  (20th  ed.  1905)  and  Herbert  Fisher's 
Medkeval  Empire  (1898);  and  The  Franco-German 
War,  by  German  officers  (trans.  1900). 

Germersheim  (Ger'mers-him ;  g  hard),  a  town 
of  the  Bavarian  Palatinate,  on  the  Rhine's  left 
bank,  8  miles  SSW.  of  Spires.     Pop.  6132. 

Gero'na,  the  capital  of  a  Spanish  province,  65 
miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Barcelona,  with  a  fine  Gothic 
cathedral  and  some  manufactures.     Pop.  16,000. 

Gers  (Zhdr),  a  dep.  of  SW.  France,  separated 
by  Landes  from  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Area,  2415 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1861)  298,931  ;  (1901)  238,448. 

Gersau  (g  hard),  a  village  in  the  Swiss  canton 
of  Schwyz,  on  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  and  near  the 
foot  of  tlie  Rigi.     Pop.  1871. 

Gersoppa,  a  village  of  South  India  which  gives 
name  to  the  great  falls  of  the  Sliarawati  River, 
960  feet  higli,  30  miles  SE.  of  Honawar. 

Gethse'mane  (Heb,  gath,  'a  wine-press,'  and 
shemen,  'oil')  was  a  small  farm  or  estate  at  the 
foot  of  Mount  Olivet,  somewhere  on  the  east 
slope  of  the  Kedron  valley,  and  rather  more  than 
i  mile  from  Jerusalem. 

Gettysburg  (g  hard),  in  Pennsylvania,  50  miles 
by  rail  SSW.  of  Harrisburg,  with  a  Lutheran 
college  (1832)  and  seminary.  Pop.  3500.  Here 
in  1863  (July  2-3)  Meade  defeated  Lee. 

Gex,  once  capital  of  the  Pays  de  Gex  in  Savoy, 
now  a  town  of  2500  inhabitants  in  the  French 
department  of  Ain,  is  12  miles  NW.  of  Geneva, 
on  the  slopes  of  the  Jura. 

Geyser  Springs,  a  number  of  boiling  springs 
(not  real  geysers)  in  the  Devil's  Canon,  in  Cali- 
fornia, 90  miles  NW.  of  San  Francisco  and  2000 
feet  above  the  sea. 

Ghadames.    See  Gadames. 

Ghats,  or  Ghauts  ('gates,  passes,  or  landing- 
stairs  '),  Eastern  and  Western,  two  converging 
ranges  of  mountains,  which  run  parallel  with  the 
east  and  west  coasts  of  southern  India,  and  meet 
at  an  angle  near  Cape  Comorin.  (1)  The  Eastern 
Ghats  commence  a  little  north  of  the  Mahanadi, 
and  run  through  Madras,  with  an  average  height 
of  1500  feet,  for  the  most  part  at  a  distance  of 
from  50  to  150  miles  from  the  coast.  (2)  The 
Western  Ghats  stretch  from  the  valley  of  the 
Tapti  to  their  junction  with  the  kindred  ridge, 
and  on  to  Cape  Comorin  itself.    Their  elevation 


GHAZIABAD 


296 


GIBRALTAR 


varies  from  3000  feet  to  8760  in  the  peak  of 
Dodabetta,  in  the  Nilgiri  hills. 

Ghaziahad,  a  town  and  important  railway 
Junction  in  the  United  Provinces  of  India,  2S 
miles  SW.  of  Meerut.    Pop.  12,000. 

Ghazipur,  a  city  in  the  United  Provinces  of 
India,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ganges,  44  miles 
NB.  of  Benares.  It  has  the  ruins  of  the  Palace 
of  Forty  Pillars,  a  marble  statue  by  Flaxman  to 
Lord  Cornwallis,  Avho  died  here  in  1805,  and 
manufactures  of  opium.     Pop.  35,000. 

Ghazni  (also  Ghizni  and  Ghuziiee),  a  fortified 
town  of  Afghanistan,  stands  7720  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  84  miles  SVV.  of  Kabul,  on  the  road  to 
Kandahar  and  at  the  head  of  the  Gonial  route 
to  India.  From  the  10th  to  the  12th  century 
it  was  the  capital  of  the  Ghaznevid  empire  ;  and 
was  captured  by  the  Mongols,  and  in  1738  by 
Nadir  Shah  of  Persia.  It  was  taken  by  Lord 
Keane  in  1839,  and  in  1842  by  General  Nutt.  The 
celebrated  gates  of  Somnath  were  kept  at  Ghazni 
from  1024  to  1842.     Pop.  10,000. 

Gheel,  a  famous  colony  for  the  insane,  in  Bel- 
gium, 26  miles  ESB.  of  Antwerp  by  rail. 

Ghent  (Flem.  and  Ger.  Gent,  Fr.  Gand),  a 
city  of  Belgium,  capital  of  the  province  of  East 
Flanders,  is  situated  at  the  confluence  of  the  Lys 
and  the  Scheldt,  34  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Brussels. 
It  is  divided  by  canals  into  26  islands,  connected 
by  270  bridges,  and  is  encompassed  with  gardens 
and  meadows.  It  is  in  general  well  built ;  in  the 
older  part  it  retains  several  quaint  and  pictur- 
esque houses.  Among  the  chief  buildings  are 
the  splendid  cathedral  of  St  Bavon,  of  the  13th 
and  14th  centuries,  containing  the  '  Adoration  of 
the  Lamb,'  by  the  brothers  Van  Eyck  ;  the  belfry 
(1183-1339),  280  feet  high,  or  375  with  the  iron 
spire  of  1855  ;  the  new  citadel  (1822-30) ;  the  hotel- 
de-ville  (1480-1628) ;  the  Palais  de  Justice  (1835- 
43) ;  the  university  (1816) ;  the  Beguinage  ;  and 
the  Academy  of  Painting.  The  industries  include 
cotton,  woollen,  and  linen  manufactures,  besides 
leather,  lace,  sugar,  iron,  beer,  &c.  Specially 
noteworthy  is  the  floriculture  of  Ghent.  By  the 
Great  Canal,  which  flows  into  the  Scheldt,  Ghent 
is  united  with  the  sea,  and  it  can  receive  into 
its  docks  vessels  drawing  17  feet  of  water.  The 
harbour  is  capable  of  holding  400  vessels,  new 
docks  having  been  opened  in  1881.  Pop.  (1846) 
102,977  ;  (1902)  162,925.  Ghent,  which  in  the 
12th  century  was  made  the  capital  of  Flanders, 
and  which  in  1830  fell  to  Belgium,  was  the  birth- 
place of  Jacob  van  Artevelde  and  of  John  of 
Gaunt,  i.e.  Ghent. 

Gliilan',  a  province  of  Persia,  the  western  por- 
tion of  the  narrow  strip  of  country  lying  between 
the  Elburz  range  and  the  Caspian  Sea. 

Ghizeh.    See  Gizeh. 

Ghizni.    See  Ghazni. 

Ghftr,  or  Ghore,  a  mountainous  district  of 
western  Afghanistan,  lying  south-east  of  Her^t. 

Giants'  Causeway  (deriving  its  name  from  a 
legend  that  it  was  the  commencement  of  a  road 
to  be  constructed  by  giants  across  the  channel  to 
Scotland)  is  a  sort  of  natural  pier  or  mole,  of 
columnar  basalt,  projecting  from  the  northern 
coast  of  Antrim,  Ireland,  into  the  North  Channel, 
7  miles  NE.  of  Portrush  by  an  electric  tramway 
(1883).  It  is  part  of  an  overlying  mass  of  basalt, 
from  300  to  500  feet  thick,  which  covers  almost 
all  Antrim  and  the  eastern  part  of  Londonderry. 
The  first  bed  appears  at  the  bold  promontory  of 
Fair  Head  ;  its  columns  exceed  200  feet  in  height. 
The  other  two  are  seen  together  rising  above  the 


sea-level  at  Bengore  Head,  the  lower  one  forming 
the  Giants'  Causeway.  It  is  exposed  for  300 
yards,  and  exhibits  an  unequal  pavement,  formed 
of  the  tops  of  40,000  vertical  closely-fitting  col- 
umns, which  in  shape  are  chiefly  hexagonal, 
though  examples  may  be  found  with  5,  7,  8,  or  9 
sides.    Their  diameter  varies  from  15  to  20  inches. 

Giarre  {Jar're),  a  town  of  Sicily,  on  the  eastern 
slope  of  Mount  Etna.    Pop.  (1901)  26,000. 

Giaveno  (Ja-vay'no),  a  town  of  Piedmont,  17 
miles  W.  of  Turin.     Pop.  10,800. 

Gibeah  (g  hard;  Heb.  'hill'),  4  miles  N.  of 
Jerusalem,  near  Ramah,  was  the  residence,  if 
not  the  birthplace,  of  King  Saul. 

Gibeon,  a  city  of  ancient  Palestine,  on  a  hill 
5  miles  NW.  of  Jerusalem. 

Gibraltar  (Span.  Gibraltar'),  an  isolated  mass 
of  rock,  in  the  SW.  of  Spain,  rising  to  an  altitude 
of  1408  feet,  3  miles  in  length,  and  |  mile  in 
average  breadth,  is  situated  at  the  extremity  of 
a  low  sandy  peninsula,  which  connects  it  on  the 
north  with  Andalusia.  By  the  completion  of  the 
railway  route  in  1892,  Gibraltar  is  within  four 
days  of  England.  Its  western  side  is  washed  by 
the  Bay  of  Gibraltar,  called  also  the  Bay  of 
Algeciras ;  and  at  the  foot  of  the  rock,  on  this 
same  side,  is  the  town  of  Gibraltar,  which  con- 
sists of  two  parts,  the  South  Town,  above  the 
dockyard,  and  the  North  Town,  which  has  narrow 
streets  and  many  mean  houses,  and  is  inhabited 
by  a  motley  agglomeration  of  English,  Spaniards, 
Jews,  and  Moors.  Pop.  (1901),  civil,  20,355  ;  mili- 
tary, 6475;  total,  26,830.  One  may  notice  the 
numerous  barracks;  the  governor's  official  resi- 
dence, an  old  Franciscan  convent ;  the  naval 
hospital ;  the  Alameda  Gardens ;  the  signal- 
station,  crowning  the  central  eminence  of  the 
rock,  1255  feet  high  ;  the  remains  of  the  Moorish 
castle  (10th  c.) ;  and  the  lighthouse  (1841),  on 
Point  Europa,  whose  light,  150  feet  above  the 
sea,  is  seen  for  20  miles.  At  the  northern  base 
of  the  rock  is  the  open  space  called  the  North 
Front,  extending  as  far  as  the  British  lines  ;  here 
are  the  cemetery,  the  cricket-ground,  the  race- 
course, &c.  Between  the  British  and  the  Spanish 
lines  is  the  neutral  ground,  which  is  uninhabited. 
The  harbour  and  dock  improvements  in  progress 
in  1900-10  (mainly  for  naval  purposes)  were 
estimated  to  cost  some  £6,500,000.  There  is 
good  anchorage  in  the  Bay  of  Gibraltar,  8  miles 
deep  by  5  wide.  Gibraltar  has  been  a  free 
port  since  its  capture  by  the  British,  was  for  a 
time  one  of  the  chief  commercial  emporiums  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  is  an  important  coaling- 
station.  Since  1842  it  has  been  the  see  of  an 
Anglican  bishop.  Almost  the  entire  rock  bristles 
with  artillery ;  and  the  approaches  from  the 
north  and  from  the  sea  are  guarded  by  many 
powerful  batteries.  Towards  the  north  and  north- 
west the  defences  are  aided  by  a  series  of  fortified 
galleries,  2  to  3  miles  in  length.  The  eastern 
side  is  so  precipitous  as  to  be  altogether  secure 
from  assault.  In  these  days,  however,  of  steam- 
ships and  heavy  long-range  guns,  the  military 
importance  of  Gibraltar  has  certainly  diminished. 
The  rocky  mass  is  perforated  by  numerous 
caverns,  some  of  which  penetrate  for  several 
hundred  feet  into  the  rock.  Tlie  largest,  called 
the  'Hall  of  St  Michael,'  is  220  feet  long,  90  wide, 
and  70  high,  and  its  floor  is  connected  with  the 
roof  by  stalactite  pillars  ranging  up  to  50  feet  in 
height ;  the  entrance  lies  1100  feet  above  the  sea. 
Gibraltar  is  the  only  place  in  Europe  where 
monkeys  (some  20  Barbary  apes)  live  Avild. 

Gibraltar  was  known  to  the  early  Phoenician 


GIBRALTAR 


297 


GISBORNE 


navigators.  The  Greeks  called  it  Calpe,  and  it 
and  Abyla  opposite  (now  Ceuta)  formed  the  Pillars 
of  Hercules,  long  held  to  be  the  western  boundary 
of  the  world.  In  711  a.d.  the  Saracen  leader 
Tarik  fortified  it,  as  a  base  of  operations  against 
the  Visigothic  kingdom  ;  and  from  hini  it  took  the 
name  of  Gebel  el-Tarik,  or  Hill  of  Tarik,  of  which 
Gibraltar  is  a  corruption.  In  1302  Ferdinand  II. 
of  Castile  won  it  from  the  Moors  ;  but  in  1333  it 
fell  into  the  hands  of  the  king  of  Fez.  In  1410 
Yussuf,  king  of  Granada,  possessed  himself  of 
the  fortress,  which,  however,  was  finally  wrested 
from  the  Moors  by  the  Spajiiards  in  1462.  A 
combined  Dutch  and  English  force  comi)elled 
the  governor  to  capitulate  in  1704;  and  since 
then  Gibraltar  has  remained  continuously  in  the 
possession  of  the  British,  in  spite  of  many  des- 
perate efforts  on  the  part  of  Spain  and  France  to 
dislodge  them,  the  greatest  in  1779-82,  when  it 
was  defended  with  heroic  valour  by  General 
Eliott  (Lord  Heathfield)  and  5000  men,  including 
1100  Hanoverians. 

See  works  by  Drinkwater  (1785),  Gilbard  (1881), 
and  H.  M.  Field  (New  York,  1889). 

Gibraltar,  Strait  of  (anc.  Strait  of  Hercules), 
connects  the  Mediterranean  with  the  Atlantic. 
It  is  36  miles  long,  and  narrow  eastward ;  its 
width  between  Point  Europa  and  Cape  Ceuta 
being  only  15  miles,  at  the  western  extremity 
24,  and  at  the  narrowest  9. 

Giddlng,  Little,  a  parish  of  Hants,  11  miles 
NW.  of  Huntingdon.  Here  in  1625  Nicholas 
Ferrar  founded  the  religious  community  so  well 
known  through  John  Inglesant. 

Glen,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Loiret,  on 
the  Loire,  38  miles  SE.  of  Orleans.    Pop.  7767. 

Giessen  (Ges'sen;  g  hard),  a  town  of  Hesse- 
Dannstadt,  on  the  Lahn,  40  miles  N.  of  Frankfort- 
on-the-Main.  It  has  a  university  (founded  in 
1607),  with  over  60  professors  and  500  students, 
and  manufactures  tobacco,  iron,  beer,  &c.  Pop. 
25,500. 

GiflEbrd  (g  hard),  a  Haddingtonshire  village,  on 
Gifford  Water  (a  feeder  of  the  Tyne),  4^  miles 
SSE.  of  Haddington.    Pop.  305. 

Giflfordg'ite,  a  suburb  of  Haddington,  the  birth- 
place of  Knox. 

Glggleswlck,  a  village  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  1  mile  WNW.  of  Settle.  It  has  a  well- 
endowed  grammar-school  (1553).     Pop.  980. 

Gigha  (Ge'ha;  g  hard),  an  Argyllshire  island, 
1|  mile  W.  of  Kintyre.  It  measures  6  by  2  miles, 
and  attains  260  feet.    Pop.  378. 

Gijon,  a  seaport  of  Spain,  on  a  peninsula  and 
bay  of  the  Atlantic,  20  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Oviedo.  It  manufactures  tobacco,  glass,  and 
earthenware.    Pop.  47,144. 

Gila  (He'la),  a  river  rising  in  the  state  of  New 
Mexico,  and  flowing  nearly  650  miles  westward, 
across  Arizona,  to  the  Colorado,  75  miles  above  its 
mouth  in  the  Gulf  of  California. 

Gilbert  Islands,  a  British  archipelago  in  the 
Pacific,  lying  on  the  equator  between  172°  and 
177°  E.  long.  Area,  166  sq.  m. ;  pop.  36,800.  The 
group  consists  of  sixteen  atolls,  several  of  them 
triangular  in  shape,  with  two  outlying  hilly 
islands.  Cocoa-nuts  and  copra  are  the  chief  pro- 
ducts.   Marshall  and  Gilbert  discovered  it  in  1788. 

Gilboa,  a  bare  chain  of  hills  between  500  and 
600  feet  high,  overhanging  the  site  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Jezreel,  between  the  Jordan  and  the  plain 
of  Esdraelon.    Here  King  Saul  met  his  doom. 

Gilead,  a  mountainous  district  on  the  east  side 


of  the  Jordan,  described  by  Laurence  Oliphant 
as  a  country  of  wine  and  oil,  with  rich  alluvial 
deposits.    See  his  Land  of  Gilead  (18S0). 

Gilford,  a  town  of  County  Down,  on  the  Bann, 
4  miles  NW.  of  Banbridge.    Pop.  1276. 

Gilghit.    See  Cashmere,  Dardistan. 

Gillingham  (g  hard),  a  Dorset  market- town, 
on  the  Stour,  22  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Salisbury. 
Near  it  are  the  '  Pen  Pits,'  thought  to  be  either 
quarry-holes  or  prehistoric  dwellings.  Pop.  of 
parish,  3303. 

Gillis  Land,  a  Polar  land  NE.  of  Spitzbergen, 
first  sighted  in  1707  by  Gillis,  a  Dutchman,  in 
81°  30'  N.  lat.  and  36°  E.  long. 

Gilmerton,  a  Midlothian  village,  4  miles  SSE. 
of  Edinburgh.    Pop.  1300. 

Gilnockie  (g  hard),  Dumfriesshire,  on  the  Esk, 
4^  miles  SSE.  of  Langholm,  was  the  site  of  the 
peel-tower  of  Johnny  Armstrong,  hanged  by 
James  V.  at  Caerlanrig  in  1529. 

Gilolo,  one  of  the  Moluccas  (q.v.)  or  Spice 
Islands. 

Gilp,  Loch,  an  arm  of  Loch  Fyne,  3  miles  long. 

Gilsland  (g  hard),  a  Cumberland  village,  with  a 
sulphur-spring,  8  miles  NE.  of  Brampton.  Here 
Scott  met  his  future  wife.    Pop.  365. 

Gioja  del  Colle,  a  town  of  Italy,  33  miles  by- 
rail  S.  of  Bari.     Pop.  16,573. 

Giovinazzo,  an  Italian  cathedral  town  on  the 
Adriatic,  14  miles  WNW.  of  Bari.    Pop.  11,250. 

Gipping  (g  hard),  a  Suffolk  river,  flowing  15 
miles  south-south-eastward  from  Stowmarket  to 
Ipswich  (q.v.),  where  it  becomes  tidal,  and  takes 
the  name  Orwell. 

Gippsland,  the  southern  one  of  the  four  im- 
portant districts  of  Victoria,  Australia.  It  was 
originally  called  Caledonia  Australis  by  Mac- 
millan,  its  first  explorer  (1839),  and  then  Gipps- 
land after  the  governor.  Sir  George  Gipps. 

Girgeh,  a  town  of  Egypt,  on  the  Nile's  left 
bank,  in  26°  20'  N.  lat.  and  31"  58'  B.  long.,  10^ 
miles  N.  of  the  ancient  Abydos.  Outside  it  is  a 
Roman  Catholic  monastery,  said  to  be  the  oldest 
in  Egypt.    Pop.  17,819. 

Girgenti  (Jer-jen'te;  anc.  Agrigentum),  a  coast- 
town  of  Sicily,  84  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Palermo, 
with  magnificent  Greek  ruins.    Pop.  25,100. 

Gimar,  a  sacred  mountain  (3500  feet)  of  India, 
in  Kathiawar,  Bombay.  As  a  holy  place  of 
Jainism,  it  is  covered  with  ruined  temples. 

Gironde  (ZM-rongd),  a  maritime  dep.  of  south- 
west France,  is  formed  out  of  part  of  the  old  prov- 
ince of  Guienne.  Area,  3760  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872) 
705,149 ;  (1901)  821,131.  It  is  watered  mainly 
by  the  Garonne  and  the  Dordogne,  and  by  the 
Gironde,  the  estuary  formed  by  the  union  of 
these  two  rivers.  It  includes  the  six  arrondisse- 
ments  of  Bazas,  Blaye,  Bordeaux  (the  capital), 
Lesparre,  Liboume,  and  Reole. 

Girton  (g  hard),  a  parish  3 J  miles  NNE.  of 
Cambridge.  Girton  College  for  women  was  re- 
moved hither  from  Hitchin  in  1873. 

Girvan  (</  hard),  an  Ayrshire  seaport  and  water- 
ing-place, at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Girvan,  21 
miles  SSW.  of  Ayr  by  rail.  The  harbour  is 
small,  but  has  been  improved  since  1881.  Pop. 
4024. 

Gisborrie,  a  post-town  of  New  Zealand,  in  the 
North  Island,  on  the  Turanganui  (fine  bridge, 
1885),  250  miles  SB.  of  Auckland.  It  is  the  port 
of  entry  for  Poverty   Bay,  a  name   given   by 


CISORS 


298 


GLASGOW 


Captain  Cook  in  1769,  and  sometimes  still  retained 
for  the  town  ;  only  small  vessels  can  come  np  to 
the  wharves,  bnt  in  1889  a  harbour  was  under- 
taken, to  cost  £200,000.  In  1886  petroleum  was 
struck  in  the  neighbourhood.     Pop.  4000. 

Gisors  (Zhe-zor'),  a  town  in  the  PYench  dep. 
of  Eure,  on  the  Bpte,  43  miles  NW.  of  Paris  by 
rail.  Tlie  octagonal  donjon  of  the  ruined  castle 
was  built  by  Henry  I.  of  England.  Here  Richard 
I.  defeated  the  French  in  1198 ;  his  watchword, 
Dieu  et  mon  Droit,  has  ever  since  been  the  motto 
of  the  royal  arms  of  England.    Pop.  4745. 

GitscMn  (Czech  Jicin),  a  town  of  Bohemia,  60 
miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Prague.  It  was  once  the 
capital  of  the  duchy  of  Friedland,  where  Wallen- 
stein  built  a  splendid  palace  (1630).  On  29th 
June  1866  the  Austrians  were  severely  defeated 
here  by  the  Prussians.    Pop.  9871. 

Giugliano,  a  town  of  Italy,  8  miles  NW.  of 
Naples.     Pop.  14,748. 

Giurgevo  (Joor-je-vo;  Roumanian  Giurgiu),  a 
town  of  Roumania,  on  the  Danube's  left  bank, 
opposite  Rustchuk,  40  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of 
Bucharest,  of  which  it  is  the  port.  It  was  orig- 
inally settled  by  the  Genoese  in  the  14th  cen- 
tury, who  called  it  St  George.     Pop.  20,866. 

Givet  (Zhe-veh),  a  frontier  town  and  flrst-class 
fortress  in  the  French  dep.  of  Ardennes,  on  the 
Meuse,  31  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Namur  in  Belgium. 
The  citadel  of  Charlemont,  on  a  rock  700  feet 
above  the  stream,  was  reconstructed  by  Vauban. 
Pop.  5100. 

Givors  (Zhe-vor),  a  smoky  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Rhone,  on  the  Rhone,  14  miles  S.  of  Lyons 
by  rail.  Glass  bottles  and  silk  and  iron  goods 
are  extensively  manufactured.     Pop.  12,100. 

Gizeh,  or  Ghizeh,  a  town  in  Egypt,  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  river  from  Old  Cairo,  and 
approached  from  Cairo,  since  1905,  by  more  than 
one  bridge  over  the  Nile.  The  Boulak  Museum 
was  transferred  hither  iu  1889.  ThePyramids(q.v.) 
of  Gizeh  are  5  miles  away  to  the  W.    Pop.  12,500. 

Gladbach,  or  Beroisch-Gladbach,  an  in- 
dustrial town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  8  miles  NE. 
of  Cologne.    Pop.  11,500. 

Gladbach,  or  Monchen-Gladbach,  a  rapidly 
growing  manufacturing  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
16  miles  W.  of  Diisseldorf.  The  centre  of  the 
Rhenish  cotton-spinning  industry,  it  also  has 
manufactures  of  silk,  wool,  linen,  and  paper, 
cotton-printing  works,  dyeworks,  bleachtields, 
iron-foundries,  machine-shops,  breweries,  and 
brickworks.  Gladbach,  which  has  been  a  town 
since  1366,  was  formerly  the  seat  of  an  important 
linen  trade  ;  the  cotton  industry  was  introduced 
in  the  end  of  the  18th  century.  The  town  for- 
merly contained  a  famous  Benedictine  abbey, 
founded  in  792.  Pop.  (1858)  13,965;  (1871) 
26,354  ;  (1900)  5S,014,  mostly  Roman  Catholics. 

Gladamuir,  a  Haddingtonshire  parish,  3^  miles 
E.  of  Tranent.  With  the  Jacobites  it  gave  name 
to  the  battle  of  Prestonpans. 

Glamls  Castle  (Gldmz),  the  seat  of  the  Earl 
of  Strathmore,  in  Forfarshire,  5  miles  WSW.  of 
Forfar.  It  is  a  splendid  cMteau-like  pile  of 
(mainly)  the  17th  century. 

Glamorganshire  (Welsh  Gwlad  Morgan),  the 
most  southerly  county  of  Wales,  bounded  S.  and 
SW.  by  the  Bristol  Channel.  Area,  855  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  (1801)  70,879  ;  (1841)  171,188  ;  (1881)  511,433  ; 
(1901)  860,022.  This  unexampled  increase  is  due 
to  the  development  of  the  mineral  industries. 
In  the  west  of  the  county  the  coast  is  indented 


by  Swansea  Bay,  from  which  it  projects  west- 
ward  into  the  peninsula  of  Gower.  The  north- 
ern district  is  covered  with  rugged  hills,  the 
highest  of  which,  however,  Llangeinor,  is  only 
1859  feet  in  height.  Here  is  one  of  the  richest 
coalfields  in  the  kingdom.  The  southern  por- 
tion of  the  county  consists  of  a  series  of  fertile 
valleys,  richly  wooded  and  Avith  a  mild  climate, 
the  finest  being  the  Vale  of  Glamorgan,  the  '  gar- 
den of  Wales.'  The  chief  rivers— the  Rhymney, 
Tafi",  Neath,  Tawe,  and  Llwchwr— flow  southward 
into  the  Bristol  Channel.  Besides  coal,  anthra- 
cite or  stone-coal,  coking-coal,  ironstone,  and 
limestone  are  found.  At  Merthyr-Tydvil  and 
Dowlais  are  large  ironworks  ;  at  Swansea,  Neath, 
Aberavon,  large  copper-smelting  works.  Tin  and 
lead  are  also  smelted  in  the  county.  The  county 
sends  five  members  to  parliament ;  the  repre- 
sented boroughs  are  Merthyr-Tydvil  (with  two), 
Swansea  (two),  and  the  Cardilf  boroughs  (one). 
Oystennouth  Castle,  Caerphilly  Castle,  and 
Castle  Coch  are  fine  ruins  ;  Cardiff  Castle  is  a 
stately  restored  edifice.  See  Thomas  Nicholas, 
History  of  Glamorganshire  (1874). 

Glarus,  a  canton  of  Switzerland,  bounded  by 
the  cantons  of  St  Gall,  the  Grisons,  Uri,  and 
Schwyz.  Area,  266J  sq.  m.  ;  population,  32,500, 
mainly  Protestant  and  German-speaking.  It  is 
an  Alpine  region,  in  the  Todi  peak  attaining 
11,887  feet.  The  climate  is  very  severe,  and  only 
one-fifth  of  the  land  is  arable.  The  capital  is  the 
town  of  Glarus  (pop.  5330),  43  miles  SE.  of  Zurich 
by  rail.  It  was  founded  by  an  Irish  monk, 
Fridolin,  in  the  end  of  the  5th  century.  Zwingli 
was  pastor  here,  1506-16. 

Glasbury,  a  Radnorshire  village,  on  the  Wye, 
4  miles  SW.  of  Hay.    Pop.  of  parish,  488. 

Glasgow,  the  industrial  metropolis  of  Scotland 
and  the  most  populous  city  in  Great  Britain  next 
to  London,  is  f^ituated  on  the  banks  of  the  Clyde, 
in  the  county  of  Lanark,  the  portions  heretofore 
in  Renfrew  and  Dnmbarton  shires  having  been 
transferred  to  Lanark  under  the  act  of  1889.  At 
Greenock,  22  miles  below,  the  river  spreads  out 
into  a  great  estuary,  the  Firth  of  Clyde.  Glasgow 
is  405i  miles  by  rail  from  London,  and  from  44  to 
47i  miles  from  Edinburgh.  In  1801  the  popula- 
tion was  only  77,385,  but  the  increase  has  been 
rapid  and  enormous.  In  1881  the  municipal 
population  was  511,415.  In  1891,  before  the 
extension  of  boundary,  it  was  565,839  ;  after  the 
extension  in  that  year,  when  the  area  of  the  city 
was  increased  from  6111  acres  to  11,861  by  the 
addition  of  six  suburban  burghs  and  other  dis- 
tricts, it  was  658,198.  In  1901  the  municipal  and 
police  burgh  contained  a  population  of  761,709,  in- 
cluding parts  of  the  parishes  of  Cathcart  (20,983), 
Eastwood  (3534),  Glasgow  (547,645),  Govan  com- 
bination (189,470),  and  Rutherglen  (77).  The  total 
area  of  the  city,  including  the  conterminous  but 
still  independent  burghs  of  Partick,  Kinning 
Park,  and  Govan,  is  about  15,660  acres.  The 
parliamentary  burgh  has  a  population  of  622,372, 
divided  into  seven  constituencies — viz.  Bridgeton 
Division,  Camlachie  Division,  St  Rollox  Division, 
Central  Division,  College  Division,  Tradeston 
Division,  and  Blackfriars  and  Hutchesontown 
Division.  In  1893  Glasgow  was  constituted  a 
county  of  a  city. 

As  an  archiepiscopal  seat,  and  subsequently 
as  a  centre  of  Covenanting  activity,  Glasgow  has 
a  prominence  in  the  religious  history  of  Scot- 
land ;  but  as  an  industrial  city  its  history  can 
hardly  be  dated  farther  back  than  the  Union 
of  1707.     This  event  opened  up  to  the  town 


GLASGOW  2l 

—the  most  favourably  situated  in  Scotland  for 
the  enterprise  —  an  immense  trading  prospect 
with  America,  and  roused  in  its  inhabitants  the 
extraordinary  mercantile  activity  wliich  lias  been 
its  leading  feature  ever  since.  And  yet  the  city 
of  Glasgow  is  a  very  old  one.  It  was  about  500 
A.D.  that  St  Kentigern  or  Mungo,  the  apostle 
of  the  rude  Celts  of  Strathclyde,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Molendinar,  built  his  little  wooden  church 
on  the  very  spot  where  now  rises  the  venerable 
cathedral.  In  1116  the  diocese  was  restored ;  and 
between  1175  and  1178  Jocelyn,  Bishop  of  Glas- 
gow, received  authority  from  William  the  Lion 
to  *  have  and  hold '  a  burgh  in  the  neighbourhood 
of  the  cathedral ;  but  it  was  not  till  1G36  that 
Glasgow  received  the  position  of  a  royal  burgh. 
Of  buildings  possessing  historical  interest  Glas- 
gow is  conspicuously  destitute,  with  the  very 
notable  exception  of  the  cathedral,  which  is  a 
fine  example  of  the  Early  English  Gothic  style  of 
architecture.  Built  between  1197  and  1446,  it 
was  saved  from  injury  at  the  Reformation  by  the 
Glasgow  craftsmen,  and  afterwards,  from  time  to 
time,  was  carefully  repaired  by  the  Protestant 
archbishops  who  governed  the  see  until  the 
Revolution.  It  is  319  feet  long,  and  63  wide. 
From  the  centre  rises  a  tower,  surmounted  by  a 
graceful  spire,  225  feet  in  height.  The  richly- 
ornamented  so-called  crypt  under  the  choir  is 
really  a  lower  church  formed  to  take  advantage 
of  the  ground  sloping  eastward  towards  the 
Molendinar.  The  city  chambers,  opened  in  1889, 
built  at  a  cost  of  £530,000,  occupy  a  prominent 
position,  filling  the  east  side  of  George  Square. 
The  Royal  Exchange  (1829)  is  a  handsome  build- 
ing ornamented  with  colonnades  of  Corinthian 
pillars.  The  architecture  of  many  of  the  churches, 
banks,  and  other  public  buildings  is  varied  in 
style  and  rich  in  detail,  and  the  post-office  build- 
ings, though  severely  plain  and  massive,  deserve 
mention  for  their  great  size  and  perfect  planning. 

Many  extensive  improvements  liave  been  made 
by  tlie  corporation.  A  plentiful  supply  of  water 
from  Loch  Katrine  has  been  introduced  (1854-59 
and  1889-96)  at  a  total  cost  of  nearly  3^  million 
pounds.  The  municipality  controls  the  lighting 
(including  the  electric  system)  and  the  electric 
tramways,  as  well  as  the  sanitation  and  sewage 
disposal.  Over  £2,000,000  have  been  spent  on  im- 
proved dwellings  for  the  working-classes.  Tlie 
corporation  have  a  telephone  exchange  under  their 
own  management. 

Glasgow  has  several  public  pleasure-grounds 
besides  the  Glasgow  Green — a  wide  expanse  along 
the  north  bank  of  the  river.  The  equestrian 
statue  of  Wellington  stands  opposite  the  Royal 
Exchange,  and  tliat  of  William  III.  at  the  east  end 
of  Argyle  Street,  near  the  site  of  the  old  cross. 
There  are  a  number  of  monnmental  statues 
in  George  Square,  including,  besides  Sir  John 
Moore  and  Lord  Clyde  (natives),  Scott,  Burns, 
Livingstone,  and  others. 

The  university,  founded  in  1451  by  Bishop 
Turnbull,  occupies  fine  new  buildings  at  Gil- 
morehill,  overlooking  the  West  End  Park,  de- 
signed by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott,  and  opened  in  1870, 
their  total  cost  being  upwards  of  half  a  million, 
including  the  Marquis  of  Bute's  common  hall, 
the  students'  union,  &c.  It  has  five  faculties- 
arts,  science,  divinity,  law,  and  medicine — a  teach- 
ing staff  of  100,  and,  if  we  include  the  Queen 
Margaret  College  for  Women,  2000  students. 
There  are  over  300  bursaries  of  from  £6  to  £80, 
besides  the  Snell  exhibitions  to  Balliol  College, 
Oxford,  and  the  Clark  scholarships.  The  Glas- 
gow and  West  of  Scotland  Technical  College  was 


)  GLASGOW 

formed  in  1886  by  the  amalgamation  of  several 
institutions  (including  the  arts  department  of 
Anderson's  College).  It  has  over  2000  students 
attending  its  day  and  evening  classes.  St  Mungo's 
College,  dating  from  1889,  has  faculties  in  medi- 
cine and  law;  and  the  medical  department  of 
Anderson's  College  is  a  separate  school.  The 
latter  college  was  founded  by  John  Anderson 
(1726-96),  professor  of  Natural  Philosophy,  and 
has  nearly  twenty  teachers  of  medicine,  science, 
languages,  music,  &c.  St  Margaret's  College  is 
for  women.  The  Free  Church  College  possesses 
conspicuous  buildings  ;  and  mention  should  also 
be  made  of  the  Normal  Schools,  and  of  th^ 
School  of  Arts  and  Haldane's  Academy.  Of  the 
secondary  schools  in  Glasgow  tlie  principal  is  the 
High  School.  There  is  no  free  lending  library, 
but  there  are  several  great  collections  which 
may  be  used  free  of  charge  as  consulting  libraries. 
Of  these  the  Mitchell  Library,  which  is  under 
corporation  management,  contains  over  125,000 
volumes ;  and  the  Stirling's  and  Glasgow  Public 
Library  contains  about  65,000.  Baillie's  Library 
;i3  under  the  same  roof.  In  the  Kelviiigrove  in- 
dustrial museum  (1871-76)  a  considerable  collec- 
tion, especially  in  natural  history,  is  displayed. 
A  valuable  collection  of  pictures  and  statuary 
(1854)  belonging  to  the  corporation  is  now  housed 
in  a  fine  building  which  formed  part  of  the  exhi- 
bition of  1901  in  the  Kelvinside  Park.  In  addition 
to  numerous  hospitals  and  dispensaries  for  special 
diseases,  tiiere  are  three  general  infirmaries,  which 
among  them  accommodate  upwards  of  one  tliou- 
sand  patients. 

Three  vast  terminal  railway  stations  bring 
traffic  to  the  heart  of  the  town  ;  and  there  are 
several  systems  of  underground  railways,  be- 
sides electric  tramways,  extending  to  outlying 
suburbs  and  adjoining  towns.  Another  means 
of  transit  is  found  in  the  magnificent  fleet  of 
river-steamers.  The  river  Clyde  (q.v.)  has  been 
a  chief  source  of  the  great  prosperity  of  Glasgow. 
Its  utility  has  been  almost  created  by  the  gigantic 
works  of  narrowing  the  channel  and  dredging,  so 
as  to  permit  of  the  passage  of  the  largest  vessels. 
The  quayage  of  the  harbour  and  docks  from 
the  Broomielaw  extends  to  over  8  miles,  and  the 
water  space  covers  over  200  acres,  while  since  1875 
three  graving-docks  have  been  provided  capable 
of  accommodating  the  largest  mercantile  steamers 
afloat.  On  the  river  and  harbour  the  Clyde  Navi- 
gation Trust  has  spent  about  twenty  millions 
sterling.  An  average  of  about  11,500  vessels 
of  4,500,000  tons  clear  the  port  annually.  The 
principal  feature  of  the  Clyde  beyond  the 
harbour  is  the  great  shipbuilding  and  marine 
engineering  yards  which  line  its  sides,  and 
which  have  flourished  since  the  second  quarter 
of  the  19th  century.  The  i^ioneers  of  these  in- 
dustries— the  Napiers,  Charles  Randolph,  John 
Elder,  &c.  — have  a  world-wide  fame.  They 
launched  from  their  yards  the  most  perfect  ex- 
amples of  naval  architecture  and  engineering 
skill  of  their  day,  and  their  present  successors 
amply  uphold  that  reputation.  The  greatest 
tonnage  launched  in  any  year  on  the  Clyde  was 
419,600  in  1883  ;  in  1903  there  were  (exclusive  of 
war-vessels)  176  steamers  and  46  sailing-vessels, 
of  a  gross  tonnage  of  863,306  tons,  built.  To 
the  success  of  the  little  Comet,  the  earliest  trading 
steamship  in  the  Old  World,  which  began  to  ply 
between  Glasgow  and  Greenock  in  1812,  may  be 
traced  the  great  development  of  shipbuilding  and 
shipping  on  the  Clyde. 

But  another  factor  in  the  industrial  prosperity 
of  the  city  is  the  fact  that  it  is  built  over  a 


GLASNEVIN 


300 


GLENGARIFP 


coalfield  rich  in  seams  of  ironstone.  It  was  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  city  that  the  first  experi- 
ments with  Neilson's  hot-blast  in  iron-furnaces, 
patented  in  1828,  were  made,  and  the  economy 
thereby  effected  developed  the  iron  industry  so 
rapidly  in  Glasgow  as  to  distance  for  a  long 
period  all  competition.  Great  forges,  with  power- 
ful steam-hammers  and  other  appliances,  the  mak- 
ing of  steam-tubes,  boiler-making,  locomotive- 
engine  building,  sugar  machinery,  and  general 
engineering  are  among  the  most  important  indus- 
trial features  of  the  city. 

Bleaching  and  calico-printing  were  established 
in  Glasgow  in  1738,  nearly  thirty  years  earlier 
than  in  Lancashire.  The  dyeing  of  Turkey-red 
was  inaugurated  in  1785  as  a  British  industry 
by  two  Glasgow  citizens,  David  Dale  and  George 
Macintosh ;  and  this  branch  of  trade  has  developed 
in  Glasgow  and  the  neighbourhood  to  an  extent 
unequalled  in  any  other  manufacturing  centre. 
In  Glasgow,  also,  bleaching-powder  (chloride  of 
lime)  was  patented  in  1799  by  Charles  Tennant, 
who  thereby  laid  the  foundation  of  the  gigantic 
St  Rollox  chemical  works,  and  gave  the  first  im- 
petus to  chemical  works  generally.  These,  with 
the  spinning  and  weaving  industries,  afford  em- 
ployment for  a  great  proportion  of  the  population. 

See  works  by  M'Ure  (1736),  Gibson  (1779),  Brown 

S 795-97),  Cleland  (1829),  Macgeorge  (3d  ed.  1888), 
acGregor  (1881),  Wallace  (1882),  Bell  and  Paton 
(1896) ;  Innes  and  Robertson  (1854)  and  Stewart 
(1891)  on  the  university ;  for  the  cathedral.  Eyre 
Todd  (1898) ;  for  the  Glasgow  school  of  painting, 
D.  Martin  (1897). 

Glasnevin,  incorporated  in  1900  with  Dublin 
as  one  of  the  city  wards. 

Glastonbury,  an  ancient  municipal  borough 
of  Somerset,  lies,  engirt  by  the  river  Brue,  amid 
orchards  and  level  pastures— once  fen-land— at 
the  foot  of  the  conical  tower-crowned  Tor  (500 
feet),  6  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Wells.  The  Celtic 
Ynysvitrin,  the  Avalon  of  Arthurian  legend,  and 
the  Glcestingaburh  or  Glsestings'  borough  of  the 
West  Saxons,  it  was  hither,  says  William  of 
Malmesbury,  that  Joseph  of  Arimathea  came 
bearing  the  Holy  Grail,  here  that  he  founded 
the  first  Christian  church  in  Britain.  On  Weary- 
all  Hill  he  planted  his  pilgrim's  staff;  it  took 
root,  and  grew  into  the  Holy  Thorn,  which 
blossomed  miraculously  every  Old  Christmas-eve 
until  it  was  cut  down  by  a  Puritan.  A  wattled 
basilica,  which  contained  the  grave  of  a  St 
Patrick  and  of  Gildas,  was  in  630  encased  by 
Paulinus  of  York  in  boards  and  lead ;  and  to 
the  east  of  it  in  719  King  Ine  reared  the  great 
church  of  SS.  Peter  and  Paul.  This,  spoiled 
by  the  Danes,  was  the  abbey  refounded  by  St 
Dunstan  about  946,  and  became  the  sepulchre 
of  Kings  Edmund,  Edgar,  and  Edmund  Iron- 
side, if  not  indeed  of  Dunstan  himself,  of  Joseph 
of  Arimathea,  or  of  Arthur  and  Guinevere.  It 
had  just  been  rebuilt  when  in  1184  the  whole 
pile  was  consumed  by  fire ;  and  the  splendid 
minster,  528  feet  long,  then  undertaken  by  Henry 
II.,  was  not  dedicated  till  1303.  In  1539  Richard 
Whiting,  the  last  abbot,  was  hanged  on  the  Tor 
by  Henry  VIII. ;  and  the  ruins  of  this  great 
Benedictine  house,  which  had  covered  60  acres, 
are  now  comparatively  scanty.  Yet  still  on  the 
site  of  the  '  Vetusta  Ecclesia '  stands  the  roofless 
chapel  of  Our  Lady  or  St  Joseph,  a  fine  example 
of  Transition  Norman,  with  its  15th-century 
crypt ;  still  there  is  the  massive  stone  Abbot's 
Kitchen  (14th  c),  33^  feet  square,  and  72  high, 
with  its  four  huge  fireplaces  and  pyramidal  roof. 


Apart  from  its  abbey  and  its  two  parish  churches, 
one  of  which  has  a  noble  tower  140  feet  high,  Glas- 
tonbury is  a  quaint,  old-world  place,  with  the 
15th-century  Pilgrims'  Inn  (now  the '  George '),  the 
Tribunal,  and  the  Abbot's  Barn.  Sharpham,  2 
miles  SW.,  was  Fielding's  birthplace.  Sheep- 
skins, mats,  rugs,  gloves,  and  pottery  are  manu- 
factured. The  population  is  a  little  over  4000. 
See  Willis's  Architectural  History  of  Glastonbury 
Abbey  (1866). 

Glasvein,  a  mountain  (3006  feet)  of  Ross-shire, 
5  miles  ENE.  of  Invershiel. 

Glatz  (Czech  Kladsko),  a  town  of  Prussian 
Silesia,  between  two  fortified  hills,  on  the  Neisse, 
58  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Breslau.  It  manufac- 
tiu-es  linen,  cigars,  leather,  &c.    Pop.  15,585. 

Glauchau  (Glow-how),  the  second  manufactur- 
ing town  of  Saxony,  on  the  Mulde's  right  bank,  20 
miles  W.  of  Chemnitz  by  rail.  It  is  the  centre  of 
the  woollen-weaving  industry,  goods  to  the  value 
of  £2,000,000  being  exported  annually.  There  are 
also  dyeworks,  print-works,  iron-foundries,  and 
carpet,  paper,  and  machine  factories.  Pop.  (1834) 
6292;  (1900)25,677. 

Gledstanes,  Eastee,  in  Libberton  parish, 
Lanarkshire,  5  miles  NW.  of  Biggar,  was  the 
ancient  seat  of  the  Gledstane  or  Gladstone  family. 

Glelwitz,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  40  miles 
SE.  of  Oppeln.  It  has  extensive  iron,  glass, 
Ijaper,  and  wood  manufactures.  Pop.  (1900)52,362. 

Glenalmond,  a  romantic  valley  of  Perthshire, 
much  visited  for  its  scenery,  and  for  Ossian's 
grave— the  subject  of  Wordsworth's  verses  on 
the  'Narrow  Glen.'  It  is  the  seat,  12  miles 
WNW.  of  Perth,  of  Trinity  College,  Glenalmond 
(1847),  a  public  school  of  about  100  boys. 

Glenarm,  an  Antrim  seaport,  on  Glenarm  Bay, 
11  miles  NW.  of  Lame.    Pop.  1048. 

Glencoe,  a  valley  of  northern  Argyllshire, 
descending  7i  miles  west-by-northward  from  a 
'col,'  1011  feet  high,  to  salt-water  Loch  Leven, 
2  miles  ENE.  of  Ballachulish.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Coe  (or  Cona  of  Ossian),  and  flanked  by 
conical  mountains,  the  Pap  of  Glencoe  (2430  feet) 
the  most  prominent,  Benveedan  (3766)  the  lofti- 
est. On  13th  February  1692  it  was  the  scene  of 
the  massacre,  by  120  soldiers  (Campbells  mostly), 
of  thirty-eight  Macdonalds,  others  also  perishing 
of  cold  and  hunger. 

Glencorse.    See  Penicuik, 

Glenoroe,  an  Argyllshire  glen  descending  4i 
miles  south-eastward  to  Loch  Long,  2J  miles 
SW.  of  Arrochar.  At  its  head  is  a  stone  seat 
inscribed  '  Rest  and  be  thankful.' 

Glendalough,  a  valley  in  Wicklow  county,  15 
miles  SW.  of  Bray,  which  combines  the  attractions 
of  fine  scenery  and  remarkable  ruins.  It  became 
a  seat  of  religion  with  St  Kevin  in  the  6th  cen- 
tury ;  and  some  of  the  ruined  '  seven  churches,' 
as  well  as  the  round  tower  (110  feet  high),  may 
date  from  the  7th  century. 

Glenelg,  a  shallow  river  of  Australia,  rising 
in  the  Grampians  in  SW.  Victoria,  and  flowing 
281  miles  to  the  Southern  Ocean  between  Capes 
Northumberland  and  Bridgewater,  at  the  bound- 
ary of  South  Australia  and  Victoria. 

Glenfinnan,  a  glen  in  Inverness-shire,  18  miles 
W.  of  Fort- William.  Here,  on  19th  August  1745, 
the  clans  gathered  under  Prince  Charles  Edward's 
banner,  and  here  in  1815  a  tower  was  built  with 
an  inscription  in  Gaelic,  Latin,  and  English. 

Glengariflf,  a  village  of  County  Cork,  at  the 


GLENGARNOCK 


301 


GLOUCESTER 


head  of  the  island-dotted  Glengariff  Harbour,  an 
Inlet  of  Bantry  Bay,  and  at  the  foot  of  a  moun- 
tain glen,  much  frequented  by  tourists. 

Glengamock,  an  Ayrshire  village,  with  iron- 
works, 3J  miles  NNE.  of  Dairy.    Pop.  12090, 

Glengarry,  (l)  a  glen  of  W.  Inverness-shire, 
through  which  the  Garry  winds,  19  miles  east- 
ward, from  Loch  Quoich  to  Loch  Oich,  8  miles 
SW.  of  Fort  Augustus.— (2)  A  glen  of  NW.  Perth- 
shire, traversed  by  the  Highland  Railway.  Its 
Garry  falls  into  the  Tummel. 

Glenlflfer,  Braes  of,  a  range  of  hills  (749  feet), 
3  miles  SSW.  of  Paisley.  They  are  celebrated  by 
Tannahill. 

Glenisla  (Glen-l'la),  a  Forfarshire  parish,  9  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Alyth. 

Glenlivet  (Glen-l^vet),  the  valley  in  Banffshire  of 
Livet  Water,  which  runs  14  miles  north-westward 
till,  at  a  point  5  miles  S.  of  Ballindalloch  station, 
it  falls  after  a  total  descent  of  1600  feet  into  the 
Aven,  itself  an  affluent  of  the  Spey.  Its  popula- 
tion still  is  largely  Catholic.  Since  1824  its  200 
whisky  bothies  have  given  place  to  one  cele- 
brated distillery.  In  the  battle  of  Glenlivet  or 
Alltacoileachan  (4th  October  1594),  10,000  Pro- 
testants under  the  Earl  of  Argyll  were  routed  by 
the  Catholic  insurgents  under  the  Earl  of  Huntly. 

Glenluce',  a  Wigtownshire  village,  15  miles 
WSW.  of  Newton-Stewart.  Near  it  are  the  ruins 
of  Glenluce  Abbey  (1190).    Pop.  800. 

Glenlyon,  a  Perthshire  glen  descending  24 
miles  ENE.  to  the  Vale  of  Fortingall. 

Glemuore-nan-Albin  ('great  glen  of  Scot- 
land'), the  Highland  depression,  60  miles  long, 
now  traversed  by  the  Caledonian  Canal  (q.v.). 

Glenroy',  a  deep  Inverness-shire  glen,  descend- 
ing 14  miles  south-westward  to  a  point  13  miles 
NB.  of  Fort- William.  Its  three  '  parallel  roads  ' 
mark  the  shore-lines  of  former  fresh-water  lakes, 
which  were  dammed  up  by  glacier  ice,  and 
gradually  sunk  as  the  barrier  melted  away. 

Glen's  Falls,  a  town  of  New  York,  on  the 
Hudson,  60  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Albany,  with 
sawmills  and  machine-shops,  and  a  quarry  of 
black  marble.  The  river,  which  is  crossed  by  a 
bridge,  here  falls  about  50  feet,  and  is  very 
picturesque.     Pop.  (1880)  4900 ;  (1900)  12,613. 

Glenshiel',  a  valley  of  Ross-shire,  58  miles  SW. 
of  Inverness.  Here,  on  11th  June  1719,  1500 
Jacobites  and  274  Spaniards  encountered  1600 
Hanoverians.  The  light  was  indecisive,  but 
next  day  the  Highlanders  dispersed,  and  the 
Spaniards  surrendered. 

Glenties,  a  Donegal  village,  on  the  Owenea,  26 
miles  W.  of  Stranorlar. 

Glentilt',  in  north  Perthshire,  the  deep  narrow 
glen  of  the  troutful,  impetuous  Tilt,  which  issues 
from  Loch  Tilt  (3  by  2  furlongs  ;  1650  feet),  and 
runs  16  miles  SW.  to  the  Garry  at  Blair- A  thole. 

Glockner,  or  Gross-Glockner,  the  highest 
peak  (12,458  feet)  of  the  Noric  Alps,  on  the 
boundary  between  Tyrol,  Carinthia,  and  Salzburg. 

Glogau,  or  Gross-Glogau,  a  town  and  fortress 
in  Prussian  S'lesia,  on  the  Oder's  left  bank,  60 
miles  NNW.  of  Breslau  by  rail.  It  manufactures 
agricultural  implements,  pottery,  tobacco,  sugar, 
&c.,  and  has  a  cartographical  institute.  Pop. 
about  25,000. 

Glommen,  or  Stor-Elv  (i.e.  'great  river'),  the 
largest  river  in  Norway,  issues  from  Lake  Aur- 
sund,  at  2339  feet  above  sea-level,  and  winds  350 
miles  southward  to  the  Skager  Rack  at  Frederik- 


stad.  Its  course  is  interrupted  by  frequent 
waterfalls,  the  last,  with  a  descent  of  74  feet, 
being  the  Sarpsfos,  7  miles  from  the  mouth. 

Glossop,  a  market-town  of  Derbyshire,  amid 
bleak  but  picturesque  hills,  13  miles  ESE.  of 
Manchester,  and  24  WNW.  of  Sheffield.  It  is  the 
chiefseatof  the  cotton  manufacture  in  Derbyshire, 
and  has  also  woollen  and  paper  mills,  dyeing, 
bleaching,  and  print  works,  and  iron-foundries. 
Near  it  is  Glossop  Hall,  the  seat  of  Lord  Howard 
of  Glossop.  The  town  was  incorporated  in  1866. 
Pop.  (1871)  17,046  ;  (1901)  21,526. 

Gloucester  (Glos'ter),  the  capital  of  Glouces- 
tershire, a  parliamentary  and  county  borough; 
is  pleasantly  situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Severn,  which  here  becomes  tidal.  It  is  114  miles 
by  rail  (by  road  106)  WNW.  of  London,  38  NNE. 
of  Bristol,  and  55  SSW.  of  Birmingham.  The 
Caergloui  of  the  Britons,  and  Glevum  of  the 
Romans,  whose  cruciform  ground-plan  survives 
in  the  four  main  streets,  Gleaimnceastre  or  Glou- 
cester was  the  seat  successively  of  a  nunnery  (681), 
a  monastery  (821),  and  a  great  Benedictine  abbey 
(1022).  The  last  was  suppressed  in  1539  ;  and  its 
church  two  years  later  became  the  cathedral  of 
the  new  see  of  Gloucester— a  see  conjoined  with 
that  of  Bristol  in  1836,  but  made  independent 
again  in  1897.  Built  between  1088  and  1498, 
and  restored  since  1853,  the  cathedral  measures 
420  feet  by  144  across  the  transept,  and  though 
substantially  Norman— crypt,  chapter-house,  and 
the  interior  of  the  nave  are  Norman— in  general 
character  is  Perpendicular.  Its  pinnacled  central 
tower  (1457)  rises  225  feet,  and  contains  the 
'  Great  Peter '  bell,  weighing  3  tons  2  cwt.  Other 
noteworthy  features  are  the  lofty  round  piers  of 
the  nave,  the  east  window  (the  largest  in  England 
—72  by  38  feet)  with  its  splendid  stained  glass  of 
1350,  the  shrine  of  King  Osric  of  Northumbria, 
the  exquisite  canopied  shrine  of  Edward  II.,  the 
statue  of  Jenner,  and  a  group  by  Flaxmau,  the 
'whispering  gallery'  iu  the  triforium,  and  the 
matchless  fan-vaulted  cloisters  (1351-1412).  A 
new  episcopal  palace  was  built  in  1862 ;  the 
Ijicturesque  deanery  is  the  old  prior's  lodge  ;  and 
other  buildings  are  the  12th-century  West  Gate, 
the  New  Inn  (built  about  1450  for  pilgrims),  the 
Tolsey  or  guildhall,  the  shire-hall  (1816),  the 
infirmary  (1755),  the  county  lunatic  asylum  (1823), 
the  King's  or  College  school,  the  Crypt  grammar- 
school,  the  Blue-coat  hospital,  and  a  theological 
college.  There  is  a  cross  (1863)  to  Hooper,  and  a 
statue  (1880)  of  Raikes,  the  founder  of  Sunday 
schools ;  in  the  public  park  is  a  chalybeate 
spring,  which  was  discovered  in  1814.  Gloucester's 
commerce  is  now  more  important  than  its  manu- 
factures— chemicals,  soap,  matches,  railway  plant, 
shipbuilding,  &c.  The  Gloucester  and  Berkeley 
Canal,  17  miles  long,  and  admitting  vessels  of 
600  tons,  was  completed  in  1827  at  a  cost  of 
£500,000.  The  number  of  vessels  entering  the 
port  has  almost  trebled  during  the  last  thirty 
years ;  the  imports  include  corn  and  timber,  the 
exports  agricultural  produce  and  the  minerals  of 
the  Forest  of  Dean.  Gloucester  returns  one 
member.  Pop.  (1841)  14,152  ;  (1871,  as  extended) 
31,844;  (1901,  as  extended  iu  1900)  47,955.  In 
the  Great  Rebellion  (1643)  Gloucester  held  out 
successfully  against  Charles  I.  till  Essex  relieved 
it.  Among  its  natives  have  been  (doubtfully) 
the  chronicler  Robert  of  Gloucester  ;  Taylor,  the 
water-poet ;  Whitefield,  Raikes,  Wheatstone,  and 
W.  E.  Henley.  See  works  by  Rudder  (1781), 
Britton  (1829),  F.  Bond  (1848),  Waller  (1856), 
Masse  (1898) ;  also  Murray's  Western  Cathedrals. 


GLOUCESTER 


302 


GODAVARI 


GHoucester,  a  port  of  entry  of  Massachusetts, 
on  the  south  side  of  Cape  Ann  peninsula,  28 
miles  NNE.  of  Boston.  It  has  an  excellent 
harbour,  and  the  cod  and  mackerel  fisheries 
employ  several  thousand  men  ;  but  there  are  also 
a  large  trade  in  the  granite  quarried  here,  ship- 
building, and  manufactures  of  anchors  and  rail- 
road iron.  Gloucester  was  incorporated  as  a 
town  in  1642,  and  jnade  a  city  in  1874.  Pop. 
(1880)  19,329  ;  (1900)  26,121. 

Gloucester  City,  a  town  of  New  Jersey,  on  the 
Delaware,  opposite  Philadelphia.  It  contains 
ironworks  and  cotton-factories.    Pop.  6864. 

Gloucestershire,  a  west  midland  county  of 
England,  lying  around  the  lower  course  and  the 
estuary  of  the  Severn,  and  bounded  by  the 
counties  of  Monmouth,  Hereford,  Worcester, 
Warwick,  Oxford,  Berks,  Wilts,  and  Somerset. 
With  a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of  64  by  43 
miles,  and  an  area  of  1258  sq.  m.,  it  offers  a  very 
irregular  outline.  There  are  three  well-marked 
divisions,  each  with  its  natural  characteristics — 
the  Hill,  the  Vale,  and  the  Forest.  The  first  is 
formed  by  the  Coteswold  Hills  (q.v.),  whose 
highest  point  is  Cleeve  Hill  (1134  feet);  the 
second,  comprising  the  Vales  of  Gloucester  and 
Berkeley,  by  the  low  rich  meadow-lands  lying 
along  the  Severn  ;  and  the  third,  to  the  west  of 
the  Severn,  by  the  Forest  of  Dean  (q.v.).  The 
principal  rivers  are  the  Severn,  Wye,  Upper  and 
Lower  Avon,  and  Thames,  which  receives  all  the 
waters  east  of  the  Coteswolds.  Permanent  pas- 
ture and  corn-crops  occupy  more  than  two-thirds 
of  the  entire  area.  Gloucestershire  is  famous  as 
a  dairy  country,  and  raises  large  numbers  of 
cattle.  The  well-known  double  and  single 
Glo'ster  cheese  is  produced  in  the  Vale  of  Berke- 
ley. The  orchards  yield  great  quantities  of 
cider ;  and  woods  and  plantations  cover  82  sq. 
m.  Building-stone  is  plentiful ;  and  there  are 
two  rich  coalfields— that  of  Bristol  in  the  SW., 
and  the  Forest  of  Dean  in  the  W. ;  but  the  iron- 
works are  of  less  importance  than  formerly. 
The  woollen  manufacture  is  of  ancient  standing. 
Gloucestershire  since  1885  contains  the  parlia- 
mentary boroughs  of  Gloucester  and  Cheltenham, 
with  part  of  Bristol,  and  five  parliamentary 
divisions— Mid  or  Stroud,  North  or  Tewkesbury, 
East  or  Cirencester,  Forest  of  Dean,  and  South 
or  Thornbury.  Pop.  (1801)  250,723 ;  (1881)  572,433 ; 
(1891)  599,947  ;  (1901)  634,729.  See  Worth's  Glou- 
cestershire (1888),  and  larger  works  there  cited. 

Gloversvllle,  a  town  of  New  York,  53  miles 
NW.  of  Albany.  It  manufactures  buckskin  and 
other  gloves.    Pop.  (1880)  7133  ;  (1900)  18,349. 

GlUChov,  a  Russian  town,  112  miles  E.  of 
Tchernigoff.    Pop.  16,440. 

Gliickstadt,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Sleswick-Holstein,  on  the  Elbe's  right  bank, 
32  miles  NW.  of  Hamburg.  Founded  in  1616  by 
Christian  IV.  of  Denmark,  it  is  a  pretty  town, 
regularly  built,  and  intersected  by  canals,  its  chief 
building  the  Rathhaus  (1642).  Its  harbour,  much 
improved  since  1880,  remains  open  in  winter,  when 
the  Elbe  higher  up  is  frozen.    Pop.  6483. 

Glukhov.    See  Gluchov. 

Gmiind,  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  in  the  fertile 
valley  of  the  Rems,  30  miles  E.  of  Stuttgart  by 
rail.  It  manufacturesjewels  and  hardware.  Pop. 
about  20,000. 

Gmunaen  (Ge-moon'den,  g  being  hard),  a  town 
of  Upper  Austria,  159  miles  W.  of  Vienna  by  rail. 
It  lies  1439  feet  above  sea-level,  amid  the  grand- 
est scenery  of  the  Salzkammergut,  at  the  lower 


end  of  the  Traunsee  or  Lake  Graunden  (8  by  2 
miles),  above  which  towers  the  Traunstein  (5536 
feet).  It  is  a  favourite  summer  bathing-place. 
Near  it  are  salt-mines.    Pop.  7150. 

Gnesen  (Polish  Gniezno),  a  Prussian  town, 
situated  in  a  region  of  hills  and  lakes,  31  miles 
ENE.  of  Posen  by  rail.  It  has  a  Catholic 
cathedral  (965),  till  1320  the  coronation -place  of 
the  Polish  kings.    Pop.  21,700. 

Goa,  a  Portuguese  possession  on  the  west  coast 
of  India,  250  miles  SSE.  of  Bombay,  with  an  area 
of  1469  sq.  m.,  and  a  population  of  475,500. 
A  hilly  country,  bounded  on  the  east  by  the 
Western  GhAts,  the  territory  is  watered  by  nu- 
merous rivers.  Half  the  land  under  cultivation, 
which  embraces  a  third  of  the  entire  area,  is 
devoted  to  rice  ;  stately  forests  cover  nearly  a 
fourth  of  the  remainder.  Captured  by  Albu- 
querque in  1510,  'Golden  Goa'  reached  by  the 
end  of  the  century  a  high  pitch  of  military  and 
ecclesiastical  splendour  and  commercial  pros- 
perity. The  decline  of  the  Portuguese  power 
quickly  followed  the  appearance  of  the  Dutch, 
and  in  1759  the  city  of  Old  Goa,  once  the  chief 
emporium  of  trade  between  the  east  and  west, 
was  deserted  by  all  but  its  ecclesiastical  inhabit- 
ants, and  left  to  the  decay  in  which  it  has  since 
lain.  Its  former  pop.  of  200,000  has  sunk  to  less 
than  1900  ;  its  arsenal,  its  palaces,  its  quays,  even 
many  of  its  churches  are  in  ruins,  their  sites 
covered  with  cocoa-nut  plantations,  and  the 
streets  overrun  with  grass.  Among  the  edifices 
that  survive  are  the  majestic  archiepiscopal 
cathedral,  and  the  splendid  church  of  Bom  Jesus, 
containing  the  magnificent  tomb  of  St  Francis 
Xavier. — The  new  capital  is  Nova  Goa  or  Panjim, 
nearer  the  sea,  on  the  Mandavi,  3  miles  from  its 
mouth.  It  presents  a  picturesque  appearance ; 
its  streets  are  wide  and  clean  ;  and  new  harbour 
and  railway  works  were  inaugurated  on  31st 
October  1882.  The  public  buildings  include  the 
viceregal  palace  and  spacious  barracks,  one  wing 
of  which  accommodates  the  national  lyceum,  the 
public  library,  and  a  college  for  practical  sciences. 
Pop.  8440.  See  works  by  Fonseca  (1878)  and  Lady 
Burton  (1879). 

Goalanda,  a  town  of  Bengal,  on  a  tongue  of  land 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Ganges  and  Brahmaputra, 
is  an  important  river-trade  entrepot,  the  Bengal 
Railway  terminus,  and  the  starting-point  of  the 
Assam  steamers.    Pop.  8652. 

Goalpara,  a  town  of  As.sam,  on  the  Brahma- 
putra.   Pop.  6700. 

Goatfell,  the  highest  point  (2866  feet)  of  Arran, 
3J  miles  NNW.  of  Brodick. 

Gobi,  Desert  of.    See  Asia. 

God'alming,  a  borough  of  Surrey,  34  miles  SW. 
of  London.  Hither  in  1872  was  removed  from 
London  the  Charterhouse  public  school,  founded 
in  1611  by  Thomas  Sutton  on  the  site  of  a 
Chartreuse  or  Carthusian  monastery.  Among 
its  scholars  have  been  Addison,  Steele,  Wesley, 
Thackeray,  Leech,  Thirlwall,  Eastlake,  and  Helps. 
The  new  school  forms  a  quadrangle,  with  a  gate- 
house tower  130  feet  high,  and  a  chapel  rich  in 
stained  glass.  Pop.  8797.  See  works  by  Dr 
Haig  Brown  (1879)  and  Eardley-Wilmot  (1894). 

Goda'vari,  the  largest  river  of  the  Deccan, 
rises  within  50  miles  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  and 
flows  898  miles  south-east  across  the  peninsula  to 
the  Bay  of  Bengal,  entering  it  by  seven  mouths. 
Where  by  a  rocky  gorge  the  river  bursts  through 
the  barrier  of  the  Eastern  Ghats,  its  picturesque 
scenery  has  earned  for  it  the  name  of  the  Indian 


GODERICH 


303 


GONBOKORO 


. 


Rhine.  The  magnificent  anient  or  dam  at  the 
head  of  the  delta  throws  off  three  main  irri- 
gating canals  which  turn  the  entire  delta  into  a 
great  garden.  The  upper  navigation  is  impeded 
by  three  impassable  rocky  barriers  or  rapids 
within  a  space  of  150  miles  ;  the  works  under- 
taken in  1S61  to  get  rid  of  them  were  abandoned 
ten  years  later.  The  Godavari  is  one  of  the 
twelve  sacred  rivers  of  India,  and  the  great 
bathing  festival,  called  Pushkaram,  is  held  on  its 
banks  once  in  twelve  years. 

Goderlch  (God'er-itch),  a  port  of  entry  of  Ontario, 
on  Lake  Huron,  160  miles  WNW.  of  BuflTalo  by 
rail,  with  a  good  harbour,  factories  and  mills,  and 
eight  salt-wells.    Pop.  4164. 

Goderich  Castle.    See  Goodrich. 

Crodesberg,  a  village  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on 
the  Rhine,  4  miles  8.  of  Bonn,  It  has  a  mineral 
spring,  and  a  ruined  castle  (1213).    Pop.  8901. 

Godmanchester (Gum'sester).  See  H untingdon. 

GodoUo,  a  town  of  Hungary,  15  miles  NE.  of 
Pesth,  with  a  castle  and  park  presented  by  the 
Hungarians  in  1867  to  their  king,  the  emperor  of 
Austria-Hungary.    Pop.  3940, 

Godolphin,  a  Cornish  manor,  5J  miles  NW,  of 
Helston,  It  was  the  seat  of  the  Godolphins  from 
the  Conquest  until  1785, 

Godthaab.    See  Greenland, 

Godwin-Austen,  the  second  highest  peak  in 
the  world,  is  situated  in  the  Himalayan  system, 
in  the  western  range  that  is  crossed  in  the  east 
by  the  Karakorum  Pass,  Its  height  is  28,250 
feet.  Formerly  known  only  by  the  sign  K2,  it 
was  named  in  1888  after  Lieut. -colonel  Godwin- 
Austen  of  the  Trigonometrical  Survey  of  India. 

Goes  (Hoos),  or  Ter  Goes,  a  Dutch  town  in 
South  Beveland,  16  miles  NE.  of  Flushing.  Pop. 
7000. 

Gogmagog  Hills,  a  range  of  hillocks,  4  miles 
SE.  of  Cambridge. 

Gogo,  a  decayed  seaport  of  India,  in  the  pen- 
insula of  Kathiawar,  and  on  the  Gulf  of  Cambay, 
193  miles  NW.  of  Bombay.     Pop.  7003. 

Gogra,  or  Ghaora,  a  river  flowing  600  miles 
SE.  to  the  Ganges  at  Chapra. 

Godstow,  a  ruined  nimnery  (1138)  with  Fair 
Rosamond's  grave,  on  the  Isis,  3^  miles  NNW.  of 
Oxford. 

Gohelwar',  or  Gohelwad,  a  tract  of  country 
in  Bombay  presidency,  comprising  several  tribu- 
tary states,  and  lying  along  the  Gulf  of  Cambay, 
on  the  eastern  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar, 

Goil,  Loch,  a  picturesque  loch  in  Argyllshire, 
a  branch  of  Loch  Long,  is  6  miles  long  and  less 
than  1  mile  broad.  The  mountains  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood rise  to  the  height  of  more  than  2000 
feet. — Lochgoilhead,  20  miles  NNW.  of  Green- 
ock, is  a  favourite  summer  watering-place. 

Gd'chika,  a  small  port  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Yenisei  (q.v.). 

Golconda,  an  extensive  fortress  of  the  Nizam, 
situated  on  a  granite  ridge,  7  miles  W.  of  Hyder- 
abad. In  its  neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of  an 
ancient  city,  till  1687  the  metropolis  of  a  power- 
ful kingdom.  Golconda  is  proverbially  famous 
for  its  diamonds  ;  but,  in  truth,  they  were  merely 
cut  and  polished  here. 

Goldau,  formerly  a  small  town  of  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Schwyz,  is  memorable  for  its  destruc- 
tion by  a  stupendous  landslip,  2d  September  1806. 

Goldberg,  a  town  of  Pnissian  Silesia,  on  the 


Katzbach,  13  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Llegnitz.  It 
owes  both  origin  and  name  to  its  Ibrmer  rich 
gold-mines.     Pop.  6786. 

Gold  Coast,  a  British  crown  colony  and  pro- 
tectorate on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  with  a  coast-line 
of  about  350  miles,  is  bounded  east  by  German 
Togoland,  west  by  the  French  Ivory  Coast,  and 
north  by  the  French  Soudan.  The  area,  includ- 
ing Adansi  and  Aslianti,  is  about  74,000  sq.  miles, 
with  a  pop.  of  1,490,000  (640  Europeans).  The 
chief  towns  are  Accra  (14,840),  Cape  Coast  Castle 
(28,950),  Elmina  (3970),  Kwitta,  Saltpond,  Win- 
neba,  Axim,  and  Akuse.  Aslianti  came  under 
British  i)rotection  in  1896,  and  in  1901,  with  th§ 
Northern  Territories,  was  definitely  annexed. 
The  principal  exports  are  palm  kernels  and  oil, 
india-rubber,  gold-dust,  ivory,  and  monkey  skins ; 
but  cocoa-nuts,  copra,  coffee.  Calabar  beans,  corn, 
ground-nuts,  Guinea  grains,  ginger,  cam-wood, 
gum  copal,  tobacco,  and  porcupine  quills  are  also 
l)roduced.  The  climate  on  the  low  and  swampy 
coast  is  very  unhealthy,  but  is  better  inland. 
The  exports  and  imports  have  an  annual  value 
of  £875,000  and  £1,300,000  respectively.  In  1902 
nearly  £18,000  was  spent  on  roads  ;  there  are  720 
miles  of  telegraph  lines  in  operation,  and  a  rail- 
way was  opened  to  Cooniassie  in  1903.  See  Ellis, 
History  of  the  Gold  Coast  (1893),  and  Lucas,  British 
Colonies,  vol.  iii.  (1895), 

Golden  Gate,  a  channel  2  miles  wide,  the  en- 
trance to  the  magnificent  Bay  of  San  Francisco. 

Golden  Horn,     See  Constantinople. 

Gold  Hill,  a  town  of  Nevada,  7000  feet  above 
the  sea,  and  1  mile  S.  of  Virginia  City,  with  rich 
silver-mines,  and  quartz-mills.  Here,  on  Mount 
Davidson,  is  the  famous  Comstock  Lode. 

Goletta  (Fr,  La  Goulette),  the  former  port  of 
Tunis,  from  which  it  is  11  miles  N.  by  rail.  It 
has  lost  much  of  its  importance  since  the  opening 
in  1893  of  the  ship-channel  from  it  across  the 
lagoon  to  the  capital.    Pop,  3000. 

Gollnitz,  or  Gollniczbanya,  a  town  of  Hun- 
gary, 17  miles  SW,  of  Eperies,  It  has  iron  and 
copper  mines,  and  ironworks.     Pop.  4353. 

GoUnow,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  Pomerania,  15 
miles  NE.  of  Stettin.    Pop.  8430. 

Golspie,  a  Sutherland  coast-village,  84  miles  by 
rail  N.  by  E.  of  Inverness.     Pop.  1025, 

Gombroon',  or  Bender  Abbas,  a  seaport  of 
Persia,  on  the  Strait  and  the  island  of  Ormuz. 
It  owes  its  name  Bender  Abbas  to  Shah  Abbas, 
who,  assisted  by  the  English,  drove  the  Portu- 
guese in  1622  from  Ormuz,  ruined  that  seaport, 
and  transferred  its  commerce  to  Gombroon. 
For  a  while  the  new  town  prospered ;  but  at 
present  it  is  a  wretched  place.     Pop.  8000. 

Gome'ra,  one  of  the  Canary  Islands  (q.v.). 

Gom'etra,  an  Argyllshire  island,  measuring  2 
miles  by  1,  W.  of  Ulva,     Pop.  53.  • 

Gomorrah,    See  Sodom  and  Gomorrah, 

Gomul,    See  Zhob, 

Gonaives,  a  seaport  of  Hayti,  on  the  W.  coast, 
65  miles  NNW.  of  Port  au  Prince.     Pop.  18,000, 

Gondar,  capital  of  Amhara  in  Abyssinia,  is 
situated  on  a  basaltic  hill  23  miles  N.  of  Lake 
Tzana.  It  was  formerly  the  capital  of  Abyssinia, 
with  50,000  inhabitants  ;  now  barely  4000,  though 
there  are  still  some  forty  churches. 

Gondo'koro,  a  trading-post  (for  ivory,  &c,)  in 
the  country  of  the  Bari  negroes,  on  the  Upper 
Nile,  in  about  4°  54'  N,  lat.  To  put  down  the 
slave-trade  Baker  established  a  strong  military 


GOOD  HOPE 


304 


GOSHEN 


station  here  in  1871 ;  later  Gordon  removed  the 
station  to  Lado,  6  miles  lower  down  the  Nile. 

Good  Hope.    See  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Goodrich  Castle,  a  stately  ruin  in  Hereford- 
shire, on  the  Wye,  4  miles  SSW.  of  Ross.  Good- 
rich Court  is  the  seat  of  the  Meyricks. 

Goodwin  Sands,  famous  sandbanks  stretching 
10  miles  NE.  and  SW.  at  an  average  distance  of 
5  J  miles  from  the  east  coast  of  Kent.  Large  level 
patches  of  sand  are  left  dry  when  the  tide  re- 
cedes, and  afford  a  finn  foothold,  so  that  cricket 
has  often  been  played  upon  them.  When  covered 
the  sands  are  shifting,  and  may  be  moved  by  the 
prevailing  tide  to  such  an  extent  as  to  consider- 
ably change  the  form  of  the  shoal ;  still,  the 
general  outline  has  been  fairly  constant.  The 
shoal  is  divided  into  the  North  and  the  South 
Goodwin,  between  which  is  the  deep  anchorage 
named  Trinity  Bay.  These  sands,  which  are 
marked  by  four  lightships,  have  always  been 
dangerous  to  vessels  passing  through  the  Strait 
of  Dover.  They  serve  as  a  breakwater  to  form  a 
secure  anchorage  in  the  Downs  (q.v.)when  ea.sterly 
or  south-easterly  winds  are  blowing ;  but  when 
the  wind  blows  strongly  off-shore,  ships  are  apt 
to  drag  their  anchors,  and  to  strand  upon  the 
perfidious  Goodwins.  Many  wrecks  have  taken 
place  here,  the  most  terrible  the  loss  of  an  entire 
fleet  of  thirteen  men-of-war,  during  the  '  great 
storm'  on  the  night  of  26th  November  1703. 
These  dangerous  sands  are  said  to  have  once  been 
a  low  fertile  island  called  Lomea  (Infera  Insula  of 
the  Romans),  belonging  to  Earl  Godwin  ;  but  in 
1014,  and  again  in  1099,  it  was  overwhelmed  by  a 
sudden  inundation  of  the  sea.  The  tale  is  that 
at  the  period  of  the  Conquest  these  estates  were 
taken  from  Earl  Godwin's  son,  and  bestowed  upon 
the  abbey  of  St  Augustine  at  Canterbury.  The 
abbot  having  diverted  the  funds  with  which  the 
sea-wall  should  have  been  maintained  to  the 
building  of  Tenterden  (q.v.)  steeple,  in  1099  the 
waves  rushed  in  ;  and  thus  '  Tenterden  steeple 
was  the  cause  of  the  Goodwin  Sands. '  But  geology 
indicates  a  date  long  anterior.  See  Gattie, 
Memorials  of  the  Goodwin  Sands  (1889). 

Goodwood,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Richmond, 
3^  miles  NE.  of  Chichester.  An  18th-century 
building  by  Chambers  and  Wyatt,  it  has  a  notable 
collection  of  portraits ;  and  its  park  is  famous 
for  its  cedars  and  other  trees,  which  in  1754  in- 
cluded thirty  different  kinds  of  oaks  and  400 
different  American  trees  and  shrubs.  Here  is 
the  picturesque  racecourse,  where  the  famous 
Goodwood  meeting  is  held  at  the  end  of  July, 
at  the  close  of  the  London  season.  It  was  estab- 
lished in  1802  ;  but  its  importance  (since  1825) 
was  due  to  Lord  George  Bentinck. 

Goole,  a  town  and  river-port  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  at  the  junction  of  the  Ouse 
with  the  Don,  22  miles  SSE.  of  York.  It  has 
grown  rapidly  since  1829,  and  now  ranks  amongst 
the  chief  ports  of  the  kingdom,  its  extensive 
docks  being  annually  entered  and  cleared  by 
some  4600  vessels  of  over  1,100,000  tons  burden. 
The  annual  value  of  the  imports  amounts  to 
about  4J  millions  sterling,  of  the  exports  to  more 
than  4|  millions.  Amongst  the  imports  are 
shoddy  for  manufacturing  purposes,  oil,  logwood, 
timber,  champagne,  farm-produce,  and  groceries. 
Coal,  cloth,  and  machinery  are  amongst  the  chief 
exports.  There  are  iron-foundries,  alum,  sugar, 
and  cordage  manufactories,  ship  and  boat  build- 
ing yards,  and  establishments  for  sail-making 
and  agricultural  machine-making.  Pop.  (1851) 
4722  ;  (1891)  15,168  ;  (1901)  16,576. 


Goppingen,  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  26  miles 
by  rail  ESE.  of  Stuttgart,  has  a  16th-century 
castle,  a  mineral  spring,  and  manufactures  of 
woollens,  paper,  toys,  &c.    Pop.  19,352. 

Gorakhpur,  a  town  in  the  North-west  Provinces 
of  India,  on  the  Rapti,  430  miles  NW.  of  Calcutta. 
Pop.  65,000. 

Gordon  Bennett,  Mount,  an  African  mountain 
seen  by  Stanley  in  1875.  It  lies  S.  of  Albert 
Nyanza,  a  little  N.  of  the  equator  and  E.  of  30°  E. 
long.  Sometimes  snow-covered,  it  is  a  truncated 
cone,  probably  an  extinct  crater,  and  rises  14,000 
or  15,000  feet.   See  Ruwenzori. 

Gordon  Castle.    See  Fochabers. 

Goree,  a  small  island  of  French  Senegal,  S.  of 
Cape  Verd,  is  almost  entirely  covered  by  the  town 
of  Goree  (pop.  2200),  whose  commerce  has  been 
transferred  to  Dakar  the  mainland. 

Gorey,  a  municipal  borough  of  County  Wex- 
ford, 59  miles  S.  of  Dublin  by  rail,  and  3  from  St 
George's  Channel.    Pop.  2000. 

Gorgonzola,  a  village  of  Italy,  12  miles  NE.  of 
Milan,  with  a  fine  church  and  trade  in  a  special 
kind  of  cheese.    Pop.  4300. 

Gorkum  (Dutch  Gorinchem),  a  fortified  town 
of  South  Holland,  on  the  Merwede,  22  miles  ESE. 
of  Rotterdam,  possesses  an  arsenal.     Pop.  11,519. 

Gorleston,  a  Suffolk  suburb  of  Yarmouth. 

Gorlitz,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Neisse,  49  miles  W.  of  Liegnitz. 
One  of  its  old  mural  towers,  the  Kaisertrutz,  is 
now  the  guard-house  and  armoury.  Among  the 
beautiful  Gothic  churches  is  that  of  SS.  Peter  and 
Paul  (1423-97),  with  five  naves.  There  are  monu- 
ments of  Prince  Frederick  Charles  of  Prussia  (1891) 
and  the  Emperor  William  (1893) ;  and  outside  the 
town  is  the  Kreuzkapelle  (1489),  an  imitation  of 
the  Holy  Sepulchre  at  Jerusalem.  A  railway 
viaduct,  2720  feet  long  and  118  high,  here  crosses 
the  Neisse's  valley.  Gorlitz  has  manufactures  of 
cloth,  which  is  its  staple,  cotton,  linen,  and  fictile 
wares,  with  iron-foundries  and  machine-shops. 
Here  Jacob  Boehme  lived  and  died.  Pop.  (1843) 
15,200  ;  (1890)  62,135  ;  (1900)  80,931. 

Gorton,  a  south-eastern  suburb  of  Manchester. 

Gorz  (Girts),  capital  of  the  Austrian  province 
of  Gorz-Gradisca,  in  the  KUstenland,  in  a  fruitful 
plain,  35  miles  NNW.  of  Trieste  by  rail.  Shut 
in  by  mountains  on  all  sides  except  the  south,  it 
enjoys  an  almost  Italian  climate,  and  has  some 
fame  as  a  health-resort.  Among  its  principal 
buildings  are  the  old  castle  and  the  former  Jesuit 
college,  both  now  used  as  barracks ;  the  cathedral ; 
and  the  prince-bishop's  palace.  Gbrz's  specialty 
has  long  been  the  printing  of  Hebrew  books  for 
the  East.  There  are  dyeworks,  and  important 
manufactures  of  flour,  sugar,  cotton,  silks,  roso- 
glio,  paper,  leather,  soap,  and  matches.  In  a 
Franciscan  cloister  close  by  are  the  graves  of 
Charles  X.  of  France,  the  Due  d'Angoulerae  and 
his  wife,  and  the  Comte  de  Chambord.  Pop. 
26,750. 

Gosford,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Wemyss,  6 
miles  NW.  of  Haddington. 

Goshen,  that  part  of  ancient  Egypt  which 
Pharaoh  presented  to  Joseph's  kindred,  appears 
to  have  lain  between  the  eastern  delta  of  the 
Nile  and  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  as  far  south  as  the 
modern  Ismailia. — Goshen  was  the  name  given 
to  a  part  of  Bechuanaland,  South  Africa  (now 
British),  which  in  1884  was  the  seat  of  a  mush- 
room Boer  republic. 


GOSHEN 


305 


GOUROCK 


Goshen,  the  capital  of  Elkhart  county,  Indi- 
ana, on  the  Elkhart  River,  111  miles  E.  by  S.  of 
Chicago.     Pop.  7820. 

Guslar,  an  ancient  town  of  Hanover,  on  the 
north  slope  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  27  miles  SB. 
of  Hildesheim.  At  one  time  a  free  imperial  city, 
and  the  residence  of  the  emperors,  it  has  the 
'  Zwinger '  tower,  with  walls  23  feet  thick ;  the 
emperor's  house  (1050),  the  town-house  (1136-84), 
and  the  Kaiserworth,  an  old  building  containing 
statues  of  eiglit  emperors.  Goslar  was  founded 
by  Henry  I.  in  920.  About  1350  it  joined  the 
Hanseatic  League.  It  suffered  severely  in  tlie 
TJiirty  Years'  War.  Here  were  born  the  Emperor 
Henry  IV.  and  Maurice  of  Saxony.  Pop.  16,690. 
Gospie,  a  town  of  Croatia,  Austria-Hungary,  14 
miles  from  tlie  Adriatic.    Pop.  11,000. 

Gosport  ('God's  port'),  a  seaport  of  Hants,  on 
the  west  shore  of  Portsmouth  liarbour,  directly 
opposite  Portsmouth,  with  wliich  it  is  connected 
by  a  floating  bridge.  Here  are  an  iron-foundry 
for  making  anchors  and  cliain  -  cables,  naval 
powder-magazines,  barracks,  tlie  Clarence  victual- 
ling-yard, and  Haslar  Naval  Hospital  (1746).  Pop. 
(1851)  7414  ;  (1901,  with  Alverstoke)  28,884. 

Gosselies,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Hainaut, 
Belgium,  4  miles  N.  of  Charleroi.    Pop.  10,050. 

Gotha  (Go'ta),  a  town  of  Germany,  alternately 
with  Coburg  the  capital  of  the  duchy  of  Saxe- 
Coburg-Gotha,  stands  31  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Weimar, 
on  the  northern  outskirt  of  the  Thuringian  Forest. 
The  castle  of  Friedenstein,  rebuilt  in  1648  on  a 
rock  78  feet  above  the  town,  contains  a  library  of 
200,000  volumes  and  6000  MSS.  The  new  museum 
(1878),  in  the  Renaissance  style,  includes  the  pic- 
ture-gallery, a  natural  history  collection,  &c.  A 
new  observatory  was  built  in  1874.  Gotha  is  an 
active  industrial  town,  the  principal  manufac- 
tures being  shoes,  fire-engine  pipes,  sugar,  toys, 
and  sausages.  Many  designers,  engravers,  print- 
ers, and  map-colourers  are  employed  in  the  large 
geographical  establishment  of  Perthes,  which  also 
publishes  tlie  Almanack  de  Gotha.  Population, 
35,000.    See  Saxe-Coburg-Gotha. 

Gotham,  a  Nottinghamshire  village,  7  miles 
SSW.  of  Nottingham,  whose  inhabitants  from  at 
least  Henry  VI.  's  time  were  reputed  to  be  fools. 
Gothard.  See  St  Gothaed. 
Gothenburg  (usually  pron.  Gotenhurg ;  Swed. 
Goteborg),  next  to  Stockholm  the  most  important 
town  of  Sweden,  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gota, 
284  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Stockholm,  Although 
originally  founded  by  Gustavus  Adolphus  in 
1618-21,  the  town,  in  consequence  of  jiumerous 
fires,  is  quite  modern— regularly  built  and  clean, 
with  several  canals,  crossed  by  numerous  bridges, 
and  an  excellent  harbour  seldom  obstructed 
by  ice.  The  few  buildings  which  deserve  special 
mention  are  the  exchange,  cathedral,  town-hall, 
museum  (art,  zoology,  industry),  and  a  fine  gar- 
den belonging  to  the  Horticultural  Society.  The 
industries  embrace  shipbuilding,  iron-working, 
sugar-refining,  the  brewing  of  porter,  and  her- 
ring-fishing. During  the  Continental  blockade 
of  1806,  Gothenburg  became  the  chief  British 
depot  in  northern  Europe.  The  town  has  given 
its  name  to  the  much-debated  Gothenburg  Licens- 
ing System,  which  originated  here  in  1865.  All 
the  wine  and  spirit  shops  are  kept  by  a  company 
licensed  by  the  town  authorities,  and  are  con- 
ducted by  salaried  managers  ;  all  profits  remain- 
ing after  the  company  has  been  allowed  5  per 
cent,  on  its  capital  go  into  the  town  treasury. 
Pop.  (1877)  71,707  ;  (1890)  104,657;  (1900)  130,619. 


Gothland  (Swed.  Gdtaland  and  GotaHke),  the 
southernmost  of  the  three  old  provinces  of 
Sweden,  with  an  area  of  35,803  sq.  m.  and  a 
pop.  of  2,595,194.— (2)  A  Swedish  island  (Swed. 
Gottland)  in  the  Baltic,  44  miles  E.  from 
the  mainland,  constitutes  with  Faro,  Gotska 
Sando,  and  other  smaller  islands  the  province 
of  Gottland  or  Wisby.  Area,  1217  sq.  m.  The 
island  consists  mainly  of  ten-ace-like  slopes  of 
limestone,  encircled  on  the  west  by  cliffs  broken 
by  numerous  deep  fjords.  Next  to  agriculture, 
the  chief  occupations  of  the  inhabitants,  55,074 
in  1892,  are  shipping,  fishing,  seal-fishing,  fowling, 
and  lime-burning.  In  the  middle  ages,  and  till 
1645,  the  island  belonged  to  the  German  Han- 
seatic League.     The  capital  is  Wisby. 

Gottingen  (Golf  ting -en),  a  town  in  the  former 
kingdom  of  Hanover,  lies  538  feet  above  sea- 
level  in  the  Leine's  wide  valley,  encircled  by 
gentle  hills— the  highest,  the  Hainberg  (1246 
feet).  By  rail  it  is  67  miles  S.  of  Hanover,  and 
36  NE.  of  Cassel.  The  ramparts,  long  since 
outgroAvn,  and  now  planted  with  lindens,  form 
a  charming  promenade  ;  but  architecturally  Got- 
tingen has  nothing  much  to  boast  of— a  quaint 
rathhaits,  a  statue  of  William  IV.,  and  a  few 
antique  buildings,  one  of  which,  the  Jacobikirche, 
has  a  steeple  320  feet  high.  The  celebrated  uni- 
versity was  founded  1734-37  by  Baron  Miinch- 
hausen,  under  the  auspices  of  George  II.,  Elector 
of  Hanover  and  king  of  England,  and  now  has 
120  professors  and  more  than  800  students.  Con- 
nected with  it  are  the  library  (500,000  vols,  and 
5000  MSS.),  museum,  botanic  garden,  observatory, 
laboratory,  hospital,  &c.,  as  also  the  Royal  Society 
(1750).  Coleridge,  Beddoes,  Pusey,  Lever,  Long- 
fellow, Motley,  Ticknor,  and  Bancroft  studied  at 
Gottingen,  whose  native  alumni  include  many  of 
Germany's  most  famous  sons,  among  them  Prince 
Bismarck,  in  whose  honour  a  tower  was  built  in 
1894.  The  'Gottinger  Dichterbund '  was  a  small 
poet  band  (Voss,  the  two  Stolbergs,  Klopstock, 
Burger,  &c.) ;  by  the  '  Gottinger  Sieben '  are  meant 
the  seven  professors  (Albrecht,  Dahlmann,  Ewald, 
Gervinus,  the  two  Grimms,  and  Weber)  who  for 
their  liberal  tendencies  were  in  1837  expelled  by 
King  Ernest  Augustus.  The  book-trade  is  of  more 
importance  than  the  manufactures  —  woollens, 
sugar,  chemicals,  &c.  Pop.  (1875)  17,057 :  (1890) 
23,689  ;  (1900)  30,234. 

Gouda  (Dutch  pron.  Hou'da),  or  Ter  Gouwe, 
a  town  of  South  Holland,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Hollaendsche  Yssel,  13  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Rot- 
terdam. The  church  of  St  John  has  seventy-five 
magnificent  stained-glass  windows,  which  were 
executed  between  1560  and  1603  by  the  brothers 
Crabeth.  The  organ,  too,  has  a  fine  vox  humana 
stop.  Gouda,  which  has  memories  of  Erasmus, 
was  formerly  famous  for  its  clay-pipes,  and  is 
now  notable  on  account  of  its  brickworks  and 
stearine  candle  factory.  It  has  a  large  trade  in 
butter  and  Gouda  cheese.    Pop.  22,535. 

Goulbum,  a  town  of  New  South  Wales,  134 
miles  SW.  of  Sydney  by  rail,  with  tanneries,  boot 
and  shoe  factories,  flour-mills,  and  breweries,  and 
a  busy  trade  in  agricultural  produce.  It  is  a 
substantially  built  town,  with  gas  (1879),  a  good 
water-supply,  a  Gothic  Anglican  cathedral  (1884), 
and  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  college,  and 
convent.    Pop.  10,700. 

Gourock  (Goor'ok),  a  watering-place  of  Ren- 
frewshire, on  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  3  miles  WNW.  of 
Greenock  by  a  railway  opened  in  1889.  At  Kemp- 
och  Point  here,  behind  which  rises  Barrhill  (478 
feet),  stands   'Granny  Kempoch,'  a  prehistoric 


GOVAN 


306 


GRANADA 


monolith  associated  with  the  witches  of  Renfrew- 
shire (1662).  In  1688  the  first  red  herring  ever 
cured  in  Great  Britain  was  cured  at  Gourock. 
Pop. (1841)  2169  ;  (1901)  5261. 

Govan  (Gui/van),  a  police-burgh  (since  1864)  of 
Lanarkshire,  on  the  south  bank  of  tlie  Clyde, 
outside  the  nuuiicipal  boundaries  of  Glasgow, 
but  connected  with  the  city  by  continuous  rows 
of  buildings.  Its  leading  industry  is  shipbuild- 
ing and  engineering.  Govan  Park,  40  acres  in 
extent,  was  gifted  in  1885  by  Mrs  Elder,  at  a 
cost  of  £50,000.  Pop.  (1836)  2122  ;  (1871)  19,200 ; 
(1891)  63,625  ;  (1901)  82,174. 

(Jower,  a  peninsula  forming  the  west  part  of 
Glamorganshire  (q.v.). 

Gowhatty.    See  Assam. 

Gowran,  a  village  in  the  county,  and  8  miles 
B.  of  the  town,  of  Kilkenny.    Pop.  416. 

Gowrie,  Carse  of.    See  Perthshire. 

Goyana,  a  town  of  Brazil,  40  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Pernambuco.    Pop.  15,000. 

Goyaz,  the  central  province  of  Brazil,  falls 
within  the  dry  plateau  region,  rising  in  the  south 
to  an  important  range  of  mountains.  Area, 
287,430  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1888)  211,721,  mostly  half- 
castes.— The  capital,  Goyaz,  on  the  Vermelho,  a 
tributary  of  the  Araguay,  preserves,  in  its  cathe- 
dral and  large  government  buildings,  traces  of 
better  days.    Pop.  8000. 

Gozo  (Roman  Gaulus),  a  British  Mediterranean 
island,  4  miles  NW.  of  Malta,  has,  with  the 
adjacent  smaller  island  of  Comino,  an  area  of 
20  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  19,620.  The  chief  town  is 
Babato,  near  the  centre. 

Graaf-Reinet,  a  town  of  Cape  Colony,  nearly 
girdled  by  the  Sunday  River,  185  miles  N.  of 
Port  Elizabeth  by  rail.     Founded  in  1784,  it  still 

g reserves  the  quaint  characteristics  of  the  old 
lutch  town.  Behind  it  the  Sneeuwberg  Mountains 
rise  to  a  height  of  1000  to  1500  feet.    Pop.  10,100. 

Gradisca,  a  town  of  Austria,  on  the  Isonzo, 
25  miles  NW.  of  Trieste,  which  came  to  Austria 
in  1511,  and  in  1754  was  united  to  Gorz  (q.v.). 
Pop.  4000. 

Graemsay,  an  Orkney  island,  J  mile  S.  of 
Stromness,  measuring  IJ  by  1  mile.    Pop.  195. 

Grafenberg,  a  village  in  the  north-west  corner 
of  Austrian  Silesia,  50  miles  N.  of  Olniutz.  The 
spot  where  the  water-cure  was  introduced  in 
1826  by  Vincenz  Priessnitz  (1799-1851),  it  still  is 
visited  yearly  by  some  1500  persons. 

Grafrath  (Grefrdt),  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
12  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Diisseldorf.    Pop.  6299. 

Grafton,  (1)  a  town  of  New  South  Wales,  350 
miles  NE.  of  Sydney,  on  the  navigable  Clarence 
River,  45  miles  from  the  sea.  The  rich  agricul- 
tural land  in  the  neighbourhood  yields  sugar, 
tobacco,  &c.,  and  gold,  silver,  coal,  and  copper 
are  also  found.  Pop.  4160.— (2)  A  town  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 9  miles  SE.  of  Worcester.    Pop.  4889. 

Gragnano  {Gran-y&'no),  a  town  of  Italy,  20 
miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Naples.    Pop.  14,100. 

Graham's  Land,  an  island  of  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  discovered  by  Biscoe  in  1832,  lies  between 
65°  and  67°  S.  lat.  In  front,  towards  the  north, 
are  a  number  of  islets,  called  Biscoe's  Chain. 

Grahamston.    See  Falkirk. 

Grahamstown,  the  capital  of  the  eastern  prov- 
ince of  Cape  Colony,  stands  near  the  centre  of 
the  maritime  division  of  Albany,  1728  feet  above 
sea-level.  By  rail  it  is  106  miles  NE.  of  Port 
Elizabeth,  and  43  NW.  of  Port  Alfred.    It  is 


the  seat  of  two  bishops— Anglican  and  Roman 
Catholic ;  and  in  its  Anglican  cathedral  is  a 
monument  to  Colonel  Graham,  after  whom  the 
city  was  named  in  1812.  Leather  is  manufac- 
tured, and  among  the  institutions  are  the  museum, 
St  Andrew's  College,  public  library,  hospital,  and 
barracks.  The  population  (one-third  of  it  col- 
oured natives)  is  about  15,000. 

Grahamstown,  New  Zealand.    See  Thames. 

Graian  Alps.    See  Alps. 

Grammichele  (Gram-mi-kd'le),  a  town  of  Sicily, 
33  miles  SW.  of  Catania,  on  a  rnountain-ridge, 
1768  feet  above  sea-level.    Pop.  15,804. 

Grammont  (Fr. ;  Belg.  Geeraerdsbergen),  a 
small  town  in  the  Belgian  province  of  East 
Flanders,  on  the  Dender,  14  miles  by  rail  S.  by 
E.  of  Ghent.    Pop.  12,000. 

Grampians,  a  name  very  loosely  applied  to 
the  mountain-system  of  the  Scottish  Highlands. 
Some,  for  instance,  restrict  it  to  a  'chain'  of 
heights  bordering  the  Lowland  plain  from  Dum- 
barton to  Stonehaven,  whilst  others  include  a 
'  range '  extending  from  Stonehaven  to  Ben  Nevis, 
as  well  as  the  Cairngorm  group,  Schiehallion,  &c. 
Hector  Boece  adopted  the  name  in  1527  from 
Tacitus's  Mons  Grampius  or  Graupius,  the  scene 
in  86  A.D.  of  Agricola's  crushing  defeat  of  Gal- 
gacus.  Where  that  battle  was  fought  has  itself 
been  hotly  contested.  Ardoch,  Dalginross,  near 
Comrie,  and  Urie,  near  Stonehaven,  are  among 
the  sites  named,  but  Dr  Skene  prefers  the  pen- 
insula formed  by  the  Isla's  junction  with  the 
Tay.— Grampians  is  also  the  name  of  a  range 
of  Australian  mountains,  rising  to  5600  feet,  in 
the  west  of  Victoria  (q.v.). 

Grampound,  a  decaved  Cornish  market-town, 
7  miles  SW.  of  St  Austell.    Pop.  495. 

Gran,  a  royal  free-town  of  Hungary,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube,  here  crossed  by  a 
bridge  of  boats,  25  miles  NW.  of  Pesth,  and 
opposite  the  mouth  of  the  river  Gran  (length, 
150  miles).  Its  great  domed  cathedral  (1821-56), 
on  the  castle  hill,  rivals  in  its  magnificent  pro- 
portions St  Peter's  at  Rome.  Near  is  the  palace 
of  the  prince-archbishop,  who  is  primate  of  Hun- 
Igary.  The  warm  mineral  springs  of  Gran  liave 
also  some  fame.  Pop.  16,950.  Here  St  Stephen, 
the  first  king,  was  born  in  979,  and  baptised  and 
crowned  in  1000 ;  soon  it  became  the  greatest  com- 
mercial town  in  the  kingdom,  but  never  recovered 
from  the  storming  by  the  Tartars  in  1241.  The 
old  name,  Istrogranum  ('  Danube  grain-town  'X 
appears  now  in  the  Magyar  Esztergom. 

Grana'da,  an  ancient  Moorish  kingdom  of 
Spain,  embracing  the  south-eastern  portion  of 
Andalusia,  and  now  divided  into  the  three  modern 
provinces  of  Granada,  Almeria,  and  Malaga. 
Area,  over  11,000  sq.  m.,  with  a  population  of 
1,500,000.  Except  in  the  narrow  strip  of  coast- 
region  along  the  Mediterranean,  the  surface  is 
a  succession  of  mountain  and  plateau  rising  in 
the  centre  to  the  snow-capped  Sierra  Nevada; 
but  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  ancient  Granada, 
which  became  an  independent  kingdom  after  the 
fall  of  the  caliphate  of  Cordova  in  1236,  supported 
a  population  of  3  millions,  and  sent  100,000  men 
into  the  field,  but  in  1492  was  conquered  by 
the  Spaniards.  Area  of  the  modern  province,  4928 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1877)  479,066  ;  (1900)  492,460. 

Granada,  the  town,  has  sadly  declined  since 
the  days  of  its  Moorish  masters,  but  still  ranks 
as  one  of  the  larger  cities  of  Spain.  It  lies  at 
the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  on  and  between 
two  hills,  the  southernmost  being  the  site  of 


GRANADA 


307 


GRANT  LAND 


the  famous  Alhambra  (q.v.),  and  is  2245  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  126  (by  rail  179)  miles  E.  by 
S.  of  Seville.  It  overlooks  a  fertile  and  extensive 
plain,  and  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Jenil. 
The  modern  town  is  commonplace  and  dull, 
with  wide  streets  and  open  squares ;  but  the 
old  houses,  with  their  flat  roofs,  turrets,  parti- 
coloured awnings,  balconies,  and  fountains,  pre- 
serve a  half  oriental  aspect,  and  the  labyrinths 
of  narrow,  tortuous,  ill-paved,  ancient  streets 
offer  picturesque  views.  Granada  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishop,  and  has  a  university  (1531)  attended 
by  nearly  1000  students.  The  cathedral,  begun 
in  1529,  contains  the  tombs  of  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella,  and  of  Philip  I.  and  his  consort  Juana, 
fine  specimens  of  Italian  Renaissance  sculpture. 
In  the  monastery  of  San  Geronimo  the  '  Great 
Captain,'  Gonsalvo  di  Cordova,  is  buried.  The 
industry  and  trade  of  the  town  are  inconsider- 
able. Population,  about  76,000.  Granada  was 
founded  by  the  Moors  in  the  8th  century, 
not  far  from  the  ruins  of  an  ancient  Celtiberian 
town,  lUiberis,  and  rapidly  rose  to  distinction  as 
a  wealthy  trading  city  and  as  a  seat  of  arts. 

Granada,  the  capital  of  a  Nicaraguan  dep., 
founded  in  1522,  stands  on  the  north-west  side 
of  Lake  Nicaragua,  and  is  connected  with  Managua 
by  rail.    Pop.  26,000. 

Granard,  a  town  of  County  Longford,  3  miles 
W.  of  Ballywillan  station.    Pop.  1622. 

Gran  Chaco,  an  extensive  central  tract  of 
South  America,  extending  from  the  southern 
tropic  to  29°  S.  lat.,  and  bounded  on  the  E.  by 
the  Paraguay  and  Parana,  and  on  the  W.  by  the 
Argentine  provinces  of  Santiago  del  Estero  and 
Salta.  Its  area,  about  180,000  sq.  m.,  exceeds 
that  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland  by  one-half. 
The  portion  south  of  the  Pilcomayo  belongs  to 
Argentina,  and  the  remaining  third  to  Paraguay. 
Since  1885  many  agricultural  settlements  have 
been  made. 

Grand  Bassam,    See  Gold  Coast. 

Grand  Caiion.    See  Colorado. 

Grand-combe,  La,  a  coal-mining  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Gard,  41  miles  NNW.  of  Nimes. 
Pop.  11,500. 

Grand  Forks,  capital  of  Grand  Forks  county, 
North  Dakota,  on  the  Red  River  of  the  North, 
opposite  the  mouth  of  Red  Lake  River,  is  55 
miles  N.  of  Fargo.  It  has  flour  and  saw  mills 
and  ironworks.    Pop.  8000. 

Grand  Haven,  capital  of  Ottawa  county, 
Michigan,  on  Lake  Michigan,  and  on  the  south 
bank  of  Grand  River,  31  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Grand 
Rapids  by  rail.  It  has  a  medicinal  spring  and  a 
harbour,  shipping  lumber  and  grain.    Pop.  5023. 

Grand  Lahou.    See  Gold  Coast. 

Grand  Pope,  a  French  settlement  in  Guinea, 
on  the  Slave  Coast,  25  miles  W.  of  Whydah. 

Grandpr6,  a  village  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Ardennes,  on  the  Aire,  40  miles  NNB.  of  Chalons. 
Here,  in  1792,  Dumouriez  was  defeated  by  the 
Allies. 

Grand  Hapids,  capital  of  Kent  county, 
Michigan,  stands  at  the  head  of  steamboat  naviga- 
tion on  Grand  River,  here  crossed  by  six  bridges, 
60  miles  WNW.  of  Lansing.  The  river,  which 
enters  Lake  Michigan  40  miles  below,  here  falls 
18  feet  in  a  mile,  and  across  it  extend  the  rapids 
which  give  name  to  the  town.  Conducted  by 
canals,  it  supplies  motive-power  to  numerous 
sawmills  and  manufactories  of  furniture  and 
wooden  ware,  farming  implements,  flour,  machin- 


ery, &c.,  though  steam  is  now  in  use  in  most  of 
the  factories.  Stucco-plaster  and  white  bricks 
are  largely  made  here.  The  city  is  the  seat  of 
an  Episcopal  bishop.  Pop.  (1870)  16,507 ;  (1880) 
32,016  ;  (1890)  60,278;  (1900)  87,565. 

Grangemouth,  a  rising  port  in  Stirlingshire,  3 
miles  ENE.  of  Falkirk.  Founded  in  1777,  and 
erected  into  a  police-burgh  in  1872,  Grangemouth 
has  extensive  quays  and  warehouses,  docks  (in- 
cluding a  large  one  opened  in  1882),  a  graving- 
dock,  and  shipbuilding  yards.  The  trade  of  the 
port  has  risen  very  rapidly.  In  1840  the  shipping 
entering  and  clearing  it  was  31,686  tons  annually  : 
in  1876,  840,326 ;  since  1904  it  has  exceecled 
2,230,000  tons — the  port  then  ranking  fifth  in  im- 
portance in  Scotland.  Since  1887  there  has  been 
a  regular  line  of  passenger-steamers  between 
Grangemouth  and  London,  owned  by  the  Carron 
Iron  Company,  whose  works  are  within  2  miles 
of  the  port.  The  principal  imports  are  timber, 
hemp,  flax,  tallow,  deals,  iron,  and  grain ;  and 
the  exports  are  manufactured  iron,  and  coal.  At 
Grangemouth  some  of  the  earliest  experiments  in 
steam-navigation  were  made,  the  Charlotte  Dundas 
being  built  there  in  1801.  Pop.  (1831)  1155  ;  (1871) 
2569  ;  (1891)  6354  ;  (1901)  8386. 

Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia  ('  Great  Rock  of  Italy '), 
or  Monte  Corno,  from  its  resemblance  to  a  horn 
on  the  east,  is  situated  on  the  borders  of  the 
Abruzzi,  between  Teramo  and  Aquila.  It  is  the 
highest  summit  (9574  feet)  of  the  Apennines. 

Granson,  or  Grandson,  an  ancient  town  in 
Switzerland,  on  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel,  21  miles 
SW.  of  Neuchatel;  pop.  1762.  Here  in  1476  the 
Swiss  defeated  Charles  the  Bold. 

Grantchester,  a  village  on  the  Cam,  2J  miles 
SSW.  of  Cambridge.    Pop.  of  parish,  1196. 

Grantham  (Gran'tham),  a  market-town  on  the 
Witham's  left  bank,  25  miles  SSW.  of  Lincoln, 
and  105  NNW.  of  London.  It  lies  on  the  ancient 
Ennine  Street,  and  is  an  important  junction  on 
the  Great  Northern  Railway ;  whilst  a  canal  (1793), 
30  miles  long,  connects  it  with  the  Trent  near 
Nottingham.  High  over  the  red-tiled  brick 
houses  soars  the  noble  gray  spire  (278  feet  high) 
of  St  Wolfran's  Church,  which,  in  style  mainly 
Early  English  of  the  13th  century,  has  been  finely 
restored  since  1865.  An  Eleanor  cross  was 
demolished  in  1645,  and  a  castle  has  left  no 
trace  ;  but  the  quaint  Angel  Inn  is  still  standing, 
in  which  Richard  III.  signed  Buckingham's  death- 
wan-ant.  Of  King  John,  too,  Grantham  has 
memories,  and  of  Oliver  Cromwell,  who  here  on 
13th  May  1643  won  his  first  success ;  but  the 
town's  greatest  glory  is  Sir  Isaac  Newton,  who 
during  1655-56  idled,  fought,  and  rose  to  be  head- 
boy  in  its  grammar-school.  A  bronze  statue  of 
him  was  erected  in  1858 ;  and  there  is  also  a 
bronze  statue  of  the  Hon.  Fred.  Tollemache 
(1890).  The  said  school  was  founded  by  Bishop 
Fox  in  1528,  re-endowed  by  Edward  VI.  in  1553, 
and  reconstituted  in  1876.  The  manufacture  of 
agricultural  implements,  malting,  and  brick- 
making  are  industries.  Grantham,  since  1905  the 
see  of  a  suffragan  bishop,  from  1463  till  1885  re- 
turned two  members  to  parliament— now  only 
one.  The  borough  boundary  was  largely  extended 
in  1879.  The  population,  hardly  11,000  in  1851, 
had  by  the  beginning  of  next  century  reached 
17,600.  See  the  local  histories  of  Turnor  (1806), 
Marrat  (1816),  and  Street  (1857). 

Grant  Land,  a  North  Polar  region,  north  of 
Grinnell  Land,  between  81°  and  83°  N.  lat.,  dis. 
covered  by  Hayes,  Hall,  and  Nares  in  1875,  and 
partly  explored  by  Nares,  who  wintered  here. 


GRANTON 


308 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


Granton,  a  harbour  on  the  Firth  of  Forth,  3 
imles  NNW.  of  Edinburgh.  It  was  constructed 
by  the  Duke  of  Buccleuch  in  1835-45  at  a  cost  of 
nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million. 

Grantown,  a  village  of  Elginshire,  |  mile  from 
the  Spey's  left  bank,  and  142  miles  by  rail  N.  by 
W.  of  Edinburgh.  Founded  in  1776,  and  a  police- 
burgh  since  1890,  it  is  surrounded  by  pine  woods, 
and  is  a  holiday  and  health  resort.    Pop.  1523. 

Granville,  a  fortified  seaport  in  the  French 
dep.  of  La  Manche,  on  a  rocky  promontory  in  the 
English  Channel,  23  miles  NB.  of  St  Malo.  The 
industries  include  fishing,  shipbuilding,  tanning, 
and  the  manufacture  of  brandy,  chemicals,  and 
iron-ware.    Pop.  10,500. 

Graslitz,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Saxon 
border,  142  miles  WNW.  of  Prague.    Pop.  11,800. 

Grasmere,  a  "Westmorland  village,  4  miles  NW. 
of  Ambleside.  There  are  four  hotels.  Pop.  784. 
Its  antique  church  is  the  church  of  the  Excursion; 
and  in  the  churchyard,  washed  by  the  Rothay, 
are  the  graves  of  Wordsworth  and  Hartley  Cole- 
ridge. '  Grasmere's  peaceful  lake,'  with  its  '  one 
green  island,'  lies  i  mile  to  the  south,  between 
Loughrigg  Fell  (1101  feet)  and  Helm  Crag  (1299). 
Measuring  IJ  by  i  mile,  it  is  208  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  130  feet  deep. 

Grasse,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Alpes- 
Maritimes,  on  the  southern  slope  of  the  Basses- 
Alpes,  1066  feet  above  sea-level,  and  12  miles  N. 
of  Canijes  by  rail.  The  seat  of  a  bishopric  from 
1244  to  1801,  it  has  steep,  narrow,  crooked 
streets,  a  cathedral,  and  an  interesting  hotel-de- 
ville.  Grasse  is  second  only  to  Paris  in  its 
manufactures  of  perfumes,  made  from  the  roses, 
orange-flowers,  heliotropes,  mint,  &c.  grown  here. 
It  also  manufactures  olive-oil,  silk,  &c.,  and  is 
growing  in  favour  as  a  winter-resort.  Queen 
Victoria  stayed  here  in  1891.     Pop.  13,960. 

Gratz,  or  Graz  (formerly  Grdtz),  the  capital  of 
Styria,  in  Austria,  141  miles  SSW.  of  Vienna  by 
rail,  is  a  picturesque  old  town  on  both  sides  of 
the  Mur,  encircled  by  fine  gardens.  Remains  of 
the  former  fortress  still  stand  on  a  hill  in  the 
centre  of  the  town.  Old  buildings  are  the 
cathedral  (1462),  two  other  Gothic  churches  (one 
built  in  1283),  the  ancient  castle  of  the  Styrian 
dukes,  the  Landhaus,  the  university  (with  over 
1200  students,  and  a  library  of  120,000  volumes), 
&c.  The  industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
machines,  steel  goods,  rails  and  railway  carriages, 
sugar,  wine,  perfumery,  stearine  candles,  soap, 
&c.    Pop.  140,000. 

Graubiinden.    See  Orisons. 

Graudenz  (Gmi-dentz'),  an  old  town  in  the 
province  of  West  Prussia,  on  the  Vistula,  37 
miles  N.  of  Thorn.  It  has  iron-foundries,  brew- 
eries, and  tapestry  and  cigar  manufactories.  Pop. 
(1875)  14,553  ;  (1900)  32,800.  About  a  mile  north 
of  it  on  a  hill  (282  feet)  is  the  fortress  of  Graudenz 
(1776),  since  1874  a  barrack  and  military  prison. 

Gravellnes  (Grdv-leen'),  a  fortified  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Nord,  in  a  marshy  locality  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Aa,  13  miles  by  rail  ENE. 
of  Calais.  A  desolate-looking  place  now,  with 
grass-grown  streets,  it  has  an  historic  past,  as 
the  scene  of  Egmont's  victory  over  the  French 
(1558),  and  the  place  off  which  the  English  dis- 
persed the  Armada  (1588).    Pop.  5900. 

Gravelotte,  a  village  of  Lorraine,  7  miles  W. 
of  Metz.  Here,  on  18th  August  1870,  Bazaine 
was  severely  defeated  by  the  Germans. 

Gravesend,  a  port  and  borough  of  Kent,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  24  miles  ESE.  of 


London.  It  consists  of  the  old  town,  with 
narrow,  irregular  streets,  and  of  the  handsome 
new  town  on  the  high  ground.  In  the  vicinity 
are  extensive  market-gardens  ;  and  many  of  the 
inhabitants  are  employed  in  fishing.  Gravesend 
forms  the  limit  of  the  port  of  London  ;  and  here 
pilots  and  custom-house  officers  are  taken  aboard 
vessels  going  up  the  river.  The  salubrious  air 
and  beautiful  scenery  at  Gravesend  render  it  a 
favourite  watering-place  with  Londoners.  It 
carries  on  some  shipbuilding,  iron-founding,  soap- 
making,  and  brewing,  and  a  considerable  trade 
in  supplying  ships'  stores.  Gravesend  was  incor- 
porated  under  Elizabeth,  and  since  1867  has  re- 
turned one  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  of  the 
municipal  borough  (1901)  27,175;  of  the  parlia- 
mentary borough,  39,766.  At  Gravesend  the 
fleets  of  early  voyagers,  as  that  of  Willoughby 
in  1553,  and  of  Frobisher  in  1576,  assembled, 
and  here  the  lord  mayor,  aldermen,  and  city 
companies  of  London  were  wont  to  receive  all 
strangers  of  eminence,  and  to  conduct  them  up 
the  river  in  state.  A  great  fire  in  1850  did 
damage  to  the  amount  of  £100,000.  See  Arden's 
History  of  Gravesend  (1843). 

Gravina,  a  town  of  southern  Italy,  33  miles 
SW.  of  Bari.    Pop.  15,612. 

Gray,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Haute- 
Saone,  on  the  Sa6ne,  25  miles  NW.  of  Besangon. 
It  has  a  ruined  castle  of  the  dukes  of  Burgundy. 
Pop.  5759. 

Grays  Thurrock,  a  town  of  Essex,  on  the 
Thames,  19J  miles  B.  by  S.  of  London.  Pop.  of 
urban  district,  13,834. 

Graz.     See  Gratz. 

Grazalema,  a  town  of  Spain,  53  miles  ENE.  of 
Cadiz.    Pop.  8000. 

Great  Basin.    See  Great  Salt  Lake. 

Great  Bear  Lake.    See  Bear  Lake  (Great). 

Great  Britain,  as  distinguished  from  Britannia 
Minor,  or  Brittany,  in  France,  was  not  officially 
so  called  till  in  1604  James  I,  styled  himself 
king  of  Great  Britain.  Lying  between  49°  57' 
30"  and  58°  40'  24"  N.  lat.,  and  between  1°  46' 
E.  and  6°  13'  W.  long..  Great  Britain  is  the 
largest  island  of  Europe,  and  is  bounded  by  the 
Atlantic,  the  North  Sea,  the  English  Channel, 
the  Irish  Sea,  and  St  George's  Channel.  The 
most  northerly  point  is  Dunnet  Head,  in  Caith- 
ness ;  the  most  southerly.  Lizard  Point,  in  Corn- 
wall ;  the  most  easterly,  Lowestoft  Ness,  in 
Suffolk ;  and  the  most  westerly,  Ardnamurchan 
Point,  in  Argyllshire.  Its  greatest  length  is 
about  608  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  (from 
Land's  End  to  the  east  coast  of  Kent)  about  325 
miles ;  while  its  surface  contains  88,226  sq.  m. 
The  geology  of  Great  Britain  is  of  peculiar  im- 
portance. Nearly  all  the  recognised  'systems' 
occur  in  Britain,  although  some  of  these  are  more 
fully  represented  elsewhere  ;  the  only  system  not 
found  here  is  the  Miocene.  The  mountainous 
regions  of  the  north  and  west  are  formed  of  the 
oldest  rocks,  and  as  we  move  south-eastwards,  we 
gradually  pass  over  newer  strata,  until,  in  the  east 
of  England,  we  come  to  the  uppermost  divisions 
of  the  Tertiary.  The  mineral  wealth,  especially 
the  coal  and  the  iron,  are  the  real  sinews  and 
muscles  of  Britain's  mighty  power.  No  other 
country  has  similar  advantages  in  such  an  area. 
In  some  respects  the  most  important  of  British 
minerals  is  coal.  Formerly,  the  only  iron  pro- 
duced in  the  country  was  obtained  from  the 
greensand  of  the  south-east  of  England,  and 
from  the  brown  hematite  of  the  Dean  Forest. 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


309 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


I 


The  ore  was  smelted  with  charcoal.  But  the 
introduction  of  coke  and  coal  for  smelting, 
and  the  discovery  of  numerous  additional  and 
unthought-of  deposits,  especially  in  connection 
Avith  coal-bearing  strata,  immensely  increased 
the  production  of  iron.  The  most  important 
ore  is  the  ferruginous  shale,  or  impure  argilla- 
ceous carbonate  of  iron,  which  occurs  in  con- 
nection with  every  coalfield  in  Britain.  The 
brown  and  red  hematites,  associated  with  the 
oldest  Palaeozoic  rocks,  yield  also  a  large  amount 
of  metallic  iron.  Tin  is  obtained  from  only  two 
counties— Cornwall  and  Devon.  Copper  is  princi- 
pally obtained  from  the  same  two  counties. 
Lead  and  silver  are  obtained  from  the  same  ore 
froln  numerous  mines  in  Palaeozoic  districts  ;  the 
most  productive  English  mines  being  in  North- 
umberland, Durham,  Cumberland,  Shropshire, 
Yorkshire,  Derbyshire,  Cardiganshire,  Glamorgan- 
shire, and  the  Isle  of  Man.  In  Scotland  the  most 
productive  lead  and  silver  mines  are  at  Wanlock- 
head  and  Leadhills.  Zinc  is  obtained  chiefly 
from  Cardigan,  Denbighshire,  Carnarvon,  Flint, 
Cumberland,  and  the  Isle  of  Man.  Sulphur  ores 
(iron  pyrites)  are  raised  in  different  parts  of 
Great  Britain  ;  as  also  arsenic,  manganese,  gold, 
nickel,  silver-copper,  fluor-spar,  and  wolfram. 
Salt  occurs  chiefly  in  Cheshire  and  Ulster. 
The  total  value  of  the  coal  and  other  minerals 
raised  in  the  United  Kingdom  was  £40,345,945 
in  1866,  £74,094,638  in  1880,  and  £107,134,854  in 
1902.  The  total  value  of  the  metals  obtainable 
by  smelting  from  ores  produced  in  the  United 
Kingdom  (aluminium,  antimony,  copper,  gold, 
iron,  lead,  magnesium,  silver,  sodium,  tin,  zinc) 
in  1887  was  £12,795,993  ;  in  1902,  £15,287,357. 

The  physical  features  of  a  country  are  inti- 
mately connected  with  its  geological  structure. 
Thus  the  Highlands  and  Southern  Uplands  of 
Scotland  are  built  up  chiefly  of  crystalline  schists 
and  the  older  Palaeozoic  strata,  while  the  inter- 
vening lowlands  of  the  so-called  Central  Plain  are 
composed  mainly  of  the  younger  Palaeozoic  rocks 
and  overlying  accumulations  of  superficial  de- 
posits. The  mountainous  tracts  of  Scotland  consist 
therefore  of  more  enduring  or  less  readily  eroded 
materials  than  the  lowlands.  The  mountains  are 
monuments  of  erosion ;  they  are  the  wreck  of  an  old 
tableland.  The  Highlands  (q.v.)  are  intersected 
from  south-west  to  north-east  by  the  Great  Glen, 
which  probably  occupies  the  line  of  a  dislocation. 
It  is  customary  in  geographical  text-books  to 
speak  of  the  'range  of  the  Grampians,'  but  the 
Highland  mountains  do  not  trend  in  linear  direc- 
tions, but  rather  form  confused  groups.  The 
greatest  height  reached  is  4406  feet  in  Ben 
Nevis,  less  eminences  being  Ben  Macdhui  (4296 
feet)  and  Ben  Lawers  (3984;  with  cairn,  4004). 
The  southern  limit  of  the  Highlands  is  defined 
by  a  line  drawn  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde  at  Helens- 
burgh north-east  to  the  sea-coast  at  Stonehaven. 
North  of  this  line  there  are  of  course  consider- 
able tracts  of  less  elevated  ground,  especially 
along  the  coast  in  Aberdeenshire,  the  borders  of 
the  Moray  Firth,  and  Caithness.  The  coast-line 
of  the  Highlands,  particularly  in  the  west,  is 
repeatedly  broken  by  numerous  and  large  fjords 
or  deep  sea-lochs.  And  opposite  the  same  coasts 
appear  the  numerous  islands  of  the  Inner  and 
Outer  Hebrides.  These  fjords  are  simply  sub- 
merged land-valleys,  while  the  islands  are  the 
higher  parts  of  the  depressed  continental  plateau. 
The  fresh- water  lakes  vary  in  size  from  mere  tarns 
to  large  mountain-valley  lakes  like  Lochs  Lomond, 
Ness,  Awe,  Shin,  Maree,  Tay,  &c. 

The  Central  Plain  of  Scotland  may  be  described 


as  a  broad  depression  of  relatively  easily  eroded 
materials  lying  between  two  tablelands  of  less 
readily  denuded  rocks.  The  principal  features  of 
this  low-lying  tract  have  a  north-east  and  south- 
west trend  determined  by  geological  structure, 
as  is  seen  in  the  Sidlaw  Hills,  the  Ochil  Hills, 
the  Lennox  Hills,  &c.,  in  the  north,  and  in  the 
Pentland  Hills  in  the  south.  The  surface  of  the 
lowland  tracts  is  likewise  diversified  by  many 
more  or  less  abrupt  and  isolated  hills,  such  as 
Arthur's  Seat,  Dalmahoy  Crags,  the  Castle- 
rocks  of  Edinburgh  and  Stirling,  &c.  Most  of 
these  heights  consist  of  igneous  rocks  of  a  more 
durable  character  than  the  strata  of  sandstone, 
shale,  &c.,  which  surround  them. 

The  Southern  Uplands  of  Scotland  form  a  broad 
belt  of  high  ground  extending  from  the  sea-coast 
of  Haddingtonshire  and  Berwickshire  south-west 
to  the  shores  of  Ayrshire  and  Galloway.  Like 
the  Highlands  the  area  of  the  southern  uplands 
is  simply  an  old  tableland,  furrowed  into  narrow 
ravine  and  wide  dale  by  the  operation  of  the 
various  agents  of  erosion.  The  rocks  that  enter 
into  their  composition  are  chiefly  Silurian,  grey- 
wackes,  and  shales,  and  consequently  there  is 
less  variety  of  contour  and  colour  than  in  the 
Highlands.  Now  and  again,  however,  the  moun- 
tains assume  a  rougher  aspect,  more  especially  in 
Carrick  and  Galloway  (highest  point  Merrick, 
2764  feet).  The  Silurian  strata  are  overlaid 
towards  the  south  by  younger  Palaeozoic  rocks ; 
thus  we  have  the  broad  vale  of  Tweed  and  the 
lower  reaches  of  Teviotdale  occupied  chiefly 
by  sandstones  and  shales.  The  Cheviot  Hills, 
again,  are  built  up  in  the  north-east  chiefly  of 
bedded  igneous  rocks  which  towards  the  south- 
west give  place  to  sandstones. 

Crossing  the  borders  of  Scotland  and  England 
we  find  the  high  ground  just  referred  to  is  con- 
tinued southwards  through  Northumberland, 
Cumberland,  Durham,  Yorkshire,  Lancashire, 
and  Derbyshire  to  form  what  is  called  the  Pennine 
Chain.  This  '  chain '  varies  in  height  from  1200 
to  3000  feet,  reaching  its  highest  summit  in 
Scafell  Pike,  Cumberland,  which  is  3210  feet 
high.  The  Lake  district  of  Cumberland  and 
Westmorland,  being  built  up  mainly  of  Silurian 
rocks,  reproduces  the  characteristic  features  of 
the  southern  uplands  of  Scotland.  And  the  same 
is  to  a  large  extent  true  of  the  mountainous  parts 
of  Wales  (whose  highest  point,  Snowdon,  is  3571 
feet),  while  not  a  few  of  the  features  of  the 
Scottish  Highlands  reappear  on  a  small  scale  in 
Devonshire  and  Cornwall.  All  these  hillier  tracts 
are  composed  essentially  of  Paleozoic  and  associ- 
ated igneous  rocks.  The  major  portion  of  Eng- 
land, however,  consists  principally  of  younger 
strata,  and  may  be  considered  on  the  whole  as  a 
somewhat  undulating  plain  traversed  by  ridges 
of  varying  elevation,  which  trend  in  a  general 
direction  from  north-east  to  south-west.  The 
band  of  Jurassic  strata,  extending  from  the  York- 
shire Moors  south  and  south-west  to  the  coast  of 
Dorset,  forms  a  tortuous  belt  of  tableland  and 
escarpment,  rising  sometimes  to  a  height  of  1500 
feet,  and  throughout  its  course  presenting 
usually  a  bold  face  to  the  west  and  a  gentle 
slope  to  the  east.  Similar  escarpments  accom- 
pany the  outcrop  of  the  chalk,  but  they  are  neither 
so  lofty  nor  so  bold.  They  form  the  Wolds  of 
Yorkshire  and  Lincoln,  and  rise  into  a  low  range 
of  hills  that  extend  from  Norfolk  to  Wilts,  the 
more  prominent  portions  of  which  are  known  as 
the  Chiltern  Hills,  the  Marlborough  Downs,  and 
Salisbury  Plain.  On  the  north  and  south  side  of 
the  Wealden  anticlinal  axis,  similar  chalk-hills 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


310 


GREAT  BRITAIN 


appear,  forming  the  North  Downs  in  Surrey  and 
Kent,  and  the  South  Downs  in  Hants  and  Sussex. 
Lying  between  the  Pennine  Chain  in  the  west, 
and  the  Yorkshire  Moors  and  Wolds  and  Lincoln 
Heights  and  Wolds  in  the  east,  lies  the  broad 
depression  traversed  by  the  Ouse  and  Trent  which 
is  occupied  chiefly  by  Triassic  strata.  In  like 
manner,  a  low  plain  separates  the  mountain-tracts 
of  Wales  from  the  Pennine  Chain,  which  is  sim- 
ilarly occupied  by  Triassic  and  younger  Palseozoic 
strata.  Tlie  maritime  parts  of  Lincoln,  Norfolk, 
Suffolk,  Essex,  and  Middlesex  are  for  the  most 
part  low-lying,  being  composed  of  Cretaceous 
and  overlying  Tertiary  and  Quaternary  deposits. 
The  whole  surface  of  Britain,  with  the  exception 
of  the  extreme  south  of  England,  has  been  more 
or  less  modified  by  glacial  action,  to  which  is 
largely  due  the  rounded  contour  and  flowing 
outline  of  all  but  the  highest  elevations.  The 
surface-features  of  the  low-lying  tracts  have  also 
been  greatly  modified  by  the  enormous  morainic 
and  fluvio-glacial  accumulations  which  were 
spread  over  the  country  in  Pleistocene  times. 

The  physical  geography  of  Ireland  is  discussed 
elsewhere  (see  Ireland);  in  its  geological  rela- 
tions it  is  intimately  related  to  Great  Britain- 
its  orographic  features  being  likewise  determined 
by  the  character  of  its  various  rock-masses. 
Ireland,  like  its  sister-island,  forms  a  portion  of 
the  depressed  continental  plateau— its  highly 
indented  coast-line,  more  especially  in  the  west 
and  south-west,  being  the  result  of  a  compara- 
tively recent  submergence.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  in  post-glacial  times  Ireland  was 
joined  to  Britain,  which  at  that  period  formed  a 
part  of  the  continent  of  Europe. 

The  climate  of  Great  Britain  derives  its  peculiar 
character  from  the  insular  situation  of  the 
country,  taken  in  connection  with  the  prevailing 
direction  of  the  winds.  It  is  mild  and  equable 
in  a  remarkable  degree,  the  winters  being  con- 
siderably warmer,  and  the  summers  colder  than 
at  other  places  within  the  same  parallels  of  lati- 
tude. For  at  least  three  months,  the  mean 
monthly  temperature  ranges  between  SO'O"  and 
60-0° ;  for  other  three  months  it  continues 
about  60"0°,  or  occasionally  a  little  higher,  seldom 
more  than  four  degrees  ;  and  for  the  remaining 
six  months  it  ordinarily  ranges  between  36*0°  and 
48-0"'.  Since  the  Reports  of  the  Registrar-general 
clearly  prove  that  the  temperature  most  con- 
ducive to  health  is  between  50-0°  and  60*0°,  it 
follows  that,  as  far  as  concerns  temperature,  the 
climate  of  Great  Britain  is  one  of  the  healthiest 
in  the  world.  The  mean  temperature  of  Eng- 
land is  49  "S",  and  of  Scotland  47 '5°.  There  is  a 
difference  of  fully  six  degrees  between  Falmouth, 
in  Cornwall,  and  Shetland,  attributable  chiefly 
to  the  difference  of  their  latitudes.  It  becomes 
greater  as  the  force  of  the  sun's  rays  increases  ; 
so  that,  while  the  winter  temperatures  are  re- 
spectively 44*2°  and  39-0°,  the  summer  tempera- 
tures are  60*6°  and  53  •4°.  The  highest  summer 
temperature  is  64-2°  in  London,  and  the  lowest 
52-2°  at  North  Unst,  the  difference  being  12-0°. 
The  temperatures  of  places  on  the  west  are  in 
excess  of  those  of  places  in  the  same  latitudes, 
but  at  some  distance  from  the  Atlantic.  In 
winter,  the  differences  between  the  west  and  the 
other  parts  of  the  country  are  still  greater. 

Tlie  south-west  winds  are  the  most  prevalent 
throughout  the  year,  except  in  April  and  May, 
when  they  give  place  in  a  considerable  degree  to 
the  north-east  winds.  The  notoriously  dry  and 
parching  character  of  the  latter  renders  them  very 
deleterious  to  health.    On  the  other  hand,  the 


south-west  winds,  coming  from  the  Atlantic,  are 
moist  and  genial,  and  it  is  on  their  greater  fre- 
quency—being, as  compared  with  the  north-east, 
in  the  proportion  of  two  to  one— that  the  salubrity 
of  the  British  climate  in  a  great  measure  depends. 
In  those  districts  of  England  where  hills  do 
not  intervene,  the  annual  rainfall  is  about  25 
inches,  and  in  similar  parts  of  Scotland  about  28 
inches ;  but  these  amounts,  which  may  be  con- 
sidered as  the  rainfalls  of  the  driest  districts  of 
the  two  countries,  are  variously  increased  by 
proximity  to  hills  or  rising  grounds,  according  as 
the  place  is  situated  in  the  east  or  west  of  the 
island,  viewed  in  relation  to  the  direction  of  the 
wind  which  brings  the  rain,  and  by  its  lying  on 
the  wind  or  on  the  lee  side  of  these  hills.  Since 
it  is  the  south-west  winds  which  bring  by  far  the 
larger  proportion  of  the  rainfall,  the  heaviest 
falls  take  place  among  the  hills  in  the  west  of 
the  country,  in  great  part  of  the  area  about  40 
inches.  But  over  broad  districts  in  the  West 
Highlands  and  Skye,  and  in  limited  areas  in  the 
Lake  district,  and  in  North  and  South  Wales,  the 
annual  rainfall  exceeds  80  inches.  At  the  head 
of  Glencroe,  Argyllshire,  it  rises  to  128^  inches, 
and  at  the  Stye,  Cumberland,  to  186  inches. 
Area  and  population  were  in  1901 : 

Area.  Pop. 

England 50,823)  o.,  «o^  «no 

Wales 7,363j  32,527,843 

Scotland 29,820  4,472,103 

Ireland 32,531  4,458,775 

Isle  of  Man 220  64,752 

Channel  Islands 75  95,618 

Soldiers  and  sailors  abroad  —  367,736 

United  Kingdom 120,832  41,976,827 

Indian  Empire l,76fi,797  294,361,056 

Colonies  and  Protectorates  .  .10,039,203  61,588,944 

British  Empire 11,926,832  397,926,827 

There  were,  in  1904,  in  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland  88  towns  above  50,000  in  population,  of 
which  .seventy-four  were  in  England,  eight  in 
Scotland,  tliree  in  Ireland  (Belfast,  Dublin, 
Cork),  and  three  in  Wales  (Cardiff,  Rhondda,  and 
Merthyr-Tydfil).  Of  the  total  area  of  56,786,741 
acres  in  Great  Britain,  32,317,610  acres  were 
under  cultivation  in  1904.  Of  20,710,589  acres  in 
Ireland,  15,230,124  were  under  cultivation. 

In  1903-4  the  net  revenue  was  £141,545,579,  and 
the  expenditure  £140,961,136.  In  1904-5  the 
estimated  revenue  was  £143,610,000.  In  1904 
the  national  debt  was  £794,498,100.  In  1888 
the  total  imports  were  £387,635,743,  and  the 
exports  £298,577,541.  In  1904  the  total  im- 
ports were  £551,362,124,  and  the  total  exports 
£371,139,816.  Of  the  latter  sum  £300,817,897 
represented  British  produce,  the  remaining 
£70,321,918  being  foreign  and  colonial  produce 
re-exported.  In  addition,  the  imports  of  gold 
and  silver  bullion  in  1904  amounted  to  £45,503,927, 
and  the  exports  to  £46,302,932,  In  1903  the 
imports  from  British  possessions  amounted  to 
£113,670,792,  and  from  foreign  coiuitries  to 
£428,929,497,  of  which  £122,112,652  were  from 
the  United  States,  £49,347,184  from  France, 
£34,533,390  from  Germany,  and  about  the  same 
amount  from  Holland.  Of  the  exports  of 
British  produce  in  1903,  £111,146,864  went  to 
British  possessions,  and  £179,653,244  to  foreign 
countries- £22,605,131  to  the  United  States, 
£15,800,011  to  France,  and  £23,550,631  to  Ger- 
many. The  number  of  vessels  in  1903  was  20,452 
(10,122  steamers)  of  10,268,604  tons.  The  railways 
had  a  length  of  22,435  miles,  the  telegraph  lines 
of  51,483  miles.  In  1905  the  regular  army  com- 
prised  217,000  men ;  besides  army  reserve,  80,000 ; 


GREAT  FISH  RIVER 


311 


GREECB 


militia  and  militia  reserve,  142,446;  yeomanry, 
28,114;  volunteers,  346,136 ;  making,  witli  Indian 
and  colonial  native  corps,  a  total  of  884,095.  Tlie 
navy  in  1905  consisted  of  365  vessels,  of  which  44 
were  battle-ships,  28  armoured  cruisers,  10  pro- 
tected cruisers  of  the  first  class,  20  of  the  second 
class,  and  25  of  the  third  class,  besides  torpedo 
gunboats,  torpedo  boats  and  destroyers,  and  sub- 
marines, with  a  total  of  131,100  officers  and  men 
of  all  ranks. 

On  the  colonies,  details  will  be  given  under 
their  several  heads ;  but  it  may  be  useful  here 
to  name  the  chief  colonies  and  dependencies : 
Australia,  Tasmania,  and  New  Zealand ;  Canada 
and  Newfoundland  ;  Cape  Colony,  Natal,  and 
associated  South  African  lands ;  India  and  Ceylon ; 
the  West  Indies.  Other  dependencies  reckoned 
to  Asia  are  the  Straits  Settlements,  North 
Borneo,  Labuan,  Sarawak,  Aden,  Hong-kong ; 
to  the  Mediterranean,  Gibraltar,  Malta,  Cyprus ; 
to  Africa,  Gambia,  Sierra  Leone,  Gold  Coast, 
Lagos,  Nigeria,  Bast  Africa  and  Central  Africa, 
with  Uganda,  &c.,  Rhodesia,  Orange  River 
Colony,  Transvaal,  Swaziland ;  to  Austral- 
asia and  the  Pacific,  Fiji,  Fanning,  Christmas, 
Maiden,  Starbuck,  Ellice,  Gilbert  Islands  ;  to  the 
Indian  Ocean,  Mauritius  and  Rodriguez ;  to  the 
Atlantic,  Bermudas,  Ascension,  St  Helena,  Tristan 
da  Cunha,  Falkland  Islands. 

See  the  articles  England,  Scotland,  Ireland, 
Wales  ;  Anderson's  Book  of  British  Topography 
(1881) ;  works  on  the  geography  and  physiography 
of  the  British  Islands,  by  Ramsay  (1878),  Hull 
(1882),  Rudlerand  Chisholm  (1885),  Reclus  (1888), 
A.  Geikie  (1889),  Seeley,  and  others ;  on  ethnology, 
Beddoe  (1886),  Lubbock,  Nicholas,  Roemer ;  on 
trade  and  commerce,  Leone  Levi  (1880);  Cun- 
ningham (1890),  Dymes,  &c.  ;  besides  Thorold 
Rogers  on  agriculture,  Bevans  on  manufactures, 
&c. ;  Mulhall's  Dictionary  of  Statistics  (1886 ;  new 
ed.  1891) ;  and  for  the  colonies,  Dilke  (1868-90) 
and  C.  P.  Lucas  (1888-94). 

Great  Pish  River,  (1)  in  Cape  Colony,  rises  in 
the  Sneeuwberg  Mountains,  and  flows  230  miles 
SB.  to  the  Indian  Ocean  in  33°  25'  S.  lat.  and  27° 
E.  long.— {2)  Or  Back's  River,  in  North  America, 
is  over  440  miles  long,  and  enters  an  inlet  of  the 
Arctic  Ocean  in  95°  W.  long. ,  after  passing  through 
Lake  Pelly.  Sir  George  Back  in  1834-35  traced 
its  course  to  the  ocean. 

Great  Grimsby.    See  Grimsby. 

Great  Kanawha  (pron.  Kanaw'wa),  an  affluent 
of  the  Ohio,  is  called  New  River  in  its  upper 
course,  and  rises  in  the  Blue  Ridge  of  North 
Carolina.  It  is  450  miles  long,  and  is  navigable 
to  a  fall  30  miles  above  Charleston. 

Great  Marlow.    See  Marlow. 

Great  Ormes  Head.    See  Llandudno. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  in  Utah,  stretches  along  the 
western  base  of  the  Wahsatch  Mountains,  about 
4200  feet  above  the  sea,  forming  a  principal  drain- 
age centre  of  the  vast  plateau  known  as  the  Great 
Basin,  800  miles  long  by  500  broad,  in  Utah,  Nevada, 
Oregon,  California,  and  Idaho.  Well-marked 
shore-lines  on  the  mountains  around,  reaching 
JOOO  feet  higher  than  the  present  level,  show  that 
the  lake  nad  formerly  a  vastly  greater  extent. 
Great  Salt  Lake  is  over  80  miles  long  and  from 
20  to  32  broad,  but  for  the  most  part  exceedingly 
shallow.  It  contains  several  islands,  the  largest, 
Antelope  Island,  about  18  miles  long.  Its  tribu- 
taries are  the  Bear,  Ogden,  Jordan,  and  Weber, 
the  Jordan  bringing  the  fresh  waters  of  Lake 
Utah;  but  Great  Salt  Lake  has  no  outlet  savQ 
evaporation,   and  its  clear  water  consequently 


holds  a  large  quantity  of  saline  matter  in  sola- 
tion,  which  has  varied  from  22*4  per  cent,  (in 
1850,  when  the  lake  had  an  area  of  1700  sq.  m.)  to 
18-4  (in  1869,  when  the  area  had  increased  to  2360 
sq.  m.).  Of  late,  the  lake  has  been  shrinking 
again.  Several  species  of  insects  and  a  brine- 
shrimp  have  been  found  in  its  waters,  but  no 
fishes ;  large  flocks  of  water- fowls  frequent  the 
shores.  The  Great  Salt  Lake  was  first  explored 
in  1843  by  Fremont,  and  surveyed  in  1849-50  by 
Stansbury.    See  Salt  Lake  City,  and  Utah. 

Great  Slave  Lake  lies  in  the  Canadian  North- 
west Territory  (62°  N.  lat.).  Its  greatest  length 
is  about  300  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  50 
miles.  By  the  Slave  River  it  receives  the  surplus 
waters  of  Lake  Athabasca  (q.  v.) ;  and  it  discharges 
by  the  Mackenzie  River  into  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Greece  is  the  easternmost  of  the  three  penin- 
sulas projected  southwards  by  Europe  into  the 
Mediterranean.  The  mountain-range  which  cuts 
off"  the  peninsula  from  the  continent  of  Europe 
is  an  extension  of  the  Balkans.  From  it  run 
chains  from  north-north-west  to  south-south-east, 
which  form  the  skeleton  of  Greece.  The  western 
boundary  of  Thessaly  is  formed  by  Pindus  (7111 
feet),  the  main  offshoot  of  the  Balkans.  The  east- 
ern boundary  is  also  marked  not  only  by  the  sea, 
but  by  important  mountains  derived  from  the 
Balkan  system.  These  are  Olympus  (9750  feet), 
Ossa,  Mavrovuni,  and  Pelion  (5310).  Othrys,  a 
branch  of  Pindus,  forms  the  south  boundary  of 
Thessaly.  This  branch  is  continued  in  the  cele- 
brated mountains  Parnassus  (8036  feet)  and  Heli- 
con, forms  the  land  of  Attica,  and  reappears  as 
the  islands  of  Ceos,  Cythnos,  Seriphos,  and  Siph- 
nos.  The  Peloponnese,  '  the  island  of  Pelops,'  or 
by  its  modern  name  the  Morea,  is  connected  with 
northern  Greece  merely  by  the  narrow  isthmus 
of  Corinth  (q.v.),  now  pierced  by  a  canal ;  its  high- 
est point  is  Taygetus  (Hagios  Elias,  7901  feet). 
The  rivers  of  Greece  are  unimportant. 

The  ancient  Greeks  were  a  branch  of  that 
family  which  includes  most  European  peoples, 
and  also  the  Persians  and  the  Hindus,  and  is 
variously  called  Indo-Germanic,  Indo-European, 
and  Aryan.  Successive  waves  of  Aryan  tribes 
entering  from  the  north  drove  emigrants  on 
to  and  over  the  isles  of  Greece  to  plant  Greek 
cities  and  Greek  culture  on  the  coasts  of  Asia 
Minor.  At  later  times  Sicily,  the  Black  Sea, 
Libya,  &c.  were  dotted  with  Greek  colonies  ;  and 
wherever  Greeks  were,  there,  to  the  Greek 
mind,  was  '  Hellas,'  which  is  thus  an  ethnological 
rather  than  a  territorial  term.  The  Greeks  called 
themselves  Hellenes,  and  the  inhabitants  of  Italy 
called  them  Greed.  The  modern  Greeks  are  by 
no  means  pure-bred  descendants  of  the  ancient 
Greeks.  Indeed,  it  has  been  maintained  by 
Fallmerayer  that  from  the  7th  century  a.d.  there 
have  been  no  pure  Greeks  in  the  country,  but 
only  Slavs.  It  is,  however,  pretty  certain  that 
the  2i  million  of  modern  inhabitants  are  descend- 
ants of  the  three  races  that  occupied  the  soil 
at  the  time  of  the  Roman  Conquest— viz.  Greeks, 
Thracians  (mod.  Wallachians),  and  Illyrians 
(Albanians).  Greek,  ancient  and  modern,  is  a 
typical  Aryan  speech. 

In  1879  the  area  was  19,810  sq.  m.,  with  a  pop. 
of  1,679,775;  the  Thessalo-Epirot  districts  in- 
corporated with  the  kingdom  in  1881  (as  an 
outcome  of  the  Berlin  Treaty)  added  to  this 
the  remainder,  with  a  pop.  of  299,677,  making 
a  total  of  25,020  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  1,979,452. 
In  1903  the  pop.  was  2,645,175.  Besides  the 
Greeks  of  the  kingdom,  the  Greeks  in  various 


GREECE 


312 


GREEN  BAY 


parts  of  the  Ottoman  empire— notably  in  Con- 
stantinople, Macedonia,  the  western  parts  of  Asia 
Minor,  Crete,  Cyprus,  and  the  smaller  islands— 
Lumber  above  6,000,000.  Athens,  the  capital, 
lias  now  a  population  of  115,000;  tlie  towns 
next  in  size  being  Patras,  Pirseus,  and  Trikhala, 
all  above  20,000;  and  there  are  eight  others 
between  20,000  and  10,000.  Greece,  although 
one-half  of  its  area  is  pasture-land  or  waste,  is 
mainly  an  agricultural  country ;  the  land  is 
mostly  in  the  hands  of  peasant-proprietors,  and 
the  implements  of  husbandry  are  of  the  most 
primitive  type.  Besides  cereals,  fruits,  sugar, 
tobacco,  cotton,  and  dyestuffs  are  raised.  The 
chief  articles  of  export  are  currants  (about  half 
of  the  total),  lead  and  other  ores,  olive-oil,  wine, 
honey,  sponges,  &c.  The  principal  imports  are 
cereals  and  textile  goods.  The  imports  have  an 
annual  value  of  from  £4,000,000  to  £5,500,000 ; 
tlie  exports  from  £3,000,000  to  £4,250,000.  Tlie 
exports  to  Britain  average  about  If  million,  and 
the  imports  from  Britain  1^  million  annually. 
Tlie  herding  of  sheep  (3,000,000)  occupies  about 
9  per  cent,  of  the  people ;  the  sponge  and  coral 
fisheries  employ  more  than  900  boats.  The  min- 
erals of  Greece  include  lignite,  argentiferous  lead, 
zinc,  magnetic  iron,  and  marble.  There  are 
some  1200  flour-mills  worked  by  water  and  wind, 
and  about  100  by  steain ;  over  2t)0  distilleries ; 
and  numerous  dyeworks,  tanneries,  and  manu- 
factures of  machinery,  cotton  and  silk  goods, 
&c.  About  700  miles  of  railway  are  open,  and 
others  are  in  course  of  construction  ;  and  there 
are  nearly  4400  miles  of  telegraph  lines. 

The  legislative  power  is  vested  in  a  single 
chamber  of  representatives,  the  Boule,  which  con- 
sists of  about  235  paid  representatives,  elected 
under  the  ballot  by  universal  suffrage  for  a  period 
of  four  years.  Greece  is  divided  for  administrative 
purposes  into  twenty-six  nomarchies  or  depart- 
ments, which  are  again  subdivided  into  69  dis- 
tricts and  450  communes.  Tlie  revenue  averages 
from  £4,000,000  to  £4,750,000,  and  the  expendi- 
ture nearly  balances.  The  total  debt  amounts 
to  £33,000,000,  without  the  last  war  indemnity. 
Fully  a  third  of  the  expenditure  is  absorbed 
by  the  interest  on  the  debt,  and  a  fifth  by 
the  ministries  of  war  and  marine.  The  Greek 
Orthodox  Church  is  established  by  law,  and  to  it 
the  great  mass  of  the  people  belong ;  but  there 
are  some  25,000  Mohammedans  in  Thessaly  and 
Epirus.  There  are  more  than  160  monasteries 
and  nunneries,  with  over  2600  monks  and  some 
500  nuns.  Elementary  education  is  com- 
pulsory for  children  between  the  ages  of  five  and 
twelve ;  but  the  law  is  not  carefully  enforced 
outside  the  towns,  and  the  majority  of  the  people 
are  illiterate.  In  1905  the  nominal  strength  of 
the  army  on  a  peace  footing  was  24,076— which 
in  the  event  of  war  could  easily  be  raised  to 
100,000 ;  all  able-bodied  males  are  liable  to  ser- 
vice. The  navy  consisted  of  four  small  ironclads, 
sixteen  gunboats,  twenty-one  torpedo  boats  and 
launches,  and  several  other  vessels ;  the  officers 
and  men  number  nearly  3000. 

Before  the  dawn  of  history,  we  have  traces  of 
the  encroachments  on  one  another  by  various 
Hellenic  or  Greek  races,  tribes,  or  alliances— 
Pelasgians,  Aetolians,  lonians,  Boeotians,  and 
Achaians  being  amongst  them.  The  first  really 
historical  fact  is  the  invasion  from  the  northward 
by  the  Dorians,  who  made  themselves  masters  of 
the  Peloponnesus  about  the  beginning  of  the  12th 
century  b.c.  A  consequence  of  this  Dorian 
invasion  was  the  colonisation  of  the  islands  and 
of  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor  by  JEolians,  lonians, 


and  later  by  Dorians  also.  The  seeds  of  that 
literature,  art,  and  philosophy,  which  afterwards 
made  Greece,  and  specially  Athens,  glorious  were 
sown  and  first  nurtured  in  the  colonies.  By 
degrees  Greek  colonies  established  themselves 
on  the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea,  and  along  both 
north  and  south  coasts  of  the  Mediterranean, 
Sicily  was  largely  Hellenised,  and  South  Italy 
became  Magna  Grsecia.  Neither  at  home  nor 
abroad  had  the  Greeks  the  faculty  of  union  as  a 
nation  or  race ;  even  in  the  fatherland  there  were 
multitudes  of  small  states,  a  city  with  three  or 
four  miles  of  territory  being  often  an  independent 
state  of  itself,  and  frequently  at  war  with  its 
neighbours.  Almost  the  only  central  bond  of 
union,  besides  the  Hellenic  tongue  in  its  various 
dialects,  was  the  oracle  of  Apollo  at  Delphi.  For 
long,  two  Greek  states  were  pre-eminent.  The 
powerful  Dorian  state  of  Sparta  was  reorganised 
about  800  B.C.  by  Lycurgus,  the  kingly  institution 
being  retained.  Athens  was  democratic  before 
that  date,  and  its  constitution,  fixed  by  Solon  in 
594  B.C.,  ultimately  triumphed  over  the  tyranny 
of  Pisistratus  and  his  sons.  Encroachments  of 
the  Persians  on  the  Greek  colonies  of  Asia  Minor 
led  to  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  the  Persians  in 
490  B.C.,  an  invasion  gloriously  repelled  by  the 
Athenians  at  Marathon.  Xerxes  was  defeated  at 
Thermopylse,  Salarais  (480),  Platsea,  and  Mycale, 
Athenians  and  Spartans  for  a  time  combining 
their  forces.  Now  it  was  that  Greek  literature 
and  Greek  art  attained  a  perfection  that  has 
made  the  rest  of  the  world  ever  since  scholars 
and  imitators  of  the  Greeks  of  the  Periclean 
period.  The  next  period  is  marked  by  the  fratri- 
cidal struggle  between  Athens  and  Sparta  in  the 
Peloponnesian  war,  which  ended  in  the  humilia- 
tion of  Athens  in  404  B.C.,  and  the  enfeeblement 
of  all  Greece.  In  379-371  the  Thebans  asserted 
themselves  victoriously  against  the  Spartans ; 
and  forty  years  later  Philip  of  Macedon  subjected 
Greece  to  a  semi-barbarous  nation.  Under  his 
son,  Alexander  the  Great,  the  Greek  name  and 
the  Greek  fame  were  extended  into  Asia  and 
Africa  by  the  Macedonian  king's  campaigns.  In 
197  the  Romans  broke  the  Macedonian  power, 
and  by  146  were  masters  of  Greece,  which  sub- 
sequently shared  the  fortunes  of  the  Roman 
empire.  When  the  Roman  empire  was  divided 
(395  A.D.)  into  the  Eastern  and  Western  empires, 
Greek  was  of  course  the  language  of  the  Eastern, 
Greek,  or  Byzantine  half  of  the  Roman  dominion. 
The  Byzantine  emperors  fell  in  1453  before  the 
Turks,  under  whom  the  Greek  race  reached  the 
lowest  stage  of  political,  intellectual,  commercial, 
and  spiritual  decadence,  though  the  Greek  Church 
survived,  and  the  old  Greek  tongue,  in  corrupted 
guise,  continued  to  be  spoken.  A  national  re- 
awakening began  in  1821 ;  and  by  1828,  with  the 
support  of  Britain,  France,  and  Russia,  Greece 
was  again  a  free,  but  small  and  weak  kingdom. 
The  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78  added  Thessaly 
and  part  of  Epirus  to  its  area  ;  but  the  ambition 
of  the  Greeks  to  secure  a  large  share  of  the  'sick 
man's'  inheritance— especially  Macedonia  and 
Constantinople— is  one  of  the  causes  that  has  led 
to  growing  embarrassment  in  the  national  finances, 
and  to  national  bankruptcy  in  1893. 

On  the  land  of  Greece  and  its  people,  see 
works  by  Leake  (1830-35),  Wordsworth  (1831  ; 
new  ed.  1883),  Tozer  (1873),  Sergeant  (1879,  1880), 
Jebb  (1880),  and  Rennell  Rodd  (1892);  on  the 
history,  the  works  of  Thirlwall,  Grote,  Curtius, 
Finlay,  and  Bury. 

Green  Bay,  capital  of  Brown  county,  Wis- 
consin, at  the  head  of  Green  Bay  and  the  mouth 


GREENCASTLE 


313 


GREENOCK 


of  Pox  River,  65  miles  NNE.  of  Fond  du  Lac  by 
rail.  It  has  a  handsome  Roman  Catholic  cathe- 
dral, a  good  harbour,  export  of  lumber,  iron- 
works, and  sawmills.    Pop.  18,700. 

Greencastle,  once  a  little  Antrim  village,  now 
part  of  northern  Belfast. 

Greenhithe,  a  Kentish  village  on  the  Thames, 
3  miles  B.  by  N.  of  Dartford.  Hence  Franklin 
sailed  in  1845. 

Greenland,  an  extensive  region,  stretching 
from  69°  45'  to  83^°  N.  lat.  and  from  17°  to  73° 
W.  long.,  now  known  to  be  an  island  engirt 
by  smaller  islands,  but  an  island  of  almost 
continental  size.  Even  its  southern  end  has  a 
thoroughly  arctic  character.  It  was  discovered 
by  the  earliest  ^andinavian  settlers  in  Iceland. 
After  having  been  sighted  by  Gunbjorn,  it  was 
visited  by  Erik  the  Red,  who,  having  explored 
it,  founded  there  in  986  two  colonies.  The 
colonies  afterwards  came  under  the  dominion 
of  Norway,  but  were  neglected  and  sufl'ered 
from  disaster  and  privation,  until  the  western 
settlement  was  attacked  and  destroyed  by 
Eskimo  intruders  from  the  north  some  years 
after  1340.  Subsequently  the  connection  with 
Europe  gradually  grew  less  and  less,  wholly 
ceasing  after  1448,  when  Greenland  almost  passed 
into  oblivion.  On  its  rediscovery  by  John  Davis 
in  1585  the  Eskimo  were  the  only  inhabitants. 
In  1721  the  modern  Danish  settlements  on  the 
west  coast  were  founded  by  Hans  Egede  as 
missionary  stations.  Remarkable  ruins  of  un- 
doubted Scandinavian  origin  were  early  dis- 
covered on  two  points  of  the  west  coast,  one 
between  60"  and  61°  N.  lat.,  the  other  between 
64°  and  65°.  In  each  case  the  ruins  lie  scattered 
over  an  area  of  some  hundred  square  miles, 
occupying  small  flat  and  fertile  spots  around 
the  heads  of  the  fjords.  The  whole  coast-line 
may  be  roughly  estimated  at  3600  miles,  or  192,000, 
following  every  island,  fjord,  and  peninsula.  The 
area  again  may  be  variously  estimated  at  512,000 
and  320,000  sq.  m.,  according  as  one  includes  or 
omits  the  islands  and  fjords  running  inland,  which 
are  60  miles  long  on  an  average.  A  huge  ice-sheet 
covers  the  whole  of  the  interior.  The  surface  of 
this  enormous  glacier,  only  occasionally  inter- 
rupted by  protruding  mountain-tops,  rises  slightly 
towards  the  interior.  In  1888,  when  Greenland 
was  crossed  from  east  to  west  (by  Nansen),  the 
*  divide '  was  found  to  attain  some  10,000  feet  above 
the  sea.  On  account  of  this  ice-cap  Greenland 
has  no  rivers  corresponding  to  its  magnitude ; 
instead  of  its  being  drained  by  rivers,  the  inland 
ice  at  certain  points  of  the  coast  is  thrust  into 
the  sea  by  forces  which  have  their  origin  in 
extensive  lateral  glaciers  in  the  interior.  These 
points  are  represented  by  the  so-called  ice-fjords, 
through  which  the  ice,  whose  thickness  may  be 
estimated  at  1000  feet,  is  pushed  on  an  average 
with  a  velocity  of  50  feet  in  twenty-four  hours 
into  the  sea,  where  it  breaks  into  fragments— the 
bergs.  The  coast-margin,  itself  largely  bounded 
with  perpetual  ice,  is  very  mountainous ;  bold 
headlands,  3000  to  5000  feet  high,  are  common, 
some  even  rising  6000  to  7000  feet.  Low  flat 
land  is  found  only  in  small  patches,  especially 
round  the  heads  of  some  of  the  fjords.  These 
inlets  generally  take  the  form  of  narrow  channels, 
frequently  more  than  1000  feet  deep. 

The  climate  of  Greenland, when  contrasted  with 
the  climate  of  the  eastern  coasts  of  the  Atlantic 
in  the  same  latitude,  shows  a  surprising  difference. 
The  southern  point  of  Greenland  has  a  mean 
temperature  corresponding  to  that  of  the  most 


northern  shores  of  Iceland  and  Norway.  But 
the  difl"erence  consists  more  in  the  want  of  sum- 
mer than  in  the  severity  of  the  winter.  The 
mean  of  summer,  of  winter,  and  of  the  year  at 
Upernivik  (73°  N.  lat.)  is  respectively  38-2°,  -6-6°, 
and  13-3°  F.  The  mountains  of  Greenland  consist 
chiefly  of  granitic  and  gneissose  rocks.  Metallic 
ores  have  hitherto  proved  rather  scarce.  Besides 
coal,  graphite  has  been  discovered ;  and  10,000 
tons  of  cryolite  are  annually  exported  for  the 
manufacture  of  soda  and  alum.  A  mineralogical 
rarity  is  the  native  iron,  of  which  a  mass  found 
on  Disco  Island  was  estimated  to  weigh  46,200 
pounds.  In  sheltered  slopes  and  valleys  around 
the  fjords  south  of  65°  N.  lat.  copse-woods  are 
found,  consisting  of  alder,  white  birch,  more 
rarely  rowan-trees,  which  grow  to  6  or  8  feet 
high.  Berries  are  abundant,  especially  crow- 
berries  and  whortleberries.  The  Greenland  flora 
comprises  395  species  of  phanerogams  and  higher 
cryptogams,  and  330  species  of  mosses.  The 
fauna  numbers  33  species  of  mammalia,  124  of 
birds,  79  of  fishes.  It  is  from  the  animal  king- 
dom, especially  from  the  seals  and  whales,  that 
the  natives  derive  almost  their  whole  subsistence. 
Reindeer,  of  which  25,000  were  shot  annually  in 
the  years  1845-49,  are  now  rather  scarce.  Of 
fish,  sharks  only  have  any  commercial  value,  but 
several  other  kinds  aflbrd  food  for  the  inhabit- 
ants. American  ships  have  for  some  years  tried 
halibut-fishery  on  the  banks  off"  the  west  coast. 
The  dogs  used  for  draught  are  of  great  import- 
ance in  the  north.  A  few  goats  and  horned 
cattle  have  been  kept  by  the  Europeans,  but 
mainly  as  a  curiosity. 

The  inhabitants  of  Greenland  are  of  the  Eskimo 
race,  more  or  less  mixed  with  European  blood. 
The  individuals  of  the  mixed  race  hardly  diff"er 
as  to  language  and  habits  from  the  pure  Eskimo. 
Besides  the  natives,  about  250  Europeans  usually 
reside  in  the  countiy.  Total  pop.  about  11,600. 
Since  1774  the  trade  of  Greenland  has  been  a 
royal  monopoly.  There  are  12  chief  stations  for 
trading  and  the  Danish  Mission ;  the  southern- 
most is  Julianehaab  (60°  42'  N.  lat.),  the  northern- 
most Upernivik  (72°  48'  N.  lat.).  At  Godthaab 
there  is  a  seminary  for  training  native  catechists ; 
of  late  natives  have  been  appointed  pastors.  The 
Moravian  Mission  has  four  chief  stations. 

See  Danish  Greenland,  by  Rink  (Lond.  1877),  and 
works  on  the  expeditions  of  Scoresby,  Clavering, 
Kane,  Hall,  Nares,  Greely,  Nansen,  and  Peary. 

Greenlaw,  a  small  town  of  Berwickshire  (q. v.), 
on  the  Blackadder,  38  miles  ESE.  of  Edinburgh 
(by  rail  55).  Its  court-house  (1834)  is  a  large 
Grecian  pile.    Pop.  744. 

Greenlet  Island,  a  small  island  in  Belle  Isle 
Strait,  in  51°  34'  N.  lat.  and  56°  36'  W.  long. 

Green  Mountains,  a  portion  of  the  Appala- 
chians (q.v.). 

Greenock,  an  important  seaport  of  Renfrew- 
shire, the  seventh  largest  town  in  Scotland,  on 
the  southern  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  3f 
miles  by  water  S.  of  Helensburgh,  and  22^  by 
rail  WNW.  of  Glasgow.  For  more  than  four 
miles  it  stretches  along  the  level  strip  of  ancient 
sea-margin,  or  climbs  up  the  slopes  of  the  hills, 
which  rise  rapidly  behind  it  to  a  height  of  813 
feet,  and  which  command  splendid  views  of  the 
opposite  coasts  of  Argyll  and  Dumbarton  shires. 
Greenock  has  a  reputation  of  being  always  wet, 
and  the  yearly  rainfall  does  exceed  60  inches ; 
but  as  the  prevalent  winds  are  from  the  south 
and  west,  they  are  generally  mild.  The  west  end 
of  the  town,  with  its  elegant  and  commodious 


6REEN0RE 


314 


GREIZ 


villas  of  every  style  of  architecture,  its  beautiful 
esplanade,  1^  mile  long,  its  wide  and  well-paved 
Streets,  planted  with  trees,  is  particularly  attrac- 
tive. The  public  buildings,  many  of  them  very 
handsome,  include  the  Renaissance  town-hall 
(1886),  with  a  tower  245  feet  high,  the  county 
buildings  (1867),  the  custom-house  (1818),  the 
poorhouse  and  lunatic  asylum  (1876),  Wood's 
Mariners'  Asylum  (1851),  and  the  Watt  Institu- 
tion (1837),  containing  a  marble  statue  of  Watt 
by  Chantrey.  To  Sir  Michael  Shaw-Stewart  the 
town  is  largely  indebted  for  the  Well  Park  (1851), 
the  Wellington  Park  (1872),  and  the  Lyle  Road 
(1880).  The  new  cemetery,  90  acres  in  extent, 
with  its  Watt  cairn,  and  the  magnificent  water- 
works (1827-83)  also  deserve  mention.  The  har- 
bour-works date  from  1707,  and  have  cost 
upwards  of  li  million  pounds.  Accessible  at  all 
states  of  the  tide,  they  include  Victoria  Harbour 
(1850),  the  Albert  Harbour  (1866),  and  the  James 
Watt  Dock  (1886).  The  tonnage  of  vessels  be- 
longing to  Greenock  rose  from  29,054  in  1825  to 
103,919  in  1867,  and  278,097  in  1893  (besides  313 
fishing-boats) ;  whilst  the  tonnage  of  vessels 
entering  the  port  ranges  between  1,000,000  and 
1,600,000  per  annum.  Shipbuilding  (mostly  iron 
or  steel  steamers)  has  been  carried  on  since  1760  ; 
and  sugar-refining,  commenced  in  1765,  in  spite 
of  bad  recent  years  has  still  its  chief  seat  at 
Greenock.  There  are  also  manufactures  of  steam- 
engines,  anchors  and  chain-cables,  ropes,  sail- 
cloth, paper,  wool  and  worsted,  &c.  Since  1832 
Greenock  has  returned  a  member  to  parliament. 
Pop.  (1696)  1328;  (1801)  17,190;  (1851)  36,689; 
(1881)  66,704 ;  (1901)  68,142.  Created  a  burgh  of 
barony  in  1635,  Greenock  owes  its  growth  from  a 
mere  fishing-village  to  the  Shaw  family  and  to 
the  Treaty  of  Union  (1707),  by  which  free  com- 
merce was  opened  up  with  America  and  the  West 
Indies.  Besides  being  the  birthplace  of  Watt, 
Kidd  the  pirate,  Spence  the  mathematician. 
Principal  Caird,  and  Hamish  MacCunn,  it  has 
memories  of  Rob  Roy,  John  Wilson,  and  Gait, 
and  contains  the  grave  of  Burns's  'Highland 
Mary.'  See  Provost  Dugald  Campbell's  Historical 
Sketches  of  the  Town  and  Harbours  of  Greenock  (2 
vols.  1879-81). 

Greenore,  a  small  village  (pop.  323),  railway 
terminus,  and  pier  of  County  Louth,  on  the  S. 
side  of  Carlingford  Lough,  13  miles  SE.  of  Newry. 

Green  River  (l)  rises  in  Wyoming,  and  flows 
750  miles  through  Colorado  and  Utah  to  the 
Grand  River,  a  branch  of  the  Colorado.— (2)  Rises 
in  Kentucky,  and  flows  350  miles  to  the  Ohio. 

Greenville,  capital  of  Greenville  county.  South 
Carolina,  on  Reedy  River,  95  miles  (143  by  rail) 
NW.  of  Columbia,  with  a  Baptist  university 
(1851),  and  manufactures  of  cotton,  oil,  flour, 
furniture,  and  machinery.    Pop.  11,900. 

Greenwich  (Gren'itch;  A.S.  Green-wic,  'green 
creek  or  bay '),  a  parliamentary  borough  of  Kent 
(now,  officially,  the  county  of  London),  5  miles 
BSE.  of  London  Bridge,  on  the  south  bank  of  the 
Thames,  here  crossed  by  a  steamship  ferry,  on  the 
American  system,  which  was  opened  in  1888. 
Greenwich  Hospital  occupies  the  site  of  an  old 
royal  palace,  in  which  Henry  VIII.  and  his 
daughters  Mary  and  Elizabeth  were  born,  and 
Edward  VI.  died.  Founded  in  1694  by  Queen 
Mary  as  a  mark  of  the  gratitude  which  England 
felt  towards  her  brave  sailors  who  had  fought  at 
La  Hogue,  it  consists  of  four  distinct  quad- 
rangular piles— King  Charles's  building  (1664), 
designed  by  Inigo  Jones,  and  Queen  Anne's, 
King  William's,   and   Queen   Mary's   buildings. 


all  designed  by  Sir  Christopher  Wren.  The 
Great  Hall  is  remarkable  for  its  painted  ceil- 
ing, a  work  carried  out  by  Sir  James  Thornhill 
in  1707-27.  It  contains  several  valuable  pictures 
of  great  naval  battles  and  of  the  heroes  who 
fought  in  them ;  there  is  still  preserved  the 
coat  which  Nelson  wore  when  he  was  shot  at 
Trafalgar.  The  chapel  is  a  fine  specimen  of  Greek 
architecture.  A  statue  of  George  II.  by  Rysbrach 
adorns  the  central  square.  The  first  pensioners 
were  received  in  the  hospital  in  1705 ;  these 
numbered  100 ;  in  1814  the  maximum  number 
was  reached — viz.  2710.  In  1763  out-pensions 
were  granted  ;  in  1849  the  number  of  in-pensioners 
began  to  decrease,  until  in  1865  they  only  num- 
bered 1400.  For  some  time  the  in-pensioners  had 
been  discontented,  and  in  1869,  when  they  had 
the  option  of  receiving  an  out-pension,  a  very 
large  majority  preferred  to  go  to  their  friends. 
Greenwich  Hospital  was  thus  disestablished  by 
the  votes  of  the  very  men  for  whose  benefit  it 
was  originally  founded.  The  annual  income 
of  the  hospital  is  £167,259.  From  this  suni 
numerous  pensions  are  paid ;  1000  boys,  the 
sons  of  seamen  and  marines,  are  maintained 
and  educated  at  Greenwich  Hospital  Schools  at 
an  average  cost  of  £23,000  a  year  ;  gratuities  are 
granted  to  widows  of  seamen  and  marines ;  and 
50  orphans  of  officers  receive  grants  for  their 
education.  It  is  estimated  that  9000  persons, 
exclusive  of  the  children  mentioned,  derive 
benefit  from  the  funds.  In  1873  Greenwich 
Hospital  became  the  college  for  the  Royal 
Navy,  and  all  combatant  naval  officers  are  now 
compelled  to  take  their  degree  at  Greenwich. 
There  are  also  the  Naval  Museum,  the  Royal 
Hospital  School  (1712),  and  the  Royal  Observa- 
tory, which  crowns  the  hill  behind  the  hospital, 
and  was  built  by  Charles  II.  in  1675,  the  first 
astronomer-royal  being  Flamsteed.  The  White- 
bait Dinner  is  a  banquet  held  intermittently  by 
the  cabinet-ministers  to  celebrate  the  termina- 
tion of  a  parliamentary  session.  The  manufac- 
turing establishments  include  engineering,  tele- 
graph works,  chemical  works,  &c.  Greenwich 
returned  two  members  down  to  1885,  when  it  was 
divided  into  three  parliamentary  boroughs- 
Greenwich,  Deptford,  and  Woolwich,  all  now 
metropolitan  boroughs  of  London.  Pop.  of 
Greenwich  (1901)  95,757.  In  1881  it  was  but  65,411. 
See  a  work  by  L'Estrange  (2  vols.  1886). 

Greenwich,  the  south-westernmost  town  of 
Connecticut,  with  many  handsome  residences,  28 
miles  NE.  of  New  York.     Pop.  12,131. 

Greifenberg,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Poinerania,  55  miles  NE.  of  Stettin.    Pop.  563& 

Greifenhagen,  a  town  of  Prussia,  on  the  Oder, 
13  miles  SSW.  of  Stettin.    Pop.  6603. 

Greifswald,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Poinerania,  2J  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Ryck,  and  25  by  rail  SE.  of  Stralsund.  The  uni- 
versity (1456)  has  from  700  to  1000  students, 
chiefly  in  medicine  and  theology,  and  a  library 
of  140,000  volumes.  There  is  a  considerable 
shipping  trade.  The  industries  include  the  mak- 
ing of  machinery,  chains,  and  railway  wagons, 
the  curing  of  herrings,  and  iron-founding.  Pop. 
(1875)  18,016  ;  (1900)  22,950.  Shortly  after  being 
made  a  town  (1250),  Greifswald  joined  the  Han- 
seatic  League.  At  the  peace  of  Westphalia  (1648) 
it  came  to  Sweden ;  but,  with  the  whole  of 
Swedish  Pomerania,  was  ceded  to  Prussia  in  1815. 

Greinord.    See  Gruinard. 

Greia  (Greits),  capital  of  the  German  princi- 
pality of  Reuss-Greiz,  on  the  White  Elster,  47 


GRENADA 


315 


ORINNELL  LAND 


miles  SSW.  of  Leipzig.  It  has  three  castles,  a 
13th-century  church,  and  manufactures  of  cotton 
and  wooUen  goods,  shawls,  linen,  &c.  Pop. 
(1875)  12,657  ;  (1900)  22,350. 

Grena'da,  a  volcanic  island  in  the  British  West 
Indies,  lying  N.  by  W.  from  Trinidad,  mountain- 
ous and  picturesque,  with  an  area  of  133  sq.  m. 
Some  of  the  craters  in  tlie  central  ridge  of  moun- 
tains, rising  to  3200  feet,  have  been  transformed 
into  large  lakes.  Streams  and  mineral  springs 
abound.  There  are  several  good  natural  harbours, 
that  of  St  George  (pop.  4000),  the  capital  of  the 
island  and  the  headquarters  of  the  government  of 
the, Windward  Islands,  being  one  of  the  best  in 
the  West  Indies.  Pop.  (1881)  42,403  ;  (1001)  63,438, 
who  are  almost  all  negroes,  and  cultivate  cocoa, 
coffee,  and  oranges.  A  little  rum  is  manufactured. 
Columbus  in  1498  was  the  discoverer  of  the 
island,  which  in  1783  was  ceded  by  France  to 
England. 

Grenadines,  a  chain  of  West  Indian  islets, 
extending  between  Grenada  and  St  Vincent,  with 
a  total  area  of  13  sq.  m.,  and  7800  inhabitants. 
The  largest  is  Carriacou  (11  sq.  m.). 

Grenelle,  a  south-western  suburb  of  Paris. 

Grenoble  (Lat.  Gratianopolis),  since  1839  a 
first-class  fortified  city  of  France,  capital  of  the 
dep,  of  Isere,  on  the  river  Is6re,  59  miles  SE.  of 
Lyons.  The  15th-century  cathedral  of  Notre 
Dame,  St  Laurent,  St  Andre  (with  Bayard's 
monument,  transferred  hither  in  1822),  and  the 
Gothic  palais-de-justice  are  the  most  interesting 
buildings.  The  university  has  some  275  students. 
The  library  contains  170,000  volumes  and  7500 
MSS.  The  staple  manufacture  is  kid  gloves  (em- 
ploying 22,000  persons  in  115  factories).  There 
are  also  manufactures  of  liqueurs  (Chartreuse), 
hats,  cement,  and  hardware.  Pop.  (1872)  35,280 ; 
(1901)  59,480.  Grenoble,  originally  a  city  of  the 
Allobroges,  was  fortified  by  the  Romans.  Later 
on  it  became  the  capital  of  Dauphine,  passing  with 
it  to  France  in  1349. 

Greta,  a  Cumberland  stream  flowing  4  miles  to 
the  Derwent  at  Keswick,  where  is  Greta  Hall, 
Southey's  home. 

Gretna  Green,  a  Dumfriesshire  village,  near 
the  head  of  the  Solway  Firth,  10  miles  NNW.  of 
Carlisle.  After  the  abolition  of  Fleet  marriages 
(1754),  English  persons  wishing  to  marry  clandes- 
tinely had  to  get  out  of  England.  Thus  the 
practice  arose  of  crossing  the  Border  into  Scot- 
land, where  Gretna  Green,  or  Springfield,  as  the 
first  village,  had  by  1771  become  the  resort  of 
runaAvay  couples.  The  '  priest '  or  '  blacksmith ' 
might  be  any  one — ferryman,  toll-keeper,  or  land- 
lord ;  his  fee  ranged  from  half  a  guinea  to  £100 ; 
and  'church'  was  commonly  the  tollhouse  till 
1826,  and  afterwards  Gretna  Hall.  At  the  toll- 
house nearly  200  couples  were  sometimes  united 
in  a  twelvemonth.  Coldstream  and  Lamberton, 
in  Berwickshire,  were  chapels-of-ease  to  Gretna 
for  the  eastern  Border,  as  also  till  1826  was  Port- 
patrick,  in  Wigtownshire,  for  Ireland.  One  of 
the  earliest  Scottish  runaway  matches  on  record 
is  Richard  Lovell  Edgeworth's  (1763) ;  amongst 
his  succeiSsors  were  Lords  Brougham,  Dundonald, 
Eldon,  and  Erskine,  besides  numerous  scions  of 
the  noble  families  of  Villiers,  Fane,  Beauclerc, 
Coventry,  Paget,  &c.  In  1856  all  irregular 
marriages  were  rendered  invalid  unless  one  of 
the  parties  had  been  residing  in  Scotland  for 
three  weeks  previously.  See  Hutchinson's 
Chronicles  of  Gretna  Green  (2  vols.  1844). 

Grey  Mare's  Tail,  a  Dumfriesshire  waterfall. 


10  miles  NB.  of  Moffat,  on  tlie  Tail  Burn,  running 
from  Loch  Skene  to  Moffat  Water. 

Greymouth,  a  rising  port  of  New  Zealand,  on 
the  west  coast  of  South  Island,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Grey  River,  190  miles  SSW.  of  Nelson.  Ex- 
tensive harbour- works,  including  two  breakwaters, 
have  been  erected  since  1885,  and  railways  to 
Nelson  and  Christchurch  were  imdertaken  in 
1887.  The  entire  district  is  auriferous,  but  is 
even  more  famous  for  its  coal.    Pop.  3787. 

Greytown,  or  San  Juan  del  Norte,  the  only 
Nicaraguan  port  on  the  Caribbean  Sea,  is  on  the 
north  fork  of  the  San  Juan,  which  was  nearly 
silted  up  till  1889,  when  labourers  were  des- 
patclied  from  the  United  States  to  commence 
work  on  the  Nicaraguan  inter-oceanic  canal,  of 
which  Greytown  is  the  proposed  Atlantic  ter- 
minus, and  to  construct  a  breakwater.    Pop.  1500. 

Grigoriopol,  a  town  of  South  Russia,  on  the 
Dniester,  82  miles  NW.  of  Odessa.    Pop.  7918. 

Grimes  Dyke.    See  Antoninus'  Wall. 

Grimisay,  an  Inverness-shire  island,  between 
North  Uist  and  Benbecula,  measuring  3  by  1^ 
miles.     Pop.  291. 

Grimma,  a  town  of  Saxony,  on  the  Mulde,  19 
miles  SE.  of  Leipzig  by  rail.  It  has  a  town-hall 
(1442),  a  former  royal  castle  (now  a  court-house), 
and  a  celebrated  school  (1550,  the  'Moldanum 
lUustre ').    Pop.  11,000. 

Grimsby,  or  Great  Grimsby,  a  parliamentary, 
municipal,  and  county  borough  and  seaport  of 
Lincolnshire,  on  the  Humber's  right  bank,  20 
miles  ESE.  of  Hull  and  41  NE.  of  Lincoln.  The 
parish  church,  a  good  cruciform  Early  English 
edifice,  was  restored  in  1859.  A  statue  of  the 
Prince-Consort  was  unveiled  in  1879,  and  a  public 
park  of  27  acres  opened  in  1883.  In  Edward  III.'s 
time  Grimsby  was  a  port  of  considerable  import- 
ance, which,  however,  it  gradually  lost  as  its 
harbour  became  silted  up.  The  town  is  famous 
as  the  largest  fishing-port  in  the  kingdom,  its 
trawlers  and  smacks  being  mostly  engaged  in  the 
cod,  herring,  and  whelk  fisheries.  Its  import- 
ance as  a  landing-place  of  fish  dates  from  1849- 
58,  when  docks  began  to  be  constructed  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Manchester,  Sheffield,  and 
Lincolnshire  Railway,  which  carries  the  fish  to 
the  towns  of  the  northern  Midlands.  The  docks 
cover  altogether  350  acres.  The  industries  include 
shipbuilding,  tanning,  brewing,  cordage-making, 
and  flax-dressing.  About  3000  vessels,  of  1,000,000 
tons,  enter  every  year.  The  imports  reach  an 
annual  value  of  4j  millions  sterling,  and  the 
exports  of  7J  millions.  Grimsby  since  1832  has 
returned  only  one  member.  Pop.  (1851)  12,263 ; 
(1871)28,503;  (1881)45,351;  (1901)78,198,  of  whom 
63,138  were  within  the  municipal  boundary.  See 
works  by  Oliver  (1825)  and  Davenport  (1866). 

Grindelwald,  a  beautiful  Swiss  valley  (3468 
feet)  in  the  Bernese  Oberland,  12^  miles  long  and 
4  broad,  forms  the  approach  to  the  two  Grindel- 
wald glaciers.     It  is  a  winter  health-resort. 

Grinnell  Land,  a  barren,  inountainous  Polar 
tract  on  the  west  side  of  Kennedy  Channel  (the 
northern  continuation  of  Smith's  Sound),  which 
separates  it  from  Greenland.  It  was  discovered 
by  Dr  Hayes  in  1854,  and  named  after  Henry 
Grinnell  (1800-74),  of  New  York,  who  had  fitted 
out  Kane's  expedition.  Greely  in  1882  thoroughly 
explored  it.  North  and  south  it  is  covered  with 
ice-caps  ;  between  them  lie  valleys  that  get  quit 
of  their  snow  in  summer,  and  support  herds  of 
musk  oxen.  In  the  interior  are  Lake  Hazen,  60 
miles  long,  and  two  ranges  of  mountains,  one 


GRINSTEAD 


316 


GUADALAJARA 


with  Mount  Arthur  (5000  feet).— Another  Grinnell 
Land,  discovered  by  De  Haven  in  1850,  lies  far- 
ther SW.,  off  the  NW.  extremity  of  North  Devon 
Island. 

Grinstead,  East,  an  old-fashioned  tovi^n  of 
Sussex,  36  miles  S.  by  E.  of  London  by  rail, 
which  till  1832  returned  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment. Here  is  Sackville  College,  of  which  Dr 
J.  M.  Neale  was  warden,  and  the  convent  of 
the  sisterhood  of  St  Margaret,  with  Home  and 
Orphanage.  Pop,  of  urban  district,  6100.— West 
Grinstead  is  18  miles  to  the  SW.     Pop.  1502. 

Griqualand  West  and  East  are  two  British 
districts  of  South  Africa,  one  a  part  of  Cape 
Colony  (q.v.),  the  other  a  dependency  of  it,  and 
named  from  the  Griquas  or  Bastaards,  who  are 
a  mixed  race  sprung  from  Dutch  settlers  and 
native  women.— Griqualand  West  lies  to  the 
north-east  of  Cape  Colony,  is  bounded  S.  by  the 
Orange  River,  N.  by  Bechuana  territory,  E.  by 
Orange  Free  State,  W.  by  the  Kalahari  country. 
Portions  of  the  country  are  suitable  for  sheep- 
farming  and  agriculture,  but  the  chief  source  of 
wealth  is  the  diamond-fields.  From  the  discovery 
of  the  first  diamond  in  1867,  a  steady  stream  of 
immigration  set  in ;  settlements  were  formed 
representing  all  nationalities,  and  digging  was 
vigorously  prosecuted.  Diamonds  to  the  value  of 
above  £12,000,000  were  found  there  during  1871-80, 
and  of  perhaps  £100,000,000  between  1867  and 
1900.  Griqualand  West  was  annexed  in  1871, 
and  incorporated  with  Cape  Colony  in  1880. 
Kimberley,  connected  by  rail  with  the  Cape 
since  1885,  is  the  seat  of  government.  Other 
towns  are  De  Beers,  Du  Toit's  Pan,  Bultfontein, 
Barkly,  and  Griqua  Town.  Area,  15,197  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  100,000,  of  whom  about  40,000  are  whites.— 
Griqualand  East  is  that  part  of  No-Man's-Land 
which  lies  between  the  Kaffir  border  and  southern 
Natal.  It  was  allotted  to  the  Griqua  chief, 
Adam  Kok,  who  had  removed  thither  with  15,000 
Griquas,  and  to  the  Basutos  who  had  previously 
migrated  hither.  This  territory  was  annexed  to 
the  Cape  in  1875.  Chief  village,  Kokstadt.  Area, 
about  8000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  200,000,  of  whom  about 
20,000  are  whites. 

Gris-nez  (Gree-nay'),  Cape,  a  headland  (164  feet 
high)  in  the  French  dep.  of  Pas-de-Calais,  opposite 
Dover,  is  the  point  of  land  nearest  to  England 
(barely  20  miles).    A  lighthouse  surmounts  it. 

Orisons  (Gree-zong^ ;  Ger.  Graubiinden),  the  larg- 
est and  the  most  thinly  peopled  of  the  Swiss  can- 
tons, is  bounded  B.  by  Tyrol  and  S.  by  Lombardy. 
Area,  2773  sq.  m. ;  population,  106,000,  nearly  half 
of  German  stock,  and  more  than  half  Protestants. 
The  whole  canton  is  an  assemblage  of  mountains 
intersected  by  narrow  valleys.  These  last  form 
three  groups,  of  which  the  first  and  most  im- 
portant lies  along  the  course  of  the  Rhine ;  the 
second,  forming  the  Bngadine  (q.v.),  extends 
north-east  along  the  Inn  ;  and  the  third  belongs 
to  the  basins  of  the  Ticino  and  the  Adige.  During 
the  middle  ages  the  Bishop  of  Chur  sought  to 
oppress  the  people,  who  in  self-defence  formed 
themselves  into  leagues.  One  of  these  (1424),  was 
called  the  gray  league  (Ger.  der  graue  bund),  from 
the  gray  home-spun  worn  by  the  unionists,  and 
hence  the  German  and  French  names  of  the 
canton.  In  1471  these  separate  unions  entered 
into  a  general  federation,  which  in  1497-98  formed 
an  alliance  with  the  Swiss  cantons. 

Grodek,  a  town  of  Austrian  Galicia,  20  miles 
SSW.  of  Lemberg.    Pop.  12,116. 

Grodno,  the  capital  of  a  Russian  province,  on 
the  Niemeu's  right  bank,  148  miles  by  rail  NE. 


of  Warsaw.  It  manufactures  cloth  and  tobacco. 
Pop.  46,788.— The  province  has  an  area  of  14,926 
sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  1,650,000. 

Groly,  a  Leicestershire  manor,  the  birthplace 
of  Lady  Jane  Grey,  4 J  miles  WNW.  of  Leicester, 

Groningen  {Gro'ning-en),  the  north-eastern 
province  of  Holland.  Area,  887  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
over  303,000.  — The  capital,  Groningen,  is  25 
miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Delfzihl,  on  Dollart  Bay, 
and  34  E.  of  Leeuwarden.  The  university  (1614), 
with  new  buildings  of  1850,  and  some  360  students, 
possesses  a  library,  a  botanic  garden,  an  observ- 
atory, &c.  A  celebrated  deaf  and  dumb  institu- 
tion was  founded  in  1790.  The  manufactures 
include  linen  and  woollen  goods,  tobacco,  brushes, 
Dutch  tiles,  and  boat-building.  Groningen,  al- 
ready an  important  place  in  the  9th  century, 
joined  the  Hanseatic  League  in  1282.  Pop.  (1876) 
40,165 ;  (1901)  67,570. 

Groote  Eylandt  (Dutch, '  great  island '),  a  hilly 
uninhabited  island,  40  miles  in  diameter,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Carpentaria,  in  North 
Australia.    It  is  surrounded  by  reefs. 

Grossenhain,  a  town  of  Saxony,  21  miles  by 
rail  NNW.  of  Dresden.  It  manufactures  cloth, 
hosiery,  machinery,  &c.    Pop.  12,544. 

Grosse'to,  a  Tuscan  town  on  the  Ombrone, 
near  its  mouth,  160  miles  SE.  of  Leghorn  by  rail, 
with  a  fine  cathedral.    Pop.  6962. 

Grossglockner,  the  highest  peak  (13,458  feet) 
of  the  eastern  Alps,  is  situated  near  the  meeting- 
point  of  Tyrol,  Carinthia,  and  Salzburg. 

Grosswardein  (Magyar  Nagy-Varad),  an  old 
town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Sabes  (Rapid)  Koros, 
152  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Pesth.  Formerly  a  for- 
tress, it  is  the  seat  of  Roman  Catholic  and  Greek 
bishops,  and  manufactures  spirits,  oil,  vinegar, 
tiles,  matches,  pottery,  and  wine.  Population, 
above  50,000,  Near  it  is  tlie  Bishop's  Bath,  with 
alkaline  sulphur-springs  (104°-106°  F.), 

Grottaglle,  a  town  of  Italy,  12  miles  ENE.  of 
Taranto.    Pop,  8880. 

Grotte,  Le,  a  town  of  Sicily,  in  the  province 
of  Girgenti.    Pop.  8775. 

Gruinard,  a  Ross-shire  bay,  forming  part  of 
Loch  Broom. 

Gruinnard,  a  north-west  sea-loch  of  Islay 
island,  4^  miles  long. 

Griinberg,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  84  miles 
NW,  of  Glogau  by  rail.    Pop.  20,396. 

Griitli.    See  RUtli. 

Gruy^re  (Groo-yehr'),  a  little  Swiss  town,  16 
miles  SSW.  of  Freiburg,  gives  its  name  to  the 
famous  whole-milk  Gruyere  cheese.    Pop.  1375. 

Gryfe,  a  Renfrewshire  stream,  flowing  16  miles 
ESE.  to  the  Black  Cart. 

Guadalajara  (GuadalaM'ra),  (1)  the  decayed 
capital  of  a  Spanish  province  on  the  Henares,  35 
miles  NE.  of  Madrid  by  rail.  Pop.  11,051.— The 
province  occupies  the  northern  part  of  New  Castile, 
and  has  an  area  of  4660  sq.  m.  Pop.  a  little 
over  200,000.— (2)  Capital  of  the  Mexican  state 
of  Jalisco,  and  the  second  city  of  the  republic, 
on  the  Rio  Grande  de  Santiago,  here  crossed  by  a 
fine  bridge  of  26  arches,  280  miles  WNW.  of 
Mexico  City  by  rail.  It  has  an  archiepiscopal 
cathedral,  the  government  palace,  a  mint,  uni- 
versity, tramways,  hospitals,  and  school  of  art. 
It  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  cotton  and  woollen 
manufactures  of  the  country,  and  the  Guadalajara 
pottery  and  metal  wares,  like  the  confectionery, 
have  a  reputation  all  over  Mexico.    Pop.  101,200. 


GUADALAVIAR 


317 


GUATEMALA 


Guadalaviar  (anc.  TuHa),  a  river  of  eastern 
Spain,  rises  near  the  Tagus,  in  SW.  Aragon,  and 
flows  190  miles  SSE.  to  the  Mediterranean  at 
Grao,  li  mile  below  Valencia. 

Guadalquivir  (Guadalkiveer' ;  Arab.  Wddi-al- 
Kebir,  '  the  great  river  ; '  anc.  Bcetis),  the  chief 
river  of  Spain,  rises  in  the  Sierra  de  Cazorla,  in 
the  east  of  the  province  of  Jaen,  and  flows  374 
miles  SW.  through  or  along  the  borders  of  the 
provinces  of  Jaen,  Cordova,  Seville,  Huelva,  and 
Cadiz,  to  the  Gulf  of  Cadiz  at  San  Lucar  de 
Barrameda.  The  principal  towns  on  its  banks 
are  Cordova  and  Seville,  to  the  last  of  which, 
about  80  miles  above  its  mouth,  the  river  is 
tidal  and  navigable  for  steamers.  Below  Seville 
it  twice  divides  into  two  branches,  forming  two 
islands.  Its  chief  affluents  are  the  Guadajoz, 
Jenil,  Guadalimar,  and  Guadiato,  At  Montoro 
it  breaks  through  the  outlying  spurs  of  the 
central  Sierra  Morena  in  a  series  of  rapids,  but 
its  lower  course  is  sluggish  and  dreary.  During 
the  equinoctial  rains  the  river  rises  sometimes 
10  feet,  and  the  country  is  yearly  flooded  as 
far  up  as  Seville. 

Guadalupe  Hidalgo,  5  miles  by  tramway  N. 
of  Mexico  City,  is  the  chief  Mexican  place  of 
pilgrimage,  its  brick  cathedral  having  a  miracu- 
lous picture  of  a  brown  Virgin.  The  treaty  v/hich 
ended  the  war  with  the  United  States  was  signed 
here,  2d  February  1848. 

Guadeloupe,  the  chief  of  the  French  Lesser 
Antilles  in  the  West  Indies,  lies  77  miles  N. 
by  W.  of  Martinique,  and  contains,  including 
dependencies,  583  sq.  m.,  with  a  pop.  of  about 
185,000,  mostly  blacks  and  mulattoes.  It  is* 
divided  into  Grande-Terre  on  the  east,  and  Basse- 
Terre  or  Guadeloupe  proper  on  the  west,  by  a 
strait  of  from  40  to  150  yards  in  width,  which 
bears  the  name  of  Salt  River.  The  nomenclature 
of  the  two  islands  appears  curiously  perverse, 
for  Basse-Terre  is  the  loftier  of  the  two  (the  vol- 
canic summit  La  Soufrifere,  5497  feet),  and  Grande- 
Terre  is  the  smaller.  Earthquakes  are  frequent. 
The  chief  product  is  sugar ;  coff'ee  also  is  ex- 
ported. Point-a-Pitre  (18,000)  is  the  principal 
town  and  port.  The  dependencies  are  the  islets 
of  Desirade,  Marie-Galante,  and  Les  Saintes,  be- 
sides St-Barthelemy  and  part  of  St- Martin  to  the 
north-west.  Guadeloupe,  discovered  by  Colum- 
bus, became  finally  French  in  1816. 

Guadiana  (Arab.  Wddi  Ana,  anc.  Anas),  one 
of  the  five  principal  rivers  of  the  Iberian  pen- 
insula. Rising  as  the  Zancara  in  the  east  of  the 
plateau  of  La  Mancha,  it  flows  south  and  west 
to  the  Ojos,  below  which  point  it  receives  the 
name  of  the  Guadiana.  It  bends  southward  at 
Badajoz,  forms  for  some  miles  the  boundary  be- 
tween Spain  and  Portugal,  then  flows  through 
part  of  Alemtejo  province,  returning  to  form  the 
frontier  again,  until  it  empties  into  the  Gulf  of 
Cadiz.  It  is  510  miles  long,  but  is  navigable 
only  for  42  miles.  Its  chief  affluents  are  the 
Jabalon,  Zujar,  Matachel,  Ardila,  and  Chanza. 

Guaira,  La,  the  port  of  Caracas  (q.v.),  on  a 
narrow,  shadeless  strip  of  land  between  the 
mountains  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.    Pop.  15,293. 

Gualeguay,  a  town  of  Entre  Rios,  Argentina, 
on  the  Gualeguay  River,  a  sub-affluent  of  the 
Parana :  there  is  a  railway  (7  miles)  to  Puerto 
Ruiz  at  its  mouth.    Pop.  11,000. 

Gualeguaychu,  a  town  of  Entre  Rios,  Argen- 
tina, on  the  Gualeguaychil  River,  which  enters 
the  Uruguay  11  miles  below,  with  a  great  beef- 
preserving  factory.    Pop.  14,000. 


Guanabac6a,  a  town  of  Cuba,  5  miles  B.  of 
Havana.     Pop.  30,000. 

Guanajuato  (Gwanahwd'to),  an  inland  state  of 
Mexico,  with  an  area  of  12,500  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop. 
of  over  1,100,000.  The  capital,  Guanajuato,  is 
a  mining-town  curiously  situated  on  a  deep 
ravine,  traversed  by  a  mountain-torrent.  The 
public  buildings  include  a  large  government 
palace,  a  mint,  cathedral,  public  granary,  &c. 
The  electric  light  and  telephones  have  been  intro- 
duced. There  are  amalgamation  works,  blanket- 
factories,  and  cotton-printing  works.  Pop. 
52,112. 

Guanare,  capital  of  the  state  of  Zamora,.  in 
Venezuela,  on  the  river  Guanare.    Pop.  10,390.' 

Guapor6,  a  head-stream  of  the  Madeira  (q.v.). 

Guardaful,  Cape,  the  most  eastern  point  of 
the  African  continent,  and  the  extremity  of  the 
Somali  country.  It  is  in  11°  50'  N.  lat.  and  51° 
14'  E.  long. 

Guardbridge,  a  Fife  village,  4  miles  WNW.  of 
St  Andrews.    Pop.  724. 

Guastalla,  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the  Po,  19  miles 
NE.  of  Parma.  A  bishop's  seat  (since  1828),  it 
has  an  old  castle,  and  gave  name  in  1406  to  a 
countship,  in  1621  to  a  duchy.    Pop.  8648. 

Guatemala  (Guatdmd'la),  a  republic  of  Central 
America,  bounded  by  Mexico,  Belize,  the  Gulf 
of  Honduras,  Honduras,  San  Salvador,  and  the 
Pacific.  Area,  46,600  sq.  m.,  much  of  it  wholly 
unexplored.  The  greater  part  of  Guatemala  is 
mountainous,  the  highlands  having  a  mean  eleva- 
tion of  7000  feet  above  the  sea ;  but  the  surface 
presents  great  variety,  with  extensive  plateaus, 
terraces,  and  upland  valleys— the  last  notable  for 
their  beauty,  fertility,  and  favourable  climate. 
Of  the  volcanoes,  several  are  active ;  the  most 
noted  is  Fuego  (12,075  feet).  Earthquakes  are 
frequent ;  sulphur  and  other  hot  springs  are 
numerous.  The  climate,  except  in  the  low-lying 
districts  (where  the  temperature  ranges  from  70° 
to  90°),  may  be  described  as  perpetual  spring, 
and  is  generally  healthy,  but  the  hot  coast-lands 
on  the  Pacific  are  liable  to  yellow  fever.  Gold 
and  silver  are  worked,  as  also  salt  and  saltpetre. 
Other  minerals  are  lead,  iron,  copper,  coal,  quick- 
silver, marble,  porphyry,  suphur,  zinc,  gypsum, 
&c.  But  the  wealth  of  the  country  consists  in  its 
rich  soil,  which,  according  to  the  altitude,  yields 
the  products  of  every  zone.  The  forests  contain 
over  a  hundred  kinds  of  timber  trees.  Maize, 
haricot  beans,  peas,  potatoes,  wheat,  rice,  grow 
well  in  various  districts.  Other  products  are 
coff'ee  (the  chief  export),  sugar,  cacao,  india- 
rubber,  tobacco,  cotton,  hemp,  sarsaparilla,  and 
many  medicinal  plants,  bananas,  and  other  fruits. 
The  fauna  includes  the  jaguar,  pi;ma,  ocelot, 
coyote,  red-deer,  tapir,  peccary,  armadillo,  several 
monkeys,  iguanas,  turtles,  and  snakes.  The 
birds  are  of  great  variety  and  beauty ;  the 
national  emblem  is  the  superbly  coloured  quetzal. 
The  industries  are  chiefly  confined  to  the  manu- 
facture of  woven  fabrics,  pottery,  saddlery, 
chocolate,  and  the  fiery  aguardiente,  the  sale  of 
which  is  a  government  monopoly,  yielding  about 
a  fourth  of  the  annual  revenue.  The  develop- 
ment of  the  country,  however,  is  greatly  ham- 
pered  by  the  absence  of  serviceable  roads.  The 
average  annual  imports  vary  from  six  to  eight 
million  dollars,  the  annual  exports  average  about 
fourteen  million  dollars.  The  imports,  of  which 
the  United  States  supplies  about  one-half  and 
Britain  one-fourth,  are  chiefly  specie,  cotton, 
woollen,  and  silk  goods,  wines  and  spirits,  rail- 


GUATEMALA 


318 


GUIANA 


way  plant,  and  flour ;  the  principtd  exports  are 
coffee,  rubber,  sugar,  fruits,  and  hides. 

About  a  tliird  of  the  people  are  said  to  be  of 
European  descent,  and  the  rest  aborigines  (Maya- 
Quiches)  and  mixed  races.  In  1905  the  total 
pop.  was  1,845,000.  The  capital,  Guatemala  (q.v.), 
is  the  largest  town.  The  state  religion  is  the 
Roman  Catholic.  The  executive  is  vested  in  a 
president  and  council.  The  standing  army  con- 
sists nominally  of  about  7000  men,  the  militia  and 
reserve  of  nearly  87,000.  The  revenue,  17,500,000 
dollars,  is  supposed  to  cover  the  expenditure ; 
but  the  finances  are  mismanaged,  and  there  is  a 
foreign  debt  of  about  £1,838,672,  and  an  internal 
debt  of  28,118,000  silver  dollars.  After  three 
centuries  of  Spanish  rule,  under  which  the  vice- 
royalty  of  Guatemala  embraced  all  Central 
America,  independence  was  proclaimed  in  1821 ; 
and  the  present  republic  was  founded  in  1839. 
There  are  about  400  miles  of  railway  in  operation, 
and  over  3100  miles  of  telegraphs. 

Quatemala  (Santiago  de  Gtiatevmla;  also  Chiate- 
mala  la  Nueva),  capital  of  the  republic  of  Guate- 
mala, and  the  largest  and  most  important  city 
of  Central  America,  stands  on  a  wide  plateau, 
nearly  4900  feet  above  sea-level,  and  72  miles  by 
rail  NNE.  of  its  port,  San  Jose.  In  the  plaza 
the  metropolitan  cathedral  towers  above  the  gov- 
ernment buildings  and  the  archbishop's  palace. 
Tramways  and  the  electric  light  have  been  intro- 
duced, and  all  the  foreign  trade  of  the  republic 
is  concentrated  here.  Pop.  93,000.  The  present 
city  is  the  third  capital  of  the  name.  The  first, 
now  called  Ciudad  Viejo,  has  a  pop.  of  some  3000 
Indians.  The  second,  GvMteviala  la  Antigua  (Old 
Guatemala),  2J  miles  NE.  of  the  first  and  21 
miles  WSW.  of  the  present  capital,  was  one  of 
the  finest  cities  of  America,  with  60,000  inhabit- 
ants ;  in  1773  it  was  for  the  second  time  destroyed 
by  an  earthquake,  but  among  the  noble  ruins 
a  new  city  has  arisen,  sheltering  a  pop.  of  14,000. 

Ouaxaca.    See  Oaxaca. 

Guayaquil  (GwlakeeV),  the  chief  commercial 
city  of  Ecuador,  lies  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the 
Guayas,  30  miles  above  its  mouth.  It  has  a 
custom-house,  cathedral,  town-hall,  tramways, 
water-works,  a  statue  to  Bolivar  (1889),  &c.  The 
manufactories  include  steam  sawmills,  foundries, 
machine-shops,  ice-factories,  and  a  lager  beer 
brewery ;  and  the  place  is  noted  for  its  straw 
hats  and  hammocks.  Ships  drawing  18  feet  can 
come  up  to  the  breakwater,  and  below  the  town 
are  a  wharf  and  dry-dock.  A  railway  penetrates 
the  interior  to  Chimbo  (64  miles).  The  annual 
exports  average  £1,500,000,  of  which  cocoa  re- 
presents nearly  two-thirds ;  other  items  are  coffee, 
ivory-nuts,  rubber,  hides,  and  specie.  The  town 
was  founded  by  Orellana  in  1537,  and  removed  to 
its  present  site  in  1693.  Pop.  64,515.  The  Bay 
of  Guayaquil  is  the  only  important  bay  on  the 
west  coast  of  South  America  north  of  Patagonia. 

Guaymas,  a  well-sheltered  port  of  Mexico,  on 
the  Gulf  of  California,  the  terminus  of  the  Sonora 
Kailway.    Pop.  6000. 

Guayra.    See  Gxjaira. 

Gubblo  (anc.  Iguvium  or  Eugubium),  a  decayed 
city  of  Central  Italy,  on  the  SW.  declivity  of  the 
Apennines,  20  miles  NNE.  of  Perugia.  It  has  a 
13th-century  cathedral,  several  mediaeval  palaces, 
and  remains  of  an  ancient  theatre.  The  celebrated 
Eugubine  Tables  are  preserved  in  the  town-house. 
Gubbio  was  noted  about  1525  for  its  majolica 
ware,  still  imitated  in  a  few  factories.    Pop.  9540. 

Guben,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the  Prussian 


province  of  Brandenburg,  at  the  head  of  the 
navigable  portion  of  the  Neisse,  28  miles  S.  of 
Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  The  principal  staples  are 
hats  and  cloth.  There  are  also  wool-spinning, 
tanning,  machine  factories,  &c.  Pop.  (1875) 
23,738  ;  (1900)  33,122. 

Guebwiller.    See  Gebweiler. 

Guelderland  (Geldern,  Gelderland),  a  Dutch 
province  between  the  Zuider  Zee  on  the  NW. 
and  the  Prussian  dominions  on  the  SE.  It  has 
an  area  of  1957  sq.  ra.  ;  a  population  of  600,000, 
two-thirds  Protestants.  The  former  duchy  was 
more  extensive  than  the  modern  province,  stretch- 
ing southwards  along  the  Meuse  to  beyond  Venlo. 
In  1814  it  was  finally  divided  between  Holland 
and  Prussia. 

Guelph,  an  inland  port  of  entry  in  Ontario, 
capital  of  Wellington  county,  on  the  river  Speed, 
45  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Toronto  by  rail.  It  is  the 
seat  of  an  agricultural  college,  and  has  several 
flour-mills,  woollen-mills,  and  manufactories  of 
sewing-machines,  &c.    Pop.  11,359. 

Guernsey,  the  second  in  size  of  the  Channel 
Islands  (q.v.).  It  is  about  30  miles  in  circum- 
ference, and  28  sq.  m.  in  area.  Pop.  (1821) 
20,339  ;  (1851)  29,806  ;  (1901)  40,777.  The  lowest 
part  is  to  the  north  (L'Ancresse),  the  highest 
to  the  south  (Haut  Nez)  being  349  feet  above 
sea-level.  St  Peter  Port,  the  only  town,  has  a 
good  harbour ;  a  large  public  school  (1563),  named 
after  Queen  Elizabeth ;  a  fine  church,  dating 
from  the  13th  century ;  two  libraries ;  a  good 
public  market ;  &c.  The  climate  is  equable  and 
favourable  to  the  growth  of  fruit,  flowers,  and 
vegetables.  Two-thirds  of  the  island  are  under 
cultivation,  and  great  quantities  of  fruit  and 
vegetables  are  exported  to  England,  as  is  also 
a  hard  gray  building  granite.  Guernsey  is  127 
miles  from  Land's  End,  109  from  Falmouth, 
113  from  Southampton,  69  from  Start  Point. 

Guerre'ro,  a  southern  state  of  Mexico,  on  the 
Pacific,  with  an  area  of  22,863  sq.  m.  It  is  a 
broken  mountainous  country,  rich  in  minerals. 
Population,  485,000.  Capital,'Chilpancingo(6500); 
chief  port,  Acapulco  (q.v.). 

Guiana,  or  Guayana,  in  its  widest  significa- 
tion is  the  region  lying  between  the  Orinoco  and 
the  Amazon  in  South  America,  with  no  defini- 
tive boundaries  on  the  west.  It  consists  of  five 
divisions,  known  respectively  as  Venezuelan, 
British,  Dutch,  French,  and  Brazilian  Guiana. 
But  Venezuelan  and  Brazilian  Guiana  being  in- 
corporated in  those  states,  we  have  to  describe 
here  only  British,  Dutch,  and  French  Guiana. 
These  three  colonies  abut  upon  the  Atlantic,  in 
the  order  named,  between  Venezuela  on  the  north 
and  Brazil  on  the  south.  The  physical  conforma- 
tion is  practically  the  same  in  all  three.  Next 
the  Atlantic  is  a  fringe  of  very  fertile  alluvial 
soil,  lying  in  many  parts  below  the  sea-level, 
and  generally  inundated  in  the  rainy  seasons, 
with  mangrove  swamps  and  mud-flats  skirting 
the  coast.  This  alluvial  zone,  from  10  to  40 
miles  wide,  contains  virtually  the  only  cultivated 
territory  in  the  three  colonies.  Beyond  it  the 
contour  rises  by  a  series  of  terraces  up  to  an 
undulating  savannah  region  150  feet  higher. 
The  third  and  innermost  division  consists  of  the 
almost  unexplored  upland  country,  a  plateau 
region  ridged  with  mountain-chains  (which  rise 
in  places  to  3000  or  3500  feet),  and  everywhere 
covered  with  a  dense  primeval  forest.  The  rivers 
are  navigable  only  up  to  the  line  of  the  rapids  and 
falls ;  communication  is  nevertheless  principally 
effected  by  the  rivers  and  canals.    The  climate, 


GUUNA 


319 


GUILDFORD 


as  beseems  a  region  lying  between  1°  and  8°  N. 
lat.,  is  hot  and  moist,  but  on  the  whole  toler- 
ably uniform,  though  the  thermometer  ranges 
from  95°  to  70°  F.  The  rainfall  is  heavy— 75  to 
140  inches  in  the  year.  Vegetation  is  of  extra- 
ordinary richness  and  luxuriance— many  kinds 
of  timber,  gums,  balsams,  wax,  bark,  fibre,  oil, 
nuts,  juices,  drugs,  caoutchouc,  sarsaparilla, 
cinchona,  tonka  beans,  arnotto,  angelica,  cotton, 
tobacco,  food-plants,  fruits,  and  a  prodigious 
quantity  of  creepers,  ferns,  tree-ferns,  and 
flowers,  including  orchids.  The  most  conspicu- 
ous branch  of  the  fauna  is  the  birds,  includ- 
ing the  stink-bird  (a  vulture),  eagles,  owls, 
humming-birds,  orioles,  toucans,  and  parrots. 
Mammals  are  represented  by  jaguars,  tiger  cats, 
peccaries,  tapirs,  deer,  sloths,  armadillos,  ant- 
eaters,  agoutis,  capybaras,  and  manatees.  The 
native  Indians,  who  still  for  the  most  part 
lead  a  '  wild '  life  in  the  forests,  constitute 
several  different  tribes,  and  seem  to  belong  to 
two  distinct  stocks,  indigenous  tribes  and  Caribs. 

The  first  Europeans  to  explore  the  coast  of 
Guiana  seem  to  have  been  the  Spaniards  Alonzo 
de  Ojeda  in  1499  and  Vicente  Pinzon  in  1500. 
Apart  from  semi-buccaneering  expeditions  and 
landings,  the  first  successful  colonisation  of 
Guiana  seems  to  have  been  made  by  the  Dutch, 
on  the  Essequibo,  shortly  before  1613.  The 
English  got  firm  footing  at  Surinam  in  1650, 
and  the  French  on  the  Kourou  and  Oyapock  in 
1664.  Two  years  later  the  English  seized  both 
French  and  Dutch  Guiana,  but  restored  them  in 
1667,  and  at  the  same  time  handed  over  Surinam 
to  the  Netherlands  in  exchange  for  New  Amster- 
dam— i.e.  New  York.  During  slave-holding  times 
sugar-planting  brought  the  colonies  some  degree 
of  prosperity  ;  but  it  was  very  sensibly  crippled 
by  the  abolition  of  slavery,  and  the  cultivation 
of  beet-root  for  sugar  caused  a  serious  crisis  in 
Guiana  cane-planting.  Gold-mining  is  a  pro- 
gressive industry. 

British  Guiana,  or  Demebara,  with  a  coast- 
line of  320  miles,  is  separated  from  Dutch  Guiana 
on  the  E.  by  the  river  Corentyn ;  on  the  S.  and 
W.,  next  Brazil  and  Venezuela  respectively,  the 
boundaries  are  disputed.  Estimated  area,  109,000 
sq.  m.  The  western  partof  the  colony  is  diversified 
by  chains  of  the  Pacaraima  or  Parima  mountain- 
system,  which  rise  to  some  8000  or  9000  feet  in 
the  table-topped  Roraima  (q.v.).  The  more  im- 
portant rivers  are  the  Corentyn,  Berbice,  Deme- 
rara,  Essequibo,  all  flowing  north  into  the 
Atlantic ;  and  the  Takutu,  which  feeds  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Amazon.  The  exports  embrace  sugar, 
rum,  molasses,  timber,  shingles,  charcoal,  cocoa- 
nuts,  balata  and  other  gums,  and  gold.  The  total 
value  of  the  exports,  which  go  principally  to  the 
United  Kingdom,  United  States,  and  West  Indies, 
fell  from  £3,208,000  in  1882  to  £1,753,835  in  1903. 
The  imports  (mostly  from  the  United  Kingdom), 
which  consist  chiefly  of  flour,  rice,  dried  ttsh, 
butter,  pork,  and  beef,  average  from  £1,300,000 
to  £1,650,000.  In  1881  the  pop.  was  252,535,  in 
1901,  294,000,  and  included  Europeans,  Creoles, 
negroes,  coolies  from  India,  Chinese,  natives  of 
Madeira  and  the  Azores,  and  some  8000  aboriginal 
Indians.  Most  of  the  plantation  work  is  done 
by  immigrant  coolies  from  British  India  and  by 
Chinese.  The  colony  is  divided  into  three  counties, 
Berbice,  Demerara,  and  Essequibo.  The  ports  are 
Georgetown  (q.v.),  the  capital,  and  New  Amster- 
dam. The  administration  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
governor,  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  two  legis- 
lative councils.  The  colony  possesses  one  line  of 
railway,  from  Georgetown  to  Mahaica  (21  miles 


long),  telegraphic  communication  with  Europe 
and  the  United  States,  and  a  good  system  of 
postage. 

Dutch  Guiana,  or  Surinam,  with  an  area  of 
46,058  sq.  m.,  and  a  coast-line  of  240  miles,  has 
for  its  boundary  on  the  west  the  river  Corentyn, 
and  on  the  east  the  Maroni  or  Marowijn,  which 
separates  it  from  French  Guiana— some  parts  on 
the  upper  Maroni  being  claimed  both  by  Dutch 
and  French.  Other  rivers  are  the  Surinam, 
Saramacca,  Coppename,  and  Nickerie.  The 
greater  part  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  unex- 
plored primeval  forest,  scarcely  more  than  210 
sq.  m.  of  the  CTitire  area  being  cultivated.  Sugar, 
cocoa,  gold,  rum,  molasses,  bananas,  rice,  and 
corn  are  the  staple  productions.  The  total 
annual  value  of  the  exports  is  from  £350,000  to 
£450,000,  of  the  imports  from  £500,000  to  £600,000. 
Trade  is  carried  on  principally  with  Holland, 
the  United  States,  Britain  and  her  dependen- 
cies. The  capital  is  Paramaribo  (q.v.).  The 
pop.,  which  is  very  heterogeneous,  in  1905  num- 
bered about  75,000,  of  whom  nearly  one-half  live  at 
Paramaribo.  Included  in  the  total  are  about 
4000  Bush  Negroes  (negroes  who  escaped  during 
slavery  times— i.e.  before  1863),  and  6000  Indians. 

French  Guiana,  or  Cayenne,  is  separated 
from  Dutch  Guiana  on  the  west  by  the  Maroni, 
from  Brazil  by  the  Tumuc-Humac  Mountains  and 
the  Oyapock,  although  the  French  claim  all  the 
coastal  districts  as  far  south  as  the  Amazon. 
Taking  the  Oyapock  as  provisional  boundary, 
the  area  of  the  colony  is  about  31,000  sq.  m,, 
whilst  the  length  of  coast-line  is  about  240  miles ; 
the  area,  as  officially  given,  is  46,850  sq.  m. 
Cayenne  (q.v.),  the  capital  of  the  colony,  stands 
on  a  rocky  promontory.  The  only  considerable 
exports  are  cocoa,  arnotto  (roucou),  and  gold. 
The  total  exports  and  imports  have  an  annual 
value  of  about  £400,000,  the  exports  repre- 
senting but  a  small  part  of  that  sum.  The 
pop.  of  the  entire  colony  only  amounts  to  about 
35,000.  From  1853  to  1864  an  attempt  was  made 
to  found  penal  colonies  in  French  Guiana,  all  of 
which  proved  disastrous,  partly  owing  to  the  un- 
healthiness  of  the  climate,  and  partly  to  the  harsh 
and  ill-devised  regulations.  The  immigrant 
criminals  now  come  (since  1864)  exclusively  from 
Africa  (Arabs  and  negroes)  and  Asia  (Annamites). 
Slavery  was  abolished  in  1848. 

See  Raleigh's  Discovery  of  Chiiava  (1595 ;  ed. 
Schomburgk,  1848) ;  for  British  Guiana,  various 
■works  by  Schomburgk  (1840-48),  Brete  (1868), 
E.  im  Thurn  (1883),  and  Bronkhurst  (1883) ;  for 
Dutch  Guiana,  Palgrave  (1876);  and  for  French 
Guiana,  French  works  by  Mource  (1874),  and 
Ribaut  (1882). 

Guienne,  an  old  French  province,  comprehend- 
ing the  present  deps.  of  Gironde,  Lot,  Dordogne, 
Aveyron,  with  portions  of  Tarn-et-Garonne  and 
Lot-et-Garonne.  "With  Gascony  it  formed  Aqui- 
tania,  of  which  name  Guienne  is  a  corruption. 

Guildford,  the  county  town  of  Surrey,  lies  in  a 
break  of  the  chalk-ridge  of  the  North  Downs,  on 
the  navigable  Wey,  30  miles  SW.  of  London.  In 
Cobbett's  phrase  a  'happy-looking'  place,  it 
wears  an  air  of  order  and  cleanliness,  and  mainly 
consists  of  one  street,  running  up  the  steep  east 
side  of  the  river,  which  here  is  crossed  by  an  old 
five-arch  bridge.  Its  houses  are  still  rich  in 
quaint  gables,  projecting  fronts,  and  long  latticed 
windows.  The  square  Norman  keep  of  its  royal 
castle  (c.  1150)  is  70  feet  high  with  walls  10  feet 
thick ;  on  St  Catharine's  Hill  is  a  ruined  chapel 
(1313);   Trinity  Hospital,  founded  in   1619   by 


GUIMARAES 


320 


GWALIOR 


Archbishop  Abbot  for  twelve  brethren  and  eight 
sisters,  is  a  picturesque  red-brick  pile  ;  and  other 
buildings  are  the  churches  of  St  Nicholas,  St 
Mary,  and  the  Holy  Trinity,  the  guildhall  (1G87), 
county  hall  (1862),  county  hospital  (1868),  and 
grammar-school  (1509-50).  A  railway  junction 
of  some  importance,  Guildford  now  is  chiefly 
famous  for  its  grain  market.  From  Edward  I.'s 
reign  till  1867  it  returned  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment, then  till  1885  one.  Since  1874  it  has  been 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric  suffragan  to  Winchester. 
Pop.  (1851)  6740 ;  (1901)  15,937.  Bequeathed  in 
901  by  Alfred  the  Great  to  his  nephew  Ethel wald, 
Guildford  in  1036  was  the  scene  of  the  decimation 
by  King  Harold's  men  of  the  Norman  followers 
of  Alfred  the  Atheling— a  crime  that  led  up  to 
the  Norman  conquest.  The  Dauphin  Louis  took 
the  castle  in  1216 ;  and  in  1685  Monmouth  was 
temporarily  confined  in  Trinity  Hospital. 

Guimaraes,  a  town  of  Portugal,  on  the  Ave,  12 
miles  SE.  of  Braga.  Two  noted  hot  sulphur- 
springs  are  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  8805. 

Guinea,  the  name  of  a  large  section  of  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  which  first  came  inlo  general  use 
in  the  15th  century,  and  is  generally  applied  to 
the  stretch  of  coast-lands  extending  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Senegal,  in  about  14°  N.  lat.,  to  Cape 
Negro,  in  16°  S.  lat.  By  conventional  usage  it  is 
further  divided  into  two  parts.  Upper  and  Lower 
Guinea,  the  dividing  line  being  taken  variously 
as  the  equator,  the  Gaboon,  the  Ogoway.  The 
coast-line  is  throughout  tolerably  uniform,  and 
everywhere  flat,  with  numerous  shallow  lagoons 
separated  from  the  ocean  by  narrow  spits  of 
sand,  lying  parallel  to  the  coast.  Proceeding  in- 
land, the  country  rises  to  the  central  plateau  of 
the  continent  by  a  series  of  broad  terrace-like 
steps,  down  which  the  longer  rivers  are  generally 
precipitated  in  cataracts  and  rapids.  The  Ivory 
Coast,  the  Gold  Coast,  the  Slave  Coast,  are  names 
for  portions  of  the  coast  between  Liberia  and  the 
Niger  mouths.  Some  part  of  Guinea  belongs  to 
native  states  and  some  to  the  Liberian  republic  ; 
most  of  it  is  now  cut  up  into  dependencies  of 
Britain,  France,  Germany,  Spain,  Portugal,  in 
somewhat  inconvenient  fragments.  The  Genoese 
claim  to  have  been  the  flrst  Europeans  to  reach 
(in  1291)  the  coasts  of  Guinea.  They  were,  how- 
ever, first  regularly  visited,  from  1364  onwards, 
by  merchant  adventurers  from  Rouen  and  Diei)pe, 
and  first  colonised  in  1481  by  the  Portuguese, 
under  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator. 

Guinea,  Gulp  of,  a  portion  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  forming  the  huge  angle  of  the  West  African 
coast  from  Cape  Palmas  to  Cape  Lopez. 

Gulnegate,  or  Enguinegatte,  a  historical  vil- 
lage in  the  French  department  of  Pas-de-Calais, 
where  the  French  were  twice  defeated — (1)  on 
17th  August  1479  by  Maximilian  I.  of  Austria ; 
(2)  on  16th  August  1513  by  Henry  VIII.  and  the 
Emperor  Maximilian.  This  battle  was  called  the 
Battle  of  the  Spurs— the  French  knights  having 
made  more  use  ofctheir  spurs  than  of  their  swords. 

Guingamp,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Cotes- 
du-Nord,  on  the  Trieux,  74  miles  E.  of  Brest,  the 
capital  formerly  of  Penthievre  duchy.  The  name 
gave  rise  to  the  word  Gingham.    Pop.  7181. 

Guipuzco'a,  the  smallest  but  the  most  densely 
peopled  of  the  Spanish  Basque  provinces  on  the 
Bay  of  Biscay.  The  capital  is  San  Sebastian. 
Area,  728  sq.  m. ;  pop.  near  200,000. 

Guisborough,  a  market-town  in  the  North 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  9  miles  ESE.  of  Middles- 
borough,  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Cleveland  Hills, 


in  the  midst  of  the  iron-mining  district.  Tlie 
earliest  alum-works  in  England  were  established 
here  about  1600.  Here  too  is  a  ruined  priory 
built  in  1119  by  Robert  de  Brus,  and  at  the 
Reformation  one  of  the  wealthiest  in  the  kingdom. 
Pop.  (1851)  2062  ;  (1881)  6616  ;  (1901)  5645, 

Guise,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Aisne,  on 
the  Oise,  25  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  St  Quentin. 
From  its  ruined  castle  the  famous  Dukes  of  Guise 
derived  their  title.  The  ironworks  here  are  con- 
ducted on  a  profit-sharing  scheme.  Population, 
under  10,000. 

Gujarat,  or  Guzerat,  the  northern  maritime 
province  of  Bombay,  with  an  area  of  10,296  sq.  m., 
and  a  pop.  just  over  4,000,000.  Within  its  limits 
lie  the  British  districts  of  Surat,  Broach,  Kaira, 
Panch  Mahals,  and  Ahmedabad. 

Gujranwala,  a  town  of  the  Punjab,  40  miles 
N.  of  Lahore  by  rail.     Pop.  29,785. 

Gujrat,  or  Guzerat,  a  town  of  the  Punjab, 
left  (by  a  change  in  the  river's  course)  a  few 
miles  north  of  the  Chenab's  present  bed,  but  a 
place  of  some  military  and  political  importance. 
Here  in  1849  a  decisive  battle  finally  broke  the 
Sikh  power,  and  brought  the  whole  Punjab  under 
British  rule.    Pop.  18,743. 

Gulf  Stream,  the  best  known,  the  best  defined, 
and  the  most  remarkable  of  all  the  ocean  currents. 
It  derives  its  name  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  out 
of  which,  as  a  great  current  of  warm  water,  it 
flows  through  the  Strait  of  Florida,  along  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
and  is  then  deflected  near  the  banks  of  Newfound- 
land diagonally  across  the  Atlantic.  This  great 
body  of  warm  water  indirectly  modifies  the 
climate  of  western  Europe,  and  it  is  possible  to 
trace  its  effects  as  far  as  the  coasts  of  Spitz- 
bergen  and  Nova  Zembla. 

Gullane,  a  Haddingtonshire  coast-village,  with 
golf-links,  4  miles  NW.  of  Drem  Junction. 

Gumbinnen,  a  town  of  East  Prussia,  72  miles 
E.  of  Konigsberg.  Dating  from  1724,  it  owes 
its  prosperity  to  the  settlement  here  in  1732  of 
many  Protestant  Salzburgers.    Pop.  14,206. 

Gumri.    See  Alexandropol. 

Gumti,  a  navigable  river  of  India,  rises  in  the 
North-western  Provinces,  and  winds  nearly  500 
miles  south-eastward  to  the  Ganges,  56  miles 
below  Jaunpur. 

Gundamuk.    See  Gandamak. 

Gunfleet,  an  Essex  sandbank,  with  a  light- 
house, 12  miles  S.  of  Harwich. 

Giins  (Magyar  Koszeg),  a  free  town  of  Hungary, 
57  miles  SSE.  of  Vienna.     Pop.  7905. 

Guntur',  a  town  of  Madras,  46  miles  WNW.  of 
Masulipatam.    Pop.  30,359. 

Gurgaon,  a  district  of  the  Punjab,  in  the 
division  of  Delhi,  with  an  area  of  1984  sq.  m. 
Pop.  768,929.  The  commercial  centre  is  Rewari ; 
the  civil  headquarters  is  Gurgaon  (pop.  5000), 
•21  miles  SW.  of  Delhi  by  rail., 

Gurhwal.    See  Garhwal. 

Giistrow,  a  town  of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  70 
miles  E.  by  S.  of  Liibeck,  with  castle  (1565),  old 
church,  breweries,  iron-foundries,  a  sugar-factory, 
&c.    Pop.  17,000. 

Guthrie,  capital  of  Oklahoma,  U.S.,  32  miles  N. 
of  Oklalioma  City.   Pop.  (1890)  5338  ;  (1900)  10,006. 

Guzerat.    See  Gujarat. 

Gwalior,  a  native  state  of  Central  India,  the 
dominions  of  the  Maluatta  Maharajah  Sindia, 


GWEEDORE  321 

consists  of  several  detached  districts.  Area,  19,067 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1901)  2,187,612,  mainly  Hindus. 
Lying  partly  in  the  basin  of  the  Jumna  and 
partly  in  that  of  the  Nerbndda,  it  divides  its 
drainage  between  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  the 
Arabian  Sea.  The  principal  export  is  opium. 
Though  Gwalior  is  a  Mahratta  principality,  yet 
the  Mahrattas  do  not  form  any  considerable  pro- 
portion of  the  people.  Since  1803  the  country 
has  been  under  British  protection ;  and  during  the 
troubles  of  1857  the  young  Maharajah  remained 
faithful  to  the  British  government,  although 
deserted  by  his  troops.— Gwalior,  the  capital, 
stands  65  miles  S.  of  Agra  by  railway.  Its 
nucleus  is  an  isolated  rock  340  feet  higli,  per- 
pendicular on  all  sides;  it  measures  1^  mile  by 
300  yards,  and  its  citadel  (said  to  date  from  the 
8th  century)  is  virtually  impregnable  against 
any  native  force.  Along  the  eastern  base  of 
this  eminence  lies  the  old  town  of  Gwalior; 
and  to  the  south-west  there  extends  for  several 
miles  the  new  town  called  Laslikar,  where  the 
Maliarajah  resides. 


HADDINGTONSHIRE 

Gweedore,  a  Donegal  hamlet,  3  miles  from  the 

we^st  coast. 

Gwelo,  a  township  of  Southern  Rhodesia,  on 
the  railway  from  Bulawayo  to  Salisbury,  110  miles 
NE.  of  tlie  former.  It  is  the  centre  of  a  gold, 
nwniiig  district,  with  a  fully  equipped  hospital, 
&c.     Pop.  1500. 

Gyantse,  a  fortified  town  of  Tibet,  110  miles  SW. 
of  Lhasa,  with  a  sacred  monastery.  The  British 
expedition  under  Macdonald  in  1904  entered  it. 

Gyarmat-Balassa,  a  town  of  Hungary,  40  miles 
N.  by  E.  of  Pesth.     Pop.  6788. 

Gympie,  a  town  of  Queensland,  61  miles  S.  of 
Maryborough,  with  gold-reefs.    Pop.  12,000.     . 

Gyoma,  a  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Koros,  89 
miles  SE.  of  Pesth  by  rail.     Pop.  10,160. 

Gyongyos,  a  town  of  Hungary,  with  mineral 
baths,  59  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Pesth.    Pop.  15,896. 

Gyula,  a  town  of  Hungary,  35  miles  N.  of  Arad. 
It  has  a  monument  to  the  composer  Erkel.  Pop. 
22,100. 


AARLEM,  a  town  of  Holland,  10  miles 
W.  of  Amsterdam,  is  intersected,  like 
most  Dutch  towns,  with  canals  and 
avenues  of  trees.  Of  its  churches  the 
principal  is  the  Great  or  St  Bavon's, 
built  in  the  15th  century,  one  of  the  largest 
churches  in  Holland,  and  specially  noted  for  its 
lofty  tower  and  its  organ  (1738).  Before  the 
church  stands  a  statue  of  Laurens  Coster,  to 
whom  his  countrymen  ascribe  the  invention  of 
printing.  The  town-hall,  formerly  the  residence 
of  the  Counts  of  Holland,  has  portraits  by  Franz 
Hals.  The  Teyler  Institution  promotes  the  study 
of  theology,  natural  science,  and  the  fine  arts. 
Although  Haarlem  is  no  longer  celebrated,  as  it 
was  in  the  17th  century,  for  its  commerce,  it  still 
weaves  cotton,  casts  type,  bleaches  linen,  and 
trades  largely  in  tulips,  hyacinths,  &c.  It  under- 
went a  seven  months'  siege  (1572-78)  from  the 
Spaniards,  in  which  the  citizens  displayed  the 
noblest  heroism.  In  the  wood  of  Haarlem  stands 
the  'pavilion'  containing  the  colonial  and  in- 
dustrial museums,  and  a  collection  of  modern 
pictures.     Pop.  70,000. 

Haarlem  Lake,  now  drained,  lay  between 
Haarlem,  Leyden,  and  Amsterdam,  and  com- 
municated with  the  Zuider  Zee  by  the  Y. 
Originally  it  embraced  four  small  lakes,  which, 
in  consequence  of  several  irruptions  of  the 
sea,  eventually  merged  into  one  sheet  of  water, 
covering  an  area  of  about  70  sq.  m.,  and  not  above 
15  feet  deep.  The  lake,  however,  frequently  rose 
during  storms  to  an  alarming  height,  necessitating 
a  large  annual  outlay  in  keeping  the  dams  and 
sluices  in  repair.  In  consequence  of  the  damage 
done  to  Amsterdam  and  Leyden  by  two  over- 
flows of  the  lake  in  1836,  the  government  set 
about  draining  it  (1839-52).  The  enterprise  cost 
£1,080,000,  but  the  sale  of  the  lands  reduced 
this  by  £780,000. 

Habbie's  Howe,  the  scene  of  Allan  Ramsay's 
Gentle  Shepherd,  4J  miles  WSW.  of  Penicuik. 

Hackensack,  the  capital  of  Bergen  county. 
New  Jersey,  on  the  Hackensack  River,  12  miles 
by  rail  N.  of  Jersey  City.    Pop.  9500. 

Hacketstown,  a  village  of  Carlow,  7  miles 
NW.  of  Tinahely  station.     Pop.  508. 

Hackney,  a  parish  of  Middlesex,  now  forming 
one  of  the  metropolitan  boroughs  of  London. 
V 


In  its  earlier  and  fashionable  days  it  is  said  to 
have  given  its  name  to  hackney-coaches.  Pop. 
of  borough  (1901)  219,272;  of  parliamentary 
borough,  which  returns  three  members,  253,291. 
Hadden  Rig,  a  Roxburghshire  ridge  (541  feet), 
5  miles  ENE.  of  Kelso.  It  was  the  scene  in  1540 
of  an  English  defeat. 

Haddington,  the  county  town  of  Haddington- 
shire, lies  at  the  southern  base  of  the  Garleton 
Hills,  on  the  Tyne,  17  miles  E.  of  Edinburgh. 
Its  Abbey  Church,  the  Lucerna  Laudonice  or 
'Lamp  of  Lothian,'  is  a  cruciform  Decorated  red 
sandstone  pile,  with  a  central  tower  90  feet  high, 
and  ruinous  all  but  the  nave,  which  serves  as  the 
parish  church  (restored  1892).  Then  there  are 
the  county  buildings  (1833),  the  large  corn 
exchange  (1854),  the  town-hall  (1748-1831),  the 
county  lunatic  asylum  (1866),  and  a  school,  the 
Knox  Memorial  Institute  (1880).  Haddington's 
worthies  have  been  Knox,  John  Brown  and  Samuel 
his  grandson,  Samuel  Smiles,  and  Jane  Welsh 
Carlyle,  whilst  its  chief  memories  have  been 
perils  by  flood  and  lire,  and  the  great  siege  of 
the  English  by  the  Scotch  in  1549.  An  ancient 
royal  burgh,  it  united  till  1885  with  North 
Berwick,  Dunbar,  Jedburgh,  and  Lauder  to 
return  one  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  (1831) 
3857 ;  (1881)  4043 ;  (1901)  3993.  See  works  by 
James  Miller  (1844)  and  John  Martine  (1883). 

Haddingtonshire,  or  East  Lothian,  a  mari- 
time county  of  Scotland,  washed  on  the  north 
for  32  miles  by  the  German  Ocean  and  the  Firth 
of  Forth.  Its  utmost  length  is  26  miles,  its 
utmost  breadth  19,  and  its  area  280  sq.  m.  In 
the  south  are  the  Lammermuir  Hills,  culminating 
in  Lammer  Law  (1733  feet) ;  whilst  isolated 
heights  are  North  Berwick  Law  (612),  Traprain 
or  Dumpender  Law  (724),  and  the  Garleton  Hills 
(594),  on  which  stands  a  conspicuous  column, 
erected  in  1824  to  the  fourth  Earl  of  Hopetoun. 
The  Tyne  flows  16  miles  north-eastward  through 
the  county.  The  rocks  yield  coal,  iron,  and  lime- 
stone, the  coal  having  been  mined  near  Tranent 
since  the  13th  century.  Haddingtonshire  has 
for  two  hundred  years  enjoyed  high  agricultural 
fame,  having  been  the  first  Scottish  county  to 
adopt  the  sowing  of  turnips  in  drills  (1734),  the 
thrashing-machine  (1787),  and  the  steam-plough 
(1862).    About  64  per  cent,  of  the  entire  area  is 


HADDO  HOUSE 


322 


HAINAULT 


in  cultivation,  and  more  than  one-seventeenth  is 
under  wood.  The  county  returns  one  member 
to  parliament.  Its  towns  are  Haddington,  Dun- 
bar, North  Berwick,  Prestonpans,  Tranent,  and 
East  Linton ;  and  under  these  and  the  Bass  Rock 
are  noticed  the  chief  events  in  its  history.  The 
antiquities  include  the  ruined  castles  of  Dirleton 
and  Tantallon.  Pop.  (1841)  35,886  ;  (1881)  38,502 ; 
(1901)  38,665.  See  works  by  D.  Croal  (3d  ed.  1885) 
and  J.  Small  (1883). 

Haddo  House,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Aber- 
deen, in  Aberdeenshire,  6^  miles  WNW.  of  Ellon. 

Haddon  Hall,  a  splendid  old  baronial  mansion, 
in  Derbyshire,  on  the  Wye,  2  miles  SB.  of  Bake- 
well,  and  23  NNW.  of  Derby.  It  was  the  seat 
Buccessively  of  Avenells,  Vernons,  and  the  Rut- 
land family.  See  works  by  Cattermole  (1846-67), 
S.  C.  Hall  (1871),  and  W.  B.  Cooke  (1892). 

Hadersleben,  or  Haderslev,  a  town  of  Sles- 
wick-Holstein,  32  miles  N.  of  Flensborg,  on  a 
narrow  arm  of  the  Little  Belt.    Pop.  9635. 

Hadlelgh,  (l)  a  quaint  old  market-town  of 
Suffolk,  on  the  Bret,  9^  miles  (12^  by  a  branch- 
line)  W.  of  Ipswich.  Its  chief  buildings  are  the 
brick  Rectory  Tower  (1495)  and  the  noble  parish 
church,  with  a  spire  135  feet  high.  Formerly, 
from  1331,  an  important  seat  of  the  cloth-trade, 
Hadleigh  was  the  scene  of  the  death  of  the 
Danish  king  Guthrum  (889),  of  the  martyrdom  of 
Dr  Rowland  Taylor  (1555),  and  of  the  '  great  con- 
ference '  (1833)  out  of  which  grew  the  '  Tracts  for 
the  Times.'  Woolner,  the  sculptor  was  a  native. 
Pop.  of  urban  district,  3250.— (2)  An  Essex 
parish,  near  the  N.  shore  of  the  Tliames  estuary, 
2  miles  NE.  of  Benfleet  station,  and  37  E.  of 
London.  It  has  a  ruined  castle  (1231),  and  in 
1892  became  the  seat  of  the  Salvation  Army 
farm-colony.    Pop.  1350. 

Hadramaut,  the  coast-region  of  South  Arabia 
from  Aden  to  Cape  Ras-al-Hadd  ;  more  properly 
the  plateau  region  lying  between  48°  and  51°  E. 
long.    Pop.  450,000.    Towns,  Saiun  and  Terim. 

Hadrian's  Wall,  a  fort-protected  stone  wall, 
with  a  ditch  on  its  north  side,  and  on  its  south 
side  a  valhtm  or  series  of  ramparts,  between  the 
estuary  of  the  Tyne  and  the  Solway  Firth. 
Hadrian  is  now  generally  believed  to  have  been 
the  builder  of  the  whole  structure  (c.  119  a.d.), 
and  Severus  to  have  repaired  it  nearly  a  century 
later.  In  Northumberland  the  remains  of  it  are 
considerable,  the  wall  being  still  in  two  places 
9  feet  high.  See  works  by  Collingwood  Bruce 
(1851-85)  and  G.  Neilson  (1891). 

Haemus,  Mount.    See  Balkan. 

HaflF,  a  Danish  word  meaning  '  sea,'  and  used 
to  designate  three  lagoons  along  the  Prussian 
shore  of  the  Baltic— the  Stettiner  or  Pommersches 
Haff,  Frisches  Half,  and  Kurisches  Hatf. 

Hagen  (Hdgen),  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  the 
Ruhr  coal-district  of  Westphalia,  12  miles  NB. 
of  Elberfeld-Barmen.  It  manufactures  iron,  steel, 
and  tin  goods,  cotton,  cloth,  leather,  paper,  beer, 
and  tobacco.    Pop.  70,000. 

Hagenau  (Hdgenoxv),  a  town  of  Alsace-Lor- 
raine, 21  miles  by  rail  N.  by  E.  of  Strasburg. 
It  manufactures  porcelain  stoves,  and  has  cotton 
and  woollen  spinning.    Pop.  18,460. 

Hagorstown,  capital  of  Washington  county, 
Maryland,  on  Antietam  Creek,  85  miles  WNW.  of 
Baltimore  by  rail.  It  has  machine-shops,  flour- 
mills,  and  manufactories  of  furniture  and  other 
wooden  wares,  fertilisers,  farming  implements, 
and  cigars.    Pop.  (1880)  6627  ;  (1900)  13,590. 


Hague,  The  (Dutch  's  Gravenhage,  '  the  count's 
hedge '),  the  capital  of  the  Netherlands,  2  miles 
from  the  North  Sea  and  15  NNW.  of  Rotterdam. 
It  is  intersected  by  canals  and  shady  avenues  of 
lime-trees,  and  has  many  fine  public  buildings 
and  private  houses.  In  the  centre  of  it  is  the 
Vijver,  or  Fish-pond,  to  the  south  of  which 
stands  the  old  castle  of  the  Counts  of  Holland, 
where  the  Dutch  parliament  sits.  In  its  gate- 
tower  the  brothers  De  Witt  were  confined  till 
dragged  thence  and  torn  to  pieces  by  the  popu- 
lace (1672).  The  picture-gallery  has  a  splendid 
collection  of  works  by  native  painters  (Paul 
Potter's  'Buir  and  Rembrandt's  'Lesson  in 
Anatomy ') ;  and  there  are  the  royal  library,  with 
200,000  volumes,  4000  MSS.,  &c. ;  the  municipal 
and  other  museums ;  the  town-house ;  and  the 
royal  palaces.  Amongst  the  numerous  statues 
are  those  of  William  I.  (two  in  number),  William 
II.,  Spinoza,  Bernhard  of  Saxe-Weimar,  and  the 
monument  which  commemorates  the  deliverance 
from  the  French.  Close  to  the  town  is  the 
beautiful  pleasure-park  called  '  The  Wood '  (Bosch), 
in  which  stands  a  royal  residence  (1647)  with  the 
magnificent  so-called  '  Orange  Hall.'  The  great 
Peace  Conference  was  held  here  in  1899 ;  Tlie 
Hague  is  the  seat  of  the  resulting  arbitration 
courts,  for  which  Mr  Carnegie  provided  per- 
manent buildings.  (See  also  Scheveningen, 
Ryswick.)  Industries  are  iron-founding,  copper 
and  lead  smelting,  cannon-founding,  printing,  fur- 
niture and  carriage  making,  and  the  manufacture 
of  gold  and  silver  lace.  Pop.  (1875)  100,254 ; 
(1903)  229,840.  From  1250  a  hunting-lodge  of 
the  Counts  of  Holland,  The  Hague  in  1527  became 
the  seat  of  the  supreme  court  in  Holland,  in  1584 
the  place  of  assembly  of  the  States  of  Holland 
and  of  the  States-general ;  and  it  was  also  the 
residence  of  the  stadtholders. 

Haldarabad.    See  Hyderabad. 

Haifa,  a  seaport  of  Syria,  at  the  foot  of  Mount 
Carinel ;  pop.  6000.  A  railway  to  Damascus  was 
undertaken  in  1892.  A  little  NW.  is  a  settle- 
ment (1869)  of  the  Wiirtemberg  « Society  of  the 
Temple,'  now  a  flourishing  agricultural  colony  of 
300  persons.  Here  Laurence  Oliphant  settled  in 
1882.    See  his  Haifa  (1887). 

Haikh,  the  native  name  of  Armenia  (q.v.). 

Halleybury  College,  2  miles  SB.  of  Hertford, 
was  erected  in  1809  as  a  cadets'  training-college, 
by  the  Bast  India  Company,  and  in  1862,  four 
years  after  the  transference  of  the  Company's 
powers  to  the  crown,  was  reopened  as  a  public 
school  for  500  boys.  See  works  by  Higgen  (1887) 
and  Monier  Williams  (1894). 

Hallsham,  a  market-town  of  Sussex,  11  miles 
E.  by  S.  of  Lewes.     Pop.  of  parish,  4200. 

Hainan,  an  island  of  China,  the  southernmost 
land  of  the  empire,  lying  between  the  Gulf  of 
Tongking  and  the  China  Sea,  and  15  miles  S. 
from  the  mainland.  It  measures  150  miles  (from 
SW.  to  NB.)  by  100.  The  centre  and  south  of 
the  island  are  mountainous.  The  island  is  purelj' 
agricultural.  The  capital  is  Kiung-chow  (pop. 
40,000),  whose  port.  Hoi-how  (15,000),  3  miles 
distant,  has  been  open  to  foreign  trade  since 
1876.  Pop.  2,500,000,  the  plains  being  inhabited 
by  Chinese  (1,500,000),  the  interior  by  the  abo- 
riginal Les.  Eight  to  ten  thousand  Chinese  emi- 
grants leave  Kiung-Chow  every  year  for  Singapore 
and  Bang-kok.  Gold  exists.  The  island  is  subject 
to  earthquakes  and  typhoons.  See  B.  C.  Henry's 
Ling-Nam  (1886). 

Hainault  (formerly  spelt  in  a  perplexing  variety 


HAINBURG 


323 


HALIFAX 


of  ways  from  HaysneauUx  to  Heno;  pron.  Hay- 
no ;  Ger.  Hennegau),  a  southern  province  of  Bel- 
gium. Area,  1437  sq.  m.  ;  population,  1,200,000, 
principally  Walloons.  The  surface  consists  In  the 
north  and  west  of  flat  and  fruitful  plains ;  the 
south  is  occupied  by  spurs  of  the  Forest  of  Ar- 
dennes. The  principal  rivers  are  the  Haine — from 
which  the  province  has  its  name — the  Scheldt,  the 
Dender,  and  the  Sambre,  the  last  a  tributary  of 
the  Meuse.  Toward  the  south  and  south-east, 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  Mons  and  Charleroi,  are 
very  extensive  coalfields.  Iron  is  also  produced. 
The  capital  is  Mons.  F'rom  the  9th  century 
Hainault  was  a  countship,  embracing  both 
French  and  Belgian  Hainault.  French  Hainault 
(now  the  dep.  of  Nord)  was  separated  in  1659. 
For  Hainault  Forest,  see  Eppino. 

Hainburg,  a  walled  town  of  Austria,  on  the 
Danube,  27  miles  ESE.  of  Vienna.  Identified 
with  the  ancient  Carnunhim,  it  figures  in  the 
Nibelungenlied.    Pop.  6857. 

Hainlchen,  a  Saxon  town,  the  centre  of  the 
German  flannel  manufacture,  13  miles  NE.  of 
Chemnitz.    Pop.  8053. 

Haiti.    See  Hayti. 

Hajipiir,  a  river-port  of  Bengal,  on  the  Gandak, 
just  above  its  confluence  with  the  Ganges  opposite 
Patna.     Pop.  21,387. 

Hakodate,  the  chief  port  of  Yezo  in  Japan,  on 
a  peninsula  in  the  Strait  of  Tsugaru,  is  built 
partly  on  the  inner  slope  of  the  Gibraltar-like 
hill  (1200  feet)  which  dominates  the  strait,  partly 
on  the  low  sandy  peninsula  connecting  the  hill 
with  the  main  island.  It  has  a  magnificent  har- 
bour, is  (since  1859)  one  of  the  open  ports  of 
Japan,  and  exports  seaweed,  sulphur,  beche-de- 
mer,  salted  salmon,  &c.     Pop.  85,650. 

Hal,  a  town  in  South  Brabant,  9  miles  by  rail 
SSW.  from  Brussels.    Pop.  12,290. 

Halas,  a  town  of  Hungary,  82  miles  by  rail 
SSE.  of  Budapest.    Pop.  19,860. 

Halberstadt,  a  quaint  old  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  in  a  fertile  plain  extending  from  the 
north  foot  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  25  miles  S\V. 
of  Magdeburg.  The  cathedral,  rich  in  stained 
glass,  was  erected  in  the  13th  and  14th  centuries. 
Other  buildings  are  the  church  of  Our  Lady 
(1146);  the  town-house  (1860-81),  before  it  a 
Roland  pillar;  and  the  Peterhof,  formerly  the 
bi.shop's  palace.  The  chief  industries  are  gloves, 
cigars,  machines,  sugar,  leather,  paper,  spirits, 
&c.,  besides  large  railway  workshops.  Halber- 
stadt dates  from  820,  and  was  given  to  Branden- 
burg in  3648.     Pop.  44,200. 

Haleb.     See  Aleppo. 

Halesowen,  a  market-town  of  Worcestershire, 
on  the  river  Stour,  7^  miles  WSW.  of  Birming- 
ham. Its  people  are  nail-inakers  and  manu- 
facturers of  small  ironwares.  One  mile  to  the 
south-east  lie  the  ruins  of  the  Premonstratensian 
abbey  founded  by  King  John.  Shenstone  (1714- 
63),  a  native  of  the  place,  carried  on  his  land- 
scape-gardening at  the  Leasowes,  a  mile  distant. 
His  tomb  is  in  the  church.     Pop.  4060. 

Halesworth,  a  Suff"olk  town,  on  the  Blythe,  9 
miles  SSW.  of  Beccles.    Pop.  2250. 

Halicarnassus.    See  Budrxjk. 

Halicz,  a  town  in  Austrian  Galicia,  on  the 
Dniester,  09  miles  SSE.  of  Lemberg  by  rail.  On 
a  neighbouring  hill  is  the  ruined  12th-century 
castle  of  the  rulers  of  the  former  principality 
of  Halicz.  Frona  this  word  the  name  Galicia  is 
derived.    Pop.  3464. 


Halidon  Hill,  an  eminence  in  Northumber- 
land, 2  miles  NW.  of  Berwick,  overlooking  the 
Tweed,  was  the  scene  of  a  bloody  defeat  of  the 
Scots  by  the  English,  19th  July  1333. 

Halifax,  a  thriving  market-town,  municipal, 
parliamentary,  and  county  borough,  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  is  situated  on  the  river 
Hebble,  a  feeder  of  the  Calder,  on  the  slope  of 
an  eminence,  and  is  almost  wholly  surrounded 
by  hills.  It  is  43  miles  SW.  of  York,  and  194 
miles  NNW.  of  London.  Its  name  is  probably 
derived  from  the  four  ways  travelled  by  pilgrims 
converging  towards  the  parish  church,  called 
Holy  Ways  ;  fax  (as  in  Carfax)  being  Nonnan- 
French  for  '  forks '  or  ways.  Its  ample  supply  of 
water-power  and  of  coal,  its  facilities  for  trans- 
port both  by  water  and  by  leading  lines  of  rail- 
way, and  its  position  in  proximity  to  many  of 
the  great  towns  of  the  north  of  England,  con- 
tribute materially  to  its  manufacturing  and  com- 
mercial importance,  which  dates  from  the  settle- 
ment here  of  Flemish  artisans  in  the  reign  of 
Henry  VII.  The  parish  church  of  St  John, 
restored  in  1879,  is  a  fine  specimen  of  Perpen- 
dicular Gothic ;  All  Souls  (1861),  by  Sir  G.  G. 
Scott,  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  elaborate  of 
all  his  churches.  The  Congregational  'Square 
Church'  was  erected  in  1855.  The  town-hall, 
opened  by  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1863,  is  a 
very  ornate  Renaissance  edifice,  from  designs  by 
Sir  Charles  Barry ;  the  new  post-ofiice  was 
opened  in  1887.  Another  important  building  is 
the  Piece  Hall,  erected  in  1779  for  the  sale  of 
manufactured  goods ;  it  was  presented  to  the 
corporation  in  1868,  and  is  now  used  as  a  Market 
Hall.  Besides  the  Heath  grammar-school  (1585), 
at  which  Sterne  was  educated,  and  the  Blue-coat 
School,  there  is  the  Crossley  and  Porter  Orphan 
Home  and  School,  built  by  the  Crossley  brothers, 
with  an  endowment  of  £135,894,  Halifax  has 
five  parks— Savile,  Shrogg's,  Claremont,  Akroyd, 
with  free  library,  museum,  and  art-gallery,  and 
the  People's  Park.  The  last,  the  gift  of  the  late 
Sir  F.  Crossley  in  1857,  was  laid  out  by  Sir 
Joseph  Paxton.  There  are  two  theatres  (one 
dating  from  1888).  The  Public  Libraries  Act 
was  early  adopted  ;  there  are  also  a  Mechanics' 
Institute  and  the  Dean  Clough  Institute  erected 
by  the  Crossleys  for  their  work-people.  The 
tramways  are  on  the  overhead  electric  system, 
and  the  electric  light  is  in  u.se.  There  is  a 
strong  co-operative  society.  The  worsted  and 
carpet  trades  are  the  staple  industries.  Crossley's 
carpet-works,  the  largest  in  the  world,  employ 
more  than  5000  hands.  Other  manufactured 
goods  are  worsted  coatings,  fancy  dress  goods, 
damasks,  and  merinos.  Cotton  fabrics  and  wool- 
cards  are  manufactured,  while  dyeing  and  hosiery 
trades  are  on  an  extensive  scale.  There  is  also 
some  trade  in  corn  ;  iron,  chemicals,  boots,  and 
mill-machinery  are  manufactured,  and  freestone 
is  quarried.  The  water-works,  which  are  very 
complete,  have  cost  the  corporation  about 
£950,000.  Pop.  (1851)  33,582;  (1871)  65,510; 
(1881)  73,633  ;  (1901)  104,936,  the  boundary  having 
been  extended  in  1900.  The  borough  since  1832 
has  returned  two  members.  See  Watson's  History 
of  Halifax  (1175-,  ed.  by  Leyland,  1869). 

Halifax,  the  capital  of  Nova  Scotia  and  the 
principal  Atlantic  seaport  of  Canada,  is  situated 
in  44°  39'  N.  lat.  and  63°  37'  W.  long.  It  is  the 
nearest  to  Great  Britain  of  any  city  on  the 
American  continent,  being  but  2178  miles  from 
Cape  Clear.  The  magnificent  sheet  of  water  that 
constitutes  its  harbour  is  easily  accessible  at  all 


HALL 


324 


HAMBURG 


seasons  of  the  year,  at  all  times  of  the  tide,  by 
ships  of  any  tonnage  ;  and  is  capable  of  affording 
safe  anchorage  to  the  whole  British  navy.  Its 
selection  as  the  American  rendezvous  of  D'An- 
ville's  ill-starred  expedition  against  the  British 
American  colonies  in  1746,  led  to  a  demand  on 
their  part  that  a  place  of  such  strategic  import- 
ance should  no  longer  be  unoccupied  by  British 
troops.  The  demand  was  ably  supported  by  Lord 
Halifax,  and  accordingly  an  expedition  was  fitted 
out  in  1749,  which  founded  the  city  and  gave  to 
it  the  name  of  its  English  patron.  It  at  once 
became  the  capital  of  the  province,  and  the 
principal  naval  and  military  station  of  Great 
Britain  in  America,  and,  strongly  fortified,  was 
garrisoned  by  British  troops  till  1905,  when 
Canada  assumed  full  responsibility  for  its  de- 
fence. The  dockyard  is  one  of  the  finest  in 
the  British  colonies.  The  town  is  built  on  the 
western  side  of  the  harbour,  and  extends  along  it 
about  2^  miles.  It  is  the  residence  of  the  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop  of  Halifax  and  of  the  Angli- 
can bishop  of  Nova  Scotia.  It  is  also  the  seat 
of  Dalhousie  University.  It  is  the  eastern  or 
Atlantic  terminus  of  the  Intercolonial  Railway  of 
Canada  and  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  and 
has  lines  of  steamers  connecting  it  with  London, 
Liverpool,  New  York,  Boston,  &c.  It  has  also 
the  largest  graving-dock  (580  by  102  feet)  in 
America,  constructed  in  1880-89,  at  a  cost  of 
$1,000,000,  and  capable  of  receiving  the  largest 
ship  afloat.  The  proximity  of  Halifax  to  the 
coalfields  of  Pictou  and  Cape  Breton  and  its 
extensive  wharf  accommodation  make  it  a  great 
coaling-station.  Pop.  (1881)  36,100 ;  (1901)  40,787. 
Dartmouth  (pop.  6000),  on  the  harbour's  opposite 
shore,  is  practically  a  suburb  of  Halifax. 

Hall,  or  Schwabisch-Hall,  a  town  (since  1802) 
of  Wiirtemberg,  in  the  deep  valley  of  the  Kocher, 
33  miles  by  rail  B.  by  S.  of  Heilbronn.  Hall 
(meaning  'salt')  has  salt-works,  the  brine  being 
obtained  from  Wilhelmsgliick,  5  miles  distant. 
There  are  also  manufactures  of  cotton,  silk, 
leather,  &c.    Pop.  9225. 

Hall,  an  Austrian  health-resort,  in  Tyrol,  on 
the  Inn,  6  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Innsbruck.  From 
the  Salzberg,  7  miles  N.,  salt  brine  is  conveyed 
to  the  pans  of  Hall.    Pop.  6456. 

Halladale,  a  Sutherland  stream,  flowing  20 
miles  north  to  the  sea  at  Portskerry. 

Hallamshlre,  an  ancient  manor  of  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  with  Sheffield  for  its  capital. 
It  now  gives  name  to  a  parliamentary  division. 

Halle  (Hal-leh),  a  city  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Saale  and  on  several  small 
islands  of  the  river,  20  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Leip- 
zig. As  an  important  railway  centre,  Halle  has 
of  late  years  rapidly  increased  in  size,  industry, 
and  prosperity.  Its  university  was  founded  in 
1694  by  Frederick  I.  ;  suppressed  by  Napoleon  in 
1806  and  in  1813,  it  was  re-established  in  1815, 
and  with  it  was  incorporated  the  university  of 
Wittenberg.  At  first  a  chief  seat  of  the  pietistic 
school  of  theology,  Halle  subsequently  became 
the  headquarters  of  the  rationalistic  and  critical 
schools.  It  has  over  1500  students,  and  140  pro- 
fessors and  lecturers.  The  Francke  schools  (1695) 
rank  amongst  the  most  important  establishments 
of  the  place.  Noteworthy  are  St  Mary's  Church 
(1529-54) ;  the  Gothic  church  of  St  Maurice  (12th 
c),  with  fine  wood-carvings  and  sculptures  ;  the 
red  tower,  276  feet  high,  in  the  market-place  ;  the 
town-hall ;  the  remains  of  the  Moritzburg  (1484), 
the  ancient  residence  of  the  archbishops  of  Magde- 
burg ;  a  deaconesses'  home ;  the  university  library 


(220,000  vols.) ;  and  an  archseological  and  other 
museums.  Salt  is  obtained  from  brine-springs 
within  and  near  the  town,which  have  been  worked 
from  before  the  7th  century.  Other  industries  are 
machine-making,  sugar-refining,  printing,  brew- 
ing, the  manufacture  of  mineral  oil,  and  fruit 
cultivation.  Halle  is  the  birthplace  of  Handel. 
Pop.  (1871)  52,639 ;  (1880)  71,484  ;  (1900)  156,609. 

Hallein,  an  Austrian  town,  10  miles  S.  of  Salz- 
burg, has  salt-works  and  salt  baths.     Pop.  6727. 

Halluin,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Nord, 
10  miles  NNE.  of  Lille.     Pop.  16,530. 

Halmstad,  a  seaport  of  Sweden,  on  the  Catte- 
gat,  75  miles  SE.  of  Gothenburg.    Pop.  15,492, 

Halstead,  an  Essex  market-town,  on  the  Colne, 
56  miles  NB.  of  London.  It  has  a  parish  church 
with  a  wooden  spire  and  many  old  monuments, 
a  free  grammar-school  (1590),  and  manufactures 
of  crape,  silk,  paper,  and  straw-plait.     Pop.  6059. 

Haltwhistle,  a  market-town  of  Northumber- 
land, on  the  South  Tyne,  16^  miles  W.  of  Hex- 
ham.   Pop.  of  parish,  3150. 

Halys.    See  Asia  Minor. 

Ham,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Somme, 
on  the  river  Somme,  12  miles  SW.  of  St  Quentin. 
Its  ancient  fortress  (rebuilt  in  1470)  is  used  as 
a  state-prison.  It  was  the  place  of  confinement 
of  Joan  of  Arc,  Louis  Napoleon,  &c.    Pop.  3000. 

Ham,  West,  a  suburb  of  East  London,  and  a 
county  borough  of  Essex,  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Thames,  opposite  Greenwich.  The  rapid 
growth  of  the  population  has  been  princi- 
pally owing  to  the  Victoria  and  Albert  docks 
and  the  gas-works.  It  is  a  busy  industrial  parish, 
and  has  silk-printing,  shipbuilding,  distilling, 
and  chemical  manufactures.  In  1885  it  was  made 
a  parliamentary  borough,  returning  two  members 
to  the  House  of  Commons.  Here  is  Mrs  Elizabeth 
Fry's  house,  'The  Cedars.'  Pop.  (1851)  18,817; 
(1901)  267,358.  —East  Ham,  situated  in  the  south- 
west of  the  same  county,  1 J  mile  S  W.  of  Barking, 
has  a  pop.  of  96,018.  See  Katherine  Fry's  History 
of  the  Parishes  of  East  and  West  Ham  (1888). 

Hamadan  (anc.  Ecbatana),  a  town  of  Persia,  at 
the  northern  base  of  Mount  Elwend,  160  miles 
WSW.  of  Teheran.  It  contains  some  notable 
tombs— e.g.  Avicenna's  and  others  affirmed  to 
be  those  of  Mordecai  and  Esther.  It  is  the 
centre  of  converging  routes  from  Bagdad,  Erivan, 
Teheran,  and  Ispahan,  and  manufactures  leather, 
coarse  carpets,  and  woollen  and  cotton  fabrics. 
Pop.  30,000. 

Hamah  (Gr.  Epiphania;  Bible  Hamath),  a 
very  ancient  city  of  Syria,  on  the  Orontes,  110 
miles  N.  by  E.  of  Damascus.  In  1893  it  was 
proposed  to  connect  Hamah  and  Hems  (q.v.) 
with  Damascus  and  with  Aleppo  by  rail.  Pop. 
45,000. 

Hambato,  or  Ambato,  capital  of  Tunguragua 
province,  Ecuador,  in  a  sheltered  amphitheatre 
on  the  northern  slope  of  Chimborazo,  8860  feet 
above  the  sea.  It  was  twice  de.stroyed — by  an 
eruption  of  Cotopaxi  in  1698,  and  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1796.     Pop.  10,000. 

Hamburg,  a  state  of  the  German  empire,  in- 
cludes the  free  city  of  Hamburg,  the  towns 
Bergedorf  and  Cuxhaven,  and  several  suburbs, 
with  a  total  area  of  158  sq.  m.  The  free  city 
of  Hamburg  is  on  the  Elbe,  75  miles  from  the 
German  Ocean,  112  N.  of  Hanover,  and  177  NW. 
of  Berlin.  Founded  by  Charlemagne  in  808, 
Hamburg  was  made  a  bishopric  in  831.  The 
commercial  history  of  Hamburg  began  in  1189-90, 


HAMELN 


325 


HAMPSHIRE 


when  the  emperor  granted  it  various  privileges, 
amongst  others  a  separate  judicial  system  and 
exemption  from  customs  dues.  In  1241  it  joined 
with  Liibeck  in  laying  the  foundation  of  the 
Hanseatic  League,  and  from  1259  associated  itself 
closely  with  Bremen  also.  From  that  time  it 
increased  rapidly  in  wealth  and  commercial  im- 
portance. In  1610  it  was  made  an  imperial  town ; 
it  early  embraced  the  doctrines  of  the  Reforma- 
tion. From  1410  to  1712  there  were  repeated 
risings  against  the  governing  classes ;  during 
1806-14  it  was  occupied  by  the  French,  when 
its  pop.  decreased  by  nearly  one-half,  namely  to 
65,000,  and  it  endured  losses  of  property  esti- 
mated at  £7,000,000.  In  1816  Hamburg  joined 
the  German  Confederation.  In  three  days,  in 
1842,  one-third  of  Hamburg  was  destroyed  by 
fire,  and  more  than  two  millions  sterling  worth 
of  property  lost.  In  1888  Hamburg  entered  the 
German  Customs  Union,  though  still  retaining 
part  of  its  territory  as  a  '  free  port.'  The  public 
buildings  include  the  '  school  house '  (containing 
the  town  library  of  000,000  volumes  and  5600 
MSS.,  and  a  natural  history  museum),  town- 
house,  picture-gallery,  &c.  Four  churches  are 
noticeable— St  Nicholas,  built  from  designs  by 
Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  as  a  memorial  of  the  fire  of 
1842,  a  Gothic  building,  with  a  spire  482  feet 
high ;  St  Michael's,  an  18th-century  Renaissance 
church,  with  a  spire  469  feet  high ;  and  St  Cather- 
ine's and  St  James's,  both  Gothic  edifices  of  the 
14th  and  15th  centuries.  The  older  portion  is 
intersected  by  canals,  which  serve  as  waterways 
between  the  river  and  the  warehouses. 

Hamburg  is  the  busiest  commercial  city  on  the 
Continent,  and  the  principal  commercial  seaport 
of  Germany.  Next  to  London  it  has  the  largest 
money-exchange  transactions  in  Europe ;  its  bank 
was  founded  so  long  ago  as  1619.  As  a  commer- 
cial centre  its  only  rivals  are  London,  Liverpool, 
Antwerp,  and  New  York.  Its  industries  are 
cigar-making,  distilling  of  spirits,  sugar-reflning, 
brewing,  engineering,  iron-founding,  manufac- 
ture of  chemicals,  india-rubber  wares,  furniture, 
starch,  and  jute,  and  shipbuilding.  Of  the  im- 
ports about  one-half  represent  the  value  of  goods 
brought  into  Hamburg  by  rail  and  river  (Elbe) 
from  the  interior.  Hamburg  owes  a  large  part  of 
its  trade  to  its  position  as  a  distributing  centre 
for  commodities  brought  from  distant  parts  of 
the  world,  to  be  afterwards  sent  to  the  different 
countries  of  Europe.  Besides  coffee,  the  more 
important  objects  of  trade  are  sugar,  woollen  and 
cotton  goods,  butter,  tobacco,  wine  and  spirits, 
hides,  machines,  rice,  saltpetre,  leather,  herrings, 
flour,  furs,  linen,  petroleum,  coal,  iron,  and  silks. 
Hamburg  ranks  second  to  Bremen  as  a  port  of 
embarkation  for  emigrants  from  Germany.  Pop. 
(1876)  374,930;  (1890)  622,580;  (1900)  768,349,  of 
whom  705,738  lived  in  the  city  itself. 

Hameln,  a  town  of  Hanover,  on  the  Weser, 
25  miles  SW.  of  Hanover.  It  presents  a  quite 
mediaeval  appearance,  having  many  Gothic  and 
Renaissance  houses  and  buildings.  The  chain- 
bridge  (1839)  over  the  Weser  is  840  feet  long. 
The  industries  include  machine-making,  iron- 
founding,  wool-spinning,  &c.  Pop.  19,831.  With 
this  town  is  connected  the  well-known  legend 
of  the  Pied  Piper  (or  Ratcatcher)  of  Hameln  or 
Hamlin,  who  in  1284  freed  the  town  from  rats 
through  the  mystic  charm  of  his  pipe. 

Hamilton,  a  town  of  Lanarkshire,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Clyde,  10  miles  SE.  of  Glasgow. 
The  principal  edifice  is  the  burgh  buildings  (1863), 
with  a  clock-tower  nearly  130  feet  high ;  and 


there  are  also  the  county  buildings,  large  bar- 
racks, a  public  park  (1894),  and  a  good  race- 
course. The  former  manufactures  of  lace,  tam- 
boured bobbinette,  and  cambric  have  declined; 
and  coal-raining  is  now  the  chief  industry  of  the 
district.  Lord  Dundonald  was  a  native,  Hamilton 
was  made  a  royal  burgh  in  1548,  and  one  of  the 
five  Falkirk  parliamentary  burghs  in  1832.  Pop. 
(1841) 8724 ;  (1881)  18,517  ;  (1901)  32,775. -Hamilton 
Palace,  successor  to  Cadzow  Castle,  is  the  seat  of 
the  Duke  of  Hamilton.  Dating  partly  from  1594, 
but  greatly  enlarged  in  1705  and  1822,  it  is  a 
sumptuous  classical  structure,  though  its  choicest 
art-collections  were  sold  in  1882  for  nearly 
£400,000.  Within  its  policies  are  a  superb 
mausoleum  (1852),  the  ruins  of  Cadzow  Castle, 
the  herd  of  wild  white  cattle,  and  some  primeval 
oaks. 

Hamilton,  a  city  of  Ontario,  Canada,  is  situated 
on  Burlington  Bay,  at  the  west  end  of  Lake 
Ontario,  40  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Toronto,  and 
56  WNW.  of  Niagara  Falls.  The  business  por- 
tion lies  at  thei  foot  of  '  The  Mountain,'  on  whose 
slope  many  fine  residences  are  embowered  among 
trees  and  gardens.  Trees  line  the  wide,  hand- 
some streets  ;  the  houses  are  mostly  substantial 
stone  erections,  and  the  court-house  and  county 
buildings  are  among  the  finest  in  Canada.  The 
manufactures  include  iron,  cottons,  woollens, 
sewing-machines,  boots,  glass-ware,  &c.  Hamil- 
ton, which  was  founded  in  1813,  is  the  seat  of 
Anglican  and  Roman  Catholic  bishops.  Pop. 
(1861)  19,096  ;  (1881)  35,961 ;  (1901)  52,550, 

Hamilton,  metropolis  of  the  western  part  of 
Victoria,  on  Grange  Burn  Creek,  224  miles  by 
rail  W.  of  Melbourne.    Pop.  4060. 

Hamilton,  (1)  capital  of  Butler  county,  Ohio, 
on  the  Great  Miami  River,  and  on  the  Miami  and 
Erie  Canal,  25  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Cincinnati.  It 
has  paper  and  flour  mills,  <"oundries,  breweries, 
&c.  Pop.  (1880)  12,122  ;  (1900)  23,914.— (2)  A  post- 
village  of  New  York,  37  miles  SE.  of  Syracuse, 
is  the  seat  of  Madison  University,  and  of  a  Theo- 
logical Seminary,  both  Baptist.     Pop.  1628. 

Hamilton,  capital  (pop.  2300)  of  Bermuda. 

Hamirpnr,  capital  of  a  district  in  the  United 
Provinces  of  India,  on  the  Jumna,  and  at  the 
head  of  a  branch  of  the  Ganges  Canal,  110  miles 
NW.  of  Allahabad.     Pop.  7200. 

Hamm,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  Westphalia,  on 
the  Lippe,  25  miles  NE.  of  Dortmund  by  rail, 
has  large  iron-foundries,  wire-works,  machine- 
factories,  &c.  It  Avas  a  Hause  town,  and  until 
1763  a  fortress.     Pop.  32,500. 

Hammerfest,  the  most  northern  town  of 
Europe,  in  70°  40'  N.  lat.  and  23°  30'  E.  long.,  is 
on  the  island  of  Kvalo,  in  the  Norwegian  province 
of  Finmark.  It  was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1890. 
Pop.  2289. 

Hammersmith,  a  metropolitan  and  parliament- 
ary borougli  of  tlie  county  of  London.  A  sus- 
pension bridge  was  opened  here  in  1827,  and  a 
new  one  by  Prince  Albert  Victor  in  1887.  The 
borough  returns  one  member.  Formerly  a  de- 
tached village.  Hammersmith  is  now  a  large  town. 
Pop.  of  the  metropolitan  borough  (1901)  112,239  ; 
of  the  parliamentary  borough  (1901)  111,970. 

Hamoaze.    See  Plymouth. 

Hamoon.    See  Seistan  (Lake  of). 

Hampden  House,  Bucks,  among  the  Chilterns, 
4  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Wendover,  was  the  home  of 
John  Hampden,  who  is  buried  in  the  church  here. 

Hampshire,  Hants,  or,  ofllcially,  the  County 
OF  Southampton,  a  maritime  county  in  the  south 


HAMPSTEAD 


326 


HANLEY 


(if  England,  bounded  by  Dorset,  "Wilts,  Berks, 
Surrey,  Sussex,  and  the  English  Channel.  In- 
cluding the  Isle  of  Wight,  it  has  an  area  of  1621 
sq.  m.,  or  1,037,764  acres,  700,000  of  which  are 
generally  under  culture.  Pop.  (1801)  219,290; 
(1841)  354,682;  (1861)  481,815;  (1881)  593,465; 
(1901)  797,634.  The  surface  is  diversilied  by  the 
North  and  South  Downs,  the  loftiest  points  being 
Sidown  Hill  (940  feet),  and,  on  the  Berkshire 
border,  Inkpen  Beacon  (1011  feet),  the  highest 
chalk-down  in  England.  The  south-western  por- 
tion of  the  county,  almost  wholly  detached  from 
the  main  portion  by  Southampton  Water,  is 
occupied  mainly  by  the  New  Forest  (q.v.).  In 
the  south-east  and  east  there  are  remains  of  the 
forests  of  Bere,  Woolmer,  and  Waltham  Chace. 
The  principal  rivers  are  the  Test,  Itchen,  and 
Avon,  all  flowing  southward  ;  the  last  named 
forms  the  western  boundary  of  the  New  Forest. 
The  county,  exclusive  of  the  parliamentary 
boroughs  of  Portsmouth,  Southampton,  Win- 
chester, and  Christchurch,  and  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  returns  five  members  for  its  five  divisions 
— North  or  Basingstoke,  West  or  Andover,  East 
or  Petersfield,  South  or  Fareham,  and  New  Forest. 
Hampshire  is  wholly  in  the  diocese  of  Winchester. 
Towns  other  than  the  four  boroughs  are  Alder- 
shot,  Alton,  Andover,  Basingstoke,  Bishops 
Waltham,  Bournemouth,  Fareham,  Gosport, 
Havant,  Lymington,  Petersfield,  Ringwood, 
Ilomsey,  and  Titchfield.  Among  Hampshire's 
worthies  have  been  Jane  Austen,  Walter  Besant, 
Dickens,  William  Gilpin,  Keble,  Kingsley,  George 
Meredith,  Archbishop  Warham,  Gilbert  White, 
William  of  Wykeham,  and  Edward  Young.  See 
works  by  Woodward  (3  vols.  1861-69)  and  T.  W. 
Shore  (1892). 

Hampstead,  a  metropolitan  and  parliamentary 
borough  of  the  county  of  London,  is  finely  situated 
on  a  range  of  hills.  It  was  formerly  famous 
for  its  medicinal  springs,  and  is  still  a  favourite 
place  of  residence  and  of  holiday  resort  among 
Londoners.  On  the  summit  of  the  hill  (430  feet), 
above  the  village,  is  the  Heath,  which  affords  ex- 
tensive and  pleasant  prospects  of  the  surrounding 
country.  A  house  on  the  Heath,  formerly  called 
the  Upper  Flask  Inn,  and  now  a  private  resi- 
dence, was  the  place  of  resort  of  the  Kit-Cat 
Club,  at  which  Steele,  Addison,  Richardson, 
Walpole,  and  others  used  to  assemble.  Hamp- 
stead is  associated  with  many  names  in  literature 
and  art,  as  those  of  Pope,  Gay,  Johnson,  Aken- 
side,  Joanna  Baillie,  Byron,  Constable,  Romney, 
Coleridge,  Keats,  Shelley,  Leigh  Hunt,  Landseer, 
and  Sir  W.  Besant.  Pop.,  met.  bor.  (1901)  81,942  ; 
pari.  bor.  (one  member)  82,329.  See  works  bv  W. 
Howitt  (1869),  Lobley  (1889),  and  Baines  (1890). 

Hampton,  a  village  of  Middlesex,  on  the 
Thames,  15  miles  SW.  of  London.  In  the  vicinity 
are  many  fine  mansions  and  beautiful  villas,  in- 
cluding Garrick's  villa.     Pop.  6822. 

Hampton  Court  Palace,  till  George  II. 's  time 
a  royal  residence,  and  now  partially  occupied  by 
persons  of  good  family  in  reduced  circumstances, 
stands  about  a  mile  from  the  village  in  the  midst 
of  grounds  that  extend  to  the  Thames.  The 
original  palace  was  erected  by  Cardinal  Wolsey, 
and  by  him  presented  (1526)  to  Henry  VIII.,  who 
enlarged  it  and  formed  around  it  a  royal  deer-park. 
Here  Edward  VI.  was  born,  his  mother,  Jane 
Seymour,  died,  and  Charles  I.  was  a  prisoner. 
Here  too  was  held  in  1604  the  famous  con- 
ference between  the  bishops  and  the  Presby- 
terians. A  considerable  portion  of  Hampton 
Court  was  rebuilt  by  William  III.,  from  designs 


by  Wren,  and  he  also  laid  out  the  park  and 
gardens  in  the  formal  Dutch  style.  The  picture- 
gallery  contains  several  Italian  works,  Lely's 
Beauties  of  the  Court  of  Charles  II.,  and 
valuable  specimens  of  Holbein,  Kneller,  West, 
&c.  ;  but  Raphael's  cartoons  have  been  removed 
to  the  South  Kensington  Museum.  The  gardens 
present  a  series  of  raised  terraces,  formal  flower- 
plots,  and  long  and  shady  arcades,  and  have 
among  other  attractions  a  '  maze '  or  labyrinth. 
Damage,  estimated  at  £20,000,  was  caused  by  fire 
in  November  1886.  See  Ernest  Law's  Hmivton 
Court  (3  vols.  1885-91). 

Hampton,  a  bathing-resort  of  Virginia,  gives 
name  to  Hampton  Roads,  a  channel  between 
Chesapeake  Bay  and  the  James  River  estuary. 
Pop.  3684. 

Hanau,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Hesse-Nassau,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Kinzig  and 
Main,  13  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Frankfort.  It  is 
divided  into  the  Old  Town  (1393)  and  the  New 
Town ;  the  latter  was  founded  in  1597  by  JProtes- 
tant  refugees  from  the  Low  Countries,  who  intro- 
duced the  woollen  and  silk  manufactures,  which 
still  flourish.  Hanau  stands  pre-eminent  in  Ger- 
many for  its  jewellery  and  gold  and  silver  wares. 
It  also  manufactures  carpets,  chocolate,  leather, 
cards,  paper,  hats,  &c.  Here  the  brothers  Grimm 
were  born.  In  the  neighbourhood  is  the  water- 
ing-place of  Wilhelmsbad.  Near  the  town,  in  1813, 
Napoleon  defeated  the  Austrians  and  Bavarians. 
Population,  31,000. 

Handsworth,  a  NW.  suburb  of  Birmingham. 

Hang-chow,  a  city  of  China,  the  gate  of  the 
great  imperial  canal,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tsien- 
tang,  where  it  enters  the  Bay  of  Hang-chow,  110 
miles  SW.  of  Shanghai.  It  was  the  capital  of 
the  Sung  empire  before  its  overthrow  by  the 
Mongols,  and  was  a  splendid  city  when  visited 
by  Marco  Polo  early  in  the  14th  century.  It  still 
has  many  magnificent  temples,  is  a  principal  seat 
of  the  silk  manufacture,  and  of  gold  and  silver 
work,  and  is  noted  for  the  beauty  of  its  surround- 
ings. Several  thousands  of  candidates  assemble 
here  every  year  for  the  public  examinations.  The 
river  is  subject  to  a  dangerous  bore  or  eagre. 
Previous  to  the  Taiping  rebellion,  the  city  had 
some  2,000,000  inhabitants ;  but  it  was  then 
(1861)  laid  in  ruins,  and  its  pop.  is  now  estimated 
at  from  500,000  to  800,000. 

Han-hai,  a  dried-up  sea  in  central  Asia,  now 
represented  only  by  Lake  Lob-nor  (q.v.). 

Hankow,  a  river-port  of  China,  at  the  junction 
of  the  Han  River  with  the  Yang-tsze,  600  miles 
W.  of  Shanghai.  Strictly  speaking,  Hankow  is 
a  suburb  of  the  towns  of  Wu-chang  and  Han-yang, 
the  three  together  forming  one  huge  city.  Vessels 
of  large  size  can  reach  Hankow,  the  river  being 
navigable  to  Ichang,  420  miles  higher  up.  Since 
1862  Hankow  has  been  open  to  foreign  trade.  The 
principal  article  of  export  is  tea,  others  being 
silk,  oil,  vegetable  tallow,  tobacco,  hides,  nut- 
galls,  coal,  musk,  and  wax.  The  imports  are 
opium,  cotton,  piece-goods,  woollens,  metals, 
sugar,  &c.  In  1889  a  decree  of  the  emperor 
authorised  the  construction  of  a  railway  from 
Hankow  to  Peking,  700  miles  in  length.  Before 
the  Taiping  rebellion  the  three  cities  had  a  pop. 
of  over  5,000,000  ;  it  is  now  about  1,700,000,  Han- 
kow having  750,000  of  these. 

Hanley,  a  Staffordshire  town,  in  the  Potteries, 
18  miles  N.  of  Stafford.  It  manufactures  china, 
earthenware,  and  encaustic  tiles  ;  and  near  it  are 
coal  and  iron  mines.    It  was  constituted  a  muni- 


HANNIBAL  327 

cipal  borough  In  1857 ;  a  parliamentary  borough, 
returning  one  member,  in  1885 ;  and  a  county 
borough  in  1888.  Pop.  of  municipal  borough 
(1851)25,369;  (1871)39,976;  (1901)61,000;  of  pari, 
borough  (including  Burslem,  q.v.),  100,365. 

Hannibal,  a  city  of  Missouri,  on  the  Mississippi, 
here  crossed  by  an  iron  railroad  bridge.  111  miles 
by  rail  NNW.  of  St  Louis.  An  important  railway 
centre,  it  has  a  Methodist  college,  an  extensive 
trade  in  lumber,  flour,  and  cattle,  and  manu- 
factories of  flour,  tobacco,  lime,  and  railroad 
cars.  There  are  coal-mines  close  by.   Pop.  12,757. 

Ha-noi,  the  capital  of  Tongking,  and  head- 
quarters of  the  French  administration,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Song-coi  or  Red  River,  80  miles 
in  a  direct  line  from  the  sea.    Pop.  1 20,000. 

Han' over  (Ger.  Haniw'ver),  formerly  a  kingdom 
of  northern  Germany,  but  since  1866  incorporated 
with  Prussia.  Area,  14,833  sq.  m.,  or  neai'ly  twice 
the  size  of  Wales;  pop.  (1871)  1,963,080;  (1900) 
2,590,340.  Except  in  the  south,  where  the  Harz 
Mountains  (q.v.)  attain  3037  feet,  the  surface  be- 
longs to  the  great  North  German  plain,  with  great 
stretches  of  moor  and  heath,  the  largest  the  Liine- 
burg.  It  is  watered  by  the  Elbe,  Weser,  Ems, 
and  their  tributaries.  Norderney  and  Borkum 
(islands)  are  seaside  resorts.  Gottingen  is  the 
seat  of  a  university,  and  the  capital  is  Hanover. 
The  people  of  the  north-eastern  and  central 
provinces  are  mostly  Saxons ;  those  on  the 
coast  are  of  Frisian  origin  ;  those  on  the  west 
of  the  Ems,  Dutch ;  and  those  in  the  southern 
provinces,  Thuringians  and  Franconians.  Platt- 
Deutsch,  or  Low  German,  is  commonly  spoken 
in  the  rural  districts ;  but  High  German  is  the 
language  of  the  educated  classes,  and  is  spoken 
with  more  purity  than  in  any  other  part  of 
the  empire.  The  second  elector  of  Hanover 
became  in  1714  George  I.  of  England,  and  the 
connection  lasted  until  Queen  Victoria's  accession 
to  the  British  crown  in  1837,  Hanover  then  pass- 
ing to  her  uncle,  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  His 
son,  the  blind  George  V.  (1819-78),  succeeded  in 
1851,  and  in  1866  sided  with  Austria,  and  was  de- 
throned, Hanover  (which  in  1815  had  been  con- 
stituted a  kingdom)  being  annexed  to  Prussia. 

Hanover,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  a  sub- 
tributary  of  the  Weser,  78  miles  SE.  of  Bremen 
^^  and  158  W.  of  Berlin.  It  consists  of  the  old 
^^K  town,  with  narrow  streets  and  mediaeval  houses, 
^^K  and  the  handsome  modern  town,  lying  N.,  E. 
■  ~ 

H 

^B 

I  ^' 
■  ^' 

L 


and  SB.  of  the  older  portion.  The  most  interest- 
ing buildings  are  the  town-hall  (1439),  with 
antique  sculpture  and  fine  frescoes ;  the  royal 
library  (200,000  vols,  and  4000  MSS. ) ;  the  theatre, 
one  of  the  largest  in  Germany ;  the  palaces ;  the 
museum,  with  natural  history  and  art  collections  ; 
the  Kestner  Museum,  with  antiquities  and  a  col- 
lection of  engravings  (120,000) ;  the  polytechnic 
school,  formerly  a  ducal  castle ;  the  castle  church ; 
the  14th-century  'market '  church  ;  and  the  '  new 
town '  church,  with  the  tomb  of  Leibnitz ;  and 
the  magnificent  railway  station.  Close  by  is  the 
royal  palace  of  Herrenhausen,  whose  beautiful 
grounds  are  open  to  the  public.  Hanover  is  a 
centre  of  the  North  Gennan  railway  system,  and 
amongst  its  industries  are  railway  repair  shops, 
iron-founding,  typefounding,  the  manufacture  of 
pianofortes,  india-rubber  goods,  tobacco,  linen, 
sugar,  chocolate,  hardware,  brewing,  and  distil- 
ling. Pop.  (1871)  87,641;  (1900)235,650.  Hanover 
is  the  birthplace  of  the  brothers  Schlegel ;  Louisa, 
queen  of  Prussia  ;  and  Sir  William  Herschel. 

Hanover,  a  New  Hampshire  village,  near  the 


HARFLEITR 

Connecticut,  55  miles  NW.  of  Concord.    Here  is 
Dartmouth  College  (1770).     Pop.  1834. 
Hanse  Towns.    See  Hamburg,  Bremen,  Lu- 

BECK. 

Hansi,  a  town  of  the  Punjab,  80  miles  NW.  of 
Delhi,  was  a  British  cantonment  from  1802  down 
to  the  Mutiny  (1857).     Pop.  15,656. 

Hanwell,  the  Middlesex  lunatic  asylum  (1831), 
1^  miles  W.  of  Paddington  station,   London. 

Han-yang.    See  Hankow. 

Haparanda,  a  town  in  the  Swedish  province 
of  Norrbotten,  near  the  Torne&'s  mouth,  and 
opposite  the  Russian  town  of  Tomei.    Pop.  1250. 

Harar,  or  Harrar,  a  town  in  the  Galla  courftry 
now  belonging  to  Abyssinia,  connected  by  rail 
with  the  port  of  Jibutil  in  French  Somaliland 
(186  miles  NNB.).     Pop.  40,000. 

Harbin,  or  Kharbin,  a  town  of  Manchuria,  on 
the  Sungari,  a  tributary  of  the  Amur  (which  divides 
Manchuria  into  northern  and  southern  sections), 
where  the  Siberian  railway  sends  oflf  the  branch  to 
Port  Arthur.  In  1903  the  Russian  civil  jjopulation 
was  about  10,000. 

Harborough.    See  Market-Harborough. 

Harbour  Grace,  port  of  entrv  and  second  town 
of  Newfoundland,  84  miles  WNW.  of  St  John's. 
Pop.  5500. 

Harbiirg,  a  Prussian  seaport  in  Liineburg,  5 
miles  S.  of  Hamburg,  on  the  Elbe.  Its  industries 
include  gutta-percha  goods,  pahn-oil,  cotton-seed 
oil,  chemicals,  &c.  Since  the  deepening  of  the 
Elbe,  Harburg's  commerce  has  greatly  increased. 
It  is  a  holiday  resort  for  the  Hamburgers.  Pop. 
51,000. 

Hardanger  Fjord,  Norway,  a  narrow  sea-inlet, 
20  miles  S.  of  Bergen.  It  is  930  feet  deep,  and 
extends  68  miles  north-eastward  without  reckon- 
ing branches,  amidst  magnificent  mountain 
scenery.  The  Hardanger  Fjeld  is  a  tract  of  the 
mountainous  backbone  of  Norway,  NE.  of  the 
Fjord. 

Harden,  the  seat  of  Lord  Polwarth,  in  Rox- 
burghshire,  4  miles  W.  of  Hawick.  It  has  be- 
longed to  the  Scotts  since  1501. 

Harderwijk,  a  Dutch  fishing-town,  on  the 
south-east  shore  of  the  Zuider  Zee,  31  miles  NE. 
of  Utrecht  by  rail.  From  1648  to  1811  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  university.     Pop.  7339. 

Hardwar  (Hari-dwdra,  'Vishnu's  gate'),  per- 
haps the  most  famous  spot  on  the  Ganges,  stands 
where  the  river  emerges  from  the  sub-Himalaya 
into  the  plains  of  Hindustan,  39  miles  NE. 
of  Saharunpur,  United  Provinces.  It  attracts 
immense  numbers  of  pilgrims  at  the  end  of 
March  and  the  beginning  of  April— a  great  fair 
at  the  same  time  engrafting  commerce  on  religion. 
In  ordinary  years  the  attendance  is  about  100,000 ; 
but  every  twelfth  year  (as  in  1882,  1894,  &c.) 
peculiarly  sacred  rites  takes  place,  attended  by 
perhaps  300,000  (formerly  2,000,000).  Hardwar 
is  1024  feet  above  the  sea,  and  has  a  pop.  of  25,600. 
Since  1891  elaborate  and  successful  efforts  liave 
been  made,  by  means  of  rigid  and  scientific 
sanitation,  to  prevent  the  fair  from  being  as 
heretofore  a  great  means  of  spreading  cholera. 

Hardwick  Hall,  a  Derbyshire  seat  of  the  Duke 
of  Devonshire,  6^  miles  SE.  of  Chesterfield.  It 
was  built  in  1590  by  the  duke's  ancestress,  the 
famous  '  Bess  of  Hardwick.' 

Harfleur  (mediaeval  Hareflot),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Seine-Inferieure,  on  the  Seine's 
estuary,  4  miles  E.  of  Havre.  Formerly  it  was 
an  important  seaport  and  fortress.    Pop.  2616. 


HARINGVLIET 


328 


HARTLEPOOL 


Haringvliet.    See  Meuse. 

Hari-Rud,  or  Heri-Rud,  a  river  of  Asia,  which 
rises  in  the  Hindu  Kush,  150  miles  W.  of  Kabul, 
and  flows  500  miles  westward  and  northward 
through  Afghanistan,  and  along  the  boundary 
between  Persia  and  Turkestan,  until  it  loses  itself 
in  several  arms  in  the  Tekke  Turkoman  oasis. 

Harlaw',  18  miles  NW.  of  Aberdeen,  the  scene 
on  24th  July  1411  of  the  great  defeat  of  the 
Highlanders  led  by  Donald,  Lord  of  the  Isles,  by 
the  Lowlanders  under  the  Earl  of  Mar. 

Harlech,  an  ancient  town  of  Merionethshire, 
North  Wales,  stands  on  the  coast,  10  miles  N.  of 
Barmouth.  On  a  steep  hill  overlooking  the  sea  is 
its  massive  castle,  which  held  out  for  the  Lancas- 
trians in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses,  and  later  for 
Charles  I.  The  '  March  of  the  Men  of  Harlech ' 
commemorates  its  capture  by  the  Yorkists  in  1468. 

Harleston,  a  Norfolk  market-town,  near  the 
Waveney,  6^  miles  SW.  of  Bungay.  Pop.,  with 
Redenhall,  2003. 

Harlingen  (Frisian  Hams),  a  Dutch  seaport, 
in  Friesland,  on  the  Zuider  Zee,  14  miles  W.  by 
S.  of  Leeu warden.  It  has  a  good  harbour  (1875). 
Pop.  10,274. 

Harlow,  an  Essex  town,  near  the  Stort,  6  miles 
SSW.  of  Bishop-Stortford.    Pop.  of  parish,  2643. 

Haro,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Ebro,  31  miles 
by  rail  NW.  of  Logrono.     Pop.  7526. 

Harper's  Ferry,  a  post-village  of  West  Virginia, 
situated  among  beautiful  scenery  at  the  conflu- 
ence of  the  Shenandoah  with  the  Potomac,  81 
miles  W.  of  Baltimore  by  rail.  It  was  the  scene 
of  John  Brown's  abolition  raid  in  1859  ;  and  here 
a  Union  army  of  over  11,500  men  surrendered  to 
Stonewall  Jackson  in  1862.     Pop.  864. 

Harpurhey,  a  township  within  the  parliament- 
ary borough  of  Manchester. 

Harrar.    See  Harar. 

Harrington,  a  Cumberland  coast-town,  4^  miles 
N.  of  Whitehaven.    Pop.  of  parish,  3635. 

Harris,  in  the  Hebrides,  is  the  southern  portion 
of  the  island  of  Lewis  (q.v.),  with  islets ;  pop.  5300. 

Harrisburg,  the  capital  of  Pennsylvania,  is 
situated  amid  beautiful  scenery  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Susquehanna  River,  which  is  here  crossed 
by  several  long  bridges,  106  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Philadelphia.  It  contains  the  capitol,  court- 
house, arsenal,  insane  asylum,  and  a  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral.  The  city  has  a  number  of 
blast-furnaces  and  rolling-mills,  and  large  manu- 
factures of  steel  and  iron,  including  boilers, 
machinery,  nails,  and  files ;  cotton  goods,  flour, 
bricks,  shoes,  brooms,  &c.  are  also  produced, 
and  there  is  a  large  trade  in  lumber.  Founded 
in  1785,  Harrisburg  became  the  state  capital  in 
1812.     Pop.  (1870)  23,104  ;  (1900)  50,167. 

Harrismlth,  a  town  in  the  east  of  the  Orange 
River  Colony,  160  miles  NW.  of  Durban  by  rail. 
Pop.  (1904)  8300. 

Harrison,  a  town  of  New  Jersey,  on  the  Pas- 
saic, opposite  Newark.  It  manufactures  oilcloth, 
wire,  thread,  &c.    Pop.  10,600. 

Harrogate,  or  Harrowgate,  a  watering-place 
in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  lies  among  the 
moors,  450  feet  above  sea-level,  and  by  rail  is 
17  miles  N.  of  Leeds  and  20  WNW.  of  York.  It 
consists  of  two  parts,  High  and  Low,  and  is 
celebrated  for  its  sulphureous,  saline,  and  chaly- 
beate springs.  The  sulphureous  springs  are  of 
laxative  and  diuretic  quality,  while  the  chaly- 
beate are  tonic.    The  waters  are  used  both  ex- 


ternally and  internally,  and  are  in  great  repute 
in  many  diseases  of  the  skin  and  in  some  cases  of 
dyspeptic  disorders,  scrofula,  gout,  jaundice,  rheu- 
matism, &c.  The  si)rings  were  discovered  in  1596. 
Harrogate  is  a  remarkably  healthy  jjlace,  the 
death-rate  per  1000  ranging  in  six  years  between 
13  2  and  103.  It  was  incorporated  as  a  municipal 
borougli  in  1883.  Pop.  (1851)  3678  ;  (1901)  28,423. 
See  Smollett's  Humphrey  Clinker  (1771)  and 
Grainge's  History  of  Harrogate  (1871). 

Harrow,  or  Harrow-on-the-Hill,  a  town  of 
Middlesex,  11^  miles  WNW.  of  St  Paul's,  stands 
on  a  hill,  200  feet  high,  that  looks  over  thirteen 
shires.  Its  '  visible  church,'  which  crowns  the 
hill-top,  was  founded  in  1094,  and  rebuilt  about 
the  middle  of  the  14th  century.  Exhibiting  every 
style  of  Gothic  architecture,  from  Norman  to 
Perpendicular,  it  has  a  lofty  spire  and  eleven 
brasses  (one  of  them  to  John  Lyon) :  whilst  in 
the  churchyard  is  a  flat  tombstone  on  which 
Byron  as  a  schoolboy  used  to  lie.  Pop.  of  the 
parish  (1851)  4951  ;  (1900)  10,220. 

Harrow  School,  founded  by  John  Lyon  in  1571, 
ranks  as  one  of  the  great  English  public  schools, 
with  some  600  boys.  Former  distinguished 
alumni  having  been  Lord  Byron,  the  Marquises 
of  Dalhousie  and  Hastings,  Dean  Merivale,  Lord 
Palmerston,  Sir  Robert  Peel,  Admiral  Rodney, 
Lord  Shaftesbury,  Sheridan,  Trollope,  and  Colonel 
Burnaby.  The  buildings  date  from  1608,  and  in- 
clude the  chapel  (1857),  Vaughan  Library  (1863), 
and  Speech-room  (1877).  See  works  by  Pitcairn 
(1870),  Rimnier  (1881),  Thornton  (1885),  Minchin 
(1898),  Howson,  W^arren,  and  twenty-four  others 
(1898),  and  Fischer  Williams  (1901). 

Hartford,  the  capital  of  Connecticut,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Connecticut  River,  50  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  112  by  rail  NE.  of  New 
York.  It  is  a  handsome  city,  with  streets  not 
all  too  regular,  and  an  imposing  state  capitol  of 
white  marble,  arsenal,  post-office,  and,  on  the 
outskirts,  the  new  buildings  of  Trinity  College 
(Episcopal),  which  was  founded  in  1823.  Hart- 
ford contains  a  Congregational  seminary,  a  large 
hospital,  asylums,  and  several  libraries  ;  it  is  the 
seat  of  a  Roman  Catholic  bishop.  There  are 
extensive  manufactures  of  Colt's  pistols.  Catling 
guns,  engines,  boilers,  and  machines,  hardware, 
stoneware,  and  wooden  wares,  and  a  trade  in 
Connecticut  tobacco.  The  site  of  a  Dutch  fort 
in  1633,  and  of  a  colony  of  Massachusetts  settlers 
as  early  as  1635-36,  Hartford  was  incorporated  as 
a  city  in  1784,  and  has  been  sole  capital  of  the 
state  since  1873.  About  1780  the  '  Hartford  wits,' 
of  whom  Joel  Barlow  was  one,  made  the  city  a 
literary  centre.  Here  in  1814  took  place  the 
meeting  of  New  England  delegates  known  as  the 
Hartford  Convention.  Pop.  (1870)  37,180;  (1880) 
42,015  ;  (1890)  53,230  ;  (1900)  79,850.  [ 

Harthill,  a  collier-village  of  Lanarkshire,  5 
miles  SW.  of  Bathgate.     Pop.  1608. 

Hartland  Point,  a  Devon  headland,  on  the 
south  side  of  Barnstaple  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Bristol  Channel. 

Hartlebnry  Castle,  the  seat  of  the  bishops  of 
Worcester,  4  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Kidderminster. 

Hartlepool,  a  municipal  borough  and  seaport 
in  the  county  of  Durham,  is  situated  on  a  small 
peninsula  north  of  the  estuary  of  the  Tees,  12 
miles  NNE.  of  Stockton,  and  18  ESE.  of  Durham. 
Its  ancient  sea-fishing  industry  has  recently  ex- 
tended. The  ancient  boundaries  were  in  1883 
extended  so  as  to  take  in  the  township  of  Throston 
and  part  of  Stranton.  The  local  industries  are  iron 


HARTZ 


HASTINGS 


shipbuilding,  marine  engineering,  and  cement- 
manufacture.  Tlie  former  considerable  shipping 
trade  is  now  almost  entirely  transferred  to  West 
Hartlepool.  The  harbour  entrance  is  safe,  and 
communicates  by  a  channel  direct  to  the  more 
modern  port.  A  substantial  sea-wall  and  delight- 
ful promenade,  completed  in  1889,  have  added 
much  to  the  attractive  appearance  of  the  town 
on  the  seaward  side.  Pop.  of  municipal  borough 
(1851)  9503  ;  (1901)  22,723. 

West  Hartlepool,  a  municipal  borough  and 
seaport,  is  situated  to  the  south  as  Hartlepool  is 
to  the  north  of  Hartlepool  Bay,  and  practically 
forms  one  town  with  Hartlepool.  It  was  founded 
in  1847  by  Ralph  Ward  Jackson,  an  enterprising 
railway  projector,  afterwards  M.P.  It  possesses 
a  theatre,  athenseum  and  mechanics'  institute, 
custom-house,  market-house,  exchange,  a  muni- 
cipal hall  opened  by  Prince  Albert  Victor  in 
1889,  a  school  of  art,  &c.  The  first  harbour  was 
constructed  here  in  1847,  of  12  acres,  and  has 
since  been  greatly  enlarged.  The  dock  area 
of  Hartlepool  and  West  Hartlepool  together,  in- 
cluding the  timber  and  shipbuilding  yards,  &c., 
is  over  300  acres  in  extent.  Extensive  iron- 
shipbuilding  yards,  cement-works,  wood-pulp 
works,  and  marine-engine  building  establish- 
ments have  been  founded.  There  are  graving- 
docks  leased  by  the  North-Eastern  Railway  Com- 
pany, and  also  one  extensive  graving-dock  open 
to  public  use.  The  imports  include  coal,  flax  and 
hemp,  grain,  timber,  butter,  cheese,  fruit,  cattle, 
tallow,  and  iron  ;  the  exports,  woollen  and  cotton 
goods,  copper,  cement,  drugs,  machinery,  earthen- 
ware, yarn,  hides,  &c.,  the  trade  being  carried  on 
for  the  most  part  with  the  Baltic  ports,  and  with 
Hamburg  and  Rotterdam.  Governed  from  1854 
by  a  local  commission,  the  toAvn  was  created  a 
municipal  borough  in  1887.  Pop.  of  municipal 
district  (1861)  12,603  ;  (1881)  28,167  ;  of  municipal 
borough  (1901)  62,227.  In  1867  *  The  Hartlepools ' 
were  constituted  a  parliamentary  borough,  re- 
turning one  member.     Pop.  (1901)  86,305, 

Hartz.    See  Habz. 

Harwich  (Har'ritch),  a  municipal  borough,  sea- 
port, and  market-town  of  Essex,  is  situated  on  a 
promontory  at  the  influx  of  the  confluent  Stour  and 
Orwell  to  the  sea,  71  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  London. 
Southward  of  Harwich  is  the  watering-xjlace  of 
Dovercourt,  with  a  sea-wall  2  miles  long.  The 
chief  industries  are  shipbuilding,  fishing,  and  the 
manufacture  of  cement.  Steamers  run  daily  to 
Ipswich,  and  there  are  regular  lines  of  packets  to 
Antwerp,  Rotterdam,  London,  &c.  The  harbour 
is  capacious,  safe,  and  commodious,  having  been 
much  improved  since  1844.  It  is  defended  by  a 
battery,  and,  on  the  Suff'olk  side,  by  Landguard 
Fort,  which  dates  from  the  reign  of  James  I. 
From  the  14th  century  till  1867  Harwich  returned 
two  members,  and  from  then  till  18S5  one.  Pop. 
(1851)  4451 ;  (1881)  7842  ;  (1901)  10,070. 

Harz  Mountains,  a  mountain-range  of  Ger- 
many, extending  between  the  rivers  Weser  and 
Elbe,  south  of  Brunswick,  with  a  length  of  57 
miles,  a  breadth  of  20,  and  a  superficial  area  of 
784  sq.  !n.  It  forms  an  elevated  plateau,  rising 
on  most  sides  somewhat  steeply  from  the  plains, 
and  ridged  with  irregular  and  in  some  parts 
forest-clad  mountains.  The  range,  which  is 
divided  into  Upper  and  Lower  Harz,  the  average 
elevations  of  which  are  2100  and  1000  feet  respec- 
tively, attains  3740  feet  in  the  Brocken  (q.v.),  the 
highest  peak  of  central  Germany.  The  Harz  are 
exceedingly  rich  in  metals  and  minerals,  as  silver, 
iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  marble,  alabaster,  and 


granite.  They  are  the  scenes  of  many  of  the 
weird  legendary  tales  of  German  literature. 

Haskeval.    See  Rum. 

Haslar  Hospital.    See  Gosport. 

Haslemere,  a  town  of  Surrey,  12J  miles  SW. 
of  Guildford  by  rail,  manufactures  walking-sticks 
and  woodware ;  till  1832  it  was  a  ijarliamentary 
borough.  Pop.  2674.  Three  miles  south,  and 
over  the  Sussex  border,  is  Blackdown  Common, 
on  the  southern  heights  of  which  stands  Aid- 
worth,  the  home  built  for  himself  by  Lord  Tenny- 
son from  his  own  design,  in  which  he  died. 

Haslingden,  a  municipal  borough  (since  1891)  of 
Lancashire,  19  miles  NW.  of  Manchester.  It  has 
cotton,  silk,  and  woollen  manufactures,  with 
neighbouring  ironworks,  coal-mines,  and  stone 
and  slate  quarries.   Pop.  (1851)  6164  ;  (1901)  18,543. 

Hasselt,  capital  of  the  Belgian  provinjce  of 
Limburg,  18  miles  NW.  of  Maastricht.  Pop.  15,194. 

Hastinapur,  a  ruined  city  of  India,  on  the  old 
bed  of  the  Ganges,  22  miles  E.  of  Meerut. 

Hastings  (A.S.  Hoestingas),  a  parliamentary, 
municipal,  and  county  borough  and  famous 
■watering-place  of  Sussex,  is  picturesquely  situ- 
ated on  the  shore,  and  surrounded  by  high 
cliff's  on  all  sides  except  the  south,  which  is 
open  to  the  sea.  By  rail  it  is  33  miles  E.  of 
Brighton,  and  62  SSE.  of  London.  It  con- 
sisted formerly  of  only  two  streets,  intersected 
by  a  small  stream  called  the  Bourne,  but  is 
now  a  large  place,  whose  resident  population  is 
doubled  during  the  holiday  season.  Since  the 
middle  of  the  19th  century  the  borough  has  been 
greatly  extended,  and  some  portions  of  the  hills 
■which  shelter  the  town  contain  several  fine  streets 
and  terraces.  The  breezy  esplanade,  over  3  miles 
in  length,  forms  one  of  the  finest  sea  walks  and 
drives  in  the  kingdom.  The  climate  is  dry, 
mild,  and  equable,  and  the  bathing  very  good. 
During  cold  weather  in  winter  and  spring  the 
place  is  a  resort  for  pubnonary  patients,  being 
sheltered  by  the  hills  inland  from  easterly  and 
northerly  winds.  The  drainage  is  good ;  the 
water-supply  pure  and  abundant ;  and  salt  -water 
is  laid  on  for  watering  the  streets  and  for  bath 
purposes.  The  corporation  have  purchased  the 
East  and  West  Hills,  fine  open  plateaus  command- 
ing beautiful  land  and  sea  views,  and  admirably 
adapted  for  golf  and  other  outdoor  sports. 
There  are  three  large  public  gardens,  and  an 
extensive  Alexandra  Park,  opened  by  the  Prince 
and  Princess  of  Wales  in  1882.  Hotels  are 
plentiful,  and  several  large  and  flourishing 
schools  have  been  established,  the  Hastings 
centre  taking  a  large  place  in  the  Oxford  and 
Cambridge  local  examinations.  One  of  the  great 
attractions  of  the  town  to  visitors  is  the  hand- 
some pier  (1872),  extending  900  feet  from  the 
parade,  and  having  a  spacious  pavilion  at  the 
sea,  with  accommodation  for  between  2000  and 
3000  persons.  A  similar  pier  (1890)  is  at  St 
Leonards,  about  a  mile  westwards.  The  *  premier 
Cinque  port'  is  one  of  the  three  richest  fishing- 
stations  on  the  south  coast.  Tlie  castle,  now  in 
ruins,  was  built  by  one  of  the  followers  of  William 
the  Conqueror.  Hastings  (since  1865)  returns 
only  one  member.  Pop.  of  parliamentary  boiough 
(1881);47,619;  (1901)  62,913—65,528  in  the  munici- 
pal borougb,  extended  in  1897.  For  the  battle  of 
Hastings,  see  Battle  ;  and  see  also  works  by  W. 
D.  Cooper;(1862)  and  Montagu  Burrows  (1888). 

Hastings,  the  capital  of  Adams  coiuity, 
Nebraska,  151  miles  SW.  of  Omaha.    Pop.  17,190. 


HATFIELD 


330 


flAWAll 


Hatfield,  or  Bishops  Hatfield,  a  market- 
town  of  Hertfordshire,  18  miles  NNW.  of  London 
by  rail.  There  exist  a  few  scanty  remains  of  the 
12th-century  palace  of  the  bishops  of  Ely,  seized, 
together  with  the  manor,  by  Henry  VIII.,  and  suc- 
cessively the  residence  of  that  king,  of  Edward 
VI.  and  Queen  Elizabeth  before  their  accession, 
and  of  James  I.  Hatfield  House,  the  Marquis  of 
Salisbury's  seat,  was  built  by  Sir  Robert  Cecil  in 
1611,  and  is  a  fine  specimen  of  Jacobean  architec- 
ture, rich  in  portraits  and  historical  manuscripts. 
Pop.  of  parish,  4630.  See  Brewer's  English 
Studies  (1881). 

Hatfield  Chase,  a  fenny  tract  of  land  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  lying  between  the 
Trent  and  Doncaster,  some  180,000  acres  in  extent, 
which  has  been  drained,  and  is  now  cultivated. 
See  a  work  by  John  Tomlinson  (1882). 

Hathras,  a  town  in  tlie  United  Provinces,  21 
miles  S.  of  Aligarh.  The  commercial  centre  for 
the  Upper  Doab,  it  exports  sugar,  grain,  cotton, 
&c.,  and  is  famous  for  its  delicate  carved  worlc. 
Pop.  42,580. 

Hatteras,  Cape,  a  low  point  of  North  Carolina, 
forming  part  of  a  sandbank,  in  35°  15'  N.  lat.  and 
75°  31'  W.  long. 

Hatzfeld  (Hung.  Zsombolya),  a  town  of  Hun- 
gary, 20  miles  W.  of  Temesvar.     Pop.  8621. 

Haulbowllne  Island,  a  fortified  islet  in  Cork 
Harbour,  with  a  fine  harbour  and  the  only  dock- 
yard in  Ireland. 

Haupur,  a  town  of  India,  in  the  United  Pro- 
vinces, 18  miles  S.  of  Meerut.    Pop.  15,212. 

Hauran  (anc.  Auranitis),  a  district  in  Syria, 
lying  B.  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

Haussa,  the  name  of  an  old  empire  in  the 
Soudan,  comprising  what  is  now  Sokoto  and 
Gondo ;  also  the  warlike  negro  race  inhabiting 
that  region. 

Haute  Garonne,  &c.    See  Garonne,  &c. 

Havana,  or  Havannah,  capital  of  the  Spanish 
island  of  Cuba,  and  the  principal  centre  of  com- 
merce in  the  West  Indies,  is  situated  on  the  north 
side  of  the  island.  Access  is  obtained  to  its  mag- 
nificent well-sheltered  harbour  by  a  channel  350 
yards  wide,  the  entrance  to  which  is  defended  by 
forts.  The  streets  of  the  older  part  of  the  town, 
which  until  1863  was  walled,  are  narrow  and 
dirty,  and  the  harbour  has  been  for  generations 
polluted  by  the  town  sewage.  With  this  older 
part  the  more  modern  portion  lying  to  the  west 
is  connected  by  broad  tree-shaded  avenues  and 
gardens.  The  cathedral,  built  in  the  old  Spanish 
style  in  1724,  claims  to  contain  the  bones  of 
Columbus.  The  public  institutions  include  an 
arsenal,  great  hospital,  a  botanical  garden,  uni- 
versity, technical  school,  and  some  fine  theatres. 
Yellow  fever,  almost  endemic,  was  stamped  out 
by  American  sanitation  in  1898-1904.  The  staple 
industry  is  the  manufacture  of  cigars ;  sugar, 
tobacco,  and  molasses  are  the  main  exports 
(mostly  to  the  United  States).  The  chief  iiiipoi  ts 
are  food-stutfs  and  cotton.  San  Christobal  de  la 
Habaiia,  founded  on  the  south  coast  by  Diego 
Velasquez  in  1515,  was  four  years  later  transferred 
to  its  present  site.  It  was  burned  to  the  ground 
by  the  French  in  1538,  plundered  by  another 
baud  in  1554,  captured  by  a  third  in  1563,  and 
by  the  English  in  1762.  In  the  17th  century  it 
was  made  the  chief  Spanish  emporium  in  the  West 
Indies— a  position  it  held  till  1898,  when,  in  the 
Spanish- American  war,  Cuba  was  occupied  by  the 
United  States,  beconung  an  independent  state  in 
1902  (see  Cuba).    Pop.  (1902)  275,000. 


Havant,  a  market-town  of  Hampshire,  §  miles 
NE.  of  Portsmouth.  Tanning  and  matting  are 
the  chief  industries.     Pop.  of  parish,  3874. 

Havel,  a  river  issuing  from  a  small  lake  in 
Mecklenburg,  flows  220  miles  SW.  and  NW.  past 
Spandau,  Potsdam,  and  Brandenburg,  to  its 
junction  with  the  Elbe,  opposite  Werben.  It 
receives  the  Spree,  on  which  Berlin  stands. 

Haverfordwest  (Welsh  Hwlffordd),  a  parlia- 
mentary and  municipal  borough,  seaport,  and 
market-town  of  Wales,  capital  of  Pembrokeshire, 
on  the  river  Cleddau,  10  miles  NNE.  of  Milford 
by  rail,  and  162  W.  of  Gloucester.  A  body  of 
Flemings  was  settled  here  by  Henry  I.  in  1107. 
The  14th-century  castle  (its  keep  now  the  county 
Jail)  was  erected  by  the  first  Earl  of  Pembroke. 
There  are  also  remains  of  a  12th-century  Augus- 
tinian  priory.  Paper-making  is  the  chief  in- 
dustry. Since  1885  Haverfordwest  has  been  one 
of  the  Pembroke  boroughs,  which  return  one 
member.    Pop.  (1861)  7019  ;  (1901)  6007. 

Haverhill,  an  ancient  market-town  of  SW. 
Suffolk,  18  jniles  SE.  of  Cambridge.  Pop.  of 
urban  district,  4862. 

Haverhill,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  at  the  head 
of  navigation  on  the  Merrimac  River,  33  miles  N. 
of  Boston  by  rail.  The  manufacture  of  boots  and 
shoes  employs  over  6000  men  in  200  factories  ;  and 
there  are  manufactures  also  of  iron,  hats,  glass, 
&c.    Pop.  (1870)  13,092  ;  (1900)  37,175. 

Havre,  Le  (a  contraction  of  the  original  name, 
Le  Havre  de  Notre  Dame  de  Grace),  a  seaport 
of  France,  second  only  to  Marseilles,  in  the  dep. 
of  Seine-Inferieure,  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Seine's  estuary,  143  miles  NW.  of  Paris.  The 
chief  imports  are  coals,  wheat,  cotton,  dye  woods, 
coffee,  hides,  petroleum,  wool,  palm-oil,  alcohol, 
cocoa,  and  sugar.  The  exports  include  wine, 
woollen  and  cotton  goods,  millinery,  potatoes, 
salt,  butter,  paper,  silks  and  ribbons,  china- 
ware,  eggs,  and  ochre.  Havre  possesses  excellent 
harbour  accommodation,  having  nine  separate 
dock  basins  ;  two  new  dry-docks  were  opened  in 
1889.  The  port  is  very  greatly  handicapped  by 
its  poor  railway  connection,  the  heavy  harbour 
dues,  and  the  shifting  sandbanks  that  lie  in  the 
estuary.  Havre  is  one  of  the  chief  emigrant 
ports  in  France ;  and  it  has  great  shipbuilding- 
yards,  machine-factories,  cannon-foundries,  flour- 
mills,  petroleu7n  and  sugar  refineries,  and  dye- 
works.  The  buildings  include  the  16th-century 
church  of  Notre  Dame,  a  museum,  a  Renaissance 
town-house,  a  marine  arsenal,  &c.  There  are 
statues  to  Bernardin  de  St  Pierre  and  Casimir 
Delavigne,  both  natives.  Pop.  (1876)  85,407; 
(1901)  127,640.  Down  to  1516  Havre  was  only  a 
fishing-village.  Its  history  as  a  seaport  dates 
from  the  reign  of  Francis  I.  Havre  was  held  for 
some  months  in  1562  by  the  English,  who  were 
expelled  by  Charles  IX.  after  a  hot  siege.  Louis 
XIV.  made  it  a  strong  citadel,  and  it  was  several 
times  bombarded  by  the  English  in  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries.  The  town  walls  were  demolished 
in  the  middle  of  the  19th  century.  Mdlle.  de 
Scudery  was  born  at  Havre. 

Hawaii,  a  small  archipelago  in  the  North 
Pacific,  named  Sandwich  Islands  by  Captain 
Cook  after  Lord  Sandwich,  First  Lord  of  the 
Admiralty.  The  islands,  twelve  in  number,  form 
a  rich,  beautiful,  and  interesting  chain,  which 
runs  from  south-east  to  north-west,  and  lies  in 
19°  to  22°  N.  lat.  and  155°  to  160°  W.  long.  Their 
total  area  is  6564  sq.  m.,  or  rather  smaller  than 
Wales.    The  names  and  areas  of  the  eight  prin- 


HAWAII 


331 


HAWKE'S  BAY 


cipal  islands  are :  Hawaii  (the  *  Owhyhe^ '  of 
Captain  Cook),  4210  sq.  m. ;  Maui,  760 ;  Oahu, 
600  ;  Kauai,  590  ;  Molokai  (the  '  Lepers'  Island '), 
270  ;  Lanai,  150  ;  Kahulaui,  63  ;  Niihau,  97.  The 
Hawaiian  Islands  lie  in  mid-ocean,  but  nearer 
America  (2100  miles)  than  Asia;  tliey  conse- 
quently form  a  convenient  station  for  the  coaling 
and  repairing  of  vessels  on  their  way  across  the 
Pacific.  The  islands  are  of  volcanic  origin,  with 
coral-reefs  partly  encircling  most  of  them ;  the 
only  well-protected  harbour  being  that  of  Hono- 
lulu, on  Oahu.  The  larger  islands  are  moun- 
tainous, and  contain  some  of  the  principal  vol- 
canoes, both  active  and  extinct,  in  the  world. 
The  two  highest  mountains,  Maima-Kea  and 
Mauna-Loa,  are  in  the  island  of  Hawaii,  and  are 
13,805  and  13,675  feet  high  respectively.  On  the 
eastern  slope  of  Mauna-Loa,  in  Hawaii,  is  the 
far-famed  Kilauea,  the  largest  active  volcano  in 
the  world.  It  is  over  4000  feet  above  sea-level. 
Its  oval  crater,  9  miles  in  circumference,  is 
bounded  by  a  range  of  cliffs,  and  contains  a  fiery 
lake  of  molten  lava  rising  and  falling  like  the 
waves  of  the  sea.  Mauna-Loa  itself  is  an  active 
volcano.  On  Maui  is  the  crater  of  Haleakala, 
by  far  the  largest  known  in  the  world.  It  is 
from  25  to  30  miles  in  circumference,  from  2000 
to  3000  feet  deep,  and  is  10,032  feet  above  sea- 
level. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands,  though  within  the  trop- 
ics, enjoy  a  fairly  temperate  climate— 90°  to  52" 
F.,  or  a  mean  of  74-3°  F.  Rains,  brought  by  the 
north-east  trade- wind,  are  frequent  on  the  side 
of  the  mountains  which  faces  that  quarter,  but 
on  the  other  parts  of  the  islands  little  rain  falls, 
and  the  sky  is  generally  cloudless.  The  yearly 
rainfall  of  the  islands  generally  is  about  54 
inches.  In  Hawaii  alone,  on  the  Waimea  plains, 
thousands  of  sheep  of  the  merino  breed  find  graz- 
ing ground ;  and  on  most  of  the  islands,  while 
the  upland  slopes  of  the  mountains  are  clothed 
with  dense  forests,  the  lower  levels  spread  into 
grassy  plains  rich  with  sugar  and  rice  plantations. 
The  staple  food  of  the  natives  consists  of  poi, 
a  thick  paste  made  from  the  root  of  the  taro 
plant  (Arum  esculentum)  and  raw  or  dried  fish. 
The  only  indigenous  animals  are  rats,  mice,  bats, 
dogs,  and  hogs,  but  others  liave  been  added  by 
the  white  men.  There  are  large  numbers  of 
semi-wild  horses,  and  some  wild  dogs. 

The  most  important  trade  was  with  Pacific 
whalers  down  to  1876,  when  a  Reciprocity  Treaty 
was  concluded  with  the  United  States,  and  there 
was  an  enormous  development  of  the  sugar  ex- 
port ;  other  exports  being  rice,  wool,  molasses, 
tallow,  and  bananas.  The  imports  consist  prin- 
cipally of  dry-goods.  Nine-tenths  of  the  trade 
is  with  the  United  States.  On  Hawaii  and  Maui 
there  are  telegraphs  and  56  miles  of  railway. 

The  islands  are  said  to  have  been  discovered 
by  Gaetano  in  1542,  and  rediscovered  in  1778  by 
Captain  Cook,  who  met  his  death  at  the  hands  of 
the  natives  in  Kealakekua  (Karakakoa)  Bay,  1779. 
Kamehameha  I.  formed  the  islands  into  one  king- 
dom. Missionaries  came  from  America  in  1820, 
and  in  less  than  forty  years  they  taught  the 
whole  Hawaiian  people  to  read  and  write,  to 
cipher  and  sew.  In  1843  the  independence  of 
the  kingdom  was  guaranteed  by  the  French  and 
English  governments.  Kalakaua,  elected  king  in 
1874,  died  in  1891,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
eldest  sister,  Liliuokalani,  who  was  dethroned 
in  January  1893,  the  islands  next  month  being 
annexed  to  the  United  States— an  annexation, 
however,  repudiated  bv  President  Cleveland, 
whereupon  a  provisional  republican  government 


was  established ;  but  the  islands  were  finally 
annexed  by  the  United  States  in  1898,  and  in 
1900  were  organised  as  one  of  the  territories  of 
the  republic.  Tlie  total  jjop.  of  all  the  islands 
amounted  in  1788  to  some  200,000,  and  in  1900  to 
153,727,  of  whom  29,834  were  natives,  and  25,750 
Chinese,  61,122  Japanese,  and  28,533  Europeans 
and  Americans.  The  natives  of  the  Hawaiian 
Archipelago  belong  to  the  brown  Polynesian 
stock,  and  are  a  remarkably  handsome  race ;  in 
character  indolent,  joyous,  and  contented.  Of 
the  foreign  diseases  that  have  reduced  the  popu- 
lation,  leprosy  is  now  the  most  dreaded.  In 
1865  the  island  of  Molokai  was  set  apart  for 
lepers  (900  in  1900),  among  whom  Father  Damifen 
laboured  and  died  (1889). 

See  works  by  Miss  Bird  (Mrs  Bishop;  1875), 
Miss  Gordon  Gumming  (1883),  Alexander  (1892); 
also  Musick,  Shoemaker,  Young,  Whitney,  Black- 
man,  Brain,  Twombly,  and  Griffin  (all  between 
1897  and  1900). 

Hawarden  (pron.  Harden),  a  small  market- 
town  of  Flintshire,  North  Wales,  7  miles  W.  of 
Chester.  The  church,  almost  destroyed  by  fire 
iu  1857,  was  restored  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott.  Hawar- 
den Castle,  Mr  Gladstone's  home,  dates  from 
]  752.  The  park  contains  the  ruined  circular  keep 
of  a  13th-century  castle.  St  Deiniol's  Library 
here  was  established  by  Mr  Gladstone.  Lady 
Hamilton  passed  her  girlhood  at  Hawarden. 
Pop.  of  parish,  7057. 
Hawash,  a  river  of  Abyssinia. 
Hawes  Water,  a  Westmorland  lake,  measur- 
ing 2^  miles  by  ^  mile,  and  694  feet  above  sea- 
level,  between  Mardale  and  Bampton. 

Hawick  (Hau'ick),  a  manufacturing  town  ol 
Roxburghshire,  at  the  confiuence  of  the  Slitrig 
with  the  Teviot,  52  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Edinburgh 
and  45  NNB.  of  Carlisle.  Built  in  and  round  a 
hollow,  with  villas  and  mansions  above,  it  is  a  place 
of  hoar  antiquity,  but  bears  few  traces  thereof  be- 
yond the  Moat,  an  artificial  earthen  mound  30 
feet  high  and  312  in  circumference,  and  part  of 
the  Tower  Hotel,  which,  once  the  peel-tower  of 
the  Drumlanrig  Douglases,  and  later  a  residence 
of  Monmouth's  widowed  duchess,  was  the  only 
building  not  burned  by  the  Earl  of  Sussex  in 
1570.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  Branxholm  and 
Harden,  old  homes  of  the  Scotts  ;  and,  older  than 
either,  there  is  the  refrain  of  the  June  Common- 
riding  song,  'Teribus  ye  Teri  Odin,'  which  carries 
us  back  to  days  of  heathendom.  Else,  all  is 
modern— the  handsome  municipal  building  (1885) ; 
the  churches,  more  than  a  dozen  in  number,  and 
the  oldest  (1214)  rebuilt  in  1763 ;  the  splendid 
water-supply  (1865-82) ;  and  the  hosiery  and  tweed 
mills,  to  which,  with  dyeworks,  tanneries,  &c., 
Hawick  owes  its  prosperity.  The  hosiery  manu- 
facture dates  from  1771,  and  that  of  shepherds' 
plaids,  tweeds,  blankets,  &c.  from  1830.  The 
ancient  municipal  constitution  of  the  burgh, 
based  on  a  charter  granted  by  Sir  James  Douglas 
of  Drumlanrig  in  1537,  and  confirmed  by  Queen 
Mary  in  1545,  was  reformed  by  special  act  of  par- 
liament in  1861 ;  and  since  1867  Hawick,  Selkirk, 
and  Galashiels  (the  Border  burghs)  have  returned 
one  member.  Pop.  (1891)  19,204  ;  (1901)  17,303. 
See  a  local  history  by  Mrs  Oliver  (1887). 

Hawke's  Bay,  a  provincial  district  of  New 
Zealand,  on  the  east  coast,  between  Auckland 
and  Wellington.  Area,  4765  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1871) 
6059;  (1901)  35,424.  It  presents  rich  alluvial 
plains  and  undulating  hills,  with  enormous 
forests.  The  bay  known  as  Hawke's  Bay  was 
first  entered  by  Captain  Cook  on  8th  October 


HAWKESBURY 


332 


HEANOR 


1769,  and  was  so  named  after  Sir  Edward  Hawke, 
then  First  Lord  of  the  Admiralty.  Napier  (q.v.) 
is  the  port  and  chief  city. 

Hawkesbury,  a  river  of  New  South  Wales, 
rises  in  the  CuUarin  Range,  and  under  the  names 
of  Wollondilly  and  Nepean  flows  NE.,  then  turns 
as  the  Hawkesbury  SE.,  and  enters  the  Pacitic 
at  Broken  Bay,  about  20  miles  NE.  of  Sydney. 
It  has  a  total  length  of  330  miles,  and  is  navigable 
for  vessels  of  100  tons  as  high  as  Windsor.  It 
is  crossed  by  a  seven-span  steel  girder  bridge 
(1886-89),  2900  feet  long,  on  the  railway  which 
connects  Adelaide,  Melbourne,  Sydney,  and 
Brisbane. 

Hawkshead,  a  town  of  north  Lancashire,  5 
miles  SW.  of  Ambleside.  Wordsworth  was  edu- 
cated at  the  grammar-school,  which  was  founded 
by  Archbishop  Sandys  in  1585.  Pop.  of  parish,  638. 

Haworth,  a  moorland  town  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  4  miles  SSW.  of  Keighley  by  a 
branch-line.  The  old  church  has  been  ruthlessly 
demolished,  but  in  the  churchyard  are  the  graves 
of  Charlotte  and  Emily  Bronte.     Pop.  7500. 

Hawthornden,  the  romantic  home  of  the  poet 
Drummond,  in  Midlothian,  on  the  Esk,  IJ  mile 
NE.  of  Roslin. 

Hay,  a  Brecon  market- town,  on  the  Wye,  21 
miles  W.  of  Hereford.     Pop.  1630. 

Haydock,  a  Lancashire  township,  3J  miles 
ENE.  of  St  Helens.     Pop.  8575. 

Haydon  Bridge,  a  Northumberland  town,  on 
the  South  Tyne,  7^  miles  W.  of  Hexham.  Pop. 
of  parish,  2045. 

Haye,  La.    See  Hague. 

Hayes  Barton,  Devon,  Raleigh's  birthplace, 
now  a  farmhouse,  4  miles  WSW.  of  Sidmouth. 

Hayle,  a  Cornish  seaport,  4  miles  SE.  of  St 
Ives.    Pop.  1073. 

Hay  River,'  in  the  Canadian  North-west,  on 
its  north-eastward  course  to  the  southern  shore 
of  the  Great  Slave  Lake,  forms  the  two  Alexandra 
Falls,  250  feet  high  and  300  yards  wide. 

Hayti,  or  Haiti  ('  mountainous  country,"  other- 
wise HisPANiOLA— i.e.  'little  Spain'— or  Santo 
Domingo),  is,  after  Cuba,  the  largest  of  the  West 
Indian  Islands,  now  divided  into  the  independent 
states  of  Hayti  and  the  Dominican  Republic 
(q.v.).  Nearly  equidistant  from  Porto  Rico,  Cuba, 
and  Jamaica,  it  lies  between  17°  37'  and  20°  N. 
lat.,  and  between  68°  20'  and  74°  28'  W.  long. 
As  in  the  rest  of  the  Greater  Antilles,  its 
greatest  length  (about  400  miles)  is  in  the  direc- 
tion— from  west  to  east — of  the  chain  of  which  it 
forms  a  part ;  its  greatest  breadth  is  160  miles. 
Area,  including  the  islands  of  Tortuga,  Gonaive, 
&c.,  28,820  sq.  m.,  or  nearly  that  of  Scotland. 
The  country  is  mountainous,  being  traversed 
longitudinally  by  northern,  central,  and  southern 
ridges,  terminating  in  headlands  on  either  coast ; 
but  between  these  ranges  are  wide  and  fertile 
plains.  The  highest  peak  is  Loma  Tina  (10,300 
feet).  The  climate  is  hot  and  moist  in  the  low 
lands,  the  temperature  at  Port-au-Prince  ranging 
from  67°  to  104°  F.  ;  the  mean  range  in  the  high- 
lands is  from  60°  to  76°  F.  Earthquakes  are  fre- 
quent, and  occasional  hurricanes  visit  the  island. 
It  has  excellent  harbours.  The  mountains  are 
clothed  with  forests  of  pine  and  oak,  and  the 
island  is  rich  in  mahogany,  satinwood,  rosewood, 
and  other  valuable  timbers.  Cotton,  rice,  maize, 
cocoa,  ginger,  arrowroot,  yams,  tobacco,  and 
numerous  fruits  are  indigenous  ;  and  the  mango, 
bread-fruit,   sugar,  coffee,  and   indigo  are   also 


produced;  but  agriculture  is  very  backward. 
The  minerals  are  now  little  worked,  though  some 
gold-washing  is  still  carried  on.  The  rivers  are 
not  navigable.  Both  rivers  and  lakes  abound  in 
caymans  as  well  as  fish.  The  agouti  is  the  largest 
wild  mammal. 

Hayti  was  discovered  in  1492  by  Columbus; 
and  within  little  more  than  one  generation  the 
aborigines  had  been  swept  away  by  the  remorse- 
less cruelties  of  the  Spaniards.  Their  place  was 
filled  with  negro  slaves,  who  were  introduced 
as  early  as  1505.  Next,  about  1630,  came  the 
buccaneers ;  and,  as  they  were  chiefly  French, 
the  western  portion  of  Hayti,  which  was  their 
favourite  haunt,  was  in  1697  ceded  to  France  by 
the  peace  of  Ryswick.  For  nearly  a  hundred 
years  vast  reinforcements  of  Africans  were  im- 
ported ;  subsequently  the  mulattoes  grew  into  an 
intermediate  caste,  neither  citizens  nor  bondsmen. 
In  1791  the  mutual  antipathies  of  the  three  classes 
— white,  black,  and  mixed — burst  forth  into  a 
struggle  which,  before  the  close  of  the  century, 
led  to  the  extermination  of  the  Europeans,  and 
the  independence  of  the  coloured  insurgents. 
In  1801  France  sent  out  a  powerful  armament, 
treacherously  seizing  and  deporting  the  deliverer 
of  his  brethren,  Toussaint  I'Ouverture.  In  1804 
Dessalines,  aping  Napoleon's  example,  proclaimed 
himself  Emperor  of  Hayti.  Sometimes  one  state, 
and  sometimes  two,  the  country  alternated  be- 
tween despotism  and  anarchy,  between  monarchy 
and  republicanism.  Its  only  tranquil  period  of 
any  duration  coincided  with  the  rule  (1820-43)  of 
President  Boyer,  at  whose  close  the  Spanish  or 
eastern  portion  of  the  island  formed  itself  into 
the  Dominican  Republic  (q.v.).  The  western  por- 
tion of  the  island  remained  republican  until  1849, 
when  its  former  president,  the  negro  General 
Soulouque  proclaimed  himself  emperor  as  Faustin 
I.  In  1859  a  republic  was  again  proclaimed. 
Few  presidents  have  since  been  permitted  to 
complete  their  term  of  office  (seven  years), 
which  has  usually  been  cut  short  by  revolutions. 
Official  peculation,  judicial  murder,  and  utter 
corruption  of  every  kind  underlie  the  forms  and 
titles  of  civilised  government ;  the  religion, 
nominally  Catholic,  is  largely  vaudoux  or  serpent- 
worship,  in  which  cannibalism  is  even  now  a  most 
important  element.  Instead  of  progressing,  the 
negro  republicans  have  gone  back  to  the  lowest 
type  of  African  barbarism. 

The  area  of  the  republic  of  Hayti  is  about  9200 
sq.  m.  ;  the  pop.  is  estimated  at  about  1,200,000. 
The  capital,  Port-au-Prince,  has  some  70,000  in- 
habitants. The  dialect  is  a  debased  French.  The 
chief  exports  are  coff'ee,  cacao,  logwood,  maho- 
gany, and  cotton.  See  works  by  St  John  (1884), 
Marcuse  (German,  1894),  Marcelin  (French,  1893), 
Vibert  (French,  1895),  Jean  Owen  (1898),  Black- 
man  (1899),  and  Hesketh  Prichard  (1900). 

Hayward's  Heath,  a  Sussex  market-town,  12^ 
miles  N.  of  Brighton.    Pop.  3720. 

Hazaribagh,  a  town  of  Chota  Nagpore,  Bengal. 
Pop.  17,306. 

Hazebrouck,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Nord,  28  miles  WNW.  of  Lille.    Pop.  12,650. 

Hazleton,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  100  miles 
NNW.  of  Philadelphia,  has  ironworks,  lumber- 
mills,  and  railway-car  shops,  and  is  the  centre 
of  the  rich  Lehigh  coalfield.    Pop.  15,500. 

Headford,  a  village  20  miles  N.  of  Galway. 
Pop.  511. 

Heanor,  a  Derby.shire  town,  6  miles  E.  by  S. 
of  Belper,  with  coal-pits  and  ironworks.  Pop. 
of  urban  district,  16,250. 


HEART'S  CONTENT 


333 


HEIDELBERG 


Heart's  Content,  a  port  of  Newfouiulland,  on 
the  east  side  of  Trinity  Bay.     Pop.  lOSO. 

Heathfield,  a  Sussex  parish,  8  inilos  N.  of 
Hailsliam,  a  great  poultry-farming  centre,  with 
natural  gas  from  borings.  Heathlield  Park  was 
purchased  in  1763  by  General  Eliott,  Lord 
Heathfield.     Pop.  2700. 

Heath  Town,  a  north-east  suburb  of  Wolver- 
hampton.    Pop.  9450. 

Heaton-Norris,  a  Lancashire  town,  suburban 
to  Stockport  (q.v,).     Pop.  9480. 

Hebbum,  a  Durham  town,  on  the  Tyne,  3 
miles  WSW.  of  South  Shields.  It  has  chemical 
works  and  shipbuilding.  Pop.  (1881)  11,802; 
(1901)  20,901. 

Hebden  Bridge,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  at  the  Hebden's  influx  to  the  Calder, 
8  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Halifax.  It  manufactures 
cotton,  silk,  iron,  &c.    Pop.  7658. 

Heb'rides,  or  Western  Islands,  the  general 
name  applied  to  all  the  islands  on  the  west  coast 
of  Scotland.  To  the  Outer  Hebrides  belong 
Lewis  with  Harris  (Long  Island),  North  Uist, 
Benbecula,  South  Uist,  Barra,  and  remote  St 
Kilda,  60  miles  to  the  west.  The  principal  of 
the  Inner  Islands  are  Skye,  Eigg,  Coll,  Tiree, 
Mull,  lona,  Staffa,  Ulva,  Lismore,  Kerrera,  Colon - 
say,  Oronsay,  Jura,  and  Islay.  Bute,  the  Cum- 
braes,  and  Arran  are  usually  counted  amongst 
the  Hebrides ;  and  to  the  same  group  were 
anciently  assigned  the  peninsula  of  Kintyre,  the 
island  of  Rathlin,  and  the  Isle  of  Man.  The 
total  number  of  islands  of  any  size  is  about  500, 
but  of  these  four-fifths  are  uninhabited.  Of  the 
whole  surface  only  about  200,000  acres  are  arable ; 
the  rest  is  pasture-land  of  little  value,  morasses, 
peat-mosses,  lakes,  and  barren  sands  and  rocks. 
Owing  to  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  Hebrides  have  a 
mild  though  humid  climate.  Politically  they  are 
distributed  among  the  Scottish  counties  of  Ross, 
Inverness,  Argyll,  and  Bute.  The  crofters,  who 
mostly  speak  Gaelic,  are  much  occupied  in  fish- 
ing and  fowling.  Much  of  the  area  has  been 
converted  into  sheep-walks,  whilst  extensive 
tracts  are  let  to  sportsmen.  The  Hebrides  are 
the  Ehudce  of  Ptolemy  and  Pliny's  HeMides  (of 
which  'Hebrides'  is  a  corruption),  and  Sudrey- 
jar  (Southern  Islands)  of  the  Norwegians.  This 
last  name  was  Latinised  as  Sodorenses,  which 
survives  in  the  title  '  Bishop  of  Sod  or  and  Man.' 
The  early  Celtic  inhabitants  were  converted  to 
Christianity  by  St  Columba  in  the  6th  century. 
After  872  several  of  the  islands  were  colonised 
by  Norwegians,  who  came  hither  to  escape  the 
iron  rule  of  Harold  Haarfager.  But  to  punish 
their  depredations  on  the  coast  of  Norway, 
Harold  sent  an  expedition  westwards,  which 
subdued  all  the  Western  Islands  as  far  south 
as  Man.  To  Norway  they  remained  subject  till 
1266.  In  1346  the  head  of  the  Macdoiialds  sub- 
dued  them,  and  took  the  title  of  Lord  of  the  Isles  ; 
and  from  1504  tliey  became  definitively  Scottish 
possessions.  Ecclesiastically  they  remained  de- 
pendent on  Norway  till  1374.  In  the  19th  century 
the  population  greatly  declined.  All  the  prin- 
cipal islands  are  separately  treated. 

See  works  by  Martin  (1703),  Pennant  (1774), 
Dr  Johnson  (1775),  Gregory  (1836),  R.  Buchanan 
(1883),  Miss  Gordon  Gumming  (1883),  and  Miss 
Goodrich-Freer  (1902). 

Hebrides,  New.    See  New  Hebrides. 

Hebron,  one  of  the  oldest  cities  in  Palestine, 
21  miles  SSW.  of  Jerusalem.  It  was  the  seven 
years'  residence  of  King  David  before  he  con- 


quered Jerusalem.  The  modern  town,  El  Khalll 
('  the  friend  '—of  God,  Abraham),  is  a  poor  place, 
with  some  18,000  inhabitants.  It  lies  low  down 
in  a  narrow  valley— the  Valley  of  Eshcol,  famous 
now,  as  of  old,  for  its  grapes.  The  church  erected 
by  the  Empress  Helena,  and  converted  into  a 
mosque  called  El-Haram  ('sanctuary'),  encloses 
the  cave  which  is  the  traditional  burial-place  of 
Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob. 

Heckmondwike,  a  market-town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  8  miles  NE.  of  Huddersfleld. 
It  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  carpet  and  blanket 
manufactures  in  the  West  Riding,  and  also  makes 
rugs,  pilot-cloth,  and  flushings.  There  are  iron- 
works, machine-shops,  and  coal-mines  in  the 
neighbourhood.  Here  was  born  John  Curwen, 
the  inventor  of  the  Tonic  Solfa  system.  Pop. 
(1851)  4540  ;  (1901)  9460. 

Hecla,  or  Hekla,  a  volcano  in  Iceland,  stands 
isolated  20  miles  from  the  SW.  coast  and  68  E. 
of  Reykjavik.  Its  snow-clad  summit  is  5102  feet 
high,  and  has  five  craters ;  its  sides  are  seamed 
by  numerous  deep  ravines.  The  principal  rocks 
are  lava  and  tuff.  Since  the  9th  century  there 
have  been  eighteen  outbreaks,  generally  very 
violent,  and  often  long  continued.  In  September 
1845  a  terrific  outbreak  occurred  and  lasted  for 
more  than  a  year.  A  fine  dust  from  this  eruption 
was  scattered  over  the  Orkney  Islands,  a  distance 
of  500  miles. 

Hedgeley,  a  Northumbrian  township,  8  miles 
WNW.  of  Alnwick.  It  was  the  scene  of  a  skirm- 
ish (1464),  in  which  Sir  Ralph  Percy  fell. 

Hedjaz.    See  Arabia. 

Hedon,  a  decayed  borough  in  the  East  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  5J  miles  B.  of  Hull.    Pop.  1000. 

Helde,  the  chief  town  of  northern  Ditmarsh,  in 
the  Prussian  province  of  Sleswick-Holstein,  58 
miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Kiel.     Pop.  7355. 

Heidelberg,  an  ancient  city  of  Baden,  extends 
3  miles  along  the  left  bank  of  the  Neckar,  in  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  districts  in  the  country,  13 
miles  by  rail  SB.  of  Mannheim  and  54  S.  of  Frank- 
fort-on-the-Main.  It  lies  380  feet  above  sea-level, 
at  the  base  of  the  Konigsstuhl  (1863  feet).  Among 
its  most  important  buildings  are  the  Church  of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  a  splendid  example  of  Late 
Gothic  architecture,  in  which  service  according 
to  the  Catholic  and  Protestant  rituals  is  simul- 
taneously carried  on  ;  the  church  of  St  Peter's,  on 
the  door  of  which  Jerome  of  Prague  nailed  his 
celebrated  theses;  and  the  magnificent  castle, 
which  crowns  a  hill  330  feet  above  the  town. 
Begun  at  the  close  of  the  13th  century,  and 
added  to  in  1410,  1559,  and  1607,  it  was  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  Electors  Palatine,  and  was 
in  great  part  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1689 
and  1693,  and  further  injured  by  lightning  in 
1764.  In  1890  was  undertaken  the  work  of  restor- 
ing its  ruins  at  a  cost  of  £50,000.  In  the  cellar 
under  the  castle  is  the  famous  Heidelberg  Tun, 
once  capable  of  containing  50,000  gallons  of  wine. 
Heidelberg  is  celebrated  for  its  university  (1386), 
which  declined  from  the  Thirty  Years'  War  until 
1802,  when  the  town  and  territory  was  assigned 
to  the  Grand-duke  of  Baden.  It  has  about 
150  professors  and  lecturers,  and  over  1500 
students.  Its  library  contains  500,000  volumes 
and  4700  MSS.  Many  of  the  most  famous 
German  scholars  have  been  professors  here — 
Reuchlin,  CEcolampadius,  Spanheim,  Puffen- 
dorf,  Voss,  Schlosser,  Creuzer,  Gervinus,  Paulus, 
Kuno  Fischer,  Helmholtz,  Bunsen,  Bliintschli, 
&c.     Heidelberg,    originally    an     appanage    of 


HEILBRONN 


334 


HEL8INGB0RQ 


the  bishopric  of  Worms,  was  the  seat  of  the 
Counts  Palatine  from  the  12th  till  the  18th 
century.  After  the  Reformation  it  was  long  the 
headquarters  of  German  Calvinism.  The  trade 
is  chiefly  in  books,  tobacco,  beer,  and  Avine. 
The  town  suflFered  much  during  the  Thirty  Years' 
War,  was  savagely  treated  by  the  French  in  1689, 
and  was  in  1693  almost  totally  destroyed  by  them. 
Pop.  (1871)  19,988 ;  (1900)  40,121,  of  whom  two- 
flfths  are  Catholics. 

Heilbronn,  an  old  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Neckar,  in  a  beautiful  and 
fertile  region,  28  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Stuttgart. 
The  church  of  St  Kilian,  partly  Gothic  and  partly 
Renaissance  ;  the  old  town-hall ;  the  Diebsthurvi 
('  Thief  s  Tower '),  in  which  Gotz  von  Berlichingen 
was  confined ;  and  the  house  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights,  now  a  barrack,  are  the  principal  build- 
ings. Tlie  industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
silver-plate,  paper,,  iron,  sugar,  salt,  chicory,  and 
chemicals.    Pop.  39,000. 

Heiligenstadt,  a  Catholic  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  situated  on  the  Leine,  32  miles  ENE.  of 
Cassel  by  rail.    Pop.  5861. 

Heilsberg,  a  town  of  Prussia,  40  miles  S. 
of  Konigsberg.  Here  the  Russians  and  Prussians 
defeated  the  French  in  1807.    Pop.  5705. 

Heilsbronn,  a  Bavarian  village  of  Middle 
Franconia,  16  miles  SW.  of  Nuremberg  by  rail, 
was  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  Cistercian  monastery, 
founded  in  1132,  and  suppressed  in  1255. 

Hekla.  See  Hecla. 

Helder,  The,  a  strongly-fortified  seaport  in 
the  Dutch  province  of  North  Holland,  51  miles 
by  rail  NNW.  of  Amsterdam.  It  stands  on  the 
Marsdiep,  which  connects  the  Zuider  Zee  and 
the  German  Ocean,  and  at  the  northern  extremity 
of  the  North  Holland  Canal.  First  fortified  by 
Napoleon  in  1811,  it  has  an  arsenal,  a  college  for 
cadets,  a  meteorological  institute,  and  an  ex- 
cellent harbour.     Pop.  25,760.  - 

Helena,  capital  of  Montana  state,  U.S.,  on  the 
Northern  Pacific  Railway,  is  an  important  mining 
centre.  The  famous  Last  Chance  Gulch  gold- 
mine runs  through  the  city.     Pop.  10,800. 

Helensburgh  (El'lem-bur'row),  a  Scottish 
watering-place  in  Dumbartonshire,  on  the  right 
bank  of  tlie  Firth  of  Clyde,  at  the  entrance  to 
the  Gareloch.  It  was  founded  in  1777  by  Sir 
James  Colquhoun,  and  named  after  his  wife 
Helen.  Pop.  about  8600,  wliich  is  nearly  doubled 
in  summer.    In  1871  it  was  barely  6000. 

Helicon,  a  mountain-range  (5736  feet)  of  SW. 
Boeotia,  in  ancient  Greece,  was  celebrated  as  the 
favourite  seat  of  the  Muses.  At  the  foot  of  the 
range  stood  the  village  of  Ascra,  the  residence  of 
Hesiod,  and  the  seat  of  the  earliest  school  of 
poetry  in  Greece.  On  the  slopes  were  the  famous 
fountains  of  Aganippe  and  Hippocrene. 

Heligoland  ('Holy  Land;'  Ger.  Helgoland),  a 
small  island  in  the  North  Sea,  belonging  since 
1890  to  Germany,  is  situated  36  miles  NW.  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Elbe.  It  is  1  mile  long  from  N,  to 
S.,  jt  mile  from  E.  to  W,,  and  J  sq.  m.  in  area. 
The  Oberland  is  a  rock  206  feet  high,  on  which 
stands  a  town  of  400  houses,  and  access  to  which 
is  obtained  by  192  steps  or  by  a  steam-lift ;  while 
the  Unterland  is  a  patch  of  shore  with  70  houses 
south-east  of  the  cliff.  The  resident  pop.  was 
hardly  more  than  about  2500  in  1905  ;  but  in  the 
bathing  season  Heligoland  is  visited  by  upwards  of 
12,000  summer  visitors— attracted  by  the  bathing 
facilities  of  the  '  Sandy  Island,'  or  Diine,  once 
connects  with  the  main  island,  separated  from 


it  by  a  channel  about  a  mile  wide.  Denudatlng 
agencies  are  reducing  Heligoland  itself,  which 
between  1890  and  1905  lost  nearly  a  fourth 
of  its  area.  The  soil  on  the  flat  top  of  the 
rock  of  Heligoland  suffices  for  a  little  pasture- 
land,  and  for  growing  potatoes  and  cabbages. 
The  spit  of  the  Unterland  gives  partial  shelter 
to  two  harbours,  one  north,  the  other  south. 
The  inhabitants  are  supported  chiefly  by  the 
lobster  and  other  fisheries,  and  by  the  summer 
visitors  ;  the  public  gaming-tables,  established  in 
1830,  having  been  suppressed  in  1871.  Alight- 
house  stands  on  the  cliff  near  the  village.  The 
island,  taken  by  the  Britisli  from  the  Danes  in 
1807,  and  formally  ceded  to  England  in  1814,  was 
ceded  to  Germany  in  1890,  in  return  for  conces- 
sions made  to  Britain  in  East  Africa.  It  has 
since  been  strongly  fortified.  A  dialect  of  North 
Frisian  is  the  native  tongue,  but  German  is 
currently  spoken.  Heligoland  was  anciently 
sacred  to  the  goddess  Hertha.  Christianity  was 
first  preached  here  by  St  Willibrod  in  the  7th 
century.  The  fishers  are  Frisians,  a  tall  and 
muscular  race  of  hardy  seamen.  The  merchants 
are  immigrants  from  the  mainland,  or  their  de- 
scendants. The  people,  though  they  had  been 
very  loyal  to  Great  Britain,  accepted  without 
opposition  the  annexation  to  Germany ;  and  after 
a  visit  from  the  Emperor,  Heligoland  was  form- 
ally incorporated  with  the  kingdom  of  Prussia 
and  the  province  of  Sleswick-Holstein.  See 
works  by  Black  (1888),  Lindemann  (Gennan, 
1889),  and  Lipsius  (German,  1892). 

Heliopolis  ('  city  of  the  sun '),  the  Greek  name 
of  the  city  called  by  the  Egyptians  On  or  An, 
which  stood  on  the  east  side  of  the  Pelusiac 
branch  of  the  Nile,  near  the  apex  of  the  Delta, 
and  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  and  important 
of  Egyptian  cities.  It  was  the  chief  seat  of  the 
wisdom  of  the  Egyptians.    See  also  Baalbek. 

Hellas.    See  Greece. 

Hellespont.    See  Dardanelles. 

Hell  Gate,  or  Hurl  Gate,  named  by  the 
Dutch  settlers  of  New  York  Helle  Gat,  is  a  pass 
in  the  East  River,  between  New  York  City  and 
Long  Island,  formerly  very  dangerous  to  vessels 
from  its  rapid  current  and  from  its  numerous 
rocks— blasted  away  only  in  1885. 

Hellin,  a  town  of  Spain,  69  miles  by  rail  NNW. 
of  Murcia.  In  the  vicinity  are  productive  sulphur- 
mines  and  sulphur-springs.     Pop.  12,714. 

Hell's  Glen,  an  Argyllshire  glen  between 
Inveraray  and  Lochgoilhead. 

Helmingham  Hall,  the  fine  moated  Elizabethan 
seat  of  Lord  Tollemache,  in  Suffolk,  9  miles  N. 
by  E.  of  Ipswich. 

Helmond,  a  Dutch  town,  23  miles  NW.  of  Venlo 
by  rail.    Pop.  11,450. 

Helmsdale,  a  Sutherland  fishing-village,  83 
miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Dingwall.    Pop.  780. 

Helmsley,  a  Yorkshire  town,  31J  miles  N.  of 
York,  with  linen  manufactures.    Pop.  1500. 

Helmstedt,  a  German  town,  24  miles  ESE.  of 
Brunswick.  P'rom  1574  to  1809  it  was  the  seat 
of  a  Protestant  university.    Pop.  14,260. 

Helmund,  or  Helmand,  a  river  of  Afghanistan, 
rises  on  the  south  slopes  of  the  Hindu  Kush,  and 
flows  680  miles  south-west,  west,  and  north-west 
to  the  lake  of  Hamun  or  Seistan. 

Helslngborg,  a  seaport  of  southern  Sweden, 
32  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Malmo,  on  the  Sound, 
opposite  Elsinore  (Dan.  Helsingor).  It  has  a 
good  harbour.     Pop.  26,000. 


HELSINGFORS 


335 


HEECULANEUM 


HelBingfors,  a  fortified  seaport  and  naval 
station,  capital  of  the  grand-duchy  of  Finland, 
is  situated  on  a  peninsula,  surrounded  by  islands 
and  rocky  cliffs,  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  191  miles 
W.  of  St  Petersburg  by  sea  and  256  by  rail.  A 
series  of  formidable  batteries,  called  the  forti- 
fications of  Sve^borg,  protect  the  harbour. 
Helsingfors  is  tlie  largest  and  handsomest  town 
of  Finland  ;  the  broad  streets  intersect  at  right 
angles,  and  there  are  several  fine  parks  and  public 
squares.  Of  the  public  buildings  the  most  strik- 
ing are  the  house  in  which  the  diet  meets,  the 
senate-house,  and  the  university  buildings.  The 
university,  removed  hither  from  Abo  in  1828, 
has  over  2500  students,  a  library  of  300,000 
volumes,  a  hospital,  a  botanic  garden,  and  ob- 
servatory. Helsingfors,  truly  '  a  sluinless  city,' 
is  a  favourite  bathing-place.  It  carries  on  trade 
in  Baltic  produce ;  exports  timber,  paper,  and 
butter,  and  imports  iron  and  steel  goods,  machin- 
ery, colonial  wares,  &c.  Pop.  (1870)  32,113; 
(1902)  100,812.  Helsingfors  was  founded  by 
Gustavus  I.  of  Sweden  in  the  16th  century.  In 
August  1855,  during  the  Crimean  war,  SveSborg 
was  bombarded,  with  no  great  result,  for  two 
days  and  nights  by  the  allied  fleet. 

Helston,  an  old  Cornish  market-town,  10  miles 
WSW.  of  Falmouth.  It  was  made  a  borough  by 
King  John  in  1201 ;  and  from  Edward  I.'s  reign 
to  1832  returned  two  members,  then  one  till  1885. 
It  has  long  been  noted  for  its  Fiirry  or  Flora 
Dance,  held  on  8th  May.  There  is  a  branch  rail- 
way (1887)  from  Gwinear  Road.     Pop.  3098. 

Heluan,  or  Helwan,  a  town  15  miles  SE.  of 
Cairo  by  rail,  with  well-appointed  mineral 
springs,  baths,  and  hotels.     Pop.  5000. 

Helvellyn,  one  of  the  highest  mountains  of 
England,  in  the  west  of  Cumberland,  between 
Keswick  and  Ambleside.  It  is  3118  feet  high,  is 
easy  of  ascent,  and  commands  magnificent  views. 

Helvoetsluys,  or  Hellevoetsluis,  a  fortified 
Dutch  seaport,  on  the  Haringvliet,  an  arm  of  the 
Maas,  17  miles  S\V.  of  Rotterdam.  Here  William 
III.  embarked  for  England  in  1688.    Pop.  4362. 

Hemel  Hempstead,  a  market-town  of  Hert- 
fordshire, 23  miles  NW.  of  London,  a  centre  of 
the  straw-plaiting  industry.  It  has  also  paper- 
mills,  iron-foundries,  tanneries,  and  breweries. 
Pop.  of  parish,  11,500.  • 

Hems,  HoMS,  or  Hums  (Lat.  Emesa),  a  city  of 
Syria,  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Orontes,  63 
miles  NB.  of  Tripoli.  In  ancient  times  it  was 
chiefly  celebrated  for  its  temple  of  the  Sun.  Pop. 
60,000.     See  Hamah. 

Henderson,  capital  of  Henderson  county, 
Kentucky,  on  the  Ohio,  10  miles  S.  of  Evans- 
ville  by  rail,  with  tobacco-factories.     Pop.  10,280. 

Hengrave  Hall,  a  splendid  Tudor  mansion 
(1538)  in  Suffolk,  3  miles  NNW.  of  Bury  St 
Edmunds. 

Henley-in-Arden,  a  Warwickshire  town,  on 
the  Arrow,  8  miles  WNW.  of  Stratford-on-Avon. 
Pop.  1043. 

Henley-on-Thames,  a  municipal  borough  of 
Oxfordshire,  at  the  base  of  the  Chiltern  Hills, 
and  on  tht,  left  bank  of  the  Thames,  8  miles  NE. 
of  Reading,  36  W.  of  London,  and  24  SB.  of 
Oxford  by  road  (by  river  47).  The  five-arch 
bridge  was  built  in  1786  at  a  cost  of  £10,000  ; 
the  parish  church.  Decorated  in  style,  was  re- 
stored in  1864;  and  the  grammar-school  was 
founded  in  1605.  Malting  and  brewing  are  carried 
on ;  and  there  is  a  considerable  trade  in  corn, 
flour,  and  timber.   The  principal  amateur  regatta 


of  England  has  been  held  here  every  summer 
since  1839.    Pop.  6000. 

Hennegau.    See  Hainault. 

Herat',  capital  of  the  most  westerly  of  the 
three  divisions  of  Afghanistan,  stands  on  the 
Hari-Rud,  2500  feet  above  sea-level,  and  390  miles 
W.  of  Kabul,  in  34°  50'  N.  lat.,  62°  30'  E.  long. 
Situated  near  the  boundaries  of  Afghanistan, 
Persia,  and  Russian  Turkestan,  Herat  is  one  of 
the  principal  marts  of  Central  Asia,  and  has 
manufactures  in  wool  and  leather.  The  vicinity, 
naturally  fertile,  is  rendered  much  more  so  by 
irrigation.  Long  the  royal  seat  of  the  descendants 
of  Timur,  Herat  is  fortified  by  a  ditch  and  wall, 
and  is  commanded  on  its  north  side  by  a  strong 
citadel  built  about  1837  under  British  direction. 
In  modern  times  the  place  has  acquired  European 
importance,  being,  towards  Persia  and  Russia,  the 
key  of  Afghanistan,  and  so  of  western  India.  In 
1856  the  Shah  captured  Herat ;  but  he  was  within 
a  few  months  constrained  to  relinquish  his  prey  by 
a  British  expedition.  Since  Russia,  after  having 
annexed  Merv  (1884),  pushed  her  frontiers  to 
within  40  miles  of  the  city,  Herat  is  the  pivot 
of  the  Central  Asian  question.  Indigo,  dried 
fruits,  dyes,  asafcetida,  rice,  wool,  carpets,  raw 
hides,  silk,  and  leather  wares  are  the  chief  items 
of  export,  whilst  chintzes,  cloth,  sugar,  iron- 
wares, and  European  arms  are  imported — recently 
from  Russia.  The  town,  once  famous  for  its 
splendid  buildings,  is  to-day  a  heap  of  ruins, 
amid  which  the  citadel,  the  Charsu,  the  Tuma 
Musjid,  and  parts  of  the  Musallah  are  prominent 
as  remnants  of  a  bygone  glory.  The  population, 
chiefly  Persians,  Tajiks,  and  Chihar  Aimaks — 
Afghans  constitute  only  the  garrison — has  fluctu- 
ated within  the  century  from  100,000  to  10,000 ; 
the  average  pop.  now  being  about  40,000.  See 
Malleson's  Herat  (1880),  and  Yate's  Northern 
Afghanistan  (1888). 

Herault,  a  maritime  dep.  in  the  south  of 
France,  washed  by  the  Gulf  of  Lyons.  Area, 
2393  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872)  429,878;  (1901)  489,421. 
It  is  divided  into  the  four  arrondissements  of 
Beziers,  Lodeve,  Montpellier  (the  capital),  and 
Saint-Pons. 

Herculaneum,  an  ancient  city  of  Italy,  so 
called  from  the  local  worship  of  Hercules,  was 
situated  at  the  north-western  base  of  Mount 
Vesuvius,  5  miles  E.  of  Naples.  In  63  a.d.  it 
was  seriously  injured  by  a  violent  earthquake, 
and  in  79  buried,  along  with  Pompeii  and  Stabiae, 
by  the  memorable  eruption  of  Vesuvius.  It  now 
lies  at  a  depth  of  from  40  to  100  feet  below  the 
surface,  and  is  filled  up  and  covered  with  volcanic 
tufa.  Above  it,  on  the  modern  surface,  are  the 
villages  of  Portici  and  Resina.  In  1738  syste- 
matic excavations  were  commenced,  the  chief 
building  explored  being  the  theatre,  which  has 
eighteen  rows  of  stone  seats,  and  could  accom- 
modate 8000  persons.  Part  of  the  Forum  with 
its  colonnades,  a  colonnade,  two  small  temples, 
and  a  villa  have  also  been  discovered  ;  and  from 
these  buildings  many  beautiful  statues  and  re- 
markable paintings  have  been  obtained.  In  1880 
ruins  of  extensive  baths  were  brought  to  light. 
Among  the  art-relics  of  Herculaneum,  which  far 
exceed  in  value  and  interest  those  found  at 
Pompeii,  are  the  statues  of  iEschines,  Agrippina, 
the  Sleeping  Faun,  the  Six  Actresses,  Mercury, 
the  group  of  the  Satyr  and  the  Goat,  the  busts 
of  Plato,  Scipio  Africanus,  Augustus,  Seneca, 
Demosthenes,  &c. — mostly  now  in  the  National 
Museum  at  Naples. 


HERCYNIAN  FOREST 


336 


HERTFORD 


Hercynian  Forest  (Lat.  Hercynia  silva),  the 
wooded  mountain-ranges  of  middle  Germany, 
from  the  Rhine  to  the  Carpathian  Mountains. 

Her'eford,  the  coimty  town  of  Herefordshire, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Wye,  144  miles  by  rail 
WNW.  of  London,  and  51  S.  of  Shrewsbury.  Its 
noble  cathedral  was  built  between  1079  and  1535, 
and  so  exhibits  every  variety  of  style  from 
Norman  to  Perpendicular.  Measuring  342  feet 
by  146  across  the  transept,  it  has  a  central  tower 
165  feet  high.  It  suffered  much  at  Wyatt's  hands 
after  the  fall  of  the  western  tower  in  1786,  but 
has  been  judiciously  restored  by  Cottingham 
(1841-52)  and  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  (1856-63).  Special 
features  are  the  elaborate  metal-work  screen,  the 
shrine  of  St  Thomas  de  Gautilupe  (1282),  the 
organ,  and  the  'Mappa  Mundi,'  or  map  of  the 
world  (c.  1314).  Hereford,  with  Gloucester  and 
Worcester,  is  one  of  the  meeting-places  of  the 
'Three  Choirs.'  Other  edifices  are  the  Doric 
shire-hall  (1817),  in  front  of  it  a  statue  (1864)  of 
Sir  G.  C.  Lewis ;  the  corn  exchange  (1858),  the 
episcopal  palace  (formed  out  of  a  Norman  hall), 
the  college  of  vicars  choral  (c.  1474),  the  14th- 
century  grammar-school,  the  half-timbered  'Old 
House,"  the  guildhall,  the  butchers'  guildhall, 
the  Coningsby  Hospital  (1610),  the  free  library 
(1876),  &c.  The  Nelson  column  (1807)  marks  the 
site  of  the  almost  obliterated  castle ;  and  the 
White  Cross,  one  mile  out  on  the  Hay  road, 
commemorates  the  Black  Death  of  1347.  Nell 
Gwynne  and  Garrick  were  natives.  A  large  trade 
is  done  in  agricultural  produce ;  and  the  rose- 
gardens  of  Hereford  are  famous.  The  seat  of  a 
bishopric  from  676,  the  city  was  chartered  by 
Henry  III.,  and  returned  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment— now  only  one— from  Edward  I.'s  reign  till 
1885.  It  has  stood  many  sieges  from  Stephen's 
time  down  to  the  Great  Rebellion.  Pop.  (1851) 
12,108;  (1881)  19,822 ;  (1901)  21,382,  See  works 
by  Britton  (1831)  and  Havergal  (1869). 

Herefordshire,  an  inland  county  in  the  west 
of  England,  bounded  by  Shropshire,  Worcester, 
Gloucester,  Monmouth,  and  South  Wales.  In 
length  it  measures  38  miles,  in  breadth  35,  and 
its  area  is  833  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1801)  89,191 ;  (1871) 
125,370  ;  (1881)  121,062  ;  (1901)  114,380.  The  sur- 
face is  mostly  hilly  with  occasional  valleys  open- 
ing into  widespread  plains,  the  chief  hill-ranges 
being  those  of  the  Hatterell  or  Black  Mountains 
(2631  feet)  on  the  south-western,  and  the  Malvern 
Hills  (1395)  on  the  eastern  boundary  of  the 
county.  It  is  watered  by  the  Teme,  and  the 
beautiful  Wye  with  its  affluents  the  Lugg,  Arrow, 
and  Monnow.  Hops  are  largely  cultivated,  and 
the  area  of  the  orchards  exceeds  27,000  acres. 
Herefordshire  is  celebrated  for  its  cattle,  and 
its  horses  and  sheep  are  in  a  lesser  degree  well 
known.  Cider-making  is  the  principal  maini- 
facture,  and  malting  is  also  carried  on ;  whilst 
sandstone,  limestone,  and  marble  have  been 
largely  quarried.  The  county,  divided  into  11 
hundreds  and  258  parishes,  returns  three  mem- 
bers, one  for  each  of  its  two  divisions  (Leomin- 
ster and  Ross),  and  one  for  the  city  of  Hereford. 
The  principal  towns  are  Hereford,  Leominster, 
Ross,  and  Ledbury.  Of  places  of  interest  in  the 
county  mention  may  be  made  of  Offa's  Dyke 
(q.v.);  of  Dorstone,  where  there  is  a  large  and 
curious  cromlech  knowE  as  '  Arthur's  Stone ; ' 
of  the  ruins  of  Clifford  Castle,  the  birthplace  of 
'Fair  Rosamond;'  and  of  the  Hereford  Beacon 
on  the  Malvern  Hills,  on  which  is  a  camp, 
ascribed  to  Caractacus.  Robert  Devereux,  Earl 
of  Essex  (Queen  Elizabeth's  favourite),  Richard 


Whittington,  David  Garrick,  John  Kyrle  ('The 
Man  of  Ross '),  and  Nell  Gwynne,  were  all  natives 
of  Herefordshire ;  and  Mrs  Browning,  the  poetess, 
passed  her  childhood  there.  See  the  Quarterly 
Review  for  1879,  and  works  there  cited,  with 
one  also  by  Thornhill  Timmins  (1892). 

Herencia,  a  town  of  Spain,  40  miles  NE.  of 
Ciudad  Real.     Pop.  5968. 

Hereros.    See  Damaraland. 

Herford,  a  Prussian  town  in  Westphalia,  59 
miles  SW..  of  Hanover  by  rail.  It  manufactures 
cottons,  linens,  sugar,  &c.     Pop.  25,902. 

Heri-rud.    See  Hari-rud. 

Herisau,  a  town,  with  cotton-mills,  in  the 
Swiss  canton  Appenzell,  2549  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  5J  miles  SW.  of  St  Gall  by  rail.    Pop.  13,783. 

Heristal,  or  Herstal,  an  industrial  town  of 
Belgium,  on  the  Meuse,  virtually  a  suburb  NE. 
of  Liege.  It  is  mostly  inhabited  by  workers  in 
the  coal-mines  and  the  iron  and  steel  works. 
Here  King  Pepin  was  born  and  Charlemagne 
often  lived.     Pop.  18,200. 

Herkulesbad.    See  Mehadia. 

Hermannstadt  (Lat.  Cibinium,  Hung.  Nagy- 
Szeben),  a  town  of  Hungary,  formerly  capital  of 
Transylvania,  at  the  terminus  of  a  branch  rail- 
way (28  miles  long),  370  miles  SE.  of  Pesth.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  Greek  archbishop  and  of  a  '  Saxon ' 
university.  The  fine  Bruckenthal  palace  con- 
tains a  picture-gallery  and  a  library  of  30,000 
volumes.  Tanning,  wax-bleaching,  and  the  mak- 
ing of  cloth,  paper,  candles,  sugar,  and  hats  are 
carried  on.     Pop.  26,500. 

Hermitage  Castle,  a  ruin  in  Liddesdale,  Rox- 
burghshire, 5^  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Newcastleton. 
It  has  memories  of  Both  well  and  Queen  Mary. 

Hermon,  Mount  (now  Jehel-es-Sheikh),  9150 
feet  high,  is  the  culminating  point  of  the  Anti- 
Libanus  range.    See  Lebanon. 

Hermopolis  Magna  (mod.  Ashmun  or  Eshmoon), 
an  ancient  town  of  Egypt,  on  the  Nile,  at  the 
border  of  the  Thebaid,  and  near  the  frontier  line 
of  upper  and  middle  Egypt. 

Hermosillo,  capital  of  the  Mexican  state  of 
Sonora,  on  the  Rio  Sonora,  50  miles  by  rail  N. 
of  the  port  of  Guaymas.    Pop.  18,000. 

Hermoupolis.    See  Syra. 

Hermus,  a  river  of  Asia  Minor,  flowing  through 
the  plain  of  Sardis  to  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna. 

Heme  Bay,  a  watering-place  of  Kent,  12  miles 
W.  of  Margate.    Pop.  6800. 

Heme  Hill,  a  London  suburb,  3J  miles  S.  of 
St  Paul's. 

Hernosand,  a  Swedish  port  on  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  250  miles  N.  of  Stockholm,  exporting 
timber,  wood-pulp,  and  iron.    Pop.  8500. 

Herrnhut,  a  small  town  of  Saxony,  18  miles 
SE.  of  Bautzen,  the  chief  seat,  from  1722,  of  the 
Moravian  Brethren  or  Herrnhuters.    Pop.  1225. 

Hersfeld,  an  old  town  of  Hesse-Nassau,  on  the 
navigable  Fulda,  27  miles  N.  of  Fulda  by  rail. 
Here  are  a  fine  Gothic  church  (1320) ;  a  ruined 
cathedral,  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1761; 
and  the  once  celebrated  Benedictine  abbey, 
founded  in  769.    Pop.  7871. 

Herstmonceaux.    See  Hurstmonceaux. 

Hertford,  the  county  town  of  Hertfordshire, 
26  miles  N.  of  London  by  rail,  on  the  Lea,  which 
is  navigable  for  barges  up  to  this  point.  It  has 
a  town  or  shire  hall  (1768),  an  infirmary,  a  corn 
exchange  and  free  library  (1859),  a  grammar- 
school  and  several  charity  schools,  whilst  at  the 


HERTFORDSHIRE 


337 


HEXHAM 


entrance  into  the  town  on  the  London  Road  is  a 
preparatory  school  iu  connection  with  Christ's 
Hospital  in  London.  A  considerable  trade  is 
carried  on  in  corn,  malt,  and  flour.  Hertford, 
whose  municipal  boundary  was  extended  in  1892, 
returned  two  members  to  parliament  till  1807, 
and  then  till  1885  one.  Pop,  (1851)  6605  ;  (1901) 
9322.  The  New  River  (q.v.)  has  its  source  a  mile 
east  of  the  town,  and  2  miles  westward  is  Pan- 
shanger,  the  seat  of  Earl  Cowper,  with  its  valu- 
able collection  of  pictures.  Of  the  old  castle  of 
Hertford,  connaenced  by  Edward  the  Elder  about 
905  to  protect  the  inhabitants  from  the  Danes, 
and  strengthened  by  the  Conqueror,  but  a  small 
portion  now  remains ;  the  present  castlje  was 
built  by  William  Cecil,  Earl  of  Salisbury,  or  Sir 
William  Harrington,  in  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and 
in  1805-9  was  occupied  by  the  Bast  India  Com- 
pany as  a  temporary  college  during  the  erection 
of  Haileybury  (q.v.).  See  Turner's  History  of 
Hertford  (1830). 

Hertfordshire,  or  Herts,  an  inland  county  of 
England,  bounded  by  Cambridge,  Essex,  Middle- 
sex, and  Bucks,  is  35  miles  long  from  NE.  to  SW., 
20  miles  in  mean  breadth,  and  611  sq.  m.  in  area, 
of  which  more  than  one-half  is  under  tillage,  one- 
fourth  pasture,  and  one-seventeenth  in  wood.  It 
is  divided  into  8  hundreds,  2  municipal  boroughs 
(Hertford  and  St  Albans),  and  138  parishes,  and 
has  11  market-towns,  the  chief  of  which  are  Hert- 
ford (the  county  town),  St  Albans,  Watford, 
Hitchin,  Hemel  Hempstead,  and  Bishop-Stort- 
ford.  Pop.  (1801)  97,577 ;  (1841)  156,660 ;  (1881) 
203,140 ;  (1901)  250,152.  The  surface  is  mostly 
level,  except  in  the  north,  where  a  branch  of 
the  Chiltern  Hills  skirts  the  county,  Kensworth 
Hill  (904  feet)  being  the  highest  point.  The  prin- 
cipal rivers  are  the  Lea,  Stort,  and  Colne,  all 
affluents  of  the  Thames,  and  the  artificial  New 
River  (q.v.) :  the  Grand  Junction  Canal,  too, 
passes  through  the  south-western  extremity  of 
the  county.  Straw-plaiting  is  largely  carried  on 
in  the  north  and  west  portions,  where  the  land 
is  least  adapted  for  agriculture ;  near  Watford 
and  Rickmansworth  are  paper  and  silk  factories, 
and  at  Great  Berkhampstead  extensive  chemical 
works.  Ware  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  malting 
trade  in  the  kingdom  ;  Cheshunt,  Waltham  Cross, 
and  Bishop-Stortford  are  famous  for  their  rose- 
gardens,  and  in  some  districts  watercress  is  ex- 
tensively cultivated  for  the  London  market. 
Herts  is  almost  entirely  in  the  diocese  of  St 
Albans  and  in  the  South-eastern  Circuit,  and 
since  1885  has  returned  one  meniber  to  parlia- 
ment for  each  of  its  four  divisions — North  or 
Hitchin,  East  or  Hertford,  Mid  or  St  Albans, 
and  West  or  Watford.  Herts  contains  the  battle- 
fields of  St  Albans  and  Barnet ;  and  other  places 
of  historic  interest  are  Rye  House,  Kings  Lang- 
ley,  Hunsdon  House,  Hatfield,  and  Theobalds. 
Amongst  the  worthies  of  Herts  have  been 
Nicholas  Brakespeare,  afterwards  Pope  Adrian 
IV.  ;  Francis  Bacon ;  Richard  Gough,  the  anti- 
quary; the  poet  Cowper;  Bulwer  Lytton  ;  Charles 
Lamb  ;  and  John  Leech.  See  Cussau's  History  of 
Herts  (1880). 

Hertogenbosch.    See  Bois-le-Duc. 

Hervey  Islands.    See  Cook  Islands, 

Herzegovina.    See  Bosnia. 

Hesse  (Hes'seh;  Ger.  Hessen),  or  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, a  German  grand-duchy,  divided  by  a  strip 
of  Hesse-Nassau  into  a  northern  part,  Ober- 
hessen,  completely  enclosed  by  Prussia,  and  a 
southern  part,  comprising  Starkenburg,  east  of 
the  Rhine,  and  Rheinhessen,  west  of  the  Rhine. 
V 


Besides,  there  are  eleven  enclaves  in  Baden  and 
Prussia.  Oberhessen  is  partly  occupied  in  the 
east  by  the  Vogelsberg,  culminating  in  Tauf- 
stein  (2532  feet),  iu  the  south-west  by  a  ramifica- 
tion of  the  Taunus,  the  fertile  and  undulating 
valley  of  Wetterau  lying  between  them.  Stark- 
enburg,  in  the  south-east,  is  covered  by  irnrt  of 
the  Odenwald.  The  Bergstrasse  divides  the  up- 
lands of  Starkenburg  from  the  plain  of  the  Rhine, 
Rlieinhessen,  fertile  and  populous  uplands,  laid 
out  largely  in  vineyards,  lies  between  Kreuz- 
nach,  Mainz,  and  Worms.  Except  some  streams 
draining  into  the  Fulda  and  Weser,  the  waters 
of  Hesse— Main,  Neckar,  and  Lahn— belong  to 
the  Rhine  syston.  Of  the  total  surface,  coih- 
prising  2966  sq.  m.,  50  per  cent,  is  tilled  land 
and  garden,  and  31  forest.  The  most  important 
products  are  corn,  pulse,  potatoes,  rape,  poppy, 
tobacco,  flax,  fruit,  vines,  iron,  manganese  ore, 
and  peat.  The  industries — mainly  in  Mainz, 
Oftenbach,  and  Worms— include  the  making  of 
leather,  boots,  upholstery,  tobacco,  cigars,  chemi- 
cals, &c.  The  total  pop.  amounted  in  1875  to 
882,349,  in  1900  to  1,119,893.  Of  these  489,512 
belonged  to  Starkenburg,  and  746,201  were  Pro- 
testants. The  cliief  towns  are  Mainz,  Darmstadt 
(the  capital),  Offenbach,  Worms,  and  Giessen. 
The  Hessians  were  an  ancient  German  tribe  in 
Thuringia  ;  but  we  first  hear  of  the  landgrave  of 
Hesse  in  the  13th  century.  In  1806  Louis  X. 
assumed  the  title  of  grand-duke.  In  1866  Hesse, 
having  sided  with  Austria,  had  to  yield  up  Hesse- 
Homburg,  &c.,  to  Prussia. 

Hesse-Oassel,  once  a  German  electorate,  now 
the  district  of  Cassel  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Hesse-Nassau  (q.v.).  Area,  3700  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
nearly  900,000.  The  landgraviate  of  Hesse-Cassel 
was  constituted  an  electorate  in  1803,  occupied 
by  the  French  in  1806,  incorporated  with  West- 
phalia in  1807,  and  reconstituted  an  electorate  in 
1813.  The  elector  having  joined  Austria  in  1866, 
Hesse-Cassel  was  incorporated  with  Prussia. 

Hesse-Hombnrg,  from  1596  to  1866  a  land- 
graviate of  Germany,  consisting  of  Homburg  vor 
der  Hohe,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  and 
Meisenheim,  on  the  left  bank.  Area,  106  sq.  m. ; 
population,  30,000.  Since  1866  Hesse-Homburg 
has  been  Incorporated  with  Prussia,  the  grand- 
duke  having  sided  with  Austria. 

Hesse-Nassau,  a  province  of  Prussia,  between 
Bavaria  and  Saxony  on  the  east  and  the  Rhine 
on  the  west,  was  formed  (1867-68)  out  of  parts 
of  the  former  electorate  of  Hesse-Cassel,  of  the 
former  duchy  of  Nassau,  of  the  lordship  of 
Homburg,  of  the  larger  part  of  the  former  free 
town  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main,  and  small  parts 
of  Bavaria.  It  comprises  5943  sq.  m.  The  sur- 
face consists  mostly  of  uplands,  attaining  3096 
feet  in  the  Grosse  Wasserkuppe.  Ainong  the 
minerals  are  iron,  copper,  lead,  manganese,  and 
building-stone.  It  is  rich  in  mineral  waters,  such 
as  at  Wiesbaden,  Ems,  Kronthal,  Homburg,  &c. 
Population,  now  close  on  2,000,000,  mainly  Pro- 
testants. The  cliief  towns  are  Frankfort,  Cassel, 
Wiesbaden,  Hanau,  Marburg,  and  Fulda. 

Heves,  a  town  of  Hungary,  60  miles  ENB.  of 
Pesth.     Pop.  6698. 

Hexham,  an  ancient  town  of  Northumberland, 
beautifully  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Tyne,  here  spanned  by  a  nine-arch  bridge,  24 
miles  W.  of  Newcastle  by  rail.  The  noble  13th- 
century  Abbey  Church  is  represented  only  by 
the  greater  part  of  the  choir,  the  transepts,  and 
tlie  central  tower ;  it  still  retains  its  old  '  frith- 
stool.'    Its  nave  was  destroyed  by  the  Scots  in 


HEYSHAM 


338 


HIMALAYA 


1296,  and  never  rebuilt ;  but  under  its  ruins  has 
been  discovered  the  Saxon  crypt  of  St  Wilfrid, 
who  originally  founded  the  monastery  in  674 — 
the  seat  of  a  bishopric  (681-821).  The  refectory 
remains  and  the  abbey  gateway  of  Norman  archi- 
tecture. Near  Hexiuim  the  Lancastrians  were 
defeated  in  1464.  Pop.  7000.  See  works  by 
Wright  (1823),  Raine  (1865),  and  Hodges  (1888). 

Heysham,  a  village  on  Morecambe  Bay,  5  miles 
SW.  of  Lancaster,  made  into  a  railway  port  for 
trade  with  the  Isle  of  Man  and  Ireland  in  1900-4. 
Pop.  2500. 

Heywood,  a  municipal  town  of  Lancashire,  8 
miles  B.  of  Bury  and  9  N.  of  Manchester.  It  is 
connected  with  the  Rochdale  Canal  by  a  branch 
canal.  Incorporated  in  1881,  Heywood  has  in- 
creased with  great  rapidity,  both  in  population 
and  wealth,  since  the  beginning  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury, partly  in  consequence  of  extensive  coal- 
mines in  the  neighbourhood  and  partly  in  conse- 
quence of  the  enterprise  of  the  Peel  family,  who 
introduced  the  cotton  manufacture.  Iron  and 
brass  founding,  boiler-making,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  cotton,  woollens,  machinery,  railway 
plant,  and  chemicals  are  also  carried  on.  The 
Free  Libraries  Act  was  adopted  in  1873 ;  and 
the  Queen's  Park,  20  acres  in  extent,  was  opened 
in  1879.     Pop.  (1851)  12,194  ;  (1901)  25,458. 

Hierapolis,  (l)  a  ruined  city  on  the  high-road 
from  Antioch  to  Mesopotamia,  14  miles  W.  of 
the  Euphrates.  It  had  a  great  temple  of  Astarte. 
— (2)  An  ancient  city  of  Phrygia,  with  hot  springs, 
between  the  rivers  Lycus  and  Meander,  5  miles 
N.  of  Laodicea.  Epictetus  was  a  native ;  and 
here  St  Paul  founded  a  Christian  church. 

Higham  Ferrers,  a  Northamptonshire  market- 
town,  till  1832  a  parliamentary  borough,  15^ 
miles  ENB.  of  Northampton.    Pop.  2810. 

Highgate,  a  northern  suburb  of  London,  4 J 
miles  NN  W.  of  King's  Cross  Station  by  rail.  Here 
Bacon  and  Coleridge  died ;  Whittington's  Stone 
at  the  foot  of  Highgate  Hill  marks  the  spot  where 
Dick  heard  Bow  Bells,  and  turned  again ;  Cole- 
ridge's remains,  buried  in  the  old  churchyard, 
are  now  covered  by  the  chapel  of  the  Highgate 
grammar-school ;  and  in  the  great  cemetery  (con- 
secrated 1839)  have  been  buried  Faraday,  Lord 
Lyndhurst,  'George  Eliot,'  &c. 

Highlands,  that  portion,  roughly,  of  Scotland 
to  the  N.  and  NW.  of  a  line  stretching  diagonally 
across  the  country  from  Nairn  on  the  Moray 
Firth  to  Dumbarton  on  the  Clyde.  The  moun- 
tainous parts,  however,  of  the  counties  of  Banff, 
Moray,  Aberdeen,  Kincardine,  and  Perth  are 
understood  to  be  included  in  the  designation 
Highlands,  whilst  Caithness  is  excluded,  as  are 
Orkney  and  Shetland.  Separated  but  vaguely 
from  the  Lowlands,  the  Scottish  Highlands  may 
best  be  defined  as  that  portion  of  Scotland  in 
which  the  Gaelic  language  and  manner's  have 
more  or  less  lingered  until  modern  times. 

High  Wycombe.    See  Wycombe. 

Hildburghausen.    See  Saxe-Meininoen. 

Hilden,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  8  miles 
SE.  from  Dilsseldorf,  has  woollen,  silk,  velvet, 
and  carpet  manufactures.     Pop.  11,500. 

Hildesheim,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Hanover,  stands  on  a  feeder  of  the  Weser,  24 
miles  by  rail  SSB.  of  Hanover,  It  is  an  antique 
town,  with  narrow  streets,  high-gabled  houses,  and 
many  towers,  its  cathedral  dating  from  the  11th 
century,  and  the  bishopric  from  822.  The  cathe- 
dral is  rich  in  antiquarian  and  artistic  treasures, 
as  the  bronze  gates  (1015)  with  bas-reliefs,  the 


so-called  Irmin  pillar,  a  rose-tree  said  to  be 
a  thousand  years  old,  the  brazen  Christ  pillar 
(1022),  the  carillon,  &c.  The  St  Godehard  Church 
(1133-72)  and  St  Michael's  are  splendid  examples 
of  Romanesque  architecture.  The  '  Templar 
House,'  the  town-house  (c.  1440),  and  certain 
antique  private  houses  are  the  most  interesting 
among  the  secular  buildings.  The  industries 
embrace  sugar-rehning,  iron-foundries,  brick- 
making,  machine-shops,  and  the  manufacture  of 
tobacco,  stoves,  church-bells,  &c.  Pop.  (1875) 
22,581  ;  (1900)  42,978. 

Hillah,  or  HiLLA,  a  town  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  on 
the  Euphrates,  60  miles  S.  of  Bagdad,  on  the  site 
of  Babylon.    Pop.  about  10,000. 

Hillsborougli,  a  village  of  Couuty  Down,  on 
the  Lagan  Canal.     Pop.  618. 

Hllversum,  a  town  of  North  Holland,  18  miles 
by  rail  SE.  from  Amsterdam.     Pop.  20,199. 

Himalaya  (properly  Himd'laya;  from  two 
Sanskrit  words  meaning  *  snow-abode '),  the  south- 
ern escarpment  of  the  great  Central- Asian  plateau 
in  so  far  as  it  falls  between  the  Indus  and  the 
Brahmaputra.  Thus  limited,  it  extends  from  73° 
to  95°  E.  long.,  over  a  distance  of  some  1500 
miles.  The  Himalayas  are  not  a  single  range, 
but  a  system  of  for  the  most  part  parallel  ranges 
lying  obliquely  to  the  general  direction  of  the 
system.  They  front  the  plain  of  the  Ganges  in 
northern  India  like  a  stupendous  mountain-wall. 
On  the  east  the  system  is  connected  with  the 
mountain-ranges  of  south-west  China  and  north- 
ern Burma  and  Siam.  On  the  north  it  is  backed 
by  the  lofty  plateau  of  Tibet,  10,000  to  17,000 
feet  high.  At  its  north-western  extremity  it  runs 
up  into  the  Pamir  plateau,  from  which  radiate 
also  the  Hindu-Kush  and  the  Kuen-Lun  Moun- 
tains.  The  southern  foot  of  the  system  rests 
upon  the  plain  of  the  Ganges,  which  nowhere 
rises  more  than  1000  feet  above  sea-level.  The 
edge  of  the  outermost  hills  is  skirted  as  far  west 
as  the  Gauges  by  the  Terai,  a  belt  of  swampy 
grass-land,  10  or  15  miles  wide.  Next  above  the 
Terai  lies  a  belt  of  forest,  called  the  Bhabar. 
Above  the  Bhabar  rise  the  foot-hills  of  the 
Himalayan  system,  generally  designated  the  Siwa- 
lik  Hills.  They  vary  in  height  from  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  up  to  4000,  and  present  steep  faces  to 
the  plains.  It  is  on  the  north  side  of  the  Siwalik 
foot-hills  that  the  first  mountains  appear.  They 
rise  up  abruptly  to  elevations  from  7000  to  10,000 
feet.  On  these  ranges  stand  the  sanatoriums, 
Simla,  Darjiling,  Almora,  &c. 

In  the  Himalayas  proper  two  main  axes  can  be 
determined  with  tolerable  distinctness.  One,  the 
southern,  contains  the  line  of  the  great  snowy 
peaks  ;  the  other,  the  northern,  forms  the  water- 
shed between  the  rivers  of  India  and  of  Tibet. 
The  mountains  in  the  southern  chain  are  amongst 
the  loftiest  in  the  world ;  a  very  great  number 
of  them  exceed  20,000  feet  (3|  miles)  in  height. 
Mount  Everest  (29,002  feet)  is  the  highest 
measured  mountain  in  the  world.  Other  lofty 
peaks  are  God  win- Austen  (28,265),  Kinchin- 
jinga  (28,156),  Dhawalagiri  (26,286),  Nanda-Devi 
(25,700),  and  Trisul  (23,400).  The  chain  of  great 
snowy  peaks  is,  strictly  speaking,  a  series  of 
mountain-groups,  each  of  which  is  connected 
with  the  watershed  chain  to  the  north  by  a 
transverse  snow-clad  ridge.  These  transverse 
spurs  form  deep  valleys  on  either  side  in  the 
space  between  the  two  chains ;  and  these  deep 
valleys  are  the  cradles  of  the  great  rivers  of  north- 
ern India— the  Ganges,  Indus,  Brahmaputra,  &c. 

The  snowy  region  of  the  Himalayas  is  plenti- 


HINCKLEY 


339 


HOANG-HO 


fully  studded  with  glaciers,  one  in  the  western 
l)art  of  the  system  being  36  miles  long.  In  the 
same  region  they  descend  to  11,000  and  12,000 
feet,  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  system  not  lower 
than  13,000  and  14,000  feet ;  and  on  the  Tibetan 
side  they  are  seldom  found  to  come  lower  than 
15,000  and  1C,000  feet.  The  snow-line,  too, 
ranges  higher  on  the  Tibetan  side  than  on  the 
Indian.  Whereas,  on  the  watershed  chain,  it 
seldom  descends  lower  than  18,000  feet,  and  on 
the  tableland  remains  at  20,000,  on  the  southern 
faces  of  the  mountains  it  runs  at  15,000  or  16,000 
feet.  The  watershed  chain  has  been  little  ex- 
plored ;  it  lies  chiefly  within  Tibetan  territory. 
It  forms  an  almost  continuous  line  of  peaks,  its 
crest  being  probably  over  18,000  feet  in  elevation. 
So  far  as  is  known,  it  is  only  broken  by  one  pass 
of  less  altitude  than  16,000  feet,  namely  the  Uras 
pass  (11,300)  leading  from  Kashmir.  The  Niti 
Pass  (16,676),  SB.  of  Ladak,  connects  India  with 
East  Turkestan. 

The  Himalayas  possess  few  lakes.  In  the  east, 
north  of  Sikkim,  are  Yamdok-cho,  or  Palti,  45 
miles  in  circumference,  with  an  island,  2000  to 
3000  feet  high,  in  the  centre ;  and  Chomto-dong, 
20  miles  long  by  16  broad,  at  an  altitude  of  14, 7W) 
feet.  More  to  the  west  lie  the  holy  Tibetan 
lakes  of  Manasarowar  and  Rakas  Tal,  which  give 
birth  to  the  river  Sutlej.  Besides  these  there  are 
Nainital  in  Kumaon  and  the  Lake  of  Kashmir. 
In  nearly  all  parts  of  the  Himalayas  metallic  ores 
exist ;  but  only  gold,  iron,  copper,  and  lead  are 
extracted.  Gold  is  largely  mined  in  Tibet ;  copper 
and  iron  ore  are  worked  in  Kumaon  and  Garwhal. 

Within  Indian  territory  most  of  the  inhabitants 
of  these  jnountains  are  Hindus.  The  Tibetan 
portions  are  occupied  by  peoples  of  Turanian 
stock.  In  Hindu  mythology  these  majestic 
mountains  are  invested  with  great  sanctity; 
thousands  of  pilgrims  travel  year  after  year  to 
the  holy  sources  of  the  Ganges.  The  temples  they 
visit  stand  beside  the  glaciers  from  which  the 
river  emerges,  at  Gangotri,  Kedarnath,  and  Badri- 
nath.  See  works  by  Medlicott  and  Blanford  (3 
vols.  1879),  A.  Wilson  (1875),  and  Strachey  (1890). 

Hinckley,  an  ancient  manufacturing  town  of 
Leicestershire  (partly  in  Warwickshire),  on  tlie 
old  Watling  Street,  13  miles  SSW.  of  Leicester, 
with  a  13th-century  church.     Pop.  12,000. 

Hindhead,  a  hill  ridge,  common,  and  health- 
resort  in  Surrey,  2  miles  SW.  of  Haslemere. 
Pop.  2000, 

Hindley,  a  Lancashire  town,  3  miles  SE.  of 
Wigan,  with  coal-works  and  cotton  manufactures. 
Pop.  25,000. 

Hindu  Kush  (Hindoo  Koosh ;  anc. '  Indian  Cau- 
casus '),  the  westward  continuation  of  the  Hima- 
layan system,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
chasm  through  which  the  Indus  breaks  its  way 
to  the  plains.  It  strikes  off  from  the  south-west 
angle  of  the  Pamir  plateau,  and  extends  365  miles 
westward  to  the  Bamian  valley  in  Afghanistan, 
separating  that  country  on  the  south  from  Turke- 
stan on  the  north.  Near  its  point  of  origin  several 
rivers  take  their  birth  ;  the  Oxus  goes  off  north- 
west through  Turkestan,  and  the  Helmund  south- 
west through  Afghanistan.  The  main  range  breaks 
into  four  subsidiary  ridges,  and  has  a  total  width 
of  about  200  miles.  Unlike  the  Himalayas,  it  sinks 
suddenly  to  the  plains  of  Turkestan  on  the  north. 
It  is  crossed  by  several  passes,  12,000  or  13,000 
feet  high.  From  the  Bamian  valley  the  range  is 
continued  westwards  as  a  low  watershed  elevation, 
known  as  Koh-i-Baba.  (Koh-i-Baba  is  also  the 
name  of  a  peak  in  the  Hindu  Kush.)    The  peak  of 


Hindu  Koh,  80  miles  N.  of  Kabul,  rises  more  than 
20,000  feet  above  the  sea.  The  highest  point  ex- 
ceeds 23,000.  Minerals,  especially  iron,  occur  in 
gi-eat  abundance.  The  inhabitants  consist  princi- 
pally of  Dards  and  Shins.  A  loose  kind  of  Moham- 
medanisni  is  the  prevalent  form  of  religion.  See 
Biddulph,  Tribes  of  Hindu  Kush  (Calcutta,,  1880). 

Hindustan,  '  the  land  of  the  Hindus,'  is  a  term 
of  the  same  class  as  Turkestan  or  Afghanistan. 
It  properly  refers  only  to  the  plain  of  the  Ganges 
and  Jumna,  but  is  loosely  used  for  India  at  large. 
See  India. 

Hinojosa-del-Duque,  a  town  of  Spain,  45  miles 
NNW.  of  Cordova.    Pop.  10,000. 

Hiogo.     See  Hyogo. 

Hiroshima,  a  Japanese  city  and  port  on  the 
Inland  Sea,  with  a  sacred  island,  50  miles  SW.  of 
Hyogo.     Pop.  125,000. 

Hirschberg,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  78 
miles  WSW.  of  Breslau,  with  textile,  lace,  and 
Ijaper  manufactures.     Pop.  19,000. 

Hispania.    See  Spain. 

Hispan'iola (' Little  Spain').  See  Dominican 
Republic  and  Hayti. 

Hissar,  a  province  of  Bokhara,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  a  southern  offset  of  the  western 
prolongation  of  the  Thian-Shan  Mountains.  The 
country  consists  of  a  series  of  southward  valleys, 
traversed  by  streams  which  flow  to  the  Oxus  or 
Amu-Daria.  The  soil  is  fertile.  Copper  and  rock- 
salt  abound.  The  inhabitants  (number  unknown) 
are  chiefly  Usbegs  and  Tajiks.  The  main  route 
from  India  to  Bokhara  passes  through  the  province, 
which  was  annexed  by  Bokhara  in  1869.  The 
capital,  Hissar  (pop.  10,000),  is  on  the  Kafiniihan 
River.     Its  people  are  noted  sword-makers. 

Hissar,  a  town  in  the  Punjab,  on  the  Western 
Jumna  Canal,  102  miles  W.  of  Delhi.    Pop.  17,000. 

Hissarlik.    See  Troy. 

Hit  (anc.  Is),  a  town  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  on  the 
Euphrates,  85  miles  WNW.  of  Bagdad,  with  bitu- 
men-pits and  naphtha-springs.    Pop.  2500. 

Hitchin,  a  thriving  market-town  of  Hertford- 
shire, on  the  Hiz,  through  the  Ivel,  a  feeder  of 
the  Ouse,  32  miles  NNW.  of  London.  An  import- 
ant railway  junction,  it  has  a  fine  old  parish 
church,  a  modern  town-hall,  a  free  school  (1622), 
a  Friends'  school,  &c.  The  principal  trade  is  in 
corn,  malt,  and  flour ;  there  are  several  large 
breweries ;  and  many  females  are  employed  in 
straw-plaiting.  Lavender  has  been  grown  here 
since  1568,  and  commercially,  for  lavender-water, 
since  1823.  Hitchin  was  a  place  of  some  conse- 
quence in  the  days  of  King  Alfred.  It  was  the 
original  seat  (1869)  of  Girton  College  (q.v.).  Pop. 
(1851)  5258  ;  (1901)  10,072. 

Hit'teren,  an  island  off  the  west  coast  of  Nor- 
way.   Area,  203  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  2900. 

Hjelmar,  a  lake  of  Sweden  (40  miles  by  15) 
discharging  into  Lake  Malar. 

H'Lassa.    See  Lhassa. 

Hoang-ho  ('  Yellow  River '),  or  simply  Ho,  one 
of  the  principal  rivers  of  China,  rises  in  the  plain 
of  Odontala,  south  of  the  Kuen-Lun  Mountains, 
and  winds  more  than  3000  miles.  From  the 
southernmost  corner  of  the  province  of  Chih-li, 
which  it  crosses,  the  Yellow  River  flowed  east- 
ward to  the  ocean,  650  miles  distant,  in  34°  lat. ; 
but  in  1851-53  this  wayward  and  turbulent 
stream,  which  is  said  to  have  shifted  its  course 
nine  times  in  2500  years,  turned  off  north-east- 
ward near  Kaifung-foo.  Since  then  it  discharges 
its  waters  into  the  Gulf  of  Pechili,  320  miles 


HOBART 


340 


HOLLAND 


NNW.  of  its  former  mouth,  the  mountainous 
province  of  Shan-tung  lying  between  the  two. 
The  river  is  little  used  for  navigation.  In  some 
parts  of  its  eastern  course  the  river-bed  is  above 
the  great  plain  through  which  it  passes.  The 
embankments  are  a  source  of  never-ending  ex- 
pense to  the  government,  and  their  yielding  to 
floods  a  frequent  cause  of  desolation  to  extensive 
districts.  In  1887,  by  a  dreadful  inundation  in 
Ho-nan,  'China's  sorrow'  destroyed  millions  of 
lives.  The  measures  subsequently  taken  to  regu- 
late its  course  proved  futile.  About  170  miles  of 
the  upper  course  of  the  Hoang-ho  were  explored 
for  the  first  time  by  Prejevalsky  in  1880.  The 
vast  quantity  of  sediment  conveyed  to  the  sea 
by  this  river,  giving  it  its  colour  and  name,  is 
taken  up  in  that  part  of  its  course  which  lies 
between  the  provinces  of  Shan-hsi  and  Shen-hsi ; 
beyond  which  its  waters  are  remarkably  clear. 

Hobart  (till  1881  known  as  Hobart  Town),  the 
capital  of  Tasmania,  stands  on  the  estuary  of  the 
Derwent,  12  miles  from  its  mouth,  in  the  south 
of  the  island.  It  forms  nearly  a  square,  built  on 
several  hills,  covering  an  area  of  about  1300 
acres.  Besides  Government  House,  the  houses 
of  parliament,  and  the  government  buildings, 
Hobart  has  a  museum,  library,  and  two  cathe- 
drals, and  is  well  supplied  as  to  churches,  schools, 
water,  lighting,  and  tramways.  The  park  known 
as  the  Queen's  Domain  has  fine  drives,  and  covers 
1000  acres.  In  Franklin  Gardens,  in  the  centre 
of  the  town,  are  statues  to  Sir  J.  Franklin,  a 
former  governor  of  Tasmania,  and  Dr  Crowther. 
The  fine  natural  harbour  and  quay  accommodate 
ships  of  the  largest  size  ;  and  there  are  three  first- 
class  patent  slips.  The  cooler  and  more  invig- 
orating air  of  Hobart  attracts  summer  visitors 
from  Australia.  The  chief  industries  are  the 
manufacture  of  flour  and  jam,  tanning,  and  iron- 
founding.  Hobart  has  railway  communication 
with  Launceston,  133  miles  distant,  and  frequent 
steam  communication  with  Melbourne  (443  miles 
NW.),  Sydney,  and  New  Zealand.  Founded  in 
1804,  it  was  incorporated  in  1857.  Pop.  (1871) 
19,092;   (1901)34,626. 

Ho'boken  (named  from  a  southern  suburb  of 
Antwerp),  a  city  in  New  Jersey,  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  Hudson  River,  adjacent  to  Jersey 
City,  and  opposite  New  York,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  steam-ferries.  It  has  a  large  ship- 
ping trade,  especially  in  coal ;  iron-castings  and 
lead-pencils  are  among  the  manufactures.  The 
Stevens  Institute  of  Technology  here  is  an  im- 
portant school.    Pop.  (1880)  30,999  ;  (1900)  59,364. 

Hochelaga.    See  Montreal. 

Hochheim,  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  Hesse-Nassau, 
on  the  Maine's  right  bank,  8  miles  E.  of  Mainz. 
Here  is  produced  the  excellent  white  wine  called 
Hochheimer  (whence  Hock).    Pop.  2800. 

Hochkirch,  a  Saxon  village,  E.  byS.  of  Bautzen. 
Here  Frederick  the  Great  was  defeated  by  the 
Austrians  (14th  October  1758). 

Hochstadt.    See  Blenheim. 

Hodeida,  a  seaport  of  Yemen,  in  Arabia,  on  the 
Red  Sea.     Pop.  25,000. 

Hof,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Saale,  30  miles 
NE.  of  Baireuth.  It  manufactures  ironwares, 
cottons,  and  woollens.  Hof,  almost  entirely 
rebuilt  since  the  great  fire  of  1823,  is  associated 
with  Jean  Paul  Richter's  earlier  years.  Pop. 
83,500. 

Hofhuf,  a  town  and  fortress  of  the  Arabian 
district  of  Bl-Hasa,  over  against  the  islands  of 
Bahrein  in  the  Persian  Gulf.    Pop.  35,000. 


Hogue,  Cape  La.    See  La  Hogue. 

Hohenems,  a  small  town  of  Vorarlberg,  Austria, 
15  miles  S.  of  Bregenz  by  rail.     Pop.  4700. 

Hohenlinden,  a  village  of  Bavaria,  20  miles  B. 
of  Munich.  Here  70,000  French  under  Moreau 
defeated  60,000  Austrians,  3d  December  1800. 

Hohenloie,  a  former  German  principality  in 
Franconia,  now  comprised  in  Wiirtemberg  and 
Bavaria. 

Hohenschwangau,  a  royal  castle  in  Bavaria, 
55  miles  SW.  of  Munich,  near  the  Lech's  right 
bank,  2933  feet  above  sea-level.  It  was  pur- 
chased in  1832  by  the  crown-prince  Maximilian, 
who  restored  it  in  the  style  of  a  magnificent 
feudal  castle.  On  an  opposite  crag  stands  the 
castle  of  Neuschwanstein,  which  was  built  in 
1869-71  on  the  site  of  the  original  Hoheu- 
schwangau  by  King  Louis. 

Hohenstein,  a  Saxon  town,  with  textile  in- 
dustries, 12  miles  NB.  of  Zwickau.    Pop.  13,400. 

Hohenzollern,  two  united  principalities 
(Hechingen  and  Sigmaringen)  of  South  Germany, 
but  belonging  to  Prussia,  consist  of  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  entirely  surrounded  by  Wiirtem- 
berg and  Baden.  Area,  441  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1890) 
66,085,  mostly  Catholics.  The  territory,  gener- 
ally mountainous,  stretches  south-east  from 
the  Black  Forest,  across  the  Neckar  and  the 
Danube.  The  seat  of  government  is  Sigmaringen. 
Frederick  "VI.,  of  the  younger  line  of  the  Hohen- 
zollerns,  in  1415  received  from  the  Emperor 
Sigismund  the  electorate  of  Brandenburg,  thus 
founding  the  reigning  dynasty  of  Prussia.  The 
two  branches  of  the  elder  line  continued  un- 
broken till  1849,  when  the  reigning  princes  ceded 
their  principalities  to  the  king  of  Prussia. 

Hokitika,  the  capital  of  Westland,  New  Zea- 
land, and  the  chief  town  on  the  west  coast,  is  the 
centre  of  a  gold-producing  district.     Pop.  1950. 

Holbeach,  (l)  a  market-town  of  south  Lincoln- 
shire, 7^  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  Spalding.  It  has 
a  fine  Decorated  church,  with  a  spire  189  feet 
high  ;  and  Roman  remains  have  been  found  here. 
Pop.  of  urban  dist.  4755.— (2)  An  old  Staff"ordshire 
mansion,  3  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Dudley.  It  was 
the  final  retreat  of  the  Gunpowder  conspirators. 

Holderness,  a  parliamentary  division  (includ- 
ing Beverley)  and  a  wapentake  in  the  East  Rid- 
ing of  Yorkshire.    Pop.  of  former,  (1901)  42,150. 

Holkham,  the  splendid  seat  (1734-60)  of  the 
Earl  of  Leicester,  in  Norfolk,  near  the  coast,  2 
miles  W.  of  Wells. 

Holland,  the  popular  name  of  a  country 
officially  described  as  'Netherland,'  or  'The 
Netherlands,'  applies  to  a  maritime  kingdom 
bounded  by  the  North  Sea,  Prussia,  and  Bel- 
gium. Its  greatest  length  (N.  to  S.)  is  195  miles, 
and  its  greatest  breadth  110  miles.  It  contains 
12,630  sq.  m.— little  more  than  one-tenth  of  the 
size  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.  Luxemburg 
(q.v.)  was  till  1890  connected  with  Holland. 

Provinces.                      ^q!  m!"  ^"^  '^  l^^" 

Korth  Brabant 1980  581,713 

Guelderland 1950  597,016 

South  HoUand 1160  1.240.587 

North  HoUand 1070  1,038,530 

Zealand 690  223,427 

Utrecht 530  268,159 

Friesland 1280  350,744 

Overyssel 1290  354,914 

Groningen 800  312,451 

Drenthe 1030  159,122 

Limburg 850  304,318 


12,( 


5.430,981 


HOLLAND 


341 


HOLLAND 


Holland  is  the  most  densely  peopled  country 
in  Europe  after  Saxony  (725  per  sq.  ni.),  England 
(without  Wales,  606),  and  Uelgium  (589).  "While 
the  average  for  the  whole  country  is  429  per  sq.  ni., 
it  rises  to  1064  in  South  Holland  and  971  in  North 
Holland.  Three-fifths  of  the  population  are 
Protestants,  1|  million  Roman  Catholics,  be- 
sides 104,000  Jews.  In  1903  Amsterdam  (tlie 
old  capital)  liad  546,534  inhabitants ;  Rotter- 
dam, 357,474;  The  Hague,  seat  of  government, 
229,839 ;  Utrecht,  110,648 ;  other  four  towns 
above  50,000,  eight  above  30,000,  and  eight  more 
above  20,000. 

Mainly  a  delta  formed  by  the  alluvium  from 
the  great  rivers  that  flow  through  it  into 
the  North  Sea,  Holland  ('  Hollow-land  ')  is  not 
only  Hat;  it  is  actually  hollow— much  of  the 
area  lies  below  the  level  of  the  water,  salt  or 
fresh.  Along  the  canals  the  meadows  are  often 
10  or  12  feet  beneath  the  water-line ;  between 
land  and  sea  at  high  tide  there  may  be  a  differ- 
ence of  25  feet  or  more.  Of  course  all  these 
lands  have  to  be  protected  by  embankments  or 
dykes,  the  tops  thereof,  broad  and  flat,  being 
used  for  carriage-roads  and  foot-paths.  The 
Hollanders  have  covered  the  country  with  a 
network  of  canals,  Avhich  are  mostly  navigable 
for  small  craft,  help  to  irrigate  the  land,  and  in 
winter  are  splendid  ice  highways.  Large  wind- 
mills are  posted  at  the  main  points  to  pump  out 
the  superfluous  water.  The  most  ancient  canal 
is  the  Fossa  Drusi  in  the  east,  made  in  the  time  of 
Augustus.  Many  canals,  regulated  by  locks, 
connect  the  parallel  rivers,  and  the  Yssel  forms 
a  link  between  the  Rhine  and  the  canals  and 
meres  of  Friesland.  Thus  it  is  possible  to  travel 
on  water  through  the  whole  of  Holland.  The 
principal  canals  are  the  North  Holland  Canal, 
from  Amsterdam  to  Den  Helder  (51  miles) ;  the 
William's  Canal,  through  North  Brabant  and 
Limburg  (71^  miles) ;  the  Noi-th  Sea  Canal,  from 
Amsterdam  to  Ymuiden,  on  the  German  Ocean  ; 
and  the  canal  from  the  Maas,  near  Rotterdam, 
to  the  Hoek  van  Holland,  which  now  enables 
ocean-steamers  to  reach  Rotterdam  at  all  times. 
The  cutting  and  maintaining  of  canals  and  dykes 
in  Holland  is  one  of  the  chief  functions  of  the 
Waterstaat,  a  public  department ;  another  duty 
is  the  reclamation  of  land  by  the  drainage  of 
lakes,  and  the  erection  of  •  polders '  by  pushing 
back  the  sea.  These  newly-reclaimed  polder- 
lands  always  fetch  high  prices.  The  draining 
of  Haarlem  Lake  will  be  eclipsed,  should  the 
scheme  of  laying  diy  the  Zuider  Zee  (q.v.),  which 
involves  an  estimated  outlay  of  £16,000,000,  be 
carried  out.  This  would  give  Holland  a  new 
province  of  1200  sq.  m. — a  tenth  of  the  area  of 
the  kingdom.  The  maintenance  of  dykes  by  the 
Waterstaat  forms  another  task  of  vital  moment. 
The  rivers,  when  swollen  by  heavy  rains  or 
falls  of  snow,  are  niuch  more  dangerous  to  the 
dykes  than  the  sea  ;  and  in  times  of  peril  a  special 
dyke  service  is  organised,  and  headquarters  are 
kept  informed  night  and  day  by  a  body  of  Water- 
staat engineers.  The  most  costly  sea-dykes  are 
round  the  western  coast-line  of  Walcheren  Island, 
and  near  Den  Helder  in  North  Holland.  These 
dykes  are  veritable  ramparts,  formed  by  piles  at 
the  base,  which  support  a  superstructure  of  earth 
and  stones.  The  annual  cost  of  keeping  one 
in  repair  frequently  reaches  £8000  to  £10,000. 
Despite  all  precautions,  disasters  through  inunda- 
tions form  but  too  familiar  a  feature  in  the 
history  of  Holland.  Violent  irruptions  of  the 
ocean  created  the  Zuider  Zee  in  the  13th  century. 
In  1905  there  were  about  1800  miles  of  railway, 


about  half  owned  and  worked  by  tlie  state. 
The  country  roads,  mostly  paved  with  bricks,  are 
broad  and  excellent.  The  old-fashioned  way  of 
navigating  the  canals  in  trekschuiten,  or  boats 
drawn  by  horses,  or  men  and  even  women,  along 
a  towing-path,  is  disappearing.  The  climate  of 
Holland  is  much  like  the  climate  of  England, 
especially  in  its  frequent  and  rapid  changes; 
but,  as  a  rule,  the  Dutch  summer  is  hotter  and 
the  Dutch  winter  colder.  Ague  is  prevalent  in 
the  low-lying  regions  of  the  west. 

Cattle-rearing  and  dairy-farming  have  been  the 
Dutch  farmer's  chief  occupations  from  time  im- 
memorial. The  staple  agricultural  products,  are 
wheat,  rye,  oats,  potatoes,  beet-root,  chicory,  flax, 
and  tobacco.  The  soil  of  Holland  is  not  uniformly 
fertile.  Large  tracts  of  land,  especially  in  the 
eastern  provinces,  are  simply  heath;  and  the 
waste  lands  cover  1,700,000  acres.  The  orchards 
of  Boskoop  should  be  mentioned,  as  also  the 
culture  of  Dutch  bulbs  at  and  round  Haarlem. 

Minerals  are  scarce  ;  but  clay  for  tiles,  bricks, 
and  pottery  is  found  everywhere.  Coal  is  worked 
in  Limburg,  and  also  a  soft  sandstone.  There 
are  manufactures  of  linen,  woollen,  cotton,  and 
silk  fabrics,  paper,  leather,  glass,  &c.  Iron- 
founding,  rolling  and  hammering  of  lead  and 
copper,  and  cannon-founding  are  carried  on  in 
some  places.  The  distilleries  of  gin  ('  Hollands ') 
form  an  important  branch  of  Dutch  industry,  as 
also  the  liqueur-factories.  Amsterdam  has  had 
the  largest  diamond-cutting  trade  in  the  world. 
Sugar-relining,  salt-making,  soap-boiling,  and  the 
manufacture  of  cocoa  are  large  interests.  North 
Brabant  is  the  principal  centre  of  the  Dutch 
margarine  trade.  The  flsheries,  though  less  im- 
portant than  formerly,  in  1903  employed  21,467 
men  and  boys,  and  about  6000  vessels,  and  are 
estimated  to  yield  annually  £3,000,000.  The 
total  imports  increased  from  £81,600.000  in  1882 
to  £189,810,364  in  1903;  the  total  exports  from 
£62,282,000  to  £102,579,775.  The  imports  from 
Great  Britain  vary  from  £8,500,000  to  £11,000,000 
a  year;  the  exports  thither  from  £30,400,000  to 
£35,000,000.  Much  of  this  trade,  however,  con- 
sists of  goods  in  transit  from  and  to  Germany. 
Holland  of  all  European  countries  does  the  largest 
amount  of  foreign  trade  per  head  of  population. 
The  revenue  of  1902  was  £13,428,534,  and  the  ex- 
penditure £13,512,954,  The  East  Indies  revenue 
is  nearly  as  large  as  that  of  the  mother-country ; 
but  the  East  India  colonies,  once  a  burden,  then 
long  a  source  of  profit,  are  now  a  burden  again. 
The  great  bulk  of  tlie  national  debt— £95,032,537 
— is  held  in  Holland.  The  colonies  of  Holland 
(separately  treated  under  their  own  heads)  have 
an  area  of  upwards  of  720,000  sq.  m.  (more  than 
three  times  the  area  of  the  German  einpire),  with 
a  pop.  of  about  36,000,000.  They  fall  into  two 
groups :  (1)  the  East  Indian  possessions,  includ- 
ing Java  and  Madura,  Sumatra,  the  Moluccas, 
Celebes,  Timor,  parts  of  Borneo,  and  the  western 
part  of  New  Guinea  ;  and  (2)  the  West  Indies,  of 
which  the  chief  are  Surinam  and  Curagao. 

The  government  of  Holland  is  a  limited  consti- 
tutional monarchy.  The  crown  is  the  executive 
power ;  legislation  is  vested  in  the  States-general 
of  tAvo  chambers.  There  is  no  state  religion,  but 
the  state  gives  financial  support  to  the  diff'erent 
churches.  There  are  ancient  universities  at  Ley- 
den,  Utrecht,  and  Groningen,  and  since  1877 
a  new  university  at  Amsterdam,  supported  by 
the  municipality.  The  four  universities  have 
upwaixls  of  3000  students.  There  are  Latin 
schools  in  the  leading  municipalities,  the  Royal 
Military  and  Naval  Academy  (at  Breda),  that 


HOLLAND 


342 


HOLY  ISLAND 


!br  engineers  and  the  Indian  civil  service  (at 
Delft),  besides  seminaries  for  the  training  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  clergy,  &c.  The  state  pays  30 
per  cent,  of  the  expenditure  on  the  public 
schools,  and  the  communes  or  parishes  70  per 
cent.  There  is  no  compulsory  attendance  in 
Holland,  and  nearly  10  per  cent,  of  the  popula- 
tion can  neither  read  nor  Avrite. 

The  strength  of  the  regular  army  in  Euroi)e  is 
about  70,000  men  (on  the  permanent  peace  footing 
30,000),  and  of  the  colonial  army  about  37,000 
men,  some  13,000  thereof  being  Europeans,  Dutch 
troops  are  not  allowed  to  be  sent  to  the  Indies. 
The  Dutch  home  army  is  composed  of  volunteers, 
and  of  a  varying  proportion  of  men  drawn  by 
lot  for  five  years'  service.  There  is  also  a  local 
force,  called  Schutterij,  drawn  by  lot  from  those 
between  twenty-five  and  thirty-four  years  of  age, 
to  assist  in  keeping  order  in  peace,  and  in  case 
of  war  to  act  as  a  mobile  corps,  and  do  garrison 
duty.  North  and  South  Holland  can  be  inun- 
dated at  short  notice.  The  royal  navy  in  1905 
consisted  of  2  battle-ships,  5  coast-defence  ships, 
8  unprotected  cruisers,  and  41  torpedo-vessels  ; 
besides,  9  additional  vessels  were  in  process  of 
building,  and  17  more  were  projected. 

The  ancient  inhabitants  of  the  country,  the 
Batavians  and  the  Frisians,  became  subjects  or 
allies  of  the  Romans  in  the  1st  century  a.d., 
and  so  remained  till  in  the  4th  century  their 
territories  were  overrun  by  the  Saxons  and  Salian 
Franks.  At  the  end  of  the  8th  century  the  Low 
Countries  submitted  to  Charlemagne,  and  various 
feudal  dukedoms,  counties,  and  lordships  were 
gradually  established  (the  countship  of  Holland 
in  the  11th  century).  In  1384  the  earldom  of 
Flanders  passed  to  the  Dukes  of  Burgundy,  and 
Philip  the  Good  (c.  1450)  made  the  Low  Countries 
as  prosperous  as  any  part  of  his  Burgundian 
state.  The  Emperor  Charles  V.  inherited  the 
Burgundian  dominions ;  and  under  his  son,  Philip 

II.  of  Spain,  broke  out  the  bitter  quarrel  between 
Holland  and  Spain,  between  Dutch  Protestantisin 
and  persistence  and  Spanish  tyranny  and  per- 
secution, which  ended  in  1581  in  the  establish- 
ment of  the  Dutch  Republic  as  an  independent 
state  under  William  the  Silent  (of  Orange),  though 
the  war  continued  with  intervals  till  1648,  and 
the  Belgian  provinces  abode  by  their  allegiance 
to  the  kings  of  Spain.  In  the  17th  century 
Dutch  commerce,  especially  at  sea,  Dutch  science, 
Dutch  classical  scholarship,  Dutch  literature  and 
Dutch  art  attained  an  eminence  hardly  after- 
wards equalled.  The  rivalry  of  Holland  and 
England  at  sea  led  to  the  unfortunate  wars  of 
1652-54  and  1664-67.     The  accession  of  William 

III.  of  Orange  to  the  Stadholdership  of  the 
United  Provinces  (1672)  proved  the  salvation  of 
the  republic  from  France ;  in  1678  Louis  XIV. 
signed  the  peace  of  Nimeguen.  Ten  years  later 
William  was  hailed  as  the  saviour  of  English 
liberties,  and  became  king  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland.  On  William's  death,  the  United  Prov- 
inces became  a  pure  republic  once  more ;  the 
hereditary  Stadholdership  was  re-established  in 
1747;  and  when  after  the  French  Revolution, 
French  armies  overran  Holland,  the  Stadholder 
William  V,  fled  to  England,  and  the  United 
Provinces  became  the  Batavian  Republic.  In 
1806  Louis  Bonaparte  was  made  king  of  Holland 
by  Napoleon ;  and  on  the  fall  of  Napoleon,  the 
Northern  or  Dutch  (and  mainly  Protestant)  Prov- 
inces were  united  with  the  Southern  or  Belgian 
(and  purely  Catholic)  Provinces  into  the  ill- 
assorted  kingdom  of  the  Netherlands,  under  the 
princes  of  the  Orange  dynasty.    Belgium  seceded 


in  1830,  and  Holland  fully  recognised  the  Inde- 
pendence of  the  Belgian  kingdom  in  1839. 

See  works  on  Holland  and  its  people  by  Havard 
(1876-80),  De  Amicis  (1882),  Lane  Poole  (1882), 
and  others  ;  and  the  historical  works  of  Prescott, 
Motley,  Thorold  Rogers  (' Story  of  the  Nations' 
series,  1888),  besides  the  works  of  the  great 
Dutch  historians,  Bilderdijk,  Arend,  Blok,  &c. 

Holland,  Parts  of.    See  Lincolnshire. 

Holland  House,  an  historic  mansion  (1607)  of 
Kensington,  London. 

Holloway,  a  district  of  London,  in  the  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  Islington,  on  the  north. 

Holmby  House,  a  fine  Tudor  mansion,  6^  miles 
NW.  of  Northampton,  was  built  by  Sir  Christo- 
pher Hatton  in  Elizabeth's  reign.  Sold  to  James 
I.,  it  was  for  four  months  the  prison  of  Charles 
I.  in  1647.     It  was  dismantled  in  1652. 

Holmfirtli,  a  Yorkshire  town,  at  the  Holme's 
and  Rippleden's  confluence,  6  miles  S.  of  Hudders- 
field.     It  has  woollen  manufactures.    Pop.  9000. 

Holstein,  formerly  a  duchy  belonging  to  Den- 
mark, and  at  the  same  time  a  member  of  the 
Germanic  Confederation,  was  annexed  in  1866  to 
Prussia,  which  incorporated  it  in  the  province 
of  Sleswick-Holstein  (q.  v.).  It  is  separated  from 
Sleswick  on  the  N.  by  the  river  Eider  and  the 
North  Baltic  Canal.  Area,  3237  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
about  660,000— mostly  of  Low  German  stock. 

Holsworthy,  a  Devon  town,  14  miles  N.  of 
Launceston.    Pop.  of  urban  district,  1371. 

Holt,  (1)  one  of  the  Denbigh  district  of  bor- 
oughs, on  the  Dee,  5J-  miles  NE.  of  Wrexham. 
Pop.  1086.— (2)  A  town  of  Norfolk,  10  miles  E. 
by  N.  of  Walsingham.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Sir  Thomas  Gresham.    Pop.  of  parish,  1850. 

Holy  Cross.    See  Thurles. 

Holyhead,  a  seaport  of  Anglesey  (q.v.),  on  the 
small  island  of  Holyhead,  60  miles  E.  of  Dublin, 
85  W.  of  Chester,  and  264  NW.  of  London. 
Although  recently  much  improved,  it  is  still  a 
primitive,  irregularly-built  town.  It  is  the  ter- 
minus of  the  London  and  North- Western  Rail- 
way (1850),  and  the  port  for  the  mail  steam- 
packets  to  Dublin.  The  harbour  was  extended 
in  1873-80,  and  the  quay  lengthened  to  4000  feet. 
The  roadstead  or  harbour  of  refuge  (1847-73), 
with  an  area  of  about  400  acres,  is  protected  on 
the  north  by  a  solid  masonry  wall,  rising  38  feet 
9  inches  above  low-water  mark,  and  backed  by 
a  strong  rubble  jnound.  Pop.  (1875)  5622  ;  (1901) 
10,079,  employed  in  the  coasting  trade  and  in 
shipbuilding  and  rope-making. 

Holyhead  Island,  lying  west  and  fonning 
part  of  Anglesey,  is  8  miles  long  by  3^  broad. 
Area,  9658  sq.  acres  ;  pop.  9610.  It  is  separated 
from  Anglesey  by  a  narrow  sandy  strait,  crossed 
by  a  causeway,  which  carries  over  the  highroad 
and  the  railway,  and  is  arched  in  the  centre  for 
the  tide  to  pass  beneath.  The  surface  is  rocky 
and  barren.  On  the  north-west  coast  are  two 
islets,  the  North  and  South  Stacks,  the  latter 
with  a  lighthouse,  whose  light,  197  feet  above 
high-water,  is  seen  for  20  miles.  The  Stacks  and 
the  north  coast  are  hollowed  out  into  magnificent 
caves,  the  haunt  of  sea-fowl. 

Holy  Island,  or  Lindisfarne,  a  small  island 
of  Northumberland,  9^  miles  SE.  of  Berwick-on- 
Tweed.  It  is  3  miles  long  by  If  broad,  and  has 
an  area  of  2457  acres,  and  a  pop.  of  700.  At  low- 
water  it  can  be  reached  by  walking  across  the 
sands,  a  distance  of  3^  miles  ;  at  high- water  the 
strait  covered  by  the  sea  is  1^  mile  wide.    The 


Holy  tANi) 


343 


HONG-KONG 


village  is  guarded  by  the  castle,  built  about 
1500,  and  still  in  good  repair.  The  island  is 
chiefly  interesting  for  its  ruined  Benedictine 
priory  church.  This  was  built  in  1093  out  of 
the  materials  of  the  ancient  cathedral,  founded 
here  in  636  by  Bishop  Aidan.  Here  a  company 
of  Columban  monks  established  themselves,  and 
grew  into  the  famous  priory  of  Lindisfarne,  the 
lona  of  England.  It  reached  its  greatest  glory 
under  St  Cuthbert.  The  cathedral  suttered 
severely  from  the  Danes,  and  gradually  fell  into 
ruins  as  Durham  grew  into  imi)ortance.  In 
August  1887  three  thousand  barefooted  pilgrims 
crossed  the  sands  to  Lindisfarne.  See  works  by 
G.  Johnston  (1853)  and  F.  R.  Wilson  (1870). 

Holy  Land.    See  Palestine. 

Holy  Loch,  an  inlet  (2^  miles  by  1)  of  the  Firth 
of  Clyde,  near  Dunoon. 

Holyoke,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  8  miles  N. 
of  Springfield,  on  the  Connecticut  River,  which 
is  here  crossed  by  a  dam  over  1000  feet  long 
and  falls  60  feet  in  less  than  a  mile,  supplying 
immense  water-power.  Holyoke  has  paper-mills, 
cotton-factories,  woollen-mills,  grist-mills,  and 
manufactures  of  metal  and  wooden  wares.  It 
contains  a  fine  city-hall  of  granite.  Pop.  (1870) 
10,733  ;  (1890)  35,637  ;  (1900)  45,712. 

Holyrood.    See  Edinburgh. 

Holytown,  a  mining-toAvn  of  Lanarkshire,  5^ 
miles  SSE.  of  Coatbridge.    Pop.  4811. 

Holywell  (Welsh  Treffynnon),  a  parliamentary 
borough  and  market-town  of  Flintshire,  on  an 
eminence  15  miles  NW.  of  Chester.  It  is  the 
seat  of  numerous  lead,  iron,  copper,  and  zinc 
mines,  and  has  smelting-works,  manufactures  of 
paper,  flannel,  and  Roman  cement,  tanyards,  and 
breweries.  The  borough  unites  with  those  of 
Flint,  Mold,  &c.  in  returning  one  member. 
Population,  about  2650,  Holywell  owes  its  origin 
to  the  renowned  well  of  St  Winifred,  which, 
until  diminished  by  drainage  works,  delivered 
4700  gallons  of  water  per  minute.  The  Perpen- 
dicular chapel  over  the  well  is  attributed  to 
Margaret,  mother  of  Henry  VII.  It  is  still  a 
place  of  Catholic  pilgrimage.  See  Pennant's  His- 
tory of  Holywell  (1796). 

Holywood,  a  seaport  and  watering-place,  4J 
miles  NE.  of  Belfast.     Pop.  3889. 

Homburg,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province  of 
Nassau,  at  the  foot  of  the  Taunus  Moun- 
tains, 8  miles  NNW.  of  Frankfort-on-the-Main. 
It  has  beautiful  environs,  and  its  five  saline  and 
chalybeate  springs  attract  about  12,000  visitors 
annually.     They  are  good  for  disordered  liver 

Land  stomach,  gout,   rheumatism,  scrofula,  and 
skin  diseases.     About  400,000  bottles  are  sent 
away  yearly.    The  gaming-tables  were  suppressed 
in  1872.     Pop.  9663. 
Homerton,  a  district  in  Hackney,  E.  London. 
Homildon  Hill,  an  eminence  in  Northumber- 
land, 1  mile  NE.  of  Wooler,  where  on  14th  Sep- 
tember 1402  Earl  Douglas  and  10,000  Scots  were 
defeated  by  an  English  army  under  Hotspur. 
Horns.    See  Hems. 
i 
; 


Honan,  z  central  province  of  China,  desolated 
in  1887  by  the  inundation  of  the  Hoang-ho. 

Honawar,  a  seaport  on  the  Malabar  coast  of 
India,  340  miles  SSE.  of  Bombay.     Pop.  6658. 

Hondu'ras,  a  republic  of  Central  America,  lies 
between  Nicaragua  and  San  Salvador  and  Guate- 
mala, and  is  bounded  on  the  N.  and  NE.  by  the 
Bay  of  Honduras  and  the  Caribbean  Sea,  having 
here  a  coast-line  of  some  400  miles  :  while  on  the 


S.  the  Bay  of  Fonseca,  over  50  miles  long  and 
about  30  wide,  opens  to  the  Pacific.  The  area 
Is  calculated  at  46,500  sq.  m.  ;  the  population  at 
750,000.  Except  for  a  narrow  strip  of  swamp- 
land along  either  coast,  the  country  is  a  table- 
land, its  series  of  elevated  plateaus  broken  by 
broad  and  fertile  plains  and  valleys,  or  rising  to 
mountain-ridges  that  culminate  in  the  Montana 
de  Selaque  (10,120  feet).  The  Cordilleras  proper 
traverse  the  country  irregularly  in  a  north-west 
and  south-east  direction.  Honduras  is  watered 
by  innumerable  (seldom  navigable)  streams  ;  the 
Wanks  or  Segovia,  part  the  boundary  with  Nicar- 
agua, has  a  length  of  350  miles.  Roatan  and  the 
other  fertile  Bay  Islands  (q.v.),  off  the  north 
coast,  belong  to  Honduras.  The  climate  is  hot 
on  the  coast,  where  also  fever  prevails  ;  but  the 
highlands  are  cool,  and  frost  is  not  unknown. 
The  flora  and  fauna  are  like  those  of  Guatemala. 
Cattle-raising  is  an  important  industry.  Hon- 
duras is  the  richest  of  the  Central  American 
republics  in  minerals— silver,  gold,  iron,  copper, 
antimony,  platinvun,  zinc,  tin,  lignite,  and  opals. 
The  exports,  mostly  to  the  United  States,  include 
cattle,  fruits  and  cocoa-nuts,  india-rubber,  sarsa- 
parilla,  timber,  and  indigo. 

Honduras  (Span.,  'depths')  was  discovered  by 
Columbus  on  his  fourth  voyage,  in  1502,  and 
named  from  the  difficulty  of  anchorage.  There 
are  numerous  pyramids  and  other  remains  of  the 
ancient  inhabitants.  Honduras  threw  off  the  yoke 
of  Spain,  with  the  rest  of  Central  America,  in 
1821,  and  became  independent  on  the  dissolution 
of  the  confederation  in  1839.  Revolutions  and 
frequent  wars  with  Guatemala  and  San  Salvador 
have  been  almost  constant.  The  whites  are  very 
few  in  number,  the  Indians  (including  Caribs), 
negroes,  and  mixed  races  including  all  but  some 
6000  or  7000  of  the  population.  The  capital  is 
Tegucigalpa,  with  35,000  inhabitants.  The  ports 
are  Amapala,  on  the  Bay  of  Fonseca,  Puerto 
Cortez  or  Puerto  Caballos,  Omoa,  and  Truxillo. 
See  works  by  Squier  (1870),  Soltera  (1884),  and 
Lombard  (New  York,  1887). 

Honduras,  British.    See  Belize. 

Honfleur,  a  seaport  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Calvados,  on  the  southern  side  of  the  Seine 
estuary,  opposite  and  7  miles  from  Havre.  The 
commerce  has  been  absorbed  in  great  measure 
by  Havre ;  but  the  harbour  and  its  approaches 
were  greatly  improved  in  1874-81.     Pop.  9400. 

Hong-kong,  or  Hiang-kiang  ('  sweet  waters '), 
a  British  island  of  southern  China,  on  the  east 
side  of  the  Canton  River,  90  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
Canton  city.  It  consists  principally  of  a  rugged 
ridge  of  granitic  rocks,  extending  from  north- 
west to  south-east,  and  has  an  area  of  29  sq.  m. 
Barren  and  desolate,  the  island  presents  a  strik- 
ing contrast  with  the  beauty  of  its  harbour,  a 
magnificent  sheet  of  water,  10  sq.  m.  in  extent, 
which  stretches  between  Hong-kong  and  the 
peninsula  of  Kowloon  on  the  mainland.  The 
straits  that  separate  the  two  are  scarcely  half 
a  mile  wide  on  the  east.  To  the  excellence  of  its 
harbour  and  to  its  free  port  it  owes  its  import- 
ance as  the  principal  commercial  entrepot  of 
southern  China,  if  not  of  eastern  Asia.  The 
annual  value  of  the  trade  of  Hong-kong  (exclusive 
of  that  which  merely  passes  througli  the  har- 
bour) amounts  to  about  £20,000,000.  The  trade 
between  Hong-kong  and  Great  Britain  amounts 
to  I  of  a  million  pounds  for  exports  from  Hong- 
kong, and  2|  million  for  imports.  The  prin- 
cipal items  are  opium,  cottons,  woollens,  and 
machinery  (imported),  and  tea  and  silk  (exported). 


HONISTER  PASS 


344 


HORSHAM 


The  mean  annual  temperature  is  75'  F.  The 
summer  is  hot  and  generally  rainy  ;  but  the  island 
is  not  unhealthy,  except  at  certain  seasons. 
Pop.  (1841)  5000;  (1851)  37,058;  (1861)  123,511; 
(1901)  283,905,  of  wliom  only  77,743  were  females. 
For  purposes  of  defence,  376  sq.  m.  of  ad- 
jacent territory  on  the  Chinese  mainland  was 
leased  for  ninety-nine  years  in  1808.  Hong-kong 
is  the  seat  of  a  British  governor  and  is  a 
British  naval  station.  The  city  of  Victoria,  the 
capital  of  the  island,  stretches  some  4  miles 
along  the  northern  shore,  and  from  its  situation 
on  the  slopes  and  terraces  of  the  hills  overlook- 
ing the  harbour  and  its  handsome  streets  and 
houses,  is  justly  called  one  of  the  finest  cities 
in  the  East.  On  the  mainland  the  extremity 
of  the  peninsula  of  Kowloon,  of  2|  sq.  m.  in 
area,  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  iii  1861,  and 
now  forms  administratively  part  of  the  depend- 
ency of  Hong-kong.  The  island  was  first  occu- 
pied by  Great  Britain  in  1841,  and  was  secured 
to  her  next  year  by  the  treaty  of  Nanking. 

Hon'ister  Pass,  a  mountain  way  (1190  feet)  in 
the  Lake  Country,  Cumberland,  leading  to  Butter- 
mere,  and  flanked  by  Honister  Crag  (1760  feet). 

Hon'iton,  a  market- town  and  municipal  borough 
(1846)  of  Devonshire,  near  the  left  bank  of  the 
Otter,  17  miles  by  rail  ENB.  of  Exeter.  Four 
times  devastated  by  fire  between  1747  and  1797, 
it  is  a  modern  well-built  place ;  but  its  old  parish 
church,  on  a  hill,  contains  a  fine  oak-screen, 
erected  in  1482  by  Bishop  Courtenay  of  Exeter. 
The  famous  Honiton  pillow-lace,  a  manufacture 
introduced  here  by  Flemish  refugees  in  the 
middle  of  the  16th  century,  is  still  a  specialty 
of  the  district.  The  beautiful  vale  of  Honiton 
is  famous  for  its  butter.  Honiton  was  disfran- 
chised in  1868.     Pop.  3300. 

Honolulu,  the  capital  of  the  Hawaiian  or  Sand- 
wich Islands,  on  the  southern  coast  of  the  island 
of  Oahu.  Its  spacious  harbour,  the  only  really 
well-protected  port  in  the  archipelago,  is  entered 
through  an  opening,  150  yards  wide.  The  town 
stands  close  to  the  shore,  on  a  narrow  plain  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Nuuanu  valley.  The  moun- 
tains, which  protect  the  harbour  from  the  north- 
easterly trade-winds,  also  keep  off  the  rain,  so 
that  the  rainfall  at  Honolulu  is  much  smaller 
than  in  some  other  parts  of  the  islands.  Water- 
Avorks,  however,  supply  irrigation,  which  keeps 
the  gardens  of  the  town  bright  with  flowers  and 
foliage.  The  centre  of  the  town  is  -well  laid 
out  in  rectangular  streets,  with  houses  built  in 
European  style ;  most  of  the  appliances  of  civilisa- 
tion are  to  be  found,  notably  telephones ;  there 
are  fine  government  buildings,  and  an  interesting 
public  library.  Pop.  39,907,  including  a  large 
number  of  foreigners  ;  for  the  trade  is  almost 
entirely  in  foreign  hands. 

Hood,  Mount.    See  Cascade  Range. 

Hooghly,  or  HtJgli,  a  river  of  Bengal,  the  most 
westerly  and  important  of  the  channels  by  which 
the  Ganges  reaches  the  sea.  Taking  its  distinctive 
name  near  the  town  of  Santipur,  it  has  a  southerly 
course  of  64  miles  to  Calcutta,  and  a  further 
course  of  81  miles  to  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  Being 
a  deltaic  river,  the  Hooglily  is  much  subject  to 
being  silted  up,  and  is  only  kept  open  to  naviga- 
tion by  vigilant  works.  Vessels,  however,  draw- 
ing 26  feet  of  water  are  safely  taken  up  to  Cal- 
cutta. At  its  mouth  the  Hooghly  is  15  miles 
wide.     Its  '  bore '  often  attains  a  height  of  7  feet. 

Hooghly  (Hugli),  a  city  of  Bengal,  on  the 
river  Hooghly's  right  or  western  bank,  25  miles 


by  rail  N.  of  Calcutta.     Pop.  with  Chinsurah, 
immediately  to  the  south,  29,400. 

Hooker,  Mount,  a  peak  in  the  Canadian 
Rockies,  10,500  feet  higli,  situated  on  the  east 
boundary  of  British  Columbia. 

Hook  of  Holland  (Hoek  van  Holland),  a  landing- 
place  N.  of  the  northernmost  mouth  of  the  Maas. 

Hoom,  a  decaying  seaport  of  North  Holland, 
on  a  bay  of  the  Zuider  Zee,  27  miles  NNE.  of 
Amsterdam  by  rail.     Pop.  10,711. 

Hoosac  Mountain,  a  part  of  the  Green  Moun- 
tain range  in  western  Massachusetts,  through 
which  is  pierced  the  most  notable  railway  tunnel 
in  America.  Nearly  5  miles  long,  it  was  com- 
menced in  1851  for  the  line  between  Boston  and 
Albany,  was  twice  abandoned,  and  was  finally 
opened  in  1875,  having  cost  about  $18,000,000. 

Hopeman,  a  fishing-village  (founded  1805)  of 
Elginshire,  6^  miles  N  W.  of  Elgin.     Pop.  1404. 

Hopetoun  House,  the  Earl  of  Hopetomi's  seat 
in  Linlithgowshire,  near  the  Firth  of  Forth,  3 
miles  W.  by  N.  of  South  Queensferry. 

Hor,  Mount.    See  Edom. 

Horbury,  a  village  of  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 4  miles  SW.  of  Wakefield,  manufactures 
woollens,  worsteds,  flannels,  &c.     Pop.  6673. 

Horde,  a  town  of  Westphalia,  2^  miles  SE.  of 
Dortmund,  has  large  ironworks  (employing  more 
than  4000  men)  and  coal-mines,  with  iron,  steel, 
and  zinc  manufactories.     Pop.  25,598. 

Horel).    See  Sinai. 

Horn,  Cape,  commonly  spoken  of  as  the  south- 
ernmost point  of  America,  is  a  steep,  black,  bare 
mountain-headland  of  one  of  the  small  islands  of 
the  Fuegian  Archipelago,  55°  59'  S.  lat.,  67"'14' W. 
long.  Sighted  by  Drake  in  1578,  it  was  named 
Hoorn,  anglicised  'the  Horn,'  when  rounded  in 
1616  by  the  Dutch  navigators,  Lemaire  and 
Schouten.  To  avoid  the  dangerous  doubling  of 
Cape  Horn,  steamers  now  pass  through  the  Strait 
of  Magellan. 

Hornoastle,  an  ancient  market-town  of  Lin- 
colnshire, at  the  foot  of  the  Wolds,  between  the 
confluent  Bain  and  Waring,  21  miles  E.  of  Lin- 
coln by  a  branch-line  (1855).  It  has  a  handsome 
Perpendicular  church  (restored  1861),  a  corn  ex- 
change (1856),  a  grammar-school  (1562),  and  a 
great  August  horse-fair.  Roman  remains  have 
been  found  here,  and  in  the  neighbourhood  are 
Scrivelsby,  long  the  seat  of  the  Dymokes,  cham- 
pions of  England ;  Winceby,  the  scene  of  a 
Royalist  defeat  (1643) ;  Woodhall  Spa,  with  a  salt- 
spring  discovered  in  1820 ;  and  the  site  of  the 
Cistercian  abbey  of  Revesby  (1142).  Population, 
about  4000.     See  a  work  by  Weir  (1820). 

Hornellsville,  a  town  of  New  York,  01  miles 
SE.  of  Butt'alo  by  rail,  with  railway  workshops, 
and  manufactures  of  mowing-machines,  shoes, 
&c.     Pop.  12,000. 

Hornsea,  a  Yorkshire  town,  near  tlie  sea,  16 
miles  NE.  of  Hull,     Pop.  2380. 

Horodenka,  a  town  of  Austria,  in  East  Galicia, 
106  miles  SE.  of  Lemberg.    Pop.  11,226. 

Horsens,  a  Danish  seaport,  at  the  head  of  the 
Horsensliord,  32  miles  SSW.  of  Aarhuus  by  rail. 
Pop.  22,250. 

Horsforth,  a  township  of  Yorkshire,  on  the 
Aire,  5  miles  NW.  of  Leeds.     Pop.  7782. 

Horsham,  a  market-town  of  Sussex,  near  the 
source  of  the  Arun,  26  miles  NNW.  of  Brighton 
and  35  SSW.  of  London.  The  noble  imrish  church. 
Early  English  in  style,  was  restored  in  1865; 


aORTEN 


345 


HUDDERSFIELD 


bther  buildings  are  the  corn  exchange  (1766), 
graminar-school  (1540;  rebuilt  1840-57),  &c. 
Christ's  Hospital  was  traiist'erretl  hiUier  from 
London  in  1902.  Horsham  returned  two 
members  from  the  14th  century  till  1832,  and 
then  one  till  1885.     Pop.  9500. 

Horten,  the  chief  naval  port  of  Norway,  on  the 
Christiania  Fjord,  30  miles  S.  of  Christiania.  It 
has  an  arsenal  and  shipbuilding  yards.  Pop. 
8500. 

Horwich,  a  Lancashire  town,  4  miles  WNW.  of 
Bolton.  It  has  cotton,  bleaching,  paper,  terra- 
cotta, and  other  industries.  Pop.  (1881)  3761; 
(1901)  15,084. 

Hoshangabad,  a  town  in  the  Central  Prov- 
inces of  India,  on  the  Nerbudda  River,  40  miles 
SSE.  of  Bhopal  by  rail.  It  trades  in  English 
piece-goods,  cotton,  grain,  &c.  It  has  been  in 
British  hands  since  1817.    Pop.  13,863. 

HosMarpur,  a  Punjab  town,  near  the  Siwalik 
Hills,  90  miles  E.  of  Lahore.    Pop.  21,552. 

Hospital,  a  Limerick  village,  3  miles  NW.  of 
Knocklong  station.    Fop.  695. 

Hot  Springs,  a  town  of  Arkansas,  56  miles 
WSW.  of  Little  Rock.  It  has  over  fifty  thermal 
springs  (95°  to  148°  F.).    Pop.  10,000. 

Houghton-le-Spring,  a  town  in  the  county, 
and  6J  miles  NB.  of  the  city,  of  Durham.  Its 
rapid  growth  is  mainly  due  to  the  extension  of 
neighbouring  collieries.  The  fine  cruciform  parish 
church  contains  the  altar-tomb  of  Bernard  Gilpin, 
wlio  founded  here  a  grammar-school  (1574) ;  later 
rectors  were  Peter  Heylin  and  Archbishop  San- 
croft.     Pop.  8000. 

Hounslow,  a  town  of  Middlesex,  10  miles  W. 
by  S.  of  London,  was  formerly  a  place  of  much 
importance  in  the  old  coaching  days,  it  being  the 
first  stage  out  of  London  on  the  Bath  and 
Southampton  roads.  As  many  as  800  horses  were 
then  maintained  here,  500  coaches  passed  through 
daily,  whilst  a  most  extensive  business  in  posting 
was  carried  on.  With  the  opening  of  the  rail- 
ways, however,  the  place  gradually  declined,  and 
now  it  contains  but  little  of  interest.  West 
from  Hounslow,  stretching  for  5  miles  along 
the  road,  and  in  1546  containing  an  area  of 
4293  acres,  was  Hounslow  Heath,  the  scene 
of  many  military  encampments,  and  notori- 
ous in  the  annals  of  highway  robbery.  It  now 
is  mostly  enclosed.  Near  the  town  are  large 
gunpowder-mills  and  cavalry  and  militia  barracks, 
and  at  Kneller's  Hall,  once  the  painter  Sir  G. 
Kneller's  residence,  are  the  quarters  of  the  Royal 
Military  School  of  Music  (1857).  Pop.  (1851)  3514 ; 
(1901)  11,380. 

Hourn,  Loch,  the  'Lake  of  Hell,'  an  Inver- 
ness-shire sea-inlet,  sti'iking  14  miles  off  Sleat 
Sound. 

Housaton'lc  River  rises  in  Massachusetts, 
flows  through  Connecticut,  and  enters  Long 
Island  Sound  near  Bridgeport.  In  its  course  of 
145  miles,  it  affords  abundant  water-power. 

Houssa.    See  Haussa. 

Houston,  capital  of  Harris  county,  Texas,  on 
the  navigable  Buffalo  Bayou,  49  miles  by  rail 
NW.  of  Galveston.  It  is  the  great  railway  centre 
of  the  state,  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  coun- 
try, and  ships  cotton,  grain,  and  cattle,  besides 
the  products  of  the  great  pine-forests,  wdiich  are 
prepared  here.  Other  manufactures  are  machin- 
ery, iron-castings,  railway  carriages,  farming  im- 
plements, fertilisers,  cotton-seed  oil,  &c.  Pop. 
(1870)  9382  ;  (1890)  27,557  ;  (1900)  44,633. 


Howden,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  8J  miles  ESE. 
of  Selby.     Pop.  of  parish,  1964. 

Howrah,  or  Haura,  a  town  of  India,  with 
growing  manufactures,  on  the  Hooghly's  right 
bank,  opposite  Calcutta.  It  is  connected  with  it 
by  a  floating  bridge  (1874),  and  is  the  Bengal 
terminus  of  the  East  Indian  Railway.  Pop 
(1872)  97,784  ;  (1891)  116,606;  (1901)  157,600. 

Howth,  a  peninsula  on  the  east  coast  of  Ire- 
land, forming  the  north  side  of  the  Bay  of  Dublin, 
terminates  in  a  lofty  cliff,  the  '  Hill  of  Howth ' 
(563  feet),  at  whose  foot  nestles  the  fishing-village 
of  Howth  (pop.  1160). 

Hoxton,  a  district  of  London,  partly  in  Hack- 
ney, but  mainly  in  Shoreditch. 

Hoy  (Scand.  Hoeji,  'high  island'),  one  of  the 
Orkneys,  IJ  mile  SAV.  of  Mainland  or  Pomona. 
It  is  13i  miles  long,  3  furlongs  to  6i  miles  broad, 
and  53  sq.  m.  in  area.  Unlike  the  rest  of  the 
group.  Hoy  rises  abruptly  from  the  sea,  with 
stupendous  cliffs  that  attain  1140  feet  in  Brac- 
brough  or  St  John's  Head,  and  595  in  Bervy  Hill ; 
inland  are  Cuilags  Hill  (1420  feet)  and  the  Ward 
Hill  (1564),  commanding  a  splendid  view.  Near 
the  south  end  is  the  fine  natural  harbour  of  Long 
Hope  (5J  X  If  miles).  The  '  Dwarfie  Stone'  is  28 
feet  long,  14^  broad,  6^-  high,  with  a  chamber  hol- 
lowed out  of  it ;  and  the  '  Old  Man  of  Hoy  '  is  an 
insulated  pillar  of  rock,  450  feet  high.  Pop. 
1200. 

Hoylake,  a  small  watering-place  of  Cheshire, 
at  the  extremity  of  Wirral  peninsula,  8  miles  by 
rail  W.  of  Birkenhead.     It  has  a  celebrated  golf- 
links,  opened  in  1869.     Pop.  10,900. 
Hradschin.     See  Prague. 
HuaUa'ga,   a  river  of  Peru,   650  miles  long, 
rises  near  the  Cerro  de  Pasco,  over  14,000  feet 
above  the  sea,  and  flows  north  on  the  east  side  of 
the  Central  Cordillera,  breaking  through  the  range 
at  the  gorge  of  Chasuta,  to  the  Maraiion.    It  is 
navigable  as  far  as  Yurimaguas. 
Huamanga.    See  Ayacucho. 
Huancavell'ca,  the  capital  of  a  Peruvian  dep., 
150  miles  SE.  of  Lima.    Near  it  are  famous  quick- 
silver mines.     Pop.  3000. 

Huan'uco,  the  capital  of  a  Peruvian  dep.,  lies 
in  a  lovely  valley  on  the  Huallaga.     Pop.  7300. 

Hubertusburg,  a  royal  Saxon  hunting-seat, 
25  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Leipzig,  built  in  1721.  It 
was  nuich  injured  during  the  Seven  Years'  War ; 
and  here  in  1763  was  signed  the  treaty  ending 
that  war.  Since  1840  it  has  served  as  prison, 
hospital,  and  lunatic  asylum. 

Hubli,  a  town  of  Dharwar,  in  Bombay  presi- 
dency, 102  miles  NE.  of  Karwar  on  the  Malabar 
coast.  It  is  an  important  cotton-mart.  Pop. 
60,500. 

Hucknall-Torkard,  a  village  8  miles  NNW. 
of  Nottingham.     Byron  is  buried  here. 

Huddersfield,  a  '  clothing  town '  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  a  parliamentary,  municii)al, 
and  county  borough,  26  miles  NE.  of  Manchester, 
15  S.  of  Bradford,  17  SW.  of  Leeds,  and  189  NNW. 
of  London.  Well  built  of  stone  and  regular,  it 
occupies  a  considerable  extent  of  high  ground, 
sloping  down  to  the  left  bank  of  the  Colne,  which 
here  receives  the  Holme ;  and  it  owes  its  rapid 
extension  to  its  situation  in  a  rich  coal-district, 
to  its  abundant  water-power,  and  to  its  transit 
facilities  by  rail  and  canal.  Among  the  chief 
edifices  are  the  circular  cloth -hall  (1768-80) ;  the 
railway  station  (1848),  with  a  marble  statue  of 
Peel  (1875)  before  it ;  the  classical  town-hall  (1880) ; 


HUDSON 


346 


HtJLt 


the  technical  college  (1883;  developed  from  the 
mechanics'  hall,  c.  1840);  the  inarket-hall  (1880); 
and  the  infirmary  (1831-74).  The  first  parish 
church  was  built  before  1110,  and  rebuilt  in  Tudor 
times,  and  again  in  1835  ;  St  John's  Church  (1853) 
was  designed  by  Buttevfield,  and  St  Thomas'  (1859) 
by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott.  The  Beaumont  Park,  21  acres 
in  area,  was  opened  by  the  Duke  of  Albany  in 
1883,  and  there  is  also  Greenhead  Park  of  26  acres. 
The  chamber  of  commerce  (1880)  is  an  imijortant 
local  body.  Huddersfield  is  the  chief  seat  in  the 
north  of  England  of  the  '  fancy  trade,'  and  every 
description  of  plain  woollen  goods  is  also  manu- 
factured ;  whilst  other  industries  are  cotton  and 
silk  spinning,  iron-founding,  machine-making, 
&c.  The  Roman  station  of  Cambodunum  was  in 
the  parish,  and  remains  have  been  found  here ; 
but  Huddersfield  has  no  history  to  speak  of.  In 
1750  Bishop  Pococke  described  it  as  'a  little 
town.'  It  was  enfranchised  by  the  Reform  Act 
of  1832,  and  made  a  municipal  borough  in  1868, 
the  boundary  having  been  greatly  extended  in 
1867.  Pop.  (1861)  34,877 ;  (1881)  86,502 ;  (1901) 
95,047. 

Hudson,  a  river  in  New  York,  and  one  of  the  most 
beautiful  and  important  in  America.  It  rises  in 
the  Adirondack  Mountains,  4326  feet  above  sea- 
level.  At  Glen's  Falls  it  has  a  fall  of  50  feet,  and 
thence  runs  nearly  due  south  to  its  mouth  at 
New  York  City.  It  is  tidal  up  to  Troy,  151  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  magnificent  steamboats  ply 
daily  between  New  York  and  Albany.  Below  New- 
burg,  60  miles  from  New  York,  the  river  enters 
the  beautiful  highlands,  Avliich  rise  abruptly 
from  the  water  to  the  height  of  1600  feet.  Here 
was  the  scene  of  Arnold's  treason  and  of  Andre's 
fate  ;  and  West  Point  is  8  miles  below  Newburg. 
Emerging  from  the  highlands,  the  river  widens 
into  a  broad  expanse  called  Tappan  Bay,  4^  miles 
wide  and  13  long.  Below,  on  the  right  bank,  a 
steep  wall  of  trap  rock,  called  the  Palisades, 
rises  from  the  river's  brink  to  a  height  of  300 
to  510  feet,  and  extends  for  nearly  20  miles  to 
the  upper  portion  of  the  city  of  New  York.  The 
river  from  here  is  known  as  the  North  River, 
and  is  from  1  to  2  miles  wide  ;  and  after  passing 
between  New  York  and  Hoboken  and  Jersey  City, 
it  falls  into  New  York  Bay.  Its  whole  length  is 
350  miles,  and  its  principal  tributaries  are  the 
Sacondaga,  Mohawk,  and  Walkill.  The  Hudson 
has  valuable  shad  and  sturgeon  fisheries.  It  is 
connected  by  canals  with  Lakes  Erie  and  Cham- 
plain,  and  with  the  Delaware  River.  Henry 
Hudson,  the  English  navigator,  explored  it  in 
1609.  Robert  Fulton's  first  successful  experiment 
in  steamboat  navigation  was  made  on  it  in  1807. 

Hudson,  capital  of  Columbia  county,  New 
York,  on  the  Hudson  River's  left  bank,  116  miles 
N.  of  New  York  City.  It  extends  along  a  high 
ridge  ending  in  a  bold  promontory,  and  has  an 
active  river-trade,  a  fine  court-house,  a  city-hall, 
blast-furnaces,  and  manufactures  of  fire-engines, 
paper,  leather,  flour,  &c.     Pop.  9570. 

Hudson  Bay,  a  gulf,  or  rather  inland  sea,  in 
the  north-east  of  North  America,  is  completely 
landlocked  except  on  the  north,  where  South- 
ampton Island  and  Fox  Channel  lie  between  it 
and  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  where  Hudson  Strait, 
running  500  miles  south-east,  connects  it  with 
the  Atlantic.  Including  its  south-eastern  exten- 
sion, James's  Bay  (q.v.),  it  measures  about  1000 
miles  in  length  and  600  in  average  width,  and  has 
an  area  of  some  500,000  sq.  m.  The  eastern  shore, 
called  the  East  Main,  is  for  the  most  part  rocky, 
and  is  fenced  with  several  small  islands ;  the 


western  shore,  the  West  Main,  is  flat.  This  sea 
is  the  great  drainage  reservoir  of  the  Canadian 
North-west  Territories,  its  chief  feeders  being 
the  Churchill,  whose  deep  and  narrow  mouth 
forms  the  best  harbour  on  the  shores  of  Hudson 
Bay,  and  the  Nelson,  of  whose  total  course  of 
400  miles  only  70  or  80  are  navigable.  The  fur 
trade  began  with  the  Hudson  Bay  Company 
(founded  1670);  fish-oil  has  also  been  exported. 
It  has  been  proposed  to  open  up  direct  com- 
munication from  England  with  Manitoba  and  the 
North-west  of  Canada  by  way  of  Hudson  Bay 
and  Strait  (navigable  only  about  three  months 
annually,  by  reason  of  the  ice) ;  the  scheme  pro- 
viding for  a  railway  from  Winnipeg  to  Fort  Nelson 
on  the  bay,  a  distance  of  650  miles. 

Hue,  the  capital  of  Annam,  10  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Hue  River,  or  Truongtien.  In  1801 
it  was  strongly  fortified  by  French  officers.  The 
heart  of  the  city  is  occupied  by  the  palace ;  much 
of  the  rest  is  composed  of  mud  huts.  Since  1884 
there  has  been  a  French  garrison  in  Tliuanan,  the 
port  of  Hue.  Pop.  50,000  (with  suburbs,  90,000), 
including  many  Chinese. 

Huelva,  a  thriving  town  of  Spain,  near  the 
confluence  of  the  Odiel  and  the  Tinto,  68  miles 
by  rail  WSW.  of  Seville.  Fishing  and  the  plait- 
ing of  esparto  grass  are  the  chief  industries. 
Huelva  is  the  port  for  the  Rio  Tinto  copper- 
mines,  in  British  hands,  and  a  shipping  place 
for  wine.  An  iron  pier  was  erected  in  1889-90. 
Pop.  19,677. — Huelva  province  has  an  area  of 
3913  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  262,000. 

Huesca,  a  picturesque  town  of  Spain,  55  miles 
by  rail  NE.  of  Saragossa.  Among  its  chief 
buildings  are  the  beautiful  Gothic  cathedral 
(1400-1515) ;  the  Romanesque  church  of  San 
Pedro  (1150-1241) ;  the  university,  founded  in 
1354 ;  and  a  former  palace  of  the  kings  of  Aragon. 
Huesca  is  the  Osca  of  the  Romans,  where  Ser- 
torius  was  murdered  in  72  b.c.  Pop.  11,764. — 
Huesca  province  has  an  area  of  5848  sq.  m.,  and 
a  pop.  of  250,000. 

Huescar,  a  town  of  Spain,  75  miles  NB.  of 
Granada.     Pop.  7737. 

Hughenden  (locally  Hitchendon),  a  parish  of 
Buckinghamshire,  among  the  Chiltern  Hills,  2 
miles  N,  of  High  Wycombe.  Hughenden  Manor, 
a  large  brick  three-story  mansion,  mostly  modern, 
was  purchased  before  1847  by  Benjamin  Disraeli, 
Earl  of  Beaconsfleld.  It  is  rich  in  interesting 
portraits;  and  in  its  terraced  gardens  are  trees 
planted  by  Queen  Victoria  in  1877  and  the  Prince 
of  Wales  in  1880.  The  ancient  parish  church, 
much  restored  in  1874,  contains  a  monument  to 
the  earl,  erected  by  the  Queen  ;  and  in  its  vault 
he  lies  buried  by  the  side  of  Lady  Beaconsfleld. 

Hugh  Town.    See  Scilly  Islands. 

Hi'igll.    See  HooGHLY. 

Hull,  or  KiNGSTON-ON-HuLL,  a  river-port,  a 
parliamentary  and  municipal  borough,  and  (since 
1897)  a  city  and  county  of  itself,  is  situated  in 
the  East  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  in  a  low,  level 
plain  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Humber,  here  2 
miles  wide,  and  here  joined  by  the  Hull,  42  miles 
ESB.  of  York  and  173  N.  of  London.  Of  churches 
the  most  notable  are  Holy  Trinity,  Decorated  and 
Perpendicular  in  style,  with  a  central  tower  140 
feet  high ;  and  St  Mary's  Lowgate  (1333),  one- 
half  of  which  was  removed  to  make  room  for  the 
mansion-house  of  Henry  VIII.,  who  stayed  here 
in  1540.  Both  were  restored  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott. 
The  most  important  educational  establishments 
are   Hull  and  East  Riding  College;   the  Hull 


HULL 


347 


HtJNSTANTON 


grammar-school  (I486),  where  Andrew  Marvell 
was  educated  ;  and  Trinity  House  School  (1716), 
which  gives  a  nautical  education ;  besides  the 
Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  the  Royal 
Institution,  &c.  An  equestrian  statue  (1734)  of 
William  III.  stands  in  the  market-place,  and  in 
Junction  Street  is  a  column  (1834)  surmounted 
by  a  statue  of  Wilberforce,  who  was  a  native, 
as  also  was  Mason  the  poet.  The  Trinity  House, 
instituted  in  1369  for  decayed  seamen,  was  re- 
built in  1763,  and  the  Charterhouse,  an  endowed 
institution  for  the  poor,  in  1645.  There  are  three 
prettily  laid  out  public  parks.  A  town-hall, 
Italian  Renaissance  in  style,  was  opened  in  1866, 
as  also  was  a  new  exchange.  There  are  also  a 
spacious  jail  (1869),  a  new  post-offlce  (1877),  the 
Theatre  Royal  (1873),  the  dock-office  (1871),  public 
baths  (1850),  a  new  market-hall  (1887),  and  the 
James  Reckitt  Free  Library  (1889).  The  docks 
and  basins,  comprising  an  area  of  upwards  of  200 
acres,  have  been  constructed  since  1774.  The 
Victoria  Dock  (1850-64)  covers  20  acres,  exclusive 
of  two  large  timber  ponds  and  tidal  basins  wliich 
cover  9  acres.  The  Albert  Dock  (24^  acres)  was 
opened  in  1869 ;  and  the  Alexandra  Dock  (40  acres) 
in  1883.  Hull  was  one  of  the  first  ports  in  Eng- 
land to  engage  in  the  whale-fishery,  an  enterprise 
now  abandoned  ;  but  its  fisheries  employ,  in  con- 
junction with  those  of  Grimsby,  large  fleets  of 
boats,  attended  by  steam  auxiliaries.  Hull  is  a 
principal  steam-packet  station,  and  ocean- 
steamers  ply  regularly  to  many  of  the  principal 
ports  of  Belgium,  Holland,  Denmark,  Russia,  Ger- 
many, Scandinavia,  America,  Australia,  and  India. 
It  is  the  great  outlet  for  the  woollen  and  cotton 
goods  of  the  midland  counties,  and  the  chief 
entrepdt  for  German  and  Scandinavian  oversea 
trade.  Hull  ranks  third  among  British  ports  in 
the  value  of  its  trade,  its  imports  exceeding 
£32,000,000,  and  its  exports  £20,000,000.  Ship- 
building yards  are  in  operation  ;  and,  in  addi- 
tion to  iron  ships,  important  ironclads  have 
been  built  here.  The  chief  manufactiires  are 
ropes,  canvas,  chain,  chain-cables,  machinery, 
&c.  Many  mills  of  various  kinds  are  carried 
on,  as  well  as  chemical  factories,  tanneries, 
and  sugar-refineries.  Seed-crushing  for  oil  is 
also  an  important  staple  industry.  Constituted 
the  free  borough  of  Kingston-on-Hull  by  Edward 
I.  in  1299,  the  town  owed  much  to  its  great 
merchant-house,  the  De  la  Poles,  whose  head, 
Michael,  in  1385  was  created  Earl  of  Suff'olk.  In 
1642  the  refusal  of  its  governor,  Sir  John  Hotham, 
to  admit  Charles,  marked  the  outbreak  of  the 
Civil  War,  during  which  Hull  was  twice  besieged 
by  the  royalists.  It  Avas  made  the  seat  of  a 
suff'ragan  bishop  in  1534,  and  again  in  1883.  In 
April  1893  it  was  the  scene  of  the  strike  of  8000 
dockers.  Since  1885  Hull  has  returned  three 
instead  of  two  members  to  parliament.  Pop. 
(1851)  84,690  ;  (1901,  extended  in  1897)  240,259. 

Hull,  the  chief  town  of  Ottawa  county,  Quebec, 
is  on  the  Ottawa  River,  opposite  Ottawa  City, 
with  which  it  is  connected  by  a  suspension 
bridge.  It  was  almost  entirely  burnt  down  in 
1900,  but  was  quickly  rebuilt.    Pop.  14,000. 

Humber,  the  estuary  of  the  rivers  Ouse  and 
Trent  (and  so  of  the  Dove,  Derwent,  Wharfe, 
&c.),  runs  38  miles  E.  and  SE.,  separating  the 
counties  of  York  and  Lincoln,  with  a  breadth  vary- 
ing from  1  to  7  miles.  Its  drainage  basin,  with 
an  area  of  9770  miles,  is  the  largest  in  England  ; 
and  by  means  of  navigable  streams  and  canals 
the  Humber  is  connected  with  the  Mersey,  the 
Severn,    and   the   Thames.    The   navigation   is 


obstructed,  especially  on  the  north  side,  by 
banks  and  shoals.  By  way  of  the  Humber  Danes 
and  Northmen  made  many  terrible  incursions 
into  England,  notably  in  867,  1013,  1066,  and 
1069.  The  great  port  on  the  Humber  was 
anciently  Ravenser  or  Ravenspur,  just  inside 
Spurn  Head.  The  process  of  erosion  by  the  sea 
was  already  at  work  when  Henry  Bolingbroke 
landed  here  in  1399 ;  soon  after  the  place  was 
wholly  covered  by  the  encroaching  waters,  and 
Hull  (q.v.)  became  the  great  port  on  the  north 
shore,  as  Grimsby  (q.v.)  now  is  on  the  southern 
side.  See  The  Rivers  of  England  (Cassell,  1889), 
and  Boyle's  Lost  Towns  of  the  Humber  (1889). 

Hmnbleton.    See  Homildon. 

Humboldt,  a  river  rising  in  the  NE.  part  of 
Nevada,  and  flowing  350  miles  WSW.  to  Hum- 
boldt Sink,  a  lake  over  40  miles  in  circumference, 
with  no  outlet.  Unnavigable  even  for  canoes,  it 
is  strongly  impregnated  with  alkaline  matter. 

Hume  Castle,  Berwickshire,  6  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Kelso,  on  Hume  Crags  (700  feet),  is  now  a 
mere  sham  antique,  on  the  site  of  the  old  strong- 
hold of  the  lords  of  Home. 

HA-nan,  a  province  of  China  (q.v.). 

Hungary  (Hung.  Magyar  or  szdg,  Ger.  Ungarn, 
Lat.  H'ungaria)  is  the  eastern  and  larger  half  of 
the  Austro-Huiigaiian  monarchy,  with  an  area 
of  124,633  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  (1900)  of  19,254,559. 
With  Transylvania,  Croatia  and  Slavonia,  and 
Fiume,  it  forms  the  realm  of  the  crown  of  St 
Stephen  or  Transleithania,  which  is  a  coequal 
factor  with  Austria  or  Cisleithania  in  the  empire- 
kingdom  ruled  over  by  the  Hapsburg  dynasty. 
The  two  have  been  united  since  1526,  and  since 
1867  have  been  reconstructed  as  a  dual  empire, 
each  with  its  own  laws,  parliament,  ministers,  &c. , 
but  both  under  one  monarch  for  military,  diplo- 
matic, and  customs  purposes.  The  geographi- 
cal, industrial,  and  statistical  features  of  Hungary 
have  been  dealt  with  in  the  article  Austria.  The 
Hungarians  or  Magyars,  who  entered  Europe  in 
884,  and  established  themselves  in  their  present 
country  five  years  later,  speak  a  non-Aryan  lan- 
guage, reckoned  to  belong  to  the  Ugric  branch 
of  the  Finnish  stock.  Hungary  became  a  regular 
Christian  kingdom  in  1000  under  King  Stephen. 
Mathias  Corvinus  in  the  15th  century  waged  war 
successfully  with  the  Turks  and  with  the  Bohem- 
ians. At  the  battle  of  Mohacs  in  1526  Louis 
II.  was  utterly  defeated  by  the  Turks,  and  after 
an  intestine  struggle  the  Austrian  Ferdinand 
became  king.  Since  then  the  chief  event  in 
Hungary's  liistory  has  been  the  great  Magyar 
rising  of  1848-49.  See  Felbermann,  Hungary  and 
its  People  (1892). 

Hungerford,  a  town  of  Berkshire,  partly  also 
in  Wiltshire,  is  situated  on  the  river  Kennet,  26 
miles  WSW.  of  Reading.  It  is  a  hunting  centre, 
and  a  favourite  resoit  of  anglers,  having  been 
even  in  Evelyn's  time  'a  towne  famous  for  its 
troutes.'  In  the  town-hall  (1870)  is  a  horn  gifted 
by  John  of  Gaunt  in  1362.    Pop.  3000. 

Hunlngen  (Fr.  Huningue),  a  town  of  Alsace, 
on  the  Rhine's  left  bank,  2^  miles  N.  of  Basel, 
is  celebrated  for  its  fish-breeding  establishment 
(1852).  Vauban's  fortifications  (1679-81)  were 
razed  in  1815.     Pop.  2500. 

Hunstanton  (pron.  Hunston),  a  watering-place 
of  Norfolk,  on  the  Wash,  18  miles  NE.  of  King's 
Lynn  by  a  railway  (1862).  It  has  a  broad  beach 
of  firm  sand,  and  good  bathing  and  sea-fishing, 
a  pier,  a  lighthouse  (1840),  and  a  splendid 
Decorated  church  (c.  1330).     Hunstanton  Hall, 


HtTKTINGDON 


348 


HYBLA 


dating  from  the  Tudor  period,  but  greatly  in- 
jured by  fire  in  1859,  was  the  seat  of  Sir  Roger 
L'Estrange.     Pop.  1725. 

Huntingdon,  the  county  town  of  Hunting- 
donshire, on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ouse,  and  the 
Ermine  Street  of  the  Romans,  59  miles  N.  of 
London.  It  became  the  seat  of  a  royal  castle 
in  917,  and  was  incorporated  in  1189.  It  has 
the  Buckden  Library  (1890),  breweries,  brick- 
works, carriage-works,  and  nursery  gardens. 
Here  Oliver  Cromwell  was  born  (1599),  and  here 
the  poet  Cowper  lived  (1765-67) ;  the  chronicler, 
Henry  of  Huntingdon,  from  1110  to  1155  was 
Archdeacon  of  Huntingdon.  With  the  municipal 
borough  of  Godmanchester  (pop.  2095),  on  the 
opi)osite  bank,  it  formed  a  parliamentary  borough, 
returning  till  1867  two  members,  till  1885  one. 
Pop.  (1851)  3882  ;  (1901)  4261. 

Huntingdon,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  34  miles 
E.  of  Altoona.     Pop.  6053. 

Huntingdonshire,  or  Hunts,  an  inland  county 
of  England,  30  miles  long  and  23  broad,  is 
bounded  N.  and  W.  by  Northampton,  Cambridge, 
and  Bedford  shires.  Area,  359  sq.  m.,  almost 
all  arable  or  in  pasture.  Pop.  (1801)  37,568  ; 
(1861)  64,250  ;  (1901)  57,773.  Huntingdonshire  is 
watered  cliiefly  by  the  Neiie  and  the  Ouse, 
and  comprises  four  hundreds  and  the  municipal 
boroughs  of  Huntingdon,  Godmanchester,  and  St 
Ives,  with  part  of  Peterborough.  It  is  almost 
entirely  in  the  diocese  of  Ely  and  the  South- 
eastern Circuit,  and  returns  two  members.  Two 
Roman  roads  traverse  Huntingdonshire ;  at  Al- 
walton,  Earith,  and  Chesterton  are  remains  of 
camps  ;  and  in  many  places  Roman  remains  have 
been  found.  Among  places  of  interest  are  the  ruins 
of  Ramsey  Abbey  and  Buckden  Palace,  formerly 
the  residence  of  the  bishops  of  Lincoln  ;  Hinchin- 
brook  House,  anciently  the  seat  of  the  Crom- 
well family ;  Kimbolton  Castle,  the  seat  of  the 
Duke  of  Manchester,  where  Queen  Catharine 
resided  for  some  time  after  her  divorce  from 
Henry  VIII. ;  Horeham  Hall,  the  residence  of 
the  Princess  Elizabeth  during  Mary's  reign ; 
Denton,  the  birthplace  of  Cotton  tlie  antiquary; 
Little  Gidding(q.  v.);  and  Brampton,  where  lived 
for  some  years  Samuel  Pepys. 

Huntington,  the  name  of  several  towns  in  the 
United  States.  Tlie  largest  are  (1)  capital  of 
Cabell  CO.,  W.  Virginia,  on  the  Ohio  River,  18 
miles  from  fronton.  It  has  a  college  and  many 
factories.  Pop.  11,970.— (2)  A  town  of  New  York, 
30  miles  E.  by  W.  of  New  York  City.  Pop.  9483. 
—(3)  A  city  of  Indiana,  on  the  Little  River,  24 
miles  SW.  of  Fort  AVayne.     Pop.  9491. 

Huntingtower,  or  Ruthven  Castle,  a  ruin, 
3  miles  WNW.  of  Perth.  James  VI.  was  kid- 
napped here  in  the  '  Raid  of  Ruthven '  (1584). 

Huntly,  a  Scottish  town,  41  miles  NW.  of 
Aberdeen.  Near  it  is  ruined  Huntly  Castle,  the 
seat  of  the  earls  and  marquises  of  JHuntly.  Dr 
George  Macdonald  was  born  here.     Pop.  4150. 

HuntsvlUe,  capital  of  Madison  county,  Ala- 
bama, in  the  valley  of  the  Tennessee,  212  miles 
ESE.  of  Memphis  by  rail.  It  manufactures 
cotton,  oil,  ice,  iron,  and  flour.     Pop.  8100. 

Huon  Gulf,  an  inlet  on  the  east  side  of  New 
Guinea,  in  Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land. 

Hfl-pei,  one  of  the  central  provinces  of  China, 
watered  by  the  Yang-tsze. 

Hurdwar.    See  Hardwar. 

Hurlford,  an  Ayrshire  town,  on  the  Irvine,  2 
miles  ESE.  of  Kilmarnock.  It  has  ironworks, 
collieries,  &c.    Pop.  4605. 


Hurlingham,  at  Fulham  (q.v.)  in  Middlesex, 
on  the  Thames  below  the  bridge,  the  headquarters 
of  aristocratic  pigeon-shooting. 

Huron,  the  second  largest  of  the  five  great 
lakes  on  the  frontier  between  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  is  connected  at  the  north-west  by 
St  Mary's  River  with  Lake  Superior,  and  through 
the  strait  of  Mackinaw  with  Lake  Michigan.  On 
the  south  it  has  an  outlet  by  way  of  the  St  Clair 
River.  It  is  bounded  on  the  W.  and  SW.  by 
Michigan,  and  elsewhere  by  Ontario.  The  lake 
is  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by  the  Cabot's 
Head  peninsula  and  Grand  Manitoulin  island, 
the  parts  to  the  north  being  called  North  Channel 
and  Georgian  Bay.  Its  extreme  length  is  263 
miles ;  its  greatest  breadth,  exclusive  of  Georgian 
Bay,  105  miles ;  average  breadth,  70  miles.  The 
total  area  is  23,800  sq.  m. ;  and  its  mean  eleva- 
tion is  SSli^n  feet  above  sea-level,  it  being  20^ 
feet  below  Lake  Superior,  and  S-^^,  above  Lake 
Erie.  Huron  has  a  mean  depth  of  about  250, 
and  a  maximum  depth  of  750  feet.  There  is  an 
average  difference  between  high  and  low  water 
(due  to  winds  and  rain)  of  1/^  foot.  Huron, 
like  the  other  lakes,  is  subject  to  violent  storms. 
It  contains  about  three  thousand  islands,  nearly 
all  Canadian.  The  waters  are  very  clear  and 
pure,  and  abound  in  fish.  There  are  numerous 
good  harbours  and  roadsteads,  most  of  them  on 
the  Canadian  side ;  at  Sand  Beach,  Michigan, 
there  is  a  harbour  of  refuge. 

Hursley,  a  village  of  Hampshire,  5  miles  SW. 
of  Winchester.  John  Keble,  author  of  the  Christ- 
ian Year,  was  vicar  here  from  1835  till  his  death 
in  1866.  In  1848,  with  the  profits  of  that  cele- 
brated work,  he  restored  the  church,  which  is 
rich  in  modern  stained  glass.  Keble  himself  lies 
buried  in  the  churchyard,  and  in  the  chancel  is 
the  grave  of  Richard  Cromwell. 

Hurst  Castle,  a  Hampshire  fortress,  dating 
from  1535,  at  the  west  entrance  of  the  Solent,  4 
miles  S.  by  W.  of  Lymington.  Charles  I.  was 
imprisoned  here. 

Hurstmonceaux  (Hnrst'mon-so),  a  village  of 
Sussex,  5  miles  N.  of  Pevensey,  with  the  extensive 
ivy-covered  ruins  of  a  fine  castle,  built  of  brick 
by  Sir  Roger  de  Fienes,  one  of  the  heroes  of 
Agincourt.  It  passed  in  1727  into  the  hands  of 
the  Hares  or  Hare-Naylors.  The  famous  Broad 
Church  leader.  Archdeacon  Hare,  was  rector  from 
1832  till  1855,  and  lies  buried  in  the  churchyard. 

Hurstpierpoint,  a  market-town  of  Sussex,  8 
miles  N.  by  \V.  of  Brighton.  Here  is  St  John's 
College  (1849),  a  middle-class  school  in  connection 
with  Lancing  (q.v.).     Pop.  of  parish,  2883. 

Husch,  or  Husi,  a  town  of  Moldavia,  near  the 
Pruth,  38  miles  SSE.  of  Jassy.  Fugitive  Hussites 
founded  it  in  the  15th  century.     Pop.  18,500. 

Husum,  an  old  town  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Sleswick-Holstein,  23  miles  W.  of  Sleswick  by 
rail  and  2^  from  the  North  Sea.    Pop.  8267. 

Hutchinson,  a  town  of  Kansas,  on  the  Arkansas 
River,  48  miles  NW.  of  Wichita.     Pop.  9682. 

Huy  (Hoo-ee ;  Flem.  Hocy),  a  town  of  Belgium, 
is  romantically  situated  amid  lofty  rocks  on  the 
Meuse,  19  miles  SW.  of  Liege  by  rail.  Its  citadel 
(1822)  commands  the  passage  of  tlie  river,  and  its 
trade  depends  on  ironworks,  coal-mines,  and 
manufactures  of  paper,  leather,  beer,  spirits,  &c. 
Pop.  14,403.  Peter  the  Hermit  founded  here  the 
former  abbey  of  Neufmoustier  (Novum  Monas- 
terium),  and  here  in  1115  he  died. 

Hybla,  three  cities  of  ancient  Sicily. 


HYDASPES 


349 


IBEA 


Hydaspes.    See  Jhelum. 

Hydo,  an  important  manufacturing  town  of 
Cheshire,  7  miles  ESE.  of  Manchester,  and  5  NE. 
of  Stockport.  Standing  in  a  coalfield,  and  enjoy- 
ing ample  facilities  of  communication  by  road, 
rail,  and  canal,  it  has  risen  from  a  mere  village 
to  a  considerable  town,  which  in  1881  was  in- 
corporated as  a  municipal  borough.  Cotton  is  of 
course  the  staple  manufacture ;  then  come  the 
felt-hat  industry,  engineering,  boiler-making,  &c. 
The  town-hall  is  a  handsome  building.  Pop. 
(1811)  1806  ;  (1861)  13,722  ;  (1901)  32,768. 

Hyde  Park,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Massa- 
chusetts, on  the  Neponset  River,  8  miles  by  rail 
S.  by  W.  of  Boston.     Pop.  13,293. 

Hyderabad  (Haidardbdd),  or  the  Nizam's 
Dominions,  a  feudatory  state  of  India,  occupies 
the  greater  part  of  the  Deccan  proper  or  central 
plateau  of  southern  India,  between  the  provinces 
of  Madras  and  Bombay.  Area,  82,698  sq.  in.  (ex- 
cluding the  British  assigned  districts  of  Berar, 
q.v.);  pop.  (1901)  11,141,142.  Only  1,138,666  are 
Mohammedans,  found  mainly  in  the  capital,  though 
the  Nizam  and  state  are  Mohammedan.  Telugu, 
Kanarese,  and  Marathi  are  the  principal  languages 
spoken.  Education  is  making  rapid  strides.  The 
surface  is  a  slightly  elevated  tableland.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Godavari,  with  its  tributaries 
the  Dudna,  Manjira,  and  Pranhita ;  and  the 
Kistna  (Krishna),  with  the  Bhima  and  Tunga- 
bhadra.  In  1687  the  territory,  long  called  the 
Nizam's  Dominions,  became  a  province  of  the 
Mogul  empire  ;  but  soon  after  1713  the  viceroy  of 
the  Deccan  made  himself  independent. 

Hyderabad,  the  capital  of  the  state,  stands  on 
the  Musi's  right  bank,  1700  feet  above  the  sea,  390 
miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Madras.  It  is  6  miles  in 
circumference,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  stone 
wall.  Population,  450,000.  The  palace  of  the 
Nizam,  though  architecturally  unimportant,  is  of 
vast  size.  Hyderabad  is  a  great  stronghold  of 
Mohammedanism.  The  principal  mosque  was 
fashioned  after  the  model  of  the  Great  Mosque  at 
Mecca ;  in  the  interior  are  fine  monolithic  granite 
columns,  and  outside  the  building  is  crowned  by 
lofty  minarets.  Another  remarkable  edifice  is  the 
Char  Minar  or  College,  with  four  minarets  resting 
on  four  connected  arches,  at  which  the  four  prin- 
cipal thoroughfares  converge.  On  the  oi^posite 
side  of  the  river  is  the  jnagnificent  British  Resi- 
dency ;  it  stands  in  the  midst  of  tine  gardens, 
and  communicates  with  the  Nizam's  palace  by  a 
bridge.  The  neighbourhood  boasts  of  wild  and 
picturesque  scenery,  and  abounds  with  huge  tanks 
and  beautiful  gardens. — Secunderabad  (Sikan- 
darabdd)  is  a  British  military  cantonment  6  miles 
NE.  of  Hyderabad. 

Hyderabad,  the  historical  capital  of  Sind,  and 
chief  city  of  a  district,  stands  3^  miles  B.  of  the 
left  bank  of  the  Indus.  On  the  other  side  is  the 
Sind  railway,  terminating  at  Kurrachee.  Hyder- 
abad is  famous  for  its  silks,  gold-work,  pottery, 
lacquered  ware,  and  arms.     Pop.  70,000. 

Hydra,  a  bleak,  rock-bound  Greek  island,  lies 


4  miles  from  the  coast  of  the  Peloponnesian  de- 
partment of  Argolis  and  Corinth.  It  is  a  narrow 
rocky  ridge,  11  miles  long,  1960  feet  high,  and  20 
sq.  m.  in  area.  On  the  north-west  coast  is  the 
seaport  of  Hydra  (6446).  The  7342  islanders, 
mostly  of  Albanian  origin,  make  excellent  sea- 
men, and  carry  on  cotton  and  silk  weaving,  tan- 
ning, shipbuilding,  sponge-fishing,  and  commerce. 
Prior  to  the  war  of  Greek  independence  the 
Hydriotes  numbered  28,000. 

Hyeres,  a  town  of  Provence,  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Var,  on  a  southern  hill-slope,  crowned  by 
a  ruined  castle,  3  miles  from  the  Mediterranean, 
and  13  E.  of  Toulon  by  rail.  Embosomed  in 
palm-groves  and  orange-orchards,  it  is  celebrated 
for  the  beauty  of  its  situation  and  its  mild,  dry 
climate,  and  is  therefore  growing  more  and  more 
in  favour  as  an  invalid  resort  between  October 
and  May.  An  English  church  was  built  in  1884 ; 
and  since  1875  great  improvements  have  been 
carried  out  in  the  way  of  drainage,  water-works, 
boulevards,  &c.  Massillon  was  a  native.  Pop. 
(1872)  5881 ;  X1901)  15,236.  Near  the  coast  lie 
the  wooded  Ilesd'Hyeresor  d'Or(anc.  StecTicwies). 

Hymettus  (now  Trelo  Vouni),  a  mountain  (3368 
feet)  in  Attica,  SE.  of  Athens,  was  famous  of  old 
for  its  honey  and  bluish  marble. 

Hyndlee,  the  Roxburghshire  farm,  10  miles 
SE.  from  Hawick,  of  James  Davidson,  the  proto- 
type of '  Daudie  Dinmont.' 

Hyogo,  or  Kobe,  a  port  of  central  Japan, 
on  the  west  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Osaka,  20  miles 
S.  of  that  city.  Population,  285,000.  The  foreign 
settlement  is  finely  laid  out,  and  the  town  is  one 
of  the  most  attractive  and  prosperous  in  Japan. 
It  has  been  open  to  foreign  trade  since  1860,  and 
has  wharves,  shipbuilding-yards,  and  a  paper-mill. 

Hythe,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough 
and  market-town  of  Kent,  5  miles  WSW.  of 
Folkestone,  and  67  SE.  by  E.  of  London  by  rail, 
is  one  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  although  Lympne  or 
Lymm  (anc.  Partus  Lemanis  of  the  Romans), 
now  3  miles  inland,  was  j^robably  the  original 
harbour.  The  town,  which  is  pleasantly  situ- 
ated some  distance  from  the  sea,  is  built  on 
the  side  of  a  hill.  Its  church,  a  cruciform  build- 
ing of  great  beauty,  in  part  Romanesque,  has 
been  restored  since  1866,  and  contains  in  a  crypt 
an  extraordinary  collection  of  human  skulls  and 
bones.  Near  to  Hythe  are  the  headquarters  of 
the  School  of  Musketry  and  Shornclifte  cainp, 
both  established  in  1854 ;  the  picturesque  ruins 
of  Saltwood  Castle,  with  memories  of  Becket; 
and  the  obsolete  Royal  Military  Canal,  23  miles 
long,  constructed  in  1805  for  the  conveyance  of 
military  stores  to  Rye.  In  1881  a  sea-wall  and 
parade,  extending  from  Hythe  to  Sandgate  and 
Folkestone,  was  opened.  These  and  some  smaller 
places  are  included  in  the  parliamentary  borough 
of  Hythe,  which  since  1S32  has  returned  only  one 
member.  Pop.  of  that  borough  (1851)  13,164; 
(1901)  46,619,  of  whom  5557  were  within  the 
municipal  limits,  which  include  West  Hythe. 


"BADAN,  chief  commercial  town  of  Yoruba 

in  Africa,  in  the  British  colony  of  Lagos, 

124  miles  from  Lagos  by  rail.  Pop.  200,000. 

Ibague,  capital  of  the  department  of 

Tolima  in  Colombia,  60  miles  W.  of  Bogota, 

on  a  fertile  plain  4000  ft.  above  the  sea.  Pop.  12,000. 

Ibajay,  a  town  of  Panay,  in  the  province  of 

Capiz,  in  the  Philippines.    Pop.  12,000. 


Ibarra,  capital  of  Imbabura  province,  Ecuador, 
7000  feet  above  the  sea.    Pop.  10,000. 

Ibea,  a  word  coined  from  the  initials  of  Im- 
perial British  East  Africa,  was  disused  when  in 
1898  the  company  was  superseded  by  the  British 
Foreign  Office.  British  East  Africa  consists  of 
the  East  Africa  Protectorate  (200,000  sq.  miles  on 
the  mainland  ;  jiop.  4,000,000),  with  the  Uganda 


IBERIA 


350 


ICELAND 


(q.v.)  Protectorate,  and  the  islands  of  Zanzibar 
and  Peiuba,  governed  through  their  sultan. 

Iberia,  the  name  by  which  Georgia  (q.v.)  was 
known  to  the  Greeks  and  Romans  ;  and  also  an 
ancient  name  for  Spain. 

Ibrall.    See  Bra  i  la. 

Ibrox,  a  south-west  suburb  of  Glasgow. 

lea,  a  coast  dep.  of  Peru,  with  an  area  of  6295 
sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  90,111.  The  capital,  lea,  is 
50  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Pisco,  its  port.    Pop.  9000. 

Iceland,  an  island  in  the  North  Atlantic  imme- 
diately south  of  the  Polar  Circle,  which  just 
touches  its  northernmost  point.  It  lies  between 
63°  23'  and  66°  33'  N.  lat.,  and  between  13°  22'  and 
24°  15'  W.  long.  The  distance  from  Iceland  to 
Greenland  is  about  250  miles,  to  Norway  600,  to 
the  Faroe  Islands  250,  and  to  Scotland  500.  Its 
area  is  40,300  sq.  m.  (more  than  a  third  larger 
than  Scotland) ;  its  length  from  east  to  west  300 
miles,  and  its  breadth  from  north  to  south  200. 
The  south  coast  from  east  to  west  is  entirely 
wanting  in  bays  and  ^ords.  Other  parts  of  the 
coast,  especially  the  north-west  and  east  coasts, 
are  very  much  indented  by  fjords  and  bays,  so 
that  the  coast-line,  measured  i'rom  point  to  point, 
is  only  900  miles,  but  following  the  indentations 
would  be  over  2000. 

Taken  as  a  whole,  Iceland  may  be  said  to  be  a 
tableland  about  2000  feet  high.  In  some  parts 
it  slopes  pretty  evenly  down  to  the  coast— e.g. 
on  the  south  side  between  EyafjallajokuU  and 
Reykjanes.  Here  is  the  largest  extent  of  low- 
land, about  1400  sq.  m.  The  fjords  in  the  north- 
west, north,  and  east  are  mostly  narrow  cut- 
tings, and  hills  rise  to  about  2000  feet  abruptly 
from  the  water,  ending  in  steep  precipices,  which 
afford  breeding- places  to  myriads  of  sea-fowl.  In 
the  north,  and  in  some  parts  of  the  east,  there 
are  several  broad  valleys  running  from  the  fjords 
into  the  interior.  Iceland  is  throughout  vol- 
canic. The  interior  and  highest  part  of  the  island 
consists  of  volcanic  tufa ;  the  hills  of  the  east  and 
west  are  mainly  basaltic.  The  whole  of  the  in- 
terior is  occupied  by  barren  sands,  lava  tracts, 
and  icefields.  The  largest  of  these  lava  tracts  is 
OdAthahraun,  about  1200  sq.  m.  The  largest  ice- 
field is  that  of  VatnajokuU,  about  3000  sq.  m., 
and  all  the  icefields  together  cover  5360  sq.  ni. 
At  the  south-east  corner  of  VatnajokuU  is  the 
highest  mountain  in  Iceland,  called  Oraefajokull 
(6550  feet) ;  its  upper  part  is  covered  with  ever- 
lasting snow  or  ice,  as  more  or  less  are  all  moun- 
tains above  4000  feet,  the  snow-line  being  usually 
at  from  3000  to  4000  feet.  There  are  twenty 
volcanoes  which  have  been  active  since  the  island 
was  inhabited ;  the  eruptions  of  Hecla  (q.v.)  have 
been  most  frequent.  Laki,  near  Skapta,  in  1783 
threw  out  a  lava  stream  45  miles  long  and  nearly 
15  broad — an  outpour  unexampled  anywhere  else. 
Tlie  south-west  peninsula,  Reykjanes,  has  fre- 
quently been  disturbed  by  volcanic  outbursts  ; 
and  islands  in  the  sea  round  it  have  been  thrown 
up  or  submerged  alternately  by  submarine  vol- 
canic action.  As  a  result  of  this  volcanic  activity, 
2400  sq.  m.  of  Iceland  are  covered  with  lava. 
Many  of  the  ice-hills  have  been  active  volcanoes 
during  the  last  600  years,  such  as  Oraefajokull 
and  EyaQallajokuU.  These  ice-volcanoes  never 
throw  out  any  lava,  but  mud  and  ashes. 

The  numerous  hot  springs  scattered  about  the 
island  are  in  many  parts  made  use  of  by  the 
inhabitants  for  cooking  and  washing  purposes ; 
some  are  just  warm  enough  for  bathing,  others 
convert  tifieir  water  into  steam  at  a  degree  far 
above  the  boiling-point.     The  most  famous  is 


the  Great  Geyser,  near  Hecla.  Earthquakes 
sometimes  do  much  damage.  Many  rivers,  all  too 
rapid  to  be  navigable,  and  the  longest  over  100 
miles,  run  from  the  interior  either  north  or  south. 
Lakes  also  are  numerous,  and  pretty  waterfalls. 
The  climate  of  the  south  of  Iceland  is  somewhat 
like  that  of  the  north  of  Scotland— i.e.  rather  wet 
and  changeable,  but  colder.  In  the  north  the 
climate  is  drier  and  colder  still.  The  winter  is 
mild  considering  the  latitude,  but  spring  and 
summer  are  frequently  cold.  The  greatest  pecu- 
liarity of  the  climate  is  the  varying  mean  tem- 
perature of  the  same  month,  the  difference  some- 
times being  27°.  This  is  owing  to  the  arrival  or 
non-arrival  of  the  Greenland  ice,  which  not  un- 
frequently  blocks  up  the  north  and  east  coasts 
from  April  to  September.  Sulphur,  lignite,  and 
brown  coal  are  found,  as  well  as  iron  and  lime. 
The  only  cereal  is  inelur,  a  kind  of  wild  oats. 
Turnips,  carrots,  cabbages,  and  potatoes  thrive 
well,  and  are  cultivated  to  some  extent.  The 
grasses,  both  wild  and  cultivated,  however,  are 
the  principal  product.  Of  trees  there  is  the 
birch,  seldom  exceeding  12  feet  in  height,  and 
some  willows  and  juniper  bushes ;  amongst  the 
heather  are  found  crowberries  and  whortleberries. 
Iceland  moss,  a  kind  of  lichen,  is  plentiful,  and 
is  available  for  food.  There  are  both  white  and 
blue  foxes  ;  and  of  reindeer,  introduced  in  1770, 
there  are  still  a  few  herds  running  wild  on  the 
hills  in  the  interior.  Large  numbers  of  sheep 
are  now  exported  alive  to  Scotland  and  England. 
The  cows  are  small,  but  yield  abundant  milk. 
Thousands  of  ponies  are  brought  to  Scotland  every 
year.  The  genuine  Iceland  dog  resembles  the 
Eskimo  dog  and  the  Scotch  collie.  There  are 
about  22,000  cattle,  1,000,000  sheep,  and  40,000 
ponies.  Of  birds  there  are  immense  numbers, 
especially  of  water-fowl ;  the  most  important 
the  eider-duck.  The  ptarmigan  is  the  only  game- 
bird.  The  most  remarkable  bird  of  prey  is  the 
Icelandic  falcon.  The  whooper  or  wild  swan 
breeds  largely.  The  neighbouring  sea  is  very 
rich  in  fish,  especially  cod  and  herring ;  the  fish- 
eries, very  important  to  the  islanders,  also  attract 
French  and  Norwegians.  Finbacked  whales  and 
seals  are  also  numerous.  Many  of  the  salmon  and 
trout  rivers  are  rented  by  Englishmen. 

Iceland  was  discovered  about  800  by  Irishmen 
or  Scots,  but  they  did  not  make  any  permanent 
settlement.  In  874  it  was  rediscovered  and 
colonised  by  Norwegians,  who  preferred  to  leave 
their  native  land  rather  than  submit  to  the  rule 
of  Harold  Haarfager,  In  about  sixty  years  the 
whole  island  was  inhabited,  and  an  aristocratic 
republic  was  formed.  In  1262-64  the  Icelanders 
acknowledged  the  sovereignty  of  the  king  of 
Norway  ;  in  1388,  when  Norway  was  united  with 
Denmark,  Iceland  shared  the  same  fate ;  but 
when  Denmark  had  to  give  up  Norway  in  1814, 
Iceland  remained  with  Denmark.  In  1874  a  new 
constitution  was  granted,  and  in  1893  a  form  of 
home  rule.  Christianity  was  introduced  in  1000, 
and  the  Reformation  about  the  middle  of  the  16th 
century.  Church  matters  are  now  superintended 
by  one  Lutheran  bishop  at  Reykjavik.  The  most 
notable  events  in  the  recent  history  of  Iceland 
are  calamities  caused  by  volcanic  outbursts, 
severe  seasons,  epidemics,  and,  in  some  cases,  mis- 
government.  Pop.  (1801)  46,240 ;  (1880)  72,442 ; 
(1901)  78,470.  Since  1870  there  has  been  consider- 
able emigration  to  America.  In  the  12th  and  13th 
centuries  the  Icelanders  produced  more  vernacu- 
lar literature  than  any  other  nation  in  Europe ; 
the  present-day  elementary  education  is  so 
general  that  a  child  of  ten  unable  to  read  ia 


ICHANG 


351 


ILETZK 


quite  an  exception.  Tlie  Icelandic  still  spoken 
is  practically  the  old  Norse  tongue  once  spoken 
in  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark.  Reykjavik 
(pop.  6000),  on  the  south-west  coast,  is  the  capital. 
Isatjord  in  tlie  north-west  and  Akureyri  in  the 
north  have  each  about  500  inhabitants.  For  the 
rest  the  population  is  scattered  all  round  the 
island  on  isolated  farms.  The  principal  means  of 
support  of  the  Icelanders  are  the  rearing  of  live- 
stock and  fishing.  The  only  native  industry  con- 
sists in  working  the  wool  of  the  sheep  into  various 
articles  of  clothing ;  this  is  chiefly  done  by  the 
women  in  winter.  The  Icelanders  make  a  sort 
of  tweed,  the  principal  clothing  material  of  the 
inhabitants.  See  works  by  C.  S.  Forbes  (1860), 
Baring-Gould  (1864),  Sir  R.  Burton  (1875),  and 
W.  L.  Watts  (1877). 

Ichang,  a  walled  Chinese  town,  stands  on  the 
Yang-tsze-kiang,  where  it  escapes  from  the  lime- 
stone gorges  of  its  middle  course,  and  1000  miles 
from  Shanghai  at  its  moutli.  In  1877  it  was 
declared  open  to  foreign  trade.     Pop.  35,575. 

Icknield  Street,  an  ancient  Roman  road,  cross- 
ing England  from  Norfolk  to  Land's  End. 

Ickwortli  House,  the  splendid  seat  (1792)  of 
the  Marquis  of  Bristol,  in  Suffolk,  3  miles  SW. 
of  Bury  St  Edmunds. 

Icolmkill.    See  Iona. 

Iconium,  an  ancient  town  of  Asia  Minor,  situ- 
ated on  the  VV.  edge  of  the  plateau  skirting  the 
northern  slopes  of  the  Taurus  Mountains,  310 
miles  E.  of  Smyrna.  In  1832  Ibrahim  Pasha 
defeated  the  Turks  there.  The  modern  Konieh 
or  KoNiYA,  the  capital  of  a  Turkish  vilayet,  has 
a  pop.  of  20,000  or  30,000.  Here  is  the  chief 
monastery  of  the  Mevlevi  or  'dancing '  dervishes. 
Ruins  of  mosques,  madrasas  (colleges),  &c.  attest 
its  decayed  splendour. 

Ida,  a  mountain-range  in  Asia  Minor,  extend- 
ing from  Phrygia  through  Mysia  into  the  Troad. 
Troy  stood  at  its  base.  On  the  highest  peak 
(5749  feet)  was  a  temple  of  Cybele,  the  Idccan 
Mother.  From  Ida  flow  the  Granicus,  Simois, 
and  Scamander.— On  another  Ida  (8055  feet)  in 
Crete,  Zeus  was  said  to  have  been  educated. 

I'daho,  till  1890  a  territory,  now  a  state  of  the 
American  Union,  lies  between  42°  and  49°  N.  lat., 
and  mainly  between  111°  and  114°  W.  long.  Its 
greatest  length  is  490  miles ;  the  breadth  varies 
from  42  miles  at  the  'pan-handle'  which  forms 
the  northern  part,  to  300  miles  along  the  south- 
ern boundary.  Its  area  is  84,800  sq.  m.  One  of 
the  main  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  sep- 
arates Idaho  from  Montana,  and  in  the  south  is 
part  of  the  continental  divide  between  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.  About  70,000  sq. 
m.  of  the  area  is  situated  in  the  drainage  basin 
of  the  Columbia  River,  the  rest  in  the  Great 
Basin.  Except  a  small  area  in  the  south,  the 
entire  surface  is  rugged  and  mountainous,  tra- 
versed by  spurs  of  the  high  range  in  the  north- 
east, of  which  Salmon  River  Mountains  separate 
northern  Idaho  from  the  plateau-region  in  the 
centre  and  south.  Most  of  these  ranges  reach 
elevations  of  10,000  feet  and  upwards ;  the  average 
height  of  the  state  is  about  5000  feet.  The  lowest 
level  is  the  valley  of  Snake  River,  which  at  Boise 
City  (the  capital)  is  2000  feet  above  the  sea-level. 
Snake  River,  Shoshone,  or  Lewis  River  drains  by 
far  the  largest  part  of  the  state.  In  its  course 
(about  850  miles  in  length),  open  valleys  alternate 
with  narrow  canons  through  which  the  river  flows 
in  '  dalles '  and  cataracts.  Shoshone  Falls  almost 
rival  those  of  Niagara.    Salmon  River,  a  tribu- 


tary, drains  the  central  part.  There  are  two  lake- 
regions  :  one  in  the  pan-handle,  the  other  in  the 
south-east.  The  former  includes  Pend  d'Oreille, 
Cceur  d'Alene  and  Kaniksu  lakes;  the  latter, 
John  Day  and  Bear  lakes.  These  lake-regions 
abound  in  game.  Vegetation  is  abundant  in  the 
northern  and  central  parts,  but  not  in  the  arid 
lands  of  the  south,  where  irrigation  is  necessary. 
Forests  of  conifers  cover  the  western  slopes  of 
the  Bitter  Root  and  Cceur  d'Alene  mountains. 
In  the  central  and  southern  part  the  forests  give 
place  to  extensive  mesas  overgrown  with  sage 
brush,  and  rolling  lands  covered  with  bunch 
grass.  The  mineral  wealth  consists  chiefly  in 
silver,  lead,  gold,  copper,  and  co.al.  In  the  basin- 
region  of  the  south-east  soda,  gypsum,  sulphur, 
&c.  abound.  Mineral  springs  are  numerous.  The 
climate  is  exceedingly  healthy.  Grain-farming 
is  of  necessity  confined  to  the  narrow  river- 
valleys,  and,  as  a  whole,  Idaho  is  best  adapted 
to  stock-raising.  Pop.  (1870)  14,999;  (1880) 
32,610;  (1890)  84,385,  nearly  a  fifth  being  Mor- 
mons  ;  (1900)  161,772,  including  2297  Indians. 

Iddesleigh,  a  Devon  parish,  4  miles  NE.  of 
Hatherleigh.  It  gave  his  earl's  title  (1885)  to 
Sir  Stafford  Northcote. 

Idle,  in  1899  incorporated  with  Bradford,  was 
till  then  a  distinct  Yorkshire  town,  lying  to  the 
east  of  Bradford. 

Idria,  an  Austrian  town  in  Carniola,  celebrated 
since  1497  for  its  quicksilver  mines,  lies  1093  feet 
above  sea-level  in  the  deep  valley  of  the  river 
Idria,  23  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Laibach.    Pop.  5984. 

Idumaea.    See  Edom. 

If,  a  rocky  island  in  the  Gulf  of  Marseilles, 
crowned  by  the  Chateau  d'lf,  built  by  Francis  I. 
Here  were  confined  Mirabeau  and  Philip  Egalite, 
not  to  mention  'Monte  Cristo.' 

Iffley,  a  village,  with  a  fine  Norman  church, 
on  the  Isis,  1|  mile  below  Oxford. 

Ifnl,  a  small  seaport  of  southern  Morocco,  35 
miles  S.  of  Aguilon,  ceded  to  Spain  in  1883. 

Iglau  (Bohm.  Jihlava),  the  second  largest  town 
of  Moravia,  is  situated  1703  feet  above  sea-level, 
on  the  river  Iglawa,  close  to  the  Bohemian 
boundary,  123  miles  NNW.  of  Vienna  by  rail. 
It  has  some  old  churches  (one  founded  in  799). 
Its  staples  are  cloth  and  woollen  goods,  besides 
glass  and  tobacco.    Pop.  24,378. 

Igloollk,  an  island  near  the  east  end  of  Fury 
and  Hecla  Strait  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Here 
Parry  passed  the  winter  of  1822-23. 

Igualada,  a  town  of  Spain,  32  miles  NW.  of 
Barcelona.    Pop,  10,218. 

Ilala,  a  place  near  the  south  shore  of  Lake 
Bangweolo  in  British  S.  Africa,  where  Dr  Living- 
stone died. 

n' Chester,  a  decayed  village  of  Somerset,  on 
the  Yeo,  5  miles  NW.  of  Yeovil.  Supposed  to  be 
the  Ischalis  of  Ptolemy,  it  was  an  important 
Roman  station,  and  a  flourishing  Saxon  town. 
Roger  Bacon  was  a  native.  Till  1832  Ilchester 
returned  two  members.     Pop.  664. 

ile-de-France,  an  old  province  of  France,  having 
Paris  for  capital,  and  now  mostly  comprised  in 
the  deps.  of  Seine,  Seine-et-Oise,  Aisne,  Seine-et- 
Marne,  Somme,  and  Oise.  Ile-de-France  was  the 
former  name  of  Mauritius. 

netzk,  a  town  in  the  Russian  government  of 
Orenburg,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Ilek  with 
the  Ural.  Pop.  9769.  Close  by  is  the  richest 
salt-bed  in  Russia. 


ILFORD 


352 


INAGUA 


nford,  a  town  of  Essex,  on  the  Roding,  3J 
miles  ENE.  of  Stratford.     Pop.  (1901)  41,234. 

Ilfracombe  (Il'fra-coom),  a  watering-place  of 
North  Devon,  is  finely  situated  on  a  cove  of  the 
Bristol  Channel,  11  miles  NNW.  of  Barnstaple 
(15  by  a  branch-line).  Its  air  '  combines  the  soft 
warmth  of  South  Devon  with  tlie  bracing  fresh- 
ness of  the  "Welsh  mountains '  (Charles  Kingsley). 
This  and  its  fine  rocky  coast-scenery  and  admir- 
able sea-bathing  annually  attract  large  nunrbers 
of  visitox's.  On  the  north  side  of  the  good  harbour 
there  is  a  lighthouse,  the  light,  127  feet  above 
high-water,  being  visible  for  10  miles.  In  the 
14th  century  it  was  a  port  of  some  consequence, 
and  contributed  six  vessels  to  the  siege  of  Calais. 
Population,  8700. 

Ilhavo,  a  Portuguese  town,  40  miles  S.  of 
Oporto.  Near  it  are  the  glass  and  porcelain 
works  of  Vista  Alegre.    Pop.  12,600. 

ni.    See  KuLJA. 

Ilkeston,  a  market-town  of  Derbyshire,  near 
the  Erewash  River,  9  miles  ENE.  of  Derby,  and 
20  S.  of  Chesterfield.  It  enjoys  repute  from  its 
alkaline  spring  and  baths  (opened  in  1830).  The 
parish  church,  with  a  lofty  pinnacled  tower,  has 
interesting  Norman  and  Early  English  features. 
The  town-hall  was  built  in  1868.  Ilkeston  has 
manufactures  of  hosiery,  lace,  silk,  and  earthen- 
ware, with  coal  and  iron  mines  in  the  vicinity. 
In  1251  a  charter  for  holding  a  market  and  fair 
here  was  granted  to  Hugh  Fitz-Ralph  ;  and  in  1887 
Ilkeston  was  incorporated  as  a  municipal  borough. 
Pop.  (1861)  3330  ;  (1881)  14,122  ;  (1901)  25,383. 

Ilkley,  a  watering-place  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  on  the  Wharfe,  among  heathery  hills, 
13  miles  NNW.  of  Bradford  and  16  NW.  of  Leeds 
by  a  branch-line  (1865).  Since  1846  it  has  become 
the  seat  of  several  hydropathic  establishments— 
Ilkley  Wells  House,  Ben-Rhydding  (q.v.),  &c.  It 
occupies  the  site  of  a  Roman  station,  and  in  the 
churchyard  are  three  curious  Saxon  crosses ; 
whilst  Bolton  Abbey  (q.v.)  is  5  miles  north-west. 
Pop.  (1851)  811 ;  (1901)  7455. 

ni,  a  river  of  Alsace,  flowing  127  miles  NNE. 
to  the  Rhine,  9  miles  below  Strasburg. 

nie-et-Vilaine,  a  maritime  French  dep.,  formed 
out  of  the  north-eastern  portion  of  the  old  prov- 
ince of  Brittany.  Area,  2596  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
(1872)  589,532  ;  (1901)  611,477,  mostly  of  Celtic 
race.  It  is  watered  chiefly  by  the  Vilaine  and  its 
tributary  the  Hie,  which  unite  near  Rennes.— The 
dep.  is  divided  into  six  arrondissements — Rennes 
(the  capital),  Foug^res,  Montfort,  St  Malo  (the 
chief  seaport),  Vitre,  and  Redon. 

niima'nl,  a  chief  summit  (21,150  feet)  of  the 
Bolivian  Andes,  40  miles  SE.  of  La  Paz. 

Illinois  (Ill-i-noy'),  seventeenth  in  area  of  the 
United  States,  but  third  in  population,  extends 
from  Wisconsin  and  Lake  Michigan  on  the  N.  and 
NE.  to  the  junction  of  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi 
rivers  at  the  extreme  SW.— a  distance  of  nearly 
400  miles.  It  is  bounded  E.  by  Indiana,  from 
which  it  is  partly  separated  by  the  Wabash  River ; 
S.  it  is  separated  from  Kentucky  by  the  Ohio ; 
and  on  the  W.  the  Mississippi  flows  between  it 
and  Iowa  and  Missouri.  The  area  is  56,650  sq.  m., 
or  nearly  that  of  England  and  Wales.  Tlie  sur- 
face of  Illinois  is  the  most  level  of  any  state, 
except  Delaware  and  Louisiana ;  and  its  wide 
grassy  plains,  though  broken  by  numerous  streams 
fringed  with  belts  of  fine  timber,  have  gained  for 
it  the  name  of  the  Prairie  State.  The  Illinois 
River  is  formed  by  the  union  of  two  streams, 
45  miles  SW.  of  Lake  Michigan,  and  flows  500 


miles  SW.  to  the  Mississippi.  The  fertile  soil— 
a  heavy  black  loam— with  a  favourable  climate, 
makes  this  the  richest  agricultural  state  in  the 
Union ;  and  Illinois  ranks  first  for  the  production 
of  corn,  cattle,  hogs,  and  horses.  The  mineral 
output,  especially  of  bituminous  coal,  is  also 
large,  nearly  a  fifth  of  the  entire  coalfield  of  the 
United  States  being  found  in  this  state.  Other 
minerals  are  lead,  limestone,  salt,  and  fluor-spar. 
The  position  of  Illinois  presents  unusual  facilities 
for  commerce.  The  rivers  that  cross  or  touch 
the  state  are  navigable  for  over  400  miles, 
while  by  way  of  the  great  lakes  Chicago  has 
also  a  water-highway  to  the  Atlantic,  More- 
over, Illinois  has  more  railroads  than  any  other 
state,  upwards  of  10,800  miles.  Formerly  a  part 
of  the  North-west  Territory,  Illinois  was  organ- 
ised as  a  territory  in  1809,  and  admitted  as  a 
state  in  1818,  with  a  pop.  of  34,620.  Pop.  (1830) 
157,445;  (1850)  851,470;  (1870)  2,539,891;  (1880) 
3,077,871 ;  (1900)  4,821,550.  Chicago  is  by  far  the 
largest  city ;  its  limits  embrace  more  than  a 
fourth  of  the  entire  population  of  the  state. 
Peoria,  Quincy,  Springfield  (the  capital),  and 
Rockford  rank  next  in  population.  During  the 
civil  war  the  state  contributed  259,092  men  to 
the  Union  armies,  of  whom  over  29,000  were 
killed  in  action  or  died  of  wounds  or  disease. 
See  works  by  S.  Breese  (Chicago,  1884),  and  J. 
Moses  (Chicago,  1889). 

lUyria  (Lat.  Illyrimm),  the  country  that 
stretched  along  the  eastern  side  of  the  Adriatic 
Sea,  from  Epirus  northwards,  coinciding  now 
with  Bosnia,  Dalmatia,  Montenegro,  «&c. 

nmen,  a  lake  of  Russia,  witli  an  area  of  354 
sq.  m.,  discharging  through  the  river  Volkliof  to 
Lake  Ladoga. 

Ilmenau,  a  town  and  summer  resort  in  Saxe- 
Weiinar,  30  miles  S.  of  Erfurt,  manufactures  glass, 
pottery,  toys,  and  ironware.     Pop.  11,000. 

Ilminster,  a  market-town  of  Somerset,  on  tlie 
Isle,  11  miles  SE.  of  Taunton.     Pop.  2300. 

II  Obeid.     See  Obeid. 

Ilorl,  or  Illorin,  capital  of  a  territory  in 
Nigeria,  and  an  important  commercial  centre, 
stands  at  an  elevation  of  1300  feet,  160  miles 
NNE.  of  Lagos  on  the  coast,  and  50  SW.  of  tiie 
Niger.  Once  an  independent  Yoruba  state,  it 
became  subject  to  Sokoto,  and  so  came  into  the 
sphere  of  the  Niger  Company  ;  since  1897  it  gives 
name  to  a  province  of  (British)  Northern  Nigeria. 

Ilsley,  East,  a  Berkshire  market-town,  amid 
bleak  downs,  9  miles  N.  of  Newbury  and  6J  S. 
of  Didcot.  Its  sheep-markets  count  among  the 
most  hnportant  in  the  kingdom.  Pop.  519.  Arch- 
bishop de  Dominis  was  rector  of  West  Ilsley,  2 
miles  north-west.     Pop.  376. 

Imbros,  a  Turkish  island  of  the  ^gean  Sea, 
14  miles  NE.  of  Lemnos,  and  14  W.  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Dardanelles.  Area,  98  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  9000, 
mostly  of  Greek  descent.  It  attains  1959  feet 
above  sea-level.  The  chief  village,  Kastro,  on 
the  north  coast,  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient 
town  of  Imbros. 

Imeritia.    See  Caucasus. 

I'mola  (anc.  Fomm  Cornelii),  a  picturesque 
town  of  Italy,  on  an  islet  formed  by  the  river 
Santerno  (Vatremis),  22  miles  SE.  of  Bologna  by 
rail.  Its  cathedral  has  been  spoiled  by  modern 
restoration.     Pop.  12,500. 

Imphail,  the  native  name  of  Manipur  (q.v.). 

Inaccessible  Island.    See  Tristan  da  Cunha. 

Inagua.    See  Bahamas. 


INCHAFFRAY 


353 


INDIA 


Inchaffray,  a  ruined  Augustinian  abbey  (1200) 
of  Perthshire,  (5^  miles  E.  by  N.  ol'  Criott'. 
Inchcape.    See  Bell  Rock. 
Inchcolm  ('  Columba's  island '),  a  Fife  islet,  in 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  1^  mile  S.  by  W.  of  Aberdour. 
It  has  remains  of  a  12th-century  Augustinian 
abbey  and  an  earlier  hermitage. 
Inchgarvie.    See  Forth  Bridge. 
Inchkeith,  a  strongly  fortified  islet  of  Fife,  in 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  2|  miles  SSE.  of  Kingliorn 
Ness,     It  rises  to  182  feet,  and  is  crowned  by  a 
lighthouse,  dating  from  1803. 
Inchmahome.    See  Menteith. 
India,  the  Indian  empire  of  the  British  crown, 
is  an  extensive  region  of  southern  Asia,  and  next 
after  China  the  most  populous  area  in  the  world. 
The  name  India  is  a  Greek  word  from  the  Persian 
Huul,  the  Persian  form  of  Sindliu,  a  Sanskrit 
name  for  the  Indus  River.     Hindustan  is  pro- 
perly only  a  province — the  region  of  the  Jumna 
and  the  Ganges.     'Further  India'  is  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula. 

India  is  the  central  peninsula  of  southern 
Asia,  and  lies  in  8"  4'— 35"  N,  lat.  and  67°— 92° 
E.  long.,  with  a  length  of  some  1900  miles,  a 
breadth  of  1600,  and  an  area— inclusive  of 
Burma— of  1,766,650  sq.  m.  The  natural  bound- 
aries of  this  vast  region  are,  on  the  N.,  the  range 
of  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  which  separates  it 
from  Tartary,  China,  and  Tibet ;  on  the  W.  the 
mountainous  frontiers  of  Afghanistan  and,  further 
south,  of  Persia  ;  on  the  SW.  and  S.  the  Arabian 
Sea  and  the  Indian  Ocean ;  on  the  E.  the  hill- 
ranges  which  border  upon  Burma  and  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  The  region  presents  a  diversified  surface 
and  scenery.  It  has  indeed  been  called  'an  epi- 
tome of  the  whole  earth,'  consisting  as  it  does  of 
mountains  far  above  the  level  of  perpetual  snow, 
broad  and  fertile  plains,  bathed  in  intense  sun- 
shine, arid  wastes,  and  impenetrable  forests.  Its 
natural  divisions  are  the  Himalaya,  the  sub- 
Himalayan  ranges,  the  plains  of  the  Ganges  and 
the  Brahmaputra,  the  basin  of  the  Indus,  the 
highlands  of  Hindustan,  the  Vindhya  and  Sat- 
pura  ranges,  and  the  peninsula  south  of  those 
ranges.  The  Himalaya  (q.v.)  is  the  dominating 
factor  in  the  geography  of  northern  India,  being 
the  source  of  the  Indus,  the  Ganges,  the  Brahma- 
putra, and  of  their  principal  aflluents.  The  sub- 
Himalayan  ranges,  between  the  Himalaya  and 
the  plains  of  the  Ganges  and  Indus,  occupy  Cash- 
mere, the  Simla  hill-states,  Gurhwal,  Kumaon, 
Nepal,  Sikkim,  and  Bhutan,  which,  owing  to  their 
elevation  above  the  sea  (5000  to  9000  feet),  have 
a  climate  like  central  Europe  in  summer  and 
cold  as  Switzerland  in  winter.  The  plains  of  the 
Ganges  and  the  Brahmaputra,  which  include 
Bengal,  Behar,  the  Doab,  Oudh,  and  Rohilcund, 
form  an  alluvial  flat,  terminating  in  a  delta  at 
the  Bay  of  Bengal.  The  Punjab  occupies  the 
northern  portion  of  the  basin  of  the  Indus. 
South  of  the  Pun,jab,  and  parallel  with  the  river, 
the  great  sandy  desert  of  the  Indus  extends  for 
nearly  500  miles.  The  valley  of  the  Indus  is 
continued  through  Sind  to  the  Arabian  Sea. 
Between  the  Indus  region  and  the  Aravalli  Hills 
lies  the  Thur  desert,  400  miles  long  and  100 
broad.  It  is  only  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the 
Indus  and  some  of  its  tributaries  that  the  surface 
can  be  cultivated  by  means  of  river-irrigation. 
The  highlands  of  Hindustan  include  the  table- 
land of  Malwa  and  Rajputana  or  Rajasthan, 
which  has  an  elevation  of  about  2000  feet. 

The  Vindhya  and  Satpura  ranges,  running  from 

east  to  west,  with  an  elevation  from  2500  to  4000 

W 


feet,  form,  with  the  Nerbudda  River  between 
them,  a  broad  wall  dividing  northern  from 
southern  India.  The  peninsula  south  of  the  Sat- 
pura range  is  in  two  divisions.  The  first,  the 
Deccan  (q.v.),  is  a  central  tableland  rising  from 
1500  to  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  and  enclosed  on 
all  sides  by  mountain-ranges.  ITiese  ranges  are 
the  Satpuras,  the  Eastern  Ghats,  and  the  Western 
Ghats.  Between  the  Eastern  Ghats  and  the  sea 
are  fertile  littoral  tracts  known  to  history  as  the 
Northern  Circars  and  the  Carnatic.  Between 
the  Western  Ghats  and  the  sea  is  a  similar  tract 
known  geographically  as  the  Konkan.  As  a 
northern  continuation  of  this  tract  is  Gi\jarat, 
with  its  offshoots  the  peninsulas  of  Kathiawar 
and  Cutch.  From  the  low  land  of  the  Konkan 
to  the  Deccan  plateau  the  mountains  rise  in  a 
succession  of  gigantic  terraces.  The  rivers  of 
the  Deccan  rise  in  the  Western  Ghats,  and,  after 
traversing  the  tableland,  descend  to  the  sea  by 
passages  through  the  Eastern  Ghats.  The  slope 
of  the  country  corresponds  with  the  course  of 
the  rivers  ;  it  has  a  gradual  eastward  inclination. 
The  second  division  begins  geographically  from 
the  hills  south  of  Cuddapah,  extends  right  down 
to  Cape  Comorin  as  to  the  apex  of  an  inverted 
triangle,  and  includes  Madras,  Tanjore,  Trichino- 
poli.  and  Tinnevelli. 

There  are  auriferous  deposits  in  parts  of  the 
Deccan.  Silver  has  never  been  discovered  in 
appreciable  quantity  within  the  country ;  in  the 
Shan  dependencies  of  Burma,  however,  it  is  ex- 
tracted from  lead  ore.  Coal  is  obtained  largely 
in  western  Bengal,  in  the  Satpura  Hills  to  a 
considerable  extent,  and  in  the  Deccan  to  some 
extent.  Iron  and  copper  are  found  and  worked 
in  many  parts  of  the  country.  Diamonds  are 
still  found  in  the  central  hills,  and  ruby-mines 
are  worked  near  the  Irawadi.  The  mineral  re- 
sources on  the  whole  are  less  important  than 
the  agricultural.  In  a  country  extending  over 
26°  of  latitude— one  extremity  of  which  runs 
far  into  the  torrid  zone,  and  the  other  ter- 
minates in  a  range  of  mountains  rising  far 
above  the  line  of  perpetual  snow— a  country  em- 
bracing lowland  plains,  elevated  plateaus,  and 
alpine  regions,  the  climate  must  be  extremely 
varied.  The  whole  country  has  three  well-marked 
seasons— the  cool,  the  hot,  and  the  rainy.  This 
characteristic  applies  even  to  the  Himalayas, 
which  have  otherwise  a  climate  like  that  of 
Switzerland.  The  cool  months  are  November, 
December,  January,  and  a  part  of  February  ;  the 
dry  hot  weather  precedes,  and  the  moist  hot 
weather  follows  the  periodical  rains.  The  rainy 
season  falls  in  the  middle  of  summer ;  its  begin- 
ning is  earlier  or  later  according  to  circumstances, 
its  ending  is  in  September.  The  winter  is  the 
pleasant  period ;  the  spring  is  generally  hot  and 
healthy  ;  the  summer  depends  on  the  duration 
of  the  rains  ;  the  autumn  is  close,  malarious, 
and  unhealthy.  The  occasional  failure  of  the 
monsoon  causes  the  periodical  famines  to  which 
the  country  is  liable.  The  central  tableland  is 
cool  comparatively.  In  the  north-west  there  is 
burning  heat  with  hot  winds  in  summer,  and 
frost  at  night  in  winter.  In  the  south  the  heat 
is  more  tempered,  but  the  winter  is  cool  only, 
and  not  cold.  In  the  north-eastern  and  other 
outlying  parts  the  rainfall  exceeds  75  inches  (at 
Cherra  Punji  600  inches)  in  the  year ;  in  the 
Deccan,  in  the  upper  basins  of  the  Ganges  and 
the  Indus,  it  is  30,  and  in  the  lower  regions  of 
the  Indus  less  than  15  inches.  The  remainder  of 
India  is  placed  between  the  extremes  represented 
by  these  damp  and  dry  belts,  but  is,  as  coni- 


INDIA 


354 


INDIA 


pared  with  Europe,  an  arid  country.  Hence  the 
necessity  of  tanks  and  irrigation  canals. 

The  domesticated  animals  are,  tirst,  the  cattle 
— cows,  buffaloes,  oxen ;  the  last  two  do  the 
work  of  agriculture.  The  bull  and  cow  are  sacred 
animals  to  Hindus,  and  by  them  are  never  killed 
for  food.  The  indigenous  breeds  of  horses  in 
India  are  being  improved  by  the  importation  of 
foreign  sires.  They  have  never  been  employed 
in  agriculture.  The  pony,  the  donkey,  and  the 
mule  are  largely  used.  Sheep  and  goats  are 
abundant.  The  pig  is  plentiful,  but  is  despised 
by  the  upper  and  middle  classes  of  the  people. 
The  wild  animals  include  the  tiger,  panther, 
cheetah,  boar,  bear,  bison,  elephant,  and  rhinoc- 
eros. The  crocodile  and  alligator  infest  most 
of  the  rivers.  Deer  of  all  sorts  abound  every- 
where, and  mainly  supply  sustenance  to  the 
carnivorous  animals.  The  monkeys  are  tame  and 
are  held  sacred.  The  lion,  the  hyjena,  the  lynx, 
and  the  wolf  are  unimportant.  The  elephant  is 
used  for  purposes  of  war  or  of  state.  The  ibex 
and  the  ovis-ammon  (the  wild  goat  and  the  wild 
sheep)  are  found  only  in  the  highest  parts  of  the 
Himalayas.  Poisonous  snakes  abound,  the  worst 
being  the  cobra  da  capello  (the  black-hooded) : 
many  thousands  of  the  natives  die  from  snake- 
bite in  the  year.  The  birds  are  infinitely  various. 
Nearly  half  of  the  country  is  tropical,  though 
none  of  it  is  equatorial,  and  a  part  is  not  only 
temperate,  but  cold ;  accordingly  the  vegetation 
varies  greatly.  As  compared  with  equatorial 
regions,  the  country  has  tropical  products  plen- 
tiful and  good,  but  not  first-rate,  such  as  tobacco, 
sugar,  ginger,  and  spices  of  all  sorts.  Rice  has 
from  time  immemorial  been  a  staple.  Maize  and 
millet  are  articles  of  food  for  the  stronger  races. 
Oil-seeds  are  largely  exported.  The  cultivation 
of  wheat  has  greatly  developed  for  exportation 
since  the  development  of  railways  and  the  open- 
ing of  the  Suez  Canal.  Tea  is  grown  largely 
under  European  supervision  in  the  Eastern  Hima- 
layas, and  already  surpasses  the  China  teas. 
Coffee  is  grown  in  the  south,  but  with  chequered 
success.  Among  the  dyes,  indigo  and  lac  (red) 
are  noteworthy.  The  indigenous  flowers  are  not 
rich,  the  water-lilies  being  the  best ;  the  flower- 
ing shrubs  are  very  fine.  Of  trees  in  the  plains 
near  the  coasts  the  palm  order  with  its  several 
varieties  strikes  the  observer.  Inland  the  mango 
fruit-tree  and  the  orange,  the  umbrageous  banyan, 
the  sacred  peepul,  and  the  bamboo  are  features 
in  the  landscape.  In  the  hills  the  teak  and  other 
useful  timber  trees  are  obtained.  In  the  Hima- 
layas are  the  cedar,  the  pine,  the  fir,  the  juniper. 
Conservation  of  forests  is  now  carefully  attended 
to.  Barely  one-third  of  the  whole  country  is 
cultivated  or  grazed.  Of  the  remainder  a  portion 
is  available  for  cultivation  ;  the  rest  is  unculti- 
vable — hillsides,  deserts,  river-beds,  &c. 

At  the  census  of  1881,  the  total  pop.  was  253 
millions  for  the  British  territories  and  the  native 
states ;  in  1901,  294  millions  including  Burma,  but 
excluding  Ceylon,  Nepal,  Sikkim,  Bhutan,  and  the 
small  French,  Portuguese,  and  Dutch  territories. 
Including  these  the  population  may  be  stated  at 
300  millions.  But  though  populous,  the  country 
is  not  as  a  whole  densely  peopled  ;  the  average 
per  sq.  m.  being  213  for  the  British  area,  98 
for  native  states,  and  167  for  the  whole  country. 
Only  30  millions  are  urban.  Calcutta  has  1,020,987 
inhabitants,  Bombay  976,006,  and  Madras  509,346 ; 
below  these  there  are  other  26  cities  with  more 
than  100,000  inhabitants,  and  49  more  with  over 
50,000.  The  inhabitants  of  India  speak  languages 
belonging  to  four  very  different  stocks— Aryan, 


Dravidian,  Kolarian,  and  Tibeto-Bunnan.  The 
Aryans,  the  dominant  people  of  India,  speak 
tongues  derived  from  the  ancient  Sanskrit,  the 
more  important  being  Bengali,  Uriya,  Hindi, 
Sindhi,  Kashmiri,  and  Gujarati  (Sinhalese  is  the 
language  of  Ceylon).  Urdu  or  Hindustani,  formed 
after  the  Moslem  conquest,  is  Hindi  mixed  with 
Persian  and  Arabic  words.  Of  the  Dravidian 
tongues  of  the  Deccan,  the  chief  are  Tamil, 
Telugu,  Canarese,  and  Malayalam.  The  Kolarian 
tongues  are  named  from  the  Kol  hill-tribes  in  the 
Central  Provinces.  The  Tibeto-Bunnan  tongues 
are  agglutinative.  Of  the  total  pop.  207,147,026 
are  Hindus  or  Brahminists  in  faitli,  62,458,077 
Mohammedans,  8,584,148  aboi'iginal  pagans, 
9,476,759  Buddhists  (almost  all  in  Burma), 
2,195,339  Sikhs  (modified  Hindus),  1,334,148  Jains 
(also  a  modified  Hindu  sect),  94,190  Parsees 
(chiefly  in  Bombay),  2,923,241  Christians  (of 
wliom  1,202,169  are  Roman  Catholics),  and 
18,228  Jews.  Tlie  inhabitants  of  India,  accord- 
ingly, so  far  from  being  one  nation  or  people, 
are  a  congeries  of  peoples  differing  widely  in 
blood,  physique,  character,  language,  and  religion. 
Since  Queen  Victoria  was  proclaimed  Empress, 
India  is  an  empire,  including  the  British  terri- 
tories and  the  Indian  allies,  feudatories,  and 
vassals  from  the  Tibetan  and  Tartar  watershed 
of  the  Himalayas  to  Cape  Comorin.  The  empire 
is  under  one  supreme  authority  in  India— the 
Viceroy  and  Governor-general  in  Council.  It 
may  thus  be  divided  into  two  categories — the 
British  territories,  comprising  about  three-fifths 
of  the  total  area,  and  four-fifths  of  the  total 
population  ;  and  the  native  states.  The  Hima- 
layan states  of  Nepal,  Sikkim,  and  Bhutan  do 
not  ordinarily  appear  in  the  official  tables,  though 
they  are  in  communication  with  British  political 
agents.  In  their  internal  affairs  they  are  un- 
controlled. The  native  states  which  appear  in 
the  official  tables  occupy  more  than  a  third  of 
the  area  of  the  empire,  and  contain  more  than 
one-fifth  of  its  entire  population  : 

Native  states  and  Agencies.     ^J'-^^.j^^       ^'^S'"'*' 

Beluchistan  (Agency  Tracts)  ....  86,511  502,500 

Baroda  State 8,099  1,952,692 

Bengal  States 38,652  3,748,544 

Bombay  States 65,761  6,908,648 

Central  India  Agency 78,772  8,628,781 

Central  Provinces  SUtes 29,435  1,996,383 

Hyderabad  State 82,698  11,141,142 

Cashmere  State 80,900  2,905,578 

Madras  States 9,969  4,188,086 

Mysore  State 29,444  5.539,399 

Punjab  States 36.532  4,424,398 

Kajputana  Agency 127,541  9,723,301 

United  Provinces  States 5,079  802,097 

Total  Native  States. . .  .679,393  62,461,549 

Hyderabad  as  given  above  is  exclusive  of 
Berar,  which,  though  part  of  the  Nizam's 
dominions,  is  administered  as  part  of  British 
India.  The  United  Provinces  Native  States 
comprise  those  tliat  were  formerly  (till  1901) 
described  as  in  the  North-west  Provinces  and 
Oudh. 

The  relations  of  the  native  princes  to  British 
authority  differ  very  widely.  Some  are  practi- 
cally independent  sovereigns,  except  that  the 
suzerain  power  does  not  permit  any  of  them  to 
make  war  on  one  another,  or  to  form  alliances 
with  foreign  states  ;  while  some  are  under  toler- 
ably strict  control.  As  a  rule  they  govern  their 
states  under  the  advice  of  an  English  resident 
appointed  by  the  Governor-general.  There  are  in 
all  about  300  states,  allied  or  feudatory,  great  and 
small ;  they  are  divided  into  allied,  tributary^ 


INDIA 


355 


INDIA 


and  protected.  Another  classification  is  accord- 
ing to  the  religion  and  race  of  the  native  dynasty  : 
Mahratta  states,  other  Hindu  states,  Moham- 
medan states,  and  frontier  states. 
■  The  British  territories,  containing  1,087,249 
sq.  m.  and  231,899,507  souls,  aie  brol<en  up  into 
nine  divisions  and  six  minor  ones.  They  were 
originally  in  three  divisions,  called  presidencies — 
Bengal,  Madras,  and  Bombay.  Tlie  old  presi- 
dencies of  Madras  and  Bombay  still  survive 
under  governors  in  council  as  of  yore ;  the 
Bengal  Presidency,  being  much  the  largest,  has 
been  subdivided.  The  four  main  subdivisions 
are:  Bengal,  with  Beliar  and  Orissa;  Eastern 
Bengal,  with  Assam  ;  the  United  Provinces  of 
Agra  and  Oudh  ;  the  Punjab,  with  Delhi.  Each 
of  these  is  under  a  lieutenant-governor.  The 
Central  Provinces  and  Burma  have  each  a  chief- 
commissioner.  Tlie  North-west  Frontier  Prov- 
ince is  under  an  agent  to  tlie  governor-general ; 
Ajmer-Merwara,  British  Beluchistan,  Coorg, 
Berar,  and  the  Andamans  have  each  its  com- 
missioner. 

Provinces  ■^'^*  ^^       Population, 

i-rovinces.  ^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^ 

AJmer-Merwara 2,711  476,912 

Andamans  and  Nicobars 3,188  24,649 

Assam 56,243  6,126,343 

Beluchistan 45,804  308,246 

Bengal 151,185  74,744,866 

Berar 17,710  2,754,016 

Bombay  Presidency 123,064  18,559,561 

Burma 2:J6,738  10,490.624 

Central  Provinces 86,459  9,876,646 

Coorg 1,582  180,607 

Madras 141.726  38,209,436 

North-west  Frontier  Province. . .  16,466  2,125,480 

Punjab 97,209  20,330,339 

United  Provs.  of  Agra  and  Oudh.. 107,164  47,691,782 

Total 1,087,249         231,899.507 

Burma  includes  the  Shan  States,  the  Chin  Hills, 
and  the  Karen  country.  The  North-west  Fron- 
tier Province  was  formed  in  1901  out  of  Peshawar, 
Kohat,  and  parts  of  three  other  Punjab  districts, 
and  areas  occupied  by  frontier  tribes.  Agra  and 
Oudh  (till  then  in  the  North-west  Provinces  and 
Oudh)  now  constitute  the  United  Provinces.  In 
1905  Bengal  (q.v.)  was  divided  into  Bengal  with 
Behar  and  Orissa,  and  Eastern  Bengal  with  Assam. 
In  1858  the  government  was  transferred  from 
the  East  India  Company  to  the  crown.  In 
1877  the  Queen  assumed  the  title  of  Empress  of 
India  (Kaisar-i-Hind).  The  government  of  India 
is  in  the  highest  resort  vested  in  a  Secretary  of 
State  in  London,  who  is  a  member  of  the  cabinet, 
and  has  a  parliamentary  under-secretary  and  a 
council  of  ten  to  fifteen  members.  The  executive 
government  in  India  is  administered  by  the 
Viceroy  and  Governor-general  in  Council,  acting 
under  the  control  of  the  Secretary  of  State  for 
India.  The  Viceroy  and  Governor-general,  ap- 
pointed by  the  crown,  is  assisted  by  an  executive 
council,  consisting  of  six  ordinary  members  (ap- 
pointed by  the  crown),  each  of  whom  has  charge 
of  a  department  of  the  executive  ;  together  with 
one  extra-ordinary  member,  the  commander-in- 
chief  of  the  army.  This  council  virtually  sits  as 
a  cabinet.  The  legislation  for  the  empire  is  con- 
ducted by  a '  legislative  council,'  composed  of  the 
y members  of  the  executive  above  mentioned,  to- 
ther  with  members,  from  six  to  twelve  in 
mber,  appointed  by  the  Viceroy  and  Governor- 
tieral.  The  larger  units  of  administration  are 
B  districts  or  collectorships,  of  which  there  are 
all  the  provinces  above  mentioned  about  250, 
;h  under  a  collector-magistrate  or  deputy- 
mmissioner.  The  head  of  the  district  has  most 
iltifarigus  and  responsible  duties  ;  he  is  fiscal- 


officer,  charged  with  collecting  the  revenue,  as 
well  as  magistrate,  and  besides  superintends 
police,  jails,  education,  sanitation,  and  roads. 
The  administration  is  conducted  by  members  of 
the  Indian  civil  service,  the  great  majority  of 
whom  are  European,  though  some  are  natives. 
The  service  is  recruited  from  the  successful  candi- 
dates at  competitive  examinations  held  in 
London  ;  but  while  the  direction  is  in  European 
hands,  the  local  civil  service,  constituting  the 
great  mass  of  civil  officials,  consists  of  natives. 
In  1859  the  troops  of  the  East  India  Company  be- 
came the  Indian  military  forces  of  the  British 
crown.  The  relations  of  the  governor-general  to 
the  commander-in-chief  in  India  and  his  other 
military  advisers  were  rearranged  in  1905.  In  1904 
the  total  strength  of  the  army  in  India  was  324,650. 
Of  these  74,450  were  British  regulars,  and  154,110 
Indian  regulars.  In  1904  Lord  Kitchener  (com- 
mander-in-chief)  made  considerable  changes  in 
the  organisation  of  the  army.  There  are  now 
three  principal  commands — the  Northern,  AVest- 
erii,  and  Eastern  Army  Corps,  each  under  a  lieu- 
tenant-general. The  East  Indies  Squadron  of  the 
royal  navy  (4  cruisers  and  3  attached  vessels)  is 
stationed  at  Bombay  and  Colombo. 

The  educational  system,  dating  from  1854,  com- 
prises three  principal  universities  at  Calcutta, 
Madras,  and  Bombay,  each  having  many  afflli- 
ated  colleges ;  there  are  also  two  new  universities 
at  Allahabad  and  Lahore.  The  other  educational 
institutions  are  of  several  kinds,  public,  aided, 
private  and  unaided  ;  together  they  number 
148,525,  with  4,529,491  scholars.  The  total  im- 
ports  in  1890-91  had  a  value  of  near  £94,000,000, 
in  1903-4  of  £88,481,000  ;  the  exports  in  1890- 
91  were  valued  at  £102,300,000,  in  1903-4  at 
£113,193,000.  Of  the  imports  more  than  four- 
fifths,  and  of  the  exports. more  than  half,  pass 
by  the  Suez  Canal.  Again,  of  the  imports  nearly 
all  come  from  the  United  Kingdom  ;  but  of  the 
exports  a  considerable  portion  is  .sent  to  other 
countries.  Of  the  imports  the  principal  item 
consists  of  cotton  goods ;  next  metals ;  then 
machinery,  railway  plant  and  rolling-stock, 
manufactured  silk,  sugar,  and  woollen  manufac- 
tures. The  principal  items  of  export  are  coffee, 
raw  cotton,  cotton  twist,  yarn,  manufactures, 
dyes,  grains,  including  rice  and  wheat,  hides  and 
skins,  jute  raw  and  manufactured,  seeds  (oil 
chiefly),  tea,  wool.  Of  shipping,  about  4550 
vessels,  with  a  tonnage  of  between  4,300,000  and 
5,500,000  tons,  enter  the  ports  annually  ;  of  these 
almost  the  whole  are  British.  All  this  is  exclu- 
sive of  the  coasting  trade,  valued  at  70  millions 
annually.  The  length  of  railways  open  is  over 
25,950  miles,  largely  state  lines  (19,673  miles),  the 
rest  mainly  guaranteed  and  assisted  by  the  state. 
There  are  56,000  miles  of  telegraphs.  Of  the  total 
length  of  roads  in  India  (160,000  miles)  about 
one-third  has  been  bridged  and  macadamised. 
The  manufactures,  whether  in  metals  or  in  fibres, 
have  always  been  very  fine,  and  are  still  main- 
tained. The  local  manufactures  of  cotton  goods 
are  very  extensive  ;  but  foreign  trade  has  during 
the  19th  century  checked  the  development  of 
indigenous  manufactures,  while  it  has  stimulated 
new  manufactures,  especially  in  jute  and  cotton. 
The  total  length  of  the  irrigation  canals  and 
their  branches  is  calculated  at  14,000  miles.  The 
irrigated  area  in  its  grand  total  is  reckoned  at 
33  millions  of  acres,  of  which  over  14^  millions 
are  watered  from  canals.  Owing  to  extensive 
failures  of  the  monsoon  rains  at  periodically 
recurring  intervals,  droughts  and  famines  have 
occurred.     In  years  of  plenty  a  sum  varying 


INDIA 


356 


INDIANA 


from  1  to  IJ  million  sterling  is  set  aside  out 
of  current  income  to  meet  the  cost  of  reliev- 
ing distress  in  time  of  famine.  The  revenue 
of  tlie  empire  has  since  increased  from  £60,419,138 
in  1891-92  to  £76,355,400  in  1903-4,  the  expendi- 
ture from  £59,107,699  to  £75,406,500.  The  total 
debt  in  1902  was  £226,232,105,  including  114^ 
millions  for  railways  and  24  millions  for  irrigation 
works.  The  depreciation  of  the  rupee  has  greatly 
embarrassed  Indian  finance ;  it  is  now  lixed  at 
Is.  4d.,  or  Rsl5  =  £l.  The  largest  item  of  taxa- 
tion  is  the  land-tax  (18i  millions);  the  next 
salt  (6  millions),  opium  (4|  millions),  and  smaller 
amounts  for  stamps,  excise,  customs,  &c.  Owing 
to  the  excessive  density  of  population  in  several 
parts  of  the  empire,  government  has  for  many 
years  past  encouraged  and  facilitated  emigra- 
tion to  the  tropical  and  sub-tropical  colonies. 
In  the  decade  ending  1905,  about  100,000 
Indians  emigrated  as  coolies  to  Mauritius,  Natal, 
British  Guiana,  British  West  Indies,  Fiji,  French 
West  Indies,  and  Surinam.  There  is  also  migra- 
tion from  the  central  regions  to  the  rice-plains  of 
Burma,  and  to  the  tea-plantations  in  Assam  and 
in  the  Eastern  Himalayas. 

It  is  impossible  to  speak  positively  as  to  the 
aboriginal  prehistoric  populations  of  India ;  prob- 
ably the  most  primitive  peoples  now  left— the 
Dravidian  hill-tribes  represented  by  the  Gonds, 
p,nd  Kolarians  such  as  the  Santals  and  Bhils— 
represent  waves  of  invasion  from  the  north.  The 
history  of  civilisation  in  India  may,  however, 
be  traced  from  the  invasion— probably  1000  years 
or  more  B.C.— of  the  Aryan  race  from  Central 
Asia,  a  race  of  the  Indo-Germanic  type  in  phys- 
ique and  speech.  Their  language  was  Sanskrit, 
their  religion  and  civilisation  that  of  the  Vedas 
or  ancient  Hindu  Scriptures.  Out  of  the  union 
of  the  Aryans  with  the  earlier  inhabitants,  the 
modern  races  of  India  have  sprung.  Buddhism 
arose  in  India  with  the  teaching  of  Buddha  about 
500  B.C.,  and  for  a  while  superseded  the  Vedic 
faith,  corrupted  as  it  had  been  by  the  degraded 
aboriginal  superstitions  ;  and  India  was  substan- 
tially Buddhist  till  the  revival  of  Hinduism,  in 
its  modern  or  Brahmanic  form  (more  idolatrous 
and  superstitious  than  the  ancient  faith),  in  the 
6th  century  a.d.  In  1001  a.d.  came  the  first 
wave  of  Mohammedanism,  and  soon  all  India 
fell  under  Mohammedan  domination,  though  the 
bulk  of  the  people  clung  to  the  Hindu  religion. 
By  the  beginning  of  the  ISth  century  a  new 
Hindu  power,  that  of  the  Mahrattas,  arose,  and 
seriously  weakened  the  Moslem  emperor,  the 
Grand  Mogul.  The  Dutch,  Portuguese,  and 
French,  as  well  as  the  British  established  them- 
selves in  the  empire  ;  in  the  18th  century  the 
French  more  than  rivalled  the  British  in  power. 
But  the  power  of  the  British  East  India  Cona- 
pany,  originally  traders,  became  dominant  after 
the  battle  of  Plassey  in  1757.  Gradually  English 
power  as  represented  by  the  Company,  its 
diplomatists,  and  its  soldiers,  extended  over  great 
part  of  India,  and  the  governors— Clive,  Warren 
Hastings,  Wellesley,  Amherst,  Bentinck,  Dal- 
housie,  Canning— consolidated  what  was  really 
the  empire  of  Britain  in  the  East.  Then  in  1857 
came  the  great  mutiny,  stamped  out  in  blood, 
and  the  government  was  assumed  by  the  British 
crown  in  1858.  British  rule  in  India  has  been 
steadily  consolidated,  but  no  great  annexation 
has  since  taken  place,  except  that  of  Upper 
Burma  in  1886. 

See  the  Imperial  Gazetteer  of  India  (2d  ed. 
1887),  Sir  W.  Hunter's  India  (3d  ed.  1893),  and 
works  on  India  by  Campbell,  Monier  Williams, 


Temple,  Tnpper,  Strachey,  Cotton,  Holdich 
(1905);  for  history.  Mill,  Thornton,  Marshman, 
Wheeler,  Keene,  Bonlger,  Frazer,  Hunter  (1903); 
and  for  the  Mutiny,  Forrest  (1904). 

Indiana,  the  thirty-first  state  of  the  American 
Union  in  area,  and  the  eighth  in  population,  is 
centrally  situated  between  Lake  Michigan,  Michi- 
gan state,  Ohio,  Kentucky  (from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Ohio  River),  and  Illinois.  Its 
greatest  length  (N.  and  S.)  is  276  miles,  its 
average  breadth  140  miles,  and  its  area  36,350 
sq.  m.  The  surface  has  a  slight  slope  towards 
the  west  and  south-west,  the  highest  point, 
near  the  eastern  boundary,  being  1250  feet  above 
sea-level.  Drainage  is  in  four  main  directions : 
to  Lake  Michigan,  to  Lake  Erie,  to  the  Missis- 
sippi, and  to  the  Ohio.  The  northern  half  of 
the  state  is  generally  level,  except  for  occa- 
sional irregular  ridges  forming  '  divides '  between 
streams.  Hills  increase  in  frequency  from  the 
centre  of  the  state  to  the  south  and  south-east, 
and  along  the  Ohio  '  knobs '  200-500  feet  high  are 
almost  continuous,  with  deep  gorges  and  river- 
bottoms  between.  Much  of  the  north-western 
regions  is  flooded  most  of  the  year;  but  this 
land  is  being  actively  reclaimed  by  drainage. 
The  fertility  of  the  soil,  whether  clay  or  sandy 
loam,  is  greatly  increased  by  a  vast  system  of 
under-draining.  The  jninerals  include  coal,  bog 
and  hematite  iron  ores,  and  stratified  limestones 
and  sandstones  in  abundance,  ochre  beds,  kaolin, 
fireclays,  and  some  gold.  The  actual  workable 
coalfield  covers  an  area  of  6000  sq.  m.  The 
natural-gas  field,  the  centre  of  which  is  in  Dela- 
ware county,  40  miles  NE.  of  Indianapolis,  has 
been  largely  developed  since  1886.  In  the  gas 
region,  and  in  the  districts  within  reach  of  its 
pipes,  it  is  used  both  as  fuel  and  as  illuminant. 
The  principal  industry  of  Indiana  is  agricul- 
ture. More  than  10,000,000  acres  are  cultivated, 
the  chief  crops  being  maize,  wheat,  and  oats,  with 
barley,  rye,  flax,  hay,  potatoes,  sweet  potatoes, 
and  tobacco.  Wool,  honey,  maple-sugar,  sor, 
ghum-sugar,  cider,  and  wine  are  also  largely  pro- 
duced. Among  the  largest  manufactories  are 
the  wagon  and  plough  factories  at  South  Bend, 
the  manufactories  of  flour-mill  machinery  and 
carriages  at  Indianapolis,  the  plate-glass  works 
at  New  Albany,  and  the  encaustic  tile  works  at 
Indianapolis.  Indianapolis  is  great  in  pork- 
packing  and  in  making  sofas  and  other  furni- 
ture. There  are  some  6500  miles  of  railway  in  the 
state.  The  Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  the  largest 
in  the  United  States  (476  miles),  has  374  miles  in 
Indiana.  The  Ohio  is  here  navigable  throughout ; 
the  Wabash  is  navigable  to  Lafayette.  The 
pop.  of  Indiana  (known  as  the  'Hoosier  state,' 
Iloosier  being  a  nickname  for  an  inhabitant  of 
Indiana)  in  1800  numbered  4577  whites  and  163 
coloured,  135  of  the  latter  being  slaves.  In 
1860  the  pop.  was  1,350,428 ;  in  1880,  1,978,301 ; 
in  1900,  2,516,462.  Indianapolis  had  in  1900 
169,164  inhabitants,  Evansville  had  59,000, 
Fort  Wayne  45,115,  Terre  Haute  36,673,  and 
South  Bend  36,000.  In  the  state  university 
at  Bloomington,  the  Purdue  University  and  state 
institute  of  technology  at  Lafayette,  and  the 
state  normal  school  at  Terre  Haute,  as  well  as  a 
hundred  high  schools,  instruction  is  free.  Not 
under  state  control  are  some  fifteen  universities 
and  colleges,  and  numerous  academies  and  special 
schools.  Indiana  was  discovered  by  La  Salle  in 
1671  ;  in  1703  France  ceded  the  country  to  Great 
Britain :  by  the  treaty  of  1783  it  became  a  part 
of  the  United  States ;  and  in  1816  it  was  ad- 
mitted to  the  Union. 


INDIANAPOLIS 


357 


INDORE 


Indianap'olls,  the  capital  of  Indiana,  on  the 
west  fork  of  White  River,  in  a  level  plain,  195 
miles  SSE.  of  Chicago  by  rail.  It  is  a  regularly- 
built  and  beautiful  city.  Its  streets,  many  of 
them  100  feet  wide,  for  the  most  part  cross  at 
right  angles ;  but  four  main  avenues,  radiating 
from  a  central  park,  cross  the  others  diagonally. 
The  principal  buildings  include  a  handsome  new 
state  capitol  (1888),  a  fine  county  court-house,  a 
city-hall,  the  Proi)yl{Bum  (a  women's  literary 
institute),  asylums  for  the  insane,  blind,  &c.,  be- 
sides an  imposing  monument  to  those  who  fell  in 
the  civil  war.  Indianapolis  is  a  great  railway 
centre,  fifteen  main  lines  converging  here.  The 
trade  in  agricultural  produce  is  very  consider- 
able. Pork-packing  is  tlie  leading  industry,  but 
there  are  also  large  flour  and  cotton  and  woollen 
mills,  numerous  foundries,  and  manufactories 
of  fvu'niture,  carriages,  tiles,  &c.  The  site  of 
Indianapolis,  then  covered  witli  dense  foi'est, 
was  selected  for  the  future  capital  in  1820,  and 
the  city  was  founded  in  1821.  Pop.  (1860)  18,113 ; 
(1880)  75,056  ;  (1890)  105,436  ;  (1900)  169,164. 

Indian  Ocean,  bounded  W.  by  Africa,  N.  by 
Asia,  E.  by  Australia  and  tlie  Australasian  Islands, 
according  to  modern  geographers  is  limited  to 
the  S.  by  the  40th  parallel  of  south  latitude,  in 
which  region  it  opens  widely  into  the  Southern 
Ocean.  It  gradually  narrows  towards  the  north, 
and  is  divided  by  the  Indian  peninsula  into  the 
Bay  of  Bengal  on  the  east  and  the  Arabian  Sea 
on  the  west,  the  latter  sending  northward  two 
arms,  the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Red  Sea.  Within 
these  limits  the  Indian  Ocean  has  an  area  of 
17,320,500  sq.  m.  Its  mean  depth  is  about  2300 
fathoms,  or  slightly  greater  than  that  of  the 
Atlantic.  The  greatest  depths  are  in  the  eastern 
part  to  the  south  of  the  equator,  where  there 
are  fully  50,000  sq.  m.  with  a  depth  of  over  3000 
fathoms.  The  area  of  land  draining  into  the 
Indian  Ocean  is  6,813,600  sq.  m.,  and  the  annual 
rainfall  on  this  land  is  equal  to  4379  cubic  miles 
of  water.  The  rivers  flowing  from  the  Asiatic 
continent  are  by  far  the  most  important,  and 
they  carry  an  immense  amount  of  detrital  matter 
into  the  Bay  of  Bengal  and  Arabian  Sea,  these 
forming  extensive  deposits  of  blue  mud.  The 
temperature  of  the  surface  waters  varies  much 
in  different  parts  of  the  ocean,  and  at  the  same 
place  at  different  times  of  the  year  or  states  of  the 
wind.  In  tropical  regions  the  temperature  usually 
varies  from  70°  to  80°  F.,  and  the  yearly  range  is 
only  7°  or  8°  F.  Off  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and 
off  Cape  Guardafui,  however,  the  annual  range 
of  temperature  may  be  from  20°  to  30°  F.  The 
temperature  of  the  water  at  the  bottom  of  the 
Indian  Ocean  is  very  uniform,  and  subject  to 
little,  if  any,  annual  variation.  In  the  Bay  of 
Bengal  and  Arabian  Sea  temperatures  of  33° '7  F. 
and  34° -2  F.  have  been  recorded  at  the  bottom  ; 
these  are  not  more  than  the  fraction  of  a  degree 
higher  than  those  observed  by  the  Challenger  in 
50°  of  south  latitude.  It  is  certain,  therefore, 
that  this  deep  cold  water  is  slowly  drawn  into  the 
Indian  Ocean  from  the  Antarctic  to  supply  the 
place  of  the  warm  surface  currents  that  are 
driven  southward  by  the  winds.  The  currents  of 
the  Indian  Ocean  are  less  constant  than  in  the 
other  great  oceans,  and  are  largely  controlled  by 
the  direction  and  strength  of  the  monsoons. 
Some  of  the  most  characteristic  coral  atolls  and 
islands  are  to  be  found  towards  the  central  part 
of  the  Indian  Ocean,  such  as  the  great  Maldive 
group,  the  Chagos,  Diego  Garcia,  and  the  Keeling 
Islands.  Almost  all  the  tropical  shores  are 
skirted  by  fringing  and  barrier  reefs.    Christmas 


Island  is  an  upraised  coral  formation.  St  Paul's, 
Mauritius,  Rodriguez,  and  others  are  of  volcanic 
origni,  while  Madagascar,  Ceylon,  and  Socotra 
are  typical  continental  islands. 

Indian  Territory,  a  portion  of  the  region 
originally  set  apart  by  the  United  States  govern- 
ment as  a  home  for  Indian  tribes,  is  bounded  by 
Kansas,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  Texas,  and  in  1906 
was  incorporated  with  Oklahoma,  then  made  into 
a  state.  The  Cherokee  Outlet,  S.  of  Kansas,  is 
sometimes  described  as  a  i)art  of  Indian  Terri- 
tory, although  it  is  under  the  jurisdiction  of 
Oklahoma  (q.v.).  The  area,  not  including  the 
Cherokee  Outlet,  is  31,000  sq.  m.  The  surface'of 
the  territory  consists  mainly  of  rolling  prairie 
land  rising  gradually  from  the  south-east  toward 
the  N.  and  W.  In  tlie  south-east  the  surface  is 
broken  by  Ioav  ranges  of  the  Ozark  Mountains 
which  cross  the  Arkansas  border.  In  the  south- 
west are  the  Arbuckle  Mountains.  The  mineral 
resources  are  practically  undeveloped,  but  coal, 
copper,  iron,  marble,  and  building-stones  are 
known  to  exist  in  considerable  quantities.  The 
territory  is  well  watered,  and  is  drained  by  the 
Red  and  Arkansas  Rivers  and  their  numerous 
tributaries.  The  river-bottoms  are  wide  and 
fertile,  subject  to  overflow  in  the  spring.  The 
Indian  Territory,  designed  for  occupation  by  all 
the  tribes  east  of  the  Mississippi,  originally  ex- 
tended west  to  100°,  and  included  portions  of 
Kansas  and  Nebraska.  In  1833  and  1834  the 
Creeks,  Choctaws,  Chickasaws,  and  Cherokees 
were  removed  hither  ;  the  Seminoles  in  1838,  and 
portions  of  tribes  from  west  of  the  Mississippi 
have  been  subsequently  settled  there.  By  pur- 
chase or  consent  of  the  Indians  the  territory  has 
been  gradually  reduced  to  its  present  limits, 
Oklahoma  (q.v.)  having  been  thrown  open  in 
1890.  Most  of  the  tribes  have  made  considerable 
progress  in  civilisation,  and  have  farms,  schools^ 
churches,  &c.  There  are  three  districts.  Pop. 
(1900)  392,060,  of  wliich  total  97  per  cent,  is 
distributed  amongst  four  of  the  five  Indian 
civilised  nations. 

Indiglrka,  a  river  in  the  Siberian  government 
of  Yakutsk,  rises  in  a  western  offset  of  the  Stan- 
ovoi  Mountains,  and  flows  870  miles  northward 
through  a  frozen  desert  to  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Indo-CIiina,  the  eastern  of  the  two  great 
Asiatic  peninsulas  which  extend  southwards  into 
the  Indian  Ocean,  sometimes  called  Further 
India.  It  is  washed  on  the  east  by  the  Gulfs 
of  Tongking  and  Siam  and  the  Chinese  Sea,  and 
on  the  west  by  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  For  its  various 
states  see  Annam,  Burma,  Cambodia,  Cochin- 
China,  Malacca,  Siam,  and  Tonquin.— The  term 
Indonesia  is  sometimes  used  for  the  Indian  Archi- 
pelago, the  islands  to  the  SE.  of  Asia. 

Indore,  a  Mahratta  principality  of  India,  com- 
prising the  territories  of  the  Holkar  dynasty,  and 
consisting  of  several  detached  tracts,  covers  an 
area  of  8402  sq.  m.  The  bulk  of  it  lies  between 
Sindhia's  dominions  on  the  north  and  Bombay 
Presidency  on  the  south.  It  is  traversed  from 
east  to  west  by  the  Nerbudda,  which  almost 
bisects  it ;  by  the  Vindhya  Mountains,  here  2500 
feet  above  the  sea ;  and  by  the  Satpura  Moun- 
tains. Principal  products,  poppy,  cotton,  to- 
bacco, wheat,  rice,  millets,  &c. ;  principal  indus- 
tries, cotton  and  opium  manufacture.  Pop.  (1901) 
850,700.  The  state  was  founded  about  the  middle 
of  the  18tli  century  ;  in  1818  its  ruler  became  a 
feudatory  of  the  British  Indian  empire. — Indore, 
the  capital,  is  situated  in  22"  42'  N.  lat.  and  75° 
54'  E.  long.,  1786  feet  above  sea-level.    Population, 


INDRE 


358 


INNSBRUCK 


88,000,  mostly  Hindus.  During  the  revolt  of  1857, 
though  the  maharaja  remained  faithful,  his  troops 
mutinied,  holding  their  prince  a  prisoner  in  his 
own  palace,  and  butchering  many  Europeans. 

Indre,  a  French  dep.,  formed  principally  out 
of  the  western  portion  of  the  old  province  of 
Berri,  lies  immediately  south  of  the  dep.  of  Loir- 
et-Cher.  Area,  2623  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1872)  277,693 ; 
(1901)  288,788.  The  dep.  is  quite  flat,  and  well 
watered  by  the  Indre  (which  flows,  from  the  dep. 
of  Creuse,  152  miles  north-westward  to  the  Loire) 
and  the  Creuse.  The  dep.  is  divided  into  four 
arrondissements — Chateauroux  (the  capital),  Le 
Blanc,  Issoudun,  and  La  Chatre. 

Indre-et-Loire  (Angdr-ay-Ltvar),  a  dep.  of 
France,  formed  chiefly  out  of  the  ancient  province 
of  Touraine,  is  crossed  by  the  Loire  from  NB.  to 
SW.  Area,  2360  sq.  m.;  pop.  (1872)  817,027; 
(1901)  335,541.  The  dep.  is  watered  by  the  Loire 
and  Its  tributaries,  the  Cher,  Indre,  and  Vienne, 
all  of  them  navigable.  It  is  divided  into  the 
three  arrondissements  of  Tours  (the  capital), 
Chinon,  and  Loches. 

Indus  (Sansk.  Sindhu),  a  river  of  India,  rising 
in  an  unexplored  region  in  Tibet,  near  the  sources 
of  the  Sutlej,  in  32'  N.  lat.  and  81°  E.  long.,  and 
at  about  16,000  feet  above  sea-level.  Its  general 
course  is  at  first  north-westward,  through  Tibet 
and  Cashmere,  where  it  turns  abruptly  south- 
south-westward,  and  follows  that  direction  right 
down  to  the  sea.  In  the  mountains  its  current 
is  very  rapid ;  the  river  passes  through  wild 
gorges  (one  in  north-west  Cashmere,  having  a 
depth  of  10,000  feet),  and  is  liable  to  tremendous 
floods.  The  Indus  enters  the  Punjab  812  miles 
from  its  source.  Near  Attock  (q.v.),  48  miles 
lower  down,  it  receives  the  Kabul  River  from 
Afghanistan,  and  then  becomes  navigable ;  450 
miles  below  Attock  it  receives,  on  the  left,  the 
accumulated  waters  of  the  Punjab  through  the 
single  channel  of  the  Panjnad.  Each  of  the  '  five 
watercourses,'  as  well  as  the  Kabul,  is  practic- 
able for  inland  craft  to  the  mountains.  Below 
its  confluence  with  the  Panjnad  the  Indus,  instead 
of  increasing  in  volume,  becomes  gradually  less. 
Its  basin  is  narrow,  and  the  affluents  are  insig- 
nificant, while  there  is  a  great  loss  by  evapora- 
tion. The  river  also  divides  into  numerous 
channels,  many  of  which  become  lost  in  the 
sand,  while  others  return  much  shrunken  in 
volume.  The  delta  of  the  river  covers  an  area 
of  about  3000  sq.  m.,  and  extends  for  125  miles 
along  the  Arabian  Sea.  The  main  channel  is  con- 
stantly shifting.  The  delta  is  bare  and  not  fertile. 
In  both  Punjab  and  Sindh  the  bed  of  the  river 
is  littered  with  islands  and  sandbanks.  The 
cultivation  of  the  arid  plains  through  which  the 
lower  Indus  passes  is  dependent  upon  the  annual 
overflow  of  the  river  and  artificial  irrigation. 
The  total  length  of  the  river  is  over  1800  miles, 
and  the  area  of  its  drainage  basin  372,700  sq.  m. 
The  Indus  abounds  with  excellent  fish,  and  is 
infested  by  crocodiles.  Since  the  opening  of  the 
Indus  Valley  Railway  in  1878  the  navigation  has 
been  greatly  superseded. 

Ingatestone,  a  town  of  Essex,  5  miles  NE.  of 
Brentwood.    Pop.  1688. 

Ingleborougli,  a  mountain  (2373  feet)  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  8  miles  NW.  of  Settle. 
On  its  south  skirt  is  a  splendid  stalactite  cave, 
penetrating  nearly  a  thousand  yards,  and  mainly- 
discovered  in  1837. 

Inglewood  Forest,  Cumberland,  a  former  royal 
forest  between  Carlisle  and  Penrith. 


Ingolstadt  (called  Attreatum  and  Chrysopolis-^ 
i.e.  'the  golden  city'),  a  fortified  town  of  Bavaria, 
on  the  Danube's  left  bank,  53  miles  by  rail  N.  of 
Munich.  It  contains  two  castles  of  the  former 
dukes  of  Bavaria-Ingolstadt  (now  used  for  mili- 
tary purposes) ;  the  Gothic  church  of  Our  Lady 
(1425) ;  and  the  former  Jesuit  college.  Brewing, 
cannon-founding,  and  the  manufacture  of  gun- 
powder and  salt  are  the  only  industries.  Pop. 
22,390,  mostly  Roman  Catholics.  A  university 
founded  here  in  1472,  reckoned  Reuchlin  among 
its  professors,  and  a  century  after  its  founda- 
tion had  4000  students.  It  was  removed  to  Land- 
shut  in  1800,  and  to  Munich  in  1826.  Ingolstadt 
was  the  first  German  town  at  which  the  Jesuits 
were  jjermitted  to  teach  publicly  ;  Loyola  called 
it  '  his  little  Benjamin.'  Dating  the  9th  century, 
it  was  first  fortified  in  1539.  In  1827  the  forti- 
fications, destroyed  by  the  French  in  1800,  were 
restored  upon  a  first-class  scale,  and  have  since 
been  strengthened. 

Inhamba'ne,  the  Portuguese  capital  of  a  dis- 
trict on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  lies  just  south 
of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn,  beautifully  situated 
on  its  bay,  but  unhealthy.  Pop.  2500,  of  whom 
only  70  were  Europeans. 

Inishail,  an  islet  in  Loch  Awe,  with  remains 
of  a  nunnery.  Here  Mr  Hamerton  pitched  his 
camp  in  1857. 

Inishannon,  a  village  of  County  Cork,  on  the 
Bandon,  16  miles  SW.  of  Cork  city. 

Inishmore,  one  of  the  Aran  Islands  (q.v.). 

Inkermann,  a  village  in  the  Crimea,  situated 
near  the  eastern  extremity  of  the  harbour  of 
Sebastopol.  Here,  on  5th  November  1854,  was 
fought  the  'Soldiers'  Battle,' when  8000  British 
sustained  a  hand-to-hand  fight  against  six  times 
that  number  of  Russians,  till  6000  French  came 
to  their  aid,  and  completed  the  rout  of  the  enemy. 

Inn  (anc.  CEnus),  the  most  important  Alpine 
affluent  of  the  Danube,  rises  in  the  south  of  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Grisons,  and  flows  317  miles 
north-east  through  the  Engadine,  and  onwards 
through  Tyrol  and  Bavaria,  to  its  junction  with 
the  Danube  at  Passau. 

Innellan,  an  Argyll  village,  on  the  Firth  of 
Clyde,  3|  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Dunoon.    Pop.  836. 

Innerleithen,  a  police-burgh  (1869)  of  Peebles- 
shire, near  the  Tweed's  left  bank,  6  miles  ESE. 
of  Peebles,  and  12  W.  of  Galashiels.  Its  first 
woollen-factory  was  established  in  1790,  about 
which  time  its  saline  spring  (Scott's  '  St  Ronan's 
Well ')  came  into  celebrity ;  but  the  great  exten- 
sion of  its  woollen  industry  dates  from  fifty  years 
later.    Pop.  2200. 

Innsbruck,  the  capital  of  Tyrol,  109  miles  by 
rail  S.  of  Munich,  stands  on  the  Inn  at  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Sill,  1880  feet  above  sea-level, 
surrounded  and  overhung  by  mountains  7500  to 
8500  feet  high.  It  is  a  beautiful  place,  with 
broad  tree-shaded  streets,  arcaded  shops,  and 
four  squares  adorned  with  statues.  The  Fran- 
ciscan church,  or  Hofkirche,  built  in  the  Renais- 
sance style  in  1553-63,  contains  a  beautiful  and 
elaborate  cenotaph  to  the  Emperor  Maximilian  I. 
It  consists  of  a  marble  sarcophagus  supporting 
the  emperor's  kneeling  effigy  in  bronze ;  while 
on  both  sides  of  the  aisle  are  twenty-eight  bronze 
figures  of  royal  personages,  by  Peter  Vischer  and 
others.  In  the  same  church  are  monuments  to 
Andreas  Hofer  and  to  the  Tyrolese  who  fell  in 
the  wars  against  France  (1796-1809).  Other 
buildings  are  the  imperial  castle,  built  by  Maxi- 
milian I.  and  restored  by  Maria  Theresa  iu  1766- 


INOWRACLAW 


359 


IONA 


to ;  the  '  Golden  Roof  Palace ; '  the  national 
museum,  the  Ferdinandeum  ;  and  the  university 
(1677,  reorganised  182(5),  with  over  800  students, 
105  professors  and  lecturers,  a  library  of  9*2,000 
volumes,  a  botanical  garden  especially  rich  in 
Alpine  flora,  laboratories,  &c.  Amongst  the  eight 
monasteries  is  the  first  that  the  Capuchins 
founded  in  Germany  (1504).  A  colossal  statue  of 
Ho  for  was  unveiled  in  1893.  Innsbruck  manu- 
factures cloth,  machines,  glass,  and  stained  glass. 
Population,  27,000  i  or,  including  the  suburbs 
of  Hotting  and  Wilten,  35,800.  The  Romans  had 
here  their  principal  colony  in  Rhtetia.  From 
1180  the  town  belonged  to  the  Counts  of  Meran  ; 
in  1363  it  passed  with  Tyrol  to  Austria, 

Inowracla'W  {I-nov'ratz-lav),  Inowrazi.aw,  or 
Jung  Breslau  ('Young  Breslan'),  a  town  of 
Prussia,  near  the  Polish  frontier,  06  miles  NE. 
of  Posen.  It  carries  on  salt-mining,  iron-found- 
ing, &c.     Pop.  26,548. 

Insterburg,  a  town  of  East  Prussia,  on  the 
Angerap  River,  55  miles  E.  of  Kdnigsberg,  had  its 
origin  in  a  castle  of  the  Tuetonic  knights,  built 
in  the  fourteenth  century.  It  has  important 
manufactories.     Pop.  27,300. 

Interla'ken  ('  between  the  lakes '),  a  Swiss  vil- 
lage in  the  Aar's  beautiful  valley,  between  Lakes 
Tluin  and  Brienz.     Pop.  3000. 

Invera'ray,  the  county  town  of  Argyllshire,  is 
picturesquely  seated  on  the  north-west  shore  of 
Loch  Fyne,  16  miles  SSW.  of  Dalmally  station, 
and  45  NNW.  of  Greenock  {viA  Loch  Eck). 
Removed  to  its  present  site  in  1742,  it  has  a 
sculptured  stone  cross  from  lona  (c.  1400),  and 
an  obelisk  to  seventeen  Campbells,  executed 
here  without  trial  in  1685  for  their  share  in 
Argyll's  expedition.  Inveraray  Castle,  the  Duke 
of  Argyll's  seat,  was  rebuilt  in  1744-61.  A  royal 
burgh  since  1648,  Inveraray  with  Ayr,  &c.  returns 
a  member.    Pop.  (1841)  1233  ;  (1901)  678. 

Inverbervie.    See  Bervie. 

Invercar'gill,  a  town  in  the  province  of  Otago, 
New  Zealand,  capital  of  the  county  of  Southland, 
stands  on  an  estuary  called  the  New  River  Har- 
bour, 139  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Dunedin.  It 
has  fine  wide  streets,  and  steam  trams,  public 
parks,  the  government  buildings,  an  athenaeum, 
a  hospital,  sawmills,  foundries,  steain  flour-mills, 
breweries,  manufactures  of  boots,  bacon,  cordials, 
extensive  meat-freezing  works,  &c.     Pop.  9962. 

Inveresk.    See  Musselburgh. 

Invergorden,  a  seaport  and  police-burgh  of 
Ross-shire,  on  the  NW.  shore  of  the  Cromarty 
Firth,  12  J  miles  NE.  of  Dingwall.    Pop.  1117. 

Inverkeithing,  a  royal  burgh  of  Fife,  at  the 
head  of  Inverkeithing  Bay,  13  miles  WNW.  of 
Edinburgh.  With  Stirling,  &c.,  it  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.    Pop.  1976. 

Inverloch'y,  a  ruined  castle  of  Inverness-shire, 
2  miles  NE.  of  Fort  William,  near  which  on 
Sunday,  2d  February  1645,  Montrose  completely 
routed  his  rival,  Argyll. 

Inverness',  the  county  town  of  Inverness-shire, 
and  capital  of  the  northern  Highlands,  stands  on 
the  Ness,  near  its  mouth  in  the  Moray  Firth  and 
the  north-east  end  of  the  Caledonian  Canal,  108 
miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  Aberdeen,  144  NNW.  of 
Perth,  and  190  NNW.  of  Edinburgh.  Its  wooded 
environs,  hemmed  in  by  hills  (Tomnahurich,  223 
feet;  Torvean,  300;  Craigphadrick,  430;  Dunean, 
940,  &c.),  form  a  picturesque  and  interesting  land- 
scape. Visited  by  Columba  about  565,  and  by 
Malcolm  Canmore  made  the  seat  of  a  royal  castle, 
by  Cromwell  of  a  citadel  (1052),  Inverness  has 


a  wealth  of  memories.  It  was  garrisoned  by  the 
English  in  1296 ;  in  1411  was  burned  by  Donald 
of  the  Isles  on  his  way  to  Harlaw ;  and  figures 
repeatedly  in  the  history  of  the  Stuarts,  down  to 
their  final  overthrow  at  Culloden,  hard  by.  In 
front  of  the  Scoto-Flemish  town-hall  (1882),  pro- 
tected now  by  a  fountain,  is  the  Clach-na-Cudain, 
or  '  stone  of  the  tubs,'  the  palladium  of  the  burgh. 
The  Episcopal  cathedral  (1867)  is  a  fine  Decorated 
edifice ;  other  features  of  the  place  are  the  county 
hall  (1835)  on  the  site  of  the  castle,  the  infirmary 
(1804),  the  lunatic  asylum  (1860),  the  royal  acad- 
emy (1792),  barracks  (1884),  the  suspension  bridge 
(1855),  and  the  Islands,  a  favourite  promenade. 
Malting,  thread-making,  and  bleaching  have  given 
place  to  woollen  manufacture,  shipbuilding,  dis- 
tilling, &c.,  with  considerable  shipping  and  com- 
merce, the  harbour  having  been  much  improved 
in  1847.  The  great  wool  fair  (established  in  1817) 
is  held  in  July  ;  and  the  Northern  Meeting  (1788) 
in  September.  A  royal  burgh  since  about  1067, 
Inverness  unites  with  Forres,  Fortrose,  and  Nairn 
to  return  one  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  (1831) 
9663 ;  (1901)  23,066,  of  whom  6500  were  Gaelic- 
speaking,  though  Inverness  still  is  famous,  as  in 
Defoe's  and  Dr  Johnson's  day,  for  the  purity  of 
its  English. 

Inverness-shire,  a  Highland  county,  the  larg- 
est in  Scotland,  and  larger  than  any  in  England 
but  Yorkshire,  stretches  from  sea  to  sea,  and  has 
a  total  area  of  4323  sq.  m.,  of  which  1284  belong 
to  the  Outer  Hebrides — Skye,  Harris,  North  and 
South  Uist,  Benbecula,  Barra,  Raasay,  Eigg,  St 
Kilda,  and  thirty-seven  other  inhabited  islands. 
The  mainland  portion,  measuring  85  by  55  miles, 
is  intersected  NE^  and  SW.  by  the  Great  Glen  and 
the  Caledonian  Canal  (q.v.).  It  includes  Bade- 
noch,  Glenroy,  and  the  valley  of  the  Spey  on  the 
east ;  Lochaber  on  the  south ;  Glenelg,  Glen- 
garry, Arasaig,  and  Moidart  on  the  west ;  Strath- 
glass  on  the  north  ;  Glenurquhart  and  Glenmoris- 
ton  towards  the  centre.  It  is  truly  a  '  land  of 
the  mountain  and  the  flood,'  for  it  contains  Ben 
Nevis  (4406  feet),  the  highest  point  in  Britain, 
with  twenty-six  other  summits  exceeding  3500 
feet,  whilst  the  chief  of  its  rivers  are  the  Spey, 
Ness,  and  Beauly,  and  of  ninety  good-sized  lakes 
Lochs  Ness,  Archaig,  Shiel,  Lochy,  Morar,  Lag- 
gan,  and  Ericht.  The  west  coast  is  indented  by 
salt-water  Lochs  Houm,  Nevis,  and  Moidart. 
Only  4*6  per  cent,  of  the  whole  area  is  in  cultiva- 
tion ;  and  255  sq.  m.  are  under  wood,  the  rest 
being  sheep-walks,  deer-forests,  moss,  and  barren 
heath,  valuable  only  as  grouse-moors.  Sheep, 
numbering  some  700,000,  are  the  principal  live- 
stock ;  and  there  are  five  deer-forests  of  50  sq.  m. 
and  upwards.  «The  rivers  and  lakes  afford  splen- 
did fishing,  we  county  returns  one  member  to 
parliament.  Inverness  is  its  only  town  of  any 
size  ;  Kingussie  and  Fort  William,  though  police- 
burghs,  .'are  mere  villages,  as  also  are  Beauly, 
Fort  Augustus,  and  Portree.  Pop.  (1801)  72,672 ; 
(1841)  97,799;  (1901)  90,674,  or  less  than  twenty- 
one  inhabitants  per  square  mile. 

Inversnaid,  a  place  on  the  east  shore  of  Loch 
Lomond,  3  miles  NE.  of  Tarbet. 

Inverugle  {g  hard),  a  ruined  castle  of  Aberdeen- 
shire, 3  miles  NW.  of  Peterhead.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Marshal  Keith. 

Inverurie,  a  royal  burgh  of  Aberdeenshire,  at 
the  influx  of  the  Urie  to  the  Don,  16  miles  NW. 
of  Aberdeen.  With  Elgin,  &c.  it  returns  one 
member  to  parliament.    Pop.  3625. 

lona,  the  most  famous  of  the  Hebrides,  \\  mile 
W.  of  the  south-western  extremity  of  Mull.    Its 


IONIA 


360 


IPSWICH 


hiodern  name  is  believed  to  have  originated  in  a 
mistaken  reading  of  n  for  u ;  the  word  in  tlie 
oldest  manuscripts  being  clearly  written  louu. 
From  the  6th  century  to  the  17th  century  the 
island  was  most  generally  called  /,  Hi,  Y,  &c. — 
that  is,  simply,  '  the  island ; '  or  Icolmkill,  I- 
Columb-Kille,  &c.— that  is, '  the  island  of  Columba 
of  the  church.'  It  is  3^  miles  long,  1^  mile 
broad,  and  S^  sq.  m.,  or  22G4  acres  in  area,  of 
which  more  than  a  fourth  is  under  tillage.  Dunii, 
the  highest  point,  is  327  feet  above  the  sea.  Pop. 
247.  In  563  St  Columba  sailed  from  Ireland  for 
lona  with  twelve  disciples.  Having  obtained  a 
grant  of  the  island,  he  built  upon  it  a  monastery, 
which  was  long  regarded  as  the  mother-church  of 
the  Picts,  and  was  venerated  not  only  among  the 
Scots  of  Britain  and  Ireland,  but  among  the  Angles 
of  the  north  of  England,  who  owed  their  conver- 
sion to  the  self-denying  missionaries  of  loua. 
Neither  piety  nor  learning  availed  to  save  it  from 
the  ravages  of  the  fierce  and  heathen  Norsemen, 
who  wasted  it  and  massacred  the  monks  in 
795,  802,  806,  825,  and  986.  About  1074  the 
monastery  was  repaired  by  St  Margaret,  the 
queen  of  Malcolm  Canmore  ;  and  in  1097  it  was 
visited  by  King  Magnus  Barefoot  of  Norway,  of 
which  kingdom  it  now  formed  part.  In  1203  a 
Benedictine  monastery  was  founded  here,  and  a 
Benedictine  (afterwards  Augustinian)  nunnery. 
In  1506  lona  became  the  seat  of  the  Scottish 
Bishop  of  the  Isles,  the  abbey  church  being  his 
cathedral.  St  Oran's  Chapel,  now  the  oldest 
church  in  the  island,  may  probably  be  of  the  latter 
part  of  the  11th  century.  The  Cathedral,  or  St 
Mary's  Church  (c.  1203),  has  a  dioir,  with  a  sacristy 
on  the  north  side,  and  chapels  on  the  south  side  ; 
north  and  south  transepts ;  a  central  tower,  70 
feet  high,  and  a  nave.  On  the  north  of  the  cathe- 
dral are  the  chapter-house  and  other  conventual 
remains.  The  ruin  was  given  by  the  Duke  of 
Argyll  to  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1899,  and  in 
1902-5  partly  restored.  See  books  by  the  Duke 
of  Argyll  (1871),  Macmillan  (1898),  and  others. 

Ionia,  the  ancient  name  of  the  coast  districts 
and  islands  of  western  Asia  Minor. 

Ionian  Islands,  a  group,  or  rather  chain,  of 
about  forty  islands,  stretching  along  the  west  and 
south  coasts  of  Greece.  Corfu  (Corcyra),  Paxo, 
Santa  Maura,  Ithaca  (Theaki),  Cephalonia,  Zante, 
and  Cerigo  (Cythera)  are  the  largest,  and  are  all 
separately  noticed.  Total  area,  1010  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
(1879)  244,433,  (1896)  265,280,  mostly  of  Greek 
descent.  The  surface  is  generally  mountainous, 
the  plains  and  valleys  being  fertile.  The  collective 
term  '  Ionian '  is  of  modern  date.  In  1081  Corfu 
and  Cephalonia  fell  into  the  hands  of  Robert 
Guiscard  ;  from  1401  Corfu  and  most  of  the  other 
islands  came  into  the  possession  of  the  Venetians, 
who  retained  them  until  1797,  and  then  ceded 
them  to  France.  They  were  seized  by  Russia  and 
Turkey  in  1799  ;  and  created  the  Republic  of  the 
Seven  United  Islands,  under  the  protection  of 
Turkey.  But  in  1807  they  were  given  back  to 
France.  In  1809  Great  Britain  seized  Zante, 
Cephalonia,  and  Cerigo,  in  1810  Santa  Maura,  in 

1814  Paxo,  and  after  Napoleon's  fall  Corfu ;   in 

1815  were  constituted  the  United  States  of  the 
Ionian  Islands,  under  the  protectorate  of  Great 
Britain  ;  and  in  1863  they  were  incorporated  in 
Greece — after  which  their  prosperity  declined. 
There  have  been  great  earthquakes,  as  in  1867  and 
1893.  See  works  by  Ansted  (1863),  Kirkwall 
(1864),  Von  Warsberg  (Vienna,  1878-79),  and 
Riemann  (Paris,  1879). 

lo'wa,  one  of  the  United  States  of  America,  with 


an  area  of  56,025  sq.  m.,  is  bounded  by  Minnesotd, 
the  Mississippi  River,  the  state  of  Missouri,  and 
the  Missoui-i  and  Big  Sioux  rivers.  The  climate 
is  continental,  with  cold  winters,  hot  summers, 
and  sudden  changes  of  temperature ;  the  autumns 
aie  beautiful  and  of  long  duration  ;  and  Iowa  is 
noted  for  its  healthfulness.  The  surface  is  a 
rolling  prairie  ;  there  are  no  mountains,  and  hills 
or  blutts  can  only  be  found  along  the  principal 
streams.  The  average  elevation  is  not  far  from 
900  feet ;  the  highest  point  1694  feet.  Iowa  has 
extensive  and  valuable  mineral  deposits,  as  coal, 
lead,  gypsum,  limestone,  clay,  and  mineral  paints. 
The  coal,  which  is  bituminous  and  of  good  quality, 
extends  over  an  area  of  nearly  20,000  sq.  m. ,  and 
above  4  million  tons  are  raised  annually.  "There 
are  several  small  lakes  in  the  north.  Iowa  is  pre- 
eminently an  agricultural  state,  its  fertile  soil 
producing  vast  quantities  of  maize,  wheat,  oats, 
with  barley,  flax,  buckwheat,  rye,  hay,  sorghum, 
potatoes,  butter,  cheese,  wool,  and  eggs.  Nearly 
98  per  cent,  of  the  total  land  area  is  under  farms. 
Tlie  importance  of  live-stock  in  the  state  results 
in  the  growth  of  large  quantities  of  hay  and  other 
forage  crops.  Manufactures  are  comparatively 
unimportant,  the  principal  industries,  after  agri- 
culture, being  meat-packing  and  the  preparation 
of  other  food-products.  Amongst  the  principal 
exports  are,  besi<les  agricultural  and  dairy  pro- 
ducts, considerable  quantities  of  coal,  gypsum, 
and  lead.  The  territory  of  the  state  formed  part 
of  the  'Louisiana  Piu'chase'  (see  Louisiana). 
Iowa  was  organised  as  a  territory  in  1838,  and 
as  a  state  in  1846.  Pop.  (1850)  192,214 ;  (1880) 
1,624,615  ;  (1900)  2,231,853.  Tiie  capital  is  Des 
Moines  (pop.  over  62,139) ;  and  there  are  five  other 
cities  with  over  25,000  (Dubuque,  Davenport, 
Sioux  City,  Council  Bluffs,  and  Cedar  Rapids). 

Iowa  City,  capital  of  Johnson  county,  Iowa, 
and  the  seat  of  government  from  1839  to  1856,  is 
situated  on  the  Iowa  River,  120  miles  by  rail  E. 
of  Des  Moines.  The  old  capitol  is  now  the  state 
university.     Pop.  7986. 

Ipsambul.    See  Abu-Simbel. 

Ipsden,  an  Oxfordshire  parish,  close  to  the 
Chilterns,  4  miles  SE.  of  Wallingford.  Charles 
Reade  was  a  native. 

Ipswicli,  the  county  town  of  Suffolk,  a  par- 
liamentary, municipal,  and  county  borough,  69 
miles  NE.  of  London  by  rail,  is  situated  on  the 
side  of  a  hill  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Gipping, 
which,  taking  here  the  name  of  the  Orwell,  be- 
comes tidal,  and  after  a  south-easterly  course  of 
12  miles  more  falls  into  the  German  Ocean  at 
Harwich.  In  the  older  portions  of  the  town, 
principally  grouped  near  the  river,  the  streets 
are  narrow  and  irregularly  built,  and  still  retain 
many  picturesque  old  buildings,  decorated  with 
carved  work,  such  as  Sparrowe's  House  (1567), 
the  Neptune  Inn  (1639),  Archdeacon's  Place 
(1471),  and  Wolsey's  Gateway  (1528).  Of  public 
buildings  the  principal  are  a  town-hall  (1868), 
in  the  Italian  Renaissance  style  of  architecture, 
surmounted  by  a  clock-tower  130  feet  high  ;  post- 
offlce  (1881),  and  corn  exchange  (1882),  both  close 
by,  and  in  the  same  style ;  public  hall  (1868) ;  mu- 
seum, schools  of  science  and  art,  and  free  library 
(1881-87),  the  first  of  which,  founded  in  1847,  is 
notable  for  its  splendid  collections  of  Suffolk  Crag 
fossils  and  British  birds ;  custom-house  (1845) ; 
mechanics'  institute  (1824) ;  hospital  (1835-69-77) ; 
artillery  and  militia  barracks ;  a  theatre  (1891), 
in  whose  predecessor  Garrick,  Mrs  Keeley,  and 
Mr  Toole  made  their  debut ;  St  Mary  Le  Tower, 
with  a  spire  176  feet  high,  and  a  fine  peal  of 


lt»SWlCH 


S61 


IR£LAND 


twelve  bells ;  and  the  grammar-school  (c.  1477 ; 
reorganised  by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1565,  rebuilt 
in  1851,  and  reconstituted  in  1881).  Near  it  are 
two  arboretums,  charmingly  laid  out,  and  Christ- 
church  Parl<,  with  its  fine  Tudor  mansion  (1549). 
Another  favourite  resort  is  the  promenade  by 
the  river-side,  skirting  the  west  side  of  the  dock. 
This  latter,  opened  in  1842,  covers  30  acres,  and 
is  approached  from  the  Orwell  by  an  entrance 
lock  (1881)  capable  of  admitting  vessels  of  1400 
tons.  The  principal  manufactures  are  those  of 
agricultural  implements,  railway  plant,  artificial 
manures,  and  clothing.  Cardinal  Wolsey  was  a 
native,  and  Gainsborough  a  resident  for  fifteen 
years.  Ipswich  has  returned  two  members  to 
parliament  since  1447.  Pop.  (1801)  11,336  ;  (1841) 
25,264  ;  (1901)  66,622.  See  works  by  Clarke  (1830), 
Wodderspoon  (1842-50),  Clyde  (1850-87),  and  Dr 
J.  E.  Taylor  (1889). 

Ipswich,  a  town  of  Queensland,  on  the  Bremer, 
23  miles  W.  of  Brisbane  by  rail.  It  stands  in  a 
rich  coal-mining  district.     Pop.  11,190. 

Iqulque  (Ee-kee'kay),  the  port  and  capital  of  the 
Chilian  territory  of  Tarapaca  (Peruvian  till  1881). 
It  has  amalgamating  works  in  connection  with 
neighbouring  silver-mines.     Pop.  35,391. 

Ictuitos,  a  town  in  the  Peruvian  dej).  of  Loreto, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Maraiion,  75  miles  above 
the  mouth  of  the  Rio  Napo.     Pop.  8000. 

Irak-Ajemi,  a  central  province  of  Persia,  nearly 
coincident  with  ancient  Media.  Area,  138,190 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,000,000. 

Irak-Arabi  (Arabian  Irak),  the  most  south- 
easterly district  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  almost  con- 
terminous with  ancient  Babylonia,  lies  between 
the  lower  courses  of  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates. 
Pop.  2,000,000. 

Iran,  or  Eran,  originally  the  great  Asian 
plateau  bounded  N.  by  the  Hindu  Kush  and  the 
Elburz,  E.  by  the  Indus,  S.  by  the  Persian  Gulf, 
and  W.  by  Kurdistan  and  the  Tigris.  The  term 
is  now  the  official  designation  of  Persia. 

Irawadl,  or  Irrawaddy,  the  principal  river 
of  Burma,  long  believed  by  many  to  have  its 
origin  in  the  Sanpo  (q.v.),  the  great  river  of  Tibet, 
which  was  shown  in  1878-82  to  be  the  upper 
waters  of  the  Brahmaputra.  In  25°  50'  N.  lat., 
a  short  distance  above  Bhamo,  two  arms,  the 
Mali-kha  and  the  Meh-kha,  unite  to  form  the 
river  that  is  undoubtedly  the  Irawadi  of  Burma. 
From  Bhamo  the  Irawadi  winds  700  miles  south- 
ward, throughout  navigable  for  small  boats,  in 
spite  of  islands,  sandbanks,  and  two  rock-bound 
defiles.  Its  waters  are  muddy  and  its  current 
generally  rapid.  Before  reaching  the  sea,  in  nearly 
a  dozen  mouths,  in  the  west  of  the  Bay  of  Marta- 
ban,  the  river  spreads  out  in  a  wide  delta,  18,000 
sq.  m.  in  extent.  Of  its  mouths  two  only  are  used 
by  sea-going  vessels,  the  Bassein  on  the  west  and 
the  Rangoon  on  the  east.  The  valley  and  plain 
of  the  Irawadi  are  very  fertile,  and  grow  vast 
quantities  of  rice.  The  river  is  the  chief  artery 
of  the  country  :  on  its  banks  stand  the  principal 
towns,  Bassein,  Rangoon,  Prome,  Ava,  Mandalay, 
Bhamo;  its  banks  were  the  home  of  Burmese 
civilisation ;  its  waters  have  served  as  the  main 
means  of  communication  not  only  to  the  interior 
of  Burma,  but  to  the  south-western  provinces  of 
China  and  of  Tibet.  The  river  drains  at  least 
158,000  sq.  m.  Its  largest  affluent,  coming  from 
the  right  hand,  is  the  Chindwin.  This  and  the 
two  left-hand  tributaries,  the  Shweli  and  Myit- 
nge,  are  alone  navigable.    The  plain  for  150  miles 


from  the  sea,  being  liable  to  inundations,  has 
been  protected  by  embankments  since  1863. 

Irhit,  a  town  of  the  Russian  government  of 
Perm,  1170  miles  nearly  due  E.  of  St  Petersburg. 
Its  February  fair  is  next  in  importance  to  that  of 
Nijni-Novgorod.     Pop.  20,000. 

Ireland,  an  island  forming  part  of  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  is  wa.shed 
on  the  N.,  W.,  and  S.  by  the  Atlantic,  and  on 
the  E.  by  the  North  Channel  (13  miles  wide), 
the  Irish  Sea  (138  miles),  and  St  George's  Channel 
(47  to  69  miles),  which  separate  it  from  the  larger 
island  of  Great  Britain.  Its  greatest  length  is 
302  miles  ;  its  average  breadth  110  miles.  Eirin7i 
was  known  to  the  Greeks  as  lerne,  to  the  Romans 
as  Ilihernia  and  Juverna,  in  the  6-13th  centuries 
as  Scotia  and  the  'Isle  of  Saints.'  It  is  divided 
into  the  four  provinces  of  Ulster,  Leinster,  Mun- 
ster,  and  Connaught,  and  subdivided  into  thirty- 
two  counties.  The  total  area  is  20,819,928  acres, 
or  32,531  sq.  m.,  or  nearly  two- thirds  of  that  of 
England  without  Wales.  In  1801  the  pop.  was 
5,395,456  (166  per  sq.  m.);  in  1841,  8,175,124(251 
per  sq.  m.) ;  in  1901,  after  a  steady  decrease  from 
emigration,  only  4,458,775  (137  per  sq.  ni.). 

Provinces  and  Area  in  Pop.  Pop.  Pop. 

Counties.           Stat.  Acres.  1841.  1881.  1901. 
Leinster. 

Carlow 221,344  86,228  46,568  37,748 

Dublin 226,895  372,773  418,910  448,206 

Kiklare 418,496  114,488  75,804  63,566 

Kilkenny 509,732  202,420  99,531  79,159 

King's 493,985  146,857  72,852  60,187 

Longford 269,409  115,491  61,009  46,672 

Louth 202,123  128,240  77,684  65,820 

Meath 579,861  183,828  87,469  67,497 

Queen's 424,854  153,930  73,124  57,417 

Westmeath 453,453  141,300  71,798  61,629 

Wexford 576,588  202,033  123,854  104,104 

Wicklow 500,178  126,143  70,386  60,824 


Total....  4,876,918  1,973,731  1,278,989   1,152,8 


MUNSTER. 

Clare 827,994 

Cork 1,849,686 

Kerry 1,185,918 

Limerick 680,842 

Tipperary 1,061,731 

Waterford 461,552 


286,394 
854,118 


435,553 
196,187 


180,632 
199,612 
112,763 


112,334 
404,611 
165,726 
146,098 
160,232 
87.187 


Total.... 6,067, 723  2,396,161  1,331,116  1,076,188 


Antrim 762,080  360,875  421,943 

Armagli .328,086  232,393  163,177 

Cavan 477,399  243,158  129,476 

Donegal 1,197,154  296.448  206,035 

Down 612,399  361,446  272,107 

Fermanagh 457,369  1.56,481  84,879 

Londonderry 522,315  222,174  164,991 

Monaghan 319,741  200,442  102,748 

Tyrone 806,658  312,956  197,719 


461,532 
125,392 
97,541 
173,722 


144,404 
74,611 
150,-567 


Total....  5,48;?,201  2,386,373  1,743,075   1,582,826 


Connaught. 

Galway 1,569,505 

Leitrim 392,363 


Mayo. 
Roscommon. 
Sligo 


1,. 360,731 
607,691 
461,796 


440,198 
155,297 


253,591 
180,886 


242,005 
90,372 
245,212 
132,490 
111,578 


192,549 
69,343 


101,791 
84,083 


Total....  4,392,086  1,418,859      821,657      646,932 


General  Total.... 20,819,928  8,175,124  5,174,836    4,458,775 

In  1901  there  were  eight  towns  with  pops,  over 
20,000  (Dublin  290,638,  and  Belfast  349,180);  when 
there  were  631,629  persons  of  Irish  birth  in  Eng- 
land and  Scotland,  1,618,567  in  the  United  States, 
227,561  in  Australasia,  4184  in  Cape  Colony,  and 
in  Canada  989,858  persons  of  Irish  origin.  In 
1851-1902,  3,921,222  persons  emigrated  from  Ire- 
laud,  over  three-fourths  to  the  United  States, 


IRELAND 


362 


IRELAND 


The  surface  of  Ireland  is,  generally  speaking, 
an  undulating  plain,  relieved,  more  jmrticularly 
towards  the  coasts,  by  detached  groups  of  low 
hills.  The  principal  ranges  are  the  Mourne  Moun- 
tains in  Down,  which  attain  their  highest  eleva- 
tion in  Slieve-Donard  (2796  feet) ;  the  mountains 
of  Wicklow,  which  rise  in  Lugnaquilla  to  a  maxi- 
mum height  of  3039  feet ;  and  Macgillicuddy's 
Reeks,  in  Kerry,  their  highest  peak,  Carran-Tual 
(3414  feet),  being  the  loftiest  in  all  Ireland.  The 
mountains  are  built  up  of  relatively  hard  crys- 
talline schists  and  disturbed  Lower  Palaeozoic 
rocks,  while  the  low  grounds  are  nearly  co-exten- 
sive with  less  indurated  and  comparatively  un- 
disturbed Upper  Palaeozoic  strata.  The  interior 
and  larger  portion  of  the  island  is  quite  flat,  its 
centre  being  only  250  feet  above  the  sea ;  it  be- 
longs almost  exclusively  to  the  carboniferous 
system.  Ireland  is  not  rich  in  minerals,  but 
some  coal  (about  100,000  tons  a  year),  a  little 
iron,  lead,  besides  salt,  stone,  limestone,  &c.  are 
wrought.  The  coasts  on  the  N.,  W.,  and  S.  are 
in  many  places  rocky  and  high,  and  indented 
with  deep  inlets,  many  of  which  form  admir- 
able harbours.  The  islands  are  small.  Bogs 
or  morasses  occupy  altogether  1,772,450  acres, 
or  nearly  one-ninth  of  the  entire  area — the 
largest  being  the  Bog  of  Allen.  The  principal 
river  of  Ireland,  and  the  largest  in  the  United 
Kingdom,  is  the  Shannon  (q.v.).  Others  are 
the  Liffey  and  Boyne,  the  Suir,  Barrow,  and 
Nore,  the  Black  water.  Erne,  Foyle,  Bann,  &c. 
Dublin  has  water-communication  with  the  Shan- 
non by  means  of  the  Grand  (165  miles)  and 
Royal  (76)  canals,  and  Lough  Neagh  with  the 
same  river  by  the  Ulster  Canal  and  river  Black- 
water.  The  largest  lake  is  Lough  Neagh  (100,000 
acres) ;  others  are  Erne  and  Derg,  also  in  Ulster ; 
Conn,  Mask,  and  Corrib,  in  Connaught ;  Allen, 
Ree,  and  Derg,  expansions  of  the  river  Shannon  ; 
and  the  lakes  of  Killarney  (q.v.)  in  Muuster. 
The  name  lough  is  also  applied  to  many  salt- 
water inlets. 

The  climate  of  Ireland  bears  a  close  resem- 
blance to  that  of  Great  Britain,  but  is  modified 
by  the  marked  difference  in  the  configuration  of 
the  surface,  the  greater  distance  from  the  con- 
tinent of  Europe,  and  the  fact  that  it  is  more 
directly  under  the  influence  of  the  Gulf  Stream. 
The  mean  annual  temperature  is  50-0°  (that  of 
England  is  49-5°,  that  of  Scotland  47-5°) ;  and  the 
temperature  in  Ireland  is  more  equable.  The 
eastern  half  of  the  island  has  a  rainfall  of  from 
30  to  40  inches,  and  the  western  half  from  40  to 
50  inches. 

Ireland  is  mainly  an  agricultural  country,  but 
agriculture  is  backward,  and  farms  and  capital 
small ;  relations  between  landlord  and  tenant 
were  very  bad  from  of  old  ;  the  landlords  seldom 
erected  buildings,  repaired  farmsteads,  or  made 
permanent  improvements.  In  1879-80  the  dis- 
tress amongst  the  poorer  sections  of  the  com- 
munity reached  such  a  pitch  that  in  1881  the 
Land  Law  (Ireland)  Act  was  passed.  Its  princi- 
pal measures  were  designed  to  protect  the  tenant 
from  paying  more  than  a  '  fair  rent,'  and  to  pro- 
vide for  loans  being  made  to  tenants  to  enable 
them  to  purchase  their  holdings  on  fair  and  equit- 
able terms.  Several  subsequent  amending  acts 
have  been  passed,  that  of  1903  giving  increased 
facilities  for  the  purchase  of  holdings,  and  pro- 
viding an  aid  fund  of  £12,000,000.  The  Local 
Government  (Ireland)  Act,  1898,  established 
county  councils  in  Ireland,  reduced  tlie  poor 
assessment  on  agricultural  land  to  half  of  its  value, 
&c,    Agriculture  has  benefited  largely  (especially 


small  farms)  by  the  development  of  co-operative 
agricultural  societies,  of  which  there  were  908 
in  1904,  376  of  them  being  creameries.  Above 
10,000,000  acres  are  permanently  under  grass, 
some  1,300,000  being  devoted  to  cereals  (oats 
110,000,  barley  158,000),  618,500  acres  to  potatoes, 
and  286,000  to  turnips.  The  seas  around  the 
coasts  of  Ireland  teem  with  fish  ;  but,  except 
that  for  salmon,  the  fisheries  are  not  flourishing. 
The  bulk  of  the  commerce  of  Ireland  is  the  ex- 
portation of  agricultural  produce  and  animals, 
principally  to  Great  Britain. 

Manufactures  are  few,  except  in  Ulster,  where 
linen  is  the  staple  industry  ;  but  little  of  the 
flax  used  is  Irish-grown,  most  of  it  being  now 
imported  from  Belgium,  &c.  Shipbuilding  is 
centred  at  Belfast;  and  brewing  and  distilling 
are  also  important  industries. 

Ireland  is  represented  in  the  imperial  parlia- 
ment by  28  peers  elected  for  life  in  the  House  of 
Lords  and  103  members  in  the  House  of  Com- 
mons, The  executive  is  vested  in  a  lord-lieu- 
tenant, who  is  assisted  by  a  chief-secretary  and  a 
privy-council  (appointed  by  the  crown).  Most  of 
the  inhabitants  (over  3,310,000  in  1901)  belong  to 
the  Roman  Catholic  Church,  which  has  four  arch- 
bishops (Armagh,  Dublin,  Cashel,  and  Tuani)and 
24  bishops.  Until  1871  the  established  church  of 
Ireland  was  a  branch  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land ;  since  its  disestablishment  the  Church 
of  Ireland  is  presided  over  by  two  archbishops 
(Dublin  and  Armagh)  atid  eleven  bishops.  Next 
in  importance  come  the  Presbyterians  and  Meth- 
odists.  The  most  important  university  in  Ire- 
land  is  that  of  Dublin  (q.v.)  or  Trinity  College. 
The  Royal  University  of  Ireland  (1880)  is  not  a 
teaching,  but  only  an  examining  body.  Teaching 
institutions  are  the  three  Queen's  Colleges  of  Bel- 
fast, Cork,  and  Galway  (1849),  and  the  Royal 
College  of  Science  (1867)  in  Dublin.  The  Roman 
Catholic  University  of  Ireland  (1854)  is  supported 
by  private  contributions.  St  Patrick's  College, 
Maynooth  (q.v.,  1795)  educates  Roman  Catholic 
priests.  And  there  are  Presbyterian  theological 
colleges  at  Belfast  and  Londonderry.  There  are 
over  8700  elementary  schools  in  Ireland  under 
the  Commissioners  of  National  Education,  with 
726,550  enrolled  pupils  and  an  average  attend- 
ance of  about  482,500.  Of  the  schools  4199  were 
Roman  Catholic,  1523  were  Protestant,  and  2981 
were  mixed.  Seven  training-colleges  had  over 
1000  students.  There  are  3300  miles  of  railway 
in  Ireland. 

In  prehistoric  times  Ireland  seems  like  Britain 
to  have  been  inhabited  by  peoples  of  the  Iberian 
stock,  who  were  successively  invaded  and  sub- 
dued by  Nemedians,  Firbolgs,  Tuatlia  De  Danann, 
and  Scots  or  Milesians.  Most  of  these  invaders 
seem  to  have  been  Celtic,  some  of  the  Cymric 
(British),  and  some  of  the  Goidelic  branch.  The 
Scots  were  distinctly  Goidelic.  Ultimately  the 
resulting  races,  Iberian  at  base  but  Celticised  by 
degrees,  had  assiuned  the  Celtic  type  of  civilisa- 
tion and  the  Erse  (Goidelic)  language.  The 
septs,  tribes,  or  kingdoms  were  numerous,  and 
constantly  at  war ;  though  with  curious  per- 
mutations and  combinations,  some,  or  many  of 
them,  at  times  accepting  the  over-lordship  of  an 
Ard-righ  or  chief  king.  Irish  history  really 
begins  with  the  christianisation  of  Ireland  by  St 
Patrick,  a  Briton  of  Strathclyde,  early  in  the  5th 
century.  In  the  8th  century  came  Danish  or 
Norse  sea-rovers,  who  established  themselves  in 
the  east  of  Ireland,  and,  weakened  by  Brian 
Born,  and  utterly  defeated  by  him  at  Clou- 
tarf  in  1014,  were  ultimately  absorbed  in  the 


IiaiSH  SEA 


563 


ISAR 


mass  of  the  population.  The  intestinal  strifes  of 
the  Irish  potentates  still  went  on  as  before,  and 
led  in  1167-72  to  the  Norman  invasion.  Ireland 
had  to  undergo  just  100  years  later,  and  under 
Henry  II.,  the  fate  England  underwent  under 
Henry's  great-grandfather,  William  the  Con- 
queror. Much  of  the  Irish  soil  was  parcelled 
out,  as  England  had  been,  amongst  Norman 
nobles ;  but  this  change,  so  far  from  tending  to 
consolidate  Ireland  into  one  kingdom,  or  into  an 
organised  province  of  the  English  monarchy, 
seemed  but  to  have  introduced  additional  elements 
of  faction,  feud,  and  warfare.  The  Nonnan  chiefs 
fought  with  the  Irish  ones,  and  with  one  another ; 
and  became,  as  was  said,  'more  Irish  tlian  the 
Irish  themselves.'  Henry  VII.  made  an  effort  to 
reduce  Ireland  to  order  on  Tudor  lines ;  rebellions, 
expeditions,  slaughterings,  and  confiscations  went 
on  in  the  reigns  of  Henry  VIII.  and  Elizabeth, 
the  Reformation  providing  a  new  element  of 
hostility  between  the  English  government  and 
the  Irish  people.  Under  James  I.  vast  con- 
fiscations took  place,  and  great  settlements, 
especially  in  Ulster,  of  English  and  Scottish 
immigrants.  'The  massacre  of  1641 '  was  directed 
against  these  aliens,  Cromwell  made  a  re-settle- 
ment with  a  vengeance.  The  adhesion  of  the 
Irish  to  James  II.  brought  William  III,  on  them  ; 
and  after  the  battle  of  the  Boyne  and  the  surren- 
der of  Limerick  (1691)  came  the  penal  laws,  which 
with  many  vastly  more  cruel  provisions,  debarred 
Catholics  from  all  share  in  the  Irish  parliament. 
In  1782  the  Irish  Protestant  parliament  had 
greater  powers  and  dignities  conferred  on  it ; 
and  under  Grattan's  influence,  the  emancipation 
of  the  Catholics  seemed  near.  But  Irish  hopes 
were  blighted  by  the  obstinacy  of  George  III. 
Hereupon  the  society  of  the  United  Irishmen 
became  a  distinctly  rebellious  organisation,  and 
fomented  the  short  and  futile  rebellion  of  1798. 
The  union  of  the  parliaments  came  into  force  in 
1801.  The  next  great  events  in  Irish  history 
are  Roman  Catholic  Emancipation  in  1829 ; 
O'Connell's  agitation  for  the  rei)eal  of  the  union, 
begun  in  1842 ;  the  Potato  Famine  of  1846 ;  the 
Fenian  niovement  of  1867 ;  the  Disestablishment 
of  the  Irish  Church  (1871) ;  Mr  Gladstone's  Land 
Act  (1881);  the  Home  Rule  movement  under 
Parnell ;  the  Home  Rule  Bill  of  1886,  defeated  in 
the  House  of  Commons ;  and  that  of  1893,  de- 
feated in  the  House  of  Lords. 

There  are  histories  of  Ireland  by  Darcy  M'Gee 
(1869),  Keating  (1880),  J.  H.  M'Carthy  (1883), 
I-ady  E.  Lawless  (1888),  Joyce  (1898  and  1903), 
Walpole  (1893),  O'Grady  (1893),  O'Connor  Morris 
(1898),  and  Father  D'Alton  (1904). 

Irish  Sea,  between  the  north  of  Ireland  and 
the  north  of  England,  with  the  south-western 
counties  of  Scotland  on  the  north,  is  connected 
NW.  with  the  Atlantic  by  the  North  Channel, 
and  S.  by  St  George's  Channel.  Between  the 
coasts  of  Louth  (Ireland)  and  Lancaster  it  has 
its  greatest  width  of  150  miles ;  its  greatest 
length  north  and  south  is  about  the  same. 
Within  it  lie  the  Isle  of  Man  and  Anglesey. 

Irkutsk,  a  mountainous  government  of  south- 
ern Siberia,  to  the  NW.  of  Lake  Baikal,  occupies 
an  area  of  287,061  sq.  m.  The  pop.,  550,000  in 
1905,  consists  of  Buriats,  Tunguses,  and  Russians 
(one-third  exiles).  The  towns  are  Irkutsk, 
Kirensk,  Nijniudinsk,  and  Verkholensk. 

Irkutsk,  the  capital,  on  the  Angara,  ie  the 
residence  of  the  governor-general  of  eastern 
Siberia.  Although  3722  miles  from  St  Petersburg 
(and  40  from  Lake  Baikal),  Irkutsk  is  the  best- 


built  town  in  Siberia,  with  straight,  wide  streets, 
and  handsome  public  buildings.  It  possesses  a 
cathedral,  public  library,  natural  history  museum, 
&c.  The  pop.,  32,512  in  1875,  had  increased  to 
53,000  in  1905 ;  it  consists  mostly  of  Russians 
and  Buriats.  Irkutsk  was  founded  by  a  Cossack 
chief  in  1652.  Owing  to  its  position  on  the  great 
Siberian  highway  between  China  and  Russia,  it  is 
the  commercial  centre  of  Siberia,  especially  for 
the  tea-trade ;  the  annual  value  of  its  trade 
amounts  to  about  £1,100,000.  It  is  on  the  line  of 
the  great  Siberian  railway  in  progress.  The 
Angara  and  Lena  rivers  are  valuable  water-ways. 
A  fire  in  1879  did  £2,000,000  worth  damage. 

Ironbridge,  a  village  on  the  Severn,  1  mile'E. 
of  Coalbrookdale.  It  takes  name  from  the 
bridge  (1779),  lOOj  feet  in  span,  the  earliest  large 
cast-iron  bridge  in  the  kingdom. 

Iron  Gates.    See  Danube. 

Iron  Mountain,  a  mining-town  of  Michigan, 
on  the  Menomonce  River,  208  miles  by  rail  N.  of 
Milwaukee,     It  has  risen  since  1880.     Pop.  9300. 

Ironton,  capital  of  Lawrence  county,  Ohio,  on 
the  Ohio  River,  142  miles  above  Cincinnati.  It  is 
the  chief  business  centre  of  an  important  iron 
region.    Pop,  11,939. 

Irrawaddy.    See  Irawadi. 

Irtish,  a  river  of  Siberia,  the  chief  affluent  of 
the  Obi  (q.v.),  rises  at  the  east  end  of  the  Altai 
Mountains,  passes  through  Lake  Saisan,  breaks 
through  the  Altai  in  the  west  at  the  bottom  of 
a  savage  gorge,  and  flows  north-westwards  across 
the  steppes  of  Western  Siberia  to  join  the  Obi, 
from  the  left,  at  Samarow.  At  that  point  it  has 
a  width  of  2000  yards ;  its  total  length  is  1620 
miles  ;  the  area  of  its  basin,  647,000  sq.  m.  The 
towns  of  Semipalatinsk,  Omsk,  and  Tobolsk  stand 
on  its  banks.  Its  tributaries  include  the  Buch- 
tarma  and  Om  from  the  right,  and  the  Tobol  and 
I  shim  from  the  left. 

Irun  (Ee-roon),  a  town  in  the  Spanish  province 
of  Guipuzcoa,  on  the  Bidassoa,  near  the  French 
frontier,  24  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Bayonne.  In 
1837  General  Sir  De  Lacy  Evans  captured  it  from 
the  Carlists.    Pop.  9800. 

Irvine,  a  seaport  of  Ayrshire,  on  the  river 
Irvine,  IJ  mile  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  and  11 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Ayr,  29  SW.  of  Glasgow. 
Made  a  sub-port  of  Troon  in  1863,  its  harbour  has 
been  improved  since  1873  ;  and  there  are  chemical 
works,  foundries,  grain-stores,  &c.  The  bridge 
(1746-1837),  the  new  town-hall  (1859),  a  statue  of 
Lord- justice-general  Boyle  (1867),  and  the  academy 
(1814)  are  features  of  the  town,  which  became  a 
royal  burgh  about  1230,  and  which  with  Ayr,  &c. 
returns  one  member  to  parliament.  It  was  the 
birthplace  of  Gait  and  James  Montgomery,  and 
has  memories  also  of  Burns  and  the  Buchanites. 
Pop.  (1841)  4594  ;  (1901)  9618. 

Irvinestown,  a  town  of  County  Fermanagh,  8 
miles  N.  of  Enniskillen.    Pop.  781. 

Irwell,  a  river  of  Lancashire,  flowing  30  miles 
past  Manchester,  to  the  Mersey  below  Floxton. 

Isandu'la,  or  Isandhlwana,  in  the  north-east 
of  Natal,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Buffialo  River. 
110  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Durban.  There,  on  22d 
January  1879,  the  British  camp  was  surprised  by 
18,000  Zulus  in  Lord  Chelmsford's  absence  and 
almost  annihilated.  The  British  loss  exceeded 
800,  that  of  the  Zulus  2000. 

Isar,  or  Iser,  a  river  of  Bavaria,  rises  in  the 
Tyrol,  north-east  of  Innsbruck,  and  flows  220 
miles  north  and  north-east  to  the  Danube  near 


ISAURIA 


ispahAn 


Deggendorf.  Munich  and  Landshut  are  on  the 
banks  '  of  Iser,  rolling  rapidly ; '  Hohenlinden 
(q.v.)  is  20  miles  away.  Large  quantities  of  wood 
are  floated  down  the  Isar  from  the  mountains. 

Isauria,  in  ancient  geography,  a  district  of 
Asia  Minor,  occupying  the  summit  and  northern 
slopes  of  Mount  Taurus. 

Ischia  (Is'kee-a;  anc.  JEvMria  and  Pithecusa),  an 
island  on  the  north  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  Bay 
of  Naples,  6  miles  from  the  maiidand.  Area,  26 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  27,500.  Ischia  is  a  favourite  sum- 
mer-resort, being  noted  for  the  excellence  of  its 
warm  mineral  waters,  the  richness  of  its  soil,  the 
flavour  of  its  fruits  and  wines,  and  the  beauty  of 
its  scenery.  Its  highest  point  is  the  volcanic 
Monte  Epomeo,  2608  feet,  the  last  outbreak  of 
Avhich  occurred  in  1302.  In  1881  Casamicciola 
was  nearly  destroyed  by  two  earthquake  shocks, 
and  in  1883  it  was  utterly  overwhelmed,  1990 
persons  losing  their  lives.  Chief  towns  :  Ischia 
(7000),  a  bishop's  seat ;  Casamicciola  (3963) ;  and 
Forio  (7500).  See  Johnston-Lavis,  The  Earth- 
quakes of  Ischia  (1880). 

Ischl  (EesM),  a  town  of  Upper  Austria,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  Salzkaminergut,  is  ttnely  seated,  1536  feet 
above  sea-level,  on  the  river  T-raun,  amid  magnifi- 
cent Alpine  scenery,  33  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Salzburg. 
Its  situation,  and  the  saline  baths,  established 
in  1822,  attract  5000  visitors  annually,  including 
the  Austrian  royal  family,  who  have  a  villa  here. 
Yearly  8000  tons  of  salt  are  manufactured  in  the 
salt-works,  opened  in  1571.    Pop.  9700. 

Iseghem  (Ee'ze-khem),  a  town  of  Belgium,  10 
miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  of  Courtrai.    Pop.  12,200. 

Iseo  (Ee-zay'-o),  Lake  (Lacus  Sebinus),  a  lake  of 
northern  Italy,  situated  between  the  provinces  of 
Bergamo  and  Brescia.  Length,  12^  miles  ;  maxi- 
mum breadth,  3f  miles  ;  area,  24  sq.  m.  It  con- 
tains two  small  islands,  and  is  traversed  by  the 
Oglio,  a  tributary  of  the  Po. 

Isfere  (Ee-zehr'),  a  dep.  in  the  south-east  of 
France,  round  which  on  the  north  and  west  flows 
the  river  Rhone.  It  was  formed  out  of  the  ancient 
province  of  Dauphine.  Area,  3200  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
(1872)  575,784  ;  (1901)  563,813.  The  dep.  contains 
the  four  arrondissements  of  Grenoble  (the  capital). 
La  Tour-du-Pin,  St  Marcellin,  and  Vienne. 

Iserlolin  (Ee-zer-loan),  a  town  of  Prussian 
Westphalia,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Ruhr,  14  miles 
SE.  of  Dortnmnd.  It  manufactures  brass  and 
bronze  articles.  The  calamine  mines  are  cele- 
brated. The  neighbouring  Dechen  stalactite  cave, 
292  yards  long,  was  discovered  in  1868.  Pop. 
30,000. 

Isernia  (anc.  ^sernia),  a  cathedral  city  of 
Italy,  52  miles  N.  of  Naples.    Pop.  9678. 

Ishim.  See  Irtish. 
'  Ish'peming,  a  city  of  Michigan,  15  miles  W. 
of  Marquette  on  Lake  Superior,  and  392  N.  of 
Chicago  by  rail.  Much  iron  ore  is  mined  close 
by,  and  the  town  possesses  foundries,  blast- 
furnaces, &c.     Pop.  15,000. 

Iskanderoon.    See  Scanderoon. 

Isla  (I'la),  (1)  a  river  of  Forfar  and  Perthshire, 
flowing  46  miles  SE.  and  SW.  to  the  Tay  near 
Cargill,  4J  miles  WSW.  of  Coupar-Angns.— (2) 
A  Banffshire  stream,  running  18  miles  to  the 
Deverou  near  Grange  Junction. 

Isla  de  Pinos.    See  Pinos,  Isla  de. 

Islamabad.    See  Chittagong. 

Islandshlre,  a  part  of  Northumberland  in 
England,  embracing  the  Fame  Islands,  together 


with  three  parishes  adjoining  Berwick-on-Tweed 
(q.v.)  and  portions  of  two  others.  Till  1844  it 
formed  a  detached  part  of  Durham  county. 

Islay  (I'lay),  an  Argyllshire  island,  13  miles  W. 
of  Kintyre,  and  |  mile  SW.  of  Jura,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  Sound  of  Islay.  Deeply  indented 
on  the  south  by  Loch  Indal  (12  x  8  miles),  Islay 
has  a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of  25^  and  19 
miles,  and  an  area  of  246  sq.  m.  It  contains 
several  small  fresh-water  lakes,  and  attains  a 
height  of  1444  feet.  More  than  half  the  whole 
area  is  capable  of  cultivation,  and  great  improve- 
ments have  been  effected  in  the  way  of  road- 
making,  draining,  reclamation,  &c.  Dairy-farm- 
ing, stock-raising,  and  whisky-distillation  are 
leading  industries;  whilst  slate,  marble,  iron, 
lead,  and  silver  have  been  worked.  Pop.  (1831) 
14,982 ;  (1901)  6875. 

Isle  of  France.    See  Mauritius. 

Isle  of  Man,  Wight,  &c.    See  Man,  Wight. 

Isleworth  (I'zel-worth),  a  Middlesex  parish,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Thames,  12  miles  WSW.  of 
London.  Here  is  Sion  House,  a  seat  of  the  Duke 
of  Northumberland,  the  place  where  the  crown 
was  ofl'ered  to  Lady  Jane  Grey. 

Islington  (Iz'ling-ton),  (1)  one  of  the  metro- 
politan boroughs  of  the  county  of  London.  Pop. 
(1861)  155,341 ;  (1901)  334,906.  It  has  numerous 
religious,  educational,  and  benevolent  insti- 
tutions. The  Agricultural  Hall  (1861),  where 
the  great  national  cattle  and  horse  shows  are 
held,  is  capable  of  holding  50,000  people.  In 
1885  Islington  was  made  a  parliamentary  borough. 
It  returns  four  members.— (2)  A  former  parish  of 
Norfolk,  4  miles  SW.  of  Lynn.  It  is  the  Islington 
probably  of  '  The  Bailiff's  Daughter.' 

Ismail,  a  town  and  river-port  in  the  Russian 
government  of  Bessarabia,  stands  on  the  north 
bank  of  the  Kilia  branch  of  the  Danube,  48  miles 
from  its  mouth.  Formerly  a  Turkish  fortress, 
it  was  taken  and  destroyed  by  Suwaroff  in  1790 ; 
came  to  Russia  in  1812  ;  was  assigned  to  Moldavia 
(1856),  its  fortifications  being  razed ;  and  was 
transferred  to  Russia  again  in  1878.  Pop.,  with 
the  adjoining  Tutchkoff',  33,084. 

Ismailia  (Iz-ml-lee'a ;  named  after  the  Khedive 
Ismail),  a  small  town  on  Lake  Timsah,  through 
which  the  Suez  Canal  passes.  It  stands  on  the 
railway  from  Cairo  to  Suez  and  on  the  Sweet- 
water Canal.  During  the  construction  of  the 
Suez  Canal  it  was  the  headquarters  of  the  work, 
having  been  founded  in  1863,  but  it  is  now  a 
place  of  less  than  4000  inhabitants. 

Isn'ik.    See  Nic^a. 

I'sola  Bella.    See  Borromean  Islands. 

Isola  Grossa,  or  Isola  Lunga  (Great  or  Long 
Island),  an  Austrian  island,  27  miles  by  3,  parallel 
to  Dalmatian  coast,  off"  Zara.     Pop.  3000. 

Ispahan,  properly  IsfahAn,  a  famous  city  of 
Persia,  capital  of  the  province  of  Irak-Ajemi,  and 
in  the  17th  century  of  the  entire  country,  is 
situated  on  the  Zenderud,  in  an  extensive  and 
fertile  plain,  226  miles  S.  of  Tehran.  The  river, 
here  600  feet  broad,  is  crossed  by  three  noble 
bridges.  Groves,  orchards,  avenues,  and  culti- 
vated fields  surround  the  city  for  miles  ;  but  the 
permanent  beauty  of  the  vicinity  only  serves  to 
make  the  contrast  all  the  more  striking  between 
the  former  splendour  of  the  city  and  its  present 
ruinous  condition.  Miles  of  street  are  now 
almost  tenantless,  and  many  of  the  palaces  are 
falling  to  decay.  The  suburb  Julfa,  on  the 
southern  bank  of  the  river,  once  a  flourishing 


ISSIK-KUL 


365 


ITALY 


Armenian  settlement  of  30,000  inhabitants,  is 
now  little  better  than  a  mass  of  ruins.  Ispahan, 
however,  is  still  an  important  city  ami  the 
seat  of  extensive  manufactures,  including  all 
sorts  of  woven  fabrics,  from  rich  gold  brocades 
and  figured  velvets  to  common  calicoes.  Trink- 
ets and  ornamental  goods  in  great  variety,  with 
firearms,  sword-blades,  glass,  and  earthenware, 
are  also  manufactured.  Of  late  years,  too, 
many  of  its  edifices  have  been  rebuilt ;  and  rice 
is  now  largely  cultivated  in  the  neighbourhood. 
Pop.  80,000— not  a  tenth  of  what  it  was  once. 

Issik-klll  (Kirghiz,  '  warm  water '),  a  salt-lake 
in  central  Asia,  in  the  Russian  province  of  Semir- 
schensk,  between  the  Terskei  Ala-tau  range  on 
the  south  and  the  Kungei  Ala-tau  on  the  north. 
Lying  5000  feet  above  sea-level,  it  is  112  miles 
long,  38  miles  broad,  and  1980  sq.  m.  in  area. 
Although  it  receives  forty  rivers,  its  surface  falls 
permanently  8  or  9  inches  a  year. 

Issoire  (Is-swahr' ;  anc.  Issiodorum),  a  town  in 
the  French  dep.  of  Puy-de-D6me,  near  the  con- 
fluence of  tlie  Couze  and  Allier,  21  miles  by  rail 
SE.  of  Clermont-Ferrand.    Pop.  5560. 

Issoudun,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Indre, 
72  miles  S.  of  Orleans  by  rail.  It  manufactures 
parchment,  cloth,  agricultural  instruments,  &c. 
Pop.  13,000. 

Issus,  an  ancient  seaport  on  a  gulf  of  the 
same  name  in  Cilicia,  Asia  Minor.  Here  Alex- 
ander the  Great  routed  Darius  (333  B.C.). 

Issy,  a  village  in  the  French  dep.  of  Seine,  J 
mile  SW.  from  Paris.  Pop.  12,830.  Here  on 
3d  July  1815  Bliicher  defeated  Davoftt.  During 
the  siege  of  Paris  (1870-71)  by  the  Germans,  the 
fort  of  Issy  suft'ered  severely  from  bombardment. 

Istakhr,  or  Stakhr,  an  ancient  city  of  Persia, 
built  near  Persepolis  (q.v.). 

Istambol.    See  Constantinople. 

Istria,  an  Austrian  margraviate,  forming  a 
mountainous  peninsula  in  the  north-east  corner 
of  the  Adriatic,  between  the  Gulf  of  Trieste  and 
the  Gulf  of  Fiume  or  Quarnero.  Area,  with  the 
adjacent  islands,  1812  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  344,200., 
Capital,  Rovigno. 

Italy,  a  kingdom  occupying  the  central  of  the 
three  great  peninsulas  of  southern  Europe  to- 
gether with  Sicily,  Sardinia,  and  some  smaller 
islands.  The  peninsula,  wliich  at  the  Strait  of 
Otranto  approaches  within  less  than  50  miles  of 
Albania,  is  bounded  W.  and  S.  by  that  portion  of 
the  Mediterranean  known  as  the  Tyrrhenian  Sea, 
E.  by  the  Adriatic,  and  N.  by  the  Alps,  separat- 
ing it  from  France,  Switzerland,  and  Austro- 
Hungary.  Its  greatest  length  is  710  miles  ;  the 
breadth  ranges  from  351  miles  in  the  north  to 
about  20  between  the  Gulfs  of  Sta  Eufemia  and 
Squillace,  but  in  most  places  is  about  90  or  100 
miles.  The  seaboard  of  the  peninsula  extends  to 
2272  miles.  Tlie  area  formerly  given  at  114,416, 
has  been  officially  reduced  to  110,657  sq.  m.  Pop. 
(1871)  was  26,801,154;  (1904)  33,218,328,  Tlie 
area  of  Italy  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland  ;  the  population  about  four- 
fifths  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  To  the 
kingdom  proper  must  be  added  Italy's  colonial 
possession  in  Africa.  This  consists  of  the  terri- 
tories of  Assab  and  Massowah  (q.v.)  on  the  Red 
Sea,  Keren  and  Asmara  in  Abyssinia,  and  the 
Dahlak  archipelago,  which  embrace  a  total  area 
of  nearly  4000  sq.  m.,  and  were  united  into  a 
colony  bearing  the  name  of  Eritrea  (from  the  old 
name  of  the  Red  Sea,  Mare  Erythrceum)  in  1889. 
In  1889  King  Menelek  acknowledged  the  protec- 


torate of  Italy  over  Abyssinia.  The  table  shows 
the  area  and  population  of  the  16  great  divisions 
called  Compartimenti  (the  adujinistrative  pro- 
vinces are  69  in  number  and  named  after  the 
chief  towns)  at  the  census  of  1901. 


Conipartunenti. 


Area. 


Piedmont 11,340 

Liguria 2,0.'J7 

Lombardy 9,386 

Venetia 9,476 

Emilia  (with  Romagna) 7,990 

Umbrla 3,748 

The  Marches 3,763 

Tuscany 9,304 

Rome  (and  Latiuni) 4,663 

Abruzzi  and  Molise 6,380 

Campania 6,289 

Apulia 7,376 

Basilicata 3,846 

Calabria 5,819 

Sicily 9,936 

Sardinia 9,305 

Total 110,657 


Population. 
3,326,311 
1,080,944 
4,278,188 
3,130,429 
2,451,752 

644,367 
1,064,749 
2,548,154 
1,206,354 
1.442,365 
3,142,378 
1,949,423 

490,000 
1.375,760 
3,529,266 

789,314 


32,449,754 


The  number  of  foreigners  in  Italy  at  the  census 
of  1901  was  61,606,  including  11,616  Austrians, 
10,757  Swiss,  10,745  Germans,  8768  British,  and 
6953  French.  Tiie  Italian  pop.  includes  in  Pied- 
mont about  120,000  of  French  and  some  3000  of 
Teutonic  origin,  in  southern  Italy  at  least  60,000 
of  Albanian  and  20,000  of  Greelc  origin,  and  in 
Sardinia  7000  or  8000  of  Spanish  origin.  Within 
the  five  years  1898-1902  over  2,000,000  left  Italy, 
of  whom  nearly  1,000,000  went  to  other  European 
countries,  and  almost  all  the  rest  to  America 
(chiefly  the  United  States,  Brazil,  Argentina,  and 
Canada).  Tlie  largest  town  is  Naples  (563,540  in 
1901),  Rome  (the  capital)  having  462,783  ;  Milan, 
491,460 ;  Turin,  335,656 ;  Palermo,  309,692 ;  Genoa, 
234,710;  Florence,  205,589;  four  about  150,000; 
and  other  23  towns  over  50,000. 

On  the  northern  frontier  of  Italy  the  Alps 
sweep  round  in  a  mighty  arc  from  Nice  to 
Trieste ;  and  some  of  the  loftiest  peaks  in  the 
system,  including  Mont  Blanc  and  Monte  Rosa, 
belong  to  this  mountain-girdle.  The  highest 
mountain  entirely  within  the  kingdom  is  Gran 
Paradiso  (13,652  feet),  the  culminating  point  of 
the  Graian  Alps,  in  Piedmont.  Between  the 
Alps  and  the  Apennines  spreads  the  broad  fertile 
Lombardo- Venetian  plain,  a  nearly  level  country. 
Most  of  this  great  alluvial  tract,  which  fills 
nearly  the  whole  of  northern  Italy,  belongs  to 
the  basin  of  the  Po  ;  it  is  irrigated  by  numerous 
streams  and  canals,  and  is  one  of  the  most  fruit- 
ful and  flourishing  districts  of  Italy.  The  Adige 
and  Brenta  are  other  streams.  Many  of  the  Po's 
tributaries  spread  out  at  the  foot  of  the  Alps 
into  considerable  bodies  of  water,  among  which 
are  the  Lago  di  Garda(127  sq.  m.),  Lago  Maggiore 
(81),  and  Como  (58).  From  Rimini  to  the  Gulf 
of  Trieste  the  Adriatic  coast  is  flat  and  marshy, 
and  fringed  by  lagoons.  On  the  Riviera,  from 
Nice  to  Spezia,  the  sunny,  rugged  mountains 
come  close  to  the  water's  edge.  The  geology  of 
the  north  and  west  of  northern  Italy  is  that  of 
the  Alps  (q.v.). 

In  the  peninsula  the  Apennines  are  the  most 
important  feature.  The  chain,  after  stretching 
across  from  the  Gulf  of  Genoa  to  the  Adriatic, 
turns  and  runs  down  in  a  broad,  irregular  mass 
to  the  extremity  of  Calabria.  The  mean  elevation 
is  only  some  5200  feet.  The  limestone  rocks  of  the 
Apennines,  rugged  and  cleft,  fill  the  interior  of  the 
country  with  picturesque  mountain-scenery.  The 
culminating  peak  of  the  Apennines  is  Monte 
Como  (9577  feet),  in  the  great  mountain-mass 
called  Gran  Sasso  d'ltalia.    On  the  west  side  of 


ITALY 


366 


ITALY 


the  peninsula,  between  the  main  chain  and  the  sea, 
a  volcanic  tract  extends  from  Tuscany  as  far 
south  as  Vesuvius  (420C),  the  only  volcano  still 
active.  The  entire  Campanian  plain,  the  Roman 
Campagna,  and  the  country  round  Viterbo  are 
mainly  of  volcanic  origin.  To  the  volcanic  centres 
within  the  peninsula  may  be  added  Etna  in 
Sicily,  and  Stromboli  in  the  Lipari  Islands.  Tus- 
cany is  a  hilly  country,  which  seldom  rises  into 
mountains.  Farther  south  the  Roman  plain,  tlie 
Pontine  Marshes,  and  the  fertile  Campanian  plain 
are  connected ;  on  the  east  side  of  the  Apen- 
nines the  only  plain  is  that  of  Apulia.  The  chief 
rivers  of  the  peninsula  flow  into  the  Tyrrhenian 
Sea ;  but  only  the  Tiber  (for  90  miles)  and,  to  a 
less  extent,  the  Arno  (66  miles),  Volturno,  and 
Garigliano  are  navigable. 

The  generally  warm  climate  of  Italy  is  con- 
siderably modified  in  places  by  the  presence  of 
the  mountain-ranges  or  the  proximity  of  the  sea. 
The  plain  of  the  Po,  open  to  the  icy  winds  from 
the  Alps,  and  closed  to  those  from  the  south,  lias 
a  cold  if  short  winter,  while  along  the  Riviera  the 
temperature  is  as  high  as,  and  sometimes  higher 
than,  that  of  Rome  or  Naples.  Throughout  the 
peninsula  the  temperature  is  lowered  by  the  pres- 
ence of  the  Apennines.  Moreover,  the  Adriatic 
coast,  exposed  to  the  north-east  winds,  is  colder 
than  the  corresponding  west  coast.  The  highest 
temperature  recorded  is  109°  F.  (in  Apulia),  the 
lowest  -25°  F.  (on  Monte  Stelvio,  in  Lombard y). 
In  the  very  south  there  are  but  two  seasons,  a  wet 
and  a  dry ;  whereas  in  northern  Italy  there  are  two 
greater  and  two  lesser  rainy  periods  in  the  year, 
most  rain  falling  in  October  and  in  spring,  and 
least  in  winter.  Over  all  the  peninsula  autumn 
is  the  wet  season.  The  cold  mistral  blows  in 
the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  and  the  warm  sirocco  affects 
the  coast  sometimes  as  far  north  as  Venice.  In 
many  districts  the  evil  presence  of  malaria,  from 
July  to  October  especially,  forms  a  serious  draw- 
baclc  to  the  sunny  climate. 

The  vegetation  of  northern  Italy  is  in  the  main 
such  as  can  endure  the  frosts  of  winter.  But  by 
the  lake-sides  we  find  orange  and  olive  trees,  and 
the  summer  heat  is  sufficient  to  ripen  rice  and 
maize,  of  which,  as  well  as  other  cereals  and 
legumes,  large  crops  are  raised.  Forests  of 
chestnuts  clothe  the  mountains,  vineyards  the 
lower  hills,  and  the  mulberry-tree  is  extensively 
grown.  The  Riviera,  so  far  as  vegetation  is  con- 
cerned, belongs  to  southern  Italy.  In  southern 
Italy  the  flora  of  central  Europe  gives  place  to 
palms  and  orange  and  lemon  and  citron  trees,  the 
cactus  and  agave,  laurels,  myrtles,  oleanders,  and 
forests  of  arbutus  and  the  evergreen  oak.  Italy  is 
pre-eminently  an  agricultural  country.  Of  its 
entire  area  87  per  cent,  is  returned  as  productive  ; 
and  nearly  half  of  the  productive  area  is  under 
cultivation.  The  grape  harvest  in  Italy  is  second 
in  value  to  the  cereals  alone,  though  most  of  the 
Italian  wines  are  still  comparatively  poor.  Below 
the  44th  parallel  the  olive  is  among  the  most  valu- 
able products.  Large  quantities  of  fruit  are  ex- 
ported. The  chestnut  yields  an  important  article 
of  food.  Cultivation  is  still  carried  on  in  a  very 
primitive  fashion  in  some  parts,  but  in  northern 
Italy,  Tuscany,  and  round  Naples,  indeed,  the 
farming  is  of  a  very  high  character.  The  system  of 
peasant  proprietorship  is  extending.  Otherwise, 
land  may  be  held  by  the  metayer  system,  or  by 
rent,  paid  either  in  money  or  in  kind ;  or  the 
cultivator  may  be  simply  the  paid  servant  of  tlie 
landlord,  receiving  a  share  of  the  produce  for 
his  labour.  In  any  case,  the  life  of  the  Italian 
peasant  is,  as  a  rule,  one  of  unremitting  drudgery 


and  poverty,  often  of  privation.  There  are 
fisheries  round  the  coast  and  in  the  lagoons. 
The  tunny  is  the  most  valuable  fish,  and  after 
that  the  anchovy  and  sardine ;  but  the  eel-fish- 
eries of  Comacchio  are  also  of  importance. 

Italy  contains  no  deposits  of  bituminous  coal, 
nor,  except  in  a  few  localities,  of  iron.  A  very 
little  anthracite  and  about  300,000  tons  of  lignite 
are  raised  annually,  most  of  the  latter  in  Tuscany 
and  Umbria.  Nearly  all  the  iron  is  raised  in 
Elba.  The  great  mineral  product  of  Italy  is  sul- 
phur. Marble,  granite,  and  alabaster  are  quarried 
to  the  amount  of  nearly  a  million  sterling  annu- 
ally. The  silk  industry  employs,  especially  in 
northern  Italy,  some  172,000  persons,  besides  over 
550,000  engaged  in  rearing  tlie  silkworm.  Tlie 
manufacture  of  thread  and  of  cotton  tissues 
shows  a  steady  advance,  as  does  also  the  spin- 
ning and  weaving  of  wool.  The  north  is  the 
seat  of  the  iron  industry ;  the  principal  copper- 
works  are  at  Leghorn.  The  manufactures  of 
glass  and  ceramic  wares  are  valued  at  £2,500,000. 
With  these  may  be  classed  the  cutting  of  cameos 
and  the  production  of  mosaics  at  Rome,  Naples, 
and  Florence,  and  also  the  working  of  coral. 
The  manufacture  of  tobacco  is  a  government 
monopoly.  There  are  numerous  paper-mills  in 
Piedmont,  Lombardy,  and  Campania,  and  fac- 
tories of  straw-hats,  the  principal  at  Florence,  and 
of  cloth,  silk,  and  felt  hats  in  Piedmont  especially. 
Sulphuric  and  tartaric  acid,  sulphate  of  quinine, 
salt,  soap,  oils,  candles,  wax  matches,  gloves,  &c. 
are  also  exported. 

The  foreign  trade  of  Italy  is  facilitated  both  by 
the  extensive  seaboard  and  good  harbours  and  by 
railway  connections  with  the  countries  beyond 
the  Alps.  The  imports  and  exports  have  been 
steadily  increasing  since  1800.  In  the  five  years 
from  1898  to  1902  the  special  imports  (imports  for 
home  consumption)  increased  from  £56,671,165 
to  £72,420,730.  Tlie  special  exports  (exports  of 
national  merchandise)  during  tlie  same  years  in- 
creased from  £48,927,276  to  £59,296,104.  The 
commercial  intercourse  of  Italy  is,  in  the  order 
of  value,  principally  with  Germany,  the  United 
Kingdom,  the  United  States,  France,  Switzerland, 
Austria-Hungary,  and  Russia.  The  war  of  tariffs 
with  France  came  to  an  end  with  the  19tli  century. 
The  principal  imports  from  Britain  are  coal,  iron, 
cottons  and  woollens,  machinery,  chemicals,  and 
fish ;  the  chief  exports  thither  are  olive-oil, 
oranges  and  lemons,  with  their  essences  and 
syrups,  hemp,  hides,  chemicals,  dye-stuffs,  and 
marble.  More  than  half  the  steamers  entering 
Italian  ports  are  British,  and  these  carry  nearly 
four-fifths  of  the  maritime  trade.  The  most  im- 
portant seaports  are  Genoa  and  Savona,  Leghorn, 
Naples,  Venice,  Messina,  Catania,  and  Palermo. 
There  are  between  9000  and  10,000  miles  of  rail- 
way in  operation.  The  principal  occupation, 
agriculture,  employs  nearly  a  third  of  the  entire 
population,  and  the  manufactures  only  about 
half  as  many.  Nevertheless,  the  proportion  of 
inhabitants  congregated  in  cities  is  unusually 
large,  and  in  southern  Italy  and  the  islands 
even  the  peasants  prefer  to  have  their  homes  in 
some  town  or  village.  The  death-rate  from 
malaria  steadily  diminishes,  as  does  that  from 
pellagra,  a  disease  resulting  from  insufficient  and 
unwholesome  food.  The  character  of  the  people 
is  in  general  sober  and  thrifty,  and  they  prove 
excellent  workmen  where  sheer  labour  is  required, 
as  in  quarries  and  drainage  operations. 

The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  recognised  state 
religion,  and  claims  all  but  a  very  small  fraction 
of  the  people.    Of  Protestants  there  are  about 


ITALY 


367 


ITHACA 


66,000,  and  of  Jews  36,000;  the  former  in- 
clude some  22,500  Waldensiaiis.  There  are  in 
Italy  49  Catliolic  archbishoi)s  and  226  bishops, 
and  over  76,500  parish  priests.  The  rank  and 
dignity  of  the  pope,  as  a  sovereign  prince,  is 
recognised  by  the  law  of  1871.  The  great 
majority  of  the  religious  houses  have  been  sup- 
pressed. In  1861,  of  those  over  nineteen  years  of 
age,  65  per  cent,  of  the  males  and  81  per  cent. 
of  the  females  were  unable  to  read  or  write ; 
in  1901  the  percentage  had  fallen  to  43-8  for  the 
males  and  60-3  for  the  females.  Primary  edu- 
cation is  now  compulsory,  and  schools  of  all 
kinds  have  increased  largely  of  late ;  since  1861 
the  pupils  in  elementary  schools  have  increased 
from  885,000  to  2,750,000.  There  are  in  Italy  21 
universities,  with  23,000  students.  The  oldest 
university  is  that  of  Bologna  (q.v.),  the  largest 
that  of  Naples  (5500  students).  The  great  body 
of  Italian  students  are  enrolled  in  the  faculties 
of  medicine  and  jurisprudence  ;  theology  is  not 
taught  in  any  of  the  universities. 

Italy  is  a  constitutional  monarchy,  the  execu- 
tive power  vested  in  the  king  being  exercised 
through  responsible  ministers.  The  legislative 
functions  are  in  the  hands  of  the  king  and  parlia- 
ment conjointly,  the  latter  consisting  of  a  senate 
of  about  330  life-members,  nominated  by  the 
king,  and  of  a  chamber  of  over  500  deputies.  The 
franchise  is  extended  to  all  citizens  who  are  of  age, 
can  read  and  write,  and  pay  20  lire  of  direct  taxes. 
The  government  of  the  provinces,  with  a  prefect 
at  the  head  of  each,  is  very  much  the  same  as  in 
France.  Military  (or  naval)  service  is  compulsory 
for  all  citizens  from  the  age  of  twenty  to  thirty- 
nine,  but  only  about  95,000  annually  are  drafted 
into  the  standing  army  (3000  into  the  navy). 
The  standing  army  in  1905  numbered  264,500  men, 
besides  500,000  on  unlimited  leave ;  the  total 
war  strength,  including  mobile  and  territorial 
militia,  is  a  little  above  3  million  men.  Italy  is  dis- 
proportionately strong  at  sea,  having  15  armoured 
battle-ships,  20  armoured  and  protected  cruisers, 
and  about  60  torpedo-boats  (various),  with  a  total 
force  of  1799  officers  and  25,000  men.  Some  of 
the  armour-clads  are  amongst  the  largest  of 
existing  war-ships.  The  finances  are  not  on  a 
satisfactory  footing ;  the  enormous  military  and 
naval  expenditure  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the 
resources  of  the  country,  and  the  constant  deficits 
and  schemes  for  expanding  the  revenue  have  led 
to  frequent  crises  and  changes  of  ministry.  The 
extension  and  maintenance  by  government  of 
railways  far  beyond  conunercial  needs  have 
saddled  the  country  Avith  a  very  serious  burden. 
The  estimated  revenue  of  1904-5  was  £74,190,481, 
and  the  estimated  expenditure  for  the  same  year 
restricted  to  £73,437,117.  The  total  public  debt 
is  about  £505,000,000. 

The  history  of  Italy  is  generally  begun  where 
that  of  Rome  (q.v.)  ends— with  the  total  fall  of 
the  Western  Roman  Empire  in  476  a.d.  under  the 
attacks  of  the  invading  Herulian  barbarians.  In 
489  Theodoric  and  his  Ostrogoths  founded  a 
Gothic  monarchy  in  Italy,  which  was  subverted 
by  the  generals  of  the  Eastern  or  Byzantine 
empire  in  553.  In  568  came  the  Lombards,  who 
soon  held  the  greater  part  of  the  peninsula,  and 
were  only  crushed  by  the  Franks,  whose  king, 
Charlemagne,  was  crowned  emperor  of  the 
Romans  by  the  pope  in  800.  In  962  Italy  be- 
came a  part  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  as  recon- 
stituted under  the  German  Otto ;  and  hencefor- 
ward Italy  was  the  scene  of  constant  struggles 
between  German  rivals  for  the  imperial  power, 
between  the  emperors  and  the  popes,  the  Ghibel- 


lines  and  the  Guelphs,  the  various  cities  against 
the  emperor,  the  pope,  or  one  another.  With  the 
fall  of  the  Hohenstaufens  in  1254  the  emperors 
ceased  from  troubling,  and  the  popes  became  the 
chief  power  in  Italy,  their  faction  being  also 
dominant  in  the  most  powerful  of  the  cities, 
many  of  which  had  now  fallen  under  the  power 
of  hereditary  tyrants.  In  the  14th  and  15th 
centuries  Italy  was  parcelled  out  amongst  five 
powers— the  kingdom  of  Naples  (first  under 
Angevin,  then  under  Spanish  kings),  the  duchy 
of  Milan,  the  republics  of  Florence  and  Venice, 
and  the  papacy.  From  the  time  of  Charles  V. 
Spanish- Austrian  influence  became  dominant, 
Charles  being  able  to  leave  both  Naples  afld 
Milan  to  his  son,  Philip  II.  In  the  war  of  the 
Spani.sh  succession  the  little  state  of  Savoy  so 
skilfully  used  its  power  (against  the  French)  as  to 
secure  the  island  of  Sardinia  and  the  rank  of  king- 
dom. After  the  treaty  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  (1748), 
the  House  of  Savoy  held  Sardinia  and  Piedmont ; 
the  Austrians,  Milan  and  Tuscany;  the  Bour- 
bons, Nai)les,  Sicily  (the  kingdom  of  'the  two 
Sicilies  '),  and  Parma  ;  the  papal  power  held  the 
centre  of  the  peninsula ;  Venice  survived  as  a 
republic  till  1797  ;  and  Modena  and  Genoa  were 
under  the  protection  of  France,  to  which  power 
the  Genoese  now  gave  Corsica.  Despotism  was 
everywhere  universal.  After  the  French  Revolu- 
tion numerous  republics  were  established  under 
French  influence ;  in  1805  Napoleon,  now  em- 
peror, was  crowned  king  of  Italy.  The  Congress 
of  Vienna  restored  the  map  of  Italy  pretty  much 
to  its  old  appearance,  but  even  more  power  was 
given  to  Austria,  Venice  as  well  as  Lombardy 
being  now  Austrian  (though  Genoa  fell  to  Sar- 
dinia). Austrian  despotism  pressed  heavily  on 
the  rising  spirit  of  independence ;  the  revolu- 
tionary movement  of  1849  had  but  momentary 
success,  but  henceforth  Sardinia  was  regarded  as 
the  only  possible  nucleus  of  an  Italian  kingdom. 
The  war  of  1859  between  France  and  Austria 
ended  in  the  cession  of  Lombardy  and  part  of 
Venetia  (though  the  PYench  had  to  get  Savoy  and 
Nice) ;  soon  after  the  central  Italian  states  voted 
themselves  into  the  kingdom  ;  and  southern  Italy 
welcomed  Garibaldi  and  his  volunteers,  and  for 
ever  expelled  the  Bourbons.  In  1866  the  Austro- 
Prussian  war  gave  Venice  to  Italy ;  during  the 
Franco-German  war  of  1870  Victor  Ennnanuel 
entered  Rome,  henceforth  the  capital.  The  uni- 
fication of  the  kingdom  was  now  practically 
comijlete — Italy  being  no  longer  a  '  mere  geo- 
graphical expression  ; '  the  republic  of  San  Marino 
(q.v.)  is  independent ;  and  ardent  Italian  patriots 
regard  the  southern  Tyrol,  Trieste,  Istria,  the 
Dalmatian  coast,  and  Nice  and  Savoy  as  '  Italia 
irredenta,"  whose  incorporation  with  the  kingdom 
is  yet  to  be  worked  for. 

See  works  on  Italy  by  Gallenga  (1875  and  1887), 
De  Amicis  (1883),  W.  D.  Howells  (1883),  Laveleye 
(1886),  Orsi  (1900),  Bolton  King  and  Okey  (1901), 
and  Deecke  (trans.  1904) ;  for  history,  see  Hodg- 
kin's  Italy  and  her  Invaders;  Bryce's  Holy  Roman 
Empire;  Ranke's  History  of  the  Popes ;  Symonds's 
Renaissance  in  Italy ;  besides  small  manuals,  such 
as  Hunt's  (new  ed.  1883). 

Itasca  Lake.    See  Mississippi. 

Itchen,  a  Hampshire  river,  flowing  25  miles 
SSW.  past  Winchester  to  Southampton  Water. 

Ith'aca,  now  Thiaki,  one  of  the  Ionian  Islands 
(q.v.),  the  smallest  of  them  except  Paxo,  is  a  long, 
narrow  strip  of  land  off  the  north-east  of  Cepha- 
lonia,  20  miles  W.  of  the  Greek  mainland.  The 
surface  is  mountainous  (2648  feet),  the  coast  steep 


ITHACA 


368 


JAISALMER 


Bnd  rocky.  Area,  37  sq.  m.  Ithaca  was  Ulysses' 
home.  Pop.  11,050.  Chief  town,  Vathy.  See 
achlieinauii's  Ithaka  (1869). 

Ithaca,  capital  of  Tompkins  county,  New 
York,  picturesquely  situated  on  Cayuga  Lake, 
35  miles  NNB.  of  Elmira  by  rail.  It  has  a  large 
trade  in  coal,  and  many  foundries,  mills,  and  fac- 
tories, and  is  the  seat  of  Cornell  unsectarian 
male  and  female  university,  founded  in  1868  by 
Ezra  Cornell.    Pop.  14,079. 

Itzehoe,  a  town  of  Holstein,  40  miles  NW.  of 
Hamburg  by  rail.  It  manufactures  sugar,  cotton, 
machinery,  chicory,  and  soap.  Pop.  16,772.  The 
original  castle  (Eselsfleth),  around  which  Etzehoe 
or  Itzehoe  gradually  arose,  was  built  by  Charle- 
magne in  809. 

Ivano'vo,  or  Ivanovo- Voznesensk,  the  '  Man- 
chester' of  Russia,  in  Vladimir  government,  210 
miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Moscow.  It  has  been  the 
centre  of  the  Russian  cotton  industry  since  about 
1750.     Pop.  54,000. 

Ivel,  a  river  of  Herts  and  Bedfordshire,  flowing 
30  miles  N.  to  the  Ouse  at  Tempsford. 

Ivinghoe,  a  market-town  of  Bucks,  2  miles 
SSE.  of  Cheddington  Junction,  and  38  NW.  of 


London.  Ivinghoe  Beacon  (904  feet)  is  one  of 
the  Chiltern  Hills.     Pop.  of  parish,  1077. 

Iv'iza,  or  Ibiza  (anc.  Ebasus),  the  most  south- 
westerly of  the  Balearic  Isles  (q.v.),  56  miles 
from  the  Spanish  mainland.  It  is  mountainous, 
and  its  coasts  are  indented.  Area,  228  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  21,568.  Iviza,  the  chief  town,  is  fortified, 
and  a  bishop's  see.    Pop.  6400. 

Ivory  Coast,  a  part  of  the  northern  coast  of 
the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  West  Africa,  embraces  the 
districts  between  Cape  Palmas  and  the  river 
Assini.  Its  western  portion  belongs  to  Liberia  ; 
its  eastern,  now  counted  as  part  of  the  Gold 
Coast,  is  shared  between  Britain  and  France. 

Ivre'a,  a  town  of  Piedmont,  38  miles  NNE.  of 
Turin  by  rail.  Its  cathedral  is  on  the  site  of  a 
temple  to  Apollo.    Pop.  9883. 

Ivry,  a  village  (pop.  1074)  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Eure,  16  miles  NNW.  of  Dreux.  Here,  14th 
March  1590,  Henry  of  Navarre  defeated  the 
League.— Ivry-sur-Seine,  a  SE.  suburb  of  Paris, 
on  the  Seine.     Pop.  28,357. 

Ivybridge,  a  Devon  village,  11  miles  E.  by  N. 
of  Plymouth.     It  has  paper-mills.     Pop.  1582. 

Ixworth,  a  Suffolk  village,  6^  miles  NE.  of 
Bury  St  Edmunds.    Pop.  of  parish,  951. 


*ABALPUR,  or  Jubbulpobe,  a  town  of 
the  Central  Provinces,  India,  228  miles 
by  rail  SW.  of  Allahabad.  An  important 
railway  junction,  it  has  a  trade  worth 
about  £2,000,000  annually,  and  manufac- 
tures cotton,  tents,  and  carpets.  Pop.  (1877) 
55,188 ;  (1901)  89,708. 
Jahlonoi.  See  Yablonoi. 
Jackson,  (l)  a  flourishing  city  of  Michigan, 
capital  of  Jackson  county,  on  the  Grand  River, 
76  miles  W.  of  Detroit,  at  the  intersection  of 
several  railways.  It  has  flour,  paper,  and  planing- 
mills ;  foundries  and  machine-shops ;  locomotive- 
works  ;  breweries ;  and  manufactures  of  furni- 
ture, carriages,  wagons,  boilers  and  machinery, 
fanning  implements,  corsets,  soap,  &c.,  besides 
boots  and  shoes  at  the  state-prison.  Close  by 
are  several  mines  of  bituminous  coal.  Jackson 
was  settled  in  1830,  and  became  a  city  in  1857. 
Pop.  (1860)  4799;  (1870)  11,447;  (1900)  25,180.— 
(2)  Capital  of  the  state  of  Mississippi,  on  Pearl 
River,  45  miles  E.  of  Vicksburg  by  rail,  with 
trade  in  cotton.  Pop.  7920.— (3)  Capital  of  Madi- 
son county,  Tennessee,  on  the  South  Fork  of  the 
Forked  Deer  River,  107  miles  by  rail  S.  by  E.  of 
Cairo,  Illinois.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  South- 
western Baptist  University  (1874),  and  has  a 
cotton  market,  planing  and  other  mills,  and  rail- 
way shops.    Pop.  15,000. 

Jacksonville,  (1)  capital  of  Duval  county, 
Florida,  on  the  St  John's  River,  23  miles  from  its 
mouth.  The  meeting-place  of  five  railways,  it  is 
165  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Tallahassee.  It  exports 
lumber,  cotton,  moss,  oranges,  &c.  Pop.  (1880) 
7650 ;  (1900)28,429.— (2)  Capital  of  Morgan  county, 
Illinois,  34  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Springfield.  Here 
are  the  Illinois  College  (Congregational ;  founded 
1830),  a  Methodist  female  college  (1847),  a  con- 
servatory of  music,  &c. ;  and  here,  too,  are 
state  asylums  for  the  blind,  deaf  and  dumb, 
and  insane.  There  are  manufactures  of  woollens, 
paper,  machinery,  boilers,  lumber,  furniture,  con- 
fectionery, &c.    Pop.  16,500. 

Jacobabad,  a  town  of  Upper  Sind,  26  miles 
NW.  of  Shikarpur   by  rail,  near  the    Beluchi 


frontier.  Here  is  the  tomb  of  General  John 
Jacob,  commandant  of  the  Sind  Horse,  who  in 
1847  founded  the  place.     Pop.  12,352. 

Jaen  (Hd-en'),  the  capital  of  a  Spanish  pro- 
vince, on  a  tributary  of  the  Guadalquivir,  50  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Granada.  Its  Moorish  walls  are 
fast  crumbling  away;  its  cathedral  dates  from 
1532.  Population,  25,600.  By  the  Moors  the 
town  was  called  'Jaen  of  the  Silk,'  from  its 
former  silk  manufactures.  The  province  (area, 
5184  sq.  m. ;  pop.  475,000),  part  of  Andalusia 
(q.v.),  lies  in  the  Guadalquivir's  basin,  and  is 
mountainous.  In  1246  it  was  reconquered  from 
the  Moors  by  Ferdinand  IIL  of  Castile. 

Jaffa,  or  Joppa,  a  town  on  the  sea-coast  of 
Syria,  37  miles  NW.  of  Jerusalem— 57  by  a  rail- 
way opened  in  1893.  Under  Constantine  the 
place,  which  had  been  destroyed  by  Vespasian, 
became  a  bishop's  see,  and,  as  the  Crusaders' 
great  landing-place,  was  taken  and  retaken  by 
Christian  and  Moslem.  In  1799  Napoleon  stormed 
it;  in  1832  it  was  taken  by  Mehemet  AH,  and 
restored  to  the  Turks  by  British  help.  The 
open  roadstead,  the  ancient  walls,  the  yellow 
sand-dunes,  and  the  orange  gardens  are  now  the 
chief  features  of  the  brown  town  on  its  hillock. 
The  export  of  oranges  to  the  United  Kingdom 
more  tlian  tripled  in  the  last  three  decades  of 
the  19th  century,  and  the  population  grew  from 
15,000  to  about  40,000.  There  is  a  German 
colony  (1869)  of  300  persons  near. 

Jaffnapatam',  a  seaport  on  an  island  at  the 
north  end  of  Ceylon.    Pop.  37,000. 

Jagemdorf  ( Vay-gem-dorf,  g  hard),  a  town  of 
Austrian  Silesia,  34  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Ratibor. 
It  manufactures  woollens,  linen,  organs,  &c. 
Pop.  14,792. 

Jahde,  or  Jade  (Yd-deh),  a  bay  of  Oldenburg, 
now  Prussian,  with  the  naval  station  of  Wil- 
helmshaven  (q.v.). 

Jaipur.    See  Jeypore. 

Jaisalmer,  or  Jeysulmere,  capital  of  a  native 
Indian  state  in  Raijputana,  stands  on  the  edge 
of  the  Indian  Desert,  and  was  founded  in  115(3. 


JAKUTSK 


369 


JAMMU 


It  has  several  Jain  temples.  Pop.  10,965.— Area 
of  state,  16,039  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  115,701. 

Jakutsk.    See  Yakutsk. 

Jalalpur,  a  town  of  the  Punjab,  8  miles  N.  of 
Gujrat,  with  shawl  manufactures.     Pop.  12,884, 

Jalandhar.    See  Jullundeb. 

Jalapa  (Hald'pa),  capital  of  the  Mexican  state 
of  Vera  Cruz,  60  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Vera  Cruz 
City,  and  4330  feet  above  the  sea.    Pop.  19,000. 

Jalisco  (Halis'co),  a  state  of  Mexico,  on  the 
Pacific,  with  an  area  of  38,840  sq.  m.  Popu- 
lation, over  1,160,000.  The  capital  is  Guadala- 
jara (q.v.). 

Jalna,  a  town  and  British  cantonment  in  the 
Nizam's  dominions,  India,  210  miles  NE.  of  Bom- 
bay.   Pop.  16,191. 

Jalult,  chief  town  of  the  Marshall  Islands  (q.v.). 

Jamaica,  aboriginally  Xaymaca  ('Land  of 
Springs'),  by  far  the  most  important  of  the 
British  West  Indian  Islands,  is  90  miles  S.  of 
Cuba,  and  stretches  between  17°  43'— 18°  32'  N. 
lat.,  and  76°  11'— 78"  20'  W.  long.  It  is  divided 
into  three  counties,  Surrey,  Middlesex,  and  Corn- 
wall; its  area  is  4193  sq.  m.,  or  a  little  more 
than  the  three  Englisli  counties  of  the  same 
names  with  Hampshire  thrown  in.  The  greatest 
length  is  144  miles;  the  greatest  breadth,  50 
miles.  Turk's  and  Caicos  Islands,  as  well  as 
the  three  Cayman  Islands,  are  dependencies.  The 
island  is  traversed  from  east  to  west  by  the  Blue 
Mountains,  which  rise  to  7400  feet.  From  this 
range  nearly  120  streams  descend  to  the  coasts, 
but  they  are  not  navigable,  except  Black  River 
(30  miles  for  small  craft).  Incomparably  the 
best  of  many  fine  harbours  is  that  of  Kingston 
(q.  v.).  Jamaica  is  believed  to  be  rich  in  minerals, 
but  none  are  wrought.  The  chief  towns  are 
Kingston  (the  capital)  and  Spanish  Town  (the 
former  capital),  on  the  south-east  of  the  island ; 
and  Montego  Bay,  Falmouth,  and  Port  Maria, 
on  the  north.  Port  Royal,  at  the  western  ex- 
tremity of  the  spit  of  sand  that  shuts  in  Kingston 
harbour  on  the  south,  previous  to  the  great 
earthquake  of  1692  was  one  of  the  chief  cities  in 
the  West  Indies,  but  is  now  a  place  of  only 
1200  inhabitants,  and  of  little  importance. 
The  climate  varies  considerably,  falling  on  an 
average  1°  for  every  300  feet  in  altitude,  and  at 
Kingston  ranging  between  70°  during  the  night 
and  90°  during  the  day ;  but  the  heat  is  tem- 
pered by  the  sea-breezes.  On  the  whole,  the 
island  is  very  healthy ;  invalids  even  come  from 
the  United  States  to  enjoy  the  salubrious  air  of 
the  interior.  There  are  two  rainy  seasons,  one 
in  spring  and  the  other  in  summer.  In  the 
latter  the  rains  are  exceptionally  heavy  ;  violent 
thunder-storms  are  frequent,  and  hurricanes  some- 
times occur.  Enormous  damage  was  done  by 
cyclones  in  1880  and  1893. 

The  vegetation  is  very  luxuriant.  The  pri- 
meval woods  are  rapidly  disappearing  ;  yet  there 
are  still  many  valuable  trees,  such  as  mahogany, 
logwood,  lignum  vitse,  ebony,  cocoa-nut  and 
other  palms,  cactuses,  &c.  Tropical  fruits  are 
grown  in  great  variety,  also  many  of  the  fruits 
of  more  temperate  climes.  Spices,  dye-woods, 
medicinal  plants,  and  food  plants,  such  as  ginger, 
cochineal,  castor-oil,  arrowroot,  maize,  vanilla, 
pimento  (allspice),  &c.,  are  extensively  grown. 
Guinea  grass  and  pasture  land  occupy  the  greater 
I)ortion  of  the  north  and  west  of  the  island.  The 
mongoose,  imported  to  prey  on  the  rats  that 
infested  the  sugar  estates,  has,  after  exter- 
minating them,  become  a  plague,  and  has  nearly 


extirpated  lizards,  harmless  snakes,  and  small 
birds,  so  that  insect  pests  (especially  the  trouble- 
some ticks)  abound.  The  negroes,  who  are  mostly 
small  holders,  are  the  chief  growers  of  fruit. 
The  exports,  which  consist  chiefly  of  dye-woods, 
fruits  (oranges,  lemons,  bananas,  cocoa-nuts, 
&c.),  sugar  and  rum,  colfee,  ginger,  pimento,  and 
cocoa,  range  between  IJ  and  2  millions  annually ; 
as  also  do  the  imports,  consisting  of  food- 
stuffs, clothing,  hardware,  liquors,  coals,  build- 
ing materials,  &c.  About  40  per  cent,  of  the 
trade  is  with  the  United  Kingdom,  and  43  per 
cent,  with  the  United  States.  Since  1850  the 
white  inhabitants  have  increased  far  less  rapidly 
in  numbers  than  the  black  and  coloured  popula- 
tion. In  1861  the  total  pop.  was  441,255  (13,816 
whites);  in  1871,  506,154  (13,101  whites);  in  1881, 
580,804  (14,432  whites) ;  and  in  1904,  795,600,  of 
whom  over  700,000  are  black  or  coloured,  about 
15,000  wliites,  about  11,000  East  Indian  coolies, 
and  a  few  Chinese.  About  35,000  belong  to  the 
Church  of  England,  33,000  are  Baptists,  25,000 
Methodists,  12,000  Presbyterians,  5000  Roman 
Catholics,  &c.— children  being  excluded.  Besides 
nearly  720  government  schools,  with  over  80,000 
pupils,  there  are  three  government  training-col- 
leges for  teachers.  Besides  a  British  garrison,  there 
are  volunteers  and  a  semi-military  police  force. 

Jamaica  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1494, 
and  occupied  by  the  Spaniards  in  1509.  The 
original  inhabitants  were  peace-loving  Indians 
(not  Caribs) ;  but  they  were  practically  extinct 
in  1655,  when  the  island  was  conquered  by  the 
English,  to  whom  it  was  ceded  in  1670.  The 
place  of  the  native  Indians  was  taken  by  negro 
slaves,  imported  by  the  Spaniards.  During  the 
18th  century  more  than  half  a  million  slaves 
were  brought  over  from  Africa,  Under  English 
rule  the  chief  events  were  frequent  rebellions  of 
the  Maroons,  a  community  of  runaway  slaves ; 
in  1831-32,  a  negro  insurrection ;  on  August  1, 
1834,  the  emancipation  of  the  slaves,  Jamaica 
receiving  £6,161,927  as  compensation  ;  the  failure 
of  the  experiment ;  and  in  1865  the  rebellion  of 
the  negroes  and  massacre  of  twenty-three  whites, 
suppressed  by  Governor  Eyre.  Under  the  con- 
stitution of  1866,  the  island  is  governed  as  a 
crown-colony.  See  the  history  by  Gardner  (1873) 
and  the  annual  Hatidhook. 

Jambusar,  a  town  in  the  presidency  of  Bom- 
bay, 30  miles  SW.  of  Baroda.    Pop,  11,479. 

James  River  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
Jackson  and  Cowpasture  streams  in  the  west  of 
Virginia,  and  has  its  entire  course  of  450  miles  in 
that  state.  It  flows  east-south-eastward,  passing 
Lynchburgh  and  Richmond  ;  and,  widening  into 
an  estuary  for  the  last  60  miles,  falls  into  the 
Atlantic  at  the  southern  extremity  of  Chesapeake 
Bay.  It  is  navigable  for  large  steamers  to  City 
Point,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Appomattox.  It  was 
at  Jamestown,  now  a  ruined  village  on  the  north 
bank  of  this  river,  that  the  first  English  settle- 
ment in  America  was  formed  (1607). 

James's  Bay,  the  southerly  arm  of  Hudson 
Bay,  250  miles  long  by  175  wide,  beset  with  islands. 

Jamestown,  a  town  of  Dumbartonshire,  on  the 
Leven's  left  bank,  |  mile  N.  of  Bonhill.  It  has 
large  print-works.     Pop,  2100. 

Jamestown,  a  town  of  New  York,  on  Chautau- 
qua Lake,  70  miles  S,  by  W.  of  Buffalo  by  rail. 
It  manufactures  woollens  and  alpacas,  pianos, 
furniture,  &c.  Population,  about  25,000.  See 
also  James  River,  St  Helena. 

Jaxnmu  (Jummoo),  capital  of  a  province  of  Cash- 
mere, on  an  affluent  of  the  Chenab.    Pop.  36,200. 


JAMNOTRI 


370 


JAPAN 


Jamnotri,  hot  springs  (194*7°  F.)  near  the 
Jumna's  source,  in  northern  India,  in  30°  59'  N. 
lat.  and  78°  35'  E.  long.,  10,849  feet  above  the  sea. 
They  are  overhung  by  the  three  Jamnotri  Peaks 
(20,100  to  21,150  feet). 

Janesvllle,  a  city  of  Wisconsin,  on  Rock 
River,  91  miles  NW.  of  Chicago.  The  river's 
water-power  is  utilised  in  flour,  cotton,  and 
woollen  mills.     Pop.  15,886. 

Janina  (Yanina),  or  Joannina,  capital  of  a 
vilayet  in  Turkish  Albania,  stands  in  a  striking 
situation  on  a  lake  (12  miles  long  by  3  broad), 
60  miles  inland  from  the  shore  opposite  Corfu. 
Here  is  the  ruined  castle  of  Ali  Pasha.  Gold 
lace  is  manufactured,  as  vi^ell  as  morocco  leather, 
silks,  and  linens.  The  pop.  has  sunk  from  40,000 
in  1800  to  26,000,  three-fourths  of  them  Greeks. 
The  town  has  been  Turkish  since  1430. 

Jan  Mayen  Land,  a  volcanic  island  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  named  after  its  Dutch  discoverer 
in  1611.  It  lies  between  Iceland  and  Spitzbergen, 
and  is  35  miles  long,  with  au  extinct  volcano 
(8350  feet)  in  it. 

Japan,  an  island  empire  off  the  east  coast  of 
Asia,  separated  from  Corea  and  Siberia  by  the 
Sea  of  Japan.  Japan  Proper  comprises  four 
large  islands— Honshu  (the  Japanese  mainland), 
Shikoku,  Kyushu,  and  Yezo— with  an  area  of 
147,655  sq.  miles  (not  very  much  larger  than  the 
British  Islands),  and  a  pop.  in  1903  of  46,732,841 
(35,460,507  in  Honshu  alone).  The  empire  of 
Japan  includes  also  nearly  4000  small  islands, 
ainong  them  the  Liu  Kiu  ('  Loo  Clioo ')  and  Kurile 
groups ;  Formosa  and  the  Pescadores,  ceded  by 
China  in  1895  (area,  13,500  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  close  on 
3,000,000);  and  the  southern  half  of  Saghalien 
(q.v.),  or  Sakhalin,  restored  by  Russia  in  1905 
(area,  10,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  15,000).  In  1905  some 
160,000  Japanese  were  resident  in  foreign  coun- 
tries ;  and  14,000  foreigners  were  resident  in  Japan. 
The  name  Japan  is  a  corruption  of  Marco  Polo-s 
Zipangu,  itself  a  corruption  of  the  Chinese  pro- 
nunciation of  the  native  name  Nihon  or  Nippon 
('  Land  of  the  Rising  Sun '). 

The  islands  of  Japan  appear  to  be  the  highest 
portions  of  a  huge  chain  of  mountains  which 
rises  from  a  deep  ocean  bed.  This  chain,  though 
dotted  with  volcanoes,  is  not  therefore  itself  of 
volcanic  origin.  Earthquakes  occur  very  fre- 
quently in  Japan,  although  the  western  slope  is 
exempt.  Japan  is  one  of  the  most  mountainous 
countries  in  the  world.  Its  plains  and  valleys 
with  their  foliage  of  surpassing  richness,  its 
forest-clad  heights,  its  alpine  peaks  towering  in 
grandeur  above  ravines  noisy  with  waterfalls,  its 
foam-fringed  headlands,  give  it  a  claim  to  be  con- 
sidered one  of  the  fairest  portions  of  the  earth. 
The  sublime  cone  of  the  sacred  Fuji-san  (Fusi- 
yama),  a  rather  dormant  volcano,  rises  to  a  height 
of  12,365  feet ;  and  there  are  six  peaks  between 
8000  and  10,000  feet  (one  an  active  volcano)  in  Hon- 
shu. The  three  other  large  islands  also  abound 
in  mountains.  Yezo  has  eight  active  volcanoes. 
Throughout  the  empire  there  are  many  solfataras 
and  sulphurous  springs.  The  plains,  most  of  the 
valleys,  and  many  of  the  lower  hills  are  highly 
cultivated.  Most  of  the  countless  rivers  are  too 
impetuous  for  navigation.  The  harbours  are 
spacious  and  deep,  but  not  numerous. 

The  different  parts  of  Japan  vary  widely  in 
climatic  conditions.  At  Tokyo  (Yedo)  we  find 
the  annual  average  temperature  to  be  57 "7°  F., 
while  in  winter  the  mercury  occasionally  falls  to 
16*2°,  and  in  summer  it  may  rise  to  96° ;  at 
Nagasaki  the  Ipwest  winter  temperature  is  23-2° ; 


at  Hakodate  the  annual  extremes  are  2°  and  84*. 
The  ocean  current  known  as  the  Kuroshiwo 
('  Black  Stream')  modifies  the  climate  of  the  south- 
east coast;  thus,  while  snow  seldom  lies  more  than 
5  inches  deep  at  Tokyo,  in  the  upper  valleys  of 
Kaga,  near  the  west  coast,  less  than  1°  farther 
north,  18  and  20  feet  are  common.  The  rainfall, 
which  varies  much  in  different  years,  is  on  an 
average  145  inches.  No  month  passes  without 
rain,  but  it  is  most  plentiful  in  summer.  The 
climate,  though  somewhat  relaxing  to  Europeans, 
is  fairly  salubrious,  highly  so  in  the  mountains. 
In  Japan  the  vegetation  of  the  tropics  is  strangely 
intermingled  with  that  of  the  temperate  or  frigid 
zone ;  the  tree-fern,  bamboo,  banana,  and  palm 
grow  side  by  side  with  the  pine,  oak,  and  beech, 
and  conifers  in  great  variety.  The  camellia,  the 
Paulownia,  and  the  chrysanthemum  are  indig- 
enous. Wild  animals  are  not  numerous,  but 
bears,  wild  boars,  monkeys,  deer,  small  foxes, 
stoats,  and  squirrels  occur ;  and  there  are  several 
varieties  of  the  seal  and  the  whale.  The  Japanese 
cat  has  only  a  stump  of  a  tail.  There  are  numerous 
water-birds ;  land-birds  are  less  plentiful.  Edible 
fishes,  including  .salmon,  are  abundant,  and  insect 
life  is  specially  varied.  Agriculture  is  the  chief 
occupation  of  the  Japanese,  and  they  are  very 
careful  farmers,  thoroughly  understanding  the 
rotation  of  crops.  The  soil  is  not  naturally  very 
fertile,  being  mostly  derived  from  igneous  rocks, 
but  it  is  made  productive  by  careful  manuring, 
especially  with  night-soil  from  the  villages  and 
towns.  Rice  is  the  staple  production,  while 
barley,  wheat,  millet,  buckwheat,  maize,  and 
many  varieties  of  bean  and  pea  are  everywhere 
produced.  The  culture  of  tea,  introduced  from 
China  in  770  a.d.,  is  universal  in  the  middle  and 
south.  Sericulture  is  on  the  increase,  and  cotton 
and  hemp  are  also  widely  grown.  Sugar,  tobacco, 
and  many  kinds  of  fruit  are  grown.  Gold,  silver, 
copper,  iron,  lead,  antimony,  tin,  sulphur,  coal, 
basalt,  felspar,  greenstones,  granites  (red  and 
gray),  rock-crystal,  agate,  carnelian,  amber,  scoriae 
and  pumice-stone,  talc,  alum,  &c.  are  found. 
Good  building-stone  is  scarce. 

With  the  exception  of  the  wilds  of  Yezo, 
peojjled  by  12,000  Ainos,  the  Japanese  islands 
are  inhabited  by  a  single  race  speaking  various 
dialects  of  the  same  tongue.  Probably  the  Jap- 
anese  are  the  issue  of  the  intermarriage  of  vic^ 
torious  Tartar  settlers,  who  entered  Japan  from 
the  Corean  peninsula,  with  Malays  in  the  south 
and  Ainos  in  the  main  island.  There  are  two 
distinct  types  of  Japanese  face,  that  which  is 
found  in  art  designs  being  the  aristocratic  and 
rarer  type.  It  is  distinguished  by  an  oval  head 
and  face,  a  high  forehead,  a  curved  nose,  narrow 
and  slightly  oblique  eyes.  The  complexion  is 
pallid  or  slightly  olive,  the  face  of  the  men 
almost  hairless,  and  the  expression  demure.  The 
commoner  and  vulgar  type,  almost  universal  in 
the  northern  districts,  is  pudding-faced,  full- 
eyed,  flat-nosed,  and  good-humoured  in  expres- 
sion. The  women  soon  lose  any  pretensions  to 
good  looks  ;  but  the  girls,  with  their  rosy  cheeks, 
fascinating  manners,  and  exquisitely  tasteful 
dress,  are  particularly  attractive,  and  the  chil- 
dren are  bright  and  comely — indeed  Japan  is  the 
paradise  of  children.  The  Japanese  have  many 
excellent  qualities :  they  are  kindly,  courteous, 
law-abiding,  cleanly  in  their  habits,  frugal,  and 
have  a  high  sense  of  personal  honour.  Nowhere 
are  good  manners  and  artistic  culture  so  wide- 
spread. On  the  other  hand,  the  people  are  de- 
ficient in  moral  earnestness  and  courage.  Al- 
though the   Japanese   are   a  singularly  united 


JAPAN 


371 


JARROW 


people,  yet  the  nation  divides  itself  into  two 
portions,  the  governing  and  the  governed.  The 
former,  representatives  of  the  military  class  and 
numbering  some  4000  families,  are  high-spirited 
and  masterful ;  the  rest  of  the  nation  are  sub- 
missive and  timid.  Japanese  towns  are  very 
subject  to  conflagrations,  the  houses  being  slight 
constructions  of  wood.  Many  of  the  customs 
once  characteristic  of  Japan  have,  since  the  aboli- 
tion of  feudalism,  become  obsolete.  Among  these 
Is  seppuku  or  hara-kiri,  for  long  a  legalised  mode 
of  suicide. 

The  Japanese  language  belongs  structurally, 
like  Corean  and  Manchurian,  to  the  Altaic  family. 
The  introduction  of  Chinese  civilisation  in  the 
6th  century  a.d.  was  followed  by  a  wholesale 
absorption  of  Chinese  words  and  cliaracters. 
There  are  two  prevailing  religions  in  Japan— 
Shintd,  the  indigenous  faith ;  and  Buddliism, 
introduced  from  China  in  552,  and  still  the 
dominant  religion  among  the  people.  Francis 
Xavier  introduced  Cliristianity  in  1549,  but  his 
work  was  extinguislied  in  blood.  The  Roman 
Catholic  Cliurch  and  the  Greek  Church  both 
carry  on  a  flourishing  work  in  Japan.  Of  tlie 
Protestant  missions  those  of  the  Presbyterians 
and  the  American  Congregationalists  are  the 
most  flourishing  ;  American  Methodists,  Baptists, 
Anglicans,  and  others  are  also  actively  at  work  ; 
and  there  are  some  20,000  converts. 

Education  is  general  and  compulsory.  There 
is  a  complete  system  of  local  elementary,  middle, 
and  normal  schools,  and  two  universities  at  Tokyo 
and  Kyoto,  Daily  newspapers  abound.  The 
Japanese  army  was  organised  after  European 
methods  in  the  years  186S-72.  Military  service 
is  obligatory  from  17  to  40  years  of  age  The 
army  on  a  peace  footing  comprises  167,630 
officers  and  men,  with  632,000  reserves.  In 
1905  there  were  over  500,000  men  in  Man- 
churia. During  the  wars  of  1895  and  1904-5 
the  Japanese  sanitary  and  surgical  methods 
and  appliances  were  scientilically  perfect.  Tiie 
navy  consists  of  6  battle-ships,  8  armoured 
cruisers,  15  protected  cruisers,  besides  numerous 
torpedo-vessels,  Tlie  total  mileage  of  railways 
open  is  4650  miles.  In  the  meclianical  arts  the 
Japanese  have  attained  to  great  excellence,  espe- 
cially in  metallurgy,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
porcelain,  lacquer  ware,  and  silk  fabrics ;  in  some 
of  tliese  departments  works  of  art  are  produced 
so  exquisite  in  design  and  execution  as  to  excel 
the  best  products  of  Europe.  As  to  the  cotton 
manufacture,  between  1890  and  1900  the  import  of 
raw  cotton  increased  sixfold,  and  in  1902  there 
were  over  eighty  xn-osperous  cotton  -  factories. 
The  chief  ports  are  Yokohama,  Kobe,  Osaka,  Naga- 
saki, and  Hakodate.  Tlie  commercial  develop- 
ment of  Japan  has  of  late  been  marvellous.  The 
total  value  of  exports  rose  from  £10,300,000  in 
1887  to  £28,950,000  in  1903;  tliat  of  imports, 
which  was  £10,500,000  in  1887,  was  £31,720,000 
in  1903.  In  respect  of  volume  of  trade  with 
Japan,  Britain  (including  British  possessions) 
comes  first,  then  the  United  States,  then  China. 
Tlie  imports  from  Great  Britain  vary  from 
£5,000,000  to  over  £9,000,000  (from  British  India, 
from  5  to  7  millions) ;  the  exports  to  Britain 
from  £1,500,000  to  £2,275,000.  From  Great 
Britain  come  chiefly  cotton  and  woollen  goods. 
Iron  and  machinery,  and  cliemicals.  The  imports 
from  tlie  United  States  average  about  £4,700,000, 
and  the  exports  thitlier  £8,200,000.  Tlie  staple 
exports  of  Japan  are  raw  and  manufactured  silk, 
cotton  yarn,  coal,  copper,  tea,  matting,  earthen- 
ware, rice,  and   straw-plaiting.     In  1903  over 


9000  vessels  of  13,570,000  tons  entered  the  porta, 
of  which  1777  vessels  of  4,758,534  tons  were 
British.  Tlie  government  is  a  hereditary  mon- 
archy. Tlie  imperial  diet  consists  of  two  Houses— 
a  House  of  Peers  and  a  House  of  Representatives. 
The  ordinary  revenue  varies  from  £25,700,000  to 
£29,700,000,  and  generally  covers  the  expendi- 
ture.    The  public  debt  in  1904  was  £56,500,000, 

Before  500  a.d.  Japanese  history  is  mere  legend. 
Buddhism  was  introduced  from  Corea  in  552 ; 
and  next  century  Chinese  civilisation  strongly 
influenced  Japan.  About  the  end  of  the  12th 
century,  the  weakness  of  the  emperor  led  the 
Generalissimo  (Shogun)  to  assume  a  large  shace 
of  the  supreme  power,  and  he  handed  it  on 
to  his  descendants.  Hence  the  fable  current  in 
Europe  that  Japan  had  a  Mikado  or  spiritual 
emperor  who  reigned  but  did  not  govern,  and 
a  '  Tycoon '  (Shogun)  who  did  govern  though  he 
paid  homage  to  the  nominal  sovereign.  The 
military  caste  was  now  dominant  until  the  reign 
of  lyeyasu  (c.  1600),  whose  descendants  reigned 
till  1868.  Total  exclusion  of  foreigners  was  the 
rule  till  1543,  when  the  Portuguese  effected  a 
settlement ;  but  in  1624  all  foreigners  were  ex- 
pelled and  Christianity  interdicted.  The  policy 
of  isolation  was  rigidly  pursued  from  1638  till 
1853,  when  the  U.S.  Commodore  Perry  steamed 
into  a  Japanese  harbour,  and  extorted  a  treaty 
from  the  frightened  Shogun.  Soon  sixteen  other 
nations  had  followed  the  American  example,  and 
free  ports  were  opened  to  foreign  commerce.  In 
1867-68,  a  sharp  civil  war  broke  the  feudal  power 
of  the  daimios  or  territorial  magnates,  suppressed 
the  Shogunate,  and  unified  the  authority  under 
the  Mikado.  In  a  very  few  years  Japanese 
students  took  a  place  of  their  own  in  western 
science ;  and  how  thoroughly  the  Japanese  had 
laid  to  heart  what  they  had  learned  from  Europe 
in  the  military  and  naval  arts  was  partially  re- 
vealed by  the  swift  and  complete  success  of  the 
war  with  China  about  Corea  (q.v.)  in  1894,  and 
more  impressively  by  their  amazing  triumph  over 
the  great  military  empire  of  Europe  in  1904-5, 
Avhen  they  defeated  the  Russians  in  a  succession 
of  bloody  battles,  took  Port  Arthur,  and  utterly 
destroyed  the  Russian  fleet— so  that  by  the  peace 
the  Russians  not  merely  evacuated  Manchuria, 
but  recognised  Japan's  'preponderance'  in  Corea, 
and  gave  up  to  Japan  the  'leases  '  of  Port  Arthur 
and  the  Liao-tung  peninsula  Russia  had  wrested 
from  China.  In  1905,  also,  Britain  concluded  a 
treaty  with  Japan,  more  tliorough-going  than  that 
of  1902,  for  mutual  support  in  eastern  Asia  and 
India  against  unprovoked  attack,  and  for  the 
maintenance  of  the  integrity  of  China  and  of 
the  '  open  door '  there. 

See  the  works  of  Kaempfer  (1727),  Siebold 
(1851),  Griffis  (New  York,  1876),  Rein  (Eng.  trans. 
1884),  Sir  E.  Arnold  (1891),  Hearn  (1894,  1904), 
Briiikley  (8  vols.  1901-4),  Murray  (1904) ;  Japan 
hy  the  Japanese,  edited  by  Stead  (1904) ;  and 
books  by  Okakura,  lyenaga,  and  other  Japanese 
authors. 

Jamac,  a  village  in  the  French  dep.  of  Char- 
ente,  23  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Angouleme.  Here 
in  1569  the  Catholics  defeated  the  Huguenots. 

Jaroslav  (Yaroslaf),  capital  of  a  Russian 
government  on  the  Volga,  173  miles  NE.  of 
Moscow.  Pop.  70,600. — The  government  has  an 
area  of  13,751  sq,  m.  and  a  pop.  of  1,075,000. 

Jarrow,  a  municipal  borough  and  port  of  Dur- 
ham, on  the  Tyne,  3  miles  by  rail  SW,  of  South 
Shields  and  7  B.  of  Newcastle.  Its  growth  from 
a  small  colliery  village  has  been  due  to  the  con- 


JASHPUR 


372 


JAXARTES 


Btruction  of  its  docks  (since  1859),  and  to  the 
establishment  of  Palmer  and  Co.'s  iron-shipbuild- 
ing and  marine  engine  works,  blast-furnaces,  iron- 
foundries,  gun-factory,  &c.,  which  together  em- 
ploy upwards  of  7000  hands.  Paper  and  chemicals 
are  also  manufactured,  and  coal  is  shipped  in  large 
quantities.  At  Jarrow  in  682  Benedict  Biscop 
founded  the  Benedictine  monastery  with  which 
the  name  of  Bede  is  inseparably  associated.  The 
chancel  of  the  parish  church,  reconstructed  in 
the  11th  century,  retains  portions  of  Benedict's 
work ;  the  nave  was  rebuilt  in  1783  and  again 
in  1866.  Bede's  chair  is  still  preserved  in  the 
church.  Jarrow  was  made  a  municipality  in  1875. 
Pop.  (1871)  18,115 ;  (1901)  34,294.  See  Jewitt's 
Jarrow  Church  (1864). 

Jashpur,  a  native  state  of  Chutia  Nagpur,  in 
Bengal.    Area,  1963  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  90,240. 

Jassy  (Ydssy),  the  capital  of  Moldavia,  the 
northern  division  of  Roumania,  stands  5  miles 
W.  of  the  Pruth,  205  by  rail  NW.  of  Odessa,  and 
289  NNE.  of  Bucharest.  It  was  almost  destroyed 
by  fire  in  1827,  and,  as  rebuilt,  has  broad  streets 
paved  with  asphalt,  and  houses  mostly  one-storied 
and  of  wood.  There  are  more  than  forty  Greek 
churches  and  close  upon  sixty  Jewish  synagogues. 
The  most  noticeable  secular  buildings  are  the 
palaces  of  the  boyars  or  nobles.  There  is  a  small 
university.  There  is  an  active  trade  in  corn, 
spirits,  and  wine,  mostly  with  Galatz.  Pop. 
86,000.  Jassy  was  the  residence  of  the  Moldavian 
princes  from  1565. 

Jaszbereny,  a  town  of  Hungary,  39  miles  E. 
of  Budapest.     Pop.  24,331. 

Jatlva,  or  Xativa,  San  Felipe  dr  (Hd'teeva), 
a  town  of  Spain,  35  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of 
Valencia.  Here  was  born  the  painter  Ribera  (Lo 
Spagnoletto)  in  1588.  It  was  also  the  home  of  the 
notorious  Borgia  (Borja)  family.     Pop.  15,071. 

Jauer(Fow'er),  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on 
the  Neisse,  13  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Liegnitz.  It 
is  famous  for  its  sausages  and  its  weekly  corn- 
market,  held  regularly  since  1404.    Pop.  13,178. 

Jaura,  the  capital  of  a  native  state  of  Central 
India.     Pop.  23,844. 

Jaunpur,  the  capital  of  a  district  in  the  North- 
west Provinces  of  India,  on  the  Gumti,  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge  (1573)  712  feet  long.  The 
former  capital  of  a  Mohammedan  kingdom,  it 
has  several  splendid  architectural  monuments, 
including  Ibrahim's  baths  (1420),  mosques,  and 
ruins  of  mosques  and  of  the  fort.    Pop.  42,819. 

Java  (DjawS),  an  island  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  the  seat  of  the  colonial  government, 
separated  from  Borneo  by  the  Sea  of  Java,  and 
from  Sumatra  by  the  Straits  of  Sunda.  It 
extends  almost  due  west  and  east,  and  is  crossed 
by  110°  E.  long,  and  7°  S.  lat.  Its  length  is  600 
miles,  its  breadth  40  to  125  miles,  and  its  area 
49,000  sq.  m.  (excluding  Madura,  q.v.).  From 
end  to  end  of  the  island  (most  probably  corre- 
sponding to  a  volcanic  line  of  fissure)  there  is 
a  mountain-chain,  Gunung  Kendang,  attaining 
12,000  feet ;  of  forty-three  volcanoes,  several  are 
still  active.  The  climate  is  rather  hot  and  un- 
healthy on  the  coast,  but  pleasant  in  the  hills. 
The  thermometer  seldom  indicates  more  than 
95°  F.,  the  nights,  especially  in  the  highlands, 
are  cool.  The  population  of  Java  has  rapidly 
increased ;  in  1850  it  was  9,570,000,  and  in  1900 
(with  Madura)  it  was  28,746,638,  including  50,000 
Europeans  (and  half-castes),  300,000  Chinese, 
17,000  Arabs,  and  3500  Hindus.  The  natives 
belong  to  the  Malay  race.     The  Madurese,   in 


the  eastern  part  of  the  island,  the  Sundanese, 
living  in  the  western  part,  and  the  Javanese 
proper  differ  in  physique  and  in  language.  Most 
of  them  are  Mohammedans,  at  least  in  name. 
There  are  about  12,000  native  Christians.  One  of 
the  chief  vices  is  opium-smoking,  which  yields 
about  £1,000,000  a  year  for  licenses  and  profit 
on  the  import. 

The  chief  wealth  of  Java  consists  in  its  luxu- 
riant vegetation.  The  fauna  is  not  very  rich : 
tigers,  rhinoceros,  deer,  and  wild  swine  are  types  ; 
only  a  few  birds  are  conspicuous  for  their  plumage, 
and  hardly  any  are  distinguished  for  their  song. 
Several  species  of  serpents  (some  venomous)  and 
crocodiles  are  found  on  the  island.  A  little  gold 
is  found  ;  silver  is  scarce ;  salt  (a  government 
monopoly)  is  prepared  from  sea- water ;  and  coal 
is  worked  in  the  Preanger,  and  marble  in  the 
Madiun  residency.  Under  the  '  culture-system," 
established  by  the  Dutch  in  1830,  the  natives 
are  compelled  to  cultivate  part  of  the  ground 
and  plant  staple  articles  on  it,  whilst  the  produce 
is  delivered  at  a  fixed  price  to  the  magazines  of 
the  government.  The  system  though  highly 
profitable,  has  always  evoked  disapproval  as 
being  unfair  to  the  natives.  Sugar,  coffee,  indigo, 
tea,  and  tobacco  are  planted  for  export.  Rice 
is  grown  mainly  for  native  consumption.  The 
teak-forests  belong  exclusively  to  the  govern- 
ment. Java  may  be  considered  the  centre  of 
the  commerce  and  trade  of  a  great  part  of  the 
Dutch  East  Indies.  The  countries  which  trade 
most  extensively  with  Java  are  Holland,  the 
Straits  Settlements,  and  Great  Britain.  The 
chief  imports  are  cotton  and  linen  goods,  wine 
and  spirits,  provisions,  machinery,  railway-plant, 
&c.  There  are  1120  miles  of  railway,  and  an  ex- 
tensive telegraphic  system.  The  island  is  divided 
into  twenty-one  residencies— two  of  which  (Sura- 
karta  and  Jokjakarta)  are  under  native  princes. 
Madura  constitutes  a  twenty-second  residency. 

The  earliest  historical  references  date  back  to 
the  beginning  of  the  5th  century  a.d.  About  the 
year  800  the  intercourse  of  the  Hindus  with  the 
island  appears  to  have  become  more  important. 
Already  by  thaji  time  the  Javanese  had  attained 
to  a  considerable  degree  of  civilisation,  and  many 
antiquities  were  left  by  the  early  Hindu  con- 
querors, especially  in  middle  and  eastern  Java 
(Boro  Budor,  Brambanan,  Dieng).  There  were 
three  periods  of  Hindu  ascendency — a  period 
of  Buddhism,  a  period  of  Sivaism,  and  a  period 
of  compromise.  At  the  beginning  of  the  15th 
century  Mohammedanism  reached  the  island  and 
quickly  got  a  firm  footing.  At  the  end  of  the 
16th  century  European  merchant-adventurers 
established  themselves  in  Java ;  whilst  the  Dutch 
rule  dates  from  1610.  Then  began  a  long,  tough 
struggle  with  the  natives,  but  Java  was  practi- 
cally a  Dutch  possession  by  1811  when,  until 
1817,  the  English  occupied  it  in  connection  with 
the  French  war. 

See  the  exhaustive  work  by  Veth  (in  Dutch, 
3  vols.  1875-78);  the  history  by  Sir  Stamford 
Rafiles  (1817) ;  Wallace's  Malay  Archipelago  (new 
ed.  1894) ;  the  novel.  Max  Havclaar  (trans.  1868), 
by  'Multatnli;'  and  books  by  Worsfold  (1893), 
Scidmore  (1898),  and  Clive  Day  (1904). 

Jaworow  (Yd'vorov),  a  town  of  Austrian 
Galicia,  30  miles  WNW.  of  Lemberg,  was  the 
favourite  residence  of  John  Sobieski,  king  of 
Poland.    Pop.  9959. 

Jaxartes,  now  called  SihOn,  or  Syr-Daria 
(both  syr  and  daria  mean  'river'),  a  river  of 
western  Asia,  which  rises  at  an  altitude  of  12,000 


JEANTOWN 


373 


JERICHO 


feet,  30  miles  S.  of  Lake  Issik-kul,  in  the  Tian- 
Shan  Mountains.  It  is  at  first  called  the  Jaak- 
tash,  then  the  Taragai,  and  under  the  name  of 
the  Naryn  it  descends,  through  a  wild  narrow 
gorge,  to  the  level  of  6800  feet  at  Fort  Narynsk, 
and  flowing  W.  and  SW.  A  little  west  of  Khojend 
it  breaks  through  another  gorge ;  then  turns 
suddenly  to  the  north-west,  and,  retaining  that 
direction  for  850  navigable  miles,  finds  its  way 
into  the  Sea  of  Aral  by  a  delta  with  three  mouths. 
Its  total  length  is  1500  miles  ;  area  of  its  drainage 
basin,  320,000  sq.  m.  Five  centuries  ago  the 
Syr-Daria  used  to  send  off  a  south-western  branch 
at  Perovsk,  which  flowed  into  the  Sea  of  Aral 
on  its  south-east  side,  not  far  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Amu-Daria.  This  branch  is  now  lost  in 
the  sand.  The  Syr-Daria  is  the  Nile  of  Turkestan. 
The  people  fertilise  their  valleys  by  its  water, 
carried  off"  in  irrigation  channels. 

Jeantown,  or  Lochcarron,  a  Ross-shire  village, 
on  the  N.  shore  of  Loch  Carron,  3^  miles  SW. 
of  Strathcarron  station.    Pop.  383. 

Jed,  a  Roxburghshire  stream,  flowing  22  miles 
N.  by  E.  to  the  Teviot,  near  Mounteviot  House. 

Jedburgh,  the  county  town  of  Roxburghshire, 
is  beautifully  situated  on  Jed  Water,  56  miles 
by  a  branch-line  (by  road  49)  SE.  of  Edinburgh. 
Of  its  magnificent  Augustinian  abbey,  founded 
by  David  I.  in  1118-47,  and  finally  spoiled  by 
the  English  in  1544-45,  the  ruined  church  only 
remains.  This,  Norman  to  Second  Pointed  in 
style,  is  235  feet  long,  and  has  a  central  tower 
86  feet  high.  In  1823  a  jail  (now  disused)  was 
built  on  the  site  of  the  royal  castle  (razed  1409), 
where  a  skeleton  appeared  to  Alexander  III.  at 
his  marriage- feast  (1285).  Other  memories  has 
Jedburgh — of  Mary  Stuart  and  Prince  Charles 
Edward,  of  Thomson,  Burns,  Scott,  and  Words- 
worth, of  Mary  Somerville  and  Sir  David 
Brewster.  A  Border  town,  it  nurtured  a  war- 
like race,  whose  slogan,  '  Jeddart  's  here  ! '  was 
seldom  long  silent.  Their  chief  weapon  was  the 
•Jeddart  axe,'  a  stout  steel-headed  pole,  4  feet 
long ;  and  '  Jeddart  justice '  is  still  a  byword 
for  hanging  first  and  trying  afterwards.  Jed- 
burgh has  been  a  royal  burgh  from  time  im- 
memorial, and  till  1885,  with  Haddington,  &c., 
returned  a  member  to  parliament.  Woollen 
goods  have  been  manufactured  here  since  1728. 
Pop.  (1841)  3277  ;  (1901)  3136.  See  Watson's  Jed- 
burgh  Abbey  (2d  ed.  1894). 

Jeddah.    See  Jiddah. 

Jefferson  City,  the  capital  (since  1826)  of 
Missouri,  on  the  Missouri  River,  125  miles  by 
rail  W.  of  St  Louis.  It  has  a  state-house,  U.S. 
court-house,  state  armoury  and  j)enitentiary  (1500 
convicts),  the  Lincoln  Institute  for  coloured 
students,  flour-mills,  &c.    Pop.  9742. 

JeflFersonville,  a  city  of  Indiana,  on  the  Ohio 
River,  opposite  Louisville,  Kentucky,  with  which 
it  is  conneoted  by  an  iron  railway  bridge  nearly 
a  mile  long.  The  falls  of  the  river  here  are 
utilised  in  railway  workshops,  foundries,  machine- 
shops,  flour-mills,  &c.  There  are  also  boat- yards, 
and  hydraulic  cement  is  manufactured  in  the 
vicinity.    Pop.  10,766. 

JeMam.    See  Jhelum. 

Jeisk,  or  Eisk,  a  town  in  the  Russian  province 
of  Kuban  (Caucasus),  on  a  small  bay  at  the  east 
end  of  the  Sea  of  Azov,  65  miles  SW.  of  Azov. 
Founded  in  1848,  it  has  grown  rapidly,  exports 
corn,  flax,  and  wool,  and  has  cloth  manufactures 
and  tanneries.     Pop.  38,283. 

Jelalabad',  a  town  of  Afghanistan,  near  the 


Kabul  River,  about  half-way  between  the  Indian 
frontier  fortress  of  Peshawur  and  the  city  of 
Kabul.  Formerly  a  strong  fortress  itself,  it  is 
now  a  dirty  village  of  3000  inhabitants.  It  is 
interesting  from  its  heroic  defence  by  Sir  R. 
Sale  in  1841-42 ;  in  the  war  of  1878  it  was  held 
by  the  British  until  1880. 

Jelatom,  or  Elatma,  a  town  of  Russia,  170 
miles  ESE.  of  Moscow.     Pop.  7560. 

Jeletz,  or  Eletz,  a  town  of  Russia,  120  miles 
by  rail  ESE.  of  Orel.  It  exports  wheat  and  flour, 
has  a  great  trade  in  cattle,  and  manufactures 
leather,  soap,  candles,  &c.     Pop.  36,346. 

Jellalabad.    See  Jelalabad. 

Jemappes,  a  village  in  the  Belgian  province 
of  Hainault,  3  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Mons.  Here 
the  French  republicans  under  Dumouriez,  on  6th 
November  1792,  defeated  the  Austrians.  The 
village  stands  on  one  of  the  richest  Belgian  coal- 
fields, and  manufactures  stoneware,  glass,  and 
chemicals.    Pop.  12,722. 

Jena  (Yay'na),  a  town  of  Saxe- Weimar,  at  the 
Leutra's  influx  to  the  Saale,  14  miles  by  rail  SE. 
of  Weimar,  and  31  NNE.  of  Saalfeld.  It  lies  518 
feet  above  sea-level,  engirt  by  steep  chalk-hills, 
of  which  the  Hausberg  (1069  feet)  is  crowned  by 
the  old  Fuchsturm,  and  the  Forstberg  by  a  tower 
in  memory  of  the  Jena  students  who  fell  in  the 
Franco-German  war.  It  is  still  a  quaint  old- 
world  place,  with  its  ducal  schloss,  the  '  Black 
Bear '  inn  where  Luther  halted  on  his  flight  from 
the  Wartburg,  and  a  church  whose  steeple  is  311 
feet  high.  Goethe  here  wrote  his  Hermann  and 
Dorothea,  Schiller  his  Wallenstein ;  and  the  houses 
of  these  and  of  other  illustrious  residents  were 
marked  with  tablets  in  1858,  on  occasion  of  the 
tercentenary  of  the  university,  when,  too,  was 
erected  a  bronze  statue  of  its  founder,  the  Elector 
John  Frederick  of  Saxony.  He  founded  it  in 
1547-58  to  take  the  place  of  Wittenberg  as  a  seat 
of  learning  and  evangelical  doctrine  ;  it  attained 
its  zenith  in  the  days  of  Goethe's  patron,  Duke 
Karl  August  (1787-1806).  To  that  period  belong 
the  names  of  Fichte,  Schelling,  Hegel,  Schiller, 
the  Schlegels,  Voss,  Fries,  Krause,  and  Oken  ;  to 
our  own,  of  Hase  and  Haeckel.  Jena  now  has 
85  professors  and  lecturers,  over  600  students, 
and  a  library  of  200,000  volumes.  In  1883  a 
memorial  was  erected  of  the  Burschenschaft. 
Pop.  (1875)  9020 ;  (1900)  20,456.  The  battle  of 
Jena  is  often  applied  as  a  collective  name  to  two 
separate  engagements  fought  on  the  same  day, 
14th  October  1806— one  at  Auerstiidt,  14  miles 
to  the  north  ;  the  other,  on  the  heights  round 
Jena,  where  Napoleon  commanded  in  person.  In 
both  the  Prussians  were  totally  defeated. 

Jenissei.    See  Yenisei. 

Jeno'lan  Caves,  a  series  of  vast  limestone 
caverns  (rivalling  the  Mammoth  Caves  of  Ken- 
tucky), on  the  west  side  of  the  Blue  Mountains, 
in  New  South  Wales,  160  miles  W.  of  Sydney. 
Discovered  in  1841,  they  became  in  1866  public 
property.    See  S.  Cook's  Jenolan  Caves  (1889). 

Jerash.    See  Gerasa. 

Jerba,  a  small  island  of  Tunis,  in  the  Gulf  of 
Gabes,  being  separated  from  the  mainland  by  a 
narrow  channel.    Area,  425  sq.  m. ;  pop.  45,000. 

Jerez.    See  Xeres. 

Jericho,  once  one  of  the  most  flourishing  cities 
of  Palestine,  two  hours'  journey  westward  from 
the  Jordan,  and  six  hours  north-east  from 
Jerusalem.  It  is  now  a  shapeless  ruin,  with  a 
miserable  village,  Riha  or  Ariha,  and  excavations 


JERSEY 


374 


JERUSALEM 


tnto  the  green  mounds  have  disclosed  only  sun- 
dried  bricks. 

Jersey,  the  chief  of  the  Channel  Islands  (q.v.), 
T.4  miles  from  the  Norman  coast,  133  from  South- 
ampton, 95  from  Weymouth.  Measuring  11  miles 
by  bl  it  is  45  sq.  m.  in  area,  of  which  nearly  two- 
thirds  is  cultivated.  Pop.  (1806)  22,855 ;  (1851) 
57,020  ;  (1901)  52,796,  of  whom  29,000  were  in  the 
capital,  St  Helier.  The  land  rises  northward, 
culminating  in  Mount  Mado  (473  feet).  On  all 
sides  are  large  open  bays ;  Boulay  on  the  north 
is  capable  of  becoming  a  fine  harbour ;  that  of 
St  Helier  is  dry  at  low-water.  The  rocks  on  the 
coasts  have  been  eroded  by  the  sea,  which  has  left 
many  caverns  and  fantastic  pinnacles.  About  the 
south-east  are  numerous  dangerous  reefs.  Be- 
tween Jersey  and  the  French  shore  the  Ecrehos, 
Boeuffetins,  and  Minquiers  indicate  a  former  con- 
nection with  the  mainland.  It  is  also  noticeable 
that  moles  and  toads  are  found  in  Jersey,  as  also 
in  Alderney,  while  there  are  none  in  Guernsey. 
The  chief  staple  is  the  potato,  which  comes  into 
the  London  market  a  fortnight  before  that  of 
the  west  of  England.  Consequently  other  cul- 
tivation has  been  much  neglected,  and  the  land 
greatly  stimulated  by  artificial  manures.  Tlie 
potato  export  is  about  100,000  tons  yearly,  of  a 
value  of  £350,000.  The  rearing  of  cattle  is  also 
lucrative ;  it  is  estimated  tliat  there  are  fifty- 
eight  head  of  oattle  to  every  100 'acres— nearly 
three  times  the  ratio  of  the  United  Kingdom. 
The  purity  of  the  breed  is  maintained  by  careful 
official  registration,  and  the  stock  fetches  high 
prices  from  breeders  in  England  and  America. 
The  nuniber  of  cattle  exported  averages  nearly 
1600  head  annually.  The  imports  consist  largely 
of  potatoes  and  butcher-nieat  from  France  and 
England,  as  tlie  island  produces  little  food  for 
its  own  consumption.  The  language  of  legisla- 
tive and  judicial  business  is  French,  though  the 
people  among  themselves  use  either  English  or 
a  form  of  tlie  ancient  Norman.  The  parish 
churches  are  old,  but  have  lost  many  traces  of 
their  primitive  architecture  in  frequent  restora- 
tions. The  royal  court  is  a  large  but  ill-lighted 
building  containing  a  portrait  of  Marshal  Con- 
way, by  Gainsborough.  The  character  of  the 
people  is  orderly  and  frugal,  tlie  deposits  in  the 
savings-bank  exceeding  £350,000.  There  is  little 
pauperism  and  hardly  any  serious  crime. 

Jersey  City,  the  second  city  of  New  Jersey, 
and  capital  of  Hudson  county,  on  the  west  bank 
of  the  Hudson  River,  opposite  New  York,  of 
which  it  is,  in  fact,  though  in  another  state,  an 
extension,  and  with  which  and  Brooklyn  it  is 
connected  by  steam-ferries ;  a  tunnel  was  com- 
menced in  1874.  Its  site  forms  the  broadest  part 
of  a  peninsula  bounded  on  the  west  by  the 
Hackensack  River  and  Newark  Bay ;  on  the 
south-east  it  extends  along  New  York  Bay. 
Jersey  City  is  a  busy  but  not  a  beautiful  city. 
It  is  an  important  railway  terminus,  and  is  con- 
nected with  Easton,  Pennsylvania,  by  canal ; 
and  at  its  wharves  many  ocean-steamers  receive 
and  discharge  their  freight.  It  is  thus  the 
entrepot  of  a  large  trade,  especially  in  iron,  coal, 
and  agricultural  produce.  Its  own  manufactures 
are  on  a  large  scale,  and  include  sugar,  flour,  iron 
and  steel,  zinc,  boilers  and  machinery,  loco- 
motives, oils  and  chemicals,  oakum,  lumber, 
silk,  watches,  and  jewellery,  lead-pencils,  tobacco, 
pottery,  soap,  beer,  &c.  The  city  has  large 
abattoirs  and  stock-yards,  and  grain-elevators 
notable  both  for  their  size  and  efficiency.  The 
Bite  of  Jersey  City  was  formerly  called  Paulus 


Hoeck  (Hook);  the  town  received  its  present 
name  and  became  a  municipality  in  1838.  Pop. 
(1860)  29,226  ;  (1890)  163,003  ;  (1900)  206,433. 

Jerusalem  (in  the  form  Urnsalem  on  the  Tel- 
el -Amarna  tablets;  Yerushalaim,  in  Hebrew 
'dwelling  of  peace;'  Moslem  El-Kuds,  'the 
Holy '),  regarded  as  a  holy  city  alike  by  Jews, 
Christians,  and  Moslems,  long  the  capital  of 
Palestine,  stands  37  miles  SE.  (57  by  rail)  of  its 
port  Jaffa,  on  the  Mediterranean  shore  of  Syria. 
It  stands— from  2364  to  2582  feet  above  the  sea- 
level — on  the  spurs  of  two  hills  surrounded  and 
divided  by  two  valleys,  once  deep,  now  partly 
or  Avholly  filled  up  with  rubbish.  The  Eastern 
Hill  was  originally  a  rounded  top  crowned  with 
the  '  threshing-floor  of  Araunah,'  and  the  rock  and 
cave,  probably  a  sacred  site  from  time  imme- 
morial. The  Western  Hill,  higher  than  the  other 
by  more  than  a  hundred  feet,  was  also  bounded 
by  steep  slopes.  Either  hill  was  therefore  a 
strong  hill-fortress. 

The  history  of  Jerusalem  covers  a  period  of 
about  3500  years.  Of  these,  500  at  least  are 
prehistoric  ;  and  of  the  3000  years  which  remain, 
less  than  500  show  us  Jerusalem  independent, 
the  capital  of  a  free  country,  and  the  centre  of  a 
national  religion.  For  600  years  longer  the  city 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  Israelites,  but  never 
wholly  independent.  Its  name  is  found  on  an 
inscription  500  years  at  least  before  David  (see 
also  Gen.  xiv.  18) ;  it  was  besieged  almost  im- 
mediately after  the  death  of  Joshua,  c.  1400  b.c.  ; 
it  was  again  taken  by  David  about  1046  b.c.  ;  it 
was  surrendered  by  Jehoiachin  597  b.c.  ;  it  was 
taken  from  Zedekiah  586  b.c,  and  wholly  de- 
stroyed. Fifty  years  later  (536  B.C.)  the  edict  of 
Cyrus  enabled  the  people  to  return  ;  the  temple 
was  rebuilt ;  Ezra  arrived  457  b.c,  Nehemiah  445 
B.C.  For  500  years  after  this  Jerusalem  knew 
not  a  single  generation  of  peace.  Internal  factions 
tore  it  to  pieces ;  the  city  was  the  possession  in 
turn  of  Persian,  Macedonian,  Syrian,  Egyptian, 
and  Roman.  Under  Antiochus  the  temple  was 
consecrated  to  Zeus  Olympios ;  and  swine  were 
sacrificed  on  the  altars.  But  for  the  Maccabees, 
the  religion  of  the  Jews  would  have  been  aban- 
doned and  their  nationality  lost.  The  city  was 
besieged,  taken,  and  totally  destroyed  by  Titus, 
70  A.D.  In  the  early  centuries  of  Christianity 
the  land  was  covered  with  monasteries,  churches, 
and  hermitages.  The  city  contained  the  gi-eat 
group  of  churches  of  which  the  most  splendid 
was  Constantine's  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
The  Persians  came  614  a.d.,  sacked  the  city, 
and  destroyed  all  the  churches.  During  Moslem 
rule  (637-1099)  the  Mosque  el-Aksa  was  built, 
Justinian's  great  church  of  St  Mary  furnishing 
the  principal  edifice  ;  the  Dome  of  the  Rock  was 
built ;  and,  by  order  of  the  mad  calif  Hak^m  Bi 
Asur  Illah,  the  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre  was 
again  destroyed.  The  next  period  is  that  of  the 
Latin  kingdom  (1099-1244).  In  the  last  period 
Jerusalem  is  again  under  the  Moslems  (since  1244). 
It  was  in  1517  that  the  Turkish  sultan  Selim 
took  Jerusalem.  The  principal  buildings  and 
monuments  for  which  the  explorer  of  the  modern 
city  has  to  look  are  the  first,  second,  and  third 
walls  of  the  great  temple  itself;  the  royal  towers 
of  Phasaelus,  Hippicus,  Psephinus,  and  Mariamne ; 
the  Tyropoeon  Bridge  ;  Baris  or  Antonia ;  Ophel ; 
the  Tombs  of  the  Kings  ;  and  certain  pools.  The 
town  was  carefully  examined  by  Sir  Charles  Wilson 
in  1865  ;  and  excavations  were  conducted  by  Sir 
Charles  Warren  in  1867-70,  Major  Conder  in  1871- 
76,  Clermont  Ganneau  in  1874-75,  the  Russians, 
the  French,  and  the  Germans.    The  site  of  the 


JERVAULX 


375 


JOHN  0*  GROAT*S  HOUSE 


temple  was  apparently  within  the  Haram  area, 
which  is  defined  by  the  ruins  of  its  gigantic  walls. 
There  exists  a  long  cate^ia  of  evidence  fi'om  tlie 
Bordeaux  pilgrim  of  the  4th  century  to  the  present 
day,  which  leaves  it  impossible  to  doubt  that  the 
basilica  erected  by  Constantine  was  on  the  site  of 
the  present  Church  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre.  The 
present  city  contains  about  28,000  inhabitants, 
of  whom  half  are  Jews,  a  quarter  Moslems,  and 
the  rest  Christians  of  various  denominations. 
There  are  three  sects  of  Jews,  the  Sephardim,  of 
Spanish  origin ;  the  Ashkenazim,  of  German  or 
Polish  origin,  themselves  divided  into  several 
sects  ;  and  the  Karaites.  The  Christians  consist 
of  Greeks,  Armenians,  Georgians,  Copts,  Syrians, 
Abyssinians,  Latins,  and  Protestants.  Lying 
among  not  very  fertile  mountains,  the  city  has 
but  little  commerce,  and  practically  no  manu- 
factures, although  there  is  of  course  trade  in 
curios  and  'antiquities,'  real  or  other.  Of  late 
years  the  town  has  grown  beyond  its  walls, 
the  dull,  uniform,  windowless  one-storied  houses 
stretching  on  every  side.  The  climate  has  been 
compared  to  that  of  the  south  of  France.  Snow 
sometimes  falls  in  January  and  February ;  rains 
begin  in  October  and  continue  to  fall  at  intervals 
till  April,  when  a  cloudless  sky  begins  and  lasts 
until  October.  There  are  now  banks  and  hotels  ; 
the  railway  from  Jaffa  was  inade  in  1890-93  ;  and 
the  number  of  pilgrims  and  tourists  has  increased. 

See  De  Vogue's  Temple  de  Jerusalem;  Warren 
and  Conder's  Jerusalem  (Palestine  Exploration 
Fund,  1884) ;  Mrs  Oliphant's  Jerusalem  (1891). 

Jervaulx  (locally  Jarvis),  a  place  in  the  North 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  3  miles  SE.  of  Middleham, 
with  remains  of  a  Cistercian  abbey  (1156). 

Jesmond.    See  Newcastle. 

Jessor,  or  Kasba,  a  town  of  Bengal,  74  miles 
NE.  of  Calcutta.  Pop.  8495.  Since  the  opening 
of  the  Central  Bengal  Railway,  it  has  developed 
into  a  trading-mart. 

Jeypore  (Jaipur),  a  protected  native  state  in 
Rajputana  (q.v.),  with  an  area  of  14,465  sq.  m., 
and  a  population  of  2,700,000,  chietly  Hindus. 
It  came  under  British  protection  in  1818.  The 
maharajah  was  eminently  loyal  during  the 
Mutiny,  and  was  rewarded  with  an  extension  of 
territory.— The  capital,  Jeypore,  is  a  walled  city, 
850  miles  NW.  of  Calcutta  and  149  NE.  of  Ajmere 
by  rail.  It  is  a  handsome  and  regularly-built 
town,  with  the  maharajah's  palace  in  the  centre, 
and  is  the  most  important  commercial  centre  of 
Rajputana.  It  was  founded  as  late  as  1728  ;  the 
ancient  and  now  deserted  capital.  Amber,  lies  5 
miles  to  the  NE.  The  commercial  business  of 
Jeypore  is  chiefly  banking  and  exchange,  with  a 
capital  engaged  of  over  £7,000,000.  In  addition 
to  the  banks  there  are  the  maharajah's  college, 
an  industrial  and  economic  museum,  a  school  of 
art,  an  observatory,  a  mint,  and  the  'Mayo' 
Hospital,  besides  the  beautiful  Ram  Newas  Gar- 
dens (70  acres).     Pop.  160,000. 

Jhansi,  a  fortified  town  in  Gwalior  state. 
Central  India  (till  1861  in  the  British  North-west 
Provinces).  During  the  Mutiny  of  1857  its 
native  garrison  murdered  all  the  Europeans ; 
next  April  it  was  recovered  by  Sir  Hugh  Rose. 
Pop.,  with  British  cantonment,    56,000. 

Jhelum,  Jehlam,  or  Bitasta  (hence  anc. 
Hydaspes),  one  of  the  rivers  of  the  Punjab,  rises 
in  the  mountains  of  Cashmere.  About  250  miles 
from  its  source  it  enters  the  plains,  and,  after  a 
total  course  of  450  miles,  joins  the  Chenab  at 
Timmu.  On  its  banks  was  fought  the  battle 
between  Alexander  the  Great  and  Porus  (326 


n.c.).— Jhelum,  headquarters  of  a  district  in  the 
Punjab,  on  tlie  Jlielum  River.  Pop.  with  can- 
tonment, 25,580. 

Jiboutil.    See  Obock. 

Jiddah,  or  Jeddah,  a  seaport  of  the  Hedjaz, 
Arabia,  stands  on  the  Red  Sea,  65  miles  W.  of 
Mecca.  It  is  an  unhealthy  town,  suffering 
greatly  from  want  of  water.  As  the  port,  how- 
ever, of  Mecca,  it  is  the  place  of  disembarkation 
for  pilgrims  bound  for  the  holy  city  (46,953  in 
1891).  Besides  this  it  has  an  active,  though  a 
decreasing,  trade.  The  imports  comprise  corn, 
sugar,  Inetals,  earthenware,  textiles,  &c. ;  the 
exports,  mother-of-pearl,  hides,  coflee,  balsajns, 
dates,  carpets,  &c.  A  quay  and  a  quay-railway 
were  built  in  1889.    Pop.  25,000. 

Jihim.    See  Oxus. 

Jlmena,  or  Ximena,  a  town  of  Spain,  21  miles 
N.  of  Gibraltar,  has  some  remarkable  caves  and 
the  remains  of  a  Moorish  castle.    Pop.  8677. 

Joachimsthal  (Yo'aheemstdr),  a  mining-town  of 
Bohemia,  at  an  altitude  of  2400  feet,  on  the 
southex-n  slopes  of  the  Erzgebirge,  10  miles  N.  of 
Carlsbad.  The  mines  yield  still  a  little  silver, 
and  also  nickel,  bismuth,  uranium.    Pop.  7628. 

Jock's  Lodge,  or  Piershill,  a  Midlothian 
village,  1|  mile  E.  by  N.  of  Edinburgh,  with 
large  cavalry  barracks,  dating  from  1793. 

Jodhpur,  or  Ma'rwar,  the  largest  in  area  of 
the  Rajputana  states,  containing  37,445  sq.  m.  ; 
and  the  second  in  pop.  (about  2,000,000).— The 
capital  is  Jodlipur,  founded  in  1459  ;  pop.  60,450. 

Johanna.    See  Comoro  Isles. 

Johannesburg,  the  chief  town  and  mining 
centre  of  the  Transvaal  goldfields,  is  situated 
about  6000  feet  above  sea-level,  298  miles  NE. 
of  Kimberley,  and  838  NE.  of  Capetown,  being 
connected  with  both  by  rail  (1892).  In  1886  the 
Transvaal  government  proclaimed  as  goldfields 
certain  farms  on  and  around  the  now  famous 
Reef  of  Witwatersrandt,  30  miles  SSW.  of  the 
capital  Pretoria.  The  progress  of  the  place  and 
the  mining  industry  was  steady  and  rapid.  Fine 
banks,  churches,  hotels,  club-houses,  a  magnifi. 
cent  stock  exchange,  and  some  handsome  streets 
reflect  the  wealtli  of  tlie  town,  though  much 
of  it  consists  of  mean  huts  and  shanties.  The 
Transvaal  Institute  promises  to  become  a  uni- 
versity for  the  province.  The  climate  is  healthy, 
save  for  dust-storms  ;  the  supply  of  water  is 
still  imperfect.  Johannesburg  was  largely  the 
scene  of  the  intrig\ies  and  struggles  that  led  to 
the  war  of  1899-1902.  It  was  occupied  by  Lord 
Roberts  in  May  1900.  The  British  Association 
held  some  of  its  sittings  here  in  1905.  Pop. 
(1905)  160,000  (84,000  wliites). 

Johannlsberg,  a  village  of  Prussia,  overlooking 
the  Rhine,  13  miles  WSW.  of  Wiesbaden.  It  is 
noteworthy  chiefly  for  the  castle  (1732)  of  the 
Metternich  family,  and  the  famous  vineyards  (38 
acre.s)  on  the  castle  hill,  producing  the  choice 
JoTiannishcrger  white  wine.    Pop.  1316. 

John  0'  Groat's  House,  in  Caithness,  If  mile 
W.  of  Duncansbay  Head,  and  18  miles  N.  of  Wick, 
was,  according  to  tradition,  an  octagonal  build- 
ing with  eight  doors  and  windows  and  an  eight- 
sided  table  within,  built  by  John  o'  Groat  to 
prevent  dissensions  as  to  precedence  among  the 
eight  diflerent  branches  of  his  family.  Certain 
it  is  that  between  1496  and  1525  there  was  one 
'  John  o'  Grot  of  Duncansbay,  baillie  to  the  Earl 
in  those  pairts,'  and  probably  a  Hollander.  An 
outline  on  the  turf  marks  the  site  of  the  house  •, 
and  the  neighbouring  hotel  (1876)  has,  appropri- 


JOHNSHAVEN 


37^ 


JUGGERNAUT? 


ately  enough,  an  octagonal  tower.  '  Frae  Maiden- 
kirk  to  John  o'  Groat's '  (Burns)  is  the  Scottish 
equivalent  of  '  from  Dan  to  Beersheba,'  Maiden- 
kirk  being  Kirkinaiden  in  the  Mull  of  Galloway. 

Jolinshaven,  a  Kincardineshire  fishing-village, 
9i  miles  NNE.  of  Montrose.    Pop.  987. 

Jolinston,  formerly  a  town  of  Rhode  Island, 
now  forming  part  of  Providence  (q.v.). 

Johnstone,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Renfrew- 
shire, on  the  Black  Cart,  3^  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Paisley.  Founded  in  1781,  it  contains  a  large 
flax-mill,  cotton-mills,  a  paper-mill,  foundries,  and 
machine-shops.    Pop.  (1831)  5617  ;  (1901)  10,502. 

Johnstown,  (1)  capital  of  Fulton  county,  New 
York,  on  Cayadutta  Creek,  48  miles  WNW.  of 
Albany.  It  has  mills  and  large  manufactories  of 
gloves  and  mittens.  Pop.  10,150.— (2)  A  town  of 
Pennsylvania,  on  the  Ooneinaugh  River,  78  miles 
B.  by  S.  of  Pittsburgh  by  rail,  with  large  iron 
and  steel  works,  tanneries,  and  flour,  planing, 
and  woollen  mills,  Johnstown  was  overwhelmed 
by  the  bursting  of  a  reservoir  on  31st  May  1889. 
Pop.  (1880)  8380  ;  (1890)  21,805;  (1900)  35,936. 

Johore,  an  independent  state  at  the  S.  ex- 
tremity of  the  Malay  Peninsula.  It  is  densely 
timbered,  and  rises  into  several  mountain-peaks, 
the  highest  Mount  Ophir  (4186  feet).  Area, 
10,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  200,000,  mostly  Malays  and 
Chinese.  The  capital  is  Johore,  15  miles  NE.  of 
Singapore. 

Jolgny  (Zhioan'yee,  anc.  Joviniacum),  an  old 
•walled  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Yonne,  90 
miles  by  rail  SB.  of  Paris,  manufactures  cloth, 
linen,  and  sporting  rifles.    Pop.  5271. 

Joinville  {ZhwanOveell),  a  small  town  of  4000 
inhabitants  in  the  French  dep.  of  Haute- Marne, 
22  miles  N.  of  Chaumont  by  rail. 

Jokjakarta,  a  residency,  in  the  centre  of  Java. 
Area,  1191  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  500,000.  The  capital, 
Jokjakarta  (pop.  58,000),  has  the  sultan's  palace 
and  ruins  of  ancient  temples. 

Jollba.    See  Niger. 

Joliet,  capital  of  Will,  county,  Illinois,  is  on 
Des  Plaines  River,  40  miles  SW.  of  Chicago  by 
rail,  and  its  water-power  is  increased  by  a  canal 
from  Lake  Michigan.  It  has  a  state  prison, 
manufactures  flour,  steel  rails,  wire,  stoves,  tools, 
boots,  paper,  tiles,  cigars,  &c.  There  are  large 
quarries  of  limestone,  and  a  coalfield  in  the 
neighbourhood.    Pop.  (1880)  11,657;  (1900)29,353. 

Jonkoplng  (Ydnchdping),  the  capital  of  a 
Swedish  Ian  or  county  (area,  4468  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  in 
1892,  193,389),  is  beautifully  situated  at  the  south 
end  of  Lake  Wetter,  115  miles  by  rail  E.  of 
Gothenburg.  It  is  famous  for  its  safety-matches. 
Paper,  carpets,  tobacco,  &c.  are  also  made.  Pop. 
(1875)  13,142  ;   (1900)  23,143. 

Joplin,  a  town  of  Missouri,  167  miles  by  rail  S. 
of  Kansas  City,  with  lead  and  zinc  mines  and 
smelting  furnaces.    Pop.  27,000. 

Joppa.    See  Jaffa  and  Portobello. 

Jordan  ('  de.scending '),  the  principal  river  of 
Palestine,  forms  a  great  valley  stretching  from 
north  to  south.  The  highest  source  is  the  Has- 
bany,  which  rises  near  the  Druse  town  of  Has- 
beiya,  on  the  west  side  of  Mount  Hermon ; 
another  spring  is  on  the  south  side  at  Banias 
(Paneas  or  Csesarea  Philippi).  The  Jordan  flows 
south  for  over  100  miles,  passing  through  the 
small  Huleh  Lake  (The  Waters  of  Merom)  and 
the  Lake  of  Tiberias  (Sea  of  Galilee),  and  falls 
into  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Dead  Sea 
(q.v.),  1292  feet  below  the  Mediterranean.     As 


the  soutce  is  1700  feet  above  the  Meditefranean, 
the  total  fall  is  3000  feet.  The  river,  which  varies 
much  in  breadth,  from  30  to  50  yards,  flows 
latterly  in  a  sunken  channel.  Its  banks  of  white 
marl  are  in  some  places  flat,  in  others  steep  ;  in 
the  north  partly  occupied  by  fields  of  barley, 
but  barren  below  Jericho. 

Jorullo  (Ho-rool'yo),  a  volcanic  mountain  in 
the  Mexican  state  of  Michoacan,  4315  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  1640  feet  above  the  plain  on  which 
it  stands,  150  miles  WSW.  of  Mexico  City.  It 
was  thrown  up  one  night,  29th  September  1759, 
after  several  months  of  subterranean  convulsions. 

Josephstadt,  an  important  Austrian  fortress, 
stands  at  the  confluence  of  the  Mettau  and  the 
Elbe  in  Bohemia,  lOJ  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Konig- 
griitz.    Pop.  6963. 

Joyce's  Country,  a  mountainous  district  in 
the  north-west  of  the  county  of  Gal  way. 

Juan  Fernandez,  called  also  Mas-X-tierra 
('nearer  the  mainland'),  a  rocky  Chilian  island 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  420  miles  W.  of  Valparaiso. 
It  is  13  miles  long  and  4  broad,  and  is  for  the 
most  part  a  series  of  rocky  peaks  of  volcanic 
origin  (the  highest  3000  feet).  The  trees  are 
mostly  ferns.  Horses,  pigs,  and  goats  run  wild. 
The  island  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniard  who.se 
name  it  bears  in  1563,  and  was  frequently  visited 
by  buccaneers.  Here  Alexander  Selkirk,  a  ma- 
rooned privateer,  a  native  of  Largo,  lived  from 
1704  to  1709.  His  story  is  supposed  to  have 
suggested  the  Robinson  Crusoe  of  Defoe ;  though 
in  the  story  Robinson's  island  is  placed  on  the 
other  side  of  South  America,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Orinoco.  Chili  used  the  island  as  a  penal 
settlement  from  1819  to  1835.  It  is  usually 
inhabited  by  a  few  Chilian  sea-lion  hunters ;  and 
in  1877  it  was  leased  to  a  Swiss,  Avho  established 
a  small  colony  there.  See  Mackenna,  Juan  Fer- 
nandez (Santiago,  1883). 

Juba,  or  Jub,  a  great  river  of  eastern  Africa, 
which  flows  into  the  Indian  Ocean  at  about  0°  5' 
S.  lat.,  and  whose  mouth  marks  the  northern 
boundary  of  the  coast  placed  under  British  con- 
trol by  the  agreement  with  Germany  in  1890. 

Jubbulpore.    See  Jabalpur. 

Juby,  Cape,  on  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  100 
miles  south  of  the  frontier  of  Morocco. 

Judaea.     See  Palestine. 

Juggernaut,  or  Puri,  a  town  on  the  coast  of 
Orissa,  at  the  southern  end  of  the  delta  of  the 
Mahanadi,  celebrated  as  one  of  the  chief  holy 
places  in  India.  With  a  resident  pop.  of  50,000, 
it  owes  its  reputation  to  a  temple  erected  there 
in  honour  of  Vishnu,  and  containing  an  idol 
of  this  Hindu  god,  called  Jaganndth  or  Jrigger- 
naut,  a  corruption  of  the  Sanskrit  word  Jagan- 
ndtha—i.e.  Lord  of  the  World.  The  first  his- 
torical mention  of  him  is  in  318  a.d.  The  place, 
too,  was  long  a  sacred  city  of  the  Buddhists,  the 
abode  of  the  Golden  Tooth  of  Buddha.  The  great 
festivals  sometimes  bring  100,000  pilgrims.  The 
temple  enclosure  comprises  120  temples,  the  chief 
pagoda  being  that  of  Jagannath,  with  a  tower 
192  feet  high.  There  are  twenty-four  annual 
festivals  in  his  honour,  the  chief  being  the  car 
festival,  when  Jagannath  (who  is  armles.s)  is 
dragged  on  his  car  (45  feet  high,  with  sixteen 
wheels,  each  7  feet  in  diameter)  to  his  country- 
house.  This  is  less  than  a  mile  distant  from  the 
temple,  but  the  heavy  sand  extends  the  short 
journey  to  several  days.  The  car  festival  has 
been  falsely  believed  to  be  the  occasion  of  numer- 


JUJUY 


377 


KADIAK 


Ous  cases  of  self-immolation,  the  frantic  devotees 
throwing  themselves  before  the  wheels.  See  Sir 
W.  W.  Hunter's  work  on  Orissa  (1872). 

Jujuy  (Hoo-hwee'),  the  northernmost  province 
of  Argentina;  area,  20,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  54,500. — 
The  capital,  Jujuy,  on  the  San  Francisco  River, 
44  miles  N.  of  Salta,  has  a  national  college  and 
sugar-refineries.    Pop.  6000. 

Julfa,  a  suburb  of  Ispahan  (q.v.)  in  Persia. 

Jlilich  {Yil'liKh;  Roman  Mliacum;  Fr.  Juliers), 
a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Roer,  20 
miles  by  rail  NB.  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  Pop.  5234. 
Jiilich  was  the  capital  of  a  duchy  annexed  in 
1814  to  Prussia. 

Jullunder,  or  JAlandhar,  a  very  ancient  city 
of  the  Punjab,  stands  in  the  Doab  between  the 
Sutlej  and  the  13eas,  on  the  railway  between 
Umballa  and  Umritsar.     Pop.  70,000. 

Jumet,  a  busy  place  in  the  Belgian  province 
of  Hainault,  near  Charleroi,  with  ironworks, 
collieries,  glass-works,  &c.     Pop.  26,000. 

Jumilla,  a  town  of  Spain,  36  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Murcia.    Pop.  15,900. 

Jumna,  or  Jamuna,  the  principal  feeder  of  the 
Ganges,  has  its  source  10,849  feet  above  the 
sea,  5  miles  N.  of  Jamnotri.  After  a  southerly 
course  of  95  miles  it  breaks  into  the  plains  from 
the  Siwalik  Hills  at  an  altitude  of  only  1276  feet. 
It  continues  to  flow  south  as  far  as  Hamirpur, 
beyond  Agra,  and  then  turns  to  the  east,  finally 
joining  the  Ganges  from  the  right  3  miles  below 
Allahabad,  after  a  total  course  of  860  miles.  As 
a  rule  its  banks  are  high  and  craggy.  Many 
tributaries  add  their  waters  to  swell  its  current. 
The  towns  of  Delhi,  Agra,  Pirozabad,  Etawah, 
and  Allahabad  are  on  its  banks.  Where  it 
emerges  from  the  Siwalik  Hills,  two  great  irriga- 
tion canals,  an  Eastern  and  a  Western,  were  made 
in  1817-30. 

Junagarh,  capital  of  a  native  Indian  state 
(area,  3283  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  490,000)  in  the  peninsula 
of  Katliiawar,  NW.  of  Bombay,  is  one  of  the  most 
picturesque  towns  in  India.     Pop.  34,250. 

Juneau,  a  mining  settlement  (named  from  one 
of  the  original  prospectors)  on  the  shore  of  the 
Alaska  strip,  till  1903  claimed  by  Canada,  oppo- 
site Douglas  island.  Pop.  3000.  There  are  gold 
and  silver  mines  in  the  neighbourhood. 


Jungfrau  ('  the  Maiden '),  a  magnificent  peak 
of  the  Bernese  Alps,  13,671  feet  high.  A  railway 
to  the  top  was  made  in  1895-1905. 

Juniper  Green,  a  Midlothian  village,  5*  miles 
SW.  of  Edinburgh.      Pop.  1607. 

Jura  (Scand.  deor-oe,  'deer-isle'),  an  Argyll- 
shire island,  J  mile  NE.  of  Islay,  and  2^  miles  W. 
of  the  nearest  point  of  the  mainland.  It  extends 
28  miles  north-eastward ;  varies  in  width  from 
I  mile,  at  Loch  Tarbert  in  the  middle,  to  8^  miles ; 
and  is  143  sq.  m.  in  area.  The  western  side  is 
rugged  and  desolate,  the  eastern  green  and  pleas- 
ing. The  conical  Paps  of  Jura  are  2571  and  2412 
feet  high  ;  and  most  of  the  surface  is  deer-fores't. 
Pop. (1831)  1312  ;  (1901)  560. 

Jura,  a  range  of  mountains  of  a  peculiar  lime- 
stone formation,  oolitic  in  composition,  and  gener- 
ally called  Jurassic,  which  extends  from  the  angle 
formed  by  the  Rhone  and  the  Ain,  in  a  north- 
easterly direction  (with  a  gradually  declining 
elevation)  for  more  than  450  miles,  to  the  upper 
course  of  the  Main.  But  it  is  usual  to  restrict 
the  name  to  the  ranges  that  lie  along  the  frontier 
of  Switzerland  and  France— mainly  in  the  deps. 
of  Doubs,  Jura,  and  Ain.  These  constitute  a 
plateau  about  155  miles  long  by  40  wide,  with  an 
average  height  of  2000  to  2500  feet.  The  loftiest 
peaks  are  Reculet  (5643  feet),  Crdt  de  la  Neige 
(2653),  Mont  Tendre  (5512),  and  Dole  (5507). 

Jura,  an  eastern  French  dep.,  bounded  on  the 
E.  by  Switzerland.  Area,  1928  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1881) 
285,263 ;  (1901)  261,288.  It  is  divided  into  the 
four  arrondissements  of  Lons-le-Saunier  (the 
capital),  Poligny,  Sainte-Claude,  and  Dole. 

Jiiterbog,  or  Juterbogk,  a  town  of  Prussia, 
39  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Berlin.    Pop.  7797. 

Jutland  (Dan.  Jylland),  the  only  considerable 
peninsula  of  Europe  that  points  directly  north, 
has  since  early  in  the  10th  century  formed  a 
portion  of  the  kingdom  of  Denmark  (q.v.).  Area, 
9754  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1900)  1,063,792.  Jutland  was 
called  the  Gimbric  Chersonesus,  from  the  Cimbri, 
its  early  inhabitants.  In  the  5th  century  it  was 
inhabited  by  the  Jutes,  who  took  part  in  the 
expedition  of  the  Saxons  to  England ;  and  the 
Jutes  were  succeeded  by  the  Danes. 

Jyhoon.    See  Oxus. 


See  Godwin-  Iusten, 
Kabul,  or  Cabul  (Kau'bal;  the 
Kabura  of  Ptolemy),  the  capital  of 
Afghanistan,  is  charmingly  situated  at 
the  foot  of  the  Takht-i-Shah  and  Asmai 
hills,  on  a  spur  of  which  to  the  south  is  the 
fortress  of  Bala  Hissar  (or  '  upper  fort '),  once 
an  important  stronghold,  but  now  abandoned. 
The  city  is  composed  almost  entirely  of  mud- 
built  buildings  with  flat  roofs,  and  is  traversed 
by  the  inain  bazaar,  whose  streets  diverge  from 
the  central  square,  and  divide  Kabul  into  four 
quarters.  The  bazaar  rivals  that  of  Kandahar, 
and  includes  every  variety  of  trade.  Carpets, 
camel-hair  cloth,  and  skins  are  perhaps  the 
specialities ;  but  there  are  now  many  shops  in 
which  European  goods  can  be  purchased,  and 
Kabul  is  rapidly  assuming  the  general  character 
of  an  Indian  mart.  Communication  with  India 
is  now  regular  and  constant :  there  is  a  growing 
trade  with  central  Asia.  The  cantonment  of 
Sherpur,  situated  about  a  mile  north  of  the  Bala 
Hissar,  where  the  British  troops  were  beleaguered 


in  1880,  is  maintained  in  good  repair.  Close  to 
it  are  still  to  be  traced  the  outlines  of  the  old 
British  entrenchment  of  1840-41,  when,  after  a 
nine  weeks'  siege,  a  British  force  had  to  capitulate. 
At  the  western  extremity  of  the  Bemara  ridge, 
which  flanks  Sherpur  on  the  north,  is  the  English 
cemetery,  now  protected  by  a  high  wall.  Kabul 
is  celebrated  for  its  fruit,  its  grapes  and  melons 
being  especially  famous.  The  elcA^ation  of  the 
plain  above  sea-level  is  about  6000  feet,  which 
ensures  a  delightful  temperature  and  fine  climate 
in  summer  ;  but  it  is  sometimes  severely  cold  in 
winter,  when  snow  occasionally  covers  the  ground 
to  the  depth  of  several  feet,  and  communication 
is  frequently  interrupted.    Pop.  90,000. 

The  Kabul  River  rises  at  Sar-i-Chashma,  near 
the  source  of  the  Helmund,  flows  through  Kabul 
city,  and,  mainly  by  a  long  series  of  precipitous 
defiles,  finally  reaches  the  Indus  at  Attok.  The 
length  of  its  course  (generally  south-easterly)  is 
about  270  miles. 

Kadiak,  a  wooded,  mountainous  island  off"  the 
S.  coast  of  Alaska.    It  contains  good  harbours. 


KAFFA 


378 


KALNA 


and  has  an  area  of  3465  sq.  m.  Pop.  1482 
Eskimos,  engaged  in  the  salmon-fishery. 

Kaflfa  (anc.  Theodosia  or  Feodosia),  a  Russian 
seaport,  on  a  bay  on  the  east  side  of  the  Crimea, 
62  miles  B.  by  N.  of  Simferopol.  It  is  defended 
by  walls  and  a  citadel,  and  has  the  ruined  palace 
of  the  Khans  of  the  Crimea,  a  Greek  cathedral, 
and,  near  by,  an  Armenian  monastery  (1442). 
Soap  and  caviare,  camel-hair  carpets,  and  sheep- 
skin rugs  are  manufactured  ;  and  here  is  the  only 
oyster-fishery  in  Russia.    Pop.  27,500. 

KafFraria,  properly  the  country  inhabited  by 
the  Kaffirs  or  Caftres,  who  inhabit  the  B.  of 
Cape  Colony,  Natal,  Swaziland,  Zululand,  &c.  ; 
but  usually  restricted  to  the  coast-districts  be- 
tween the  Great  Kei  River  (Transkei)  and  the 
Natal  frontier.  British  Kaff'raria  was  the  country 
from  the  Great  Kei  westward  to  the  Keiskamma, 
some  time  an  independent  colony  after  being 
wrested  from  the  Kaffirs  in  the  war  of  1846-47, 
but  ultimately  incorporated  with  Cape  Colony. 
Neither  Kaff'raria  nor  British  Kaff'raria  is  now 
an  administrative  division. 

Kafiristan,  a  mountainous  region  of  Asia, 
lying  between  the  Kabul  River  on  the  south  and 
the  Hindu  Kush  on  the  north-west ;  its  eastern 
and  western  boundaries  are  formed  by  the 
Chitral  and  Panjshir  rivers  respectively,  feeders 
of  the  Kabul.  Area,  5000  .sq.  m.  ;  pop.  200,000, 
primitive  Aryan  heathens,  of  many  tribes,  united 
only  by  their  hatred  of  Mohammedans.  See 
Leitner's  Kafiristan  (Lahore,  1881). 

Kagoshi'ma,  a  town  of  Japan,  on  a  large  bay 
of  the  same  name,  at  the  south  end  of  Kiu-siu 
Island,  with  manufactures  of  pottery  and  porce- 
lain, arms,  and  cotton.  Population,  55,000.  It 
was  bombarded  by  a  British  fleet  in  1863. 

Kaieteur  Fall.   .See  Bssequibo. 

Kal-fung,  capital  of  the  Chinese  province  of 
Honan,  near  the  southern  bank  of  the  Hoangho, 
where  the  great  inundation  occurred  in  1887, 
long  the  chief  settlement  of  the  Jews  in  China. 
Pop.  100,000— many  Mohammedans. 

Kailas.    See  Ellora,  Indus. 

Kaira,  capital  of  a  district  in  northern  Giyarat, 
20  miles  SW.  of  Ahmedabad  by  rail.    Pop.  10,640. 

Kairwan',  a  decayed  walled  town  of  Tunis, 
in  an  open,  marshy  plain,  80  miles  S.  of  the 
capital.  It  contains  about  fifty  ecclesiastical 
structures,  of  which  the  mosque  of  Okba,  who 
founded  Kairwan  about  670,  is  one  of  the  most 
sacred  of  Islam.  Outside  the  city,  to  the  north- 
west, is  the  mosque  of  the  Companion— i.e.  of 
the  Prophet;  this  and  other  sacred  tombs  have 
rendered  Kairwan  ('caravan')  the  Mecca  of 
northern  Africa.    As  such,  it  has  been  jealously 

fuarded  from  defilement  by  the  preseiice  of 
ews  and  for  the  most  part  of  Christian  trav- 
ellers ;  but  it  was  entered  and  investigated  by 
the  French  in  1881,  and  is  now  under  their  pro- 
tection. Kairwan  makes  copper  vessels,  potash, 
carpets,  and  articles  in  leatlier.  Population, 
25,000.  See  works  by  Rae  (1877),  Broadley  (1882), 
and  Boddy  (1885).  ''  '  v        " 

Kaisarleh.    See  Cesarea. 

Kaiserslautern  (Klsersloiutern),  a  town  of  the 
Bavarian  Palatinate,  52  miles  by  rail  SW.  of 
Worms.  The  chief  manufactures  are  tissues, 
yarn,  sewing  and  other  machines,  ultramarine, 
furniture,  beer,  bricks,  &c.  ;  and  there  are  iron- 
works, steam-sawmills,  and  railway  shops.  Pop. 
(1875)  22,699  ;  (1900)  48,300.  Frederick  I.  built 
a  castle  here  in  1152  (destroyed  by  the  French  in 


1713);  and  near  by  the  French  republican  armies 
were  defeated  in  1793  and  1794, 

Kaiserswerth,  a  Prussir.n  town  (pop.  2388)  on 
the  Rhine,  10  miles  below  Dilsseldorf.  Here  is 
Pastor  Fliedner's  deaconesses'  house. 

Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land.    See  New  Guinea. 

Kaithal,  an  ancient  town  in  the  Punjab,  India, 
93  miles  NNW.  from  Delhi.  It  has  saltpetre- 
refineries,  and  manufactures  lac  ornaments  and 
toys.     It  became  British  in  1843.     Pop.  14,754. 

Kalaha'ri  Desert,  a  vast  tract  of  South  Africa, 
extending  600  miles  from  the  Gariep  or  Orange 
River  northwards  to  21°  S.  lat.,  with  an  average 
breadth  of  about  350  miles.  The  so-called  desert 
is  an  elevated  basin,  3000  to  4000  feet  high,  with 
numerous  depressions,  and  bordered  in  most 
parts  by  a  wide  belt  of  sandy  waterless  country. 
But  the  rainfall  in  the  interior  is  sufficient  to 
nourish  a  fair  amount  of  vegetation.  Many  parts 
are  thickly  covered  with  high,  thorny  bushes, 
which  harbour  game.  The  inhabitants,  called 
Bakalahari,  keep  cattle  and  grow  corn,  and  live 
by  these  and  by  the  chase  ;  wandering  Bushmen 
are  also  found  in  the  'desert.'  See  Farini, 
Across  the  Kalahari  Desert  (1886). 

Kalamata,  or  Kalam^,  a  seaport  in  the  Greek 
Peloponnesus,  on  the  Gulf  of  Koron,  is  the  seat 
of  an  archbishop.    Pop.  14,300. 

Kalamazoo',  capital  of  Kalamazoo  county, 
Michigan,  on  a  river  of  the  same  name,  144  miles 
by  rail  BNB.  of  Chicago.  An  important  railway 
junction,  it  is  the  seat  of  the  state  insane  asylum 
and  of  Kalamazoo  College  (Baptist),  and  manufac- 
tures machinery,  paper,  flour,  carriages,  wind- 
mills, agricultural  tools,  furniture,  &c.  Pop. 
25,000. 

Kalbe,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the 
Saale,  17  miles  S.  of  Magdeburg.     Pop.  12,300. 

Kale,  a  Roxburghshire  stream,  running  20 
miles  to  the  Teviot,  4^  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Kelso. 

Kalgan,  a  Chinese  town,  110  miles  NW.  of 
Peking,  opposite  the  passage  through  the  Great 
Wall,  is  a  chief  emporium  of  the  Chinese  tea  trade 
with  Mongolia  and  Siberia.     Pop.  70,000. 

Kalgoorlie,  now  third  in  population  of  Western 
Australian  towns  (after  Perth  and  Freinantle),  is 
350  miles  BNB.  of  Perth  and  25  NB.  of  Coolgardie 
by  a  railway  opened  in  1896,  in  the  centre  of  a 
rich  gold-field  employing  15,000  miners.  The 
rush  hither  began  in  1893  ;  the  water  difficulty, 
for  a  time  formidable,  was  satisfactorily  sur- 
mounted in  1896.  Pop.  7200.  Originally  the 
place  was  called  Han  nan's. 

Kalinjar,  an  Indian  fortress  and  shrine  on 
an  isolated  rock  (1230  feet  high),  a  spur  of  the 
Vindhya  Mountains,  overlooking  the  plains. 

Kalisz,  capital  of  a  government  (area,  4390 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  850,000)  in  Russian  Poland,  132 
miles  WSW.  of  Warsaw.     Pop.  22,750. 

Kalmar,  a  seaport  of  Sweden,  capital  of  a  Ian 
or  county  (area,  4436  sq.  m. ;  pop.  231,396),  on  an 
island  in  Kalmar  Sound,  opposite  the  island  of 
Oland.  It  has  a  good  harbour,  a  handsome 
cathedral,  and  a  castle,  in  which,  on  20th  July 
1397,  was  signed  the  'Union  of  Kalmar.'  The 
manufactures  include  matches,  chicory,  and 
tobacco,  and  some  shipbuilding.  Population, 
12,720. 

Kalna,  or  Culna,  a  town  of  Bengal,  47  miles 
N.  of  Calcutta  and  28  B.  of  Bardwan,  on  the 
Bhagirathi  (Hooghly).    Pop.  10,463. 


EALOCSA 


379 


KANDY 


I 


Kalocsa,  a  town  of  Hungary,  near  the  Danube, 
86  miles  S.  of  Budapest  by  rail.  It  has  a  cathedral, 
archbishop's  palace,  and  observatory.  Pop.  12,789. 

Kalpi,  a  town  in  the  North-western  Provinces 
of  India,  stands  ainong  rugged  ravines  near  the 
bank  of  the  Jumna,  50  miles  SW.  of  Cawnpore. 
Here  on  23d  May  1858  Sir  Hugh  Rose  defeated 
12,000  mutineers.    Pop.  14,306. 

Kalu'ga,  chief  town  of  a  Russfan  government, 
76  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Tula  and  188  SSW.  of 
Moscow.  It  has  a  large  trade.  Pop.  50,610. 
Area  of  government,  11,942  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,244,018. 

Kama,  the  principal  affluent  of  the  Volga,  rises 
in  the  Russian  government  of  Vyatka,  and  joins 
the  Volga  43  miles  below  Kazan.  The  Kama  is 
navigable  from  Perm  (930  miles).  It  is  free  of  ice 
about  200  days  in  the  year,  and  is  one  of  the  great 
highways  of  communication  between  Siberia  and 
Ni.jni  Novgorod  and  St  Petersburg. 

Kamakura,  a  coast  village  of  Japan,  12  miles 
S.  of  Yokohama.  It  dates  from  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, and  Avas  the  capital  of  the  Shoguiiate  for 
400  years,  but  is  now  only  of  interest  to  tourists 
for  its  beauties  and  its  famous  bronze  image  of 
Buddha,  the  Dai-butsu,  50  feet  high. 

Kama'ran,  a  little  island  in  the  Red  Sea,  on 
the  Arabian  side,  nearly  opposite  Massowah,  with 
an  area  of  102  sq.  m.,  and  inhabited  by  a  few 
fishermen.     It  was  annexed  by  Britain  in  1858. 

Kambakonam.    See  Combakonum. 

Kamchatka  (Kam-tchatfka  ;  Ger.  Kamtschatka), 
a  peninsula  of  eastern  Siberia,  stretches  S.  into 
the  Pacific  between  Behring  Sea  on  the  B.  and 
the  Sea  of  Okhotsk.  Area,  465,590  sq.  m.  The 
peninsula  is  long  and  narroAV,  terminating  in  a 
point  only  7  miles  distant  from  the  northernmost 
of  the  Kurile  Islands.  A  chain  of  volcanic  moun- 
tains runs  down  the  centre,  and  reaches  15,408 
feet  in  Kojerevska  and  16,988  in  Kluchefskaya  (in 
eruption  in  1854  and  1885).  Hot  springs  abound. 
The  coast  on  the  south-east  is  formed  of  rugged, 
precipitous  cliffs.  The  principal  river  is  the  Kam- 
chatka, which  flows  into  the  Pacific.  The  climate 
is  colder  than  in  corresponding  latitudes  in  Europe, 
and  very  humid ;  grass  and  tree  vegetation  are  con- 
sequently luxuriant.  The  principal  occupations 
of  the  inhabitants  are  fishing  and  hunting.  Kam- 
chatka was  annexed  to  Russia  at  the  end  of  the 
17th  century.  Pop.  6500,  made  up  of  Kamcha- 
dales,  Koryaks,  Lamuts,  and  a  few  Russians. 
The  fort  of  Petropaulovsk  (pop.  350),  with  a 
magnificent  harbour  covered  with  ice  only  a  brief 
period  of  the  year,  is  situated  on  the  east  coast. 
See  works  by  Kennan  (5th  ed.  New  York  1879) 
and  Guillemard  (2  vols.  1887). 

Kamenetz-Podolsk  (Polish  Kamieniec),  capital 
of  the  Russian  government  of  Podolia,  near  the 
frontier  of  Austrian  Galicia,  on  a  steep  rock  above 
an  afiluent  of  the  Dniester,  243  miles  NW.  of 
Odessa.  There  are  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral 
(1361),  a  Greek  cathedral  (16th  century),  and  an 
Armenian  church.     Pop.  36,630. 

Kamenz,  a  small  manufacturing  town  of 
Saxony,  22  miles  NE.  of  Dresden  by  rail.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  Lessing.    Pop.  9211. 

Kameruii.    See  Gamekoons. 

Karnes,  (l)  a  Berwickshire  mansion,  6  miles  E. 
of  Greenlaw.— (2)  A  castellated  mansion,  John 
Sterling's  birthplace,  in  Bute,  2|  miles  NNW.  of 
Rothesay. 

Kamesburgh.    See  Port  Bannatyne. 

Kamloops,  a  station  on  the  Thompson  tribu- 
tary of  the  Fraser  River,  British  Columbia,  230 
miles  NE.  of  New  Westminster. 


Kampen,  a  town  of  Holland,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Yssel,  5^  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Zwolle. 
It  was  formerly  a  Hanse  town,  and  has  partly 
recovered  since  1850  the  trade  which  left  it  as 
the  Yssel  sanded  up.  The  church  of  St  Nicholas 
is  one  of  the  finest  mediaeval  churches  in  the 
country.  Pop.  (1840)  7760;  (1900)19,700.  Kampen 
is  the  Gotham  of  the  Dutch. 

Kamschatka.    See  Kamchatka. 

Kamthi,  or  Kampti,  a  town  and  cantonment 
of  the  Central  Provinces,  India,  9  miles  NE.  of 
Nagpur,  on  the  Kanhan  River.     Pop.  40,159. 

Kamyshin,  an  important  shipping  town  of 
Russia,  on  the  Volga,  about  100  miles  below 
Saratov.     Pop.  16,000. 

Kanagawa,    See  Yokohama. 

Kanara,  North,  a  coast-district  of  Bombay, 
lies  south-east  of  Goa.  Area,  3910  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
454,230.  — South  Kanara,  immediately  south  of 
North  Kanara,  belongs  to  Madras.  Area,  3902 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,134,600.    The  capital  is  Maiigalore. 

Kanauj,  one  of  the  great  legendary  centres  of 
Aryan  civilisation  in  India,  stood  originally  on 
the  Ganges,  65  miles  NW.  of  Lucknow.  At 
present  the  site  consists  of  ruins,  extending  over 
the  area  of  five  villages,  4  miles  from  the  Ganges, 
the  river  having  altered  its  bed.  The  most 
remarkable  buildings  are  Mohammedan  mauso- 
leums. Its  )nost  prosperous  era  was  the  6th 
century;  early  in  the  11th  it  fell  before  the 
sultans  of  Ghazni.  Among  the  ruins  there  is  a 
modern  town  of  17,000  inhabitants. 

Kanawha.  See  Charleston,  and  Great 
Kanawha, 

Kanazawa,  a  town  of  Japan,  on  the  west 
coast  of  the  main  island,  NW.  from  Tokyo,  manu- 
factures porcelain  and  silk.    Pop,  100,000. 

Kanchinjanga.    See  Kinchinjinga. 

Kandahar',  or  Candahar,  the  capital  of  cen- 
tral or  southern  Afghanistan,  200  miles  SW.  of 
Kabul.  It  stands  in  32°  37'  N.  lat.  and  66°  20'  E. 
long. ,  3484  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is  in  the  form  of 
an  oblong  square,  while  all  its  streets  run  straight, 
and  cut  one  another  at  right  angles.  At  the  inter- 
section of  the  two  main  streets  there  is  a  large 
dome  (Charsu).  Pop.  variously  estimated  from 
25,000  to  100,000.  Kandahar  is  well  watered  by 
two  canals,  and  stands  amid  gardens  and  orchards. 
It  has  much  trade  with  Bombay,  Herat,  Bokhara, 
and  Samarcand.  About  2  miles  N.  rises  a  precipi- 
tous rock,  crowned  by  a  fortress.  Here,  amid  all 
the  disasters  of  1839-41,  the  British  maintained 
their  ground  under  Rawlinson.  Kandahar  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  founded  by  Alexander  the 
Great,  was  wrested  from  the  Afghans  by  the 
famous  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  (997-1030),  and  from 
then  down  to  1747  was,  with  brief  intervals  of  in- 
dependence, held  by  Genghis  Khan,  Tamerlane, 
and  by  various  rulers  of  Tartary,  India,  and 
Persia  in  turn.  In  the  war  of  1878-80  the  British 
entered  Kandahar  unopposed,  and  held  it  till 
1881,  some  months  after  they  had  evacuated  the 
rest  of  Afghanistan.  The  Sibi-Pishin  Railway 
from  the  south  has  greatly  enhanced  both  its 
political  and  its  commercial  importance. 

Kandavu,  one  of  the  Fiji  Islands  (q.v.). 

Kandy,  a  town  of  Ceylon,  on  a  beautiful  little 
lake  among  the  mountains,  74  miles  by  rail  NE. 
of  Colombo.  It  is  1665  feet  above  the  sea,  and 
has  a  mean  annual  temperature  of  76'  F.  Here 
are  ruins  of  the  palace  of  the  former  native 
kings,  and  a  temple  in  which  a  reputed  tooth 
of  Buddha  is  preserved.    Pop.  26,200. 


EANEM 


380 


EABATEGIN 


Eanem,  a  vassal  state  of  Wadai  (q.v.)  lying 
north  of  Lake  Chad. 

Kangaroo  Island,  an  island  of  South  Australia, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  St  Vincent,  is  87 
miles  by  34  broad.     Pop.  379. 

Kanizsa,  two  towns  in  Hungary.  (1)  Nagy 
(or  Great)  Kanizsa,  136  miles  by  rail  SW.  of 
Budapest.  Pop.  24,619.— <2)  Old  Kanizsa,  on  the 
Theiss,  15  miles  SSW.  of  Szegedin.    Pop.  16,069. 

Kankakee',  capital  of  Kankakee  county,  Illi- 
nois, on  Kankakee  River,  56  miles  SSW.  of  Chicago, 
with  factories  and  foundries.    Pop.  13,600. 

Kano',  a  town  and  sultanate  in  Hausaland, 
Northern  Nigeria,  250  miles  SSE.  of  the  city  of 
Sokoto.     Pop.  100,000. 

Kansas,  the  central  state  of  the  American 
Union,  and  the  eighth  in  area,  is  bounded  N.  by 
Nebraska,  E.  by  Missouri,  S.  by  Indian  Territory, 
and  W.  by  Colorado.  It  is  about  400  miles  from 
east  to  west,  and  200  from  north  to  south,  and 
contains  an  area  of  82,080  sq.  m.  The  surface 
is  for  the  most  part  a  rolling  prairie,  rising  from 
800  feet  in  the  east  to  between  3000  and  4000 
feet  in  the  north-west.  Kansas  has  no  navigable 
river  except  the  Missouri,  which  forms  part  of  its 
eastern  boundary.  The  Kansas  or  Kaw  (300  miles) 
drains  nearly  half  the  state,  and  the  Arkansas 
drains  another  large  portion.  The  climate  is 
subject  to  extremes  of  temperature.  A  record 
of  106°  F.  above  zero  has  been  observed ;  but 
the  mercury  rarely  falls  below  zero.  The  mean 
annual  rainfall  is  37-10  inches ;  but  in  the 
west  the  supply  is  scanty,  and  in  the  upper 
Arkansas  valley  irrigation  has  been  introduced. 
The  minerals  of  Kansas  include  lead  and  zinc, 
excellent  coal,  lignite,  rock-salt,  mineral  paint, 
gypsum,  good  building-stones,  brick-clay,  and 
material  for  hydraulic  cement.  Kansas  is  an 
agricultural  and  pastoral  state,  wheat,  maize,  and 
oats  being  the  chief  crops.  Horticulture  has 
steadily  extended,  and  the  growing  of  sorghum 
cane  for  sugar.  Great  quantities  of  prairie  hay 
are  cut ;  and  thousands  of  acres  of  planted  timber 
now  break  the  surface  of  the  prairie.  Creameries 
are  numerous,  and  more  attention  is  given  to 
the  raising  of  stock.  Of  the  manufacturing 
industries  the  most  important  is  beef  and  pork 
packing  (mainly  at  Kansas  City),  flour-milling, 
found  ry-Avork,  and  the  manufacture  of  stoves 
and  agricultural  imi)lements.  The  suffrage  pro- 
visions allow  women  to  vote  at  school  and  muni- 
cipal elections  ;  and  there  is  a  prohibitory  liquor 
law.  The  state  university  is  at  Lawrence ;  an 
agricultural  college  at  Manhattan  ;  and  a  normal 
school  at  Emporia.  The  name  is  derived  from 
the  Kaw  or  Kansas  Indians.  The  state,  mostly  ac- 
quired in  the  Louisiana  purchase,  was  organised  as 
a  territory  in  1854,  and  at  once  became  the  battle- 
ground between  the  partisans  of  slavery  and  free- 
dom. The  Federal  administration  sided  with  the 
pro-slavery  party.  John  Brown  took  part  in  the 
civil  war  which  prevailed,  and  many  fights  that 
were  almost  battles  took  place.  The  Free  State 
party  was  steadily  reinforced  from  the  north,  and 
after  several  futile  endeavours  the  Wyandotte  con- 
stitution was  finally  adopted  in  1859,  and  in  1861 
Kansas  was  admitted  as  a  non-slaveholding  state 
of  the  Union.  Pop.  (1860)107,206;  (1900)1,470,495. 
The  largest  cities  are  Kansas  City  (q.v.),  Topeka, 
the  capital  (33,650),  and  Wicliita  (24,700);  next 
come  Leavenworth,  Atchison,  and  Fort  Scott. 

Kansas  City,  the  second  city  of  Missouri,  and 
one  of  the  great  towns  of  the  west,  is  situated 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Missouri  (here  crossed 


by  a  fine  railway  bridge),  where  the  river  makes 
a  sharp  bend  to  the  east,  283  miles  by  rail  W. 
by  N.  of  St  Louis.  Great  part  of  the  city  is 
built  upon  a  series  of  steep  hills.  The  state 
frontier-line  bounds  the  city  on  the  west,  and 
consequently  a  large  suburb  on  this  side,  also 
called  Kansas  City,  is  in  the  adjoining  state  of 
Kansas.  This  suburb,  connected  with  Kansas 
City  by  a  remarkable  elevated  railway,  has  a 
pop.  of  51,316,  and  contains  great  stock-yards 
and  pork-packing  establishments.  The  larger 
Missouri  town  possesses  numerous  fine  streets, 
and  handsome  residences  on  the  hills.  Its  public 
edifices  include  a  fine  United  States  court-house 
and  the  imposing  building  of  the  Board  of  Trade ; 
there  are  two  medical  colleges  here.  The  city  is 
the  terminus  of  a  number  of  important  railways, 
and  is  a  principal  distributing  centre  for  the  rich 
agricultural  region  to  the  south  and  west.  There 
are  great  grain-elevators  and  stock-yards,  and 
pork-packing  is  a  principal  industry ;  while  the 
manufactories  turn  out  railroad  iron  and  car- 
wheels,  shot,  flour,  beer,  butterine,  soap,  fur- 
niture, &c.  Pop.  (1860)  4418;  (1870)  32,260; 
(1880)  55,785  ;   (1900)  163,752. 

Kan-su',  the  north-west  province  of  China. 

Kanturk,  a  market-town,  24  miles  NW.  of 
Cork.     Pop.  1539. 

KappeL    See  Cappel. 

Kara,  a  gold-mining  district  in  eastern  Siberia, 
300  miles  from  Chita  and  nearly  5000  from  St 
Petersburg.  The  mines  are  the  czar's  private 
property,  and  are  worked  by  2000  convicts. 

Karachi.    See  Kurrachee. 

Karagwe,  a  territory  between  the  east  coast 
of  Africa  and  the  Victoria  Nyanza,  divided  be- 
tween German  and  British  East  Africa. 

Kara-hissar.    See  Afium-Kara-Hissae. 

Kara-kol.    See  Bokhara. 

Karakorum,  (1)  a  name  given,  but  according 
to  the  best  geographers  erroneously,  to  the  Muz- 
tagh  range,  in  the  western  Himalayas ;  some- 
times also  it  is  given,  again  erroneously,  to  the 
Kuen-Lun  range  on  the  north  of  Tibet.  The 
Mustagh  or  Muztagh  range  is  that  part  of  the 
Himalayas  which  lies  to  the  west  of  the  Indus 
and  extends  as  far  as  the  head  of  the  Gilgit 
Valley.  It  embraces  some  of  the  loftiest  peaks 
of  the  Himalayan  system,  Dapsang  being  28,700 
feet  high.— (2)  The  name  is  properly  appropriate 
to  a  pass  (18,550  feet),  the  culminating  point  of 
the  route  between  India  and  East  Turkestan,  in 
35°  33'  N.  lat.  and  north  from  Leh.— (3)  Kara- 
korum is  also  used  to  indicate  the  ruined  Mon- 
golian capital,  to  the  north  of  the  desert  of  Gobi, 
on  the  Orkhon,  a  tributary  of  the  Selenga  River. 

Kara-kuin.    See  Kizil-kum. 

Karaman.    See  Caramania. 

Karamnasa,  a  river  of  Bengal,  rises  in  24° 
34'  N.  lat.  and  83°  41'  E.  long.,  and,  after  a 
course  of  146  miles— for  some  distance  along  the 
boundary  between  Bengal  and  the  North-western 
Provinces— enters  the  Ganges  from  the  right. 
The  Hindus  hold  it  in  religious  abhorrence. 

Kara  Sea,  the  portion  of  the  Arctic  Ocean 
lying  between  Nova  Zembla  and  the  Yalmal 
Peninsula.  Some  trade  with  western  Europe 
now  passes  over  the  Kara  Sea  in  summer  to  and 
from  the  rivers  Obi  and  Yenisei. 

Karategin,  the  easternmost  province  of  Bok- 
hara, a  highland  region  (6000-7000  feet),  traversed 
by  a  tributary  of  the  Amu-Daria.  Area,  8310 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  100,000. 


KARAULI 


381 


KATHIAWAR 


Earauli  (Kerowlee),  a  hilly,  well-timbered 
native  state  in  Rajputana,  separated  by  the  river 
Chaiiibal  from  Gwalior.  Area,  1229  sq.  m.  ;  pop, 
156,587.— The  capital,  Karauli,  is  75  miles  NW. 
of  Gwalior.    Pop.  25,124. 

Karczag,  a  town  of  Hungary,  99  miles  by  rail 
E.  by  S.  of  Budapest.     Pop.  25,825. 

Karelia,  an  old  name  for  the  south-east  part 
of  Finland,  annexed  to  Russia  in  1721. 

Karikal,  the  second  in  importance  of  the 
French  possessions  in  India,  is  on  the  Coro- 
mandel  coast,  12  miles  N.  of  Negapatam,  and 
has  an  area  of  nearly  53  sq.  m.  The  pleasant 
capital  (pop.  34,719),  about  a  mile  from  the  sea, 
was  four  times  taken  by  the  British.  There  is 
an  active  trade  in  rice.    Pop.  70,526. 

Karll,  a  place  with  a  famous  sculptured  cave- 
temple,  126  feet  long  and  45  feet  high,  40  miles 
NW.  of  Poona  by  rail. 

Karlsbad.  For  Karlsbad,  Karlskrona,  Karls- 
ruhe, &c.,  see  Carlsbad,  &c. 

Karlsburg  (Hung.  Gyula-FeMrvdr),  a  town  and 
fortress  of  Transylvania,  near  the  Maros,  170 
miles  E.  of  Szegedin  by  rail.     Pop.  9388. 

Karluk,  a  place  in  Alaska,  with  the  greatest 
salmon  cannery  in  the  world. 

Karnac.    See  Thebes. 

Karnal,  a  town  of  the  Punjab,  7  miles  W.  of 
the  Jumna's  present  course,  and  on  the  western 
Jumna  Canal.     Pop.  24,963. 

Karnthen.    See  Carinthia. 

Karnul,  a  town  in  Madras  Presidency,  110 
miles  S.  by  W.  of  Hyderabad.     Pop.  25,376. 

Karroo,  a  generic  name  given  to  the  high 
plains  of  Cape  Colony;  especially  the  Great 
Karroo,  the  elevated  basin,  more  than  3000  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  350  miles  long  by  70  to  80 
wide,  which  lies  between  the  Nieuweveld  Berge 
on  the  north  and  the  Zwarte  Berge  on  the  south. 

Kars,  a  fortress  of  Russian  Armenia,  110  miles 
NE.  of  Erzerum.  It  is  situated  on  a  tableland 
over  6000  feet  above  the  sea;  the  climate  is 
therefore  rather  severe.  Pop.  20,900,  mostly  Ar- 
menians. Kars,  long  a  bulwark  of  the  Ottoman 
empire  in  Asia,  was  taken  by  the  Russians  in 
1828,  resisted  them  for  six  months  in  1855,  and 
was  stormed  by  them  in  1877.  It  was  ceded  to 
Russia  by  the  Berlin  Congress  in  1878,  and  its 
fortifications  have  been  since  augmented. 

Karshl,  a  town  of  Bokhara,  95  miles  SE.  of 
Bokhara  city  and  80  SW.  of  Samarcand.  It  is 
of  great  importance  in  the  transit  trade  between 
Bokhara,  Kabul,  and  India  ;  and  its  knives  and 
firearms  are  famed.    Pop.  25,000. 

Karst.    See  Croatia. 

Kartum.    See  Khartoum. 

Karun  River,  the  sole  navigable  river  of  Persia, 
rising  in  the  Zardah  Koh  Mountains,  near  Ispa- 
han, flows  west  through  gorges  of  the  Bakhtiari 
Range  to  Shuster,  where  it  becomes  navigable. 
At  Ahwaz  a  reach  of  rapids  and  broken  water 
bars  the  course  of  vessels  to  the  Lower  Kanin  ; 
and  here  since  1890  a  tramway  has  been  con- 
structed. Below  Ahwaz  the  river  is  300  to  500 
yards  wide,  and  flows  for  117  miles  without  an 
obstacle  through  a  country  naturally  rich  and 
fertile.  Mohammerah  lies  at  the  Karun  junction 
with  the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris 
(Shat-el-Arab).  In  1842  Lieutenant  Selby  ascended 
the  Kdrun  to  Shuster;  but  it  was  not  till  1888 
that  the  navigation  was  thrown  open.  See  W.  F. 
Ainsworth,  The  River  Kdriln  (1890). 


Kasal.    See  Congo. 

Kasanllk,  a  town  of  Eastern  Roumelia,  at  the 
Balkans'  base,  5  miles  from  the  southern  end  of 
the  Sliipka  Pass,  and  87  NW.  of  Adrianople.  It 
manufactures  otto  of  roses.    Pop.  10,000. 

Kaschau  (Kd-shov/ ;  Hung.  Kassa),  one  of  the 
handsomest  towns  of  Hungary,  in  the  beautiful 
valley  of  the  Hernad,  130  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Budapest.  It  has  a  cathedral  (1270-1468),  the 
finest  Gothic  edifice  in  Hungary,  and  manufac- 
tures tobacco,  stoneware,  furniture,  starch,  nails, 
and  paper.  Of  the  Jesuit  university  (1659)  only 
the  law  academy  remains.     Pop.  87,500. 

Kashan,  a  flourishing  town  of  Persia,  3690  fe^t 
above  sea-level,  and  92  miles  N.  of  Ispahan.  It 
manufactures  silk-stuffs,  gold  brocade,  glazed 
tiles,  carpets,  and  copper- wares.    Pop.  30,000. 

Kashgar,  the  political  capital  of  Eastern  or 
Chinese  Turkestan,  and,  next  to  Yarkand,  the 
second  place  of  importance.  The  town  and  dis- 
trict have  a  pop.  of  120,000.  The  old  city  is  a 
small  fortified  place  overlooking  the  Kizil  River, 
separating  it  from  the  new  city,  in  which  stands 
the  palace  of  the  Chinese  governor  of  the  prov- 
ince, as  well  as  the  Mosque  (Juma  Mesjid).  The 
people  excel  in  certain  branches  of  industry,  as 
the  making  of  cottons,  silks,  carpets,  saddlery, 
&c.,  and  carry  on  trade,  chiefly  with  Russia. 
Kashgar,  the  centre  of  Mohammedan  learning  in 
eastern  Turkestan,  is  besides  a  famous  pilgrimage 
place.  In  1758  the  Chinese  seized  Kashgar,  and 
with  short  interruption  it  has  remained  in  their 
power.  A  successful  rebellion  was  that  of  Yakub 
Kushbeghi  (1864-77),  but  since  the  country  was 
retaken  by  the  Chinese,  Kashgar  has  been  left  to 
the  influence  of  Russia.  See  Colonel  Kuropatkin's 
Kashgaria  (Eng.  trans.  1883). 

Kashkar.    See  Chitral. 

Kashmir.    See  Cashmere. 

Kaskaskia,  a  river  of  Illinois,  flowing  nearly 
300  miles  SW.  to  the  Mississippi  at  Chester.  On 
its  right  bank,  a  few  miles  from  the  mouth,  is 
Kaskaskia  village,  the  first  capital  of  Illinois. 

Kassal.    See  Congo. 

Kas'sala,  a  fortified  town  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Atbara,  260  miles  S.  of  Suakin.    Pop.  10,000. 

Kassas'sin,  a  lock  on  the  canal  between 
Ismailia  and  Zagazig,  in  Egypt,  21  miles  W.  of 
Ismailia.  In  the  Egyptian  campaign  of  1882  it 
was  the  scene  of  a  sharp  action  on  the  evening  of 
August  28,  in  which  Arabi's  forces  were  com- 
pletely routed,  principally  by  the  British  cavalry. 

Kassel.    See  Cassel. 

Kastamu'ni,  capital  of  a  province  in  Asia 
Minor,  76  miles  SW.  of  Sinope.  It  manufactures 
cotton  goods,  leather,  &c.  Here  is  the  ancestral 
castle  of  the  Comneni,  '  Kastamuni '  being  a  cor- 
ruption of  'Castra  Comneni.'    Pop.  20,000. 

Kasvin.    See  Kazvin. 

Katahdin,  the  highest  mountain  in  the  state 
of  Maine,  5385  feet  high. 

Katanga,  a  town  and  district  in  the  very  heart 
of  Africa,  between  two  head-streams  of  the  Congo 
—below  the  Luapula  issuing  from  Lake  Bang- 
weolo,  and  passing  on  through  Lake  Moero,  and 
a  more  westerly  Lualaba,  passing  through  a  chain 
of  lakes.  Other  names  belonging  to  the  adjoin- 
ing territories  are  Msiri's  country,  Kasongo,  &c. 
—all  in  the  sphere  of  the  Congo  Independent 
State. 

Kathiawar,  or  Strashtra,  a  peninsula  on  the 
west  coast  of  India,  lying  between  the  Gulf  of 


KATMANDHU 


EEI  ISLANDS 


Cambay  and  the  Gulf  of  Cutch.  Politically,  the 
name  Kathiawar  Agency  (formed  in  1822)  is  given 
to  a  collection  of  187  states,  some  indei)endent, 
some  tributary  to  native  princes,  and  some  (105) 
tributary  to  the  British  government  in  India. 
Area  of  agency,  20,559  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1901) 
2,327,500. 

Katmandhu.    See  Khatmandtj. 

Kat'rine,  Loch,  one  of  the  most  celebrated  of 
Scottish  lakes,  in  Stirling  and  Perth  shires,  5 
miles  E.  of  Loch  Lomond  and  9^  W.  of  Callander. 
Lying  364  feet  above  sea-level,  it  curves  8  miles 
east-south-eastward,  is  nowhere  quite  a  mile 
broad,  and  has  a  maximum  depth  of  468  feet,  and 
an  area  of  3119  acres.  It  discharges  through 
Lochs  Achray  and  Vennachar,  to  the  Teith ; 
and  since  1859  has  supplied  Glasgow  with  water. 
Huge  Ben  venue  (2393  feet)  and  Ben  A'an  (1500) 
rise  steeply  at  its  lower  end,  whose  shores  are 
beautifully  wooded,  with  the  mountain  defile  of 
the  Trossachs  beyond.  Scott  was  often  here 
during  1790-1809,  as  also  in  1805  was  Wordsworth 
with  his  sister  Dorothy. 

Kat  River,  a  branch  of  the  Great  Fish  River, 
in  the  Cape  Colony,  rising  in  the  Didimaberg. 

Kattowitz,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  105 
miles  SE.  of  Breslau.  It  has  manufactures  and 
coal-mines.    Pop.  81,750. 

Katzbach,  a  river  of  Prussian  Silesia,  which 
falls  into  the  Oder  at  Parchwitz.  On  its  banks, 
near  Liegnitz,  on  26th  August  1813,  the  French 
were  defeated  by  the  Prussians  and  Russians. 

Kaub.    See  Caub. 

Kava.    See  Ava. 

Ka'veri,  or  Cauvery,  a  river  of  southern  India, 
rises  in  the  Western  Ghats,  and  flows  475  miles 
south-east  across  Mysore  and  Madras,  to  the  Bay 
of  Bengal,  which  it  enters  through  two  principal 
mouths.  The  Kaveri  is  of  no  value  for  naviga- 
tion, its  bed  being  rocky,  with  numerous  rapids 
and  falls— as  those  at  the  island  of  Sivasamudram, 
in  Mysore,  famous  for  their  romantic  beauty„ 
Other  islands  formed  by  it  are  Seringapatam, 
in  Mysore,  and  Sriringam,  just  above  the  delta. 
It  is  important  for  irrigation  in  Mysore  and 
Coimbatore,  but  especially  in  the  marvellous 
fertile  delta.  For  this  purpose  the  main  stream 
has  been  dammed  since  the  4th  century  a.d.,  the 
Coleroon  (the  northern  branch)  since  1838. 

Kayes,  or  Khayes,  a  town  of  the  French 
Soudan,  on  the  river  Senegal,  with  a  railway  of 
94  miles  to  Bafoulabe.    Pop.  10,000. 

Kazan,  capital  of  the  Russian  government  of 
Kazan,  and  in  the  15th  century  capital  of  the  Mon- 
gol kingdom  of  the  Golden  Horde,  stands  3  miles 
from  the  Volga's  north  bank,  and  200  miles  E.  by 
S.  of  Nijni-Novgorod.  In  1552  the  Russians, 
under  Ivan  the  Terrible,  stormed  the  town,  and 
put  an  end  to  the  Mongol  kingdom.  The  kremlin 
or  fortress  embraces  within  its  walls  the  archi- 
episcopal  cathedral  (1562),  a  magnificent  monas- 
tery (1579),  an  arsenal,  &c. ;  the  red  brick  Sumbek 
Tower  is  an  object  of  veneration  to  the  Tartars. 
The  university,  founded  in  1804,  has  four  faculties, 
nearly  1000  students,  a  library  of  80,000  vols.,  an 
observatory,  &c.  The  principal  objects  of  in- 
dustry are  leather,  soap  (made  from  mare's  milk), 
candles,  gunpowder,  books,  hempen  goods, 
cotton,  &c.  Close  by  are  the  shipbuilding-yards 
in  which  Peter  the  Great  built  his  Caspian  fleet. 
The  Tartar  merchants  of  Kazan  trade  as  far  as 
Bokhara  and  Persia  on  the  one  side  and  as  Asia 
Minor  on  the  otlier.  Pop.  (1871)  80,000;  (1905) 
150,000.    The  town  has  suffered  severely  ttom  fire 


more  than  a  dozen  times,  especially  in  1774,  1815, 
and  1825. 

Kazbek,  or  Casbeck.    See  Caucasus. 

Kazvin,  or  Casbin,  a  town  of  Persia,  95  miles 
NW.  of  Teheran.  It  manufactures  brocade, 
velvet,  cotton,  and  iron-ware,  and  has  obtained  a 
new  commercial  importance  through  the  opening 
of  the  Transcaucasian  Railway.    Pop.  40,000. 

Keady,  a  market-town,  8  miles  SW.  of  Armagh. 
Pop.  1466. 

Kearney,  a  town  of  Nebraska,  on  the  Platte 
River,  196  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Omaha.  It 
manufactures  flour,  ploughs,  wagons,  furniture, 
&c.     Pop.  5640.  ■ 

Kearsarge,  a  mountain  of  New  Hampshire,  22 
miles  NW.  of  Concord,  and  2950  feet  high. 

Kearsley,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  4  miles  SE.  of 
Bolton,  with  neighbouring  coal-mines  and  paper- 
mills.     Pop.  9260. 

Kecskemet,  a  town  of  Hungary,  55  miles  by 
rail  SE.  of  Budapest.    Pop.  57,500. 

Keeling  (or  Cocos)  Islands,  a  group  of  more 
than  a  dozen  coral  atolls  in  the  Indian  Ocean, 
500  miles  SW.  of  Java,  attached  since  1886  to 
the  Straits  Settlements.  They  are  covered  with 
cocoa-nut  palms,  Avhence  oil  is  extracted,  and 
are  inhabited  by  about  400  Malays,  but  owned  by 
a  Scotsman  named  Ross.  These  islands  were 
discovered  by  Captain  Keeling  in  1609  and  were 
visited  by  Darwin  in  1836. 

Keen,  Mount,  a  conical  Grampian  summit 
(3077  feet),  7  miles  SSE.  of  Ballater. 

Keene,  a  pretty  town  of  New  Hampshire,  the 
capital  of  Cheshire  county,  on  the  Asliuelot  River, 
92  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Boston.    Pop.  9446. 

Keewa'tin,  part  of  the  country  lying  north  of 
Manitoba.  It  is  nominally  administered  by  the 
lieutenant-governor  of  Manitoba,  but  is  nearly 
uninhabited,  except  by  Eskimos  in  the  north. 
It  embraces  the  northern  part  of  Lake  Winnipeg, 
and  includes  the  mouth  of  the  Saskatchewan 
River,  which  is  navigable,  except  for  a  short 
distance,  for  nearly  1000  miles.  The  Nelson  and 
Churchill  rivers  also  pass  through  Keewatin ; 
and  Chesterfield  Inlet,  on  the  west  side  of  Hudson 
Bay,  penetrates  nearly  to  its  western  boundary. 

Kef,  El,  a  walled  town  of  Tunis,  95  miles  SW. 
of  the  capital,  with  a  ruined  temple,  thermae,  and 
cisterns  of  Roman  construction.    Pop.  4000. 

Kegworth,  a  Leicestershire  town,  6  miles 
NNW.  of  Loughborough.    Pop.  of  parish,  2149. 

Kehl.    See  Strasburg. 

Keig,  an  Aberdeenshire  parish,  29  miles  WNW. 
of  Aberdeen,  the  birth  and  burial  place  of  Pro- 
fessor W.  Robertson  Smith. 

Keighley  (Keethley),  a  market  and  'manufac- 
turing town  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
on  the  Aire,  amid  the  moorland  scenery  of  the 
Brontes'  country,  9  miles  NW.  of  Bradford  and 
17  WNW.  of  Leeds.  It  has  a  parish  church 
(rebuilt  1848),  a  Gothic  mechanics'  institute  (1870- 
87),  the  Drake  trade  school  (1713 ;  rebuilt  1860), 
extensive  water-works  (1876),  two  public  parks  of 
9  and  15  acres  gifted  in  1887-88  by  the  Duke  of 
Devonshire  and  Mr  J.  Lund,  and  important  manu- 
factures of  worsted  and  woollen  goods,  worsted- 
spinning  machinery,  and  sewing  and  washing 
machines.  Keighley  was  constituted  a  municipal 
borough  in  1882.  Pop.  (1851)  13,050 ;  (1901)  41,563. 
See  R.  Holmes,  Keighley,  Past  and  Present  (1858), 

Kei  Islands.    See  Key; 


EEIR 


383 


KENNINGTON 


Kelr,  the  seat  of  the  late  Sir  William  Stirling- 
Maxwell,  1|  mile  NW.  of  Bridge  of  Allan. 

Kei  River,  Great,  a  river  of  South  Africa, 
which  in  1848  was  made  the  boundary  between 
Cape  Colony  and  Kaffraria.    See  Transkei. 

Kelss,  a  Caithness  fishing-village,  7|  miles  N. 
by  W.  of  Wick.    Pop.  341. 

Keith,  a  town  of  Banffshire,  on  the  Isla,  18 
miles  ESE.  of  Elgin.  It  manufactures  tweeds, 
blankets,  farm  implements,  &c.  Pop.  (1851)  2101 ; 
(1891)  4622. 

Kelat  (also  Khelat  and  Kcdat),  the  capital  of 
Beluchistan,  stands  at  an  elevation  of  more  than 
7000  feet,  in  28°  52'  N.  lat.  and  66°  33'  E.  long. 
It  was  occupied  by  England  (1839-41);  and  in 
1877  a  treaty  was  concluded  with  the  khan,  by 
which  a  British  agent,  with  military  escort,  be- 
came resident.  Pop.  14,000.— Kelat-i-Ghilzai 
is  a  fortress  of  Afghanistan,  75  miles  NE.  of 
Kandahar. 

Kelati  Nadiri,  a  strong  natural  fortress  in  the 
Persian  province  of  Khorassan,  close  to  the 
Russian  frontier  of  Transcaspia. 

Kells  (anc.  Kenlis),  a  town  of  County  Meath,  on 
the  Blackwater,  26  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Drogheda. 
Interesting  antiquities  are  St  Columba  s  house,  a 
round  tower,  and  three  or  four  stone  crosses. 
Kells  was  in  807  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric, 
united  to  Meath  in  the  13th  century.  Prior  to 
the  Union  it  returned  two  members.    Pop.  2427. 

Kelmscott,  an  Oxfordshire  mansion,  on  the 
Thames,  2^  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Lechlade,  the  resi- 
dence of  the  poets  Rossetti  and  Morris. 

Kelso,  a  pleasant  market-town  of  Roxburgh- 
shire, 23  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Berwick-on- 
Tweed  and  52  (by  road  42)  SE.  of  Edinburgh.  It 
stands  on  the  north  bank  of  the  Tweed,  here 
joined  by  the  Teviot,  and  si)anned  by  Ronnie's 
noble  five-arch  bridge  (1803),  165  yards  long.  In 
1126  David  I,  translated  to  'Calchou'  a  Tiron- 
ensian  abbey,  founded  by  him  at  Selkirk  seven 
years  before.  This,  wrecked  by  the  English 
under  Hertford  in  1545,  is  now  represented  by 
the  stately  ruin  of  its  cruciform  church,  Roman- 
esque and  First  Pointed  in  style,  with  a  massive 
central  tower  91  feet  high.  Across  the  river,  on 
the  peninsula  formed  by  the  Teviot,  stood  the 
royal  castle  and  town  of  Roxburgh,  demolished 
in  1460 ;  and  1  mile  W.  is  Floors  Castle  (1718- 
1849),  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Roxburghe.  Kelso 
itself  has  a  town-hall  (1816),  corn  exchange  (1856), 
racecourse,  coach-building  and  other  industries, 
and  memories  of  the  '15,  Scott,  the  Ballantynes, 
and  Sir  William  Fairbairn.  Pop.  (1851)  4783; 
(1901)  4008.  See  works  by  Haig  (1825),  Cosmo 
Innes  (1846),  and  Rutherfurd  (1880). 

Kelung.    See  Formosa. 

Kelvin,  a  stream  flowing  21  miles  south-west- 
ward to  the  Clyde  at  Partick,  near  Glasgow. 

Kemnay,  an  Aberdeenshire  parish,  18  miles 
WNW.  of  Aberdeen,  with  great  granite-quarries. 

Kempen,  (l)  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  7 
miles  NW.  of  Krofeld.  Pop.  5952.— (2)  A  town 
in  the  Prussian  government  of  Posen,  48  miles 
by  rail  NE.  of  Breslau.    Pop.  5787. 

Kempten,  a  town  of  Bavaria,  54  miles  by  rail 
S.  by  E.  of  Ulm.  The  old  town  was  made  a  free 
town  of  the  empire  in  1289  ;  the  new  town  grew 
up  around  a  monastery  (8th  century)  founded  by 
disciples  of  St  Gall.  Cotton-spinning  and  weav- 
ing and  the  making  of  machines  and  hosiery  are 
carried  on.    Pop.  (1875)  12,682  ;  (1900)  18,860. 


Kempton  Park,  in  Middlesex,  4  miles  W.  of 
Kingston-on-Thames,  once  a  royal  residence,  is 
now  noted  for  its  race-meetings. 

Ken,  a  Kirkcudbrightshire  stream,  flowing  28J 
miles  to  the  Dee  at  Parton,  and  expanding  during 
the  last  4i  miles  of  its  course  into  Lake  Ken. 

Kendal,  or  Kirby  Kendal,  a  market-town  of 
Westmorland,  on  the  Kert,  22  miles  by  rail  N. 
of  Lancaster  and  13  SW.  of  Ambleside.  It  is  a 
gray  straggling  place,  with  an  ancient  Gothic 
church,  a  ruined  castle  (the  birthplace  of  Cath- 
arine Parr),  a  town-hall  (1828),  and  a  grammar- 
school  (rebuilt  1887).  Flemings  settled  here  in 
1337,  and  the  town  became  famous  for  its 
woollens  and  *  Kendal-green '  buckram  ;  whilst 
Pococke  in  1754  refers  to  its  '  manufacture  of  a 
sort  of  frieze  calFd  cotton,  at  8d.  a  yard,  sold 
mostly  for  the  West  Indies,  for  the  slaves.'  Now- 
adays the  industries  include  heavy  textile  fabrics, 
such  as  horse-cloths  and  railway  rugs,  besides 
leather,  snuflf,  paper,  &c.  Incorporated  as  a 
municipal  borough  in  1575,  Kendal  returned  one 
member  to  parliament  from  1832  to  1885.  Pop. 
(1851)  11,829 ;  (1901)  14,183.  See  two  works  by 
C.  Nicholson  (1832-75). 

Kenfig,  a  Swansea  (q.v.)  borough,  Glamorgan- 
shire, 6^  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Bridgend.     Pop.  380. 

Kenia,  Mount,  an  isolated  snow-capped  moun- 
tain mass  in  British  East  Africa,  about  10'  S.  of 
the  equator,  and  not  far  N.  of  Kilima-Njaro. 
The  crater  wall  rises  16,000  feet,  but  the  loftiest 
pinnacle  towers  3000  feet  higher. 

Kenilworth,  a  market-town  of  Warwickshire, 
on  a  small  sub-afiluent  of  the  Avon,  5  miles  N.  of 
Warwick  and  5  SSW.  of  Coventry.  The  castle, 
founded  about  1120  by  Geoffrey  de  Clinton,  was 
defended  for  six  months  (1265-66)  by  Simon  de 
Montfort's  son,  and  passed  by  marriage  (1359)  to 
John  of  Gaunt,  and  so  to  his  son,  Henry  IV,  It 
continued  a  crown  possession  till  in  1563  Eliza- 
beth conferred  it  on  Leicester,  who  here  in  July 
1575  entertained  her  for  eighteen  days  at  a  daily 
cost  of  £1000— that  sumptuous  entertainment 
described  in  Scott's  Kenilworth.  Dismantled  by 
the  Roundheads,  the  castle  has  belonged  since 
the  Restoration  to  the  Earls  of  Clarendon.  Its 
noble  ruins  comprise  'Caesar's  Tower,'  the  original 
Norman  keep,  with  walls  16  feet  thick ;  Mervyn's 
Tower  and  the  Great  Hall,  both  built  by  John  of 
Gaunt ;  and  the  more  recent  but  more  dilapidated 
Leicester's  Buildings.  There  is  a  fragment  also 
of  an  Augustinian  priory  (c.  1122) ;  and  the  parish 
church  has  a  good  Norman  doorway.  Tanning  is 
the  chief  industry.    Pop.  (1851)  2886  ;  (1901)  4544. 

Kenmare,  a  towji  of  Kerry,  near  the  head  of 
the  sea  inlet  called  Kenmare  River.     Pop.  1120. 

Kenmore,  a  Perthshire  village  at  the  foot  of 
Loch  Tay,  6  miles  WSW.  of  Aberfeldy. 

Kenmure  Castle,  the  Kirkcudbrightshire  seat 
of  the  Gordons  of  Lochinvar,  |  mile  S.  by  E. 
of  New  Galloway. 

Kennebec,  a  river  of  Maine,  rises  in  Moose- 
head  Lake,  and,  passing  Augusta,  runs  150  miles 
south  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean.  It  is  navigable  for 
large  vessels  to  Bath,  12  miles,  and  for  steamers 
beyond  Augusta.  It  falls  in  its  course  1000  feet, 
affording  abundant  water-power,  and  is  mostly 
closed  by  ice  for  three  to  four  months  in  the  year. 

Kennet,  a  river  of  Wilts  and  Berks,  flowing  44 
miles  eastward  to  the  Thames  at  Reading.  It 
has  good  trout-fishing. 

Kennington,  a  district  of  Lambeth  parish,  and 
a  division  of  Lambeth  pari,  borough,  London. 


KENOSHA 


384 


KENTUCKY 


Kennington  Oval,  a  little  S.  of  Vauxhall  Bridge, 
is  a  famous  cricket-ground.    Pop.  80,000. 

Kenosha,  a  town  of  Wisconsin,  U.S.,  51  miles 
by  rail  N.  by  W.  of  Chicago.    Pop.  12,700. 

Kensal  Green,  a  cemetery  on  the  NW.  of 
London,  with  the  graves  of  many  famous  men, 
including  Thackeray,  Leech,  Kemble,  Charles 
Mathews,  Tom  Hood,  and  Cardinal  Manning. 

Kensington  is,  since  1899,  a  metropolitan 
borough  of  the  county  of  Loudon.  Kensington 
Palace,  built  of  red  brick,  was  originally  the 
seat  of  Heneage  Finch,  Earl  of  Nottingham  and 
Lord  Chancellor  of  England,  from  whose  suc- 
cessor William  III.  bought  it  in  1689 :  he  and 
his  wife  Mary,  Queen  Anne  and  her  consort 
Prince  George  of  Denmark,  and  George  II.  all 
died  within  its  walls,  and  it  was  also  the  birth- 
place of  Queen  Victoria.  Kensington  Gardens, 
which  at  first  only  consisted  of  the  grounds  of  26 
acres  attached  to  the  palace,  have  been  frequently 
enlarged,  and  are  now  2J  miles  in  circuit ;  they 
are  connected  with  the  northern  part  of  Hyde 
Park  by  a  stone  bridge  over  the  Serpentine  built 
by  Rennie  in  1826.  At  their  southern  extremity 
is  the  Albert  Memorial  (1872),  designed  by  Sir 
Gilbert  Scott,  and  consisting  of  a  bronze-gilt 
seated  statue  (by  Foley)  of  the  prince,  placed 
beneath  a  gorgeous  canopy  180  feet  high,  and 
surrounded  by  works  of  sculpture  illustrating 
the  various  arts  and  sciences.  Opposite,  in 
Kensington  Gore,  is  the  Albert  Hall  (1867-71),  a 
huge  circular  building  in  the  modern  Italian 
style,  of  red  brick  with  yellow  dressings,  used 
as  a  concert-room  and  capable  of  holding  10,000 
persons ;  its  cost  was  £200,000,  and  the  interior 
measures  200  feet  by  180  feet  and  is  140  feet  high. 
Other  buildings  in  the  vicinity  are  the  South 
Kensington  Museum  (1857),  Natural  History 
Museum,  Royal  School  of  Art  Needlework, 
Royal  College  of  Music  (1883),  City  and  Guilds 
of  London  Institute  for  the  advancement  of 
technical  education  (1884),  and  Imperial  Insti- 
tute (1887-93).  The  parish  church  is  a  fine 
building  in  the  Gothic  style,  designed  by  Sir 
Gilbert  Scott  (1869),  with  a  spire  295  feet  high. 
Close  by  are  the  town-hall  (1880)  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  Pro-cathedral  (1869).  Next  to  Kensing- 
ton Palace,  the  most  interesting  building  from 
a  historical  point  of  view  is  Holland  House,  a 
quaint  mansion  in  the  Elizabethan  style,  erected 
(1607)  by  Sir  Walter  Cope,  and  the  great  resort 
of  the  Whig  politicians  at  the  commencement  of 
the  19th  century.  Campden  House,  rebuilt  in 
1862  on  its  destruction  by  fire,  is  noteworthy 
from  the  former  house,  erected  in  1612,  having 
been  the  residence,  before  her  accession,  of  Queen 
Anne.  Of  the  residences  occupied  by  Swift,  Sir 
Isaac  Newton,  Jack  Wilkes,  Wilberforce,  George 
Canning  and  his  son,  Dr  Dibdin,  Sir  David  Wilkie, 
William  Cobbett,  Mrs  Inchbald,  Count  D'Orsay, 
Talleyrand,  Lord  Macaulay,  Thackeray,  and  John 
Leech,  but  few  traces  now  remain.  The  borough 
returns  two  members  to  parliament.  It  is  a 
suffragan  bishopric  under  London.  Pop.  (1871) 
120,299  ;  (1891)  166,308  ;  (1901)  176,628. 

See  Leigh  Hunt's  An  Old  Court  Suburb  (1855), 
Loftie's  Picturesque  Kensington  (1888),  and  Marie 
Lichtenstein's  Holland  House  (1873). 

Kent,  an  important  maritime  county  in  the 
SB.  of  England,  is  bounded  by  the  estuary  of 
the  Thames,  the  Strait  of  Dover,  Sussex,  the 
English  Channel,  and  Surrey.  Its  greatest  length 
is  64  miles ;  its  greatest  breadth,  38  miles ;  and 
its  area  1624  sq.  m.,  or  1,039,419  acres.  The 
surface  is  for  the  most  part  hilly,  except  in  the 


south-east,  where  lies  a  marshy  tract,  some  14 
miles  long  by  8  broad,  and  in  the  north,  where 
a  line  of  mai'shes  skirts  the  banks  of  the  Thames 
and  Medway  ;  these  last  are  backed  by  a  succes- 
sion of  wooded  hills,  stretching  inland  and  gradu- 
ally increasing  in  height  until  they  culminate  in 
the  North  Downs,  a  chalk  range  which  traverses 
the  middle  of  the  county  from  west  to  east, 
attaining  at  Knocksholt  Beeches,  near  Sevenoaks, 
a  height  of  782  feet  above  sea-level.  Below  these 
downs  lies  the  Weald  of  Kent,  a  district  abound- 
ing in  beautiful  scenery,  and  occupying  nearly 
the  whole  southern  side  of  the  county.  Of  rivers 
in  Kent,  besides  the  Thames,  the  principal  are 
the  Medway,  Stour,  and  Darent.  The  rich 
meadows  of  the  Romney  Marsh  afford  excellent 
pasturage  for  vast  flocks  of  sheep.  All  branches 
of  agriculture  are  extensively  carried  on,  especi- 
ally market-gardening  and  the  growing  of  hops 
and  fruit.  Other  industries  are  the  manufacturs 
of  paper,  bricks,  and  gunpowder.  Large  numbers 
of  hands  are  employed  in  the  government  estab- 
lishments at  the  Woolwich  arsenal  and  the  dock- 
yards of  Chatham  and  Sheerness ;  whilst  at 
Ashford  are  the  South-Eastern  Railway,  and  at 
Whitstable  and  Faversham  are  important  oyster- 
fisheries.  Kent  is  divided  into  five  lathes,  and 
comprises  73  hundreds,  the  Cinque  Ports  of 
Dover,  Hythe,  Ronniey,  and  Sandwich,  the  cities 
of  Canterbury  and  Rochester,  and  18  municipal 
boroughs,  the  whole  containing  435  civil  parishes, 
almost  entirely  in  the  dioceses  of  Canterbury 
and  Rochester.  Maidstone  is  the  assize  town. 
Pop.  (1801)  307,624  ;  (1841)  549,353  ;  (1881)  977,706  ; 
(1901)  1,851,849,  of  whom  only  936,003  were  within 
the  '  administrative  county,'  Kent  having  given 
off  31  sq.  m.  to  the  '  county  of  London,'  formed 
under  the  Local  Government  Act  of  1888.  Kent 
includes  eight  parliamentary  divisions,  and  the 
parliamentary  boroughs  of  Canterbury,  Chatham, 
Dover,  Gravesend,  Hythe,  Maidstone,  and  Ro- 
chester, each  returning  one  member.  Th^'other 
chief  towns  are  Ramsgate,  Margate,  Folkestone, 
and  Tunbridge  Wells,  all  popular  watering-places. 

Of  its  early  inhabitants  Kent  has  numerous 
traces  in  the  shape  of  Roman  roads,  and  many 
camps  and  barrows ;  at  Aylesford  and  Hartlip 
Roman  villas  and  baths  have  been  discovered, 
and  near  the  former  place  is  a  curious  dolmen 
known  as  Kits  Coity  House.  There  are  also 
the  cathedrals  of  Canterbury  and  Rochester, 
the  Norman  fortress  of  the  latter  place,  with 
those  of  Chilham  and  Dover,  and  the  moated 
mansions  of  Hever  (the  home  of  Anne  Boleyn), 
Ightham  Mote,  and  Leeds  Castle  (where  Richard 
II.  was  imprisoned).  Amongst  Kentish  worthies 
have  been  Caxton  the  printer,  Elizabeth  Barton 
the  "^nun  of  Kent,'  Sir  Nicholas  Bacon,  Sir 
Francis  Walsingham,  Camden  the  antiquary.  Sir 
Philip  Sidney,  Harvey  the  discoverer  of  the 
circulation  of  the  blood,  the  'judicious'  Hooker, 
the  Earl  of  Chatham  and  his  son  William  Pitt, 
General  Wolfe,  Richard  Barham,  author  of  the 
Ingoldsby  Legends,  the  historians  Hallam  and 
Grote,  Charles  Dickens,  and  Gordon  Pasha.  See 
the  county  histories  of  Hasted  (4  vols.  1778-99  ; 
new  and  enlarged  ed.  1886,  &c.)  and  Dimkin 
(3  vols.  1856-58). 

Kentish  Town,  a  district  in  St  Pancras  parish, 
in  the  north  of  Lopdon. 

Kent's  Cavern,  near  Torquay,  Devonshire,  a 
prehistoric  bone-cave,  650  feet  long,  2  to  70  wide, 
and  18  high. 

Kentucky,  a  state  of  the  American  Union,  in 
the  Mississippi  Valley;  greatest  length,  E.  to 


i 


KEOKUK 


385 


KERTCH 


W.,  400  miles;  breadth,  N.  to  S.,  175  miles; 
area,  40,400  sq.  m.  The  eastern  and  south-east- 
ern parts  of  the  state  are  mountainous,  broken 
by  the  Cumberland  Mountains  (2000-3000  feet) 
and  their  offshoots ;  westward  from  this  region 
is  a  plateau  sloping  gradually  toward  the  Ohio 
and  the  Mississippi  rivers,  which  bound  the  state 
on  the  north  and  west.  Large  cypress-swamps 
still  exist  in  the  south-west.  The  Cumberland, 
Tennessee,  Licking,  and  Kentucky  rivers  rise 
among  the  mountains  in  the  east,  and  cross  the 
state  to  the  Ohio.  Southward  from  the  Ohio 
River  extends  a  semicircular  tract  of  land  of 
Silurian  formation  ;  here  the  soil  is  produced  by 
the  disintegration  of  the  fossiliferous  blue  lime- 
stone, and  in  this,  the  famous  Bhie  Grass  country, 
the  most  exhausting  crops,  such  as  tobacco  and 
hemp,  may  be  raised  continuously  for  a  series 
of  years  without  materially  impairing  the  pro- 
ductive value  of  the  soil.  A  somewhat  narrow 
belt  of  Devonian  shale  is  also  very  fertile,  and  the 
lower  strata  contain  petroleum.  The  eastern  coal- 
field (10,000  sq.  m.)  is  a  prolongation  of  the  Appa- 
lachian deposits ;  the  western  (4000  sq.  m.)  belongs 
to  the  Illinois  tract.  The  coal  is  bituminous, 
and  some  excellent  cannel  occurs.  The  iron  ores 
are  of  excellent  quality,  and  are  found  through- 
out a  district  of  20,000  sq.  m.  Galena,  building- 
stones,  and  salt  are  obtained.  Through  the  lime- 
stone formations  the  streams  have  cut  deep 
gorges,  and  in  a  region  of  about  6000  sq.  m.  much 
of  the  drainage  is  subterranean.  The  long- 
continued  erosive  action  of  the  water  has  under- 
mined a  large  part  of  this  region,  and  produced 
numerous  and  often  extensive  caverns— the 
best  known  being  the  Mammoth  Cave  (q.v.). 
Kentucky  is  densely  wooded  over  two-thirds  of 
its  area.  Notwithstanding  this  large  proportion 
of  forest  land,  it  has  always  been  one  of  the 
leading  agricultural  states  ;  it  is  the  principal 
tobacco-producing  state  in  the  union,  and  breeds 
excellent  stock  and  racehorses.  The  chief  inanu- 
facture  is  whisky ;  next  the  smelting  and  working 
of  iron.  Pop.  (1860)  1,155,684  ;  (1880)  1,648,690  ; 
(1900)  2,147,174.  Tlie  largest  cities  are  Louisville 
(205,000),  Covington  (43,000),  Lexington  (26,500), 
and  Paducah  (19,500);  the  capital  is  Frankfort 
(9500).  Numerous  remains  indicate  that  the 
moiind-builders  lived  here  ;  the  name  Kentucky, 
'  dark  and  bloody  ground,'  commemorates  the  con- 
flicts between  various  warlike  tribes.  Included 
in  the  original  grant  to  the  colony  of  Virginia, 
Kentucky  in  1790  was  made  a  territory,  and  in 
1792  a  state.  Though  a  slave-holding  state,  it 
did  not  secede  during  the  civil  war. 

Ke'okuk,  a  city  of  Iowa,  almost  at  its  south- 
east extremity,  on  the  Mississippi  River  (here 
crossed  by  a  railroad  bridge),  161  miles  by  rail 
ESB.  of  Des  Moines.  It  contains  law,  medical, 
and  commercial  colleges,  and  has  foundries,  saw 
and  flour  mills,  and  factories,  with  a  large  trade 
by  rail  and  river.  The  biggest  steamboats  could 
always  come  up  to  Keokuk,  and  the  'Des  Moines 
rapids,'  just  above,  are  now  passed  by  a  great 
canal,  11  miles  long.     Pop.  14,700. 

Ker'bela,  a  town  and  holy  place  in  Asiatic 
Turkey,  60  miles  SW.  of  Bagdad.  Pop.  65,000. 
The  pilgrims  number  at  least  200,000  annually, 
the  sanctity  of  the  place  arising  from  its  being 
built  on  the  battlefield  where  Hussein,  son  of 
Ali  and  Fatima,  p-^rished  (680),  seeking  to  main- 
tain his  claim  to  the  califate. 

Ker'guelen's  Land,  or  Desolation  Island,  of 
volcanic  origin,  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  between 
48°  39'— 49"  44'  S.  lat.  and  68°  42'— 70°  35'  E.  long.. 


is  85  miles  long  by  79  wide.  Mount  Ross  attains 
6120  feet ;  and  most  of  the  interior  is  covered 
with  an  ice-sheet  and  its  glaciers.  Numerous 
islands  and  rocks  encircle  the  coasts,  which  are 
penetrated  by  long  fjords,  that  form  good  har- 
bours. The  climate  is  raw,  and  storms  are 
nearly  constant.  The  island  was  discovered  in 
1772  by  a  Breton  sailor,  Kerguelen-Tremarec, 
and  was  visited  by  Captain  Cook  (who  christened 
it  Desolation  Island)  in  1776,  and  in  1874  by  the 
Challenger,  and  by  English,  American,  and  Ger- 
man expeditions  to  observe  the  transit  of  Venus. 
France  annexed  it  in  1893. 

Kerki,  a  town  of  central  Asia,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Amu-Daria  or  Oxus,  120  miles  S.  of  Bok- 
hara city.  An  important  place  both  commer- 
cially and  strategically,  it  was  occupied  and 
garrisoned  by  Russia  in  1887. 

Kermadec  Islands,  a  group  of  volcanic  islands 
in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  700  miles  NE.  from  Auck- 
land in  New  Zealand.  It  consists  of  four  prin- 
cipal islands— Raoul  or  Sunday  (7200  acres), 
Macaulay  (756  acres),  Curtis,  and  L'Esperance — 
and  several  smaller  islands.  Tlie  group  was 
discovered  in  1788,  annexed  by  Britain  in  1886, 
and  in  1887  declared  part  of  New  Zealand.  Pop. 
8.     See  a  work  by  S.  Percy  Smith  (1887). 

Kerman,  or  Karman  (anc.  Carmania),  one  of 
the  eastern  provinces  of  Persia,  lying  south  from 
Khorassan.  Area,  59,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  300,000. 
Kerman,  the  chief  town,  near  the  middle  of  the 
province,  in  the  central  mountain-range,  contains 
a  pop.  of  70,000.  In  1722  the  Afghans  destroyed 
it ;  in  1794  it  was  pillaged  by  Aga  Mohammed, 
and  30,000  of  the  inhabitants  made  slaves.  But 
the  chief  cause  of  the  decline  of  its  trade  was 
the  fall  of  Gombroon,  its  port,  before  the  rising 
prosperity  of  Bushire.  At  present  it  is  only 
noted  for  the  manufacture  of  the  famous  Kerman 
carpets,  felts,  and  brass  cups. 

Kermanshah  (also  KarmansJiah  and  Kirvuin- 
shahan),  a  flourishing  town  of  Persia,  capital  of 
Persian  Kurdistan,  near  the  right  bank  of  the 
river  Kerkhah.  It  manufactures  carpets  and 
weapons.    Pop.  30,000. 

Ker'rera,  an  Argyllshire  island,  screening  the 
Bay  of  Oban.  It  is  4j  miles  long,  1|  mile  wide, 
5  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  617  feet  high.  Alexander 
II.  died  here.     Pop.  99. 

Kerry,  a  maritime  county  of  SW.  Ireland,  in 
the  province  of  Munster,  is  bounded  N.  by  the 
Shannon  estuary,  and  \V.  by  the  Atlantic.  Area, 
1853  sq.  m.  or  1,185,918  acres,  of  which  less  than 
one-tenth  is  under  crops.  One-fourth  is  barren 
mountain-land,  and  more  than  11  per  cent,  bog 
and  marsh.  Maximum  length,  N.  to  S.,  67  miles ; 
maximum  width,  55  miles.  Its  coast-line,  220 
miles  long,  is  fringed  with  islands,  of  which 
the  chief  are  Valentia,  the  Blasquets,  and  the 
Skelligs ;  and  is  deeply  indented  by  Kenmare, 
Dingle,  and  Tralee  Bays.  The  principal  moun- 
tain group  is  Macgilllcuddy's  Reeks,  whose  sum- 
mit, Carran  Tual  (3414  feet),  is  the  highest  in 
Ireland.  The  rivers  are  short.  The  county  con- 
tains many  lakes,  those  of  Killarney  (q.v.)  being 
of  exquisite  beauty.  The  climate  is  mild,  but 
moist,  especially  on  the  coast.  Iron,  copper, 
and  lead  ores  abound,  but  are  not  much  worked. 
Slate  and  flagstone  are  quarried  in  Valentia.  The 
coast  fisheries  employ  nearly  2000  men  and  boys. 
Since  1885  Kerry  returns  four  members.  Pop. 
(1841)  293,880;  (1871)  196,014;  (1901)  165,331, 
nearly  all  Roman  Catholics. 

Kertch,  previous  to  being  levelled  with  the 


KESTEVEN 


386 


KHASI  AND  JAINTIA  HILLS 


ground  by  the  allies  in  1855  the  most  important 
port  of  the  Crimea,  is  situated  on  the  eastern 
shore  of  the  peninsula,  on  the  strait  of  Kaffa  or 
Yenikale,  which,  26  miles  long  and  3  to  25  wide, 
connects  the  Sea  of  Azov  with  the  Black  Sea. 
It  still  has  an  export  trade  to  the  extent  of  nearly 
£200,000  annually  in  grain,  linseed,  leather,  fish, 
and  caviare.  Kertch,  founded  in  the  middle  of 
the  6th  century  b.c.  by  Miletans,  from  1318  to 
1475  was  a  depOt  of  the  Genoese,  then  came  to 
the  Turks,  and  finally,  in  1771,  to  the  Russians. 
Pop.  with  the  neighbouring  Yenikale,  30,500. 

Kes'teven,  Thr  Parts  of,  the  south-west  divi- 
sion of  Lincolnshire. 

Keswick  (Kez'ick),  a  market-town  of  Cumber- 
land, near  the  confluence  of  the  Greta  and  the 
Derwent,  16  miles  NNW.  of  Ambleside,  and  by  a 
branch-line  (1865)  18  W.  of  Penrith  junction,  36 
SSW.  of  Carlisle.  In  its  immediate  vicinity  are 
wooded  Castle  Head  and  beautiful  Derwentwater, 
whilst  to  the  north  towers  Skiddaw  (3058  feet).  A 
great  tourist  centre,  it  is  a  pleasant  little  place, 
with  half-a-dozen  hotels,  a  good  public  library,  a 
recreation  ground,  a  town-hall  (1813),  lead-pencil 
factories,  Greta  (q.v.)  Hall,  and  a  church  (1839), 
besides  the  old  church  of  Crosthwaite  (q.v.),  f 
mile  N.     Pop.  (1851)  2618  ;  (1901)  4451. 

Keszthely,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  on  the 
western  shore  of  Lake  Balaton,  113  miles  by  rail 
SW.  of  Budapest.     Pop.  5393. 

Ket'tering,  a  market-town  (since  1227)  of 
Northamptonshire,  75  miles  NNW.  of  London 
by  rail.  The  parish  church  (1450  c.  ;  restored 
1862)  is  a  fine  Perpendicular  structure,  with  tower 
and  spire.  A  town-hall  and  corn  exchange  was 
built  in  1863 ;  and  Kettering  has  also  a  free 
grammar-school,  water-works  (1872),  and  manu- 
factures of  boots  and  shoes,  stays,  plush,  brushes, 
&c.     Pop.  of  parish  (1861)  5845  ;  (1901)  28,653. 

Kew,  a  village  in  Surrey,  6  miles  W.  of  Hyde 
Park  Corner,  and  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Thames,  which  is  here  crossed  by  a  fine  stone 
bridge  of  seven  arches,  built  1789  and  freed  1873. 
The  Royal  Botanic  Gardens  and  Arboretum  con- 
tain magnificent  collections  of  plants,  ferns,  trees, 
and  shrubs.  Established  in  1760  by  George  lll.'s 
mother,  and  made  a  national  institution  in 
1840,  the  gardens  now  extend  over  70  acres, 
and  the  arboretum  178  acres.  SW.  of  the 
gardens  is  an  observatory,  chiefly  used  as  a 
meteorological  station.  Close  to  the  northern 
entrance  is  Kew  Palace,  formerly  a  favourite 
residence  of  George  III.,  and  of  Queen  Charlotte, 
who  died  there.  In  Kew  churchyard  is  buried 
Gainsborough.  Pop.  (1801)  424 ;  (1901)  2500.  See 
Chancellor's  Richmond,  Kew,  &c.  (1894). 

Kewatln.    See  Keewatin. 
Ke'weena'W,  a  peninsula  of  Michigan,  on  Lake 
Superior,  with  famous  copper-mines. 

Keyham,  seat  of  a  naval  engineering  college, 
on  an  inlet  of  the  Hainoaze,  close  to  Devon- 
port. 

Key  or  Kei  Islands,  a  small  group  in  the  East 
Indies,  lying  S.  of  Dutch  New  Guinea  and  NE.  of 
Timor,  consists  of  Great  Key,  Little  Key,  and 
some  smaller  islets.  Total  area,  680  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
20,000,  Malays  and  Alfuros,  three-fourths  on 
Great  Key.  This  is  a  long  narrow  island,  stretch- 
ing north  to  south,  volcanic  in  origin,  and  with  a 
rocky,  hilly  surface  that  rises  to  nearly  3000  feet. 
Little  Key,  to  the  west,  is  of  coral  formation,  and 
lies  low  ;  it  is  .said  to  have  made  its  appearance 
in  the  middle  of  the  19th  century  during  an  earth- 
quake disturbance.    All  the  islands  are  covered 


with  dense  jungle,  valuable  timber  being  the 
principal  product.  Fishing  is  the  chief  occupa- 
tion ;  and  beche-de-mer  is  gathered.  The  group 
has  been  Dutch  since  1645.— Tlie  islets  of  the 
Bahama  group  in  North  America  are  called  gener- 
ally keys  or  cays  (Span.  '  rocks  '  or  '  reefs '). 

Key  West,  a  port  of  entry  and  health-resort, 
the  capital  of  Monroe  county,  Florida,  is  situated 
on  the  island  of  Key  West  (Span.  Cayo  Hueso 
'  Bone  Reef '),  60  miles  SW.  of  Cape  Sable.  It  is  a 
coral  island,  7  miles  long,  2  to  3  wide,  and  no- 
where more  than  11  feet  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  There  is  a  good  harbour,  defended  by  a  fort. 
The  streets  are  wide  and  straight,  with  tramway 
lines ;  most  of  the  houses  are  built  of  wood.  The 
exports  are  salt^  turtles,  sponges,  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, and  cigars  manufactured  here.  Pop. 
20,000.  ^ 

Khabarovsk,  or  Khabarovka,  capital  of  the 
Maritime  Province,  and  seat  of  the  governor- 
general  of  the  Amur  (q.v.). 

Khairpur,  the  chief  town  of  Kliairpur  state,  in 
Sind,  stands  among  marshes  15  miles  E.  of  the 
Indus.  Pop.  7000.— Area  of  state,  6109  sq.  m.  : 
pop.  200,000,  mostly  Mohammedans. 

Khandesh,  or  Candeish,  on  the  northernmost 
edge  of  the  Deccan  in  India,  lies  soutli  of  the 
Nerbudda  and  east  of  Baroda,  and  is  intersected 
by  the  Tapti  River.  Area  of  the  district  (in  Bom- 
bay presidency),  10,907  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,460,851. 

Khania.    See  Canea. 

Kharbin.    See  Harbin. 

Kharkoff,  capital  of  a  Russian  government, 
and  one  of  the  chief  towns  of  the  Ukraine,  is  by 
rail  312  miles  NW.  of  Taganrog  and  465  S.  by  W. 
of  Moscow.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  bishop  and 
of  a  university  (1805),  with  four  faculties,  900 
students,  an  observatory,  a  library  of  56,000  vol- 
umes, a  botanical  garden,  &c.  There  are  also 
a  theological  seminary,  a  veterinary  school,  and 
a  government  model  farm.  The  chief  industrial 
products  are  sugar,  soap,  candles,  felt,  brandy, 
tobacco,  and  iron  ;  but  the  place  is  principally 
celebrated  for  its  four  great  fairs,  at  two  of  which 
(in  horses  and  wool)  the  united  turnover  amounts 
annually  to  the  sum  of  nearly  £3,000,000.  Pop. 
176,500.  —  The  government,  situated  in  Little 
Ru.ssia,  has  an  area  of  21,035  sq.  m.,  and  a 
population  of  2,537,900. 

Khartoum,  or  Khartum,  the  most  important 
town  in  the  eastern  Soudan,  stands  on  the  low 
tongue  of  land  between  the  Blue  and  the  White 
Nile,  just  above  their  junction,  445  miles  SW.  of 
Suakim  (via  Berber),  and  1625  S.  of  Cairo,  follow- 
ing the  windings  of  the  Nile.  Khartoum  is  the 
starting-point  and  terminus  of  caravans  to  the 
interior,  and  has  been  notorious  for  its  great 
activity  in  the  slave-trade.  It  was  founded  under 
the  rule  of  Mehemet  Ali  in  1823,  and  soon  became 
a  place  of  comjnercial  importance,  and  was  made 
the  capital  of  the  Egyptian  Soudan.  It  has  a 
melancholy  interest  for  Englishmen  since  its 
heroic  defence  by  General  Gordon  against  the 
forces  of  the  Mahdi  in  1884-85.  Two  days  before 
the  rescuing  army  reached  it,  Khartoum  fell,  and 
with  it  Gordon  (26th  January).  At  the  time  of 
the  Mahdi's  revolt  its  pop.  was  set  down  as  60,000. 
Since  then  Omdurman,  on  the  opposite  bank,  has 
largely  superseded  it. 

Khasi  and  Jaintia  Hills,  a  district  in  Assam. 
Area,  6041  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  197,904 ;  administrative 
headquarters,  Shillong  (pop.  3640).  It  forms 
part  of  the  watershed  between  the  Brahmaputra 
and  the  Surma,  and  rises  in  a  series  of  step. 


KHATMANDU 


387 


KIDDERMINSTER 


like  plateaus.  The  rainfall  in  some  parts  is 
enormous ;  the  average  for  twenty-five  years 
being  489  inches.  In  1861,  805  inches  (366  in  July 
alone)  are  recorded  to  have  fallen.  For  ages 
Bengal  has  been  supplied  with  limestone,  lime, 
and  oranges,  and  since  1830  with  potatoes,  from 
this  district ;  and  coal  and  iron  ore  exist,  but 
only  the  latter  is  extracted.  The  KJiasis  are  an 
Indo-Chinese  race. 

Khatmandu',  the  capital  of  Nepal,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Baghmati  and  Vishnumati  rivers. 
The  principal  building  is  the  immense  ugly  palace 
of  the  Maharaja.    Pop.  50,000. 

Khelat.    See  Kelat. 

Kherson,  or  Cherson,  capital  of  a  Russian 
government,  stands  on  the  Dnieper,  19  miles  from 
its  mouth,  and  81  NB.  of  Odessa.  The  town  was 
laid  out  by  Prince  Potemkin  in  1778  as  a  port  for 
the  construction  of  ships  of  war ;  but  was  soon 
supplanted  by  Odessa  and  Nikolaieff,  both  as  a 
dockyard  and  a  commercial  outlet.  It  has  a 
large  trade  in  timber,  and  manufactures  soap, 
tallow,  beer,  and  tobacco.  Wool-cleansing  is  an 
important  industry.  At  Kherson  Potemkin  is 
buried,  and  John  Howard,  the  prison  reformer, 
died.  Pop.  a  little  over  70,000. — The  government 
borders  on  the  Black  Sea,  having  the  Dnieper  for 
its  eastern  boundary  and  the  Dniester  for  its 
western,  while  the  interior  is  watered  by  the 
Bug,  Ingnl,  &c.,  which  fonn  shallow,  salt  lagoons 
next  the  sea.  Area,  27,515  sq.  m,  ;  pop.  about 
2,800,000.  The  chief  towns  are  Kherson,  Odessa, 
Nikolaieff,  Otchakoff,  Yelisavetgrad,  Voznesensk, 
and  Tiraspol. 

Khiva,  also  called  Kharasm,  Khwar^zm,  or 
Urgenj  (anc.  CJiorasmia),  a  khanate  of  Turkestan 
in  central  Asia,  lies  between  37°  45'— 44°  30'  N. 
lat.  and  50°  15'— 63°  E.  long.,  and  contains  about 
25,000  sq.  m.,  the  surface  being  mostly  a  sandy 
desert,  with  many  fertile  tracts  scattered  over  it. 
It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Russian  territory  and 
Sea  of  Aral,  B.  by  Bokhara,  S.  by  Persia,  and  W. 
by  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  chief  oasis,  in  which 
the  capital  Khiva  is  situated,  stretches  from  the 
mouth  of  the  Oxus  or  Amu-Daria  for  200  miles 
along  its  banks,  and  is  watered  by  canals  fed  by 
it.  The  inhabited  area  is  about  5000  sq.  m.  ;  the 
pop.  about  260,000  settled  inhabitants  and  nearly 
as  many  nomads.  Khiva,  successively  subject  to 
Bactria,  Parthia,  Persia,  and  the  Califate,  became 
an  independent  monarchy  in  1092  a.d.,  but  in 
1221  succumbed  to  the  Mongols,  under  Genghis 
Khan,  and  in  1370  came  to  Tiinilr.  Timur's  de- 
scendants were  subdued  in  1511  by  a  chief  of  the 
Uzbegs.  In  1717  Peter  the  Great  endeavoured  to 
conquer  Khiva,  in  1839  the  attempt  was  renewed 
by  the  Czar  Nicholas  ;  but  it  was  not  till  1873 
that  a  great  and  final  eff'ort  was  made  to  crush 
Khiva.  The  Russians  entered  it  on  10th  June ; 
and  the  khan  had  to  cede  to  Bokhara  the 
Khivan  possessions  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Amu-Daria.  The  rest  of  Khiva  is  ruled  by 
the  khan,  under  Russian  suzerainty. — Khiva, 
the  capital  of  the  khanate,  is  on  the  Hazveti 
Pehlivan  Canal,  in  the  western  portion  of  the 
great  oasis.  It  consists  almost  entirely  of  earth- 
huts.  Pop.  20,000.  Other  towns  are  Yenghi- 
Urgenj,  the  commercial  centre  of  the  khanate, 
and  Kungrat,  not  far  from  the  Aral.  See  works 
by  Vambery  (1864),  Burnaby  (1876),  Stumm  (Eng. 
trans.  1885),  and  Lansdell  (1885). 

Khodavendighiar,  a  Turkish  division  of  Asia 
Minor,  south  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora. 

KbOi,  a  town  in  the  Persian  province  of  Azer- 


bijan,  75  miles  NW.  of  Tabriz.  Here  Selim  L 
defeated  the  Persians  in  1514.     Pop,  25,000. 

Khojak,  a  pass  in  the  Khwaja  Amran  range,  at 
the  head  of  the  Pishin  valley,  has  been  pierced 
at  a  height  of  6400  feet  above  the  sea  by  a  tunnel, 
2^  miles  long,  on  the  railway  from  India  to 
Kandahar. 

Khojend,  a  walled  town  of  Russian  Turkestan, 
on  the  Sir-Daria,  75  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Khokand. 
It  manufactures  silk.  The  Russians  seized  it  in 
1865.     Pop.  35,000. 

Khokand,  once  a  khanate  of  Turkestan,  now 
forming  the  Russian  government  of  Ferghana 
(q.v.).  The  town  of  Khokand  has  84,000  in- 
habitants. 

Khonsar,  or  Khunsar,  a  Persian  town,  80  miles 
NW.  of  Ispahan.    Pop.  12,000. 

Khorassan  (old  Persian  'eastward'),  the 
largest  province  of  Persia,  bordering  on  Afghan- 
istan, contains  about  210,000  sq.  m.,  of  which 
nearly  one-third  is  a  vast  salt  waste ;  of  the 
remainder  a  large  portion  consists  of  plains  of 
.shifting  sand.  The  fertile  districts  are  in  the 
north,  where  the  high  range  of  the  Elburz 
crosses  the  province.  The  chief  towns  are 
Meshed  (the  capital),  Nishapur,  Kutchan,  Shah- 
rud,  Khaf,  Kain,  and  Tebbes. 

Khorsahad.    See  Nineveh. 

Khotan,  or  Ilchi,  a  city  of  eastern  Turkestan, 
at  the  northern  base  of  the  Kuen-Lun  Moun- 
tains.    Pop.  40,000. 

Khulm,  a  city  (pop.  15,000),  capital  of  a  small 
state  in  Afghan  Turkestan,  adjoining  Balkh. 

Khurja,  a  town  of  India,  50  miles  SB.  of  Delhi. 
There  is  a  large  export  of  raw  cotton  to  Cawn- 
pore  and  Calcutta.     Pop.  30,000. 

Khuzistan  (anc.  Susiana),  a  province  of  Persia, 
having  Fars  and  the  Persian  Gulf  on  the  south. 

Khyber  Pass,  the  great  northern  military 
road  between  the  Punjab  and  Afghanistan,  winds 
33  miles  north-Avestward,  and  varies  in  width 
from  150  yards  to  20,  in  one  place  only  '  10  feet 
or  less."  It  is  liable  to  sudden  inundations.  The 
mountains  on  either  side  are  often  sheer  walls  of 
smooth  rock ;  they  vary  in  height  from  1400  to 
over  3000  feet.  The  Khyber  Pass  has  been  the 
key  of  the  adjacent  regions  in  either  direction 
from  the  days  of  Alexander  the  Great ;  and  it 
Avas  stipulated  in  the  treaty  of  Gandamak  (1879) 
that  the  Anglo-Indian  authorities  were  in  future 
to  have  full  control  of  it. 

Kiachta,  or  Kiakhta,  atown  of  theSiberian  pro- 
vince of  Transbaikalia,  165  miles  SB.  of  Irkntsk, 
close  to  the  Chinese  town  of  Maimatchin.  Pop. 
9000.  Kiachta  Avas  from  1689  to  1800  the  sole 
trading-place  between  China  and  Russia. 

Kiangsl,  Kiangsu,  provinces  of  China  (q.v.). 

Klao-chao,  or  Kiao-chow,  a  city  inland  from 
the  bay  of  the  same  name,  in  the  Chinese  promon- 
tory of  Shantung.  In  1898  the  town,  with  an 
area  nf  130  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  60,000,  Avas  leased 
to  Germany  for  ninety-nine  years,  forming  a 
German  protectorate.  'The  foreign  settlement 
and  port  are  at  Tsing-tao,  on  the  same  bay,  Avhere 
fine  streets  have  been  built,  and  Avaterworks, 
telephones,  electric  light,  &c.  established. 

Kidderminster,  a  parliamentary  and  muni- 
cipal borough  of  Worcestershire,  on  the  Stour, 
4  miles  above  its  junction  Avith  the  Severn,  and 
14^  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Worcester,  121  NW.  of 
London.  It  is  a  busy,  thriving-looking  place, 
chiefly  noteworthy  for  its  carpet  manufacture, 
which  dates  from  1735.    Worsted  spinning  and 


KIDWELLY 


KILDONAN 


dyeing  are  also  carried  on.  Richard  Baxter  was 
for  fourteen  years  vicar,  and  there  is  a  statue  of 
him  (1875).  An  illustrious  native  was  Sir  Row- 
land Hill ;  a  marble  statue  of  him  was  erected 
in  1881.  Chief  buildings  are  the  parish  church, 
Early  English  to  Perpendicular  in  style,  with  a 
noble  pinnacled  tower ;  a  Renaissance  town-hall 
(1877),  a  corn  exchange  (1855),  a  free  library,  and 
a  free  grammar-school,  founded  in  1637.  Kidder- 
minster was  incorporated  as  a  municipal  borough 
by  Charles  I.,  and  since  1832  has  returned  one 
member.  Pop.  (1851)  18,453  ;  (1901)  24,692.  See 
Burton's  History  of  Kidderminster  (1890). 

Kidwelly,  a  Carmarthenshire  municipal 
borough  (1885),  near  Carmarthen  Bay,  9|  miles 
WNW.  of  Llanelly.     Pop.  2282. 

KieflF  (Kee-yef),  one  of  the  oldest  towns  of 
Russia,  stands  on  the  Dnieper,  by  rail  586  miles 
SW.  of  Moscow  and  381  N.  of  Odessa.  From  882 
to  1169  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Russian  princi- 
pality, and  here  in  988  Christianity  was  first 
preached  in  Russia  by  St  Vladimir.  Captured  by 
the  Mongols  in  1240,  it  was  held  by  Lithuania 
from  1320  till  1569,  and  then  by  Poland  till  1054, 
when  it  was  annexed  to  Russia.  The  town  is 
built  on  elevated  ground  (350  feet  above  the 
river),  and  the  Dnieper  is  spanned  by  a  fine  sus- 
pension bridge  (1851).  The  celebrated  Petchersk 
monastery  is  visited  by  250,000  pilgrims  annually. 
The  cathedral  of  St  Sophia  (1037)  contains  the 
tombs  of  the  grand-dukes  of  Russia  ;  and  the 
cathedral  church  of  the  Assumption  has  a  beai;ti- 
ful  belfry  with  a  peal  of  twelve  bells.  Kieff  has 
nearly  seventy  churches,  many  of  them  with 
gilded  domes  and  pinnacles,  which  give  the  city 
a  striking  appearance.  The  university,  removed 
here  from  Vilno  in  1833,  has  four  faculties  and 
1700  students.  There  are  also  theological  colleges, 
a  military  school,  and  an  arsenal.  The  industry 
is  unimportant,  except  tanning  and  the  manu- 
facture of  candles.  Considerable  trade  is  done, 
especially  at  the  January  and  other  fairs.  The 
fortress  of  Kieff,  begun  by  Peter  the  Great  in 
1706,  occupies  a  commanding  site  on  the  Dnieper's 
right  bank.  Pop.  250,000.— The  government  em- 
braces great  part  of  the  Ukraine,  and  is  bounded 
NE.  by  the  Dnieper ;  the  area  is  nearly  20,000 
sq.  m.,  and  the  population  3,600,000. 

Kiel  (Keel),  chief  town  of  the  Prussian  province 
of  Sleswick-Holstein,  stands  66  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Hamburg  by  rail,  at  the  head  of  a  deep  inlet 
(11  miles  long)  of  the  Baltic,  which  admits  large 
ships  to  anchor  close  to  the  town.  It  is  the 
Baltic  headquarters  of  the  German  navy,  and 
has  imperial  shipbuilding-yards,  slips,  dry  and 
wet  docks,  &c.,  naval  marine  stores,  a  naval 
academy,  and  an  observatory.  It  is  also  an 
important  commercial  port,  some  1,100,000  tons 
of  merchandise  passing  in  and  out  annually.  The 
chief  imports  are  corn,  coal,  timber,  and  cattle, 
whilst  coal,  flour,  beer,  butter,  cheese,  and  fish 
are  exported.  There  are  iron-foundries,  ship- 
building-yards, corn-mills,  breweries,  and  cabinet- 
makers' works.  Kiel  is  the  seat  of  a  university, 
founded  in  1665,  with  new  buildings  completed 
in  1876,  85  professors  and  teachers,  and  nearly 
500  students.  The  13th-century  castle  shelters 
the  university  library  of  200,000  volumes  and  a 
museum  with  sculptures  by  Thorwaldsen.  The 
bay  is  defended  by  forts.  For  the  Baltic  Canal 
connecting  the  Elbe  and  the  Bay  of  Kiel,  see 
Baltic  Sea.  Kiel  affords  good  bathing  facilities. 
Pop.  (1875)  37,270  ;  (1890)  69,172  ;  (1900)  121,790. 

Klielce,  the  smallest  of  the  Polish  governments 
of  Russia,  on  the  Austrian  frontier.    Area,  3897 


sq.  m.  ;  pop.  780,000.     The  capital,   Kielce,  85 
miles  NE.  of  Cracow,  has  25,000  inhabitants. 

Kikinda,  Nagy,  a  town  of  Hungary,  36  miles 
by  rail  W.  of  Temesvar.     Pop.  24,500. 
Kilauea,  the  great  volcano  of  Hawaii  (q.v.). 
Kllbarclian  (Kilbai-'hhan),  a  town  of  Renfrew- 
shire, 12  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Glasgow.     It  manu- 
factures silks,  cottons,  &c.     Pop.  2887. 

Kilbeggan,  a  town  of  Westmeath,  4  miles 
SE.  of  Horseleap  station.     Pop.  900. 

Kilbirnie,  an  Ayrshire  town,  on  the  Garnock, 
20  miles  SW.  of  Glasgow.  It  manufactures  linen- 
tliread,  wincey,  nets,  &c.     Pop.  4578. 

Kilbowie,  now  part  of  the  police-burgh  of 
Clydebank,  in  Dumbartonshire,  is  the  seat  of  the 
Singer  sewing-machine  works. 

Kilbride,  East,  a  town  of  Lanarkshire,  12 
miles  SSE.  of  Glasgow.    Pop.  1230. 

Kilbride,  West,  an  Ayrshire  town,  4i  miles 
NNW.  of  Ardrossan.     Pop.  2320. 

Kilburn,  a  metropolitan  suburb,  5  miles  NW. 
of  St  Paul's.     See  also  Kinburn. 

KUchurn  (Kilhoom'),  a  ruined  castle  of  the 
Campbells,  in  Argyllshire,  at  the  NE.  end  of 
Loch  Awe,  2^  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Dalmally. 

Kilcreggan,  a  coast-village  in  Rosneath  penin- 
sula, Dunibartonsliire,  3J  miles  NW.  of  Greenock. 
It  forms  a  police-burgh  with  Cove.     Pop.  916. 

Kilcullen,  a  town  of  Kildare,  5  miles  S.  of 
Newbridge  station.    Pop.  616. 

Kildare',  a  county  of  Leinster,  Ireland,  bounded 
by  Dublin,  Wicklow,  Queen's  and  King's  coun- 
ties, Meath,  and  Carlow.  Its  chief  town  is  Naas, 
and  other  municipal  towns  are  Kildare,  Kilcullen, 
Maynooth ,  and  Athy,  besides  many  villages.  The 
area  is  418,836  acres,  or  654  sq.  m. ;  the  surface 
is  generally  flat,  and  the  soil  very  productive. 
In  the  northern  part  the  great  Bog  of  Allen 
covers  some  40,000  acres,  intersected  by  elevated 
ridges  of  dry  ground.  From  this  bog  rises  the 
conical  Hill  of  Allen,  300  feet  high.  Agriculture 
is  the  main  occupation.  The'  most  fertile  and 
best-farmed  districts  are  the  valleys  of  the  Liffey 
and  the  Greese ;  other  rivers  are  the  Boyne  and 
Blackwater  (both  having  their  source  in  County 
Kildare),  the  Barrow  and  the  Lesser  Barrow.  To 
the  south  of  the  town  of  Kildare  is  the  Curragh 
(q.v.)  of  Kildare,  an  undulating  plain  of  bright 
green  grass  covering  about  8000  acres.  Kildare 
returns  two  members.  Pop.  (1841)114,488  ;  (1901) 
63,469,  of  whom  54,794  were  Catholics.  Kildare 
is  noted  for  its  antiquities — giant  stone  pillars, 
earthworks,  sepulchral  mounds,  a  stone  circle, 
five  round  towers,  and  the  ruins  of  many  religious 
houses  and  castles. 

The  town  of  Kildare  is  30  miles  SW.  of  Dublin. 
St  Bridget  (453-523)  founded  a  nunnery  here,  and 
the  older  name  Druim  Criaidh  was  changed  to 
Cil-dara,  the  cell  or  church  of  the  oak,  from  an 
old  tree  under  which  she  built  her  cell.  There 
are  remains  of  three  other  monastic  institutions, 
and  a  round  tower,  the  finest  in  the  county, 
103  feet  high.  The  Protestant  see  (1550)  is  now 
united  with  Dublin,  and  the  Roman  Catholic  see 
forms  the  diocese  of  Kildare  and  Leighlin.  Kil- 
dare suffered  severely  in  the  wars  of  the  16th 
and  17th  centuries.  The  rebellion  of  1798-99 
began  in  Kildare,  which  prior  to  the  Union 
returned  two  members.  Pop.  1572.  See  works 
by  Rawson  (1807)  and  O'Byrne  (1867). 

Kildo'nan,  a  Sutherland  parish,  83  miles  NNE. 
of  Dingwall.  Gold  was  mined  here  in  1868-69, 
and  experimental  diggings  were  renewed  in  1894. 


KILFINNANE 


389 


KILLIN 


Kllfinnane,  a  village  of  County  Limerick,  5 
miles  SB.  of  Kilmallock.    Pop,  lOltj, 

Killa,  a  town  in  the  portion  of  Bessarabia 
ceded  by  Roumania  to  Russia  in  1878,  is  situated 
on  the  northern  bank  of  the  Kilia  branch  of  the 
Danube,  20  miles  NB.  of  Ismail.    Pop.  11,700. 

Kllima-Nja'ro,  an  isolated  mountain  mass  in 
East  Africa,  standing  between  Victoria  Nyanza 
and  the  coast,  just  within  the  northern  limit  of 
the  German  East  African  Company's  territory, 
in  3°  20'  S.  lat.  and  37°  50'  B.  long.  It  consists 
of  two  peaks,  or  rather  craters,  Kibo  and  Kima- 
wenzi,  connected  by  a  broad  saddle  (14,000  feet) 
studded  with  lava  hills.  Kibo  was  climbed  by 
Dr  Meyer  in  1889.  Its  highest  point  is  19,680 
feet  above  sea-level ;  its  crater  is  650  feet  deep 
and  6500  feet  in  diameter.  He  also  climbed 
Kimawenzi,  and  found  it  to  exceed  17,250  feet. 
Tlie  crater  rim  of  both  peaks  is  covered  with  a 
thick  crust  of  ice.  In  1894,  with  the  assent  of 
the  I.B.B.A.  Company,  a  community  of  peaceful 
(but  armed)  Austrian  Communists  established 
themselves  on  the  slopes  of  Kilima-Njaro.  See 
H.  H.  Johnston's  Kilimanjaro  Expedition  (1886). 

Kilkee,  a  watering-place  of  County  Clare,  on 
Moore  Bay,  8  miles  NW.  of  Kilrush.    Pop.  1666. 
Klllkeel,  a  seaport  of  County  Down,  10  miles 
SB.  of  Warrenpoint  station.    Pop.  1377. 

Kilkenny,  an  inland  county  of  Leinster,  bor- 
dering on  Queen's  County,  Carlow,  Wexford, 
Waterford,  and  Tipperary.  Its  area  is  509,732 
acres,  or  796  sq.  m.  Vegetation  is  earlier  here 
than  in  the  rest  of  Ireland,  and  the  soil  along 
the  Suir,  Nore,  and  Barrow  is  very  rich.  In  the 
northern  part  there  are  large  tracts  of  moor 
devoted  to  sheep  and  cattle.  S.  and  SE.  the 
surface  rises  to  a  considerable  elevation  ;  and  in 
the  north  there  is  another  hilly  region  forming 
part  of  the  Castlecomer  anthracite  coalfield, 
whose  output  is  about  80,000  tons  per  annum, 
or  more  than  one-half  that  of  all  Ireland.,  In 
the  western  district  are  the  Walsh  Mountains. 
The  chief  towns  are  Kilkenny,  Callan,  Thomas- 
town,  Freshford,  Urlingford,  and  Castlecomer. 
Pop.  (1841)  202,420  ;  (1901)  78,821,  of  whom  74,572 
were  Catholics.  Prior  to  the  Union  Kilkenny 
returned  sixteen  members  to  the  Irish  parlia- 
ment, but  now  the  county  returns  two  and  the 
city  one.  Kilkenny,  anciently  part  of  the  king- 
dom of  Ossory,  was  formed  into  a  county  by 
King  John  in  1210.  Its  Norman  remains  are 
very  numerous,  and  among  other  antiquities  are 
circular  groups  of  stones  on  Slieve  Grian  and  the 
Hill  of  Cloghmanta,  cromlechs  and  raths,  forts 
and  mounds,  five  round  towers,  and  monastic 
ruins  at  Jerpoint,  Rosbercon,  Thomastown, 
Knocktopher,  &c.  The  most  notable  castle  is 
Graney,  in  Iverk,  supposed  to  have  been  founded 
by  the  Earls  of  Ormonde  in  1521.  The  cave  of 
Dunmore,  between  Kilkenny  and  Castlecomer, 
which  opens  with  a  natural  arcli  50  feet  high, 
is  noted  for  its  stalactite  chambers  and  its  sub- 
terranean stream.  See  J.  G.  Robertson's  An- 
tiquities and  Scenery  of  Kilkenny  (1851). 

Kilkenny,  the  county  town,  is  situated  on 
the  Nore,  81  miles  SW.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  Pop. 
(1851)  19,975  ;  (1901)  10,493.  At  one  time  it  was 
the  seat  of  linen  and  woollen  manufactures  ;  and 
it  does  some  marble-polishing,  and  has  a  trade  in 
provisions.  The  name  is  Celtic— Cil-Canice— the 
church  of  St  Canice  or  Kenny,  a  building  dating 
from  1052,  and  the  largest  ecclesiastical  edifice 
in  Ireland  except  St  Patrick's  at  Dublin.  It  is 
in  the  Early  English  style,  226  feet  long  by  123 
across  the  transepts.    There  are  many  old  sepul- 


chral monuments,  and  the  remains  of  a  round 
tower  still  100  feet  high.  Other  ecclesiastical 
remains  are  the  preceptory  of  St  John's  (1211) ; 
the  Dominican  abbey  (1225),  still  used  as  a 
Roman  Catholic  church ;  and  the  Franciscan 
abbey  (1230).  In  1857  was  erected  the  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  at  a  cost  of  £30,000,  with 
a  massive  central  tower  186  feet  high.  On 
a  precipitous  rock  above  the  Nore  is  Strong- 
bow's  famous  castle  (1175),  restored  during 
the  19th  century  as  a  residence  for  the  Marquis 
of  Ormonde.  The  16th-century  grammar-school 
also  stands  by  the  river,  fronting  the  castle; 
here  Swift,  Congreve,  and  Bishop  Berkeley 
received  their  education.  Near  the  city  is  the 
Roman  Catholic  college  of  St  Kyran.  Crom- 
well laid  siege  to  the  city  in  1648,  and  in  1650 
it  capitulated  on  honourable  terms.  The  fable 
of  the  '  Kilkenny  cats,'  which  fought  till  only 
the  tails  were  left,  was  a  satire  on  the  contentions 
of  Kilkenny  and  Irishtown  in  the  17th  century. 

Killala,  a  seaport  of  County  Mayo,  8  miles 
NW.  of  Ballina  station.    Pop.  510. 

Killaloe  (Killaloo'),  a  town  of  Clare,  on  the 
Shannon,  17  miles  NB.  of  Limerick.     Pop.  885. 

Killarney,  a  Kerry  market-town,  185  miles  by 
rail  SW.  of  Dublin,  and  47  WNW.  of  Cork.  The 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a  very  imposing  struc- 
ture, along  with  the  Bishop's  Palace,  was  designed 
by  Pugin.  There  are  also  a  large  Episcopal 
church,  a  lunatic  asylum,  a  court-house,  &c. 
Pop.  (1851)  7127  ;  (1901)  5656. 

Killarney,  The  Lakes  of,  are  a  series  of  three 
connected  sheets  of  water,  the  lowermost  of 
which  is  within  1 J  mile  of  the  town  of  Killarney. 
The  outflow  is  by  the  river  Laune  north-west  to 
Castlemain  Harbour.  These  famous  lakes  are 
situated  in  a  basin  in  the  midst  of  the  mountains 
of  Kerry,  some  of  which  rise  abruptly  from  the 
water's  edge  densely  clothed  with  trees  from  base 
to  summit.  The  lower  lake,  Lough  Leane,  covers 
5001  acres  in  area,  is  studded  with  richly- wooded 
islands— the  largest  Ross  Island,  on  which  is  an 
old  stronghold  of  the  O'Donoghues.  Another 
island  is  the  '  sweet  Innisfallen '  of  Moore's  song, 
and  on  this  is  the  picturesque  ruin  of  an  abbey, 
founded  by  St  Finian  the  leper  in  the  6th  century. 
The  upper  lake  covers  430  acres,  and  is  also 
studded  with  islands.  Between  the  two  is  Lough 
Tore  (680  acres).  Connecting  the  upper  with  the 
lower  and  middle  lakes  is  the  Long  Range,  a 
beautifully- wooded,  winding  stream  2^  miles  long. 
Midway  in  its  course  occurs  the  famous  echo, 
caused  by  a  lofty  rock,  the  Eagle's  Nest.  Between 
the  lower  and  the  middle  lake  is  the  fine  ruin  of 
Muckross  Abbey,  founded  by  the  Franciscans  in 
1440.  A  peculiarity  of  the  scenery  is  the  luxuriant 
growth  of  arbutuses  on  the  islands  of  the  lakes. 
See  works  by  Mr  and  Mrs  Hall  (1843-78). 

Killashandra,  a  town  of  Cavan,  6  miles  NW. 
of  Crossdoney  station.     Pop.  559. 

Killearn,  a  Stirlingshire  village,  16J  miles 
NNW.  of  Glasgow.  At  the  farmhouse  of  Moss, 
If  mile  SSW.,  was  born  George  Buchanan. 

Killenaule,  a  town  of  Tipperary,  11  miles  SE. 
of  Thurles.    Pop.  560. 

Killiecrankie,  a  beautiful  wooded  pass  in 
Perthshire,  on  the  Garry,  15  miles  NNW.  ol 
Dunkeld.  It  is  traversed  by  Wade's  Great  High- 
land Road  (1732),  and  by  the  Highland  Railway 
(1863).  At  its  head,  on  27th  July  1689,  Claver- 
house  defeated  Mackay  and  was  slain. 

Killin',  a  Perthshire  village,  near  the  head  of 
Loch  Tay,  37  miles  NW.  of  Stirling.    Pop.  639. 


KILLORGLIN 


390 


KINCARDINESHIRE 


Killorglin,  a  town  of  County  Kerry,  13  miles 
NW.  of  Killarney.     Pop.  1018. 

Killybegs,  a  Donegal  seaport,  17  miles  W.  of 
Donegal  town.     Pop.  1607. 

Killyleagh  (Killylay'),  a  seaport  of  County 
Down,  on  the  west  side  of  Lough  Strangford, 
6  miles  N.  of  Downpatrick.     Pop.  1410. 

EUlmainham,  a  western  suburb  of  Dublin  city. 
Pop.  5390.  Here  are  the  Royal  Hospital  for  250 
old  soldiers,  founded  by  Charles  II.,  and  the 
prison  of  Kilmainham. 

Kilmalcolm  (locally  Kil-ma-kocm'),  a  Renfrew- 
shire village,15  miles  WNW.  of  Glasgow.  Pop.  2220. 

Kllmallock,  a  market-town,  17  miles  S.  of 
Limerick.    Pop.  1029. 

KUmar'nock,  the  largest  town  in  Ayrshire,  on 
Irvine  and  Kilmarnock  waters,  15^  miles  by  rail 
NNB.  of  Ayr,  and  24  SSW.  of  Glasgow.  It 
received  its  name  Kil-mo-Er nin-occ  (Gael.,  ' church 
of  my  little  Ernin')  from  the  dedication  of  its 
church  about  1200  to  an  Irish  saint  of  the  7th 
century ;  and  in  1591  it  was  made  a  burgh  of 
barony  under  the  Boyds,  from  which  date  its 
hose  and  bomiet  making  grew  into  thriving 
industries.  The  great  carpet  manufacture  was 
introduced  in  1777,  and  the  printing  of  calicoes 
in  1770,  of  shawls  in  1824 ;  tweeds,  winceys, 
boots,  &c.  are  also  manufactured ;  and  the  Glas- 
gow and  South-Western  Railway  works  were 
transferred  hither  in  1858.  The  staple  trade, 
however,  is  in  connection  with  iron,  owing  to 
Kilmarnock's  situation  in  a  great  mineral  dis- 
trict; and  the  October  cheese-fair  (established 
1855)  is  second  to  none  in  the  kingdom.  iThe 
Boyds'  Dean  Castle,  1  mile  NE.,  was  reduced  by 
fire  to  ruin  in  1735 ;  and  the  town  itself,  which 
has  suffered  twice  from  fire  (1668  and  1800),  and 
once  from  flood  (1852),  has  few  buildings  of 
interest.  The  town-hall  (1805),  the  court-house 
(1852),  the  corn  exchange  (1862),  with  its  Albert 
tower  110  feet  high,  and  the  new  academy  (1876) 
may  be  noticed,  as  also  may  a  statue  of  Sir 
James  Shaw  (1848),  and  the  Kay  Park  of  41  acres 
(1879),  with  its  Burns  monument,  a  tower  80  feet 
high.  Of  Burns  and  of  the  Covenanters  Kil- 
marnock has  memories ;  and  it  was  the  birth- 
place of  Alexander  Smith.  Since  1832  it  has 
united  with  Rutherglen,  Dumbarton,  Port-Glas- 
gow, and  Renfrew  to  return  one  member,  its 
parliamentary  boundary  having  been  extended  in 
1885.  Pop.  (1841)  19,398;  (1901)  35,091.  See 
M'Kay's  History  of  Kilmarnock  (1848  ;  4th  ed.  1880). 

Kilmaurs',  a  town  of  Ayrshire,  2|  miles  NNW. 
of  Kilmarnock.,    Pop.  1803. 

Kilmuil-',  a  Skye  hamlet,  20  miles  NNW.  of 
Portree,  with  Flora  Macdonald's  grave. 

Kllmun',  an  Argyllshire  village,  on  the  NE. 
shore  of  the  Holy  Loch,  7h  miles  WNW.  of 
Greenock.    Pop.  447. 

Kilpatrick,  Old,  a  Dumbartonshire  village 
near  the  N.  bank  of  the  Clyde,  lU  miles  WNW. 
of  Glasgow.  It  is  the  traditional  birthplace  of 
St  Patrick.  The  Kilpatrick  Hills  attain  1318 
feet.    Pop.  1533. 

Kllravock  (Kilrawk'),  an  old  castellated  man- 
sion of  Nairnshire,  long  the  seat  of  the  Roses,  on 
the  river  Nairn,  7  miles  SW.  of  Nairn  town. 

Kllrea,  a  town  of  Londonderry,  on  the  Bann, 
18  miles  S.  of  Coleraine.     Pop.  785. 

Kilrenny,  a  royal  burgh  in  the  East  Nenk  of 
Fife,  li  mile  NE.  of  Anstnither.  It  is  one  of  the 
St  Andrews  parliamentary  burghs.    Pop.  2510. 


Kilrush',  a  Clare  seaport  and  watering-place, 
on  the  N.  shore  of  the  Shannon  estuary,  36  milea 
Wo  of  Limerick.    Pop.  4175. 

Kilsyth  (Kil-sUh'),  a  town  of  Stirlingshire,  13 
miles  NE.  of  Glasgow,  with  quarries  and  coal  and 
iron  mines.  Founded  in  1665,  it  was  made  a 
burgh  of  barony  in  1826.  Here,  on  15th  August 
1645,  Montrose  with  4900  followers  almost  anni- 
hilated 7000  Covenanters.  Revivals  took  place 
here  in  1742  and  1839.  Pop.  (1851)  3949;  (1901) 
7292.    See  Anton's  History  of  Kilsyth  (1890). 

Kilwa.    See  Quiloa. 

Kilwinning,  a  town  of  Ayrshire,  on  the  Gar- 
nock,  3|  miles  NNW.  of  Irvine  and  26  SW.  of 
Glasgow.  The  stately  Tironensian  abbey,  founded 
in  the  12th  and  demolished  in  the  16th  century, 
was  dedicated  to  Winniu,  an  Irish  saint,  who  is 
said  to  have  founded  a  church  here  about  715. 
The  traditional  birthplace  of  Freemasonry  in 
Scotland,  with  a  new  'mother  lodge'  (1893), 
Kilwinning  was  also  celebrated  (1488-1870)  for 
archery ;  its  July  shooting  at  the  popinjay,  which 
was  placed  on  the  steeple  (105  feet  high),  is  de- 
scribed in  Scott's  Old  Mortality.  Eglinton  Castle 
(1798),  the  seat  of  the  Earls  of  Eglinton  (q.v.), 
is  li  mile  SE.  ;  and  the  Eglinton  Ironworks 
(1846)  afford  employment.  Pop.  4450.  See  works 
by  Wylie  (1878)  and  Lee  Ker  (1883). 

Kim'berley,  (1)  a  town  of  Notts,  5|  miles  NW. 
of  Nottingham.  Pop.  of  ecclesiastical  parish, 
5130.— (2)  A  Norfolk  parish,  3^  miles  NW.  of 
Wymondham,  with  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of 
Kimberley. — (3)  Capital  of  Griqualand  West, 
South  Africa,  the  most  important  inland  town 
of  Cape  Colony,  is  situated  540  miles  NE.  of 
Capetown  by  rail  (30  hours).  With  the  rest  of 
Griqualand  West,  Kimberley  became  part  of  Cape 
Colony  only  in  1880 ;  but  the  town  owes  its  exist- 
ence and  rapid  growth  to  the  diamond-mines,  the 
working  of  which  dates  from  1871.  It  is  on  the 
main  line  from  Capetown  and  the  sea  to  the  Orange 
River  Colony,  the  Transvaal,  and  the  immense 
territories  to  the  north.  There  are  a  handsome 
town-hall,  post-office,  high  court,  public  library, 
and  botanic  gardens.  In  the  South  African  war 
Kimberley  was  defended  by  British  troops 
against  the  Boers  for  122  days  in  1899-1900, 
until  relieved  by  French.  Pop.  (1891)  28,718; 
(1904)  34,260,  of  whom  half  are  whites.— (4)  A 
fertile  district  in  the  Fitzroy  basin  in  northern 
(tropical)  Western  Australia,  where  gold  was 
found  in  1893. 

Kimbolton,  a  market-town  of  Hunts,  on  the 
Kym,  11  miles  WSW.  of  Huntingdon.  Kim- 
bolton Castle  is  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Man- 
chester.    Pop.  of  parish,  993. 

Kimmeridge,  a  Dorset  parish,  3^  miles  SW.  of 
Corfe  Castle.  It  gives  najne  to  Kimmeridge  Clay, 
the  lowest  series  of  the  Upper  Oolite. 

Kim'polung,  (l)  a  town  of  Wallachia,  stands  in 
a  valley  at  the  foot  of  the  Carpathians,  80  miles 
NW.  from  Bucharest.  Pop.  9090.— (2)  A  town  in 
the  extreme  south  of  Bukowina.    Pop.  5534. 

Kinabalu.    See  Borneo. 

Kinburn,  or  Kilburn,  a  former  fort  (razed 
1860)  of  south  Russia,  opposite  Otehakoff,  on  a 
long  narrow  sandbank  which  forms  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  Dnieper's  estuary. 

Kincar'dine,  a  seaport  now  of  Fife  (till  1889 
Perthshire  detached),  on  the  Forth's  left  bank, 
10  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Dunfermline.     Pop.  1700. 

Kincar'dineshire,  or  The  Mearns,  a  maritime 
county  of  Scotland,  with  Aberdeenshire  and  the 


KiNCSlNJINGA 


391 


KINGSfON-tTPON-THAMEd 


t)ee  on  the  N.,  Forfarshire  and  the  North  Bsk  on 
the  S.  and  W.,  and  the  North  Sea  on  the  E. 
Area,  383  sq.  ni.,  or  245,34G  acres,  of  which  120,050 
are  in  cultivation,  and  23,153  in  wood.  The  county 
may  be  divided  into  four  sections — viz.  the  Coast, 
the  'Howe  o'  the  Mearns,'  the  Grampians,  and 
Deeside.  Much  of  the  first  two  is  of  superior 
quality  ;  the  '  Howe '  forms  a  continuation  of  the 
Valley  of  Strathmore  (q.v.).  The  Grampians, 
running  across  the  country  from  east  to  west, 
parallel  to  the  Dee,  attain  in  Mount  Battock 
2555  feet  high.  The  principal  towns  and  villages 
are  Stonehaven,  Bervie,  Laurencekirk,  Banchory, 
Johnshaven.  Of  the  objects  of  antiquarian  in- 
terest the  most  noted  are  Dunnottar  Castle  and 
Raedyke's  Camp,  one  of  the  sites  of  the  Battle  of 
the  Grampians.  Kincardineshire  was  the  birth- 
place of  George  Wishart,  Robert  Barclay,  Dr  J. 
Beattie,  and  Dr  Thomas  Reid  ;  and  the  father 
of  Robert  Burns  was  born  in  Dunnottar  parish. 
Pop.  (ISOl)  26,349  ;  (1871)  34,630  ;  (1901)  40,923. 

Klinchinjinga,  or  Kanchanjanoa,  a  Himalaya 
peak  (28,176  feet)  between  Sikkim  and  Nepal. 

Kinder  Scout,  the  highest  summit  (2080  feet) 
of  the  Peak  district,  Derbyshire. 

Kineton,  a  Warwickshire  market-town,  11 
miles  S.  by  B.  of  Warwick.    Pop.  of  parish,  1008. 

Blinfare.    See  Kinver. 

Kinfauns,  a  Gothic  mansion  (1322)  of  Perth- 
shire, 3  miles  B.  by  S.  of  Perth. 

King  Country.    See  Waikato. 

King  George's  Sound,  an  inlet  5  miles  north 
and  south,  and  5  miles  broad,  at  the  south-west 
angle  of  West  Australia,  which  is  an  excellent 
roadstead,  and  contains  two  landlocked  recesses. 
Princess  Royal  and  Oyster  Harbours. 

Kinghorn,  a  royal  burgh  of  Fife,  on  the  Firth 
of  Forth,  3  miles  S.  of  Kirkcaldy  by  rail.  It  has 
shipbuilding-yards,  a  bleachtield,  manufactures 
of  flax  and  glue,  and  golf-links.  Alexander  III. 
was  killed  (1286)  at  Kinghorn  Ness,  and  a  inonu- 
ment  was  erected  on  the  spot  in  1887.     Pop.  1550. 

Kingsbridge,  a  town  of  Devon,  a,tthe  head  of 
Salcombe  haven,  10^  miles  SW.  of  Potness.  John 
Walcot  ('Peter  Pindar')  was  a  native.  Pop.  of 
urban  district  (1901)  3025. 

Kingsburgh,  a  Skye  mansion  on  the  E.  side  of 
Loch  Snizort,  9  miles  NW.  of  Portree.  It  has 
memories  of  Prince  Charlie,  Flora  Macdonald, 
and  Dr  Johnson. 

King's  County,  an  inland  county  of  Ireland, 
in  Leinster,  is  separated  on  the  W.  by  the  Shan- 
non from  Roscommon  and  Galway.  It  is  20  miles 
long  from  N.  to  S.  by  58  wide.  Area,  493,985 
statute  acres,  or  772  sq.  m.  Of  this  23  per  cent. 
is  covered  with  bogs,  including  a  large  part  of 
the  Bog  of  Allen,  and  about  26  per  cent,  is  under 
crops.  Pop.  (1841)  146,857  ;  (1861)  90,013  ;  (1901) 
60,129,  of  whom  53,788  were  Roman  Catholics. 
The  surface  is  flat,  except  for  the  Slieve  Bloom 
Mountains  (1733  feet)  on  the  south  boundary. 
The  Grand  Canal  traverses  the  north  of  the  county, 
and  joins  the  Shannon.  The  river  Barrow  separ- 
ates it  from  Queen's  County  on  the  south-east. 
King's  County,  constituted  a  shire  in  1557,  and 
named  in  honour  of  King  Philip,  returns  two 
members.  In  the  north- west  is  Clonmacnoise 
Abbey  (q.v.) ;  at  Birr  Castle  Lord  Rosse  erected 
his  great  telescope.  The  chief  towns  are  Tulla- 
more,  Parsonstown  or  Birr,  and  Portarlington. 

BUngsclere,  a  town  of  Hants,  9  miles  NW.  of 
Basingstoke.     Pop.  of  parish,  2450. 

Elingscourt,  a  town  of  Cavan,  20  miles  N.  of 
Navan.    Pop,  843. 


King's  Lynn.    See  Lynn. 

Kingsmill  Islands,  another  name  for  the 
Gilbert  Islands  (q.v.). 

King's-Norton,  a  Worcestershire  town,  5i  miles 
SW.  of  Birmingham.  It  manufactures  paper, 
screws,  chocolate,  &c.  Pop.  of  urban  district, 
King's-Norton  and  Northfield  (1901),  57,122. 

King's  Seat.    See  Ocnius. 

Kingston,  chief  town  of  Frontenac  county, 
Ontario,  is  situated  at  the  head  of  Lake  Ontario, 
and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cataraqui  Creek,  161 
miles  by  rail  ENB.  of  Toronto.  It  has  hand- 
some public  buildings,  and  is  the  seat  of  the 
Royal  Military  College  of  Canada  (1876),  'of 
Queen's  University  (1841),  with  museums  and 
an  observatory,  and  of  the  Royal  College  of 
Physicians  and  Surgeons  (1854),  and  the  Women's 
Medical  College  (1883)  affiliated  to  it.  The 
city  has,  besides  excellent  railway  facilities, 
good  water-communication  by  the  lake,  the  St 
Lav/rence,  and  the  Rideau  Canal,  which  last 
connects  it  with  Ottawa.  It  possesses  a  large, 
sheltered  harbour,  with  an  active  trade,  and 
strongly  fortified  ;  and,  besides  busy  shipyards, 
has  manufactories  of  locomotives  and  stationary 
engines,  machinery,  leather,  boots  and  shoes, 
agricultural  implements,  wooden  wares,  &c. 
Grant  Allen  and  George  Romanes  were  born  here. 
The  capital  of  Canada  from  1841  to  1844,  Kingston 
is  the  seat  of  an  Anglican  bishop  and  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  archbishop.  Its  site  was  occupied  by 
the  old  French  fort  of  Frontenac.  Population, 
nearly  20,000. 

Kingston,  the  capital  of  Jamaica,  stands  on  the 
north  side  of  a  landlocked  harbour,  the  best  in 
the  island,  and,  for  its  size,  one  of  the  best  in 
the  world.  Population,  about  48,000.  It  wa.«i 
founded  in  1693-1703,  after  the  neighbouring 
town  of  Port  Royal  had  heen  destroyed  by  an 
earthquake.  From  this  place,  afterwards  rebuilt, 
Kingston  is  distant  6  miles,  the  breadth  of  its 
noble  haven  ;  while  with  Spanish  Town,  towards 
the  interior,  it  has  since  1846  been  connected  by 
railway.  In  1758  Spanish  Town  was  made  the 
capital,  but  in  1872  the  seat  of  government  was 
removed  to  Kingston.  Kingston  was  visited  in 
1880  by  a  violent  hurricane,  and  by  a  vast  con- 
flagration in  December  1882,  as  also  before  in 
1782  and  1843.  The  most  interesting  public  build- 
ing is  the  Old  Church,  where  Benbow  the  '  old 
sea-dog '  is  buried. 

Kingston,  capital  of  Ulster  county,  New  York 
state,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Hudson,  54 
miles  S.  of  Albany.  It  is  a  railway  and  canal 
terminus,  and  forwards  enormous  quantities  of 
blue-stone  flags.  Kingston  is  also  a  centre  of 
the  hydraulic  cement  business,  and  contains 
breweries,  tanneries,  flour-mills,  foundries,  brick- 
yards, &c.     Pop.  26,000. 

Kingston-on-Hull.    See  Hull. 

Klngston-upon-Thames,  a  municipal  borough 
of  Surrey,  12  miles  SW.  of  London,  lies  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Thames,  here  crossed  by  two 
bridges— one  of  stone  completed  1828  and  freed 
1870,  and  the  other  an  iron  railway  viaduct.  Of 
late  years,  with  its  suburbs  of  Norbiton,  Sur- 
biton,  and  New  Maiden,  it  has  grown  rapidly,  its 
easy  access  to  London,  coupled  with  its  facilities 
for  boating  and  its  pleasant  surroundings,  notably 
Hampton  Court,  Bushy  and  Richmond  Parks, 
having  attracted  large  numbers  of  residents. 
The  borough  is  within  the  London  Metropolitan 
Police  District.  Pop.  (of  parish,  1801)  4886  ;  (1891) 
27,059 ;  (1901)  34,375.    The  parish  church  has  some 


KINGSTOWN 


KIRKCALDV 


fine  monuments;  the  county  council  buildings, 
costing  £36,000,  were  undertaken  in  1890.  Seven 
of  the  Anglo-Saxon  kings  were  crowned  here,  as 
recorded  on  the  coronation-stone  still  standing 
near  the  market-place  ;  King  John,  who  granted 
the  town  its  first  charter,  was  a  frequent  visitor 
in  1204-15  ;  in  1264  Kingston  Castle  (of  which  no 
traces  now  remain)  was  captured  by  Henry  III.; 
Fairfax  inade  the  town  his  headquarters  in  1047  ; 
and  a  year  later  took  place  in  the  neighbourhood 
the  last  fight  between  the  royalists  and  Round- 
heads. At  Ham  Common  lived  Gay's  '  Kitty,' 
Duchess  of  Queensberry,  See  Biden's  History  of 
Kingston-upon-Thames  (1852). 

Kingstown,  a  populous  and  important  suburb 
of  Dublin,  7  miles  SSB.  from  the  G.P.O.  Previous 
to  1817,  when  the  harbour- works  were  commenced, 
it  was  merely  a  fishing- village  known  as  Dunleary. 
On  the  occasion  of  George  IV. 's  visit  in  1821  its 
name  was  changed  to  Kingstown.  The  situation 
of  the  town  and  the  invigorating  air  have  made 
it  a  favourite  residence.  The  mail-packets  sail 
hence  to  Holyhead  twice  a  day.  There  is  little 
general  trade,  though  the  harbour,  completed  by 
the  Admiralty  in  1859  at  a  cost  of  £825,000,  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
east  pier  is  3500  feet  in  length ;  the  west,  5000 
feet,  enclosing  an  area  of  over  250  acres,  with  a 
depth  of  from  13  to  27  feet.  Vessels  drawing  24 
feet  can  come  alongside  the  quay  at  any  state  of 
the  tide.  Kingstown  is  within  the  parliament- 
ary division  of  South  Dublin.    Pop.  (1901)  17,356. 

Kingstown,  capital  of  the  British  West  Indian 
island  of  St  Vincent,  at  its  SW.  extremity,  on  a 
large  bay,  at  the  foot  of  a  spur  of  Mount  St 
Andrew  (2000  feet).     Pop.  4547. 

Kings winf or d,  a  Staffordshire  village,  3 J  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Stourbridge.  It  has  coal  and  iron 
mines,  and  manufactures  of  iron,  glass,  bricks, 
&c.     Pop.  of  rural  district,  20,000. ' 

King-te-chln,  the  principal  seat  of  porcelain 
manufacture  in  China,  in  the  province  of  Cliiang- 
hsi,  on  a  small  river  which  falls  into  Lake  Po- 
yang  from  the  east.     Pop.  500,000. 

Kington,  a  Herefordshire  town,  13  miles  W. 
by  S.  of  Leominster.  Mrs  Siddons  made  her 
d6but  in  a  barn  here.    Pop.  of  rural  dist.  5254. 

Kingussie  (Kin-yoos'sie),  a  police-burgh  of 
Inverness-shire,  on  the  Spey's  left  bank,  72  miles 
by  rail  NNW.  of  Perth.     Pop.  990. 

King  Williamstown,  a  town  in  the  SE.  of 
Capo  Colony,  on  the  Buffalo  River,  80  miles 
ENB.  of  Grahamstown,  and  by  rail  (1877)  42 
WNW.  of  East  London,  on  the  coast.  It  has 
considerable  trade,  military  barracks  and  stores, 
and  a  college.    Pop.  8226. 

Kinibalu.    See  Borneo. 

Kinloss',  an  Elginshire  parish,  3  miles  NE.  of 
Forres,  with  a  ruined  Cistercian  abbey  (1150). 

Klnnaird'  Castle,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of 
Southesk,  3^  miles  SE.  of  Brechin. 

Kinnaird  Head.    See  Fraserburgh. 

Kinnoull  Hill  (Kin-nool'),  a  beautiful  wooded 
eminence  (729  feet)  E.  of  Perth. 

Kinross'-shlre,  the  smallest  Scotch  county 
after  Clackmannanshire,  lies  between  Perthshire 
and  Fife,  and,  measuring  9|  by  12J  miles,  has  an 
area  of  78  sq.  m.,  or  49,812  acres,  of  which  3327 
are  water.  Most  of  the  drainage  belongs  to 
Loch  Leven  (q.v.),  from  which  the  surface  rises 
to  encircling  hills  734  to  1573  feet  high.  Nearly 
63  per  cent,  of  the  surface  is  in  cultivation,  and 
2733  acres  are  under  wood.    A  .separate  county  I 


since  1252  and  earlier,  Kinross-shire  unites  with 
Clackmannanshire  to  return  one  member  to 
parliament.  Pop.  (1801)  6725  ;  (1851)8924  ;  (1901) 
1)080,  of  whom  2136  were  in  tlie  county  town, 
Kinross,  27  miles  NNW.  of  Edinburgh,  and  near 
tlie  west  end  of  Loch  Leven.  Kinross  House 
(1605-92)  was  designed  by  Sir  William  Bruce,  the 
architect  of  the  later  portions  of  Holyrood.  See 
iEneas  Mackay's  History  of  Fife  and  Kinross  (1890). 

Kinsale',  a  municipal  borough  and  seaport  of 
County  Cork,  at  the  head  of  Kinsale  Harbour, 
which  is  formed  by  the  estuary  of  the  river 
Bandon,  24  miles  SSW.  of  Cork  by  a  railway 
(1863).  Down  to  the  Union  Kinsale  returned 
two  members ;  thenceforward  one  until  1885.  Kin- 
sale is  much  frequented  by  summer  visitors.  The 
harbour,  landlocked,  is  about  2  miles  long  and  i 
mile  in  average  breadth.  Formerly  Kinsale  was 
one  of  the  most  flourishing  ports  on  the  south  of 
Ireland  ;  but  its  trade  has  been  ruined  by  its  more 
successful  rivals  Cork  and  Queenstown.  Valuable 
fisheries  are  carried  on.  On  the  Old  Head  of 
Kinsale  stands  a  lighthouse  whose  light,  236 
feet  above  high-Avater,  is  visible  21  miles.  Pop. 
(1851)  5506  ;  (1901)  4250.  In  1601,  3000  Spaniards 
landed  at  Kinsale  to  fight  for  the  O'Neill  con- 
federacy. Here  James  II.  landed  on  12th  March 
1689,  and  here  he  re-embarked  in  July  1690. 

Kintore',  an  ancient  royal  burgh  of  Aberdeen- 
shire (one  of  the  Elgin  pari,  burghs),  near  the 
Don,  13J  miles  N  W.  of  Aberdeen.     Pop.  789. 

B^ntyre',  or  Cantire  (Gael,  ceann-tir,  '  head- 
land '),  a  long,  narrow  peninsula  of  Argyllshire, 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Firth  of  Clyde, 
extending  42  miles  south  by  westward,  and  4J  to 
Hi  miles  broad.  At  the  north  end  it  connects 
with  the  mainland  by  the  isthmus  of  Tarbert,  IJ 
mile  broad,  between  East  Loch  Tarbert,  a  bay  of 
Loch  Fyne,  and  West  Loch  Tarbert.  The  surface 
is  diversified  by  a  ridge  of  low,  moorish  hills,  with 
many  lochs,  the  highest  point  being  Ben-an-Tuirc 
(1491  feet).  Coal  is  found  at  Drumlemble,  4  miles 
to  the  west  of  Campbeltown.  Machrihanish  Bay, 
on  the  west  coast,  just  beyond,  possesses  noted 
golf-links.  A  lighthouse  (1787),  297  feet  above 
sea-level,  stands  on  the  Mull  of  Kintyre,  which 
is  overhung  by  Ben-na-Lice  (1405  feet),  and  is 
only  13  miles  distant  from  Ireland. 

Kinver,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  4  miles  WSW. 
of  Stourbridge.     Pop.  of  parish,  2180, 

Kioto.    See  Kyoto, 

Kirghiz  Steppes  {Keer-geez,  g  hard),  the  region 
of  the  Kirghiz  Tartars  or  Turks,  between  the 
Volga,  Irtish,  Caspian,  and  Sea  of  Aral. 

Kirin,  a  Manchurian  town,  on  the  Sungari, 
220  miles  NE,  of  Mukden.     Pop.  85,000, 

Kirkburton,  a  Yorkshire  town,  5  miles  SE.  of 
Huddersfield,    Pop,  2976, 

Kirkby-Lonsdale,  a  Westmorland  town,  on 
the  Lune,  11  miles  SSE,  of  Kendal.     Pop,  1650. 

Kirkby  Moorside,  a  Yorkshire  town,  on  the 
Dove,  7i  miles  WNW.  of  Pickering.     Pop.  4800. 

Kirkby  Stephen,  a  Westmorland  toAvn,  on  the 
Eden,  9^  miles  SE.  of  Appleby,    Pop,  1713. 

Kirkcaldy  (Kir-caw'dy),  a  seaport  of  Fife,  on 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  15  miles  N,  of  Edinburgh. 
Including  Linktown  and  Newtown  of  Abbots- 
hall  on  the  Avest,  and  Pathhead,  Sinclairtown, 
and  GallatoAvn  on  the  north-east,  it  is  nearly 
4  miles  in  length  ;  hence  the  name  '  The  Lang 
Toun.'  It  was  created  a  royal  burgh  in  1450,  and, 
with  Dysart,  Kinghorn,  and  Burntisland,  returns 
one  member.  Its  harbour  is  small  and  shallow, 
but  there  is  wet-dock  accommodation  for  ships 


KlUKCtTDBRIGHT 


393 


KiSfiM 


of  considerable  burden,  and  a  bill  was  passed  in 
1S90  for  the  construction  of  a  large  new  harbour. 
Its  manufactures  are  spinning  flax,  tow,  and 
jute,  and  bleaching  and  weaving  linen  yarns, 
which  are  extensively  carried  on,  the  products 
being  the  usual  varieties  of  linen  cloth ;  mechan- 
ical (including  marine)  engineering  on  a  large 
scale  ;  iron-founding  ;  and  tanning.  There  are 
also  several  potteries.  The  manufacture  of  floor- 
cloth and  linoleum  has  been  developed  into  a 
great  trade,  and  Kirkcaldy  is  the  chief  seat  of 
this  important  manufacture.  Tliere  is  also  a 
direct  export  trade  to  the  United  States.  The 
Beveridge  public  park  was  opened  in  1892.  Pop. 
of  parliamentary  burgh  (1841)  5704 ;  (1871)  12,422 ; 
(1901)  22,340  ;  of  royal  burgh,  as  extended  in  ]S76 
(1901),  34,063.  Kirkcakly  is  the  birthplace  of 
Adam  Smith  (memorial  hall,  1895);  and  Edward 
Irving  and  Thomas  Carlyle  were  teachers  here. 

Kirkcudbright  (Kir-koo'bry),  Stewartry  of, 
a  county  of  south-west  Scotland,  washed  on  the 
south  for  50  miles  by  the  Solway  Firth,  and 
elsewhere  bounded  by  Wigtown,  Ayr,  and  Dum- 
fries shires.  Measuring  41  by  38  miles,  it  has  an 
area  of  954  sq.  m. ;  is  watered  by  the  Nith,  Urr, 
Dee,  Fleet,  and  Cree ;  and  in  the  south-east  sends 
up  conspicuous  Crift'el  (1867  feet),  on  the  north- 
west border  Merrick  (2764),  the  loftiest  summit 
in  the  south  of  Scotland.  Little  more  than  a 
fourth  of  the  entire  area  is  in  cultivation,  though 
great  improvements  have  been  effected  since  the 
foundation  in  1809  of  the  Stewartry  Agricultural 
Society.  Nearly  31  sq.  m.  are  occupied  by  woods. 
Towns  are  Kirkcudbright,  New  Galloway,  Castle- 
Douglas,  Dalbeattie,  Gatehouse,  Creetown,  and 
Maxwelltown  ;  and  the  antiquities  include  the 
Deil's  Dyke,  Threave  Castle,  and  the  ecclesiastical 
ruins  of  Dundrennan,  Lincluden,  New  Abbey,  St 
Mary's  Isle,  and  Tongueland.  Among  worthies 
of  the  Stewartry  have  been  Samuel  Rutherford, 
Paul  Jones,  Thomas  Brown,  and  Alexander 
Murray.  It  returns  one  member  to,  parliament. 
Pop.  (1801)  29,211  ;  (1851)  43,121  ;  (1901)  39,407. 

Kirkcudbright,  the  county  town,  30  miles  SW. 
of  Dumfries  by  a  branch-line  (1864),  is  beautifully 
situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Dee,  which  soon 
begins  to  broaden  into  Kirkcudbright  Bay,  open- 
ing into  the  Solway  Firth  6  miles  below.  Its 
name  is  derived  from  the  church  of  St  Cuthbert, 
as  old  at  least  as  1164 ;  and  it  is  a  royal  burgh 
(1455),  uniting  with  Dumfries,  &c.  to  return  one 
member.  Chief  buildings  are  the  court-house 
(1868) and  town-hall  (1879) ;  a  lattice-bridge  (1868), 
500  feet  long,  spans  the  Dee.  The  ivy-mantled 
ruins  of  the  castle  (1582)  of  Maclellan  of  Bombie 
still  dominate  the  town.    Pop.  2400. 

Kirkdale  Cave,  Vale  of  Pickering,  Yorkshire, 
28  miles  W.  of  Scarborough,  is  245  feet  long,  but 
very  low.  Discovered  in  1821,  it  has  yielded 
many  remains  of  Tertiary  mammals. 

Kirkham,  a  market-town  of  Lancashire,  8^ 
miles  W.  by  N.  of  Preston.  It  has  a  grammar- 
school  (1673),  and  manufactures  of  cotton,  flax, 
sailcloth,  sacking,  and  cordage.  Population,  over 
S700. 

Klrkheaton,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  near  the  Colne,  3  miles  BNE.  of 
Huddersfleld.     Pop.  2632. 

Kirkintll'loch,  a  town  in  Dumbartonshire 
(detached),  on  the  Forth  and  Clyde  Canal,  7  miles 
NNE.  of  Glasgow.  Its  Celtic  name  Caerpentu- 
lacJi  ('  fort  at  the  end  of  the  ridge ')  referred  to  a 
strong  fort  on  Antoninus'  Wall,  which  has  left 
some  remains ;  as  early  as  1170  it  was  made  a 
burgh  of  barony.    Chemicals,  iron,  &c.  are  manu- 


factured. In  the  southern  suburb,  Lenzie,  are 
the  large  Barony  lunatic  asylum  (1875)  and  the 
Glasgow  convalescent  home  (1864).  Pop.  (1851) 
6342 ;  (1901)  10,502. 

Kirk-Kilissia  (the  '  forty  churches '),  a  town 
of  Turkey,  104  miles  NW.  of  Constantinople.  It 
is  famed  for  its  confections.     Pop.  16,000. 

Kirklees,  a  Yorkshire  village,  on  the  Calder,  4 
miles  NE.  of  Huddersfleld.  Robin  Hood  died,  it 
is  said,  in  a  Cistercian  nunnery  here. 

Kirkmaiden,  a  parish,  the  southernmost  of 
Wigtownshire  and  Scotland ;  hence  the  plirase, 
'  frae  Maidenkirk  to  Jolm  o'  Groat's.' 

Kirkoswald,  an  Ayrshire  parish,  4^  miles  WSW. 
of  May  bole.  '  Tam  o'  Shanter'  and  'Souter 
Johnnie '  are  buried  in  the  churchyard. 

Kirkpatrick-Irongray,  a  Nithsdale  parish  of 
Kirkcudbrightshire,  7  miles  W.  of  Dumfries. 
Helen  Walker  (' Jeanie  Deans ')  is  buried  here. 

Kirk'stall  Abbey,  a  Cistercian  abbey  in  York- 
shire, stands  3  miles  NW.  of  Leeds,  in  the  midst 
of  modern  manufacturing  establishments.  First 
founded  at  Barnoldswick  in  1147,  but  Ave  years 
later  moved  to  its  present  site,  the  abbey  is  mainly 
Transition  Norman  and  Perpendicular  in  stjae. 
The  church  is,  like  most  Cistercian  churches, 
long  and  narrow,  with  little  ornamentation,  and 
a  low  tower.  The  abbey  was  purchased  by  Col. 
North  in  1888  for  £13,500,  and  presented  next 
year  to  Leeds. 

Elirkstone  Pass  (1500  feet),  in  Westmorland, 

3J  miles  NNE.  of  Ambleside. 

Kirk'wall,  the  capital  of  Orkney,  on  the  east 
coast  of  Mainland,  49  miles  NE.  of  Thurso,  and 
225  N.  of  Leith.  St  Magnus'  Cathedral  (1137- 
1500)  is  a  stately  cruciform  pile,  mixed  Norman 
and  Gothic  in  style.  It  measures  253  feet  by  102 
across  the  transept,  and  has  a  central  tower  133 
feet  high,  though  shorn  by  lightning  of  its  spire  in 
1671.  The  choir  serves  as  a  parish  church.  The 
last  vestige  of  the  royal  castle  was  demolished  in 
1865 ;  but  the  roofless  Earl's  Palace  (1607)  remains, 
and  a  tower  (1550)  of  the  Bishop's  Palace,  in  which 
King  Haco  died  in  1263.  Much  has  been  done  for 
drainage,  paving,  and  water-supply  ;  the  liarbour 
has  been  imj)roved,  and  the  iron  pier  superseded 
by  a  stone  one.  Its  shipping  has  increased  eight- 
fold since  1850.  Made  a  royal  burgh  in  1486, 
Kirkwall  unites  with  Wick,  &c.  to  return  one 
member  to  parliament.    Pop.  3660. 

Kirk-Yetholm.    See  Yetholm. 

Kirriemuir,  a  police-burgh  (1875)  of  Forfar- 
shire, on  Gairie  Burn,  5  miles  WNW.  of  Forfar. 
It  manufactures  brown  linen,  and  is  famous  as 
the  'Thrums'  of  Mr  J.  M.  Barrie,  whose  birth- 
place it  was.     Pop.  4100. 

Kirton-in-Lindsey,  a  town  of  Lincolnshire,  10 
miles  NE.  of  Gainsborough.     Pop.  of  parish,  2400, 

KlshinefT,  capital  of  the  Russian  government 
of  Bessarabia,  stands  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Dniester,  162  miles  NW.  of  Odessa  by  the  railway 
to  Jassy.  When  it  became  Russian  in  1812  it  had 
only  7000  inhabitants  ;  in  less  than  a  century  it 
had  nearly  110,000,  of  whom  about  10,000  are  of 
Russian  race,  the  others  being,  in  about  equal 
proportions,  Moldavians  and  Jews.  In  1903  the 
town  became  notorious  for  anti-Semitic  riots  and 
the  massacre  of  hundreds  of  Jews.  Kishineff"  is 
the  seat  of  an  archbishop.     Pop.  (1897)  108,506. 

Kishm,  or  Tawilah  (anc.  Oaracta),  a  barren 
island  of  Persia,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Persian 
Gulf,  is  55  miles  long,  and  515  sq.  m.  in  area. 


KiSMAYtJ 


394 


KOUPUR 


Klsmajm,  an  island  and  port  on  the  coast  of 
British  East  Africa,  10  miles  S.  of  the  Juba 
River,  a  region  iidiabited  by  Somali  tribes. 

Kissingen  (Kis' sing-en),  the  most  popular 
■watering-place  in  Bavaria,  on  the  Saale,  60  miles  E. 
by  N.  from  Frankfort-on-Main.  Its  three  mineral 
springs  (51°  F.)  are  both  drunk  and  used  as  baths, 
and  are  considered  specially  efficacious  in  cases 
of  dyspepsia,  skin-diseases,  gout,  &c.  ;  and  the 
waters  are  largely  exported  in  bottles.  Though 
their  existence  was  known  in  the  9th  century,  it 
was  not  until  the  10th  century  that  their  medical 
properties  were  recognised,  and  not  until  the 
19th  that  they  came  into  high  repute.  The  i)op. 
(5000)  is  increased  by  an  annuarinflux  of  13,000 
to  14,000  visitors. 

Kistna,  or  Krishna,  a  river  of  southern  India, 
rises  in  the  Western  Ghats  within  40  miles  of  the 
Arabian  Sea,  at  a  height  of  4500  feet,  in  18°  1' 
N.  lat.,  and  flows  800  miles  E.  across  the  pen- 
insula to  the  Bay  of  Bengal.  It  forms  for  some 
distance  the  boundary  betAveen  the  Nizam's 
dominions  and  Madras  Presidency,  and  has  a 
delta  extending  100  miles  inland.  It  is  only 
navigable  for  50  miles  and  during  six  months. 

Kit's  Coity  House,  the  best-known  dolmen 
in  England,  IJ  mile  NW.  of  Ayles'ford,  Kent. 
Three  upright  blocks  of  sandstone  8  feet  high 
support  a  '  covering  stone'  12  feet  long. 

KlCi-kiang,  or  ChiO-chiang,  a  Chinese  treaty- 
port  on  the  Yang-tsze-kiang.     Pop.  53,000. 

Bllung-cliow,  chief  city  of  Hainan  (q.v.). 

Kizil-Irmak  ('red  river;'  anc.  Halys),  the 
largest  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rises  70  miles  above 
the  town  of  Sivvas,  and  curves  560  miles  SW.  and 
NNE.  to  the  Black  Sea. 

Kizil-Kum  ('red  sands'),  a  sandy  desert  in 
Russian  Turkestan,  lying  between  the  lower 
courses  of  the  Amu-Daria  and  Syr-Daria. 

Kjobenhavn.    See  Copenhagen. 

Klagenfurt  (Kldgevfoort,  g  hard),  capital  of  the 
Austrian  duchy  of  Carinthia,  262  miles  SW.  of 
Vienna.     Pop.  24,500. 

Klausenhurg  (Hungarian  Kolozsvdr),  one  of 
the  chief  cities  in  Transylvania,  95  miles  by  rail 
E.  by  S.  of  Grosswardein.  Here  are  a  university 
(1872)  and  a  Unitarian  College.     Pop.  50,000. 

Klausthal  (Kloiostdl),  the  chief  mining-town  of 
the  northern  Harz  Mountains,  25  miles  NE.  of 
Gottingen.  Theores raised  are  silver,  lead,  copper, 
and  zinc.    Pop.  9000,  or,  with  Zellerfeld,  20,000. 

Klondike,  or  Klondvke,  a  small  tributary  of 
the  Yukon  River  in  the  Canadian  district  of 
Yukon,  separated  from  the  North-west  Territories 
in  1895.  The  Klondike  (properly  Thron-duick, 
'  plenty  of  fish ')  gives  name  to  an  extraordinarily 
rich  auriferous  region,  partially  known  in  1873. 
Gold-mining  was  being  carried  on  on  the  Lewis 
and  Stewart  rivers  when  in  1896  gold  was  found 
on  the  Klondike  in  such  abundance  as  to  cause 
the  desertion  of  the  adjoining  diggings  and  to 
create  a  rush  from  Europe.  Dawson,  where  the 
Klondike  enters  the  Yukon  River,  is  60  miles  east 
of  the  Alaskan  (U.S.)  frontier. 

Kluchevskaya.    See  Kamchatka. 

Knapdale,  an  Argyllshire  district,  bounded 
N.  by  the  Crinan  Canal. 

Knareshorough,  a  market-town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Nidd,  3J  miles  NE. 
of  Harrogate  and  17  WNW.  of  York.  It  has  a 
church  (restored  1872),  Avith  interesting  Slingsby 
ihonuments;  a  grammar-school  (1616);  remains 
of  a  castle  (1170),  in  which  Richard  II.  was  im- 


prisoned, and  which  was  dismantled  in  1648 ;  a 
'dropping  well,'  with  petrifying  properties;  and 
St  Robert's  Cave,  Avhere  Eugene  Aram  buried  his 
victim  in  1745.  Mother  Shipton  is  claimed  as  a 
native,  also  Jack  Metcalf,  the  blind  road-sur- 
veyor, and  Bishop  Stubbs.  Linen  and  woollen 
rugs  are  manufactured.  Knaresborough  returned 
two  members  from  1550  till  1867,  and  one  until 
1885.  Pop.  a  little  under  5000.  See  works  by 
Calvert  (1844)  and  Grainge  (1871). 

Knebworth,  a  parish,  8^  miles  NW.  of  Hert- 
ford, with  the  seat  of  Lord  Lytton. 

Knighton,  a  Radnorshire  market-town,  on  the 
Teme,  16  miles  W.  of  Ludlow.     Pop.  2140. 

Knock,  a  village  in  County  Mayo,  Ireland,  17 
miles  ESE.  of  Castlebar,  where  an  alleged  lumin- 
ous apparition  of  the  Virgin  appeared  on  the 
chapel  wall  in  1880. 

Knockmeledown,  or  Knockmealdown,  a  range 
(2009  feet)  between  Tipperary  and  Waterford. 

Knole.    See  Sevenoaks. 

Knossos.     See  Cnossus. 

Knovrsley  Hall,  Lancashire,  3  miles  NW.  of 
Prescot,  seat  (since  1385)  of  the  Earls  of  Derby. 

Knoxville,  a  city  of  Tennessee,  stands  amid 
picturesque  scenery  on  the  Holston  River,  at 
the  head  of  steamboat  navigation,  105  miles  E. 
of  Nashville.  The  seat  of  the  state  university 
and  a  railway  junction,  it  manufactures  iron 
goods,  wooden  wares,  flour,  &c.  Pop.  (1880) 
10,917;  (1000)  32,637. 

Knoydart,  a  district  in  the  west  of  Inverness- 
shire,  between  Lochs  Hourn  and  Nevis. 

Knutsford  ('  Canute's  ford '),  a  pleasant  look- 
ing town  of  Cheshire,  15  miles  SW.  of  Manchester 
by  rail,  the  '  Cranford '  of  Mrs  Gaskell's  sketches, 
with  manufactures  of  cotton,  worsted,  and  leather 
goods.  Pop.  a  little  over  5100.  See  H.  Green's 
History  of  Knutsford  (1859). 

Knysna,  a  forest  and  elephant-preserve,  be- 
tween the  sea  and  the  Outeniqua  Mountains  in 
Cape  Colony,  150  miles  W.  of  Port  Elizabeth. 

Kobbe.    See  Dar-FGr. 

Kobe.    See  Hyogo. 

Kodiak.    See  Kadiax. 

Kohat',  in  the  NW.  Frontier  Province,  is  37 
miles  S.  of  Peshawar.  It  has  cantonments  and 
a  fort.    Guns  are  manufactured.     Pop.  27,003. 

Koh-i-baba.     See  Afghanistan. 

Kohistan',  a  name  given  to  certain  mountainous 
regions  in  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Turkestan. 

Koil.    See  Aligarh. 

Ko'komo,  a  city  of  Indiana,  on  Wild  Cat  River, 
54  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Indianapolis,  with  busy 
mills,  &c.     Pop.  12,000. 

Koko-nor,  or  Kuku-nor,  a  lake  of  Tibet,  near 
the  Chinese  frontier,  fills  a  depression  surrounded 
by  mountains,  and  lies  12,097  feet  above  sea-level. 
Its  very  salt,  blue  Avaters,  cover  66  miles  by  40. 
One  of  its  five  islands  has  a  Buddhist  monastery. 

Kokstadt.    See  Griqualand. 

Kola,  the  capital  (pop.  770)  of  Russian  Lap- 
land, and  the  most  northern  town  of  European 
Russia,  is  situated  on  the  peninsula  of  Kola, 
near  the  head  of  the  Kola  inlet.  The  peninsula 
is  a  dreary  expanse  of  forests  and  lakes,  but  in 
the  Umbdek  Mountains,  east  of  Lake  Iinandra, 
rises  to  3300  feet. 

Kolapur  {Kolhdjmr),  the  capital  of  a  tributary 
state  in  Bombay,  144  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Poona, 
famous  for  its  ancient  temples.  Pop.  54,500.— 
Area  of  state,  2816  sq.  m. ;  pop.  915,000. 


KOLGUEP 


395 


KOSTROMA 


Eolguef,  or  Kalguef,  an  island  in  the  Russian 
government  of  Archangel,  in  the  Arctic  Ocean. 
Area,  1350  sq.  ni. 

Kolin,  or  Kollin,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the 
Elbe,  38  miles  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Prague,  is  a 
centre  of  the  sugar  industry  of  the  country,  and 
manufactures  chemicals,  oil,  metal  wares,  &c. 
Pop.  15,636.  Near  it,  on  June  18,  1757,  the  Aus- 
trian s  defeated  Frederick  the  Great. 

Koln.    See  Cologne. 

Kolome'a,  a  town  of  Austrian  Galicia,  on  the 
Pruth,  43  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Czernowitz.  Near 
a  rich  petroleum  region,  it  has  petroleum  and 
paraffin-candle  works.  Pottery  is,  however,  the 
staple  manufacture.    Pop.  35,235. 

Kolouma,  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the  Moskva, 
68  miles  SE.  of  Moscow.  It  manufactures  silk, 
linen,  leather,  soap,  and  machines.    Pop.  28,323. 

Kolosvar.    See  Klausenburg. 

Kolyma',  a  river  of  E.  Siberia,  flowing  from 
the  Stanovoi  Mountains  995  miles  NE.  to  the 
Arctic  Ocean.    It  is  frozen  forty  weeks. 

Ko'morn,  a  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  island  of 
Schlitt,  in  the  Danube,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge 
of  boats,  48  miles  NW.  of  Pesth.  Its  strong 
fortress  dates  from  about  1300.    Pop.  23,042. 

Konakry.    See  Conacry. 

Kong,  a  district  of  West  Africa,  stretching 
from  8°  30'  to  12°  N.  lat.  along  the  upper  course 
of  the  Comoe  (mouth  at  Grand  Bassam  on  the 
Ivory  Coast).  It  forms  a  jjlateau  2300  feet  above 
sea-level ;  and  the  Kong  Mountains  of  geographers 
are  really  mere  isolated  granitic  peaks  only  300 
feet  higher.  The  people  are  Mandingoes  by  race 
and  Mohammedans  by  religion.  The  capital, 
Kong,  has  12,000  to  15,000  inhabitants.  Kong 
was  declared  a  French  protectorate  in  1889. 

Konieh,  or  Koniya.    See  Iconium. 

KoniggratZ  (Kdniggraytz),  a  cathedral  city  of 
Bohemia,  on  the  Elbe,  73  miles  by  rail  E.  by 
N.  of  Prague.  Here  Ziska  was  buried  in  1424. 
Pop.  9166  ;  with  suburbs, .17,715.  A  signal  victory 
was  gained  here  on  3d  July  1866  by  the  Prussians 
over  the  Austrians :  the  latter  name  the  battle 
Sadowa  from  a  village  nearer  the  battlefield. 

Konigsberg,  (1)  a  town  and  fortress  in  East 
Prussia,  on  the  river  Pregel,  4^  miles  from  the 
Frisches  Haff"  and  366  by  rail  NB.  of  Berlin.  The 
nucleus  of  the  place  was  the  block-house  built  in 
1255  by  the  Teutonic  Knights,  but  Konigsberg  is 
quite  a  modern  town.  The  castle,  chiefly  of  the 
16th  and  18th  centuries,  was  the  headquarters 
of  the  grand-master  of  the  Teutonic  Order,  and 
from  1525  to  1618  the  residence  of  the  Dukes  of 
Prussia.  In  the  castle  chapel  (1592)  Frederick 
I.  crowned  himself  first  king  of  Prussia  in  1701. 
The  Gothic  cathedral  (1333)  was  restored  in  1856 ; 
in  an  adjoining  building  Kant  lies  buried.  The 
university  was  founded  as  a  Lutheran  institution 
in  1544,  and  rebuilt  in  1844-65,  has  an  observatory 
(1811),  a  zoological  museum  (1819),  a  botanical 
garden  (1809),  a  library  of  200,000  volumes,  96 
teachers,  and  over  650  students.  One  of  the  most 
imposing  edifices  in  the  town  is  the  new  exchange 
(1875).  The  industries  include  the  manufacture 
of  iron,  machinery,  pianos,  thread,  meerschaum, 
tobacco,  beer,  &c.  Konigsberg  is  a  chief  con- 
tinental centre  for  the  tea  trade,  and  ships 
immense  quantities  of  corn.  Large  merchant- 
vessels  unload  at  Pillau,  28^  miles  by  rail  to 
the  west,  at  the  entrance  from  the  Baltic  to 
the  Frisches  Haff".  Pop.  (1875)  122,636;  (1905) 
192,500. — (2) There  is  another  Konigsberg,  34  miles 
S.  of  Stettin  by  rail.    Pop.  5958. 


Konlgshut'te,  a  rapidly-growing  centre  of  great 
coal,  iron,  zinc,  and  copper  works  in  Prussian 
Silesia,  110  miles  SB.  of  Breslau  by  rail.  It  was 
constituted  a  town  in  1869,  out  of  several  mining- 
villages.     Pop.  61,000, 

Konigstein,  a  fortress  of  Saxony,  once  regarded 
as  impregnable,  but  now  of  no  military  import- 
ance, stands  on  a  rock  800  feet  above  the  Elbe, 
24  miles  SE.  of  Dresden  by  rail. 

Konigswart,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  14  miles  by 
rail  SE.  of  Eger,  in  a  romantic  valley,  has  a  fine 
castle  of  Prince  Metternich,  chalybeate  springs, 
and  a  bathing  establishment.     Pop.  2112. 

Konigswinter,  a  village  on  the  Rhine  (pop.* 
3200),  21  miles  SE.  of  Cologne. 

Konkan,  a  strip  of  coast-districts  in  Bombay 
Presidency,  extending  from  Gujarat  on  the  north, 
past  Goa,  to  the  south  of  North  Kanara.  Its 
breadth  varies  from  1  or  2  to  50  miles,  as  the 
Western  Ghats  approach  or  recede  from  the  sea. 

Kootenay,  a  river  of  British  CoUnnbia,  which 
rises  in  tlie  mountains  that  separate  it  from 
Alberta,  and,  after  passing  through  a  corner  of 
the  U.S.,  forms  the  Kootenay  Lake,  and  after  a 
course  of  450  miles  falls  into  the  Columbia  River. 
There  have  been  rich  gold  finds  here  since  1896. 

Kopparberg,  another  name  for  Falun  (q.v.). 

Kordofan',  or  the  White  Land,  since  1899  once 
more  a  province  of  the  Egyptian  Soudan,  is  separ- 
ated from  Sennaar  on  the  E.  by  the  White 
Nile,  and  from  Dar-Fiir  on  the  W.  by  a  strip  of 
desert.  It  extends  from  12°  to  16°  N.  lat.  and 
from  29°  30'  to  32°  30'  E.  long. ;  its  area,  includ- 
ing Takalla  on  the  S.,  has  been  estimated  at 
41,500  sq.  m.,  and  its  pop.  at  280,000.  The  sur- 
face is  undulating.  The  chief  product  is  millet, 
the  principal  food  of  the  inhabitants.  The  capital 
is  El-Obeid,  with  30,000  inhabitants,  situated  in 
the  centre  of  the  country. 

Korea.    See  Corea. 

Koros,  Nagy  ('  Great  Koros '),  a  town  of  Hun- 
gary, 55  miles  SE.  of  Budapest  by  rail.  Pop. 
26.584.— Kiss  Koros  ('Little  Koros'),  a  town,  (iQ 
miles  by  rail  S.  by  E.  of  Budapest,  is  the  birth- 
place of  Petofi.    Pop.  8734. 

KoroskO,  a  small  village  of  Lower  Nubia,  with 
a  few  wretched  huts  straggling  along  the  right 
bank  of  the  Nile,  about  midway  between  the 
first  and  second  cataracts. 

Kosciusko,  Mount.    See  Australia,  p.  62. 

Koslin,  a  town  of  Prussia,  5  miles  from  the 
Baltic  and  85  NE.  of  Stettin.  It  manufactures 
iron,  paper,  soap,  bricks,  &c.    Pop.  27,277. 

Koslow.    See  Kozlof. 

Kos'sovo,  the  '  Field  of  Blackbirds,'  a  plain  in 
Turkey,  near  the  Servian  frontier,  west  of  the 
Prishtina,  the  scene  of  two  Turkish  victories — 
(1)  of  Sultan  Murad  I.  over  the  Servian  Tsar 
Lazar  in  1389,  when  both  sovereigns  fell,  and  the 
Servians  lost  their  independence  ;  (2)  of  Sultan 
Murad  II.  over  the  great  Hungarian  general 
Hunyady  in  1448. 

Kostendil,  an  archiepiscopal  city  of  Bulgaria, 
near  the  Struma,  43  miles  SW.  of  Sofia,  has  gold 
and  silver  mining,  warm  baths,  and  numerous 
ruins.    Pop.  11,400. 

Kostnitz.    See  Constance. 

Kos'troma,  capital  of  a  Russian  government, 
near  the  Kostroma's  influx  to  the  Volga,  216  miles 
by  rail  NNE.  of  Moscow.  The  spinning  and 
weaving  of  cotton  and  linen,  brandy  distilling, 
dyeing,    corn-grinding,    and   tanning   are   chief 


KOTAH 


SUM 


Industries.  Pop.  41,196.— Area  of  government, 
32,692  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,428,900. 

Kotah,  the  chief  town  of  a  native  state  in 
Rajputana,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Chanibal. 
Poi).  33,624.  Tlie  area  of  the  state  is  3803  sq.  ni. ; 
pop.  544,350. 

Kothen,  a  town  in  the  German  duchy  of  Anhalt, 
till  1853  the  capital  of  the  principality  of  Anhalt- 
Kothen,  22  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Halle,  and  31  SSE. 
of  Magdeburg.  It  has  a  cathedral ;  the  castle  of 
the  former  dukes,  rebuilt  in  1597-1606  after  a  fire ; 
iron-foundries,  sugar-factories,  &c.  Pop.  (1875) 
14,403  ;  (1900)  22,100. 

Kot'onou.    See  Cotonou. 

Koutobet.    See  Obock. 

Kovno,  capital  of  the  Russian  government  of 
Kovno,  stands  near  the  confluence  of  the  Vilia 
and  the  Niemen,  523  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  St 
Petersburg  and  94  ENE.  of  Konigsberg.  It  was 
long  a  stronghold  of  the  Teutonic  knights,  and 
was  taken  by  Russia  from  Lithuania  in  1795. 
Pop.  73,550.— The  government  lies  south  of  Cour- 
land,  bordering  on  Prussia  and  Poland.  Area, 
15,687  sq.  in. ;  pop.  1,600,000. 

Koweit,  or  Kuwkit,  a  good  port  of  Turkey  in 
Asia,  on  tlie  Shat-el-Arab,  dependent  on  Muscat 
or  Oman  (and  so  on  Britain) ;  the  proposed  ter- 
minus of  the  German  railway  through  Asia  Minor. 

Kowloon.    See  Hong-kong. 

Koyunjik.     See  Nineveh. 

Kozlof,  a  Russian  town,  123  miles  SE.  of  Moscow 
by  rail.     Pop.  45,053. 

Kra,  or  Krao,  the  isthmus  connecting  Siam 
■with  the  Malay  Peninsula,  whose  minimum 
breadth  is  44  miles.  A  ship-canal  through  it 
would  shorten  the  journey  from  Ceylon  to  Hong- 
Kong  by  300  miles,  and  that  from  Calcutta  to 
Hong-Kong  by  540.  A  railway  has  also  been 
suggested.     See  a  work  by  Loftus  (1883). 

Kragujevatz,  a  town  of  Servia,  61  miles  S.  of 
Belgrade,  has  an  arsenal.  Till  1842  it  was  the 
residence  of  the  Servian  princes.    Pop,  14,669. 

Krain.    See  Carniola. 

Krajova,  or  Craiova,  a  town  of  Roumania, 
154  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Bucharest.  Near  it  are 
productive  salt-mines.    Pop.  43,000. 

Krakatoa,  or  Krakatau,  a  volcanic  island  in 
the  Strait  of  Sunda,  between  Java  and  Sumatra, 
w^as  in  1883  the  scene  of  a  tremendous  volcanic 
disturbance.  From  May  the  volcano  on  the  island 
had  been  ejecting  ashes  ;  during  26-28th  August 
the  crater  walls  fell  in,  together  with  a  part  of 
the  ocean  bed,  carrying  with  it  8  sq.  m.  or  two- 
thirds  of  the  island.  At  the  same  time  a  gigantic 
ocean-wave  inundated  the  adjoining  coasts  of 
Java  and  Sumatra,  causing  a  loss  of  36,500  liA^es, 
and  then  careered  round  the  entire  globe.  See 
a  work  by  G.  J.  Symons  (1888). 

Kranganur.    See  Cranganore. 

Krasnovodsk,  a  Russian  railway  terminus  and 
harbour,  on  the  east  side  of  the  Caspian  Sea,  in 
the  Transcaspian  territory.     Pop.  7500. 

Krasnoyarsk,  the  chief  town  of  the  Siberian 
government  of  Yeniseisk,  on  the  Upper  Yenisei, 
370  miles  E.  from  Tomsk.  It  is  the  centre  of  the 
gold- washings  of  the  province.    Pop.  27,154. 

Krefeld,  one  of  the  most  impoi-tant  manufac- 
turing towns  of  Germany,  4  miles  from  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhine  and  12  NW.  of  Dusseldorf.  It 
owes  its  importance  to  the  settlement  here,  in 
the  17th  and  ISth  centuries,  of  refugees  from 
Julich  and  Berg,  who  established  Krefeld's  noted 


silk  and  velvet  manufactures.  Here  are  alsd 
large  railway  repair  shops,  iron-foundries,  and 
manufactures  of  machinery,  chemicals,  soaps, 
spirits,  &c.     Pop.  (1875)  62,840 ;  (1900)  109,116. 

Kremenchug,  a  town  of  Russia  on  the  Dnieper, 
74  niiles  by  rail  SW.  of  Pultowa.  From  1765  to 
1789  it  was  the  chief  town  of  New  Russia ;  it  is 
now  the  seat  of  great  industrial  activity,  especi- 
ally in  wool,  timber,  and  tobacco,  and  of  factories 
for  agricultural  machines,  leather,  tobacco, 
candles,  &c.    Pop.  58,000. 

Kremlin.    See  Moscow. 

Kremnitz,  a  town  of  Hungary,  83  miles  N.  of 
Budapest.  Its  gold  and  silver  mines  were  once 
more  famous  than  now.    Pop.  10,000. 

Krems,  a  town  of  Lower  Austria,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  river  Krems  with  the  Danube,  47 
miles  by  rail  W.  by  N.  of  Vienna.     Pop.  13,042. 

Kremsier,  a  pretty  town  of  Moravia,  on  the 
March,  35  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Briinn.    Pop.  13,816. 

Kreuznacll  {Kroitz!nalih),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  dating  from  the  9th  century,  on  the 
Nahe,  35  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Coblenz.  Its  chief 
manufacture  is  chamjiagne ;  but  it  is  most  not- 
able for  its  hot  salt-springs  (50°  to  90°  F.),  attract- 
ing over  5000  visitors  annually.     Pop.  21,404. 

Krimmitscliau,  a  town  of  Saxony,  45  miles  S. 
of  Leipzig.     Pop.  23,000. 

Krishna.    See  Kistna. 

Elronenberg,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  4 
miles  S.  of  Elberfeld.     Pop.  9958. 

Kronstadt  (Magyar  Brasso),  a  town  in  the 
extreme  SE.  of  Transylvania.  Pop.  36,660.— For 
the  Russian  Kronstadt,  see  Cronstadt. 

Kroonstad,  a  town  of  Orange  River  Colony, 
on  the  railway  from  the  Cape  to  Pretoria,  130 
miles  NE.  of  Bloemfontein.     Pop.  7200. 

Krugersdorp,  a  town  of  the  Transvaal  Colony, 
about  20  miles  W.  of  Johannesburg.    Pop.  19,500. 

Kuban,  a  river  of  Caucasia,  giving  name  to  a 
province  (area,  39,277  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,922,800). 

Kuch  Behar.    See  Behar. 

Kuen-Lun,  a  great  snow-clad  mountain-chain 
of  central  Asia,  which  forms  the  northern  wall 
of  the  Tibetan  plateau,  as  the  Himalayas  do  the 
southern.  Starting  from  the  Pamir  plateau  (82" 
E.  long.),  the  Kuen-Lun  curves  eastward  to  94' 
E.  long.,  its  width  varying  from  100  to  150  miles. 
The  peaks  are  18,000  to  25,000  feet  high,  and  the 
passes  13,000  to  18,000  feet. 

Kuilenburg.    See  Culenboro. 

Kuka,  or  KuKAWA.    See  Bornu. 

Kulja,  a  town  of  Zungaria,  central  Asia,  stands 
on  one  of  the  great  highways  leading  from  China 
to  West  Turkestan,  and  on  the  Hi,  which  flows 
750  miles  from  the  Tian-Shan  Mountains  to  Lake 
Balkhash.  Kulja  (pop.  12,500)  is  the  chief  town 
of  a  fertile  district  (Kulja  or  Hi),  which  revolted 
against  China  in  1865,  was  occupied  by  Russia  in 
1871,  but  ten  years  later  restored  to  China,  except 
4300  sq.  m.  now  incorporated  in  Semiretchensk. 
The  Chinese  province  has  an  area  of  23,130  sq. 
m.  and  a  pop.  of  70,000.  New  Kulja,  25  miles  W. 
of  Kulja,  was  destroyed  by  the  rebels  in  1866 ;  it 
then  had  75,000  inhabitants. 

Kulm,  a  village  of  Bohemia,  3  miles  NE.  of 
Teplitz.  Here  the  French  were  routed  by  the 
Prussians  and  Russians,  29-30th  August  1813. 

Kum,  next  to  Meshed  the  most  sacred  city  of 
Persia,  is  a  straggling,  half-ruined  town  between 
Ispahan  and  Teheran.    Its  shrines  and  tombs  of 


KUMAMOTO 


397 


KYLES  OF  BUTE 


Mohammedan  (Shiite)  sainta  attract  thousands 
of  pilgrims.     Pop.  20,000. 

Kumamoto',  a  town  on  the  west  coast  of  the 
island  of  Kiu-siu,  Japan.    Pop.  64,500. 

Kumania.    See  Cumania. 

Kumaun,  a  district  in  the  North-west  Prov- 
inces of  India.  It  lies  chiefly  on  the  south  slope 
of  the  Himalayas,  and  comprises  summits  rising 
to  over  20,000  feet.  Almora  is  the  capital. 
Area,  7151  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,260,000. 

Kunawar,  a  division  of  Bashahr  (q.v.). 

Kunduz.    See  Afghanistan. 

Kunersdorf.  a  village  in  Prussia,  4  miles  E. 
of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.  Here  Frederick  the 
Great,  after  gaining  a  half  victory,  was  routed 
by  the  Russians  and  Austrians,  August  12,  1759. 

Kungur,  a  town  in  Russia,  50  miles  SSB.  of 
Perm.     Pop.  15,300. 

Kura,  a  river  of  the  Caucasus. 

Kuram,  a  river  rising  in  Afghanistan  near  the 
northern  end  of  the  western  Suliman  range,  and 
flowing  to  the  Indus  near  Isakhel. 

Kurdistan'  ('  the  Country  of  the  Kurds '),  an 
extensive  geographical,  though  not  political, 
region  mainly  to  the  NE.  of  Turkey  in  Asia, 
S.  and  W.  of  Erzerdm,  but  including  the  part  of 
Persia  about  Uruniia.  Area,  50,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
over  2,250,000— nearly  1,500,000  in  Turkey,  700,000 
in  Persia,  and  45,000  in  Russian  Transcaucasia. 
The  surface  ranges  from  5000  up  to  15,000  feet 
in  altitude.  Numerous  rivers  force  their  way 
through  the  mountains,  and  go  to  feed  the  Tigris 
and  the  Euphrates.  The  bulk  of  the  inhabitants 
are  Kurds  (the  ancient  Carduehi),  partly  nomad 
and  pastoral,  partly  settled  and  agricultural, 
by  race  Turanian,  but  speaking  an  old  Persian 
dialect.  Their  forays  have  been  a  sore  affliction 
to  their  Armenian  neighbours.  In  1880  an  exten- 
sive Kurdish  rising  against  Persia  took  place. 
Some  Nestorian  Christians  inhabit  the  valley  of 
the  Tigris ;  but  the  Kurds  are  Mohammedans. 
The  chief  towns  are  Bitlis,  Van,  Urumia,  Diar- 
bekr,  and  Kermanshah.  See  Millingen,  Wild 
Life  Among  the  Koords  (1870). 

Kuria-Muria,  a  group  of  five  islands,  21  miles 
from  the  south-east  coast  of  Arabia.  Area,  21 
miles  ;  pop.  34.  They  were  ceded  to  England  in 
1854  by  the  Imam  of  Muscat.  On  one  of  them 
is  a  signalling  telegraphic  station. 

Kurlles,  a  sparsely-populated  group  of  twenty- 
six  islands,  extending  from  Kamchatka  to  Yezo, 
and  belonging  to  Jajian.  In  1875  tlie  Japanese 
surrendered  their  good  claims  on  the  southern 
part  of  Saghalien  (resumed  by  the  treaty  of 
1905  closing  the  war  with  Russia),  and  received 
in  exchange  from  Russia  the  northerly  portion 
of  the  Kuriles.  With  a  few  exceptions  the  popu- 
lation remains  in  this  misty  and  inhospitable 
region  only  during  the  summer,  as  long  as  the 
fishing  season  lasts. 

Ku'risches  Haff,  a  fresh- water  lagoon  of  East 
Prussia,  extending  61  miles  south  from  Memel, 
with  an  average  width  of  14  miles.  It  is  con- 
nected with  the  Baltic  by  the  '  Memel  Deeps,'  a 
channel  500  yards  wide  and  20  feet  deep.  The 
spit  of  sand-dunes,  1  to  2  miles  wide,  that  separ- 
ates it  from  the  Baltic,  is  encroaching  on  the  haff". 

Kurland.    See  Courland. 

Kurrachee  {Karat' chi),  the  capital  of  Sind  and 
the  chief  port  of  entry  for  the  Punjab,  stands  at 
the  northern  end  of  the  great  Indus  delta,  and 
close  to  the  frontier  of  Beluchistan.    It  is  1169 


miles  by  rail  (about  700  direct)  SW.  of  Delhi. 
Kurrachee  has  an  extensive  harbour,  sheltered 
by  a  breakwater  and  a  long  reef,  with  a  fixed 
light  120  feet  high.  The  landing-place  is  on 
Kiamari  Island,  which  is  connected  with  the 
town  by  the  Napier  mole,  3  miles  long.  The 
harbour  improvements,  completed  in  1873,  cost 
£450,000 ;  there  is  now  a  lowest  depth  over  the 
bar  of  20  feet.  The  Frere  municipal  hall  (with  a 
library  and  nmseuin)  was  named  after  Sir  Bartle 
Frere,  of  whom  there  is  also  a  statue  here.  To 
the  east  and  north  are  the  cantonments,  and, 
close  by,  a  public  garden  of  40  acres.  There  are 
ironworks  and  large  cotton  presses  in  the  town, 
the  cotton  of  Sind  and  the  Punjab  forming  arf 
important  article  of  export,  though  less  so  than 
wheat  and  oil-seeds.  Tlie  annual  trade  of  the 
port  has  risen  to  above  £7,000,000;  the  inland 
trade  extends  to  ^jgRinistan  and  Beluchistan. 
Pop.  (1881)  73,560;  (1901)  115,407.  See  Baillie, 
Kurrachee,  Past,  Present,  and  Future  (1890). 

Kursk  (Koorsk),  chief  town  of  a  Russian  govern- 
ment, 312  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Moscow  and 
274  NNE.  of  Kieff.  The  chief  industry  is  tan- 
ning ;  but  soap,  tobacco,  candles,  and  spirits  are 
also  manufactured.  Kursk  is  celebrated  for  its 
orchards,  and  has  an  observatory.  Pop.  52,957. 
Near  the  town  a  great  fair  is  held  after  Easter. — 
The  government  has  an  area  of  17,931  sq.  m.,  and 
a  pop.  (1897)  of  2,396,900. 

Kuruman,  a  mission-station  in  Bechuanaland, 
130  miles  NW.  of  Kimberley.  Dr  Moffat  laboured 
here  for  years,  and  here  too  was  Livingstone. 

Kusi,  a  considerable  tributary  of  the  Ganges, 
rises  in  the  Nepal  Himalayas,  NW.  of  Mount 
Everest,  and  flows  325  miles  generally  south,  in 
a  rapid  stream. 

Kus'koqulm.    See  Alaska. 

Kustendji,  or  more  properly  since  1878  Con- 
stanza,  a  seaport  in  the  Dobrudja,  Roumania, 
stands  on  the  Black  Sea,  at  the  end  of  Trajan's 
Wall  and  of  the  railway  to  Tchernavoda  on  the 
Danube.  Pop.  12,800.  Not  far  distant  was  Tomi, 
the  place  of  Ovid's  banishment. 

Kiistenland  ('coast-land'),  an  Austrian  divi- 
sion comprising  Gorz,  Gradisca,  Istria,  Trieste. 

Kiistrin,  a  fortified  town  of  Prussia,  amidst 
great  marshes,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Warthe 
with  the  Oder,  51  miles  E.  of  Berlin.    Pop.  17,500. 

Kutala,  or  Kutaya,  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  70 
miles  SE.  of  Brusa,  and  connected  by  rail  with 
Eski-Shehr  and  the  railway  system.    Pop.  45,000, 

Kutai's,  capital  of  a  Black  Sea  department  of 
Transcaucasia,  70  iniles  NE.  of  Batoum.  Pop. 
25,000. 

Kuttenberg,  a  silver-mining  town  of  Bohemia, 
185  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Vienna.  Close  by  is 
a  large  imperial  tobacco- factory.    Pop.  15,154. 

Kwando,  or  Chobe.    See  Zambesi. 

Kwango,  a  tributary  of  the  Congo. 

Kwanza.    See  Coanza. 

Kwilu,  a  river  of  the  French  West  African 
colony  Gaboon,  rises  near  the  Leflmi,  and  reaches 
the  Atlantic  north  of  Loango. 

Kyle,  the  central  district  of  Ayrshire. 

Kyleakin.    See  Skye. 

Kylemore,  a  district  in  the  west  of  County 
Galway,  10  miles  NE.  of  Clifden,  with  a  castle, 
and  a  small  lough  from  which  a  river  runs  3 
miles  through  a  remarkable  ravine  to  the  sea. 

Kyles  of  Bute,    See  Bute. 


KYOTO 


LADOGA 


Kyoto,  MiAKO,  or  Saikio,  from  784  a.d.  to  18C8 
the  capital  of  Japan,  on  the  Kanio  River,  26 
miles  inland  from  Ozaka.  At  the  N.  end  are  situ- 
ated, in  an  enclosure,  the  plain  wooden  buildings 
where  the  emperors  of  Japan  dwelt  so  long  in 
seclusion.  The  Honganji  temples  of  the  Monto 
sect  of  Buddhists,  the  centre  of  the  Buddhist  faith 
in  Japan,  rise  at  the  S.  end  of  the  city.    The 


singing-girls  of  Kyoto  are  noted  for  their  graceful 
dances.  The  pottery,  porcelain,  enamels,  inlaid 
bronze-work,  crapes,  velvets,  and  brocades  of 
Kyoto  are  highly  esteemed.  Pop.  (1884)  255,403 ; 
(1892)  297,527  ;  (1000)  354,230. 

Kyouk-pyoo,  a  district  of  Arakan  in  Burmah, 
named  from  the  capital  (pop.  4000),  on  an  island, 
96  miles  SE.  of  Akyab. 


AALAND,  or  Lolland,  a  flat  and  fertile 
Danish  island,  at  the  southern  entrance 
to  the  Great  Belt,  86  miles  long  by  9 

to  15  broad.     Area,  445  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 

""^^  72,000.  The  capital  is  Maribo  (pop. 
2403)  ;  the  largest  town,  Nakskov  (pop.  6278). 

Lab'rador,  the  north-eaH^n  peninsula  of  the 
North  American  continent,  lying  between  Hudson 
Bay  and  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence.  The  coasts 
were  probably  visited  by  Norsemen  about  the 
year  1000 ;  they  were  sighted  by  Cabot  in  1498. 
In  1500  the  Portuguese  Cortereal  is  said  to  have 
visited  it  and  to  have  given  it  its  euphemistic 
name  of '  cultivable  land.'  But  another  tradition 
derives  the  name  from  a  Basque  whaler  called 
Labrador.  Labrador  extends  from  49°  to  63°  N. 
lat.,  and  from  55'  to  79°  W.  long.  The  greatest 
length  is  1100  miles,  and  the  area  420,000  sq.  m. 
The  portion  draining  into  the  St  Lawrence  forms 
the  larger  part  of  Quebec  province  ;  the  Atlantic 
coast  strip— to  which  the  name  Labrador  is 
officially  restricted— is  attached  to  Newfound- 
land ;  the  remainder  is,  since  1895,  the  terri- 
tory of  Ungava.  The  Atlantic  coast  is  stern 
ancl  precipitous  (1000  to  4000  feet  high),  entirely 
destitute  of  vegetation,  deeply  indented  with 
narrow  fjords,  and  fringed  with  rocky  islands. 
The  interior,  very  imperfectly  explored,  consists 
mainly  of  a  plateau  2000  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  mostly  covered  with  fine  forest  trees,  firs, 
birches,  &c.  Numerous  lakes,  including  Mistas- 
sini  (q.v.),  with  the  rivers,  afford  in  summer 
continuous  waterways  for  great  distances.  The 
only  inhabitants  of  this  interior  plateau  are  Cree 
Indians,  nomads.  There  are  numerous  rivers, 
200  to  300  miles  long  and  2  and  3  miles  wide  at 
their  mouths,  flowing  towards  the  Atlantic  and 
Hudson  Bay.  The  Grand  Falls,  2000  feet  high, 
on  Grand  River  are  amongst  the  largest  in -the 
world.  Bears,  wolves,  foxes,  martens,  otters, 
beavers,  lynxes,  &c.,  are  found.  Iron  and  the 
felspar  called  labradorite  are  abundant.  The 
climate  on  the  coast  is  very  rigorous,  owing 
mainly  to  the  ice-laden  Arctic  current  which 
washes  the  shores.  The  short  three-months' 
summer  is  marred  by  the  swanns  of  mosquitoes 
and  black  flies.  The  mean  annual  temperature 
at  the  missionary  stations  varies  from  22°  to  28°. 
By  far  the  most  important  wealth  of  the  Labra- 
dor coast  is  its  fish— cod,  salmon,  herrings,  and 
trout ;  some  30,000  fishermen  from  Newfoundland, 
Canada,  and  the  United  States  visit  its  fishing- 
grounds  in  the  season.  Tlie  6000  permanent 
settlers,  Eskimo  and  French  Acadians,  in  the 
coast-region,  are  collected  chiefly  at  the  Mor- 
avian missionary  stations— Nain  (founded  1770), 
Okkak,  Hebron,  Hopedale,  &c.  See  works  by 
Hind  (1863)  and  Packard  (1892). 

Labuan,  an  island  30  sq.  m.  in  area,  6  miles 
from  the  NW.  coast  of  Borneo.  It  has  a  good 
harbour  (Victoria),  and  an  extensive  bed  of 
excellent  coal.  It  became  British  in  1846,  and 
since  1891  is  administered  by  the  British  North 
Borneo  Company.    Pop.  8500. 


Laccadives  (Sansk.  Lalcsha  Dwipa,  '  the  Hun- 
dred  Thousand  Islands'),  a  group  of  fourteen 
coral  islands  in  the  Arabian  Sea,  between  10°  and 
14°  N.  lat.,  and  200  miles  W.  of  the  Malabar 
coast.  Area,  744  sq.  m.  ;  population,  15,500, 
Mohammedans  of  Hindu  descent.  They  are  low 
and  flat,  and  all  but  two  are  comparatively 
barren.  The  cocoa-nut  is  the  chief  plant,  and 
coir  (cocoa-nut  fibre)  the  staple  product.  The 
group  was  discovered  by  Vasco  da  Gama  in  1499. 

Lachine  (La-sheen'),  a  summer  residence  of 
Quebec,  8  miles  SW.  of  Montreal  by  rail.  There 
is  a  canal  hence  to  Montreal  to  avoid  the  Lachine 
Rapids  of  the  St  Lawrence.    Pop.  5600. 

Lachlan,  an  Australian  river,  a  tributary  of 
the  Murrumbidgee,  which  flows  to  the  Murray. 

Lackawanna  River,  Pennsylvania,  is  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Susquehanna,  and  its  valley  nearly 
coincides  with  the  Wyoming  and  Lackawanna 
coal  basin  (55  miles  long), 

Lacock  Abbey,  a  Wiltshire  seat,  3 J  miles  S. 
by  W.  of  Chippenham.  Representing  an  Augus- 
tinian  nunnery  (1232),  it  was  the  home  of  W.  H. 
Fox  Talbot,  the  photographic  inventor. 

La  Crosse,  capital  of  La  Crosse  county,  Wis- 
consin, stands  on  the  Mississippi,  at  the  mouth 
of  La  Crosse  River,  and  at  the  junction  of  six 
railways,  195  miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  Milwaukee. 
It  has  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  and  manufac- 
tures of  farming-implements,  engines  and  boilers, 
sashes  and  blinds,  &c.,  besides  large  lumber- 
mills,  iron-foundries,  and  breweries.  Pop.  (1870) 
7785  ;  (1900)  28,895. 

Ladakh',  one  of  the  outlying  governorships  of 
Cashmere,  in  the  valley  of  the  Upper  Indus,  and 
behind  the  great  central  range  of  the  Himalayas. 
The  Ladakhis,  some  30,000,  are  of  Tmanian  stock 
and  Buddhists  in  religion.     The  capital  is  Leh. 

Ladismith,  (1)  a  village  of  800  (named  from  a 
colonial  governor's  wife),  in  Cape  Colony,  at  the 
southern  base  of  the  great  Zwarte  Bergen,  70 
miles  inland  from  Aliwal  South.— A  larger  place 
is  distinguished  from  it  as  Ladysmith  (q.v.). 

Lado,  a  station  on  the  left  bank  of  the  White 
Nile,  in  8°  5'  N.  lat.,  established  by  Gordon  in 
1875.  The  Lado  enclave,  over  which  Britain 
has  sovereign  rights,  but  through  which  it  has 
leased  to  the  Congo  State  certain  rights  of  access 
to  the  Nile,  extends  from  the  river  on  the  east  to 
30°  E.  long,  on  the  west,  the  Congo  boundary 
on  the  SW.,  and  8°  50'  N.  lat.  on  the  north. 

Lad'oga,  Lake,  the  largest  lake  of  Europe,  a 
little  N.  of  St  Petersburg,  on  the  Finnish  frontier. 
It  is  129  miles  long  and  78  broad.  The  lake 
receives  the  waters  of  Lakes  Onega  and  Ihnen 
in  Russia,  and  of  Lake  Saima  and  other  lakes  in 
Finland  ;  and  its  own  waters  are  carried  off"  to 
the  Gulf  of  Finland  by  the  Neva  (q.v.).  The 
average  depth  does  not  exceed  300  feet,  except 
in  the  NW.  (730  feet).  The  navigation  is  exceed- 
ingly dangerous  owing  to  shallows  and  sunken 
rocks.    Of  the  canals  connected  with  it  the  chief 


LADRONES 


LAKE  DISTRICT 


Is  the  Ladoga  Canal  (70  miles  long  and  60  feet 
wide).  This  canal-system  forms  the  thorough- 
fare for  a  very  extensive  traffic  between  the  Volga 
and  the  Baltic.  Two  of  the  islands  in  the  north- 
west, Valaam  and  Konevetz,  have  monasteries 
(founded  900  and  1393)  much  visited  by  pilgrims. 

Ladrones,  or  Mariana  Islands,  a  group  of 
fifteen  islands  in  the  western  Pacific,  north  of 
the  Carolines,  in  13°— 21°  N.  lat.  and  144°— 146° 
E.  long.,  disposed  in  a  row  almost  due  north  and 
south  ;  their  united  area  is  420  sq.  m.  They  were 
discovered  by  Magellan  (1521),  whose  sailors 
called  tliem  the  'Thieves'  (Ladrones)  Islands;'  in 
1668  they  received  the  name  of  Mariana  Islands. 
A  channel  divides  tlieiii  into  two  groups.  Most 
of  the  group  are  thickly  wooded,  and  all  are 
fruitful.  Pop.  10,000.  In  1898  Guam,  the  largest 
island  (pop.  7000),  was  ceded  by  Spain  to  tlie 
United  States,  and  in  1899  the  remainder  of  the 
group  were  sold  to  Germany. 

Ladybank,  a  police-burgh  of  Fife,  5-^-  miles 
SW,  of  Cupar.    Pop.  1350. 

Ladysmlth  (see  also  Ladismith),  a  town  of 
6000  in  Natal,  140  miles  NW.  of  Durban.  Here 
in  1899-1900  the  British  forces  under  Sir  George 
White  were  invested  by  the  Boers  for  120  days, 
till  relieved  by  Sir  Red  vers  BuUer. 

Laeken  (Ld'ken),  a  northern  suburb  of  Brussels, 
containing  the  royal  palace  (1782),  with  valuable 
works  of  art  and  historical  documents.  Pop. 
(1902)31,350. 

Lafayette,  in  Indiana,  on  the  Wabash  River, 
is  63  miles  NW.  of  Indianapolis.  It  contains 
the  Purdue  state  university,  and  manufactures 
farming-implements,  machinery,  cars  and  wagons, 
&c.    Pop.  20,000. 

Lagan,  a  river  of  Ulster,  flowing  35  miles  to 
Belfast  Lough  at  Belfast. 

Laggan,  a  hamlet  and  parish  of  Inverness- 
shire,  11  miles  WSW.  of  Kingussie,  on  the  Spey. 
Loch  Laggan,  7  miles  fartlier  to  the  SW.,  is  7 
miles  long,  and  discharges  by  the  Spean  to  the 
Lochy.  Between  Laggan  and  Kingussie  is  Cluny 
Castle,  seat  of  the  chief  of  the  Macphersons. 

Lago  Maggiore.    See  Maggiore. 

Lagos,  a  seaport  on  the  south  coast  of  Portu- 
gal, 80  miles  ENE.  from  Cape  St  Vincent.  Pop. 
7900.  In  the  Bay  of  Lagos  Boscawen  defeated 
the  French  Toulon  fleet  in  1759. 

Lagos,  a  British  colony  and  protectorate  on 
the  Guinea  coast  of  Africa.  The  colony  com- 
prises the  islands  of  Lagos  and  Iddo  (annexed  in 
1801),  and  about  140  miles  of  coast  between 
Dahomey  and  Southern  Nigeria.  Area,  3400 
sq.  m. — The  'protectorate  (arranged  1901)  extends 
to  the  French  possessions  on  the  Middle  Niger, 
and  has  an  area  of  25,240  sq.  m.  The  total  popu- 
lation is  about  1,500,000.  Lagos  island  is  3|  sq.  m. 
in  area ;  at  its  W.  end  stands  Lagos  town  (pop. 
40,000),  the  only  safe  harbour  for  1000  miles. 

La  Guaira.    See  Guaira. 

La  Hague,  the  north-west  extremity  of  the 
pen  insula  of  Cotenti  n  (q.  v. )  over  again  st  Alderney. 
It  is  crowned  by  a  lighthouse,  158  feet  high, 

Lahn,  an  important  affluent  of  the  Rhine  in  its 
middle  course. 

La  Hogue,  a  roadstead  on  the  east  side  of  the 
peninsula  of  Cotentin  (q.v.).  On  May  19,  1092, 
the  French  fleet  under  Tourville,  which  Louis 
XIV.  had  collected  to  invade  England  for  James 
II.,  was  defeated  here  by  the  English  and  Dutch 
flgets  under  the  Jacobite  Admiral  Russell. 


Lahore,  capital  of  the  Punjab,  stands  near  the 
left  bank  of  the  Ravi,  1080  miles  NW.  of  Calcutta 
by  rail.  Pop.  (1808)  125,413  ;  (1901)  202,904,  of 
whom  85,000  are  Mussulmans.  A  railway 
centre,  Lahore  is  surrounded  by  a  brick  wall  16 
feet  high.  The  fort  occupies  a  commanding  posi- 
tion to  the  north-east,  and  near  it  are  tlie  mosque 
of  Aurungzebe  and  Runjeet  Singh's  tomb.  The 
British  civil  station  is  called  Anarkalli,  and  a 
broad  road,  the  Mall,  connects  it  with  the  govern- 
ment house  and  the  Lawrence  Gardens.  Three 
miles  farther  is  the  dreary  cantonment  of  Mian 
Mir.  The  flourishing  Punjab  University  was 
largely  endowed  by  native  chiefs  and  gentlemen 
—Moslem,  Sikh,  and  Hindu.  There  are  also  the 
Oriental  College,  Government  College,  Govern- 
ment Medical  School,  Mayo  Hospital,  Roberts 
Institute,  and  a  good  nmseum.  Under  the  Mogul 
empire  the  city,  which  dates  from  the  7th  cen- 
tury A.D.,  had  a  pop.  of  over  1,000,000.  The 
remains  of  the  magnificent  buildings  erected  by 
the  Mogul  emperors  are  still  considerable,  as  well 
as  Jahaugir's  wonderful  gardens  at  Shadra  and 
Shall  mar.  In  1849  Lahore  became  the  capital  of 
the  new  British  province  of  the  Punjab  (q.v.). 

Lahr,  a  town  of  Baden,  on  an  affluent  of  the 
Rhine,  20  miles  SSE.  of  Strasburg.     Pop.  15,000. 

Laibach  (Ll-hahh),  capital  of  the  Austrian  pro- 
vince of  Carniola,  on  the  Laibach,  92  miles  NE. 
of  Trieste.     Pop.  36,091. 

Laing's  Nek,  a  defile  in  the  Drakenberge  Moun- 
tains, Natal,  10  miles  from  the  N.  point  of  its 
frontier.  Here  the  Boers  defeated  the  British 
forces  under  Colley,  January  28,  1881. 

Lairg,  a  Sutherland  village,  on  the  Shin,  67 
miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  of  Inverness. 

Lake  District,  the  name  applied  to  the  pictur- 
esque and  mountainous  region  comprised  within 
the  counties  of  Cumberland,  Westmorland,  and  a 
small  portion  of  Lancashire,  within  which  are 
grouped  as  many  as  sixteen  lakes  or  meres,  be- 
sides innumerable  mountain  tarns  and  streams, 
and  a  series  of  mountains  rising  in  four  points  to 
a  height  of  over  3000  feet.  The  district  extends 
about  30  miles  from  north  to  south  by  about  25 
from  east  to  west,  and  contains  within  its  com- 
pass the  utmost  variety  and  wealth  of  natural  scen- 
ery ;  it  is  fringed  by  such  considerable  towns 
as  Penrith,  Kendal,  Lancaster,  Barrow,  Cocker- 
mouth,  and  Whitehaven.  The  principal  lakes 
are  Vv^indermere,  Esthwaite  W'ater,  and  Coniston 
in  the  south  ;  Ullswater  and  Hawes  Water  in  the 
east;  Bassenthwaite  in  the  north;  Wast  Water, 
Ennerdale  W^ater,  Buttermere,  and  Crummock 
Water  in  the  west ;  and  Derwentwater,  Thirlmere, 
Grasmere,  and  Rydal  W^ater  in  the  heart  of  the 
district.  The  highest  mountain-summits  are  Sea- 
fell  Pike  (3210  feet),  Scafell  (3101  feet),  Helvellyn 
(3118  feet),  and  Skiddaw  (3060  feet).  The  lakes 
are  fed  and  emptied  by  beautiful  mountain- 
streams  and  becks,  often  forming  noble  waterfalls 
ov  forces.  Among  the  places  most  visited  are  the 
towns  or  villages  of  Keswick,  Coniston,  Bowness, 
Hawkeshead,  Ambleside,  Ulverston,  Rosthwaite, 
Grasmere,  Patterdale,  and  Borrowdale ;  the  Lang- 
dale  Pikes ;  the  Duddon  Valley,  Honister  Pass, 
and  Kirkstone  Pass  ;  the  Castle  Rock  of  St  John, 
celebrated  in  Scott's  Bridal  of  Triermain;  and 
such  minor  but  imposing  mountain-peaks  as 
Blencathara  or  Saddleback  (2847  feet),  near  Kes- 
wick ;  Coniston  Old  Man  (2033),  near  Coniston  ; 
and  the  Great  Gable  (2950),  near  Wastdale  Head. 

See  Wordsworth's  Description  of  the  Scenery  of 
the  Lakes  (1822) ;  Professor  Knight's  English  Lake 
District,  as  interpreted  by  Wordsworth  (new  edt 


LAKE  OF  THE  THOUSAND  ISLANDS    400 


LANCASHIRE 


1891),  and  his  Through  the  Wordsworth  Country 
(1887);  also  Harriet  Martineau's  English  Lakes 
(1858),  and  books  by  Boiiney  (1876),  Waugli, 
Rawnsley,  Bradley,  and  Collingwood  (1902). 

Lake  of  the  Thousand  Islands,  an  expansion 
of  the  St  Lawrence  (q.v.)  extending  about  40 
miles  below  Lake  Ontario.  It  contains  some 
1500  rocky  islets,  the  largest,  Wolfe  Island  (48 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  2383),  measuring  21  miles  by  7. 

Lake  of  the  Woods,  a  lake  of  North  America, 
studded  with  wooded  islands,  in  49°  N.  lat.  and 
95°  W.  long.  It  is  mostly  in  Ontario,  but  extends 
into  Manitoba  and  Minnesota.  Nearly  100  miles 
long,  and  300  in  circuit,  it  is  fed  by  the  Rainy 
River,  and  drained  by  the  Winnipeg. 

Lakhnao.    See  Lucknow. 

Laleham,  a  Middlesex  village,  on  the  Thames, 
2  miles  SSE.  of  Staines.  Matthew  Arnold  was 
born  and  is  buried  here. 

Lalitpur,  capital  of  adistrictin  the  United  Prov- 
inces of  India,  55  miles  S.  of  Jhansi.    Pop.  12,000. 

La  Mancha.     See  Mancha. 

Lambay,  an  island  of  Dublin  county,  3  milep 
SE.  of  Rush.  It  measures  1^  by  1  mile,  and  rises 
418  feet.     Pop.  61. 

Lamhayeque  (Lam-ba-yeh'ke),  a  province  of 
Peru,  with  an  area  of  17,939  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop. 
of  85,984. — The  capital,  Lambayeque,  is  7  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Laiubayeque,  and 
128  miles  NW.  of  Trujillo.     Pop.  8300. 

Lambeth,  a  metropolitan  and  parliamentary 
borougli  S.  of  the  Thames,  but  within  the  county 
of  Loudon,  has  an  area  of  6.^  sq.  m.  Since  1885 
it  returns  four  members,  its  pop.  (1901)  being 
301,895.  Lambeth  Bridge  dates  from  1862.  Lam- 
beth Palace  has  been  the  official  residence  of  the 
archbishops  of  Canterbury  since  1197.  It  contains 
a  splendid  series  of  portraits  of  the  archbishops, 
and  a  library  of  30,000  volumes,  with  many  fine 
MSS.  The  Lollards'  ToAver,  so  named  in  com- 
paratively modern  times  from  the  notion  that 
heretics  were  here  imprisoned,  was  really  a  water 
tower.  It  dat-es  from  1434.  See  the  Rev.  J. 
Cave-Browne's  Lambeth  Palace  (1883). 

Lamboum,  a  Berkshire  town,  on  the  river 
Lambourn,  7  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Hungerford. 
Pop.  of  parish,  2238. 

Lamlash',  an  Arran  village,  5^  miles  S.  by  E. 
of  Brodick,  on  a  beautiful  bay  protected  by  Holy 
Isle  (1030  feet  high).     Pop.  315. 

Lammermoors,  a  broad  range  of  moorish  hills 
in  Haddington  and  Berwick  shires,  extending 
east-north-eastward  from  the  vale  of  Gala  Water 
to  the  German  Ocean  at  St  Abb's  Head,  and 
culminating  in  Lammer  Law  (1733  feet). 

Lampedu'sa,  a  small  Mediterranean  island,  150 
miles  S.  of  Sicily,  and  80  E.  of  Tunis.  Belong- 
ing physically  to  Africa,  it  has  since  1843  been 
reckoned  part  of  Sicily.     Pop.  1074. 

Lam'peter,  a  market-town  of  Cardiganshire, 
27  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Carmarthen.  It  is  the 
seat  of  St  David's  College  (1827),  which  was 
founded  by  Bishop  Burgess,  and  has  power  to 
grant  B.A.  and  B.D.  degrees.    Pop.  1769. 

Lan'ark,  the  county  town  of  Lanarkshire,  on  a 
slope  near  the  right  bank  of  the  Clyde  (q.v.),  33 
miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Edinburgh,  and  31  SB.  of 
Glasgow.  It  has  an  interesting  ruined  church,  a 
large  Catholic  chapel  (1859),  the  county  buildings 
(1836),  a  good  racecourse,  memories  of  Wallace, 
and  some  weaving  and  other  industries.  A  royal 
burgh  since  the  12th  century,  it  unites  with  Fal- 
kirk,  &c.   to  return  a  member  to  parliament. 


Pop.  (1851)  5008 ;  (1901)  6567.-New  Lanark,  1^ 
mile  S.  by  W.,  is  a  manufacturing  village,  founded 
in  1783  by  David  Dale,  and  for  twenty-eight  years 
the  scone  of  the  social  experiments  of  his  son-in- 
law,  Robert  Owen.     Pop.  (1831)  1901 ;  (1901)  795. 

Lan'arkshire,  or  Clydesdale,  a  Scottish 
county,  enclosed  by  Stirling,  Dumbarton,  Linlith- 
gow, Edinburgh,  Peebles,  Dumfries,  Ayr,  and 
Renfrew  shires.  Its  length  is  50  miles,  its  greatest 
breadth  32  miles,  and  its  area  889  sq,  m.  Drained 
almost  entirely  by  the  Clyde  (q.v.)  and  its  numer- 
ous affluents,  Lanarkshire  is  subdivided  into  three 
wards,  of  which  the  upper  or  southern  comprises 
332,338  acres,  the  middle  194,211,  and  the  lower 
42,319.  These  offer  a  striking  diversity  of  aspect 
— lonely  uplands,  smiling  orchards,  busy  coal- 
fields and  manufacturing  district.  The  principal 
hills  are  Green  Lowther  (2402  feet)  and  far-seen 
Tinto  (2335) ;  whilst  the  mining-village  of  Lead- 
hills  (1300  feet)  is  the  highest  in  Scotland.  The 
county  possesses  great  mineral  wealth— coal, 
ironstone,  fireclay,  shale,  and  lead,  with  some 
silver  and  even  gold.  The  coal  alone  in  the 
Lanarkshire  coalfield  is  estimated  to  exceed  2000 
million  tons.  The  soil  is  as  various  as  the 
scenery  ;  and  barely  one-half  of  the  whole  area  is 
in  cultivation,  whilst  woods  occupy  20,000  acres, 
orchards  nearly  600,  and  market-gardens  over 
1300.  The  orchards  of  Clydesdale  were  famous 
as  early  as  the  time  of  Bede,  and  yielded  into  the 
19th  century  £8000  per  annum ;  but  now  the 
ground  is  more  profitably  employed  in  producing 
strawberries,  gooseberries,  vegetables,  &c.  for  the 
Glasgow  market,  Lanarkshire  is  not  a  great 
grain  county ;  but  much  of  it  is  excellently 
adapted  for  the  rearing  of  stock  and  for  dairy  pur- 
poses. The  sheep  are  Cheviots  and  black-faced, 
the  cattle  Ayrshires  ;  and  the  celebrated  Clydes- 
dale cart-horses  issue  from  a  Flemish  cross  (about 
1720).  The  mineral,  textile,  and  other  industries 
are  very  extensive,  and  are  noticed  under  the 
towns— Glasgow,  Rutherglen,  Lanark,  Hamilton, 
Airdrie,  Coatbridge,  Motherwell,  Wishaw,  &c. 
Besides  prehistoric  and  Roman  remains,  Lanark- 
shire contains  the  castles  of  Bothwell,  Douglas, 
and  Craignethan  (Scott's  '  Tillietudlem '),  the 
priories  of  Blantyre  and  Lesmahagow,  and  the 
battlefields  of  Langside,  Drumclog,  and  Bothwell 
Brig.  Among  its  worthies  have  been  Joanna 
Baillie,  Dr  John  Brown,  Sir  Colin  Campbell, 
Thomas  Campbell,  Lord  Dundonald,  David 
Livingstone,  and  Sir  John  Moore.  Though  only 
the  twelfth  in  size,  Lanarkshire  is  far  the  most 
populous  and  wealthy  of  all  the  thirty-three 
Scottish  counties.  Pop.  (1801)  147,692;  (1841) 
426,972;  (1901)  1,339,327— Lanarkshire  now  in- 
cluding the  whole  of  Glasgow  under  the  Local 
Government  (Scotland)  Act  of  1889. 

See  works  by  Hamilton  of  Wishaw  (Maitland 
Club,  1831),  Irving  and  Murray  (1864),  and  others 
cited  at  Glasgow,  Clyde,  Biggar,  &c. 

Lan'cashire,  a  county  palatine  of  England, 
ranking  sixth  in  point  of  area,  first  in  population, 
and  first  in  return  of  revenue  from  all  sources. 
It  forms  the  north-western  division  of  England, 
stretching  along  the  Irish  Sea  from  the  river 
Duddon  and  the  mountains  of  Cumberland  on 
the  north  to  the  river  Mersey  on  the  south. 
The  extreme  length  from  N,  to  S.  (including 
the  hundred  of  Furness)  is  75  miles,  and  the 
greatest  breadth  at  the  south  end  43,  at  the 
north  end  10  miles.  The  area  is  1905  sq,  m,, 
or  1,219,221  statute  acres.  Pop.  (1801)  673,486 ; 
(1841)1,667,054;  (1861)2,429,440;  (1901)4,406,787. 
The  coast  is  low,    with  numerous  far-reaching 


^ 


LANCASTER 


401 


LANDSBERO 


estuaries.  This  has  made  the  county  the  prin- 
cipal outlet  for  the  coiiunerce  of  the  country  in 
a  westerly  direction,  one-third  of  the  whole  foreign 
trade  of  Great  Britain  being  carried  on  from  its 
IKjrts.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Mersey,  Ribble, 
Lune,  Wyre,  Kent,  Leven,  and  Duddon.  An  out- 
lying portion  of  the  county,  called  Furness,  25 
miles  long  by  20  wide,  is  separated  frona  the  main 
portion  by  Morecambe  Bay,  and  seems  to  belong 
properly  to  the  Lake  District.  Coniston,  Esth- 
waite,  and  Windermere  lakes  lie  within  its  bor- 
ders. The  highest  point  here  is  'Coniston  Old 
Man'  (alt  maen,  'high  rock'),  2633  feet  high. 
The  larger  division  is  intersected  in  the  north 
and  east  by  branches  of  the  hill-system  which 
runs  southward  through  the  counties  of  York  and 
Derby,  the  chief  eminences  being  Pendle  Hill 
(1831  feet),  Bleasdale  Moor  (1709),  Boulsworth 
Hill  (1689),  and  Rivington  Moor  (1545).  Coal  is 
the  chief  mineral  product,  the  coalfield  being 
estimated  at  217  sq.  m.  in  extent.  Limestone 
and  iron  are  connnon  in  the  north  ;  lead,  copper, 
sulphur,  and  fireclay  are  also  found.  The  whole 
surface  of  the  county  is  covered  with  a  network 
of  canals  and  railways.  Lancashire  is  the  great 
centre  of  the  cotton  manufacture  of  the  world, 
having  about  two-thirds  of  the  entire  trade  ;  and 
there  are  other  textile  manufactures,  such  as 
woollens,  silk,  cari)ets.  It  is  pre-eminent  in  the 
manufacture  of  engineers'  tools  ;  and  the  making 
of  all  kinds  of  iron  and  steel  machinery  is  ex- 
tensively carried  on ;  as  also  shipbuilding,  sail- 
making,  the  manufacture  of  boots,  shoes,  and 
hosiery.  The  county  returns,  since  1885,  twenty- 
three  members  to  parliament  (formerly  eight), 
besides  thirty-two  for  the  seventeen  boroughs 
(Ashton-under-Lyne,  Barrow-in-Furness,  Black- 
burn, Bolton,  Burnley,  Bury,  Liverpool,  Man- 
chester, Oldham,  Preston,  Rochdale,  St  Helens, 
Salford,  Stalybridge,  Stockport,  Warrington,  and 
Wigan).  The  phrase,  'Lancashire  Witches," 
which  is  now  used  as  an  expression  of  admiration 
for  the  young  maidens  of  the  county,  arose  from 
the  prevalence  of  the  'crime'  of  witchcraft  in 
Lancashire  in  the  reign  of  James  I.  At  the  time 
of  the  Reformation  the  Roman  Catholic  party 
was  extremely  strong  in  Lancashire ;  and  an 
unusually  large  proportion  of  the  land-owners 
still  adhered  in  the  reign  of  James  L  to  tlie  old 
faith.  The  people  of  Lancashire  have  long  been 
noted  for  their  love  of  music  and  natural  history  ; 
while  their  politics  and  opinions  have  had  such 
influence  in  the  country  that  the  proverb  has 
arisen  that  'What  Lancashire  thinks  to-day 
England  says  to-morrow.'  Amongst  Lancashire's 
worthies  have  been  Mrs  Gaskell,  Mrs  G.  L.  Banks, 
and  Miss  Martineau;  Roscoe,  De  Quincey,  Sir 
Robert  Peel,  Horrocks,  Clough,  Dalton,  Hodg- 
kinson.  Joule,  Greg,  Bamford  the  weaver  poet, 
Edwin  Waugh,  William  Henry  the  chemist.  Sir 
W.  Fairbairn,  Sir  J.  Whitworth,  Bishop  Light- 
foot,  James  Martineau,  and  Gladstone ;  and, 
connected  with  the  success  of  the  cotton  trade, 
John  Kay  (inventor  of  the  fly-shuttle),  Crompton, 
Arkwright,  Hargreaves. 

See  Baines,  Lancashire  (1836 ;  new  ed.  by 
Croston,  1888) ;  Espinasse,  Lancashire  Worthies 
(1873-77) ;  Nodal  and  Milner,  Dialect  (1882) ;  and 
other  works  by  Butterworth  (1841),  Grindon  (1866, 
1882,  1892),  Axon  (1883),  and  Fishwick  (1894). 

Lan'caster,  the  capital  of  Lancashire,  is  pictur- 
esquely situated  on  an  eminence  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Lune,  7  miles  from  its  mouth,  51^  NNW. 
of  Manchester  and  231  NW.  of  London  by  rail. 
The  ancient  castle,  which  overlooks  the  town, 
was  built  on  the  site  of  a  Roman  castle,  and  was 


restored  by  John  of  Gaunt,  '  time-honoured  Lan- 
caster ;'  it  is  now  used  as  the  county  jail.  The 
church  of  St  Mary  (15th  century)  contains  some 
good  oak -carvings  and  stained  glass.  The  Ripley 
Hospital  is  an  asylum  for  orphan  children.  The 
Lune  is  here  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  five  arches, 
erected  in  1788,  and  by  an  aqueduct  carrying  the 
Lancaster  Canal  across  the  river.  Owing  to  the 
sanding  of  the  Lune,  large  vessels  have  to  unload 
at  Glasson,  5  miles  distant.  The  chief  manufac- 
tures are  furniture,  cotton,  silk,  oilcloth,  table- 
covers,  machinery,  and  railway  plant.  A  public 
park  was  presented  in  1881.  Sir  R.  Owen  and 
Dr  Whewell  were  natives.  In  1698  the  town  w»s 
nearly  burned  to  the  ground.  A  very  ancient 
municipal  borough,  it  returned  two  members  from 
1547  to  1867,  when  it  was  disfranchised  for  corrupt 
practices.  The  municipal  boundary  was  extended 
in  1888  and  1900.  Pop.  (1851)  14,602 ;  (1901)  40,329. 
See  works  by  Hall  (1843)  and  Simpson  (1852). 

Lancaster,  (l)  capital  of  Fairfield  county,  Ohio, 
on  the  Hocking  River  and  Canal,  32  miles  SE.  of 
Columbus,  with  machine-works  and  railway  shops. 
Pop.  9555.  —(2)  Capital  of  Lancaster  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, 69  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Philadelphia. 
It  has  a  large  court-house,  the  Franklin  and 
Marshall  (German  Reformed)  College,  large  cotton- 
mills,  tanneries,  breweries,  potteries,  and  exten- 
sive warehouses  for  tobacco.  Founded  in  1730, 
Lancaster  was  the  state  capital  from  1799  to  1812. 
Pop.  (1870)  20,233  ;  (1900)  41,460. 

Lancaster  Sound,  a  western  oiitlet  of  Baffin 
Bay,  first  navigated  by  Parry  in  1819. 

Lan-chau,  or  Lan-chow,  capital  of  Kan-su  pro- 
vince,  China,  on  the  Hoang-ho,  near  the  Great 
Wall.  It  is  an  important  commercial  centre, 
and  has  manufactures  of  cloth,  &c.    Pop.  500,000. 

Lancing,  a  Sussex  watering-place,  8^  miles  W. 
of  Brighton.  St  Nicholas's  College  (1848)  here  is 
a  High  Church  middle-class  school.  Pop.  of 
parish,  1245. 

Landau  (Lan-dow),  (1)  a  town  of  the  Bavarian 
Palatinate,  11  miles  W.  of  the  Rhine  and  17  SW. 
of  Spires.  In  1816  Bavaria  became  mistress  of 
it;  and  in  1870-71  its  fortifications  were  razed. 
Pop.  15,136. —(2)  Another  town  of  Bavaria,  on 
the  Isar,  72  miles  NE.  of  Munich.    Pop.  3165. 

Landaur,  a  sanitary  station  in  the  North-west 
Provinces,  forming  part  of  the  town  of  Masuri. 
It  is  on  the  slope  of  the  Himalayas,  7459  feet 
above  the  sea. 

Landemeau,  a  seaport  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Flnistere,  stands  at  the  head  of  Brest  harbour, 
12  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Brest.     Pop.  6520. 

Landes  (Lon^d),  a  dep.  of  southern  France, 
one  of  the  largest  and  most  thinly  peopled  in 
the  country,  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the  Bay 
of  Biscay.  Area,  3598  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1876)  303,508 ; 
(1901)  291,657.  The  chief  river  is  the  Adour  (navi- 
gable). The  greater  portion  of  the  dep.  consists 
of  the  landes,  tracts  of  barren  sand,  interspersed 
with  marshes  and  forests  of  pine  and  oak  and 
cork.  Much  land  has  been  rendered  available 
by  draining  and  planting  with  pines.  The  dep. 
is  divided  into  the  three  arrondissements  of  Mont- 
de-Marsan  (the  capital),  St  Sever,  and  Dax. 

Landguard  Fort  (Lang'gard).    See  Harwich. 

Landquart,  a  village  of  E.  Switzerland,  on  the 
Landquart,  a  tributary  of  the  Upper  Rhine,  8 
miles  N.  of  Chur,  and  31  NW.  of  Davos  by  rail. 

Landsberg,  a  Prussian  town,  on  the  Warthe, 
80  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Berlin.  Its  industrial 
establishments  include  sawmills,  machine- works, 
breweries,  distilleries,  &c.    Pop.  33,600, 


LAND'S  END 


402 


LA  PAZ 


Land's  End.    See  Cornwall. 

Landshut  (Lands-hoote),  a  picturesque  town  of 
Upper  Bavaria,  on  the  Isar,  44  miles  by  rail  NB, 
of  Munich.  Of  its  eleven  churches,  St  Martin's 
(1477)  has  a  steeple  436  feet  high.  The  castle 
of  Trausnitz  (c.  1232)  was  partially  restored  in 
1872-74.  Landshut  has  manufactures  of  tobacco, 
beer,  wagons,  hats,  &c.  The  Dominican  monas- 
tery (1271)  was  the  seat  of  the  university,  removed 
hither  from  Ingolstadt  in  1800,  and  transferred 
to  Munich  in  1826.  Here,  on  16th  April  1809,  the 
Austrians  drove  back  the  Bavarians,  but  were  in 
turn  defeated  by  Napoleon  five  days  later.  Pop. 
22,500. 

Landskrona,  a  Swedish  seaport,  on  the  Sound, 
16  miles  NNB.  from  Copenhagen.  A  fortress 
down  to  1870,  it  has  a  good  harbour,  and  carries 
on  sugar-refining,  shipbuilding,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  tobacco  and  leather.  Pop.  14,638. 
Opposite  lies  the  island  of  Hvem,  on  which  Tycho 
Brahe  built  his  observatory  of  Uranienborg. 

Lanercost,  an  Augustinian  priory,  founded 
about  1169,  lies  in  the  valley  of  the  Irthing,  16 
miles  NE.  of  Carlisle.  It  is  partly  in  ruins  ;  but 
the  nave  is  used  as  a  parish  church.  Naworth 
Castle,  1  mile  S.  of  the  priory,  is  associated  with 
the  '  Belted  Will  Howard '  of  Scott's  Lay  of  the 
Last  Minstrel ;  it  contains  old  armour,  tapestry, 
&c.     See  R.  S.  Ferguson's  Lanercost  (1870). 

Langdale  Pikes,  two  Westmorland  summits, 
at  the  head  of  Great  Langdale  Valley,  2401  and 
2323  feet  high. 

Langeland  (i.e.  '  long  land '),  a  low,  fertile 
Danish  island,  33  miles  long  by  5  broad,  at  the 
southern  entrance  to  the  Great  Belt.  Area,  106 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  19,000.  Chief  town,  Rudkjobing 
(pop.  3179),  on  the  west  coast. 

Langensalza  (Lang-en-salt'za),  a  town  of  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  13  miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  of  Gotha, 
with  a  pop.  of  12,924,  a  neighbouring  sulphur- 
spring,  and  woollen  and  cloth  manufactures. 
Here,  on  27th  June  1866,  19,000  Hanoverians 
encountered  8200  Prussians  ;  the  latter  were  at 
first  defeated,  but  being  reinforced  compelled  the 
former  to  capitulate  two  days  later. 

Lang'holm,  a  market-town  of  Dumfriesshire,  at 
the  junction  of  Ewes  and  Wauchope  Waters  with 
the  Esk,  23  miles  SSW.  of  Hawick,  and  22  (by  a 
branch-line)  N.  of  Carlisle.  Near  the  town-hall  is 
a  marble  statue  of  Admiral  Sir  Pulteney  Malcolm 
(1768-1838),  and  on  White  Hill  an  obelisk  to  his 
brother,  General  Sir  John  Malcolm  (1769-1833). 
Shepherd's  plaid  and  tweeds  have  been  manu- 
factured since  1832.  In  1890  Thomas  Hope,  a 
New  York  merchant  and  native  of  Langholm,  left 
£80,000  to  found  a  hospital  here.  Langholm  is  a 
burgh  of  barony  (1643),  under  the  Duke  of  Buc- 
cleuch,  whose  seat,  Langholm  Lodge,  is  close  by. 
The  Douglases  were  defeated  here  in  the  battle 
of  Arkinholm  (1455).    Pop.  3143. 

Langkat,  a  place  on  the  NE.  coast  of  Sumatra, 
30  miles  S.  of  the  frontiers  of  Atcheen,  produc- 
ing tobacco  and  petroleum. 

Langley  Castle,  a  ruin  in  Northumberland,  2 
miles  S.  of  Haydon  Bridge. 

Langness,  a  headland  at  the  south-east  ex- 
tremity of  the  Isle  of  Man. 

Langport,  a  Somerset  market-town,  on  the 
Parret,  14  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Taunton.    Pop.  890. 

Langres  (Longr),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Haute-Marne,  lies  1530  feet  above  sea-level  (one 
of  the  highest  towns  in  France),  184  miles  ESE. 
of  Paris  by  rail.    As  key  of  the  communication 


between  the  Seine  and  the  Rhone,  it  has  been 
strongly  fortified  since  1868,  and  has  a  cathedral 
of  the  12th  and  13th  c.  Pop.  7846.  Langres 
(anc.  Andematunnuni)  in  C£Esar's  time  was  cap- 
ital of  the  Lingones,  whence  the  name. 

Langside,  a  southern  suburb  of  Glasgow. 
Here,  after  her  escape  from  Loch  Leven,  Queen 
Mary's  forces  were  defeated,  13th  May  1568.  A 
monument  (1887)  commemorates  the  battle. 

Lang-son,  a  town  in  Tongking,  situated  north- 
east of  Ha-noi,  near  the  Chinese  frontier. 

Languedoc  (Ldng-doc'),  a  former  province  of 
the  south  of  France,  bounded  E.  by  the  Rhone, 
and  S.  by  the  Mediterranean,  and  now  embraced 
in  the  deps.  of  Lozere,  Gard,  Ardeche,  Aude, 
Herault,  Upper  Loire,  Tarn,  and  Upper  Gar- 
onne. The  name  is  derived  from  langue  d'oc,  the 
southern  French  dialect,  or  Provencal,  so  called 
from  its  use  of  oc  instead  of  the  northern  oui 
for  'yes.' 

Lannion,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Cotes- 
du-Nord,  on  the  Guer,  69  miles  by  rail  ENE. 
of  Brest.     Pop.  5593. 

Lansdown,  a  hill  (813  feet)  to  the  north  of 
Bath,  commanding  a  prospect  of  exceptional 
beauty.  Lansdown  Tower  (130  feet)  was  built 
by  Beckford,  and  2  miles  beyond,  on  5th  July 
1643,  Waller's  entrenchments  were  stormed  by 
the  Cornish  royalists.  On  the  spot  where  Sir 
Bevil  Grenville  fell  Lord  Lansdowne  raised  a 
monument  in  1723. 

Lansing,  the  capital  (since  1847)  of  Michigan, 
on  the  Grand  River,  85  miles  WNW.  of  Detroit, 
at  the  meeting-point  of  four  railways.  It  con- 
tains the  state  capitol,  library,  agricultural  college, 
a  school  for  the  blind,  several  manufactories,  &c. 
Pop.  17,000. 

Lansingburg,  a  village  of  New  York,  annexed 
to  the  city  of  Troy  in  1901.  It  contains  an 
Augustinian  priory,  and  has  extensive  manufac- 
tures of  brushes  and  oilcloth. 

Laodicea,  a  name  given  to  several  cities — eight 
at  least  can  be  distinguished— founded  or  rebuilt 
by  the  Seleucid  rulers  of  Syria ;  it  is  adapted 
from  Laodice,  a  favourite  name  for  the  female 
relatives  of  these  sovereigns.  The  most  famous, 
situated  2  miles  from  the  river  Lycus  in  Phrygia, 
is  now  a  heap  of  ruins,  known  as  Eski-Hissar. 
One  of  the  Seven  Churches  of  Asia,  it  was  stigma- 
tised as  lukewarm  (Rev.  iii.  16),  but  was  the  scene 
of  great  church  councils  in  363  and  476.— For 
another  Laodicea,  see  Latakia. 

Laon  (Ld'on^,  chief  town  of  the  French  dep. 
of  Aisne,  is  situated  on  a  steep  isolated  hill  (594 
feet),  87  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Paris.  Occupying 
a  naturally  strong  position,  it  has  been  a  fortress 
since  the  5th  century,  was  capital  of  the  kings 
of  the  West  Franks,  and  from  515  to  1790  was 
the  seat  of  a  bishop.  The  Gothic  12th-century 
cathedral,  and  the  bishop's  palace  (now  a  law- 
court),  still  remain.  The  inhabitants  are  noted 
market-gardeners.  At  Laon,  in  March  1814, 
Napoleon  was  repulsed  by  Bliicher  and  Biilow ; 
and  it  surrendered  to  a  German  force  on  9th 
September  1870,  when  the  explosion  of  the 
powder-magazine  by  a  French  soldier  cost  500 
lives.     Pop.  12,000.  • 

Laos.    See  Shan  States. 

La  Paz,  (1)  a  dep.  of  Bolivia,  bordering  on 
Peru  ;  area,  171,200  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  646,139.— The 
capital,  La  Paz,  lies  in  a  valley  11,952  feet  above 
the  sea,  42  miles  SE.  of  Lake  Titicaca.  It  is  from 
time  to  time  (as  in  1893)  capital  also  of  the  whole 


LAPLAND 


403 


LATHOM  HOUSE 


country.  It  has  a  handsome  but  unfinished 
cathedral,  and  a  trade  in  copper,  alpaca  wool, 
cinchona,  &c.  Pop.  50,000.  —(2)  A  town  of  Argen- 
tina, on  the  Parana,  530  miles  by  river  N.  by  W. 
of  Buenos  Ayres.     Pop.  9800. 

Lapland  is  a  collective  name  for  the  exten- 
sive region  (Norwegian,  Swedish,  Finnish,  and 
Russian)  in  the  north  of  Europe  that  is  inhabited 
by  the  Lapps,  who  belong  to  the  Ural-Altaic 
stock.  N.  it  is  bounded  by  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
NW.  by  the  Atlantic,  E.  by  the  White  Sea.  The 
total  Lapp  pop.  is  about  28,000—18,000  in  Nor- 
way, 7000  in  Sweden,  800  Jn  Finland,  and  2000 
in  Russia. 

La  Plata  (La  Plah'ta),  the  capital  of  the  Argen- 
tinian province  of  Buenos  Ayres,  was  founded  in 
1884,  after  Buenos  Ayres  City,  from  which  it  is 
about  30  miles  SE.,  had  been  made  the  federal 
capital.  The  new  city  was  rapidly  built,  with 
wide  streets,  and  over  a  score  of  squares ;  the 
central  portion  is  lit  with  the  electric  light,  and 
there  are  tramways.  Buildings  of  note  are  the 
handsome  capitol,  an  observatory,  and  a  tine 
railway  station.  Cottons  and  woollens  are  manu- 
factured ;  and  a  canal  connects  a  harbour  here 
with  a  larger  outer  one  at  Ensenada,  on  the  La 
Plata  River.     Pop.  75,000. 

La  Plata,  Rio  de,  a  wide  estuary  of  South 
America,  between  Uruguay  on  the  north  and  the 
Argentine  Republic  on  the  south,  through  which 
the  waters  of  the  Parana  and  the  Uruguay  sweep 
down  to  the  ocean.  It  is  about  200  miles  long, 
28  wide  at  Buenos  Ayres,  and  140  broad  at  its 
mouth.  The  northern  shore  is  somewhat  steep 
and  lofty,  but  that  along  the  province  of  Buenos 
Ayres  is  low  and  flat,  with  wide  sandbanks.  The 
estuary  has  thus  no  shelter  from  the  tempestuous 
storms  from  the  SW.  ;  and  even  the  only  good 
harbour,  that  at  Montevideo,  is  open  to  the  SE. 
The  outflow  of  the  estuary  is  exceeded  only  by 
that  of  the  Amazon  ;  the  yellow,  nuiddy  stream 
is  recognisable  60  miles  out  at  sea.  The  estuary 
was  discovered  in  1515  or  1516  by  Diaz  de  Solis, 
who  was  shortly  afterwards  roasted  and  eaten 
by  the  Indians  on  its  bank.  Plata  is  the  Spanish 
word  for  'silver.'  See  Sir  Horace  Runibold's 
Great  Silver  River  (2d  ed.  1890). 

Laporte,  capital  of  Laporte  county,  Indiana, 
50  miles  ESE.  of  Chicago.    Pop.  7126. 

Lar,  capital  of  Laristan,  in  south  Persia,  170 
miles  SE.  of  Sliiraz.    Pop.  12,000. 

Lar'acor,  a  Meath  parish,  on  the  Boyne,  3 
miles  SE.  of  Trim.     Swift  was  vicar  of  Laracor. 

Lar'amie,  a  river  which  rises  in  northern 
Colorado,  and  flows  200  miles  NB.  through  south- 
eastern Wyoming  to  the  North  Fork  of  the  Platte 
at  Fort  Laramie.  It  gives  name  to  the  Laramie 
Plains,  a  treeless  plateau,  7500  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  3000  sq.  m.  in  extent;  and  to  the 
Laramie  Mountains,  a  Rocky  Mountain  Range 
which  bounds  this  plateau  N.  and  B.  Laramie 
City,  Wyoming,  on  this  great  plain,  and  on  the 
Union  Pacific  Railroad,  573  miles  W.  of  Omaha, 
has  a  rolling-mill  and  railway  shops.     Pop.  8388. 

Larbert,  a  railway  junction  in  Stirlingshire, 
2  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Falkirk. 

Lare'do,  capital  of  Webb  county,  Texas,  on 
the  Rio  Grande,  opposite  Nuevo  Laredo,  by  rail 
153  miles  SSW.  of  San  Antonio  and  840  N.  of 
Mexico.    Pop.  14,000. 

Largo,  a  village  of  Fife,  on  Largo  Bay,  and  at 
the  base  of  Largo  Law  (965  feet),  14  miles  NE. 
of  Kirkcaldy.    It  has  a  bronze  statue  (1885)  of 


Alexander  Selkirk,  who  was  born  here.  Popula- 
tion,  481. 

Largs,  an  Ayrshire  watering-place,  on  the  Firth 
of  Clyde,  14  miles  S.  of  Greenock,  and  11  N.  of 
Ardrossan  by  a  railway  (1885).  Here,  on  12th 
October  1263,  Alexander  III.  defeated  Haco  of 
Norway.     Pop.  3500. 

Larissa  (Turkish  Yenisher),  anciently  the  chief 
town  of  Thessaly,  and  ceded  by  Turkey  to  Greece 
in  1881,  stands  on  the  Salambria  (anc.  Peneus), 
and  manufactures  silk  and  cotton  goods  and 
tobacco.  The  seat  of  a  Greek  archbishop,  it  is 
connected  by  rail  (37^  miles)  with  the  port  of 
Volo  :  an  Athens-Larissa  railway  was  in  progress' 
in  1894.     Pop.  15,169. 

Laristan,  the  south-west  part  of  the  Persian 
province  of  Kerman  (q.v.).  Area,  22,954  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  about  90,000. 

Lark,  a  river  of  Suffolk  and  Cambridgeshire, 
flowing  26  miles  NW.,  past  Bury  St  Edmunds  and 
Mildenhall,  to  the  Ouse  near  Littleport. 

Larkhall,  a  Lanarkshire  town,  3^  miles  SSE. 
of  Hamilton.     Pop.  (1861)  2685  ;  (1901)  11,879. 

Larkhana,  the  capital  of  a  Sind  district,  called 
'the  Eden  of  Sind,'  150  miles  N.  of  Hyderabad 
by  rail.    Pop.  13,188. 

Lar'naka  (anc.  Citium),  the  chief  port  of 
Cyprus,  27^  miles  S.  of  Nicosia.  The  British  have 
built  a  court-house,  custom-house,  &c.,  on  the 
sea  front,  as  well  as  two  iron  piers.  Sea-going 
vessels  have  to  lie  1^  mile  from  the  shore  owing 
to  the  shallow  water.    Pop.  7933. 

Larne,  a  seaport  of  County  Antrim,  at  the 
entrance  of  Lough  Larne,  25  miles  NE.  of  Belfast 
by  rail.  There  is  daily  connuunication  with 
Straiu-aer  by  mail-steamer.     Pop.  6670. 

Larnica.    See  Larnaka. 

La  Rochelle.    See  Rochelle. 

Larvik.    See  Laurvik. 

La  Salette.    See  Salette. 

La  Salle,  a  city  of  Illinois,  at  the  head  of 
steam-navigation  on  the  Illinois  River,  99  miles 
by  rail  WSW.  of  Chicago,  with  which  it  is  also 
connected  by  the  Illinois  Canal.  Bituminous 
coal  is  mined  here,  and  the  city  has  manufactures 
of  zinc,  glass,  and  iron.     Pop.  10,500. 

Lashkar.    See  Gwalior. 

Las  Palmas,  chief  town  of  the  Canary  Islands, 
on  the  north-east  coast  of  Gran  Canaria,  is  the 
seat  of  a  bishop.     Pop.  47,800. 

Lassa.    See  Lhassa. 

Lasso' die,  a  collier-village  of  Fife,  4  miles  NNE. 
of  Dunfennline.     Pop.  1300. 

Lass  wade',  a  Midlothian  village,  on  the  North 
Esk,  6^  miles  SSE.  of  Edinburgh.  Drummond 
of  Hawthorndeu  is  buried  in  the  churchyard 
(memorial,  1893);  and  Scott  and  De  Quincey 
lived  here.     Pop.  869. 

Lataki'a  (Turk.  Ladilciyeh ;  anc.  Laodicea  ad 
Mare),  a  decayed  seaport  of  Syria,  with  a  sanded- 
up  harbour,  stands  on  a  rocky  cape  75  miles 
N.  of  Tripoli.  It  possesses  remains  of  Roman 
buildings,  and  was  still  a  wealthy  city  at  the 
time  of  the  Crusades.  Pop.  20,000,  who  export 
the  Latakia  tobacco,  grown  on  the  hills  in  the 
interior,  and  some  grain,  silk,  sponges,  oils,  &c. 

Lathom.  House,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Lathom, 
in  Lancashire,  4^  miles  ENE.  of  Ormskirk.  It 
is  a  Grecian  mansion,  built  about  1750.  Its 
predecessor  was  splendidly  defended  by  Charlotte 
de  la  Tremouille,  Countess  of  Derby,  in  1644. 


LA  TRAPPE 


404 


LAXEY 


La  Trappe.    See  Trappe,  La. 

Lauban,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the 
Queiss,  15  miles  B.  of  Gorlitz.    Pop.  14,336. 

Lauder,  a  quaint  little  royal  burgh  of  Berwick- 
shire, on  Leader  Water,  25  miles  SE.  of  Edin- 
burgh. Near  it  is  Thirlestane  Castle,  the  seat  of 
the  Earl  of  Lauderdale.  Till  1885  with  Hadding- 
ton, &c.  it  returned  one  member.    Pop.  719. 

Lauenburg,  or  Saxe-Lauenburg,  a  Gennan 
duchy,  formerly  united  to  the  crown  of  Denmark, 
and  lying  on  the  Elbe's  right  bank  between  Hol- 
stein  and  Mecklenburg.  In  1876  it  was  incorpor- 
ated with  Sleswick-Holstein,  of  which  it  is  now 
a  district.  Area,  457  sq.  m. ;  pop.  52,000.— The 
town  of  Lauenburg,  once  capital  of  tlie  ducliy, 
stands  on  the  Elbe,  25  miles  SE.  of  Hamburg. 
Pop.  5748.— Lauenburg,  in  Pomerauia,  38  miles 
NW.  of  Danzig,  has  a  pop.  of  10,500. 

Laugharne,  or  Llaugharne,  a  market-town  at 
the  Corran's  influx  to  the  Taf  estuary,  12  miles 
SW.  of  Carmarthen.  It  has  a  fine  church  and  a 
ruined  castle.    Pop.  1150. 

Launceston  (LaunsTton  or  Lon'son),  till  1838 
the  county  town  of  Cornwall,  on  the  Kensey,  a 
tributary  of  the  Tamar,  36  mijes  NW.  of  Ply- 
mouth and  50  W.  of  Exeter  by  branch-lines 
opened  in  1865  and  1886.  It  has  a  fine  granite 
church  (1511) ;  the  circular  Norman  keep  of  a 
castle  which  figured  in  the  Great  Rebellion,  and 
in  which  Fox  the  Quaker  was  imprisoned  (1656) ; 
an  old  gateway ;  and  a  new  town-hall  (1887).  A 
municipal  borough  since  1227,  it  returned  two 
members  till  1832,  one  till  1885.  Pop.  (1851)  3397  ; 
(1901)  4053,  the  boundary  having  been  extended 
in  1889.    See  a  work  by  A.  F.  Bobbins  (1885). 

Launceston,  the  second  city  of  Tasmania,  is  to 
the  north  of  the  island  what  Hobart,  the  capital, 
is  to  the  south— the  chief  port  of  entry  and  mart 
of  trade.  It  stands  in  a  valley  enclosed  by  hills 
at  the  junction  of  the  Esk  with  the  Tamar,  which, 
after  a  course  of  40  miles,  enters  Bass  Strait  at 
Port  Dalrymple.  There  is  a  railway  (133  miles) 
to  Hobart.  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
government-house,  new  post-office,  theatre,  town- 
hall,  and  mechanics'  institute.  Launceston  was 
incorporated  in  1858,  and  raised  to  a  city  in  1889, 
Pop.  (1881)  12,753;  (1901)  21,180. 

Laurencekirk,  a  Kincardineshire  market-town, 
30  miles  SW.  of  Aberdeen.  The  'minstrel' 
Beattie  was  a  native,  and  Ruddiman  the  gram- 
marian was  schoolmaster  here.  Pop.  1526.  See 
Fraser's  History  of  Laurencekirk  (1880). 

Laurentian  Mountains.    See  Canada,  p.  148. 

Lauriston  Castle,  a  Midlothian  mansion,  3f 
miles  WNW.  of  Edinburgh.  It  was  the  seat  of 
the  famous  financier,  John  Law. 

Laurlum,  a  mountain  (1171  feet)  of  Attica, 
NW.  of  Cape  Colonna,  and  connected  by  a  rail- 
way with  Athens.  It  was  famous  for  its  silver- 
mines,  already  exhausted  in  Strabo's  day.  Since 
1874,  however,  the  great  heaps  of  slag  have  been 
profitably  worked,  and  fresh  deposits  found  of 
argentiferous  lead  and  of  zinc  ore.  The  modern 
mining-town  has  a  pop.  of  over  8000. 

Laurvik,  a  seaport  of  Norway,  at  the  head  of 
a  small  fjord  on  the  west  side  of  Christiania 
Fjord,  98  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Christiania.  It 
has  several  sawmills.     Pop.  11,261. 

Lausanne  (Lazami'),  capital  of  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Vaud,  on  the  S.  slope  of  the  Jura  Moun- 
tains, close  to  the  N,  shore  of  the  Lake  of 
Geneva,  the  village  of  Ouchy  (where  Byron  wrote 
27ie  Prisoner  ofChillon)  forming  its  harbour.    It 


is  bisected  by  a  valley,  across  which  a  fine  bridge 
(617  feet  long  and  82  high)  was  thrown  in  1844. 
Lausanne  is  famous  for  its  educational  institu- 
tions ;  amongst  them  are  the  new  cantonal  uni- 
versity (1891),  and  industrial,  music,  and  other 
schools.  The  cathedral  is  a  beautiful  Gothic 
building  of  the  10th  and  13th  centuries.  Here, 
too,  are  the  cantonal  museum  of  natural  history 
and  antiquities,  the  Arlaud  Museum  (1846)  of 
Art,  a  statue  of  Tell,  &c.  Since  1875  Lausanne 
has  been  the  seat  of  the  Federal  Tribunal. 
Benjamin  Constant  was  a  native ;  and  here 
Gibbon  wrote  most  of  the  Decline  and  Fall. 
John  Kemble,  the  actor,  died  and  was  buried 
here.  Pop.  nearly  50,000,  of  whom  86  per  cent, 
are  Reformed,  and  78  per  cent,  speak  French. 

Lausitz.    See  Lusatia. 

Lauterbrunnen  (Lowterbroon'nen),  an  Alpine 
valley  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Bern,  through 
which  flows  the  Weisse  Liitschine,  a  principal 
feeder  of  the  Aar.  It  is  surrounded  by  perpen- 
dicular walls  of  sandstone  1000  to  1600  feet  high, 
down  which  pour  a  score  of  waterfalls.  Of  these 
the  Staubbach  ('  dust-stream ')  is  866  feet  high. 

Laval,  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of  Mayenne, 
picturesquely  situated  on  the  river  Mayenne,  46 
miles  by  rail  E.  of  Rennes.  Its  chief  buildings 
(both  12th  century)  are  the  cathedral  and  the 
old  ducal  castle  (a  prison  now).  Since  the  13th 
century,  when  Flemish  weavers  settled  here,  the 
town  has  been  a  centre  of  linen-manufactures— 
linen,  ticking,  sacking,  &c.  Near  it  the  Vendeans 
under  Larochejaquelein  defeated  the  Republicans 
in  1793.    Pop.  27,110. 

La  Valetta.    See  Valetta. 

Lavaur,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Tarn, 
on  the  Agout,  25  miles  ENE.  of  Toulouse.  A 
bishop's  see  from  1317  to  1801,  it  was  the  strong- 
est fortress  of  the  Albigenses,  but  in  1211  was 
taken  by  Simon  de  Montfort.    Pop.  6293. 

La  Vendee.    See  Vendiee. 

Lavenham,  a  Suffolk  town,  lOj  miles  SSE.  of 
Bury  St  Edmunds,  with  a  noble  flint-work  church. 
Pop.  of  parish,  1908. 

Lawfeldt,  or  La  veld,  close  to  Maestricht  in 
Belgium.  Here  the  French  defeated  the  com- 
bined Austrian,  Dutch,  and  English  forces,  2d 
July  1747. 

Lawrence,  (1)  capital  of  Douglas  county, 
Kansas,  on  the  Kansas  River,  34  miles  SSW.  of 
Leavenworth  by  rail.  It  is  the  seat  of  the  state 
university  (1864),  and  has  manufactures  of  flour, 
castings,  furniture,  &c.  Pork-packing  is  exten- 
sively carried  on.      Lawrence  was    founded  in 


1854  by  Free-soil  settlers,  shared  in  the  violent 
struggle  against  slavery,  and  was  partly  burned 
by  Quantrell's  guerillas  in  1863.    Pop.  11,000.- 


(2)  One  of  the  capitals  of  Essex  county,  Massa- 
chusetts, and  an  important  manufacturing  city, 
on  the  Merrimack  River,  26  miles  N.  of  Boston 
by  rail.  The  river,  which  here  falls  28  feet  in 
half  a  mile,  is  crossed  by  a  dam  of  granite,  900 
feet  long  and  40  high ;  and  channels  on  either 
bank  conduct  the  water  to  the  mills.  These, 
some  of  them  amongst  the  largest  in  the  world, 
manufacture  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  cloth, 
and  paper ;  and  engines,  boilers,  machinery, 
clothing,  hats,  &c.  are  also  produced  here.  Pop. 
(1870)  28,921  ;  (1880)  39,151 ;  (190Q)  62,559. 

Lawrence,  St.    See  St  Lawrence. 

Lawrenceburg,  a  city  of  Indiana,  on  the 
Ohio,  22  miles  below  Cincinnati.    Pop.  4384. 

Laxey,  a  coast-village  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  7J 
miles  NNE.  of  Douglas.    Near  it  are  lead-mines. 


LAXFORD 


406 


LEE  CASTLE 


Laxford  (Korse,  '  salmon  Qord '),  a  stream  and 
a  sea-loch  of  NW.  Sutherland,  5 J  and  3|  miles 
long. 

Laybach.    See  Laibach. 

Laycock.    See  Lacock. 

Lazareff,  Port,  a  fine  natural  harbour,  40  to 
60  feet  deep,  and  8  sq.  m.  in  extent,  in  Broughton 
Bay  on  the  east  side  of  Corea.  It  is  390  miles 
from  Vladivostok  to  the  N.  and  480  from  Port 
Hamilton  to  the  S. ,  and  is  free  from  ice  in  winter. 

Lazistan',  a  coast  strip  at  the  south-east  corner 
of  the  Black  Sea,  partly  Turkish,  partly  Russian, 
inhabited  by  the  rough  Lazes. 

Le,  or  Leh,  the  walled  capital  of  Ladakh  (q.v.), 
stands  3  miles  from  the  bank  of  the  Indus,  11,538 
feet  above  the  sea.    Pop.  4000. 

Lea,  a  stream  of  Hertfordshire,  Middlesex,  and 
Essex,  rises  near  Houghton  Regis,  and  flows  46 
miles  SE.  and  S.  to  the  Thames  near  Blackwall. 

Leader,  a  Berwickshire  stream,  running  21 
miles  south-south-eastward  to  the  Tweed  at  a 
point  2  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Melrose. 

Leadgate,  a  mining-town  of  Durham,  2J  miles 
ESE.  of  Shotley  Bridge.     Pop.  4660. 

Leadhills,  a  village  of  Lanarkshire,  the  highest 
in  Scotland  (1300  feet),  on  Glengonner  Water,  45 
miles  SSW.  of  Edinburgh.  Allan  Ramsay  and 
Symington  were  natives.  Lead  has  been  mined 
here  for  six  hundred  years,  the  output  ranging 
between  700  and  1800  tons.     Pop.  835. 

Leadvllle,  a  mining-town  of  Colorado,  capital 
of  Lake  county,  stands  in  a  valley  10,200  feet 
above  the  sea,  70  miles  (151  by  rail)  SW.  of 
Denver.  Its  mines  produce  gold,  silver,  and  lead. 
The  town,  which  was  incorporated  in  1878,  con- 
tains smelting-furnaces  and  stamp-mills.  Pop. 
12,500. 

Learn,  a  river  flowing  25  miles  to  the  Avon, 
near  Warwick. 

Leamington  (Lem'ing-tun),  a  watering-place  of 
Warwickshire,  is  beautifully  situated  on  the 
Leam,  2  miles  NE.  of  Warwick,  It  is  wholly  of 
modern  growth,  having  become  important  only 
since  the  rediscovery  of  its  mineral  waters  in 
1784.  They  are  saline,  sulphureous,  and  chaly- 
beate ;  and  the  Avatering-season  lasts  from  Octo- 
ber till  May.  The  town,  too,  stands  in  the 
centre  of  a  good  hunting-country.  Among  its 
buildings  are  the  Pump-room  (1868),  the  Warne- 
ford  Hospital  (1832),  assembly-rooms  (1813), 
music-hall  (1821),  tennis-court  (1847),  college 
(1844),  new  municipal  offices,  and  the  fine  old 
parish  church.  The  manufacture  of  cooking- 
ranges  is  an  important  industry.  Visited  by  the 
Duchess  of  Kent  and  the  Princess  Victoria  in 
1830,  Leamington  in  1838  received  the  name  of 
'Royal  Leamington  Spa.'  It  was  incorporated 
in  1875,  and  since  1885  has  united  with  Warwick 
to  return  one  member.  Pop.  (1811)  543 ;  (1851) 
15,692 ;  (1901)  26,888,  the  borough  having  been 
extended  in  1890.  See  F.  W,  Smith's  Leamington 
Waters  (1884). 

Lease  was.    See  Halesowen. 

Leatherhead,  a  town  of  Surrey,  on  the  Mole, 
4  miles  SSW.  of  Epsom.    Pop.  4700. 

Leavenworth,  a  city  of  Kansas,  the  capital  of 
Leavenworth  county,  on  the  Missouri  River,  25 
miles  NW.  of  Kansas  City  by  rail.  First  settled 
in  1854,  it  is  now  a  handsome  town,  of  broad 
avenues,  and  contains  a  Soldiers'  Home,  the  state 
nonnal  school,  and  large  factories  and  mills, 
^ight  lines  of  railway  centre  here,  and  the  river 


is  crossed  by  a  fine  iron  bridge.  Adjoining  the 
city  is  Fort  Leavenworth  (1827),  an  important 
depot  for  troops  and  supplies,  with  large  bar- 
racks, &c.     Pop.  21,000. 

Leb'anon,  a  mountain-range  in  Syria,  extending 
from  Homs  in  the  north  to  Mount  Hermon  in 
the  south.  The  name  is  derived  from  a  Semitic 
root  meaning  'white,'  and  was  probably  given, 
not  because  the  peaks  are  snow-clad  even  in  sum- 
mer, but  because  of  the  whitish  colour  of  the 
limestone  rocks.  They  are  divided  into  two 
parallel  ranges,  the  Lebanon  on  the  west  and  the 
Anti-Lebanon  (or  Anti-Libanus)  on  the  east. 
Between  them  lies  the  deep  valley  of  the  Buka'a 
(anc.  Coile-Syria),  4  to  6  miles  wide,  which  is 
watered  by  the  Litany  and  El-Asi  (anc.  Orontes). 
The  former  flows  SW.  and  W.  to  the  sea  a  little 
north  of  Tyre ;  whilst  the  latter  flows  NE.  till, 
after  crossing  the  plains  of  Hamath,  it  turns  W. 
to  the  Mediterranean.  The  highest  summits 
occur  in  the  north  in  both  ranges  :  in  Lebanon 
they  vary  from  10,018  (Bl-Kazib)  to  7000  feet  and 
less,  and  in  Anti-Lebanon  are  about  8000  or  9000 
feet.  In  both  ranges  the  eastern  versant  is  the 
steeper  and  sterner.  The  western  valleys  and 
the  lower  slopes  are  generally  verdant.  Vines, 
mulberry-trees,  olive-groves,  and  orchards  (nuts 
and  figs)  abound  everywhere.  The  higher  slopes 
are  in  many  districts  covered  with  forests  of  oak, 
cypress,  pine,  plane,  &c.  Contrary  to  the  current 
belief,  remains  of  the  great  cedar  forest  of  Solo- 
mon's time  exist  in  more  places  than  the  single 
grove  of  377  trees  at  the  head  of  Kedisha  Valley. 
Streams  of  clear  water  are  numerous.  The  in- 
habitants (estimated  at  221,000)  are  a  hardy, 
ruddy  race  of  people,  of  Syrian  (Aramaean)  de- 
scent, who  keep  large  herds  of  sheep  and  goats. 
The  predominating  element  is  the  (Christian) 
Maronites  ;  next  come  the  Druses,  heretical  Mos- 
lems. After  the  bloody  quarrels  of  the  Druses 
and  Maronites  in  1860,  the  district  of  Lebanon 
was  separated  (1861)  from  the  Turkish  pashalik 
of  Syria,  and  put  under  a  Christian  governor, 
the  European  powers  constituting  themselves  the 
'  guardians '  of  the  new  province. 

Lebanon,  capital  of  Lebanon  county,  Pennsyl- 
vania, 28  miles  W.  of  Reading,  with  ironworks 
and  mills.    Pop.  20,000. 

Lebedin,  a  town  of  Russia,  87  miles  NW.  of 
Kharkofi".     Pop.  14,788. 

Lebrlja  (anc.  Nebrissa-Veneria),  a  town  of 
Spain,  44  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Seville.    Pop.  11,879. 

Lecce  (Let'chay),  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy,  7 
miles  from  the  Adriatic  and  24  by  rail  SSE.  of 
Brindisi.  As  Lycia  (hence  Lecce)  it  was  the  seat 
of  a  Norman  countship.     Pop.  32,051. 

Lech,  a  right-hand  tributary  of  the  Danube, 
rises  in  the  Alps  in  Vorarlberg,  flows  northward 
past  Augsburg,  and  after  a  course  of  177  miles 
joins  the  Danube  a  few  miles  east  of  Donauworth. 

Lechlade  (Letch'lade),  a  Gloucestershire  town, 
on  the  Thames,  23  miles  SW.  of  Oxford.  Pop.  1166. 

Ledbury,  a  pleasant,  old-fashioned  market- 
town  of  Herefordshire,  13  miles  ESE.  of  Here- 
ford. It  has  an  interesting  cliurch,  Romanesque 
to  Perpendicular  in  style,  St  Catharine's  Hospital 
(1232  ;  rebuilt  1822),  and  a  clock-tower  (1890)  to 
the  memory  of  Mrs  Browning,  who  passed  her 
girlhood  here.     Pop.  3300. 

Lee,  a  river  flowing  50  miles  eastward  to  Cork 
harbour. 

Lee  Castle,  a  Lanarkshire  mansion,  3  miles 
NNW.  of  Lanark.  It  is  the  ancient  seat  of  the 
Lockharts,  with  the  '  Lee  penny '  talisman. 


LEEDS 


406 


LEGHORN 


Leeds,  the  first  town  in  Yorkshire,  and  fifth 
in  England  in  point  of  population,  is  a  parlia- 
mentary, municipal,  and  county  borough,  return- 
ing since  1885  five  members  to  parliament.  By 
rail  it  is  25|  miles  SW.  of  York,  196  NNW.  of 
London,  and  112  SSE.  of  Carlisle.  It  is  situated 
in  the  north-west  of  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, in  the  valley  of  the  Aire,  and  is  the  seat  of 
ijnportant  manufactures,  especially  of  clothing  in 
all  its  branches.  The  woollen  trade  exceeds  in  ex- 
tent that  of  any  other  part  of  England  ;  and  the 
iron  industries,  employing  about  30,000  persons, 
are  now  as  important  as  the  woollen  manufactures. 
The  manufacture  of  leather  is  carried  on  in  some 
of  the  largest  tanneries  in  the  kingdom,  and 
about  100  firms  are  engaged  in  making  boots  and 
shoes.  Other  manufactures  are  those  of  loco- 
motives, machines,  glass,  ready-made  clothes, 
tobacco,  oil,  chemicals,  earthenware,  worsted, 
and  silk.  St  Peter's  Church  in  Kirkgate,  rebuilt 
in  1838  at  a  cost  of  £29,770,  is  180  feet  long  by 
86  wide  ;  the  tower  is  139  feet  high,  and  contains 
a  peal  of  thirteen  bells.  St  John's,  New  Brig- 
gate,  consecrated  by  Archbishop  Neile  in  1634, 
is  an  almost  unique  example  of  a  'Laudian' 
church,  and  still  retains  the  original  fittings. 
The  town-hall  (1858)  has  a  tower  225  feet  high, 
and  a  richly-decorated  great  hall,  with  one  of  the 
largest  organs  in  Europe.  There  are  colossal 
statues  of  Queen  Victoria  and  the  Prince-Consort 
in  the  vestibule,  and  of  Wellington  in  the  front  of 
the  building.  Contiguous  to  the  town -hall  are 
the  municipal  buildings  (1884-88,  comprising  also 
reading-room,  free  library,  and  fine  art  gallery), 
and  the  school-board  offices.  The  General 
Infirmary  was  erected  in  1868  from  designs  by 
Sir  G.  G.  Scott,  at  a  cost  of  £120,000;  the 
mechanics'  institute  (1867)  contains  a  lecture- 
hall  accommodating  1700  persons ;  and  the 
grammar-school  (1859),  from  designs  by  Barry, 
is  a  cruciform  Decorated  structure.  Other  build- 
ings are  the  Royal  Exchange  (1875) ;  the  fine  oval 
corn  exchange ;  the  new  general  post-office,  on 
the  site  of  the  old  coloured-cloth  hall  (demolished 
1889) ;  the  Coliseum ;  the  Philosophical  Hall, 
with  a  fine  museum ;  the  Wesleyan  training- 
college  (1868) ;  Turkish  Baths ;  Beckett's  Bank, 
a  fine  work  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott.  There  is  also  a 
Jibrary  of  80,000  volumes,  founded  by  Priestley 
in  1768.  Tlie  University  of  Leeds,  which  re- 
ceived its  charter  in  1903,  was  founded  in  1874  as 
the  Yorkshire  College,  and  was  a  member  of  the 
Victoria  University  ;  in  1905  it  had  28  professors, 
of  whom  eight  were  in  the  medical  faculty.  In 
1885  it  was  housed  in  a  handsome  Gothic  pile. 
The  Central  Higher  Grade  School  (1880)  provides 
for  2000  scholars.  Since  1897  the  mayor  of 
Leeds  is  called  Lord  Mayor.  The  municipality 
owns  the  markets,  gas  and  water  works,  tram- 
ways, electric  light,  free  libraries,  and  ceme- 
teries, subsidises  technical  education,  and 
provides  garden  allotments.  Kirkstall  Abbey 
(q.v.)  is  about  3  miles  from  Leeds.  Roundhay 
Park,  2  miles  from  Leeds,  was  bought  by  the  cor- 
poration in  1872,  at  a  cost  of  £140,000,  and  cour 
verted  into  a  recreation  ground.  Near  Adel 
Church  (erected  1140),  about  4  miles  from  Leeds, 
was  a  Roman  station.  Pop.  (1851)  172,270  ;  (1881) 
309,112  ;  (1901)  428,935.  Amongst  Leeds  worthies 
have  been  Dean  Hook ;  Dr  Priestley ;  Cope  and 
Rhodes,  artists ;  the  Teales,  physicians,  &c. ; 
besides  the  Becketts,  the  Baines's,  the  Gotts,  the 
Fairbairns,  the  Denisons,  and  other  families 
identified  with  the  town.  See  Ralph  Thoresby's 
Ducahis  LeocUensis  (1715) ;  Baines's  Historic  Sketch 
of  Leeds  (1822) ;  and  Jackson's  Guide  to  Leeds  (1889). 


Leek,  a  manufacturing  and  market  town  of 
Staff'ordshire,  on  the  Churnet,  13|  miles  SSB.  of 
Macclesfield,  and  24  NNE.  of  Staff"ord.  The 
parish  church,  dating  from  1180,  but  mainly 
Decorated  in  style,  was  restored  by  Street  in 
1867-75.  There  are  also  a  grammar-school 
(1723),  a  cottage-hospital  (1870),  and,  1^  mile 
distant,  the  ruined  Cistercian  abbey  (1214)  of 
Dieulacres  (De  la  Croix).  Leek,  whose  civic 
charter  dates  from  the  days  of  King  John  (1208), 
is  the  largest  centre  of  silk-dyeing  in  England. 
Pop.  (1851)  8877 ;  (1901)  15,484.  See  works  by 
Sleigh  (2d  ed.  1884)  and  M.  H.  Miller  (1891). 

Lee  Priory  a  mansion  in  Kent,  on  the  Little 
Stour,  4  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Canterbury.  It  was 
the  seat  of  Sir  Egerton  Brydges. 

Leer  (Layr),  a  port  in  (Prussian)  East  Friesland, 
on  the  Leda,  near  its  entrance  to  the  Ems,  32 
miles  NW.  of  Oldenburg.     Pop.  12,500. 

Lees,  a  Lancashire  village,  Ih  mile  E.  bv  S.  of 
Oldham. 

Leeuwar'den,  capital  of  the  Dutch  province  of 
Friesland,  113  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Utrecht. 
It  has  a  fine  town-hall  and  law-courts,  an  old 
palace  of  the  Princes  of  Orange,  a  library  with 
valuable  archives,  and  manufactures  of  linen 
fabrics,  mirrors,  pianofortes,  and  wagons,  besides 
being  a  great  fruit  and  cattle  market.  Tlie  popu- 
lation is  about  34,000.  In  the  13th  c.  it  stood  on 
an  arm  of  the  sea,  now  sanded  up. 

Leeuwln,  Cape,  the  south-west  corner  of 
Australia,  notable  on  account  of  the  tempestuous 
weather  usually  encountered  there. 

Leeward  Islands.    See  West  Indies. 

Lefkosia.    See  Nicosia. 

Leghorn  (Ital.  Livorno),  the  third  seaport  of 
Italy,  is  situated  on  the  west  coast,  13  miles  by 
rail  SW.  of  Pisa,  and  62  W.  by  S.  of  Florence. 
Its  importance  dates  from  the  decline  of  Pisa ; 
its  growth  was  especially  rapid  after  it  fell  into 
the  hands  of  Florence  in  1421.  Cosimo  I.  declared 
it  a  free  port,  and  invited  foreign  traders  to  settle 
there.  Early  in  the  19th  century  it  was  a  great 
depot  for  the  British  trade  with  the  Levant.  It 
ceased  to  be  a  free  port  in  1868  ;  and  its  foreign 
commerce,  carried  on  chiefly  with  Britain  (New- 
castle and  Cardiff),  France  (Marseilles),  and  the 
United  States,  is  less  than  its  coasting  trade.  The 
imports  include  spirits,  sugar,  dyeing  materials, 
woven  goods,  corn  and  flour,  and  machinery; 
the  exports,  wine,  silk,  marble,  olive-oil,  boracic 
acid,  hemp,  iron,  preserved  fruits,  leather,  coral, 
and  straw  hats  ('Leghorn  hats').  The  harbour 
(improved  in  1854-63)  is  an  enclosed  basin,  on 
Avhich  stand  two  arsenals  and  numerous  ship- 
building-yards. The  roadstead  is  protected  by 
an  artificial  breakwater  (1883).  There  has  been 
a  lighthouse  since  1303,  and  outside  the  har- 
bour stands  a  lazaretto.  Besides  shipbuilding, 
the  most  important  industry  is  the  manufacture 
of  coral  ornaments.  The  north-western  portion 
of  the  city  is  intersected  by  numerous  canals, 
and  called  'New  Venice.'  The  most  interesting 
buildings  are  the  cathedral  (17th  century),  its 
fagade  designed  by  Inigo  Jones,  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogue (next  in  size  to  that  of  Amsterdam),  the 
former  grand-ducal  palace  (1605),  the  Academy  of 
Sciences,  and  the  naval  academy.  The  sulphur- 
springs  and  sea-bathing  attract  many  visitors. 
Leghorn  is  defended  by  forts,  bastions,  &c. ,  con- 
structed for  the  most  part  in  1835-37.  Smollett 
and  Francis  Horner  lie  buried  in  the  English 
cemetery.  The  composer  Mascagni  was  born 
here.    Pop.    of  the   city   (1861)   83,543;   (1871) 


LfiGNAOO 


407 


LfelNSTER 


80,948;  (1881)  78,988;  of  the  commune  (1871) 
97,096  ;  (1905)  100,000. 

Legnago  (Len-yd'go),  one  of  the  four  fortified 
towns  of  northern  Italy  known  as  the  Quadri- 
lateral, is  on  the  Adige,  33  miles  by  rail 
SE.  from  Verona.  The  fortifications,  razed  by 
Napoleon  in  1801,  were  rebuilt  in  1815.    Pop.  3500. 

Leh.    See  Le. 

Le'tiigh,  a  river  flowing  120  miles  through  B. 
Pennsylvania  to  the  Delaware,  Some  of  its 
scenery  is  very  picturesque,  but  the  valley  is 
more  famous  for  its  anthracite  coal-mines. 

Leicester  (Lester),  the  county  town  of  Leicester- 
shire, a  municipal,  parliamentary,  and  county 
borough,  is  situated  on  the  Soar,  a  tributary  of 
the  Trent,  22  miles  S.  of  Nottingham,  38  ENE.  of 
Birmingham,  20  NNE.  of  Rugby,  and  97  NNW.  of 
London.  Traditionally  founded  by  the  British  king 
Lear,  it  occupies  the  site  of  the  Roman  Eatce; 
and  pavements,  urns,  and  other  Roman  relics 
have  been  found,  while  the  '  Jewry  Wall,'  20  feet 
high  and  75  long,  which  got  its  name  from  the 
mediaeval  ghetto,  is  composed  of  rubble  and 
Roman  bricks.  Its  present  name  comes  from  the 
Anglo-Saxon  Leirceastre,  or  '  fortress  of  the  Leire,' 
as  the  river  was  called  of  old.  The  Norman 
castle,  dismantled  by  Charles  I.  in  1645,  is  re- 
presented chiefly  by  the  modernised  assize  hall, 
and  by  an  artificial  earthwork,  the  Mount  or 
Castle  View,  on  which  stood  the  donjon-keep ; 
the  Abbey  of  Black  Canons  (1143),  where  Wolsey 
died  in  1530,  is  an  insignificant  if  picturesque 
ruin.  In  the  Blue  Boar  Inn,  demolished  about 
1829,  Richard  III.  slept  the  night  before  Bosworth 
(1485) ;  and  his  corpse  was  brought  back  hither 
for  burial.  A  handsome  memorial  cross  or  clock- 
tower  (1868)  bears  the  effigies  of  Simon  de  Mont- 
fort,  Earl  of  Leicester,  Sir  Thomas  White,  Alder- 
man Newton,  and  William  of  Wyggeston.  There 
is  a  statue  also  of  Robert  Hall ;  and  among  the 
other  edifices  are  the  old  town-hall,  with  good 
carving  and  stained-glass  of  Henry  VII.'s  time  ; 
the  new  municipal  buildings  (1876),  Queen  Anne 
in  style,  Avith  a  clock-tower  134  feet  high ;  the 
post-oftice  (1887),  public  baths  (1879),  free  library 
(1870),  school  of  art  (1876),  opera-house  (1877), 
poor-law  offices  (1883),  corn  exchange  (1852), 
lunatic  asylum  (1836),  the  museum  (1848),  rich  in 
local  antiquities ;  the  Wyggeston  Hospital 
Schools  (1513;  rebuilt  1877-78) ;  and  five  interest- 
ing old  churches— St  Nicholas',  St  Mary's,  All 
Saints',  St  Margaret's,  and  St  Martin's,  the  last 
with  a  spire  218  feet  high.  The  New  Walk  is  a 
pleasant  tree-shaded  promenade;  the  racecourse 
of  1806  is  now  a  recreation  ground,  known  as  the 
Victoria  Park,  its  successor  being  at  Oadby,  3J 
miles  distant ;  the  Abbey  public  park  was  opened 
by  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1882  ;  and  there  is  a 
third  public  park  called  the  Spinney  Hill  Park. 
The  abnormally  rapid  growth  of  Leicester  has 
been  due  to  its  central  position,  to  its  transit 
facilities  by  three  railway  companies  and  by 
water,  and  to  the  great  extension  of  its  industries. 
The  manufacture  of  plain  and  fancy  hosiery,  in- 
troduced in  1680,  is  equalled  only  by  "Nottingham ; 
in  that  of  pegged  and  riveted  boots  and  shoes 
Leicester  vies  with  Nortliamptou  ;  elastic  web- 
bing, sewing-cotton,  and  lace  are  made,  and  iron- 
founding  is  carried  on.  First  chartered  by  King 
John,  Leicester  lias  returned  two  members  from 
Edward  I.'s  time.  Leicester,  which  is  the  see  of 
a  bishoi)-suff"ragan  under  Peterborough,  is  an  anti- 
vaccination  centre.  Pop,  (1801)  17,005;  (1861) 
68,056  ;  (1881)  122,351  ;  (1901)  211,574, 

See  local  histories  by  Throsby  (1777-91),  T. 


Robinson  (1793),  Thompson,  Hollings,  Read,  Mrs 
Johnson  (1892) ;  and  the  Records  of  the  Borough, 
edited  by  Miss  Bateson  (1899-1905). 

Leicestershire,  a  midland  county  of  England, 
surrounded  by  Nottingham,  Lincoln,  Rutland. 
Northampton,  Warwick,  and  Derby  shires,  Im 
has  a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of  44  miles  by 
40,  and  contains  803  sq.  m,,  or  514,164  acres. 
Pop,  (1801)131,081  ;  (1841)215,867  ;  (1901)433,994. 
Its  surface  is  for  the  most  part  undulating  table- 
land, the  highest  ground  being  at  Charnwood 
Forest  in  the  north-west,  where  Bardon  Hill  at- 
tains 853  feet  above  sea-level.  The  Soar,  itself  an 
affluent  of  the  Trent,  which  for  a  short  distance 
borders  the  county  on  the  north,  is,  with  its 
tributary  the  Wreak,  the  principal  river.  The 
soil,  varying  in  fertility,  is  generally  loamy  :  in 
the  north-west  are  valuable  coal-mines,  also 
granite,  slate,  and  limestone  quarries,  but,  the 
greater  part  of  the  county  being  under  pasture, 
the  quantity  of  corn  grown  is  comparatively 
small.  The  principal  objects  of  agriculture  are 
grazing  and  sheep  and  cattle  breeding,  Leicester- 
shire being  especially  noted  for  its  breed  of  the 
former.  The  chief  manufactures  are  of  hosiery 
and  boots  and  shoes  ;  basket-making  is  carried  on 
at  Castle  Donnington ;  and  Stilton  cheeses  are 
for  the  most  part  made  in  this  county.  Leices- 
tershire comprises  six  hundreds,  the  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  Leicester,  and  the  municipal 
borough  of  Loughborough,  and  332  parishes, 
almost  entirely  in  the  diocese  of  Peterborough, 
and,  for  judicial  purposes,  in  the  Midland  Circuit. 
Leicester  is  the  assize  town,  and  other  towns  are 
Ashby-de-la-Zonch,  Hinckley,  Loughborough, 
Lutterworth,  Market  Harborough,  and  Melton 
Mowbray,  the  last  two  being  great  hunting 
centres.  There  are  four  parliamentary  divisions. 
In  the  battle  of  Bosworth  Field  (1485)  Richard 
III,  lost  his  life  ;  whilst  Leicestershire  worthies 
have  been  Wyclif,  Cardinal  Wolsey,  Lady  Jane 
Grey,  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  Beaumont  the 
dramatist,  George  Villiers,  Duke  of  Buckingham, 
Cleveland  the  poet,  George  Fox,  Simpson  the 
mathematician,  Dr  Johnson,  Lord  Macaulay, 
Hobart  Pasha,  Colonel  Burnaby,  and  last,  but 
not  least,  Daniel  Lambert.  See  works  by  Burton 
(1622 ;  2d  ed,  1777),  Nichols  (4  vols.  1795-1815), 
and  Curtis  (1831), 

Leiden,    See  Leyden, 

Leigh  (Lee),  a  town  of  Lancashire,  21  miles  NE. 
of  Liverpool  and  16  W.  of  Manchester,  Silks  and 
cotton  goods  are  extensively  manufactured ;  and 
there  are  also  iron-foundries,  breweries,  malt- 
kilns,  and  glass-works,  with  neighbouring  coal- 
mines. Pop.  (1861)  10,621  ;  (1901)  40,000.  See 
W^orsley's  History  of  Leigh  (1870), 

Leighlin  (Lay'lin),  a  village  of  County  Carlow, 
71  miles  SSW,  of  Dublin.  It  was  the  seat  of  a 
diocese,  now  nnited  to  Ossory  and  Ferns. 

Leighton-Buzzard  (Lay'ton),  a  market-town  of 
Bedfordshire,  on  the  Ouse,  41  miles  by  rail  NW,  of 
London,  Its  fine  cruciform  church,  mainly  Early 
English,  has  a  spire  of  193  feet,  and  was  restored 
in  1886 ;  in  the  market-place  is  a  pentangular 
cross  ;  the  corn  exchange  was  built  in  1862. 
Straw-plait  is  the  staple  industry.  The  suffix 
Buzzard  is  a  corruption  of  Beaudesert  or  Bosard, 
a  great  family  here  in  the  14th  century.  Pop. 
about  6500. 

Leinster  (Lens'ler),  one  of  the  four  provinces  of 
Ireland  (q.v.),  occupies  the  south-east  portion  of 
the  country,  comprising  the  counties  of  Carlow, 
Dublin,  Kildare,    Kilkenny,   King's,    Longford, 


l£ipa 


408 


LeItM 


Loxith,  Meath,    Queen's,  Westmeath,  Wexford, 
and  Wicklow. 

Leipa,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  40  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Prague.    Pop.  10,700. 

Leipzig  (Fr.  Leipsic),  the  fifth  city  of  Germany, 
is  situated  in  a  large  and  fertile  plain  in  the 
kingdom  of  Saxony,  80  miles  by  rail  WNW.  of 
Dresden,  and  101  SSW,  of  Berlin,  within  6^  miles 
of  the  Prussian  border,  and  3  miles  above  the 
junction  of  the  three  small  streams,  Elster, 
Pleisse,  and  Parthe.  The  inner  or  ancient  town, 
the  centre  of  the  business  activity,  with  narrow 
and  crooked  streets  and  quaint  houses,  is  separ- 
ated by  a  broad,  tree-shaded  promenade  (laid  out 
since  1784  on  the  site  of  the  old  walls)  from  the 
much  more  extensive  modern  suburbs,  bounded 
in  their  turn  by  a  girdle  of  busy  manufacturing 
•villages.*  Pop.  (1800)  32,146;  (1860)  85,394; 
(1880)  149,081 ;  and  in  1905  about  476,000,  after  the 
extension  of  the  boundary  so  as  to  include  the  vil- 
lages. Many  handsome  edifices  have  been  erected, 
and  great  civic  improvements  effected  in  the  last 
quarter  of  the  19th  century.  The  Thomaskirche 
and  the  Nicolaikirche  date  respectively  from 
1496  and  1525 ;  the  quaint  old  Rathhaus,  or 
town-hall,  from  1556.  The  old  castle,  the  Pleis- 
senburg,  used  as  barracks  and  magazine,  and 
till  lately  partly  also  as  an  art-school,  succeeded 
in  1549-51  an  older  fortress  dating  from  1213. 
Amongst  the  modern  buildings  are  the  Municipal 
Theatre  (1868),  one  of  the  largest  and  handsomest 
in  Germany;  the  Museum  (1856-86);  the  new 
Exchange  (1886);  the  Observatory  (1861);  the 
Booksellers'  Exchange  (1888),  with  an  interesting 
museum ;  St  Peter's  Church  (1885),  a  fine  speci- 
men of  modern  German  Gothic  ;  and  the  Law- 
courts.  The  New  Gewandhaus  has  since  1884 
superseded  the  old  Gewandhaus  (so  called  be- 
cause originally  a  drapers'  hall),  in  which,  since 
1781,  some  of  the  best  concerts  in  Europe  were 
given.  Of  numerous  squares  and  open  spaces, 
affording  ample  room  for  the  stalls  and  booths 
of  the  retail  dealers  at  the  fairs,  the  largest  is 
the  Augustus-Platz ;  the  quaintest  the  Market- 
place, in  which  a  large  war  monument  for  1870-71 
was  unveiled  in  1888.  The  Rosenthal  and  the 
Johanna-Park  are  fine  parks  on  the  outskirts  ; 
while  farther  out  are  oak  and  beech  woods. 

Leipzig  has  been  the  seat  of  the  supreme  court 
of  the  German  empire  since  1879,  the  new  build- 
ing for  which  dates  from  1888.  The  university, 
founded  in  1408  by  a  secession  from  Prague,  has 
nearly  220  professors  and  lectureis,  and  over  3500 
students.  The  Augusteuni,  or  main  building,  in 
the  old  town,  was  rebuilding  in  1894  ;  it  is  supple- 
mented by  a  great  system  of  spacious  and  admir- 
ably equipped  medical  and  physical  labora- 
tories and  other  '  institutes '  in  other  parts  of 
the  town,  including  a  magnificent  new  library- 
building  with  550,000  vols,  and  5000  MSS.  The 
City  Library  has  120,000  vols,  and  1500  MSS. 
Among  the  numerous  other  educational  establish- 
ments are  two  gymnasia,  a  justly  famous  School 
of  Commerce,  a  conservatory  of  music,  reckoned 
amongst  the  first  in  Europe,  &c.  The  hospital 
system  of  Leipzig  has  largely  benefited  the 
medical  faculty  of  the  university.  As  a  seat  of 
trade  Leipzig  is  inferior  only  to  Hamburg  and 
Berlin  in  Germany.  The  chief  articles  of  com- 
merce are  furs  and  skins,  cloth,  leather,  and 
books.  The  famous  Leipzig  fairs  are  held  at 
Easter,  Michaelmas,  and  the  New  Year,  and  last 
from  three  to  five  Aveeks.  Their  origin  is  traced 
as  far  back  as  1180  ;  their  importance  dates  from 
about  1500 ;   but   since   1865  that   importance 


has  gradually  dwindled,  though  they  are  still 
attended  by  about  30,000  strangers,  including 
Jews,  Turks,  Greeks,  Armenians,  Persians,  and 
even  Chinese.  Transactions  to  the  extent  of  over 
£10,000,000  sterling  are  said  to  take  place  at  the 
Easter  fair.  Nearly  500  houses  are  engaged  in 
the  book-trade,  and  there  are  also  about  eighty 
printing  establishments ;  while  type-founding  has 
here  its  chief  centre  in  Germany.  The  wool- 
market,  in  Jime,  is  still  much  frequented.  Among 
the  chief  manufactures  (carried  on  largely  in  the 
'  villages ')  are  pianofortes,  paper,  chemicals,  oils, 
scientific  instruments,  spirits,  beer,  tobacco,  and 
some  textiles,  with  iron-founding. 

Leipzig  (formerly  Lipzk,  from  the  Slavic  Lipa, 
a  '  lime-tree '),  originally  a  Wendish  settlement, 
is  first  mentioned  as  a  town  in  1015.  It  suff'ered 
greatly  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  in  the  Seven 
Years'  War,  and  amidst  the  terrible  struggles  of 
the  years  1812  and  1813,  when  it  was  alternately 
in  possession  of  the  French  and  of  the  allies, 
whose  signal  victory  over  Napoleon  was  fought 
during  October  16-18,  1813.  In  1866  it  was 
occupied  for  some  months  by  Prussian  troops, 
Leipzig  was  the  birthplace  of  Leibnitz  and  of 
Wagner,  and  a  residence  of  Bach  and  Mendelssohn. 
One  of  the  scenes  in  Goethe's  Faust  is  placed 
in  Auerbach's  Keller  here. 

Leiston  (Lai/ son),  a  town  of  Suffolk,  4  miles 
ESE.  of  Saxmundham  by  rail.  It  manufactures 
agricultural  implements,  and  has  a  ruined  abbey 
(1363).    Pop.  3500. 

Leith,  the  sixth  largest  town  in  Scotland,  an 
important  seaport,  and  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary burgh,  stands  on  the  southern  shore  of 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Water 
of  Leith,  2  miles  N.  of  Edinburgh,  with  which 
it  is  now  connected  by  continuous  lines  of  streets. 
It  is  even  less  attractive  than  most  seaport  towns ; 
still,  great  improvements  have  been  effected  since 
1877.  Among  the  public  buildings  are  the  court- 
house or  town-hall  (1827),  custom-house  (1812), 
exchange,  corn  exchange  (1862),  Trinity  House 
(1816),  hospital  (1850),  Sailors'  Home  (1883-84), 
and  St  James's  Episcopal  Church  (1862-69),  by 
Sir  G.  G.  Scott,  with  a  spire  180  feet  high.  Leith 
Fort  (1779)  is  now  the  artillery  headquarters  in 
Scotland.  The  harbour- works  have  cost  upwards 
of  a  million  sterling.  They  comprise  five  docks, 
constructed  between  1801  and  1881,  and  having 
an  aggregate  area  of  43  acres ;  seven  graving- 
docks;  and  two  piers,  1177  and  1041  yards  long. 
The  construction  of  a  sixth  dock  (60  acres'in  area) 
was  undertaken  in  1892,  and  it  was  completed  in 
1904.  The  imports  (corn,  flour,  Avines,  chemicals, 
sugar,  esparto,  timber,  fruits,  &c.)  have  an 
annual  value  of  more  than  £12,500,000;  the 
exports  (coal,  iron,  paraffin,  whisky,  beer, 
linen  goods,  paper,  &c.)  of  about  £4,500,000. 
There  is  regular  steamboat  communication  with 
London,  the  north  of  Scotland,  several  conti- 
nental ports,  and  New  York.  Shipbuilding  is 
carried  on  ;  and  employment  is  also  afforded  by 
large  flour-mills,  sugar-refineries,  distilleries, 
breweries,  engineer-works,  sawmills,  rope-works, 
chemical  works,  &c,  Leith  was  constituted  a 
parliamentary  burgh  in  1833,  and  with  Portobello 
and  Musselburgh  returns  one  member.  Its  nine 
months'  siege  by  the  Protestants  (1559-60),  the 
surprise  of  its  citadel  by  the  Jacobites  (1715), 
and  royal  visits  innumerable,  are  the  chief  events 
in  its  history.  Home,  the  author  of  Douglas, 
was  a  native ;  John  Logan  was  a  minister ;  and 
Robert  Nicoll  is  buried  here.  Pop.  (1841)  26,026; 
(1881)  59,485 ;   (1901)  77,439.     See  works  by  A. 


fJEltHA 


409 


tEPAKTO 


Campbell  (1827),  D.  H.  Robertson  (1851),  and  J. 
Martine  (1888),  witti  others  cited  at  Edinburgh. 

Leitha  {Lei'ta),  an  Austrian  stream  rising  in 
Lower  Austria,  and  flowing  NE.  to  join  the 
Danube  nearly  along  the  frontier  of  Lower  Austria 
and  Hungary.     See  Austria, 

Leit'meritz,  an  old  town,  partly  walled,  of 
Bohemia,  at  the  head  of  steamboat  navigation  on 
the  Elbe,  34  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Prague.  It  has  a 
cathedral  (1671)  and  a  town-house  (1535).  Brew- 
ing is  the  staple  industry.    Pop.  13,854. 

Leltomischl,  an  old  town  of  Bohemia,  85  miles 
ESE.  of  Prague.     Pop.  8258. 

Leitrim  (Leeftrim),  a  county  in  the  NE.  of  the 
province  of  Connaught,  in  Ireland.  Its  greatest 
length,  north-east  to  south-west,  is  51  miles  ;  its 
greatest  width,  21  miles  ;  and  its  area  588  sq.  m., 
or  376,212  acres,  of  which  282,400  are  arable,  11 
per  cent,  barren,  and  7  per  cent.  bog.  The  county 
touches  the  ocean  on  the  north,  and  is  divided 
into  two  parts  by  Lough  Allen  (q.v.),  from  which 
the  Shannon  forms  the  south-west  boundary  of 
the  county.  The  southern  division  contains 
numerous  small  lakes.  The  northern  division  is 
intersected  by  several  ridges.  Leitrim  is  more 
a  grazing  than  a  tillage  district,  53  per  cent,  of 
its  area  being  grass-land.  Coal  is  found  in  the 
Lough  Allen  basin  ;  and  iron  and  lead  ores  are 
abundant,  though  little  mined.  The  county  town 
is  Carrick-on-Shannon.  Leitrim  returns  two 
members.     Pop.  (1841)  155,297  ;  (1901)  69,201. 

Leman,  Lake.    See  Geneva  (Lake  of). 

Le  Mans.    See  Mans. 

Lemberg  (formerly  Loivenburg ;  Polish  Liv6w\ 
the  capital  of  the  Austrian  province  of  Galicia 
and  Lodomeria,  is  situated  on  a  small  tributary 
of  the  Bug,  in  a  narrow  basin  among  hills,  212 
miles  E.  of  Cracow.  Pop.  (1869)  87,109;  (1905) 
162,000.  Severalof  the  churches  aro  fine  buildings, 
as  the  Dominican,  with  its  venerated  image  of  the 
Virgin;  the  Greek  cathedral  (1740-79);  the  Gothic 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  (1350-1460);  and  the 
Armenian  cathedral,  dating  from  the  14th  cen- 
tury. The  university  (1784 ;  reorganised  1817) 
has  nearly  1200  students  and  a  library  of  86,000 
volumes  and  470  MSS.  Here  also  is  the  seat  of 
the  national  institute  (1817),  with  a  librarv  of 
81,000  volumes  and  3000  MSS.,  chiefly  of  Polish 
literature,  and  large  collections  of  coins,  paint- 
ings, &c.  The  manufactures  embrace  machinery, 
earthenware,  oil,  beer,  &c.  Founded  in  1259, 
Lemberg  was  an  important  Polish  city  from  1340. 
It  fell  to  Austria  at  the  first  partition  of  Poland. 

Lemnos,  a  Turkish  island,  40  miles  SE.  of 
Mount  Athos,  and  40  SW.  of  the  Dardanelles, 
It  is  nearly  split  in  two  by  two  large  bays  on  the 
south  and  north  coasts.  The  interior  consists  of 
an  undulating  plateau.  None  of  tlie  hills  exceed 
1400  feet.  Area,  180  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  30,000,  all 
Greeks,  except  5000  Turks.  In  1657  Lemnos 
passed  to  the  Turks  from  tlie  Venetians.  The 
chief  town  is  Kastro  (anc.  Myrina),  on  the  W. 
coast ;  pop.  3000. 

Lena,  a  river  of  eastern  Siberia,  .3000  miles 
long,  rises  amid  the  mountains  on  the  north-west 
shore  of  Lake  Baikal,  in  the  government  of 
Irkutsk,  flows  first  NE.  to  Yakutsk,  where  it  is 
6^  miles  wide,  then  N.  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  into 
which  it  falls  by  several  mouths,  forming  a  delta 
250  miles  wide.  It  receives  the  Vilni  (1300 
miles)  on  the  left,  and  the  Vitim  (1400),  Olekma 
(800),  and  Aldan  (1300)  on  the  right.  Navigation 
is  open  from  Yakutsk  upwards  from  May  till 


October.  During  spring  the  waters  overflow  their 
banks.    See  Melville's  In  the  Leim  Delta  (1885). 

Lencoran,  a  Russian  seaport  on  the  Caspian 
Sea,  130  miles  S.  of  Baku.  Near  it  are  sulphur- 
springs.     Pop.  5540.    Persia  ceded  it  in  1813. 

Lencziza,  an  ancient  Polish  town,  80  miles 
WSW.  of  Warsaw.     Pop.  15,546. 

Lennep,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  18  miles 
E.  of  Diisseldorf.    Pop.  9844. 

Lennox  {Levenachs,  '  fields  of  the  Leven '),  an 
ancient  Scottish  territory,  comprising  the  basin 
of  the  Leven  and  Loch  Lomond— the  whole  of 
Dumbartonshire,  great  part  of  Stirlingshire,  and 
a  portion  of  Perthshire.  The  Lennox  Hills, 
between  Dumbarton  and  Stirling,  attain  1894 
feet.  The  Lennox  gave  name  to  an  earldom 
(1174-1581),  and  tlien  to  a  dukedom,  conferred 
by  Charles  II.  in  1680  on  one  of  his  illegiti- 
mate sons,  Charles,  Duke  of  Richmond  and 
Lennox,  who  in  1702  sold  the  Lennox  estates 
to  the  Marquis  ot  Montrose.  See  The  Lennox,  by 
Sir  W.  Eraser  (3  vols.  1874). 

Lennoxtown,  a  village  of  Stirlingshire,  11 
miles  N.  by  E.  of  Glasgow  by  rail,  with  bleach- 
works,  print-works,  and  alum-works.     Pop.  2638. 

Lens  (Lon^,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Pas- 
de-Calais,  17  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Lille.  Here  are 
coal-mines,  sugar-factories,  &c.     Pop,  24,862, 

Lentini  (anc,  Leontini),  a  town  of  Sicily,  on  a 
lake,  17  miles  SW,  of  Catania.    Pop.  17,740. 

Leobschiitz,  a  town  in  Prussian  Silesia,  24 
miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Ratibor.    Pop.  15,239. 

Leominster  (Lemster),  a  market-town  of  Here- 
fordshire, on  the  Lug,  13  miles  N,  of  Here- 
ford. A  monastery  was  founded  here  in  658; 
and  the  fine  church  of  a  later  priory  presents 
every  style  from  Norman  to  Perpendicular.  The 
quaint  old  timber  Butter  Cross  (1633)  was  in 
1855  transferred  to  a  new  site  to  make  room  for 
an  Italian  town-hall ;  there  is  also  a  corn  exchange 
(1859).  Leather  gloves  are  the  staple  manufac- 
ture, and  there  is  a  great  trade  in  hops  and  cider. 
Incorporated  as  a  municipal  borough  by  Queen 
Mary,  Leominster  till  1868  returned  two  mem- 
bers, and  till  1885  one.  Pop.  (1851)  5214  ;  (1901) 
5826.  See  local  histories  by  Price  (1795)  and 
Townsend  (1863). 

Le6n,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  Spain,  equivalent 
generally  to  the  modern  provinces  of  Leon, 
Palencia,  Valladolid,  Zamora,  and  Salamanca. 
The  modern  province  has  an  area  of  6167  sq.  m. 
and  a  population  of  390,000.— The  capital,  Leon 
(the  Lcgio  septinm  gemina  of  the  Romans),  is 
situated  in  a  plain,  256  miles  by  rail  NW.  of 
IVfadrid,  and  has  important  linen  manufactures. 
The  beautiful  cathedral  (c.  1195-1512)  contains 
the  tombs  of  many  sovereigns,  saints,  and 
martyrs.  Pop.  17,500.— Leon  is  also  the  name 
of  a  part  of  Brittany. 

Leon,  a  city  of  Mexico,  32  miles  W.  of  Guana- 
juato, is  a  great  industrial  centre,  manufactures 
saddlery,  cottons,  and  woollens,  and  has  a  cathe- 
dral, convents,  and  theatres.    Pop.  50,000. 

Leon,  a  city  of  Nicaragua,  32  miles  by  rail 
(1882)  SE.  of  its  port,  Corindo.  Once  the  boast 
of  Spanish  America,  founded  at  the  head  of  Lake 
Managua  in  1523,  removed  hither  in  1610,  and 
sacked  by  Dampier  in  1685,  it  is  now  partly  in 
ruins,  and  of  its  noble  buildings  only  the  cathedral 
and  churches  remain.     Pop,  35,000. 

Leonfor'te,  a  walled  Sicilian  town,  49  miles 
by  rail  W.  by  N.  of  Catania.     Pop.  19,645. 

Lepanto  (anc.  Naupactus ;  mod.  Greek  EpaUo), 


LERIDA 


410 


LEWlSfON 


a  small  town  of  Greece,  seat  of  a  bishop,  is  situ- 
ated on  the  north  side  of  tlie  entrance  to  the 
Gulf  of  Corinth.  Near  it  was  fought  the  great 
naval  battle  in  which  the  Papal,  Venetian,  and 
Spanish  galleys  under  Don  John  of  Austria 
defeated  the  Turks,  7th  October  1571. 

Ler'ida,  a  town  of  Spain,  capital  of  a  prov- 
ince (area,  4775  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  285,417  in  1SS7, 
having  decreased  from  314,530  in  1860),  on  a 
tributary  of  the  Bbro,  114  miles  by  rail  W.  by 
N.  of  Barcelona.  The  second  city  of  Catalonia, 
it  has  a  castle  and  two  cathedral  churches, 
one  an  ancient  Byzantino-Moorish  edifice,  now 
used  as  a  barracks,  the  other  a  modern  Grseco- 
Roman  building.  It  manufactures  woollens, 
cottons,  leather,  paper,  and  glass.     Pop.  25,311. 

L6rins  (Leran^'),  a  group  of  French  islands  in 
the  Mediterranean,  2j  miles  SE.  of  Cannes.  In 
a  fortress  on  Sainte- Marguerite  (anc.  Lerona),  4 
miles  in  circumference,  the  Man  with  the  Iron 
Mask  and  Marshal  Bazaine  were  confined,  Bazaine 
escaping  hence  in  1874.  On  Saint-Honorat  (anc. 
Lerina),  2  miles  in  circuit,  are  the  ruins  of  a 
once  famous  monastic  school. 

Lerwick  (Ler'wik),  the  county  town  of  Shet- 
land, on  the  east  coast  of  Mainland  and  on 
Bressay  Sound,  116  miles  NE.  of  Kirkwall. 
Demolished  and  refounded  in  the  17th  century, 
it  has  been  much  improved  since  1850,  and  has  a 
town-hall  (1883),  county  buildings  (1872),  water 
and  drainage  works  (1871) ;  whilst,  to  meet  the 
growth  of  its  shipping  and  fisheries,  extensive 
harbour-works  were  carried  out  during  1883-86. 
Pop.  4541. 

Lesbos,  or  Mytilenk,  a  Turkish  island  in  the 
^gean,  10  miles  from  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor, 
north  of  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna.  Area,  676  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  36,000,  mostly  Greeks.  Tlie  ancient  capital 
was  Mitylene ;  the  existing  town,  Castro,  '  a 
straggling  dirty  village'  (pop.  12,000),  stands  on 
a  peninsula  on  the  east  coast,  and  has  a  medifeval 
castle  and  a  shallow  harbour.  The  modern  town 
of  Agiasso  has  8000  inhabitants.  Between  700 
and  500  b.c.  Lesbos  was  the  flourishing  home  of 
poets  and  literary  men— Alcseus,  Sappho,  Ter- 
pander,  Pittacus,  Tlieophrastus,  Theophanes,  &c. 
It  belonged  successively  to  Macedonia,  Pontus, 
Rome,  and  Byzantium,  and  from  1355  to  1462 
was  owned  by  a  Genoese  merchant  family,  who 
lost  it  to  Mohammed  II. 

Leslie,  a  town  of  Fife,  12  miles  SW.  of  Cupar, 
and  3  W.  of  Markinch.  It  has  fiax-spinning, 
bleaching  and  paper  works.     Pop.  3621. 

Lesmaha'gow  (Celt.,  '  green  of  St  Machutus '), 
a  Lanarkshire  village,  on  the  Nethan,  6  miles  SW. 
of  Lanark.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  Tironensian 
priory  (12th  c).  Pop.  1737.  See  a  work  by  J. 
Greenshields  (1864). 

Letchworth,  in  Herts,  is  the  first  practical  de- 
velopment of  the  'garden  city'  movement,  and 
was  commenced  in  1903.  It  is  on  the  Great  Nor- 
thern Railway,  between  Hitchin  and  Cambridge, 
and  34  miles  N.  of  London.     Pop.  in  1905,  1600. 

Letterfrack,  a  tourist  centre  on  the  west  coast 
of  County  Galway,  8^  miles  N.  of  Clifden. 

Letterkenny,  a  town  of  Donegal,  on  the  Swilly, 
16  miles  WSW.  of  Londonderry.    Pop.  2370. 

Leucadia.    See  Leukas. 

Leuchars,  a  Fife  village,  4  miles  WNW.  of  St 
AndreAvs,  with  a  fine  Norman  church.     Pop.  711. 

Leuctra,  a  village  of  Bceotia.  Here  the  Thebans 
under  Epaminondas  routed  the  Spartan  king 
Cleorabrotus  (371  b.c.). 


Leuk  (Fr.  Lokhe),  a  town  (pop.  1411)  in  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Valais,  on  the  Rhone's  right 
bank,  15  miles  above  Sion.  It  is  the  station,  on 
the  Simplon  railway,  for  the  Baths  of  Leuk  (4643 
feet  above  sea-level),  5  miles  N.  The  springs 
(124''-199'  F.)  are  saline,  chalybeate,  and  sulphur- 
eous, and  are  used  both  for  drinking  and  bathing, 
chiefly  in  skin  and  stomachic  diseases. 

Leukas,  Leucadia,  or  Santa  Maura,  one  of 
the  Ionian  Islaiids,  lies  close  to  the  west  coast 
of  Greece ;  about  660  b.c.  the  Corinthians  cut 
through  the  peninsula  that  joined  it  to  the  main- 
land. It  is  20  miles  long  by  8  wide,  with  an  area 
of  110  sq.  m.  The  backbone  of  the  island  is  a 
ridge  of  white  limestone  ;  hence  the  name  (leukos, 
'white').  Pop.  25,000.— The  capital,  Amaxichi 
or  Leukas,  on  the  east  coast,  is  the  seat  of  an 
archbishop ;  pop.  3800.  Long  Venetian,  the 
island  was  occupied  by  Britain  in  1810. 

Leuthen,  a  village  of  Prussia,  in  Lower  Silesia, 
10  miles  W.  of  Breslau.  Here,  on  5th  December 
1757,  Frederick  the  Great  defeated  the  Austrians. 

Levant'  (from  the  Ital.  Levante,  the  'Orient,' 
or  'Rising' — i.e.  the  East),  the  eastern  parts  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea  and  the  coast-regions  of 
Syria,  Asia  Minor,  and  Egypt.  In  a  wider  sense, 
the  name  is  given  to  all  the  regions  eastward 
of  Italy,  as  far  as  the  Euphrates  and  the  Nile. 

Leven,  a  police-burgh  (1867)  of  Fife,  on  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river  Leven, 
near  a  rich  coalfield,  11  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Kirkcaldy.  It  is  a  summer-resort,  and  has  good 
golf-links.     Pop.  (1841)  1827  ;  (1901)  5577. 

Leven,  Loch,  a  salt-water  loch  between  Argyll 
and  Inverness  shires,  extending  11^  miles  west- 
ward to  Locli  Linnhe.    See  also  Lochleven. 

Levis,  or  Point  Levi,  capital  of  a  county  south 
of  the  St  Lawrence,  opposite  Quebec  (q.v.),  with 
a  large  graving-dock.     Pop.  8000. 

Levkosia.    See  Nicosia. 

Levuka,  till  1882  the  cajpital  of  Fiji  (q.v.). 

Lewes,  the  county  town  of  Sussex,  50  miles 
S.  of  London,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the 
eastern  declivity  of  one  of  the  South  Downs,  at 
the  foot  of  which  flows  the  navigable  river  Ouse 
on  its  way  to  the  sea  at  Newhaven,  7  miles 
distant.  Pop.  (1831)  8592;  (1901)  11,249.  The 
chief  objects  of  interest  are  the  ruins  of  a  priory 
and  castle  which  once  stood  here,  the  former  built 
(1072-78)  by  William  de  Warenue,  Earl  of  Surrey, 
who  with  his  wife  Gundreda,  a  daughter  of 
William  the  Conqueror,  was  buried  within  its 
precincts.  Of  the  castle  which  stood  on  high 
ground  in  the  centre  of  the  town,  the  keep  and 
gateway,  the  only  portions  now  remaining,  are 
occupied  as  a  museum.  Lewes  has  seven  churches, 
mostly  Perpendicular  in  style,  a  county  hall 
(1812),  free  library  (1862),  school  of  science  and 
art  (1868),  and  a  town-hall  (1872).  Newspaper- 
printing  and  tanning  are  carried  on.  Till  1867  the 
town,  which  was  incorporated  in  1881,  returned 
two  members,  till  1885  one.  Race-meetings  are 
held  three  times  a  year  near  Mount  Harry  on 
the  Downs,  where,  on  14th  May  1264,  Henry  III. 
was  routed  by  Simon  de  Montfort.  '  See  works  by 
Horsfield  (2  vols.  1824-27),  Mantell  (1846),  and 
Lower  (3d  ed.  1880). 

Lewis,  or  Snake  River,  the  great  southern 
branch  of  the  Columbia  (q.v.).     See  Idaho. 

Lewisham,  6  miles  SSE.  of  Charing  Cross,  since 
1885  a  parliamentary  borough  (pop.  67,500). 

Lewiston,  a  city  of  Maine,  on  the  Andro- 
scoggin River,  35  miles  N.  of  Portland.     The 


LEWIS-WITH-HARRIS 


411 


LIBERU 


river,  which  is  crossed  by  several  bridges,  has 
here  a  fall  of  50  feet.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  vi^ooUens  and  cottons.  Lewiston  contains  a 
Baptist  college.    Pop.  25,000. 

Lewis-with-Harris,  a  Scottish  island,  the 
largest  and  most  northerly  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  separated  from  the  mainland  by  the 
Minch,  and  containing  the  town  of  Stornoway 
(q.v.),  43  miles  NW.  of  Poolewe  and  180  N.  by 
W.  of  Oban.  Its  length  is  60  miles  ;  its  greatest 
breadth  is  28  miles ;  and  its  area  is  859  sq.  in., 
of  which  683  belong  to  Lewis,  the  Ross-shire 
portion,  in  the  north,  and  176  to  Harris,  the 
Invcrness-shire  portion,  in  the  south.  The 
coasts  are  wild  and  rugged,  the  chief  indenta- 
tions being  Broad  Bay  and  Lochs  Erisort,  Sea- 
forth.  Resort,  and  Roag.  The  Butt  of  Lewis,  a 
promontory  at  the  extreme  north,  rises  sheer 
to  a  height  of  142  feet ;  the  surface,  attain- 
ing 2662  feet  in  Harris  and  1750  in  Lewis,  con- 
sists mainly  of  hill,  moor,  and  moss,  treeless  and 
almost  shrubless,  with  much  peat  and  fresh- 
water lakes  innumerable.  Less  than  4  per  cent, 
of  the  entire  area  is  in  cultivation.  In  1844 
'the  Lews'  was  purchased  for  £190,000  from  the 
Mackenzies  of  Seaforth  by  Sir  James  Matheson 
(1796-1878),  who  expended  £330,000  on  improve- 
ments. Pop.  (1801)  12,164;  (1831)  18,440;  (1901) 
32,160,  mostly  Gaelic-speaking — a  population  of 
crofters  and  fishermen  greater  than  the  island 
is  well  able  to  sustain.  See  W.  A.  Smith's 
Lewsiana  (1875). 

Lezington,  (l)  capital  of  Fayette  county, 
Kentucky,  stands  in  the  fertile  blue-grass 
region,  77  miles  S.  of  Cincinnati.  It  is  a  hand- 
some city,  its  principal  edifices  the  court-house, 
state  university,  and  state  lunatic  asylum.  The 
Henry  Clay  monument  also  is  noteworthy.  There 
are  manufactures  of  spirits,  hemp,  and  especially 
of  tobacco.  Pop.  (1880)  16,656 ;  (1900)  26,369.— 
(2)  A  village  of  Massachusetts,  11  miles  "WNW. 
of  Boston,  where  the  first  blood  of  the  Revolution 
was  shed,  April  19,  1775.  A  monument  has  been 
erected  to  the  eight  men  who  fell  here.— (3)  Capital 
of  Lafayette  county,  Missouri,  on  the  Missouri 
River,  42  miles  by  rail  (84  by  water)  E.  of  Kansas 
City.  It  contains  Baptist  and  Methodist  ladies' 
colleges,  and  manufactures  hemp  and  woollen 
goods.  Pop.  4537.— (4)  A  pretty  village  of  Virginia, 
on  the  North  River,  32  miles  NNW.  of  Lynchburg. 
It  is  the  seat  of  the  Washington  and  Lee  Uni- 
versity and  the  Virginia  Military  Institute ;  and 
here  Robert  B.  Lee  and  '  Stonewall '  Jackson  are 
buried.     Pop.  3771. 

Leyhurn,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  7i  miles  SSW. 
of  Richmond.    Pop.  of  parish,  850. 

Leyden  (Dutch  pron.  Ll-den),  a  town  of  Hol- 
land, on  the  Old  Rhine,  5  miles  from  the  North 
Sea,  and  by  rail  9  miles  N.  by  W.  of  The  Hague 
and  31  W.  of  Utrecht.  It  is  a  typical  Dutch  town, 
spotlessly  clean,  with  canals  bordered  by  avenues, 
and  sleepy  squares  and  streets.  It  has  an  air  of 
academic  repose,  and  is  the  seat  of  a  celebrated 
university,  which  formerly  attracted  students 
from  all  parts  of  Europe,  including  Prince  Rupert, 
Sir  Thomas  Browne,  Evelyn,  Boswell,  Goldsmith, 
John  Wilkes,  Alexander  Carlyle,  and  Alexander 
Monro ;  whilst  among  its  professors  and  other 
students  have  been  Anninius,  Gomarus,  Grotius, 
Descartes,  Salmasius,  Scaliger,  Boerhaave,  Hem- 
sterhuis,  Linnajus,  Ruhnken,  Valckenaer,  &c. 
It  was  founded  in  1575  by  William  of  Orange  as  a 
reward  to  the  citizens  for  their  heroic  twelve 
months'  defence  against  the  Spaniards  (1573-74). 
It  has  about  50  teachers  and  800  students ;  a 


library  of  160,000  volumes  and  5000  oriental  and 
other  MSS.  ;  a  botanic  garden  ;  a  magnificent 
museum  of  natural  history,  &c.  The  town  art 
museum  contains  pictures  by  Rembrandt,  Jan 
Steen,  Gerard  Douw,  Lucas  of  Leyden,  the  family 
Mieris— all  natives  of  the  town,  and  others.  Here 
too  were  born  some  of  the  Elzevirs,  the  celebrated 
printers,  and  John  of  Leyden,  the  Anabaptist. 
The  quaint  and  picturesque  town-hall  dates  from 
1574-98.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  stands  an  old 
round  tower,  said  to  date  from  the  Roman 
occupation.  Leyden  was  in  the  15th  century 
famous  all  over  Europe  for  its  manufactured 
cloth,  baize,  and  camlet.  The  same  industries, 
but  to  a  much  less  extent,  together  with  the 
manufacture  of  cotton,  twine,  and  yarn,  the  dj^e- 
ing  of  cloth  and  leather,  &c.,  are  still  carried  on. 
In  1650  the  pop.  numbered  100,000 ;  but  a  century 
later  it  had  fallen  to  75,000,  and  by  1800  to 
30,000.  In  1876  it  was  40,724,  and  56,000  in  1905. 
Leyland,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  4^  miles  S.  of 
Preston.     Pop.  6972. 

Leyton,  a  suburban  town  of  Essex,  1  mile  N. 
of  Stratford.     Pop.  99,106. 

Lhassa  ('  the  Seat  of  the  Gods'),  the  capital  of 
Tibet,  and  a  sacred  city  of  the  Buddhists,  is 
situated  in  a  fertile  plain,  45  miles  NE.  of  the 
junction  of  the  Ki-chu  with  the  Yaro  San-po, 
11,910  feet  above  the  sea,  and  surrounded  by 
mountains  from  2000  to  4000  feet  higher.  The 
densely  packed  city  proper  is  surrounded 
with  a  wall,  outside  which  lie  extensive 
suburbs,  the  houses  standing  in  gardens,  ranged 
on  each  side  of  broad,  tree-shaded  streets.  The 
monasteries,  some  fifteen  in  number,  are  scattered 
over  the  plain  and  in  the  suburbs.  Just  outside  . 
the  central  city  on  the  north-west  stands  a  coni- 
cal hill,  Potala,  which  is  thickly  encrusted  with 
palaces  and  temples,  their  roofs  all  gilded  ;  this 
is  tlie  abode  of  the  Grand  Lama.  Lhassa  is 
not  only  the  centre  of  the  Lamaist  form  of 
Buddhism,  but  is  an  important  trading  centre. 
The  resident  population,  exclusive  of  many 
thousands  of  monks,  is  about  15,000  ;  sometimes 
augmented  by  a  floating  population  of  40,000 
pilgrims  and  traders.  Its  mysteries  were  first 
fully  revealed  to  the  British  expedition  which 
forced  its  way  hither  in  1904,  and  concluded  a 
treaty  here.  See  Tibet,  and  the  works  on  Lhassa 
by  Landon,  Candler,  and  Waddell  (all  in  1905). 
Llakhov  Islands.  See  Siberia. 
Llao-tung,  properly  the  part  of  southern 
Manchuria  east  of  the  river  Liao,  but  latterly 
restricted  to  the  peninsula  at  the  end  of  wliich 
Port  Arthur  (q.v.)  and  Dalny  (q.v.)  are  situated. 
— Liao-yang,  scene  of  one  of  the  great  battles  in 
1905,  is  on  a  western  tributary  of  the  Liao. 

Libau  (Lee'bow),  a  seaport  and  watering-place 
of  Courland,  in  Russia,  on  the  Baltic,  146  miles 
by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Riga.  Its  fine  harbour 
admits  vessels  that  draw  17  and  18  feet,  and 
is  free  from  ice  except  for  a  fortnight  in  the 
year.  The  exports  consist  of  grain,  linseed  and 
linseed  oil-cake,  petroleum,  eggs,  spirits,  flax, 
hemp,  &c. ;  the  imports  of  coals,  herrings,  arti- 
ficial manures,  cotton,  dye-Avood,  and  iron.  In 
1890  the  Russian  government  began  to  construct 
a  first-class  naval  harbour  ;  there  already  existed 
shipbuilding-yards  and  a  school  of  navigation. 
The  industries  include  iron-founding,  brewing, 
&c.  Trinity  Church  contains  an  organ  (1886), 
one  of  the  largest  in  the  world.     Pop.  65,540. 

Liberia,  a  Negro  republic  on  the  Pepper  Coast 
(Guinea)  of  West  Africa,  extending  500  miles  NW. 
and  NE.  of  Cape  Palmas,  and  reaching  200  miles 


LIBERTON 


412 


L1EGNIT2 


inland.  The  coast-region  consists  of  mangrove 
swamps,  lying  behind  a  belt  of  sand-dunes,  is 
traversed  by  numerous  rivers,  and  interrupted 
by  projecting  headlands  of  rock.  About  20  miles 
or  so  inland  the  surface  begins  to  rise  into  un- 
dulating uplands.  The  climate  and  vegetation 
are  tropical,  the  temperature  ranging  between 
75°  F.  and  88°  F.  The  rainy  season  lasts  about 
seven  and  the  dry  season  five  months.  The  chief 
exports  are  coffee,  sugar,  palm-oil  and  palm- 
kernels,  cocoa,  arrowroot,  caoutchouc,  ivory, 
kola  nuts,  &c.  The  total  value  of  the  trade  does 
not  probably  much  exceed  £500,000.  The  pop. 
amounts  to  2,068,000,  of  whom  18,000  are  liber- 
ated American  slaves  and  their  descendants,  the 
remainder  indigenous  Negroes,  including  the 
Kroomen.  Capital,  Monrovia  (pop.  5000),  now 
greatly  decayed.  Liberia  owes  its  origin  to  the 
American  Colonising  Society,  which  in  1821 
bought  land  here  and  settled  a  small  body  of 
freed  African  slaves.  As  newcomers  arrived 
from  the  United  States,  fresh  lands  continued  to 
be  bought.  In  1847  the  republic  was  constituted ; 
and  it  has  enlarged  repeatedly  its  boundaries, 
being  joined  in  1854  by  the  Negro  republic  Mary- 
land (founded  1821),  to  the  east  of  Cape  Palinas. 
The  constitution  is  modelled  on  that  of  the 
United  States,  with  a  president,  a  House  of 
Representatives,  and  a  Senate.  No  white  man  is 
allowed  to  acquire  citizen's  rights  or  to  hold 
property.  There  is  no  standing  army,  but  all 
citizens  capable  of  bearing  arms  are  enrolled  in 
the  militia.  Complete  religious  toleration  exists, 
the  Methodist  forms  prevailing.  The  republic 
does  not  enjoy  much  favour  in  the  eyes  of  the 
native  Negroes,  nor  yet  of  those  in  the  United 
States,  although  a  few  immigrants  still  arrive. 
Tiiere  has  been  much  intertribal  warfare  in  the 
interior,  but  at  Monrovia  in  1904  all  the  important 
cliieCs  signed  a  declaration  of  peace. 

Llberton  ('  leper  town '),  a  Midlothian  village, 
2i  miles  SSB.  of  Edinburgh.    Pop.  550. 

Libourne,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Gironde,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Isle  with  the 
tidal  Dordogne,  22  miles  by  rail  NB.  of  Bordeaux. 
It  is  one  of  the  ancient  free  towns  founded  by 
the  English,  about  1269.  Woollens  and  military 
clothing  are  manufactured.    Pop.  18,245. 

Libyan  Desert.    See  Sahara. 

Libyan  Hills.    See  Egypt,  p.  247. 

Lichfield  (Litch' field),  a  municipal  (and  till  1885 
parliamentary)  borough  of  Staffordshire,  and  the 
seat  of  a  bishopric,  is  pleasantly  situated  in  a 
valley  watered  by  an  affluent  of  the  Trent,  15 
miles  SE.  of  Stafford  and  118  NW.  of  London. 
Pop.  (1801)  4712  ;  (1901)  7902.  Its  cathedral-a 
noble  pile,  measuring  411  feet  by  66  (or  149 
across  the  transepts),  and  surmounted  by  three 
towers  with  spires,  the  central  258  feet  high- 
dates  from  the  13th  century,  when  the  Mercian 
see,  founded  in  656,  and  constituted  an  arch- 
bishopric 786-800,  was,  after  its  translation  to 
Chester  in  1075,  and  subsequently  thence  to 
Coventry,  re-established  here  at  its  original  seat. 
Despoiled,  and  with  its  central  tower  beaten 
down  during  the  siege  of  Lichfield  by  the  parlia- 
mentarians (1643),  the  cathedral  was  subsequently 
(1661-70)  effectively  repaired,  and  1860-84  both 
the  exterior  and  interior  were  ably  restored  at  a 
cost  exceeding  £40,000.  At  the  north-east  angle 
of  the  Close,  adjoining  the  cathedral,  is  the 
Bishop's  Palace  (1687),  and  hard  by  once  stood 
the  vanished  castle,  with  memories  of  Richard 
II.  Amongst  other  edifices  may  be  noted  the 
grammar-school,  at   which  Addison,   Dr  John- 


son, and  Garrick  were  educated ;  two  hospitals 
founded  1495  and  1504 ;  the  theological  college 
(1857);  and  a  concert  hall.  A  statue  of  Dr 
Johnson  was  erected  in  1838  in  the  market-place, 
opposite  the  house  in  which  he  was  born,  and 
which  was  bought  by  a  Mr  Johnson  in  1887  '  to 
save  it  from  the  hands  of  spoilers.'  Among 
residents  or  natives  have  been  Ashmole,  Bishop 
Newton,  Dr  Darwin,  his  biographer  Miss  Seward, 
and  Honora  Sneyd,  afterwards  Mrs  Edgeworth. 
See  works  by  Harwood  (1806)  and  Beresford 
('  Diocesan  Histories '  series,  1883). 

Lichtenstein,  a  town  of  Saxony,  on  the  Rod- 
litz,  45  miles  SSE.  of  Leipzig.     Pop,  7395. 

Liddesdale  (Lidsdale),  in  Roxburghshire,  the 
valley  of  Liddel  Water,  which  flows  27  miles 
SSW.  near  to  or  along  the  Border,  till  it  joins  the 
Esk  12  miles  N.  of  Carlisle.  See  a  work  by  R. 
B.  Armstrong  (1883). 

Liechtenstein,  a  mountainous  independent 
principality  of  Europe,  separated  from  Switzer- 
land on  the  west  by  the  Rhine ;  on  the  east  it 
is  bounded  by  Vorarlberg.  Area,  61  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
9634.  The  chief  town,  Vaduz  or  Liechtenstein 
(pop.  1139),  lies  28  miles  SSW.  of  Bregenz  on 
Lake  Constance.  The  Prince  of  Liechtenstein 
possesses  extensive  estates  in  Austria,  Prussia, 
and  Saxony.  The  little  state  is  a  constitutional 
sovereignty,  and  belongs  to  the  Austrian  customs, 
postal,  judicial,  and  coinage  system. 

Liege  (Ixe-ayzh' ;  Ger.  lAlttich,  Flemish  Luik),  a 
city  of  Belgium,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ourthe 
with  the  Meuse,  62  miles  by  rail  S.  by  E.  of 
Brussels  and  47  SW.  of  Aix-la-Chapelle.  It  con- 
sists of  the  old  town,  built  on  the  hills  that 
overlook  the  Meuse  on  the  left,  the  new  town, 
down  below  on  the  right  bank,  and  several 
suburbs.  It  is  a  fine  city,  with  elegant  bildges, 
handsome  squares  and  gardens,  and  fine  churches 
and  private  houses.  Its  defences  consist  of  a 
ring  of  modern  forts  and  the  citadel  (1650)  on  the 
high  ground  on  the  Meuse's  left  bank.  The  old 
cathedral  church,  St  Lambert's,  was  founded  in 
712,  destroyed  by  the  French  republicans  in  1794, 
and  wholly  removed  in  1802.  Since  then  St  Paul's 
(968-1528)  has  been  the  church  of  the  see.  The 
former  bishop's  palace  (1508-40)  has  been  con- 
verted into  law-courts.  The  university  was 
founded  in  1817,  and  lias  over  1200  students,  and 
a  library  of  210,000  vols.  Situated  in  the  centre 
of  the  east  Belgian  coal-mining  district,  Liege  is 
one  of  tl»e  first  manufacturing  cities  in  Belgium. 
Its  great  staple  is  firearms,  of  winch  it  turns  out 
annually  large  numbers.  But  manufactures  of 
wool,  leather,  and  iron-plates,  together  with 
breweries,  and  distilleries,  give  large  employ- 
ment. The  government  have  here  a  cannon- 
foundry  and  a  small-arms  factory.  At  Seraing 
(q.v.),  4  miles  distant,  are  the  huge  Cockerill 
Works.  Pop.  (1876)  115,851 ;  (1900)  173,706,  mostly 
Walloons.  The  Bishop  of  Maestricht  transferred 
the  see  to  Liege  in  720;  his  successors  became 
princes  of  the  empire  with  the  title  of  Dukes  of 
Bouillon.  The  city  was  seized  by  Charles  the 
Bold  of  Burgundy  in  1467  and  1468,  in  1691  by 
the  French,  in  1702  by  Marlborough,  and  once 
more  by  the  French  in  1792.  The  Congress  of 
Vienna  assigned  the  city  and  its  territories  to  the 
Netherlands ;  but  in  1831  they  were  incorporated 
in  the  new  kingdom  of  Belgium.— The  province 
of  Li^ge  has  an  area  of  1117  sq.  m.  and  a  pop. 
of  860,000. 

Liegnitz,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the 
Katzbach,  38  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Breslau.  In  the 
neighbourhood  (Wahlstadt)  the  Mongols  in  1241 


LIERRE 


413 


LIMERICK 


defeated  the  Poles,  and  filled  nine  sacks  with 
the  ears  of  tlieir  slaughtered  foes.  Liegnitz  came 
to  Prussia  in  1742.  Here  in  1760  Frederick  the 
Great  routed  the  Austrians,  and  in  1813  Bllicher 
defeated  the  French  (Katzbach).  It  is  now  a 
place  of  great  industrial  activity,  with  iron- 
foundries,  machine-shops,  pianoforte-factories, 
and  manufactures  of  woollens,  cloth,  hats,  gloves, 
&c.     Pop.  56,000. 

Lierre,  a  town  of  Belgium,  11  miles  by  rail 
SE.  of  Antwerp,  manufactures  silk,  lace,  shoes, 
beet-root  sugar,  salt,  and  beer.     Pop.  28,156. 

Liffey,  a  river  of  Ireland,  winding  50  miles  west- 
ward and  east-north-eastward  through  Wicklow, 
Kildare,  and  Dublin  counties,  to  Dublin  Bay. 

Liflford,  the  county  town  of  Donegal,  on  the 
Foyle,  opposite  Strabane,  and  15  miles  SSW.  of 
Londonderry.     Pop.  450. 

Ligny  (Leen'yi),  a  Belgian  village,  13  miles  NB. 
of  Charleroi.  Here  Napoleon  defeated  the  Prus- 
sians under  Bliicher,  16th  June  1815,  the  same 
day  as  Quatre-Bras. 

Llgonyi,  or  Elgon,  a  mountain,  14,000  feet 
high,  W.  of  Lake  Baringo  in  East  Equatorial 
Africa,  with  extensive  artificial  caves. 

Llgurian  Republic,  the  name  given  by  Bona- 
parte to  the  republic  of  Genoa  (q.v.)  in  1797,  from 
Liguria,  the  ancient  name  of  the  region. 

Lille  (Flemish  Ryssel),  a  manufacturing  town 
and  first-class  fortress  of  France,  chief  town  of 
the  dep.  of  Nord,  is  situated  on  a  sub-tributary 
of  the  Scheldt,  66  miles  by  rail  SB.  of  Calais. 
Lille  derives  its  name  from  the  11th-century 
castle  of  the  Counts  of  Flanders  around  which 
it  arose,  and  which  from  its  position  in  the 
midst  of  marshes  was  called  L'Isle.  Burgundian 
from  1365,  Lille  was  conquered  by  Louis  XIV.  in 
1667,  and  finally  handed  over  to  France  in  1713. 
Its  defences  consist  of  Vauban's  pentagonal 
citadel,  and  a  series  of  seven  forts  encircling  the 
town.  The  old  fortifications  were  mostly  levelled 
from  1858  onwards.  The  town  possesses  few 
notable  buildings  except  the  church  of  Notre 
Dame  (1855),  and  the  town-hall  with  the  museum, 
the  famous  Wicar  collection  of  drawings  by  the 
Old  Masters,  and  a  library  of  41,000  volumes. 
It  has  a  Catholic  'free  university,'  independent 
faculties  of  medicine  and  science,  technical 
schools,  a  music  school,  and  an  academy  of  art. 
Lille  is  a  great  centre  of  textile  industries  :  the 
spinning  of  linen  and  cotton,  the  manufacture  of 
thread,  damask,  cloth,  tulle,  tickings,  &c.— these 
textile  industries  employ  20,000  workpeople — as 
also  of  tobacco,  beer,  paper,  sugar,  machinery, 
&c.     Pop.  (1872)  152,775  ;  (1901)  215,431. 

Lillebonne,  a  Norman  town  on  the  Bolbec, 
28  miles  WNW.  of  Rouen  by  rail.  The  Julia 
Bona  of  the  Romans,  it  has  remains  of  a  Roman 
theatre,  a  15th-century  church,  and  a  ruined 
castle  of  William  the  Conqueror.    Pop.  5705. 

Lima  (Leema),  the  capital  of  Peru,  lies  in  a 
broad  valley  6  miles  E.  of  Callao,  its  port,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  two  railways  (9  miles). 
The  archiepiscopal  cathedral  (rebuilt  1746)  is, 
after  that  of  Mexico,  the  most  noteworthy  in 
Spanish  America.  The  university  (1551)  is  now 
housed  in  the  old  Jesuits'  college.  The  national 
library  was  looted  during  the  Chilian  occupation 
(1881-83),  and  numerous  statues  and  works  of 
art  found  their  way  to  Santiago.  This  disaster, 
added  to  revolutions  and  earthquakes  (the  worst 
that  of  1746),  has  wrought  sad  liavoc  in  Lima, 
which,  with  its  wide  and  regular  streets,  remains 
still  picturesque,  but  somewhat  shabby  and  very 


dirty.  The  trade  is  almost  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  foreigners.  The  manufactures  include  iron- 
casting,  copper-smelting,  and  the  making  of 
furniture,  silver-ware,  gold-lace,  and  stamped 
leather.  There  is  a  railway  to  Oroya  (128  miles). 
Lima  is  the  old  Indian  name  revived  of  what  was 
founded  as  Ciudad  de  los  Reyes  in  1535  by  Pizarro 
crTptt'^'pop"  n?000*^'  ^""^"^  '"  ^^'^  cathedral 

Lima,  capital  of  Allen  county,  Ohio,  71  miles 
N.  of  Dayton,  on  the  Ottawa  River.  It  has 
steam-mills  and  manufactures  of  engines,  furui- 
ture,  &c.    Pop.  23,500. 

Limasol,  or  Limassol  (Gr.  Lemisou),  the  chief 
seaport  of  Cyprus,  though  it  has  no  harbour. 
There  is  a  large  trade  in  wine  and  carobs.  Limasol 
is  tlie  only  place  in  Cyprus  where  English  troops 
are  permanently  quartered.    Pop.  8388. 

Limavad'y,  a  market-town,  on  the  Roe,  16 
miles  NB.  of  Londonderry.    Pop.  2696. 

Limbach,  a  Saxon  town,  10  miles  WNW.  of 
Chemnitz,  manufactures  liosiery.    Pop.  12,494, 

Limburg,  a  territory  on  the  Meuse,  lying 
between  the  provinces  of  Liege  and  Brabant. 
In  1839  it  was  finally  re-divided,  the  lands  to  the 
west  of  the  Meuse  remaining  with  Belgium, 
whilst  a  long  narrow  strip  on  the  east  side  was 
constituted  the  Dutch  province  of  Limburg.  The 
Belgian  province  has  an  area  of  931  sq.  m.  and 
a  pop.  (1892)  of  225,000.  Capital,  Hasselt.  The 
area  of  the  Dutch  province  is  850  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
(1892)  261,853.  Capital,  Maestricht.— The  well- 
known  Limburg  cheese  is  made  at  the  little  town 
of  Limburg  (pop.  4768),  the  former  capital  of 
the  duchy,  which  is  now  in  the  province  of  Liege, 
19  miles  B.  of  the  city  of  Liege.— Limburg-an- 
dkr-Lahn,  a  town  of  Hesse-Nassau,  32  miles  B. 
of  Coblenz,  has  a  fine  Catholic  cathedral  (Rhenish 
style,  1243)  ;  pop.  8485. 

Limehouse,  a  Thameside  parish  of  E.  London. 

Limekilns,  a  Fife  coast-village,  on  the  Firth  of 
Forth,  3  miles  SSW.  of  Dunfermline.     Pop.  552. 

Lim'erick,  a  county  of  Munster,  separated  by 
the  Shannon  on  the  N.  from  Clare,  and  bounded 
elsewhere  by  Tipperary,  Cork,  and  Kerry.  Its 
greatest  length  is  35  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  54 
miles,  and  its  area  680,842  acres,  or  1063  sq.  in. 
Pop.  (1841)330,029;  (1861)217,223;  (1901)146,018, 
mainly  Roman  Catholics.  The  surface  is  an  undu- 
lating plain,  except  in  the  extreme  N.  and  S. 
The  soil  in  general  is  fertile,  especially  the  Golden 
Vale,  and  a  portion  beside  the  Shannon  below 
Limerick.  Dairy-farming  flourishes  ;  woollens, 
flour,  and  paper  are  manufactured.  The  county 
returns  two  members.  Limerick  is  the  only  town 
of  any  size.  Limerick  is  more  than  usually  rich 
in  antiquities,  both  ecclesiastical  and  civil,  of 
the  Celtic  as  well  as  the  Anglo-Norman  period. 
There  are  monastic  ruins  at  Adare,  Askeaton,  &c. 

Limerick,  the  county  town,  stands  at  the  head 
of  the  estuary  of  the  Shannon,  120  miles  by  rail 
WSW.  of  Dublin.  The  town  consists  of  English 
Town,  the  original  English  settlement  made  in 
the  reign  of  King  John,  on  King's  Island ;  Irish 
Town,  immediately  S.,  on  the  left  bank;  and 
Newtown-Pery,  S.  of  Irish  Town,  the  handsomest 
part  of  the  city,  dating  from  1769.  There  are  few 
objects  of  interest  except  the  Protestant  cathedral 
of  St  Mary  (1180;  rebuilt  1490);  the  Gothic  R.C. 
cathedral  (1860) ;  and  the  fine  bridges  over  the 
Shannon.  Limerick  manufactures  a  little  lace, 
grinds  flour,  and  cures  bacon.  Fourth  among 
Irish  seaports,  it  has  a  graving  and  a  floating 
dock,  and  extensive  quays ;  and  imports  grain, 


LIMFIORD 


414 


LINCOLNSHIRE 


petroleum,  wine,  spirits,  and  timber.  It  returns 
one  member  (till  1885  two).  Pop.  (1851)  53,448  ; 
(1901)  38,085.  See  the  county  history  by  Fitz- 
gerald and  M'Gregor  (2  vols.  Dublin,  1826-27). 

Limfiord.    See  Denmark. 

Limoges  (Lee-7nozh'),  capital  of  the  French  dep, 
of  Haute- Vienne,  and  of  the  former  province  of 
Limousin,  is  picturesquely  situated  on  the  Vienne, 
248  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Paris  and  218  N.  of 
Toulouse.  Its  Gothic  cathedral  was  begun  in  the 
13th  century  and  completed  in  1851.  The  manu- 
facture of  porcelain  employs  over  5000  people ; 
and  flannels,  cotton,  paper,  &c.  are  also  made. 
The  enamel- work  for  which  Limoges  was  formerly 
celebrated  is  now  no  longer  carried  on.  There 
is  a  flne  ceramic  museum  (1867).  Pop.  (1826) 
48,862 ;  (1905)  85,000.  Limoges  was  an  important 
town  under  the  Romans,  and  is  so  still  in  spite 
of  plagues,  fires,  and  sieges  (the  worst  that  by 
the  Black  Prince  in  1370). 

Limon,  a  port  of  Costa  Rica,  founded  in  1861, 
on  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  railway  begins  here, 
and  the  place  has  a  landing-pier.     Pop.  4400. 

Limpopo,  OoRi,  or  Crocodile  River,  rises  in 
the  heart  of  the  Transvaal,  and  after  a  course  of 
800  miles,  during  which  it  describes  a  great  curve 
northwards,  falls  into  Delagoa  Bay.  Some  50 
miles  are  navigable  by  steamer;  the  Olifant  is 
the  chief  tributary. 

Linares  (Lee-nd'res),  a  town  of  southern  Spain, 
90  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  Cordova,  is  celebrated 
for  its  mines  of  lead  and  copper,  and  has  lead 
and  iron  foundries,  gunpowder  and  dynamite 
factories.     Pop.  35,229. 

Linclu'den,  a  ruined  abbey,  1^  mile  NNW.  of 
Dumfries,  at  the  Cluden's  influx  to  the  Nith. 
It  was  founded  about  1164  for  Benedictine  nuns. 
See  M'Do wall's  Chronicles  of  Linduden  (1886). 

Lincoln  {Lin'con),  the  capital  of  Lincolnshire, 
and  a  parliamentary,  county,  and  municipal 
borough,  is  situated  on  the  Witham,  42  miles  S.  of 
Hull,  33  NE.  of  Nottingham,  and  130  N.  by  W. 
of  London.  Built  on  the  slope  of  a  hill,  which 
rises  210  feet  above  the  river,  and  is  crowned  by 
the  cathedral,  the  city  is  imposing  in  effect,  and 
can  be  seen  from  afar  in  the  flat  fen-country. 
It  is  very  ancient,  is  irregularly  laid  out,  and 
contains  many  interesting  specimens  of  early 
architecture — notably  the  castle,  commenced  in 
1086  by  William  I.  ;  the  Newport  Gate,  or  Roman 
arch,  on  the  north  side  of  the  city ;  the  Ex- 
chequer and  Stonebow  gateways,  the  latter 
supporting  a  guildhall  of  mediaeval  architecture  ; 
the  Jew's  House  (Norman),  associated  with  the 
legend  of  Hugh  of  Lincoln ;  St  Mary's  Guild 
(Norman);  and  the  middle  grammar-school, 
founded  in  1567  in  the  Grey  Friars.  But  the 
chief  glory  of  Lincoln  is  its  cathedral,  admittedly 
one  of  the  finest  in  England.  Erected  between 
1075  and  1501,  it  measures  524  feet  by  82  (or  250 
across  the  transepts),  and  in  style  is  mainly 
Early  English.  Its  matchless  central  tower  (1235- 
1311 ;  265  feet  high)  was  previous  to  1547  sur- 
mounted by  a  spire,  as  till  1808  were  the  two 
western  towers  (completed  1450).  Other  notice- 
able features  are  the  west  front  (partly  Norman), 
with  its  three  doorways  (1123) ;  the  Galilee  or 
south  porch  (c.  1240) ;  the  Decorated  choir  (1254) ; 
the  decagonal  chapter-house  ;  Norman  font  (1075- 
93) ;  and  Great  Tom  of  Lincoln  (5^  tons),  hung 
in  the  central  tower,  which  also  contains  a 
mellow-chiming  clock  (1880).  There  are  also  a 
county  hall  (1823-26),  theological  college,  school 
of  science,  and  bishop's  palace  (1887)  embodied 


with  a  former  palace  of  1149.  Several  iron- 
foundries  and  important  manufactories  of  agri- 
cultural machinery  are  in  operation  here,  and  an 
active  trade  is  done  in  flour.  The  spring  horse- 
fair  is  one  of  the  largest  in  the  world,  and  the 
race-meetings  date  back  to  James  I.'s  reign.  One 
member  is  returned  to  parliament  for  the  city. 
In  the  history  of  Lincoln  the  most  noteworthy 
incidents  have  been  frequent  invasions  by  the 
Danes  (786-875) ;  great  fires  (1110  and  1124) ;  a 
battle  (1141)  between  the  adherents  of  Stephen 
and  the  Empress  Matilda ;  the  second  coronation 
of  Henry  II.  (1155-58) ;  an  earthquake  (11S5) ;  the 
battle  of  Lincoln,  or  Lewis  Fair,  fought  4tli  June 
1218  ;  five  parliaments  (1301-86) ;  and  lastly,  the 
siege  of  the  town,  and  desecration  of  the  cathe- 
dral, by  the  parliamentarians  (1644).  Pop.  (1801) 
7398  ;  (1881)  37,313  ;  (1901)  48,784. 

Lincoln,  (1)  capital  of  Nebraska,  on  Salt  Creek, 
66  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Omaha.  Laid  out  in  1867, 
it  is  a  handsome  and  thriving  city,  with  state 
capitol,  university,  prison,  insane  asylum,  and  the 
United  States  court-house.  There  are  flour  and 
planing  mills,  foundries,  &c. ;  limestone  is  largely 
quarried,  and  there  are  extensive  salt-works  in 
connection  with  brine-springs  near  by.  Pop, 
(1880)  13,003  ;  (1900)  40,169.— (2)  Capital  of  Logan 
county,  Illinois,  28  miles  NNE.  of  Springfield, 
manufactures  castings  and  farm-implements. 
Here  are  Lincoln  University  (Cumberland  Pres- 
byterian) and  a  state  asylum  for  feeble-minded 
children.  Pop.  9200.  ^-(3)  A  town  of  Rhode 
Island,  6  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Providence,  con- 
taining several  cotton-manufacturing  villages. 
Pop.  8950. 

Lincoln,  Mount,  a  peak  (14,297  feet)  of  the 
Roclcy  Mountains,  in  Colorado,  8  miles  NE.  of 
Leadville.  A  railway  was  made  to  silver-mining 
works  at  the  summit,  and  here  is  a  meteoro- 
logical station  conducted  by  Harvard  College. 

Lincolnshire,  a  maritime  county  of  England, 
after  Yorkshire  the  largest  in  the  country,  is 
bounded  N.  by  the  Humber,  E.  by  the  North  Sea, 
the  Wash,  and  Norfolk,  and  elsewhere  by  Cam- 
bridge, Northampton,  Rutland,  Leicester,  Not- 
tingham, and  York  shires.  Measuring  75  miles 
from  N.  to  S.,  and  48  from  B.  to  W.,  it  has  a  sea- 
board of  about  90,  and  contains  2672  sq.  m.,  or 
1,767,879  acres.  Pop.  (1801)  208,557  ;  (1841)362,602 ; 
(1901)  498,781.  The  surface  is  comparatively  flat : 
along  the  coast  stretch  low-lying  marshes,  from 
which  in  places  the  sea  is  only  kept  out  by  means  of 
embankments.  West  of  these  marshes  lie  the 
Wolds,  a  range  of  chalk  downs,  which,  commenc- 
ing near  Barton-on-Humber  in  the  north,  extend 
thence  40  miles  south-eastward  to  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Spilsby  and  Horncastle,  The  western 
side  of  the  county,  from  the  Humber  in  the  north 
through  Lincoln  to  Grantham  in  the  south,  con- 
sists principally  of  light  uplands,  whilst  in  the 
south-east  are  fens  forming  part  of  the  Bedford 
Level  (q.v.).  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Trent, 
Witham,  and  Welland ;  and  a  noticeable  feature 
of  the  county  are  the  numerous  canals  which 
intersect  it— Car-dyke  and  Foss-dyke,  the  two 
largest,  being  probably  the  work  of  the  Romans. 
Near  Ancaster  limestone  is  extensively  quarried, 
and  in  the  western  districts  ironstone  abounds. 
Tlie  chief  crops  are  corn  and  turnips,  and  in 
places  flax  is  cultivated ;  the  county  is  famous 
for  its  rich  '  warp-lands '  along  the  banks  of  the 
Trent,  and  its  immense  flocks  of  sheep.  Horse- 
breeding,  too,  is  extensively  prosecuted,  with 
great  horse-fairs  at  Horncastle  and  Lincoln ; 
other  industries  are  the  mauufacture  of  agri- 


LINDISFARNE 


415 


LIPETZK 


cultural  implements  and  machinery,  and  the 
shipping  trade  and  tisheries  of  Grimsby. 

Lincolnshire  is  divided  into  three  districts  or 
•  Parts  '—viz.  the  Parts  of  Holland  in  the  south- 
east, comprising  the  greater  part  of  tlie  Fens,  the 
Parts  of  Kesteven  in  the  south-west,  and  the  Parts 
of  Lindsey,  which  is  by  far  tlie  largest,  occupying 
the  remainder  of  the  county.  These  Parts,  each 
with  its  own  county  council,  are  subdivided  into 
thirty-one  wapentakes  or  hundreds,  the  city  of 
Lincoln  and  the  municipal  boroughs  of  Boston, 
Grantham,  Great  Grimsby,  and  Louth,  with  part 
of  Stamford  (the  rest  being  in  Northamptonshire), 
and  contain  in  all  757  parishes,  almost  entirely 
situate  in  the  diocese  of  Lincoln  and  midland 
circuit.  For  parliamentary  purposes  the  county 
is  divided  into  seven  divisions,  and  the  boroughs 
of  Boston,  Grantham,  Grimsby,  and  Lincoln,  each 
returning  one  member.  Other  towns  are  Clee- 
thorpes  (practically  a  suburb  of  Grimsby),  Gains- 
borough, Sleaford,  Spalding,  and  Sutton. 

The  insurrection  known  as  the  '  Pilgrimage  of 
Grace'  (1536)  broke  out  in  Lincolnshire;  and 
in  1643,  during  the  Civil  War,  Ancaster,  Gains- 
borough, Grantham,  and  Winceby  were  the  scene 
of  contests  between  the  rival  forces.  To  the 
antiquary  Lincolnshire  is  of  special  interest  on  ac- 
count of  the  beauty  of  its  many  churches— Boston, 
Crowle,  Grantham,  Heckington,  Louth,  Long 
Sutton,  and  Tattershall  amongst  them  ;  whilst  of 
other  places  of  interest  it  will  suffice  to  mention 
here  the  ruined  abbey  of  Crowland,  and  Boling- 
broke  Castle,  the  home  of  John  of  Gaunt  and  of  his 
son  Henry  IV.  Other  eminent  persons  associated 
with  the  county  include  Bishop  Grosseteste ;  John 
Foxe,  the  martyrologist ;  William  Cecil,  Lord 
Burghley ;  Captain  John  Smith ;  Archbishop 
Whitgift ;  Heywood,  the  dramatist ;  Sir  Isaac 
Newton ;  Thomas  Sutton,  founder  of  the  Charter- 
house ;  Dr  Busby,  head-master  of  Westminster ; 
John  Wesley ;  Scott,  the  commentator ;  Sir  John 
Franklin;  Dr  Dodd,  the  forger;  Dr  Lingard ; 
Lord  Tennyson  ;  Dr  Latham  ;  Worth  '  of  Paris  ; ' 
Jean  Ingelow ;  and  Conington.  See  Avorks  by 
Allen  (1834),  Anderson  (1880),  Venables  and  Perry 
(1897). 

Llndisfarne.    See  Holy  Island. 

Lindores.    See  Newburgh. 

Lindsay,  capital  of  Victoria  county,  Ontario,  on 
the  river  Scugog,  60  miles  NB.  of  Toronto,  with 
trade  in  grain  and  lumber,  and  manufactories  of 
agricultural  machinery,  &c.    Pop.  7500. 

Lingah,  a  Persian  port  near  the  entrance  of  the 
Persian  Gulf.     Pop.  9000. 

Linkoplng,  one  of  tlie  oldest  towns  in  Sweden, 
capital  of  East  Gothland,  142  miles  SW.  of 
Stockholm,  with  a  Romanesque  12th-ceutury 
cathedral.    Pop.  15,968. 

Links  of  Forth.    See  Forth. 

Linlithgow,  an  ancient  royal  burgh,  the  county 
town  of  Linlithgowshire,  lies  16  miles  W.  of 
Edinburgh,  near  tlie  southern  shore  of  Linlithgow 
Loch,  which,  150  feet  above  sea-level,  covers  102 
acres,  and  deepens  westward  from  10  to  50  feet. 
On  a  promontory,  66  feet  high,  stands  the  stately 
ruin  of  Linlithgow  Palace,  mostly  rebuilt  between 
1425  and  1628,  flred  by  Hawley's  dragoons  in 
1746,  and  repaired  in  1892.  It  was  the  birthplace 
of  James  V.  and  Mary  Stuart.  The  neighbouring 
parish  church  of  St  Michael's  (restored  1894-95) 
is  a  very  good  Decorated  structure  of  mainly 
the  15th  and  16th  centuries  ;  within  its  south 
transept  James  IV.  received  the  Flodden  warn- 
ing. Another  event  in  Linlithgow's  history  was 
the  murder  of  the  Regent  Moray.    The  Cross 


Well  (rebuilt  1807)  and  the  town-hall  (1889)  are 
also  noteworthy.  With  Falkirk,  &c.,  Linlithgow 
returns  a  member.  Pop.  (1831)3187  ;  (1901)  4279. 
See  a  work  by  Waldie  (3d  ed.  1879). 

Linlithgowshire,  or  West  Lothian,  a  Scottish 
county,  washed  on  the  north  for  17  miles  by  the 
Firth  of  Forth,  and  elsewhere  bounded  by  Edin- 
burgh, Lanark,  and  Stirling  shires.  Its  length 
south-westward  is  22  miles,  its  average  breadth 
7  miles,  and  its  area  127  sq.  m.  The  only  large 
streams  are  the  Almond  on  the  south-eastern,  and 
the  Avon  on  the  western  boundary ;  the  prin- 
cipal eminences  are  Cairnnaple  (1016  feet).  Cockle- 
rue  (912),  Dechinont  Law  (686),  and  Glower-o'er- 
'em  (559),  the  last  with  a  monument  to  General 
Adrian  Hope,  who  fell  in  the  Indian  Mutiny. 
Coal  has  been  largely  mined  since  the  12th  cen- 
tury, as  also  are  ironstone,  fireclay,  and  shale 
for  the  manufacture  of  paraffin.  Excellent  sand- 
stone is  quarried  at  Binny.  Of  the  whole  area 
73  per  cent,  is  in  cultivation ;  woods  cover  4982 
acres.  Towns,  noticed  separately,  are  Linlith- 
gow, South  Queensferry,  Bathgate,  Bo'ness,  and 
Broxburn  ;  among  the  mansions  are  Hopetoun, 
Dalmeny,  Dundas,  and  Kiuneil ;  and  the  antiqui- 
ties include  prehistoric  and  Roman  remains,  the 
Romanesque  church  of  Dalmeny,  the  castles  of 
Barn  bougie.  Blackness,  Niddry,  &c.,  and  the 
preceptory  at  Torphichen  of  the  Knights  of  St 
John.  The  county  returns  one  member.  Pop. 
(1801)  17,844;  (1841)  26,872 ;  (1901)  65,708.  See 
works  by  Sibbald  (1710)  and  Small  (1883). 

Linmouth.    See  Lynmouth. 

Linnhe,  Loch  (Lin'nie),  a  sea-loch  of  Argyll 
and  Inverness  shires,  extending  31  miles  north- 
eastward to  Fort  William,  and  8^  miles  to  1^ 
furlongs  (at  Corran  Narrows)  wide.  The  upper 
9|  miles  are  sometimes  called  Lower  Loch  Eil. 

Linton,  East,  a  Haddingtonshire  police-burgh, 
on  the  Tyne,  23^  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Edinburgh. 
Pop.  920.— West  Linton,  a  Peeblessliire  village, 
oil  Lyne  Water,  16  miles  SSW.  of  Ediuburgli. 
Pop.  412. 

Linz  (Lintz),  capital  of  Upper  Austria,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Danube  (here  crossed  by  an 
iron  bridge  780  feet  long),  117  miles  by  rail  W. 
of  Vienna.  It  has  a  splendid  Gothic  cathedral 
(1862-90),  the  old  cathedral  (1670),  the  bishop's 
palace,  a  museum,  a  library  of  33,000  vols.,  &c. 
Its  industries  include  the  manufacture  of  woollen 
goods,  tobacco,  linen,  leather,  machinery,  and 
shipbuilding.    Pop.  69,560. 

Lions,  Gulf  of  {Golfe  du  Lion),  the  large  Medi- 
terranean gulf  of  S.  France,  from  the  Spanish 
frontier  B.  to  the  Hyfires  Islands. 

Lip'ari  Islands,  known  also  as  the  ^olian 
Islands,  a  volcanic  group  in  the  Mediterranean, 
off  the  N.  coast  of  Sicily,  NW.  of  Messina.  It 
comprises  six  larger  and  numerous  smaller  islands, 
with  an  aggregate  area  of  116  sq.  m.  Many  of 
the  smaller  islands  form  part  of  the  rim  of  a 
gigantic  crater.  Stromboli  (3022  feet)  is  almost 
constantly  active,  and  Vulcano  (1017  feet)  inter- 
mittently ;  the  rest  are  extinct.  The  ancient 
classical  poets  localised  in  these  islands  the  abode 
of  the  fiery  god  Vulcan— hence  their  ancient 
name,  Vulcaniai  Insula;.  Their  collective  pop. 
is  19,312,  of  whom  7542  belong  to  the  island 
of  Lipari  (area,  32  sq.  m.),  the  largest  of  the 
group.  The  warm  springs  are  much  resorted  to, 
and  the  climate  is  delightful.  Lipari,  the  chief 
town,  is  a  bishop's  see  and  a  seaport ;  pop.  4968. 

Lipetzk,  a  town  in  the  Russian  government  of 
Tambotf,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Voronezh,  a 


LIPPE 


416 


LISKEARD 


tributary  of  the  Don,  800  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of 
Moscow.    It  has  chalybeate  springs.    Pop.  25,860. 

Llppe  (Lip'pey),  or  Lippe-Detmold,  a  princi- 
pality of  northern  Germany,  lying  between  West- 
phalia on  the  W.  and  Hanover  on  the  E.  The 
Weser  touches  it  on  the  N.  and  the  Teutoburger 
Wald  crosses  it  in  the  S.  Area,  475  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
(1875)  112,442  ;  (1900)139,238,  mainly  Protestants. 
Capital,  Detmold  (q.v.) ;  other  towns,  Lemgo  and 
Horn.  The  surface  is  hilly  ;  woods  cover  28  per 
cent.  Every  spring  some  12,000  of  the  inhabit- 
ants spread  themselves  over  central  Europe,  even 
to  south  Russia,  as  brick-burners  and  tile-makers, 
returning  home  in  autumn.  The  state  is  named 
from  the  Lippe  river,  a  tributary  of  the  Rhine, 
outside  the  present  principality. 

Lippstadt,  a  town  of  Prussia,  on  the  Lippe,  30 
miles  E.  by  N.  from  Dortmund.  It  manufactures 
spirits,  beer,  cigars,  brushes,  ropes,  iron,  &c. 
Founded  in  1168,  it  was  captured  by  the  Spaniards 
in  1620,  and  by  the  French  in  1757.     Pop.  13,504, 

Llrla,  a  town  of  Spain,  14  miles  NW.  of  Val- 
encia.   Pop.  9029. 

Lisbon  (Port.  Lisboa),  capital  of  Portugal, 
stands  on  the  northern  shore  of  a  bottle-shaped 
expansion  of  the  Tagus,  9  miles  from  its  mouth  ; 
it  is  412  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Madrid.  The 
city  extends  for  4  or  5  miles  along  the  shore, 
and  climbs  up  the  slopes  of  a  low  range  of 
hills,  occupying  a  site  of  imposing  beauty.  The 
oldest  part  of  Lisbon  is  that  which  escaped  the 
earthquake  of  1755  ;  it  lies  on  the  east,  round 
the  citadel,  and  consists  of  narrow,  intricate 
streets,  not  over  clean.  It  is  still  known  by  its 
Moorish  name  of  Alfama.  The  western  portions 
were  built  after  the  earthquake,  with  wide  and 
regular  streets,  fine  squares,  and  good  houses. 
The  summits  are  mostly  crowned  with  what  were 
formerly  large  monasteries.  The  gloomy  cathe- 
dral of  the  'patriarch,'  built  in  1147,  restored 
after  1755,  has  a  Gothic  facade  and  choir.  The 
large  church  of  St  Vincent  contains  the  tombs 
of  the  royal  (Braganza)  fainily.  The  church  of 
Estrella  is  a  reduced  copy  of  St  Peter's  at  Rome. 
In  San  Roque  is  a  chapel  thickly  encrusted  with 
mosaics  and  costly  marbles.  But  the  finest 
structure  in  the  city  is  the  Gothic  monastery  and 
church  of  Belem,  a  monument  to  the  great  sea- 
men of  Portugal ;  it  was  begun  in  1500  on  the 
spot  from  which  Vasco  da  Gama  embarked  (1497) 
on  his  momentous  voyage.  Inside  the  church 
are  new  tombs  (1880)  to  Camoens  and  Vasco 
da  Gama,  and  the  grave  of  Catharine,  wife 
of  Charles  II.  of  England.  The  monastery  is 
now  used  as  an  orphanage  and  foundling  hospital. 
Neither  of  the  royal  palaces  possesses  features 
of  great  interest.  A  fine  square  facing  the  bay 
is  surrounded  with  government  offices,  the  hand- 
some custom-house,  and  the  marine  arsenal. 
There  are  an  academy  of  sciences  (1779),  with  a 
library  of  60,000  vols.,  a  polytechnic  school,  a 
medical  school,  a  conservatory  of  music,  a  public 
library  of  200,000  vols,  and  9500  MSS.,  museums, 
two  observatories,  &c.  A  magnificent  aqueduct 
(1738)  brings  water  to  the  city  from  springs  9 
miles  to  the  north-west.  In  the  cemetery  of  the 
English  church  Fielding  was  buried  in  1754. 
The  pop.  of  the  city  was  246,343  in  1878  ;  but  the 
municipal  boundaries  were  enlarged  in  1885  so 
as  to  include  Belem  and  other  suburbs,  and  the 
pop.  is  now  about  350,000.  A  series  of  forts 
protect  the  seaward  approaches.  The  harbour  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  the  world,  well  sheltered, 
deep  close  to  the  quays,  and  capacious  enough  to 
hold  all  the  navies  of  Europe  at  once.   Neverthe- 


less the  government  spent  (1886-1900)  £2,400,000 
in  improving  the  port.  The  imports  include  corn, 
cotton  goods,  sugar,  fish,  coal,  timber,  tobacco, 
coffee,  and  petroleum  ;  the  exports,  wine,  cork, 
fish,  cattle,  oil,  salt,  and  fruits.  The  most  im- 
portant industries  are  in  gold  and  silver  wares 
and  in  jewellery  ;  next  come  cotton-spinning  and 
weaving,  the  manufacture  of  silk,  hemp,  chemi- 
cals, hats,  boots,  tobacco,  soap,  cutlery,  and 
stoneware,  and  iron-founding. 

Lisbon  is  a  contraction  of  Olisipo,  its  name  as 
capital  of  the  Lusitanians.  From  the  Romans  it 
passed  to  the  Goths,  from  the  Goths  to  the  Moors 
(716),  who  kept  their  hold  of  it  down  to  1147, 
when  Alfonso  I.  of  Portugal  seized  it  with  the 
help  of  English,  German,  and  Flemish  crusaders. 
It  was  made  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  in  1422. 
In  1580  it  was  seized  by  Alva  for  Philip  II.  of 
Spain  ;  and  it  was  from  this  port  that  the  '  in- 
vincible'  Armada  set  sail.  When  the  Duke  of 
Braganza  roused  his  countrymen  to  shake  off"  the 
Spanish  yoke  (1640),  he  recaptured  Lisbon,  and 
once  more  it  became  the  capital.  On  1st  Novem- 
ber 1755,  in  less  than  ten  minutes,  the  greater 
part  of  the  city  was  made  a  heap  of  ruins,  30,000 
to  40,000  persons  were  killed,  and  damage  done 
to  the  extent  of  nearly  20  millions  sterling.  The 
French  held  the  city  for  ten  months  during 
1807-8.  St  Antony  of  Padua,  Camoens,  and  Pope 
John  XXI.  were  natives.  See  Macedo,  Guide  to 
Lisbon  (1875). 

Llsbum,  a  town  (since  1898  wholly)  in  Antrim, 
on  the  Lagan,  93  miles  by  rail  N.  by  E.  of  Dublin, 
and  8  SW.  of  Belfast.  The  Conway  family  built 
a  castle  here  in  Charles  I.'s  time,  and  introduced 
the  existing  industries — manufactures  of  linens, 
damasks,  muslins,  &c.,  with  flax-spinning  and 
bleaching.  Its  parish  church  is  the  cathedral  of 
Down,  Connor,  and  Dromore,  and  contains  a 
monument  to  Bishop  Jeremy  Taylor.  Pop.  (1851) 
6569  ;  (1901)  11,459. 

Liscard,  a  township  in  Wallasey  parish, 
Cheshire,  containing  New  Brighton  (q.v.). 

Lisdoonvarna,  a  spa  in  County  Clare,  9  miles 
N.  of  Ennistimon  station,  with  one  sulphurous 
and  several  chalybeate  springs. 

Lisieux  (Lee-zi-yuh' ;  anc.  Noviomagus  Ixxo- 
viorum),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Calvados, 
30  miles  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Caen.  In  the  church 
of  St  Pierre  (1045-1233  ;  a  cathedral  down  to 
1801),  Henry  II.  of  England  married  (1152) 
Eleanor  of  Guienne.  Lisieux  is  the  centre  of  an 
extensive  manufacture  of  coarse  linens  (cretonnes, 
from  the  original  maker),  woollens,  flannels, 
cottons,  &c.  Population,  about  16,000.  Four 
miles  distant  is  Val  Richer,  where  stood 
the  abbey  of  which  Thomas  Becket  was  first 
abbot ;  its  ruins  were  restored  as  a  summer  resi- 
dence for  Guizot. 

Liskeard  {Lis'kard),  a  municipal  borough  in 
Cornwall,  stands  on  steep  hills  overlooking  the 
Looe,  18  miles  WNW.  of  Plymouth.  It  has  manu- 
factures of  leather  and  iron,  and  trade  with  the 
neighbouring  mines.  St  Martin's  Church,  Per- 
pendicular in  style,  is  one  of  the  largest  in  Corn- 
wall, with  a  14th-century  tower.  The  town-hall 
(1859)  is  a  good  Italian  building.  A  stannary  or 
coinage  town,  Liskeard  was  made  a  free  borough 
in  1250  by  Richard,  king  of  the  Romans,  who 
built  a  castle  here.  Till  1832  it  returned  two 
members  (Coke  and  Gibbon  the  most  illustrious), 
and  then  till  1885  one  member.  Pop.  (1851) 
4386  ;  (1901)  4011.  Two  miles  south  is  the  famous 
spring  of  St  Keyne  (q.v.).  See  Allen's  History  of 
Liskeard  (1856). 


LISMORE 


417 


LIVERPOOL 


Lismore,  a  town  on  the  Blackwater,  in  the  two 
counties  of  Cork  and  Waterford,  and  43  niiles 
SW.  of  Waterford  city.  The  cathedral,  the  parish 
church  since  the  see  was  united  to  Casliel,  was 
rebuilt  in  1603,  on  the  site  of  a  monastery  founded 
before  540.  The  castle,  originally  founded  in 
1185,  was  the  residence  of  the  bishops  till  the 
16th  century.  In  1587  it  was  given  to  Sir  W. 
Raleigh,  who  sold  it  to  the  '  great '  Earl  of  Cork, 
and  in  it  his  son,  Robert  Boyle,  was  born.  In 
1753  it  passed  to  the  Duke  of  Devonshire.  Lis- 
nioi'e  returned  two  members  from  Charles  I.'s 
reign  to  the  Union.    Pop.  1532. 

Lismore'  (Gael.,  'great  garden'),  an  island  of 
Lorn,  Argyllshire,  in  Loch  Linnhe,  1  furlong 
from  the  mainland,  and  8  miles  N.  of  Oban.  It 
rises  to  417  feet,  and  is  10^  miles  long,  1^  mile 
broad,  and  6014  acres  in  area.  Besides  a  light- 
house (1833),  it  contains  several  interesting 
remains— the  choir  of  the  cathedral  (1236)  of  the 
pre-Reformation  diocese  of  Lismore  or  Argyll 
(since  1749  used  as  the  parish  church) ;  Achan- 
duin  Castle,  the  residence  of  the  bishops ;  and 
Castle-Rachal,  a  Scandinavian  fort.  Pop.  (1831) 
1790  ;  (1901)  500,  mostly  Gaelic-speaking. 

Lisnaskea,  a  town  of  Fermanagh,  11  miles  SE. 
of  Enniskillen.     Pop.  773. 

Lissa  (Pol.  Leszno),  a  Prussian  town,  40  miles 
S.  by  W.  of  Posen,  was  during  the  16th  and  17th 
centuries  the  headquarters  of  the  Bohemian 
Brethren  in  Poland  :  here  were  their  most  cele- 
brated school,  a  seminary,  a  printing-office,  and 
their  archives.    Pop.  15,000. 

Lissa,  a  mountainous  island  of  Dalmatia,  in 
the  Adriatic,  32  miles  SW.  of  Spalato.  Area,  40 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  9871—4317  at  the  capital,  Lissa,  and 
the  rest  at  Comisa,  both  seaports.  Fishing  is  the 
chief  occupation.  The  island  was  held  by  Great 
Britain  1810-15.  Off  it  the  Italian  fleet  was 
defeated  by  the  Austrians  in  1866. 

Listowel,  a  town  of  County  Kerry,  20  miles 
NE.  of  Tralee  by  rail.     Pop.  3606. 

Litany.     See  Lebanon. 

Litchfield,  a  town  of  Illinois,  50  miles  NE.  of 
St  Louis.     Pop.  5911. 

Lithuania,  a  former  grand-duchy,  correspond- 
ing to  the  portion  of  Russia  between  the  Baltic 
and  the  upper  Dnieper  (including  Livonia,  Cour- 
land,  Kovno,  Vilna,  Grodno,  Minsk,  Mohilev, 
Smolensk,  and  Vitebsk).  From  the  14th  century 
on  it  became  closely  associated  with  Poland 
(q.v.),  with  which  it  was  finally  united  in  1569 ; 
in  the  15th  century  it  extended  as  far  south  as 
Odessa  and  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  as  far  east  as 
the  Moskva.  The  Lithuanians,  a  race  to  whom 
belong  the  Letts  of  Livonia,  the  Cours  of  Cour- 
land,  and  the  Borussians  or  ancient  inhabitants 
of  Bast  Prussia,  constitute  a  main  division  of  the 
Indo-European  stock  (akin  to  the  Slavs),  number- 
ing some  3J  millions  in  all. 

Littleborough,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  3J  miles 
NE.  of  Rochdale,  of  which  it  is  virtually  a  suburb. 
Pop.  11,270. 

Little  Falls,  a  post-village  of  New  York,  73 
miles  WNW.  of  Albany.  The  Mohawk  River 
here  passes  through  a  narrow  rocky  gorge,  with 
falls  of  44  feet,  giving  water-power  to  several 
mills  and  factories.     Pop.  10,500. 

Llttlehampton,  a  seaport  and  watering-place 
of  Sussex,  18  miles  W.  of  Brighton  and  63  SW.  of 
London.     It  is  the  port  for  Arundel.     Pop.  7455. 

Littlemore,  a  hamlet  2J  miles  SSE.  of  Oxford, 
with  associations  (1828-43)  with  Newman. 

2A 


Little  Rock,  the  capital  of  Arkansas,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Arkansas  River,  280  miles  from 
its  mouth,  and  345  by  rail  SS  W.  of  St  Louis.  It  con- 
tains the  state  capitol,  prison,  and  blind  and  deaf, 
mute  asylums,  a  U.S.  arsenal,  a  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral,  and  a  college  founded  by  the  Free- 
masons  in  1857.     Pop.  (1880)  13,138  ;  (1900)38,300. 

Livadia  (anc.  Lebadeia),  a  town  of  Greece,  60 
miles  NW.  of  Athens.     Pop.  5000. 

Livadia,  an  estate,  with  a  couple  of  palaces 
and  magnificent  gardens  and  vineyards,  belong, 
ing  to  the  imperial  family  of  Russia,  on  the  south 
coast  of  the  Crimea,  30  miles  SE,  of  SebastopoL 

Liverpool  (prob.  from  the  Cymric  Llyvrpwl, 
'the  expanse  at  the  pool '),  if  we  include  Birken- 
head, on  the  south  or  opposite  side  of  the  Mersey, 
disputes  with  Glasgow  the  rank  of  second  largest 
town  in  the  United  Kingdom  ;  and  as  a  port 
surpasses  London  for  trade  with  America.  It  is 
situated  |  hour  distance  by  railway  from  Man- 
chester (31^  miles),  4\  hours  from  Loudon  (201 
miles),  6  hours  from  Edinburgh  (220  miles),  and 
7  hours  by  rail  and  steamer  from  Dublin.  As  a 
port  Liverpool  figures  for  about  one-fifth  of  the 
British  tonnage,  one-tenth  of  the  foreign,  and 
one-sixth  of  the  total,  and  just  falls  behind  London 
in  respect  of  tlie  foreign  tonnage.  Through  it 
passes  one-fourth  of  the  imports,  more  than  two- 
fifths  of  the  exports,  and  nearly  one-third  of  the 
entire  foreign  trade  of  the  United  Kingdom.  Of 
160  million  cwt.  of  bread-stuffs  annually  im. 
ported,  Liverpool  admits  nearly  40  million ;  in 
1892  it  imported  15  million  out  of  16  million  cwt. 
of  cotton  ;  and  has  usually  exported  more  than 
half  of  the  total  cotton  products.  In  1903  the 
total  imports  had  a  value  of  £129,028,142 ;  the 
total  exports  of  £114,579,058.  This  gigantic  trade 
has  given  rise  to  the  magnificent  system  of  docks 
extending  along  the  margin  of  the  river  for  a 
distance  of  nearly  6^  miles,  containing  25  miles 
of  quay-space  and  380  acres  of  water-space,  be. 
sides  9  miles  of  quay-space  and  164  acres  of  water, 
space  at  Birkenhead,  making  a  total  of  34  miles 
and  544  acres  respectively.  There  are  also  17 
acres  of  water-space  in  the  docks  worked  by  the 
various  canal  companies,  besides  the  graving- 
docks  on  both  sides  of  the  river.  Several  of  the 
docks  are  enclosed  with  large  warehouses :  the 
erection  of  those  round  the  Albert  Dock  cost 
£358,000.  The  steamer  traffic,  conducted  by 
regular  liners  with  every  port  of  importance  in 
the  world,  draws  large  numbers  of  emigrant  and 
other  passengers  to  the  town. 

Seven  railways  have  direct  connection  with 
the  city.  There  are  five  tunnels  under  the  town. 
The  Mersey  railway  tunnel,  1230  yards  long,  con- 
necting Liverpool  with  Birkenhead,  was  made 
in  1881-86,  on  a  capital  of  £2,224,000.  Proposals 
have  been  made  to  erect  a  bridge  from  Liverpool 
to  Birkenhead.  The  Liverpool  Overhead  Rail- 
way, on  a  framework  of  wrought  iron,  runs  (6 
miles  long,  opened  in  1893)  along  almost  the 
whole  length  of  the  docks,  and  there  is  a 
very  complete  system  of  electric  tramcars.  In 
1881-92  vast  new  water-works  were  constructed 
at  Lake  Vyrnwy  (q.v.),  about  25  miles  from 
Oswestry,  and  45  miles  in  a  straight  line  from 
Liverpool.  Liverpool  has  several  extensive  ship- 
building-yards, iron  and  brass  foundries,  chain- 
cable  and  anchor  smithies,  engine-works,  tar 
and  turpentine  distilleries,  rice  and  flour  mills, 
tobacco,  cigar,  and  soap  manufactories,  breweries, 
sugar-refineries,  roperies,  glass-works,  chrono- 
meter and  watch  manufactories. 

The  architecture  of  the  town  has  been  greatly 


LIVERPOOL 


418 


LLANDUDNO 


improved  in  the  later  half  of  the  19th  century, 
and  it  now  possesses  many  fine  thoroughfares, 
thronged  with  numerous  splendid  edifices.  The 
Corinthian  Town-hall  was  built  in  1754,  but  has 
since  been  enlarged.  St  George's  Hall  (1838-54), 
in  the  Grseco-Roman  style,  is  nearly  500  feet 
long,  and  was  built  at  a  cost  of  £330,000.  Muni- 
cipal offices,  custom-house,  sailors'  home,  police- 
courts,  workhouses,  baths  and  wash-houses, 
water- works,  and  gas-offices  are  also  noteworthy. 
The  Free  Library  and  Museum  (1860)  cost  £40,000 ; 
with  it  are  incorporated  the  Museums  of  Natural 
History  and  Antiquities.  Other  institutions  are 
the  Walker  Art  Gallery,  Picton  Reading-room, 
Botanic  Gardens,  Observatory,  Liverpool  College, 
Liverpool  Institute,  Queen's  College,  Medical 
Institute,  Royal  Institution,  Academy  of  Fine 
Arts,  the  Exchange,  Lyceum,  and  Athenaeum. 
University  College,  on  the  model  of  Owens 
College,  was  inaugurated  in  1882 ;  its  new 
Victoria  Buildings  were  opened  in  December 
1892.  The  college,  affiliated  to  the  Victoria  Uni- 
versity, Manchester,  in  1884,  is  now  by  charter 
(1902)  a  distinct  university,  with  about  50  pro- 
fessors and  lecturers.  Of  some  270  churches  and 
chapels,  nearly  100  belong  to  the  Established 
Church.  The  see  of  Liverpool  was  created  in 
1880.  The  Exchange,  rebuilt  and  enlarged  in 
French  Renaissance  style  in  1864-67,  cost  about 
£600,000.  There  is  a  corn  exchange,  and  several 
markets ;  the  banks  and  clubs  have  handsome 
premises.  Of  monuments  the  chief  are  those  of 
the  Queen,  Prince  Albert,  William  IV.,  Nelson, 
Wellington,  Huskisson,  and  Beaconsfleld,  besides 
several  in  the  Town-hall,  St  George's  Hall,  Free 
Library,  and  parks.  The  parks  are  eight  in 
number.  There  are  seven  cemeteries,  only  one 
of  which  is  situated  within  the  city.  There  are 
six  daily  (four  morning  and  two  evening)  and 
four  weekly  newspapers,  besides  the  Daily  Tele- 
graph and  Bill  of  Entry,  exclusively  devoted  to 
shipping  matters,  three  weekly  literary  periodi- 
cals, and  one  scientific  monthly  magazine.  Since 
1885  Liverpool  returns  nine  members. 

Notable  Liverpudlians  have  been  Horrocks  (the 
astronomer),  Mrs  Hemans,  William  Roscoe,  A. 
H.  Clough,  Viscount  Cardwell,  Bishop  Light- 
foot,  General  Earle,  and  Mr  Gladstone ;  the  mod- 
ern writers  Hall  Caine,  William  Watson,  J.  A. 
Noble,  and  Richard  Le  Gallienne,  have  been  called 
the  'Liverpool  school.'  Pop.  (1561)  690;  (1697) 
5000  ;  (1760)  25,700  ;  (1801)  85,300  ;  (1861)  443,938  ; 
(1881)  552,208  municipal  and  601,050  parliament- 
ary; (1901)  684,958  in  municipal  borough  and 
county  of  the  city,  and  626,634  in  parliament- 
ary—a temporary  reduction  in  1891  being  caused 
by  the  pulling  down  of  many  houses  to  make 
room  for  new  streets,  increased  trade  require- 
ments, &c. ;  and  the  removal  of  the  population 
to  the  suburbs.  In  1895  and  1902  the  munici- 
pal boundaries  were  extended  so  as  to  take  in 
a  portion  of  the  suburbs,  bringing  the  pop.  up 
to  702,247  (the  parliamentary  boundaries  being 
unaltered).  With  Bootle,  Birkenhead,  and  the 
suburbs  beyond  the  new  boundary,  the  popu- 
lation of  the  port  may  be  stated  to  be 
over  880,000,  of  whom  about  150,000  are  Irish. 
The  trade  grew  rapidly  at  the  end  of  the  18th 
century,  largely  owing  to  the  development  of 
the  cotton  industry ;  and  Liverpool,  which 
gradually  put  Bristol  in  the  shade,  was  the  great 
headquarters  of  the  slave-trade ;  as  late  as  1807 
her  shipowners  had  185  vessels  engaged  in  the 
business,  capable  of  carrying  about  44,000  slaves. 
It  was  expected  that  the  port  woiUd  not  lose 
what  Manchester  gained  by  the  opening  of  the 


Manchester  Ship  Canal  (1894),  but  that  the  more 
economical  management  of  the  dock  estate  and 
reduced  railway  charges  will  bring  more  business 
to  Liverpool  than  the  canal  will  take  away 

See  Baines,  History  of  the  Commerce  and  Town 
of  Liverpool  (1852);  Picton,  Memorials  of  Liver- 
^50^(2  vols  1873;  2d  ed.  1876);  and  T.  Ellison, 
1  he  Cotton  Trade  of  Great  Britain  (1886). 

o  J'^^!^!,®'^??'  ^  township  of  Yorkshire,  6h  miles 
SB.  of  Bradford.  It  has  manufactures  of  iron, 
cottons,  woollens,  &c.     Pop.  13,968. 

Livingston,  a  port  of  Guatemala,  on  the  Dulce. 

Livingstone,  a  township  near  the  Victoria  Falls 
of  the  Zambesi  (q.v.). 

Livingstonia,  a  mission  station  near  the  lower 
end  of  Lake  Nyassa  (q.v.). 

Livonia  (Ger.  Livland),  one  of  the  three  Baltic 
provinces  of  Russia,  forms  the  eastern  side  of 
the  Gulf  of  Riga,  and  is  separated  from  Courland 
by  the  Dwina.  The  country  is  mostly  flat,  and 
nearly  one-fourth  of  it  is  covered  with  forests. 
Lakes  and  streams  and  marshes  are  common 
Area,  18,153  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1870)  1,000,876  ;  (1897) 
1,300,640,  of  whom  43  per  cent,  are  Letts,  41i 
per  cent.  Esthonians.  The  Livonians  proper, 
a  Finnic  race  akin  to  the  Esthonians,  have 
dwindled  down  to  about  2400.  Capital,  Riga; 
other  towns,  Dorpat,  Pernau,  Wenden. 

Livorno.    See  Leghorn. 

Llxouri,  a  town  of  Cephalonia,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Argostoli,  3  miles  W.  of  the  capital,  Argostoli, 
by  water,  but  nearly  20  by  road.    Pop.  8000. 

Lizard  Point.    See  Cornwall. 

LlajiTaeris  (Hhlan-ber'r is ;  Xi- nearly  like  Thl-), 
the  '  Chamonix  of  Wales,'  9  miles  ESE.  of  Car- 
narvon, lies  at  the  north-west  base  of  Snowdon, 
and  near  the  foot  of  the  wild  Pass  of  Llanberis, 
The  two  lakes  of  Llanberis,  2  and  li  miles  long, 
are  sadly  disfigured  by  slate-quarries.  Popula- 
tion, about  3000. 

Llandafif,  a  small  town  of  Glamorganshire,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Taff',  2  miles  NW.  of  Cardiff 
(q.v.).  It  is  the  seat  of  a  very  ancient  bishopric, 
founded,  it  is  said,  by  St  Dubricius,  who  died  in 
612.  The  cathedral  was  built  between  1120  and 
1450,  and  is  mainly  Early  English  in  style.  It 
had  fallen  into  utter  ruin  in  1575,  in  1735-52 
was  barbarously  patched  up  into  an  'Italian 
temple,'  and  in  1843-69  was  thoroughly  restored. 
Pop.  of  parish,  5800.  See  works  by  E.  A.  Free- 
man (1850),  Bishop  Ollivant  (I860),  and  R.  J. 
King  (1873). 

Llandi'lo,  a  town  of  South  Wales,  on  the  Towy, 
14  miles  ENE.  of  Carmarthen.    Pop.  1934. 

Llandovery,  a  7nunicipal  borough  (1484)  of 
South  Wales,  on  the  Bran,  25  miles  ENE.  of 
Carmarthen.    Pop.  1828. 

Llandrlndod,  a  Radnorshire  spa,  near  the 
Ithon,  7  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Builth. 

Llandud'no,  a  fashionable  watering-place  in 
Carnarvonshire,  North  Wales,  is  situated  on  the 
level  neck  of  a  promontory  between  the  Great 
and  Little  Orme's  Heads,  48  miles  by  rail  WNW. 
of  Chester.  Its  bracing  and  delightful  climate, 
its  good  sea-bathing,  and  its  picturesque  sur- 
roundings—the Great  Orme's  Head  (700  feet) 
commanding  views  of  Snowdon  and  Anglesey, 
and  even  of  Man  and  the  Cumberland  mountains 
— have  combined  to  raise  Llandudno  since  1841 
from  a  small  fishing-village  to  a  yearly  resort 
of  some  20,000  visitors,  with  many  hotels  and 
boarding-houses,  hydropathics,  a  fine  promenade, 


LLANELLY 


419 


LOCHWINNOCH 


a  pier  (1250  feet),  a  '  marine  drive'  (5 J  miles),  &c. 
Ilesident  pop.  (1851)  1131 ;  (1901)  9307. 

LlSLHellj  (Hhlan-ehh'ly ;  nearly  like  Thlanethly), 
a  maniafacturing  town  and  seaport  of  Car- 
marthenshire, South  Wales,  11  miles  WNW.  of 
Swansea.  The  mineral  wealth^of  the  vicinity, 
and  the  easy  access  to  the  sea,  have  raised  it 
from  a  mere  village  in  1813  to  a  town  of  con- 
siderable commercial  importance.  The  Cambrian 
Copper- works  employ  a  great  number  of  the  in- 
habitants ;  but  there  are  also  silver,  lead,  iron, 
and  tin  works,  potteries,  chemical  vv'orks,  &c. 
Large  docks  have  been  constructed,  and  coal  is 
largely  exported.  With  Carmarthen  it  returns 
one  member.     Pop.  (1851)  8710  ;  (1901)  25,617. 

Llanerchymedd,  a  village  of  Anglesey,  14 
miles  ENE.  of  Beaumaris.    Fop.  of  parish,  1232. 

Llanfairfechan,  a  pleasant  little  watering- 
place  of  Carnarvonshire,  North  Wales,  at  the 
base  of  Penmaenmawr,  7  miles  WSW.  of  Conway. 
Pop.  of  parish,  2800. 

Llanfyllln,  one  of  the  Montgomery  boroughs, 
15  miles  NNW.  of  Montgomery.    Pop.  1653. 

Llangefni,  an  Anglesey  market-town,  9  miles 
W.  by  y.  of  Beaumaris.     Pop.  1750. 

Llangollen  (Hhlan-gohh'len ;  nearly  Thlan- 
goth-hn),  a  town  of  Denbighshire,  North  Wales, 
picturesquely  situated  on  the  Dee,  22  miles 
SW.  of  Chester  and  26  NW,  of  Shrewsbury. 
It  has  a  town-hall  (1860)  and  flannel  manufac- 
tures, and  is  visited  by  tourists  on  account  of 
the  beauty  of  the  famous  Vale  of  Llangollen, 
and  for  its  antiquities,  among  which  are  Dinas 
Bran  or  Crow  Castle,  Valle  Crucis  Abbey  (1200), 
and  Eliseg's  Pillar  (8th  or  9th  century).  Plas 
Newydd,  ^  mile  S.  of  the  bridge,  was  for  half 
a  century  the  residence  of  the  two  Irish  recluses, 
the  'Ladies  of  the  Vale,'  or  '  Maids  of  Llangollen,' 
Lady  Eleanor  Butler  (1745-1829)  and  Miss  Sarah 
Ponsonby  (1755-1831),  who  were  visited  here  by 
Madame  de  Genlis,  Miss  Seward,  De  Quincey, 
and  many  other  celebrities.  Pop.  3325.  See 
Simpson's  History  of  Llangollen  (3d  ed.  1852). 

Llangorse,  a  parish,  with  a  lake  5  miles  in 
circuit,  and  6|  miles  ESB.  of  Brecon. 

Llanidloes  (Hlan-id'lo-es),  a  municipal  and  par- 
liamentary borough  of  Montgomeryshire,  on  the 
Severn,  56i  miles  NW.  of  Hereford  by  rail  and  56 
SW.  of  Shrewsbury.  Its  interesting  church,  built 
partly  with  materials  from  Cwmhir  Abbey,  was 
restored  in  1882,  Manufactures  of  flannel  and 
other  woollen  fabrics  are  carried  on  ;  and  in  the 
neighbourhood  are  extensive  lead-mines.  With 
Montgomery,  &c.,  Llanidloes  returns  one  mem- 
ber.    Pop.  2774. 

Llanrwst  (Hlan-roosf),  a  market-town  of  Den- 
bighshire, on  the  river  Conway,  10  miles  S.  of 
Conway  town.     Pop.  2650, 

Llantho'ny,  on  the  Honddu,  in  Monmouth- 
shire, 20  miles  N,  of  Abergavenny,  a  Cistercian 
abbey,  founded  in  1108.  Its  church  and  chapter- 
house form  a  fine  ruin  in  the  Transition  Norman 
style.  In  the  Prior's  Lodge,  now  an  inn,  Walter 
Savage  Landor  lived  for  three  years  after  his 
marriage.  Four  miles  up  the  valley  is  Llanthony 
'Monastery,'  founded  by  'Father  Ignatius.' 

Llantrisaint.  a  town  of  Glamorganshire,  llj 
miles  NW.  of  Cardiff.  It  is  one  of  the  Cardiff 
boroughs.     Pop.  1937. 

Llerena  (L'yeraiTia),  a  town  of  Spain,  83  miles 
by  rail  N.  of  Seville.  Near  here  the  British 
cavalry  routed  the  French  cavalry  on  April  11, 
1812.  'Pop.  6609. 


Loanda  (Lo-an'da),  Saint  Paul  de,  chief  town 
of  the  Portuguese  possessions  on  the  West  Coast 
of  Africa,  on  a  small  bay,  210  )niles  S.  of  the 
Congo's  mouth.  It  has  broad,  tree-shaded,  but 
dirty  streets,  forts  (1578),  and  the  residences  of 
the  governor  and  bishop.  The  harbour  is  sand- 
ing up,  so  that  vessels  lie  IJ  mile  from  shore  to 
load  and  luiload.  Gas  was  introduced  in  1893, 
and  in  1892  was  opened  part  of  a  railway  to 
Ambaca,  140  miles  inland.  Pop.  50,000 — 15,000 
European.s. 

Loango  (Lo-ang'go),  a  coast-district  of  West 
Africa,  stretching  northwards  from  the  mouth 
of  the  Congo  to  about  4°  S.  lat.  By  the  Berlin 
conference  of  1885  it  was  divided  between  the 
Congo  Free  State,  Portugal,  and  France.  "The 
town  Loango  (former  pop.  15,000)  consists  now 
of  only  a  few  mercantile  establishments. 

Loanhead,  a  police-burgh,  5  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
Edinburgh.     Pop.  (1861)  1310 ;  (1901)  3011. 

Lobau,  a  town  of  east  Saxony,  12  miles  SE.  of 
Bautzen,  has  mineral  springs  and  manufactures 
of  linens,  cottons,  woollens,  &c.     Pop.  9977. 

Lob  Nor,  a  lake  of  central  Asia,  in  the  desert 
of  Gobi,  receiving  the  river  Tarim. 

Lobos  Islands,  two  small  groups  of  rocky 
islands,  12  miles  off  the  coast  of  Peru,  famous 
formerly  for  their  guano. 

Locha'ber,  a  district  of  S.  Inverness-shire. 

Locheamhead,  a  Perthshire  village,  at  the 
head  of  Loch  Earn,  14  miles  NNW.  of  Callander. 

Lochee',  a  north-west  suburb  of  Dundee. 

Lochgelly,  a  police-burgh  of  Fife,  75  miles 
ENE.  of  Dunfermline.    Pop.  5500. 

Lochgllp'head,  a  police-burgh  of  Argyllshire, 
80  miles  WNW.  of  Glasgow.    Pop.  1310. 

Lochlnvar',  a  little  lake  of  Kirkcudbrightshire, 
6  miles  NNE.  of  New  Galloway. 

Lochln'ver,  a  village  in  Assynt  parish,  in  the 
SW.  of  Sutherland,  on  Loch  Inver. 

Lochle'ven,  a  beautiful  oval  lake  of  Kinross- 
shire,  23  miles  NNW.  of  Edinburgh.  Lying  353 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  engirt  by  Benarty  (1167 
feet),  the  West  Lomond  (1713),  and  other  hills, 
it  measures  3|  miles  by  2 ;  discharges  by  the 
Leven,  flowing  16  miles  eastward  to  the  Firth 
of  Forth  ;  is  10  to  90  feet  deep  ;  and  has  an  area 
of  3406  acres,  drainage  operations  having  reduced 
its  size  by  one-fourth  in  1826-36.  Of  seven 
islands,  the  largest  are  sandy,  treeless  St  Serfs 
Inch,  an  early  seat  of  the  Culdees,  and  Castle 
Island,  with  the  14th-century  keep  of  a  castle 
Avhich  in  1567-68  was  for  ten  months  the  prison 
of  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  Since  1633  and  earlier 
the  loch  has  been  famous  for  its  delicate  pink- 
fleshed  trout,  and  since  1856  for  its  fly-lishing. 
The  imported  American  Avater-weed  Anacharis 
proved  for  a  while  extremely  troublesome.  See 
Robert  Burns-Begg's  History  of  Lochleven  Castle 
(Kinross,  1888).  See  also  Leven  (Loch)  ;  and  for 
Lochs  Lomond,  Long,  &c.,  see  Lomond,  &c. 

Lochma'ben,  a  market-town  of  Annandale, 
Dumfriesshire,  10  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Dumfries. 
It  stands  amid  seven  lochs,  two  of  which  contain 
the  rare  vendace,  and  has  a  town-hall  (1878), 
with  a  statue  in  front  of  it  of  Robert  Bruce,  and 
the  Bruces'  ruined  castle.  A  royal  burgh,  it 
unites  with  Dumfries,  &c.  to  return  one  member. 
Pop.  1050.    See  W.  Graham's  Lochmaben  (1865). 

Loch'winnoch,  a  Renfrewshire  A-illage,  at  the 
SW.  end  of  Castle-Semple  Loch,  17  miles  WSW. 
of  Glasgow.    Pop.  2130. 


LOCHY 


420 


LOMBARDY 


Lochy,  an  Inverness-shire  loch,  10  miles  long, 
through  which  the  Caledonian  Canal  (q.v.)  passes ; 
and  the  river  (8  miles)  that  issues  from  it.  Also 
a  Perthshire  stream  which  flows  15  miles  to  the 
Dochart  near  its  influx  into  Loch  Tay. 

Lock'erbie,  a  market-town,  with  a  great  August 
lamb-fair,  in  Annandale,  Dumfriesshire,  15  miles 
ENB.  of  Dumfries  and  26  NW.  of  Carlisle.  It 
has  a  conspicuous  town-hall  (1891).     Pop.  2361. 

Lock  Haven,  capital  of  Clinton  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, in  a  beautiful  mountain-valley,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  West  Branch  of  the  Susque- 
hanna River,  69  miles  NE.  of  Altoona  by  rail. 
It  contains  a  state  normal  school,  foundries, 
tanneries,  machine-shops,  and  mills.    Pop.  7358. 

Lockport,  capital  of  Niagara  county,  New 
York,  on  the  Erie  Canal,  25  miles  NNE.  of 
Buffalo  by  rail.  The  canal  here  passes  through 
a  deep  channel,  cut  in  the  solid  limestone,  and 
falls  06  feet,  by  ten  combined  double-locks.  Its 
surplus  water  drives  lumber,  flour,  woollen,  and 
cotton  mills,  besides  foundries,  machine-shops, 
&c.     Pop.  17,500. 

Locle  (Loci),  a  Swiss  town,  10  miles  NW.  of 
Nenchatel,  is  one  of  the  chief  seats  of  the  Swiss 
watch-making  industry.    Pop.  12,464. 

Loddon,  a  Norfolk  village^  lOj  miles  SE.  of 
Norwich.    Pop.  of  parish,  1069. 

Lod6ve  (anc.  Liiteva),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Herault,  at  the  foot  of  the  Cevennes,  43 
miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Montpellier.  A  bishop's 
see  till  1790,  it  has  a  cathedral,  founded  in  950, 
but  rebuilt  in  the  14th  century.  Cardinal  Fleury 
was  a  native.    Pop.  7761. 

Lodl,  a  town  of  North  Italy,  on  the  Adda,  18 
miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Milan.  It  has  a  12th-cen- 
tury cathedral ;  manufactures  of  linens,  silks, 
and  Majolica  porcelain ;  and  a  great  trade  in 
cheese  and  wine.  Pop.  28,689.— At  Lodi  Vec- 
CHio,  a  ruined  village,  4  miles  W.,  Bonaparte  in 
1796  forced  the  long,  narrow  bridge  in  the  face  of 
a  tremendous  fire  from  the  Austrian  batteries. 

Lodomeria  (Lat.  for  Vladimir),  formerly  an 
independent  principality  in  Volhynia,  and,  since 
the  partition  of  Poland  in  1772,  part  of  the 
Austrian  'kingdom  of  Galicia  and  Lodomeria.' 

Lodore',  a  famous  waterfall  at  the  head  of 
Derwentwater. 

Lodz,  sometimes  called  'the  Manchester  of 
Poland,'  lies  76  miles  SW.  of  Warsaw  on  a  branch 
railway.  It  consists  chiefly  of  one  main  street, 
6  miles  or  more  long,  and  has  over  120  manu- 
factories ma,king  cotton  and  woollen  stuff's.  Pop. 
(1870)  39,078  ;  (1881)  49,592 ;  (1905)  with  an  en- 
largement of  the  boxmdaries,  315,800. 

Lofo'den,  or  Lofoten,  a  chain  of  islands  on 
the  north-west  coast  of  Norway,  between  67°  and 
69°  15'  N.  lat.,  stretching  SW.  and  NE.  for  150 
miles.  They  include  the  Lofoten  proper  and 
the  Vesteraaien,  lying  farther  north.  Total  area, 
2247  sq.  m.  All  of  them  are  rugged  and  moun- 
tainous, many  of  the  summits  being  crater- 
shaped.  The  highest  point  is  3090  feet.  The 
waters  on  the  east  side  of  these  islands  are 
visited  in  January  to  March  every  year  by  vast 
shoals  of  cod-fish,  which  attract  a  large  fleet  of 
fishermen.     Permanent  pop.  30,000. 

Loftus,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  9  miles  SE.  of 
Saltburn.  It  manufactures  cordage,  and  has 
large  market-gardens.     Pop.  6508. 

Logansport,  capital  of  Cass  county,  Indiana, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Eel  River  and  Wabash, 
75  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Indianapolis.    There  are 


extensive  railway-shops,  besides  flour  and  lumber 
mills  and  foundries.    Pop.  17,328. 

Logroiio  (Lat.  Julia  Briga),  the  capital  of  a 
Spanish  province  (1945  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  181,465),  on 
the  Ebro,  65  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Burgos.  It 
manufactures  woollens,  machinery,  and  leather 
goods.    Pop.  19,993. 

Loheia,  a  seaport  of  Arabia,  on  the  Red  Sea 
coast  of  Yemen,  170  miles  NW.  of  Mocha,  with 
10,000  inhabitants,  and  a  trade  in  coffee. 

Loire  (Lwdr;  anc.  Liger),  the  longest  river  in 
France,  has  its  source  in  the  Cevennes,  in  the 
dep.  of  Ardeche,  at  an  elevation  of  4511  feet, 
flows  north  and  north-west  through  the  centre 
of  France  as  far  as  Orleans,  where  it  bends  round 
to  the  south-west  and  continues  on  to  Tours; 
thence  it  follows,  in  general,  a  western  course  to 
its  embouchure  in  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  It  is  tidal 
to  Nantes,  35  miles  from  its  mouth.  Entire 
length,  620  miles.  It  becomes  navigable  a  little 
above  Roanne,  550  miles  from  the  sea.  At  one 
time  the  depth  of  water  at  its  mouth  was  19J 
feet  at  ebb-tide  ;  now  it  is  only  6j  feet.  This  is 
due  to  the  vast  quantity  of  sedimentary  matter 
brought  down  by  the  river.  To  the  same  cause 
are  due  the  numerous  islands  that  obstruct  its 
lower  course  and  the  sandbanks  that  lie  athwart 
its  mouth.  The  Loire  is  notorious  for  the  de- 
structive inundations  it  causes,  although  the 
lower  part  of  its  course  is  protected  by  large 
dykes  or  levees,  20  feet  high.  The  chief  tribu- 
taries are  the  Nievre  and  the  Maine  (which  is 
formed  by  the  Sarthe,  its  affluent  the  Loir,  and 
the  Mayenne)  on  the  right ;  and  the  AUier,  Cher, 
Indre,  and  Vienne  on  the  left.  See  TJie  Seine 
and  the  Imre,  with  sixty-one  illustrations  by 
Turner  (new  ed.  1886). 

Loire,  a  dep.  of  SE.  France,  formerly  part  of 
the  province  of  Lyonnais  and  the  county  of 
Forez.  The  arrondissements  are  Montbrison, 
Roanne,  and  St  ifitienne  (the  capital).  Area, 
1838  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872)  550,611  ;  (1901)  644,532. 

Loire,  Haute,  a  dep.  of  central  France,  formed 
out  of  Languedoc,  Auvergne,  and  Forez.  The 
Loire  crosses  it  northwards,  the  Allier  north- 
westwards. Area,  1915  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872) 
308,732  ;  (1901)  306,671.  The  arrondissements  are 
Le  Puy  (the  capital),  Yssingeaux,  and  Brioude. 

Loire-Inferieure  (Lwar-ans-fayr'yehr),  a  mari- 
time dep.  of  W.  France,  formed  out  of  southern 
Brittany,  and  comprising  the  arrondissements 
of  Nantes  (the  capital),  Ancenis,  Paimbceuf, 
Chateaubriant,  and  St  Nazaire.  Area,  2654  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  (1872)  602,206  ;  (1901)  656,998. 

Lolret  (Lwar-ay'),  a  dep.  of  central  France, 
formed  out  of  the  old  provinces  of  Orleanais 
and  Berri,  and  comprising  the  arrondissements 
of  Orleans,  Montargis,  Gien,  and  Pithiviers,  lies 
on  the  northern  loop  of  the  Loire.  Area,  2614 
.sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872)  355,021 ;  (1901)  363,812. 

Loir-et-Cher  (Lwar-ay-sTiayr'),  a  dep.  of  France, 
formed  out  of  the  old  province  of  Orleanais, 
comprises  the  arrondissements  of  Blois  (the  capi- 
tal), Vendoine,  and  Romorantin.  Area,  2452  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  (1872)  268,801  ;  (1901)  274,836. 

Loja  (Lo-ha),  a  decaved  town  of  Spain,  on  the 
Genii,  32  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Granada.  It  suf- 
fered from  earthquake  in  1885.     Pop,  19,272. 

Lok'eren,  a  town  of  Belgium,  11  miles  by  rail 
NE.  of  Ghent,  with  manufactures  of  linen,  cotton, 
and  woollen  goods,  lace,  &c.    Pop.  22,841. 

Lom'bardy,  that  part  of  Upper  Italy  which 
lies  between  the  Alps  and  the  Po,  having  the 


LOMBOK 


421 


LONDON 


territory  of  Venice  on  the  east,  and  Piedmont  on 
the  west.  Milanese  from  1337  till  1447,  Lom- 
bardy  then  belonged  to  Spain  till  1713,  when 
the  duchies  of  Milan  and  Mantua  came  into  the 
hands  of  Austria,  and  were  designated  '  Austrian 
Lotnbardy."  Napoleon  made  it  part  of  the  Cis- 
alpine republic,  the  Transpadane  republic,  and 
the  kingdom  of  Italy  successively.  But  in  1815 
it  was  restored  to  Austria,  and  annexed  politi- 
cally to  the  newly-acquired  Venetian  territory 
under  the  name  of  the  Lorabardo- Venetian  King- 
dom. This  union  was  dissolved  in  1859,  when 
Lombardy  was  given  up  to  the  new  kingdom  of 
Italy,  which  divided  it  into  the  provinces  of 
Bergajno,  Brescia,  Como,  Cremona,  Mantua, 
Milan,  Pavia,  and  Sondrio. 

Lombok,  one  of  the  Sunda  Islands  (q.v.),  be- 
tween Java  and  Timor.  It  is  mountainous  (some 
volcanic  peaks  reach  11,620  feet)  but  fertile,  pro- 
ducing maize,  cotton,  tobacco,  indigo,  sugar,  and 
coffee.  Area,  2098  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  635,000,  mainly 
aborigines,  Moslems  in  faith,  with  20,000  Brah- 
minical  immigrants  from  Bali. 

Lomond  Hills.    See  Lochleven. 

Lomond,  Loch,  the  'queen  of  Scottish  lakes,' 
in  Dumbarton  and  Stirling  shires,  lies  23  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  is  22  miles  long,  |  mile  to  5 
miles  wide,  6  to  630  feet  deep,  and  27  sq.  m.  in 
area.  It  is  studded  with  thirty  wooded  islands  ; 
receives  the  Endrick  and  six  other  principal 
streams  ;  sends  off  the  Leven  7  miles  southward 
to  the  Clyde ;  contains  trout,  pike,  and  perch  ; 
is  sometimes  frozen  over  as  far  northward  as 
Luss ;  and  is  engirt  by  hills  and,  towards  its 
head.  Highland  mountains,  the  highest  of  which, 
Ben  Lomond  (q.v.),  attains  3192  feet.  In  1263 
Norsemen  launched  their  galleys  on  Loch  Lo- 
mond, having  drawn  them  across  the  narrow 
isthnms  of  Tarbet ;  on  Inchcailloch  stood  of  old 
a  nunnery ;  and  a  cave  is  associated  with  both 
Bruce  and  Rob  Roy. 

Lomza,  the  capital  of  a  Polish  government 
(area,  4667  sq.  m. ;  pop.  586,683),  80  miles  NE.  of 
Warsaw.     Pop.  25,000. 

London  is  situated  mainly  on  the  north  or  left 
bank  of  the  Thames,  about  60  miles  from  the  sea, 
in  51°  30'  48"  N.  lat.  and  5'  48"  W.  long.  The  city 
was,  according  to  many  authorities,  founded  in  43 
A.D.,  when  Anlus  Plautius  was  the  Roman  gover- 
nor of  Britain.  The  name  is  Celtic,  and  would 
appear  to  signify  a  fort  on  a  lake  or  lagoon,  the 
Thames  being  here  a  tidal  estuary.  During  the 
greater  part  of  the  Roman  occupation  of  Britain 
London  consisted  of  two  forts,  one  at  either  end  of 
the  bridge,  built  where  the  Thames  is  900  feet  wide 
(narrower  than  either  above  or  below).  The  un- 
walled  suburbs  seem  to  have  been  populous  and 
wealthy  from  an  early  period  ;  and,  when  aban- 
doned by  Suetonius,  they  were  burned  by  Boadicea 
in  61  A.D.  They  were  still  undefended  in  286  and 
long  after.  The  wall  which  for  so  many  cen- 
turies was  destined  to  defend  the  boundaries  of 
the  city  was  built  in  350-369,  and  enclosed  380 
acres.  From  369  till  412  London  was  the  capital 
of  Britain,  with  the  title  of  Arigusta.  After  the 
Roman  departure  London  disappears  from  history 
until  457,  wnen  the  Britons,  fleeing  before  the 
victorious  Hengest,  took  refuge  behind  the  Roman 
wall.  In  604  we  find  it  named  as  the  '  Metropolis ' 
—the  ecclesiastical  capital— of  the  East  Saxons. 
During  the  Danish  wars  London  was  abandoned 
and  lay  desolate  for  thirty  years.  To  King  Alfred 
we  must  look  as  the  real  founder  of  modern  Lon- 
don. William  recognised  the  great  position  and 
ancient  rights  of  London  in  a  special  charter  by 


which  the  privileges  enjoyed  by  the  citizens  under 
Edward  the  Confessor  were  confirmed  to  them  ; 
but  the  most  important  grant  from  the  crown 
was  that  of  Henry  I.  in  1101.  The  '  Lord  Mayor,' 
appointed  for  one  year,  is  still  held  to  rank  as  an 
earl,  but  within  the  city,  where  he  has  the  position 
of  the  Lord-lieutenant  of  a  county,  next  to  the 
sovereign.  The  Court  of  Aldermen  consists  of 
twenty-six  members.  The  Common  Council  was 
first  elected  in  1200 ;  there  are  now  upwards  of  200 
common  councillors.  The  Common  Hall  consists 
only  of  members  of  the  Livery  Companies,  and  has 
obtained  or  usurped  many  of  the  rights  of  the  whole 
body  of  citizens.  The  growth  of  the  niuiiiciiiality 
was  slow.  Nevertheless,  commerce  increased,  and 
the  settlement  of  such  foreign  merchants  as  those 
of  the  so-called  Steelyard,  and  of  the  Lombard 
and  other  Italian  bankers,  raised  London  by  the 
time  of  Edward  III.  to  a  wealthy  and  prosperous 
condition.  The  usurpation,  as  many  deemed  it, 
of  Henry  IV.  could  hardly  have  succeeded  had  it 
not  been  for  the  support  of  the  city  ;  and  Henry 
v.,  Avhose  French  victories  inflated  trade,  was 
most  popular  with  the  citizens.  After  a  period 
of  depression,  the  reign  of  Edward  IV.,  by  reviv- 
ing and  creating  outlets  for  foreign  trade,  restored 
the  prosperity  of  the  city.  Under  the  Tudors 
there  were  great  fluctuations.  The  tenets  of  the 
Reformation  were  warmly  welcomed  in  London. 
The  accession  of  Queen  Elizabeth  gave  a  consider- 
able impetus  to  London  trade  ;  and  the  Merchant 
Adventurers,  chartered  by  her  father,  now  stepped 
into  the  place  previously  occupied  by  the  Germans 
of  the  Steelyard.  The  last  charter  of  Queen  Eliza- 
beth was  granted  to  the  East  India  Company. 
The  silk  manufacture,  driven  out  of  Flanders  by 
the  cruelties  of  the  Spaniards,  was  naturalised  in 
England ;  and  even  the  short-sighted  policy  of 
the  first  Stuart  could  not  reiiress  the  rapidly- 
growing  enterprise  of  the  Londoners,  whom  the 
discovery  of  America  and  of  a  sea-passage  to 
India  stinmlated  to  greater  and  greater  exertions. 
While  the  wealth  and  population  of  London 
thus  increased  during  the  16th  and  part  of  the 
17th  century,  the  city  itself  became  less  and  less 
fit  for  habitation.  Its  unhealthiness  was  partly 
caused  by  the  deficiency  of  the  water-supply, 
partly  by  overcrowding ;  the  plague  scarcely 
ever  left  its  narrow  streets  and  filthy  alleys.  Sir 
Hugh  Myddelton,  by  bringing  clean  water  to  the 
city  in  abundant  quantity  in  1620,  bestowed  upon 
it  the  greatest  possible  boon.  James  I.  had  re- 
verted as  far  as  he  could  to  the  mistaken  policy 
of  such  kings  as  Henry  III.  and  Richard  II.  ;  but 
it  was  reserved  for  Charles  I.,  after  a  long  series 
of  high-handed  proceedings,  to  seize  the  money 
of  the  city  goldsmiths  deposited  in  the  Tower. 
His  downfall  was  certain  when  the  city  turned 
against  him  ;  but,  except  for  a  very  brief  period, 
the  Commonwealth  found  little  favour  in  London, 
and  Cromwell  imposed  one  humiliation  after 
another  upon  the  citizens.  Charles  II.  was 
warmly  welcomed,  but  followed  in  the  footsteps 
of  his  father.  Extortion  and  oppression  were 
the  instruments  of  his  policy,  and  in  1672  he 
closed  the  Exchequer,  and  ruined  nearly  all  the 
London  bankers  at  a  blow.  Meanwhile  two 
even  greater  disasters  had  come — the  Great 
Plague  of  1665  and  the  Great  Fire  of  1666. 
During  the  fearftil  epidemic  of  1665  the  deaths 
during  the  year  v,  ere  oflScially  stated  at  97,306. 
As  the  population  Avas  reckoned  at  about  500,000, 
it  will  be  seen  that  nearly  a  fifth  perished.  The 
Great  Fire  commenced  on  the  2d  September,  at 
1  o'clock  A.M.,  and  raged  for  five  days.  It  was 
estimated  that  396  acres  of  houses  were  destroyed, 


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fifteen  city  wards  were  consumed  utterly,  and 
eight  others  damaged,  comprising  400  streets, 
13,200  private  houses,  88  churches  and  St  Paul's 
Cathedral,  and  four  city  gates.  The  loss  in  mere 
money  was  estimated  at  about  four  millions.  Sir 
Christopher  Wren  built  a  new  St  Paul's,  and  many 
other  beautiful  buildings,  including  the  Monu- 
ment, a  column  202  feet  high,  erected  near  where 
the  fire  began.  St  Paul's  has  a  dome  404  feet  high 
and  145  feet  in  external  diameter ;  the  length  of  the 
building  east  and  west  is  500  feet.  It  contains 
many  memorials,  the  best  of  which  are  Welling- 
ton's, by  Stevens  ;  Lord  Melbourne's,  by  Maro- 
chetti ;  and  a  recumbent  figure  of  General  Gordon, 
by  Boehm.  In  tlie  crypt  are  buried  Lord  Nelson 
(1805),  Reynolds  (1792),  Turner  (1851),  Wellington 
(1852),  Landseer  (1873),  and  Wren  himself  (1723). 
The  Exchange  of  Sir  Thomas  Gresham  was 
burned,  rebuilt,  and  then  burned  again,  and 
finally  rebuilt  in  1844.  The  Guildhall,  partly  of 
the  13th  century,  partly  of  the  15th,  which  had 
been  the  scene  of  so  many  historical  events,  was 
damaged  by  the  Great  Fire  of  1666,  but  not  de- 
stroyed, and  was  handsomely  restored.  Among 
the  churches  spared  by  the  fire  is  St  Bartholo- 
mew's, in  part  a  line  Norman  structure ;  St 
Giles's,  Cripplegate,  built  1545,  in  Avhich  John 
Milton  was  buried,  1674 ;  St  Helen's,  Bishopsgate, 
full  of  fine  monuments ;  St  Katharine  Cree,  said 
to  have  been  designed  by  Inigo  Jones,  1631  ;  and 
St  Andrew  Undershaft,  in  which  is  Stow's  monu- 
ment. 

Charles  II.  seized  the  charter  and  nominated  a 
so-called  Lord  Mayor.  At  first  James  II.  carried 
on  his  brother's  evil  policy  towards  the  city.  In 
December  1688  the  citizens  formally  petitioned 
William  to  assume  the  crown,  and  in  a  few  hours 
found  ample  funds  for  his  use.  The  opposi- 
tion of  London,  in  old  times  fatal  to  a  king  or 
his  family,  affects  still  the  fortunes  of  ministries. 
The  remaining  events  that  need  be  noticed 
here  are  the  establishment  of  the  Bank  of 
England  in  1694 ;  the  removal  of  the  old  wall 
and  its  gates  in  1760  ;  the  clearing  of  the  houses 
from  London  Bridge  about  the  same  time,  and 
its  complete  rebuilding  in  1831,  when  it  was  only 
one  of  a  large  number  of  bridges.  Many  have 
been  built  since  then ;  the  latest  addition  is  a 
bridge  below  the  Tower.  The  Mansion  House  is 
the  official  residence  of  the  Lord  Mayor.  The 
population  of  the  city  has  dwindled  year  by  year, 
and  especially  since  the  multiplication  of  railways. 
Few  tradesmen  now  live  above  their  place  of 
business,  and  the  difference  between  the  number 
of  people  who  actually  reside  within  the  ancient 
boundaries  and  of  those  who  only  come  in  to  busi- 
ness is  immense.  In  1881  there  were  6493  inhab- 
ited houses  and  a  night  pop.  of  50,526  ;  but  25,143 
houses  were  used  during  the  day,  when  the  pop. 
rose  to  261,061.  In  1891  the  night  pop.  was  only 
37,694;  while  the  day  pop.  was  301,384.  Mean- 
while the  suburbs  have  spread  in  all  directions, 
and  the  houses  of  Londoners  are  found  in 
Berkshire,  Buckinghamshire,  Hertfordshire,  and 
Sussex,  as  well  as  in  Kent,  Surrey,  Essex,  and 
Middlesex.  The  bishop  resides  in  Vfestminster, 
and  at  an  ancient  manor-house  of  the  see 
at  Fulham.  There  is  a  dean  of  St  Paul's  who 
resides  close  to  his  church.  He  is  assisted  by 
four  residentiary  or  stagiary  canons,  and  by  a 
precentor,  a  chancellor,  and  two  archdeacons, 
and  there  are  thirty  canons  of  the  old  founda- 
tion, now  usually  called  prebendaries,  and  a  col- 
lege of  minor  canons. 

The  County  of  London.  Under  the  Local 
Government  Act  of  1888  a  new  county  was  defined, 


to  consist  of  London  and  the  suburban  parishes 
of  Middlesex,  Surrey,  and  Kent— previously 
called  '  the  Metropolitan  Area. '  By  the  Act  of  1888 
a  county  council  was  provided  for  this  district ; 
tlie  county  of  Middlesex  was  divided,  one  part 
forming  a  new  county  of  Middlesex,  and  the 
other,  united  with  parts  of  Surrey  and  Kent, 
forming  the  new  county  of  London.  By  the 
Act  of  1899  the  administrative  county  of  London 
(with  the  exception  of  the  City),  heretofore 
under  more  tlian  a  hundred  and  twenty  local 
authorities  (vestries,  district  boards,  burial 
boards,  &c.),  was  reorganised  into  twenty- 
eight  municipal  boroughs,  each  under  a  muni- 
cipal council.  These  boroughs  are  :  Battersea, 
Bermondsey,  Bethnal  Green,  Camberwell,  Chel- 
sea, Deptford,  P'insbury,  Fulhain,  Greenwich, 
Hackney,  Hammersmith,  Hampstead,  Holborn, 
Islington,  Kensington,  Lambeth,  Lewisham, 
Paddington,  Poplar,  St  Marylebone,  St  Pancras, 
Shoreditch,  Southwark,  Stepney,  Stoke  Newing- 
tou,  Wandsworth,  Westminster,  Woolwich.  The 
councils  have  all  the  powers  and  duties  of  the 
old  vestries  and  district  boards,  and  some  of 
those  of  the  London  Comity  Coiuicil. 

The  suburbs  of  London  grew  in  spite  of  city 
and  parliament ;  by  1222  a  continuous  street 
united  Westminster  with  London ;  another 
stretched  beyond  the  Tower  to  Stepney ;  and 
a  third,  flowing  out  of  Bishopsgate,  reached 
northward  to  Islington.  In  the  same  13th 
century  a  great  '  ward  without '  was  formed 
westward,  extending  to  the  Temple  and  Hol- 
born Bars ;  and,  on  the  north,  part  of  Moor- 
fields  was  made  a  'ward  without'  in  the  juris- 
diction of  the  alderman  of  Bishopsgate.  But, 
except  for  the  formal  addition  of  Southwark  in 
Surrey,  made  in  1327,  confirmed  and  defined  in 
1550,  no  further  extension  of  the  city  liberties 
took  place. 

The  precinct  of  the  Tower,  eastward  of  the 
city  wall,  was  formed  partly  by  aggressions  on 
the  citizens,  partly  by  acquisitions  from  the  lord 
of  Stepney,  and  partly  by  reclamations  from  the 
Thames.  'Two  bastions  of  the  old  wall,  generally 
called  Roman,  and  certainly  dating  back  to  the 
reign  of  Alfred,  were  removed,  and  the  White 
and  Wakefield  towers  were  built  on  them.  Gun- 
dulf,  a  monk  of  Bee,  designed  the  White  Tower, 
begun  in  1078;  the  chapel  of  St  John  in  the 
White  Tower  being  supplemented  by  the  parish 
or  precinct  church  of  St  Peter  '  ad  Vincula '  on 
the  Green  in  the  reign  of  Henry  II.  The  keep  is 
approximately  in  the  centre,  and  is  surrounded 
by  walls  and  towers  forming  the  inner  and  outer 
wards.  The  towers  of  the  inner  ward  were  those 
chiefly  used  for  prisoners'  lodgings,  but  a  com- 
plete royal  palace  was  in  the  south-eastern  corner. 
Of  this  palace,  from  which  Queen  Anne  Boleyn 
went  to  her  death  on  the  adjoining  green,  scarcely 
a  vestige  remains.  The  lieutenant's  lodgings, 
where,  or  in  the  chief-warder's  house  next  door, 
Lady  Jane  (Grey)  Dudley  lived,  is  now  called 
the  Queen's  House.  The  Beauchamp  and  Devereux 
towers  seem  to  have  held  the  most  illustrious 
prisoners ;  they,  with  the  Bell  Tower,  in  which 
Fisher,  Bishop  of  Rochester  (1534),  and  Mary, 
Countess  of  Lennox  (1565),  were  confined,  form 
the  western  side  of  the  inner  ward.  It  is  im- 
possible to  name  more  than  a  very  few  of  the 
most  famous  persons  who  have  suffered  imprison- 
ment in  the  Tower  :  Sir  Thomas  More,  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh,  the  Earl  of  Strafford,  Archbishop  Laud, 
the  Duke  of  Monmouth,  the  Jacobite  lords  of  1715 
and  1745.  Many  of  these  prisoners  were  buried 
in  St  Peter's  Church,  which  having  been  burned 


tOKDOU 


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in  1512  was  rebuilt  in  time  to  receive  the 
bodies  of  Queen  Anne  Boleyn  and  other  victims 
of  the  Tudor  times.  It  was  'restored'  some 
years  ago  in  a  very  thorough  manner,  every 
vestige,  excejjt  some  monuments  of  the  period 
which  witnessed  these  sad  scenes,  being  carefully 
obliterated.  The  crown  jewels  were  long  kept 
in  the  Brick  Tower,  at  the  north-eastern  corner, 
but  in  1867  were  removed  to  a  chamber  in  the 
Wakefield  Tower,  also  now  'restored.'  The 
great  collection  of  armour,  founded  by  Henry 
VIII.  in  his  palace  at  Greenwich,  is  on  the  upper 
floor  of  the  White  Tower.  The  ticket-office, 
by  which  the  visitor  enters  the  fortress,  is  on  the 
site  of  a  menagerie  which  dates  back  to  the  time 
of  Henry  I.,  whence  the  saying  'to  see  the  lions,' 
meaning  to  visit  the  Tower.  The  principal  feature 
of  the  outer  ward  is  St  Thomas's  Tower,  or  the 
Traitor's  Gate,  facing  the  Bloody  or  Garden 
Tower,  the  entrance  of  the  inner  ward.  A  little 
farther  east,  still  on  the  Thames  bank,  we  come 
to  one  of  the  numerous  divisions,  known  as  the 
Tower  Hamlets,  into  which  the  original  parish 
of  Stepney  has  been  parcelled.  This  used  to  be 
Ratcliffe  and  Wapping,  but  has  long  been  known 
as  St  George's  in  the  East.  Next  to  it  is  Lime- 
house.  Next  to  Limehouse  is  Poplar,  which 
includes  the  Isle  of  Dogs  ('Docks'),  a  kind  of 
delta  formed  by  the  river  Lea.  Farther  inland 
are  Bethnal  Green,  a  vast  district,  chiefly 
covered  with  factories  and  with  the  houses  of 
artisans  and  labourers.  Mile  End,  Old  and 
New  Towns,  with  Whitechapel  north  of  the 
Tower,  form  a  complete  ring  round  Stepney. 
The  Bethnal  Green  Museum  of  the  Science  and 
Art  Department  has  housed  and  exhibited  various 
fine  collections  of  pictures  and  works  of  art. 
Much  of  Hackney,  which  adjoins  Stepney  on  the 
north,  has  been  kept  open  ;  an  old  park  of  the 
bishops  being  now  laid  out  as  Finsbury  Park. 
South  of  this  district,  which  stands  high,  are 
Haggerston  and  Hoxton,  densely  populated 
parishes,  comprising  the  ancient  Shoreditch,  and 
reaching  to  the  city  wall.  Westward  are  the 
two  divisions  of  Finsbury,  St  Luke's  and  Clerken- 
well.  In  Clerkenwell,  but  not  strictly  speaking 
of  it,  is  the  Carthusian  monastery,  now  a  kind 
of  refuge  for  decayed  gentlemen,  known  as  the 
Charterhouse  (see  Godalming).  Clerkenwell,  the 
site  of  the  house  of  the  Hospitallers,  has  still  its 
St  John's  Gate,  with  memories  of  Dr  Johnson. 
Islington,  northwards  and  westwards,  has  a  very 
ancient  history,  extending  back  to  the  Conquest  ; 
Stoke  Newington  has  a  curious  old  church  and 
a  new  one ;  in  St  Andrew's,  Holborn,  Lord 
Beaconsfield  was  baptised,  and  in  its  cemetery, 
in  Shoe  Lane,  Chatterton  was  buried.  In 
Bloomsbury  the  British  Museum  is  situated.  St 
Giles's,  long  a  rookery  of  wretched  tenements, 
has  been  greatly  cleansed  and  improved  of  late, 
but  the  too  famous  Seven  Dials  continue  to 
deserve  an  evil  reputation.  Nell  Gwynn  lived  in 
Wardour  Street,  the  Duke  of  Monmouth  in  Soho 
Square,  Dryden  in  Long  Acre  and  in  Gerard 
Street.  The  small  parish  of  St  Paul,  Covent 
Garden,  boasts  of  a  church  designed  by  Inigo 
Jones,  of  the  greatest  vegetable  and  flower 
market  in  London,  and  of  innumerable  literary 
associations.  In  Bow  Street  was  Wills's  Coflee- 
house,  where  Pepys  met  Dryden ;  Turner,  the 
landscape-painter,  was  born  in  Maiden  Lane ; 
Charles  Lamb  lived  in  Russell  Court ;  and  there 
are  memories  also  of  Pope,  Sheridan,  Butler,  and 
Prior,  At  the  eastern  end  of  the  Strand,  next  to 
(the  site  of)  Temple  Bar,  we  have  the  colossal 
buildings  of  the  New  Law  Courts  (1874^82),  of 


which  George  E.  Street  was  the  original  designed, 
but  so  thwarted  by  the  authorities,  that  only  the 
best  features,  such  as  the  noble  hall  (238  feet 
long)  and  the  tower,  can  be  considered  his. 
North  of  the  courts  is  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields,  the 
largest  square  in  London.  Before  we  reach 
Waterloo  Bridge  we  are  in  the  precinct  of  the 
Savoy,  of  which  the  hospital  was  suppressed  in 
1703,  and  the  chapel,  where  Gavin  Douglas  is 
buried,  made  '  royal '  in  1773. 

The  Thames  Embankment  (1864-1903)  borders 
the  Strand  from  the  city  round  a  great  bend  of 
the  Thames  at  Charing  Cross  to  Westminster. 
When  we  pass  the  city  boundary  near  the  Temple, 
we  are  abreast  of  the  offices  of  the  Londoji 
School  Board,  by  Shaw,  next  to  which  is  the 
river-front  of  Somerset  House,  by  Chambers. 
Gardens  beautifully  laid  out  conduct  us  past  the 
Savoy,  the  Adelphi  Terrace,  and  the  Egyptian 
obelisk  called  'Cleopatra's  Needle.'  Charing 
Cross  station  occupies  the  site  of  Hungerford 
Market.  The  cross  in  the  court  toward  the 
Strand  was  meant  for  a  reproduction  of  the 
Eleanor  Cross  erected  by  Edward  I.  Northum- 
berland Avenue  was  made  in  1874.  Trafalgar 
Square  is  on  the  site  of  the  old  Kings'  Mews.  Its 
chief  ornament  is  the  church  of  St  Martin  'in 
the  Fields,'  by  Gibbs  (1726).  The  National 
Gallery  is  a  poor  building  (by  Wilkins,  1838). 
The  monumental  Corinthian  column  to  Nelson 
is  very  conspicuous,  with  four  lions  by  Landseer 
at  its  base.  Behind  it  is  a  statue  of  General 
Gordon  by  Thornycroft.  Cockspur  Street  leads 
us  past  the  Haymarket  and  its  great  opera- 
house  to  Waterloo  Place,  where  are  the  Guards' 
Memorial,  a  very  poor  bronze  Victory ;  the  Duke  of 
York's  column  with  statue  by  Westmacott ;  and 
monuments,  mostly  very  bad,  to  Franklin,  Lord 
Clyde,  Lord  Lawrence,  &c.  The  clubs  in  Pall  Mall 
and  St  James's  Street  are  in  many  cases  justly 
admired.  Piccadilly  begins  a  little  to  the  eastward 
of  Waterloo  Place  and  its  continuation  Regent 
Street,  and  is  called  from  a  kind  of  tea-garden, 
Peccadillo  Hall,  which  stood  where  the  Criterion 
is  now.  The  formation  of  Regent  Street  must 
be  ascribed  to  Nash.  In  the  Regent's  Park  are 
situated  the  Zoological  and  Botanic  Gardens.  In 
Piccadilly  there  are  still  some  fine  palaces,  as 
Devonshire  House,  Northampton  House,  the  resi- 
dence of  Lord  Rothschild,  Apsley  House,  and 
Burlington  House  (injured  by  alterations  and 
additions).  Here  are  lodged  the  Royal  Academy, 
the  Royal,  the  Antiquarian,  the  Linnean,  and 
several  other  learned  societies.  The  gardens  are 
covered  by  the  exhibition  rooms  of  the  academy, 
and  by  the  offices  and  theatre  of  the  university 
of  London.  Northward  and  westward  is  the 
great  parish  of  St  George,  Hanover  Square, 
which  comprises  Mayfair,  Grosvenor  Square,  and 
Belgravia,  extending  from  Oxford  Street  on  the 
north  to  the  Thames  on  the  south.  St  George's 
Church  is  heavy  in  design,  except  the  portico. 
The  parish  nearly  all  belongs  to  the  Duke  of 
Westminster.  In  St  Pancras  parish  is  Kentish 
town.  The  new  parish  church  of  St  Pancras,  in 
the  Euston  Road,  was  built  in  what  was  thought 
to  be  a  Grecian  style  in  1822.  The  Midland 
Railway  terminus  at  St  Pancras,  by  Sir  G.  G. 
Scott,  is  one  of  the  largest  and  most  imposing 
buildings  of  the  kind. 

Tyburn,  named  from  a  little  brook  or  bourne 
which  formerly  ran  through  it,  was  anciently 
the  name  of  the  parish  which  we  know  as  St 
Marylebone.  The  place  of  execution  was  at 
first  by  the  burnside.  As  the  suburbs  increased 
and  crept  towards  St  Marylebone,  the  gallows 


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was  removed  farther  west.  In  151-2  it  stood 
in  the  adjoining  manor  of  Lilleston,  close  to  the 
modern  Marble  Arch,  and  eventually  it  was 
set  up  for  each  execution  at  the  foot  of  Edgware 
Boad.  At  one  or  otlier  of  these  places  the  Holy 
Maid  of  Kent  (1534),  many  priests  in  the  reign 
of  Elizabeth,  Felton,  the  assassin  of  Buckingham 
(1628),  Jack  Sheppard  (1724),  Jonathan  Wild 
(1725),  Lord  Ferrers  (1760),  Mrs  Brownrigg(l767), 
and  the  Rev.  W.  Dodd  (1777)  were  hanged. 
The  last  execution  here  was  that  of  John 
Austen  (1783).  Tyburnia  is  not  in  Tyburn,  nor 
yet  in  Lilleston,  but  in  Paddington.  Oxford 
Street  is  called  after  Edward  Harley,  second  Earl 
of  Oxford  and  Mortimer,  who  married  the  heiress 
of  the  property  on  which  it  was  built.  North 
of  St  Marylebone  is  Hampstead  (q.v.),  with  its 
splendid  open  heath,  some  parts  of  it  450  feet 
above  the  sea.  Paddington  lies  wholly  west- 
ward of  the  Edgware  Road.  A  small  part  of 
Kensington  Gardens  is  in  Westbourne.  West- 
ward of  Kensington  (q.v.)  is  Hammersmith,  a 
populous  suburb,  taken  out  of  Fulham,  which 
reaches  down  to  the  Thames,  and  forms  the 
western  extremity  of  the  county.  Fulham  boasts 
of  an  ancient  church  and  of  the  palace  of  the 
bishops  of  London.  Chelsea  (q.v.)  adjoins  Ful- 
ham. 

Crossing  the  Thames,  we  reach  that  part  of 
Surrey  which  has  been  included  in  the  new 
county.  Battersea  is  chiefly  remarkable  now 
for  the  beautiful  park,  opened  in  1852.  West- 
ward of  Battersea  is  Wandsworth,  south  of  it 
is  Clapham,  and  beyond  that  Penge,  in  which  is 
the  Crystal  Palace,  usually  called  from  the  neigh- 
bouring Sydenham  (q.v.).  Kennington,  the  site 
of  a  manor-house  of  the  princes  of  Wales,  Brixton 
a  little  farther  south,  and  Norwood,  on  the 
summit  of  the  southern  line  of  hills  which 
enclose  what  is  called  the  London  Basin,  come 
next,  and  the  manor  of  Lambeth  (q.v.)  faces  West- 
minster. The  domestic  parts  of  Lambeth  Palace 
are  modern,  but  the  chapel  was  built  about  1250, 
the  '  Lollards'  Tower,'  1440,  the  gateway,  1490, 
and  the  hall,  now  the  library,  in  1663.  Two 
modern  buildings  are  very  conspicuous  at  Lam- 
beth—Doulton's  terra-cotta  factory,  south  of  the 
palace,  and  St  Thomas's  Hospital,  removed  to 
this  site  in  1871. 

From  this  point  eastward  to  Southwark  the 
low-lying  area  is  occupied  with  mean  streets  and 
lanes,  and  with  great  warehouses,  stores,  and 
wharves ;  Shakespeare's  Bankside  Theatre  is  prob- 
ably covered  by  the  approaches  to  Waterloo 
Bridge.  Eastward  of  Southwark  are  Bermond- 
sey,  where  a  famous  abbey  flourished  before 
the  Reformation,  and  Rotherhithe,  at  an  abrupt 
bend  of  the  Thames.  Both  districts  are  densely 
covered  with  factories  and  labourers'  dwellings. 
Farther  inland  and  southward  are  Newington, 
Walworth,  the  immense  parish  of  Camberwell, 
with  Dulwich  (q.v.)  College  and  picture-gallery, 
and  Peckham.  Eastward  of  Camberwell  we  enter 
those  parishes  which  are  taken  from  Kent.  They 
comprise  Lewisham,  a  good  part  of  which  is  still 
open,  and  Deptford,  Greenwich,  and  Woolwich, 
which  are  separately  noted. 

Westminster  originally  comprised  a  district 
outside  of  London,  extending  from  the  walls  of 
London  almost  to  the  village  of  Kensington,  but 
was  gradually  reduced  in  area.  The  present 
borough,  included  in  the  county  of  London,  com- 
prises the  parishes  of  St  Margaret  and  St  John 
Westminster,  St  George  Hanover  Square,  St 
James  Westminster,  St  Martin-in-the-Fields,  and 
the  district  of  the  Strand  Board  of  Works  and  in- 


cluding the  close  of  the  collegiate  church  of  St 
Peter  Westminster.  The  name  contains  a  reference 
to  an  ancient  abbey  church,  probably  founded 
about  the  time  of  Oft'a,  but  refounded  by  Dunstan 
in  the  time  of  King  Edgar,  about  the  year  971 ; 
as  also  to  another  minster,  that  of  St  Paul. 
Edward  the  Confessor,  who  lived  chiefly  at  West- 
minster, rebuilt  the  church,  and  of  his  work  an 
archway  in  the  south  transept  may  be  identified. 
The  church  was  consecrated  in  1065,  and  P'ree- 
man  was  of  opinion  that  the  ill-fated  Harold  was 
crowned  in  it,  as  certainly  was  the  Conqueror. 
In  1269  a  new  church,  that  which  we  now  see, 
was  consecrated,  having  been  built  by  Henry  III. 
in  honour  of  Edward  the  Confessor  (canonised 
1163).  The  nave  was  flnished  under  Richard 
II.,  but  the  western  towers  were  not  built  till 
1735.  The  chapel  of  the  Annunciation,  or  chantry 
of  Henry  V.,  was  built  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VL 
The  Lady  Chapel,  or  chapel  of  Henry  VII, ,  an 
elaborate  example  of  the  last  phase  of  the  old 
Gothic  style,  was  built  by  Henry  VIII.,  who 
subsequently  suppressed  the  monastery  and  made 
Westminster  a  bishopric  (for  ten  years  only),  since 
which  the  surrounding  town  has  been  reckoned 
a  city.  James  I.  set  up  the  last  of  the  royal 
monuments— those,  namely,  to  his  mother,  Mary 
of  Scotland,  and  to  his  predecessor  Elizabeth. 
The  north  front  was  rebuilt  by  Wren,  and  was 
a  beautiful  example  of  his  taste  in  Gothic.  It 
was  pulled  down,  and  a  new  and  less  appropriate 
design  by  Mr  Pearson  substituted  in  1890.  The 
church  is  the  burial-place  of  thirteen  kings  of 
England,  including  Henry  III.,  Edward  I., 
Edward  III.,  Richard  II.,  Henry  V.,  Henry  VIL, 
Edward  VL,  James  I.,  Charles  II.,  William  III., 
and  George  II.,  as  Well  as  of  Ave  queens  in  their 
own  right,  and  the  queens  of  many  of  the  kings. 
In  the  reign  of  Richard  II.  the  practice  of  bury- 
ing court  favourites  and  others  in  the  abbey 
commenced.  The  first  poet  to  be  laid  in  the 
south  transept,  often  called  the  Poets'  Corner,  was 
Chaucer;  here  also  are  buried  Spenser,  Dryden, 
Garrick,  Johnson,  Dickens,  Browning,  Tennyson, 
and  others  of  less  note.  The  first  Lord  Lytton 
was  buried  in  the  chapel  of  St  Ednumd.  Han- 
del's grave  is  in  the  south  transept.  Dean 
Stanley's  in  the  chapel  of  Henry  VII.  The 
north  transept  contains  the  graves  of  Mans- 
field, the  two  Pitts,  the  three  Cannings,  and 
other  statesmen.  In  the  nave  are  biu-ied  Newton, 
Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  Street,  Livingstone,  Ben 
Jonson,  Sir  Charles  Barry,  Robert  Stephenson, 
and  Charles  Darwin.  Nearly  all  English  kings 
and  queens  have  been  crowned  here,  and  since 
Edward  I.'s  reign  have  used  the  chair  holding 
under  its  seat  the  Stone  of  Scone.  Shortly  be- 
fore the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries  William 
Caxton  had  set  up  the  first  English  printing- 
press  in  the  Almonry,  a  little  to  the  west  of  the 
western  front  of  the  abbey.  He  is  commemorated 
by  a  monument  in  the  church  of  St  Margaret, 
where  he  is  buried.  The  Westminster  Assembly, 
called  by  the  Long  Parliament  to  settle  the 
doctrine,  ritual,  and  government  of  the  Church 
of  England,  met  first  in  1643  in  Henry  VII. 's 
chapel,  and  held  the  most  of  its  1163  meetings 
in  the  Jerusalem  Chamber.  The  abbey  remains 
are  numerous,  some  of  them  being  in  the  occupa- 
tion of  the  school.  The  cloisters,  except  for 
restorations,  are  unusually  perfect,  and  the 
domestic  buildings  of  the  Confessor's  period  are 
extensive.  The  Abbot  of  Westminster  was  a 
peer  of  parliament,  took  precedence  of  all  other 
English  abbots,  and  had  an  income  which  would 
be  reckoned  at  about  £60,000  of  our  money. 


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f  he  dean  has  succeeded  to  some  of  the  privileges 
and  more  of  the  duties.  The  chapter  includes  six 
canons,  one  of  whom  is  archdeacon.  Kensington 
Gardens  are  still  reckoned  in  the  parliamentary 
borough  of  Westminster ;  and  the  palace  of  Kens- 
ington is  within  the  boundary.  The  Dean  of  West- 
minster is  still  nominally  lord  of  the  manor,  and 
appoints  a  steward,  generally  some  nobleman  of 
high  rank.  There  are  also  a  bailitf  and  sixteen 
burgesses.  Tlie  deanery  contains  the  'chamber 
called  Jerusalem,'  probably  from  a  painting  of  the 
holy  city  among  its  original  decorations.  Jeru- 
salem forms  a  chapter-house,  the  original  chapter- 
house in  the  east  cloister  having  for  centuries 
been  used  by  the  House  of  Commons  ;  having 
become  ruinous,  it  was  almost  rebuilt  by  Sir 
Gilbert  Scott,  The  school  closely  adjoins  the 
abbey,  and  the  great  school-room  is  part  of  the 
monks'  dormitory,  remains  of  the  Confessor's 
buildings.  Among  the  masters  of  the  school, 
founded  as  St  Peter's  College  by  Queen  Elizabeth 
in  1560,  have  been  Camden,  the  Elizabethan  anti- 
quary, Busby,  and  Vincent  Bourne ;  the  scholars 
have  included  George  Herbert,  Cowley,  Dryden, 
Prior,  Cowper,  and  Southey,  poets  ;  the  architect 
Wren ;  Locke  and  Gibbon  ;  and  the  statesmen 
Warren  Hastings,  Lord  Mansfield,  and  Lord 
Russell, 

The  churches  of  Westminster  are  now  very 
numerous,  but  the  original  parish  churches  are 
only  St  Margaret's  and  St  Jolin's,  St  Margaret's 
seems  to  have  first  been  built  before  1140,  but 
as  we  see  it  now  is  in  a  poor  style  of  Gothic, 
with  many  modern  additions.  The  headless 
body  of  Sir  Walter  Raleigh  was  buried  in  it  in 
1618.  The  east  window  is  old  Dutch.  The  church 
is  supposed  to  be  the  special  charge  of  the  House 
of  Commons.  All  the  royal  palaces  of  London 
used  to  be  in  Westminster,  but  since  the  parish  has 
been  dismembered  only  Whitehall,  Kensington, 
and  the  Houses  of  Parliament  can  be  reckoned 
within  the  boundaries.  Of  Whitehall  but  little 
remains.  The  chief  relic  was  till  lately  the  Chapel 
Royal,  Whitehall.  Henry  VIII.  first  made  a 
palace  here.  James  I.  constantly  used  Whitehall, 
and  set  Inigo  Jones  to  design  him  a  great  palace 
on  the  site.  Nothing  was  ever  built  except  the 
chapel,  as  it  was  till  lately  called,  then  a  banquet- 
ing hall.  On  the  street  front  of  this  banqueting 
house  are  some  blank  windows  ;  one  of  these,  the 
fourth  from  the  north  end,  was  broken  through  to 
provide  an  exit  from  the  ground-floor  of  the  hall  to 
a  ladder  outside,  leading  to  the  scafTold,  and  by 
this  passage  Charles  I,  went  to  his  doom.  The 
Chapel  Royal  was  closed  in  1890,  and  in  the 
following  year  was  made  over  to  the  Royal 
United  Service  Institution, 

The  present  '  palace  of  parliament '  stands  on  a 
site  consecrated  by  nearly  six  centuries  of  repre- 
sentative institutions.  According  to  the  local 
tradition  it  was  Canute  or  Knut  who  first  lived 
at  Westininster,  and  here  he  rebuked  the  tide. 
It  became  the  chief  residence  of  successive 
kings,  and  the  headquarters  of  the  courts  of 
law.  The  palace  had  numerous  great  public 
chambers  and  halls,  where  cases  could  be  heard, 
great  court  functions  could  be  carried  out,  and 
banquets  given  to  hundreds  of  guests  together. 
As  the  centuries  went  on  these  chambers  formed 
not  a  homogeneous  house,  but  a  village  of  single 
apartments,  such  as  the  Painted  Chamber,  the 
Whitehall,  the  White  Chamber,  the  Star  Chamber, 
the  Court  of  Requests,  St  Stephen's  Chapel,  and 
the  Great  Hall.  To  the  westward  of  the  Great 
Hall  were  the  law-courts,  and  to  the  north  and 
east  the  royal  apartments.     William  Rufus  re- 


built the  Confessor's  hall  on  an  immense 
scale.  Henry  III.  improved  the  palace  greatly. 
Richard  II.  transformed  the  hall,  and  raised 
over  it  the  magniticent  roof  of  oak  which  is 
still  intact.  In  1512  a  fire  took  place  in  the 
royal  apartments,  and  Henry  Vlll.  removed  liis 
court  first  to.  Bridewell  and  then  to  Whitehall, 
but  the  law-courts  were  fixed  in  Westminster 
Hall  from  1224.  Many  of  the  greatest  events  of 
English  history,  and  all  the  greatest  pageants 
have  had  their  place  in  this  old  hall.  In  1834 
a  conflagration  resulted  in  the  destruction  of 
all  that  remained  of  the  ancient  palace,  except 
tiie  hall,  the  cloister  of  St  Stephen's  Chapel, 
and  the  crypt.  All  were  worked  into  Sir  Charles 
Barry's  new  design  for  the  Houses  of  Parlia- 
ment, in  the  Perpendicular  style.  The  whole 
contains  11  courts,  1100  apartments,  and  cost 
some  £3,000,000.  The  first  bridge  here  was 
opened  in  1750.  The  present  Westminster  Bridge 
was  completed  in  1862. 

London  University,  founded  by  charter  of 
1836,  was  not  a  teaching  but  an  examining  body 
granting  degrees  in  arts,  science,  medicine,  law, 
and  music.  The  Act  of  1898,  with  the  royal  sanc- 
tion of  its  statutes  in  1900,  reconstituted  it  as  a 
teaching  body,  comprising  numerous  'schools'  in 
or  near  London — University  College  and  King's 
College  in  all  their  faculties ;  in  theology,  five 
Nonconformist  colleges;  in  arts,  science,  or 
agriculture,  HoUoway  College,  Bedford  College, 
Westfield  College,  the  Royal  College  of  Science, 
the  Agricultural  College  at  Wye ;  in  medicine, 
the  schools  attached  to  Bartholomew's,  Guy's,  St 
Thomas's,  and  eight  other  London  hospitals ;  in 
engineering,  the  Central  Technical  College  and 
the  City  and  Guilds  Institute  ;  and  in  economics, 
the  London  School  of  Economics  and  Political 
Science.  In  all  the  University  thus  constituted 
reckons  eight  faculties— theology,  arts,  laws, 
music,  medicine,  science,  engineering,  and  econo- 
mics and  political  science ;  and  the  headquarters 
are  now  in  the  Imperial  Institute  at  South 
Kensington. 

While  the  London  Government  Act  of  1899, 
establishing  the  borough  councils,  simplified  the 
management  of  the  capital,  there  is  still  much 
overlapping  and  conflicting  of  authorities. 
Amongst  nearly  800  diff'erent  authorities  en- 
gaged in  public  administration  are  :  London 
County  Council,  London  School  Board,  City 
Common  Council,  Metropolitan  Borough  Coun- 
cils (28),  Connnissioners  of  London  Police,  Sick 
Asylum  Boards  (2),  District  School  Boards  (4), 
Boards  of  Guardians  (31),  Thames  and  Lea  Con- 
servancy Boards.  The  administrative  county  of 
London,  establislied  in  1889,  has  an  area  of  118 
square  miles,  and  consists  of  the  City  and  the 
districts  which  had  grown  up  round  it,  known 
as  the  metropolis.  Greater  London  (the  Metro- 
politan and  City  of  London  Police  Districts)  in- 
cludes the  counties  of  London  and  Middlesex, 
and  parts  of  Kent,  Surrey,  Essex,  and  Herts,  and 
has  an  area  of  693  square  miles.  The  metro- 
politan water  area  is  620  miles  in  extent,  and 
differs  in  boundary.  The  metropolis  for  criminal 
jurisdiction  has  an  area  of  420  square  miles.  The 
County  Court  and  Police  Court  areas  diff'er  from 
all  these  and  from  each  other.  The  population 
of  the  City  (37,702  in  1890)  was  in  1901 ,  26,923, 
reckoning  only  persons  sleeping  within  the  area  ; 
the  number  entering  the  City  during  the  day  lias 
been  estimated  at  considerably  over  1,000,000. 
The  administrative  county  (4,228,317  in  1891)  had 
in  1901  a  pop.  of  4,536,541,  including  the  City. 
The  Metropolitan  and  City  Police  District  had 


LONDON 


426 


LONGFORD 


6,581,372,  The  rateable  value  of  the  City  in 
1901-2  was  £4,888,378,  and  the  corporation  ex- 
penditure £649,215 ;  and  for  the  administrative 
county  the  corresponding  figures  were  £35,455,315 
and  £4,595,364.  London  is  divided  into  60  par- 
liamentary divisions,  including  West  Ham  (2), 
each  returning  one  member,  except  the  City, 
which  has  two. 

The  number  of  steam  and  sailing  vessels  which 
entered  the  Port  of  London,  with  cargoes  and 
in  ballast  (excluding  coast  trade),  in  1902  was 
11,444,  with  a  total  tonnage  of  10,179,023 ;  and 
8346  vessels,  of  7,385,085  tons,  cleared.  Tlie 
proportion  of  imjjorts  into  London  as  com- 
pared with  the  remainder  of  the  kingdom  has 
slightly  declined  from  35  per  cent,  in  1872  to  32 '5 
per  cent,  in  1900. 

The  death-rate  of  London  in  1855  was  24  3  per 
1000 ;  in  1901  it  was  17*1  per  1000,  At  the  census 
of  1901  there  were  in  London  56,435  persons  of 
Scottish  birth  and  60,211  of  Irish  birth.  Of 
135,277  foreigners,  38,117  were  Russians,  15,420 
Russian  Poles,  27,427  Germans,  11,264  French, 
10,889  Italians,  6189  Austrians,  5561  Americans 
(U.S.),  4249  Dutch,  4419  Swiss,  2102  Belgians, 
1675  Swedish,  1067  Norwegian,  946  Danish. 

See  Stow's  Survey  (1599) ;  Maitland's  History 
(1756) ;  Newcourt's  Repertorium  (2  vols.  1708) ; 
Cunningham's  Handbook  (1849 ;  new  ed.  by 
Wheatley,  3  vols.  1891) ;  Sharpe's  London  and  the 
Kingdom  (ISM) ;  Paul's  Vanishing  London  (1896) ; 
Thome's  Environs  (2  vols.  1877);  Wal  ford's 
Greater  London  (2  vols.  1885) ;  Baedeker's  Hand- 
book (1889) ;  Hutton's  Literary  Landmarks  (4th  ed. 
1888) ;  Cassell's  Old  and  Neio  London  (6  vols. 
1887);  Loftie's  London  (1890);  and  a  series  of 
works  (1892-1904)  by  Sir  W.  Besant, 

London,  a  city  and  port  of  entry,  capital  of 
Middlesex  county,  Ontario,  is  situated  at  the 
junction  of  the  two  branches  of  the  Thames,  116 
miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Toronto.  It  is  a  handsome 
city,  regularly  built ;  and  the  aim  of  its  founders 
is  visible  in  the  names  of  the  principal  streets — 
Pall  Mall,  Oxford  Street,  Piccadilly,  Cheapside, 
&c,— as  well  as  of  the  river,  which  is  crossed  by 
a  Westminster  and  a  Blackfriars  Bridge,  and  of 
the  Covent  Garden  Market,  Hyde  Park,  and  St 
Paul's  Cathedral,  It  has  large  petroleum  refin- 
eries, foundries,  mills,  tanneries,  &c, ;  and  its 
white  sulphur-springs  attract  many  invalids. 
London  is  the  seat  of  Anglican  and  R.  C.  bishops. 
Pop.  (1881)  19,746  ;  (1900)  37,983. 

Londonderry,  a  maritime  county  of  Ulster,  40 
miles  long  by  34  broad,  is  bounded  N.  by  the 
Atlantic,  and  elsewhere  by  Antrim,  Lough  Neagh, 
Tyrone,  and  Donegal.  Area,  816  sq.  m.  Pop. 
(1841)  222,174;  (1901)  144,404,  of  whom  65,296 
were  Catholics,  45,682  Presbyterians,  and  27,804 
Episcopalians.  The  surface  rises  inland.  Mount 
Sawell,  on  the  southern  border,  being  2236  feet 
high.  The  coast-line  (30  miles  long)  is  generally 
bold  and  precipitous;  but  the  shore  of  Lough 
Foyle  is  in  most  places  an  unvarying  plain,  large 
tracts  having  been  reclaimed.  The  river  Bann 
from  Lough  Neagh  forms  part  of  the  eastern 
border;  the  river  Foyle  intersects  the  western 
extremity.  Thirty-seven  per  cent,  of  the  area  is 
permanent  grass,  and  much  of  the  cultivated  soil 
IS  meadow  land  and  clover.  Linen  is  the  staple 
manufacture.  The  county  returns  two  members, 
and  the  county  town,  Londonderry,  one.  Th'e 
other  towns  are  Coleraine  and  Limavady. 
_  Londonderry,  or  Derry,  the  county  town,  is 
situated  on  an  eminence  overlooking  the  river 
Foyls,  3  miles  from  its  mouth  and  18  from  the 


entrance  to  Lough  Foyle,  by  rail  163  miles  NNW. 
of  Dublin  and  95  NW.  of  Belfast.  Pop.  (1851) 
19,888  ;  (1881)  29,162  ;  (1901)  39,892.  Londonderry 
grew  up  round  a  monastery  founded  in  546  by 
St  Columba.  It  formed  part  of  the  escheated 
territory  granted  in  1613  to  the  London  com- 
panies, and  under  their  management  rose  to 
importance,  and  was  strongly  fortified.  In  the 
Irish  war  of  the  Revolution  thirteen  Londonderry 
apprentices  closed  its  gates  against  James  II.  ; 
and  the  townsfolk,  shouting  'No  surrender,' 
manned  the  walls.  The  105  days'  siege  that  then 
ensued,  from  April  to  August  1689,  is  one  of  the 
most  celebrated  events  in  Irish  history.  The 
walls  still  surround  a  part  of  the  town  one  mile 
in  circumference,  but  now  the  greater  part  of  the 
city  lies  outside  them.  The  left  bank  of  the 
river  is  connected  by  an  iron  bridge,  1200  feet  in 
length,  with  an  extensive  suburb  called  Water- 
side. The  Protestant  cathedral  dates  from  1633  ; 
it  was  restored  in  1886.  A  handsome  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  the  court-house,  guildhall 
(1890 ;  cost  £20,000),  harbour-offices,  post-office, 
custom-house,  and  banks  are  the  other  chief 
buildings.  The  siege  is  commemorated  by  a 
triumphal  arch— one  of  the  gates  of  the  city- 
erected  in  1789,  and  a  column  to  the  Rev. 
George  Walker,  who  was  the  soul  of  the  defence. 
The  Presbyterian  theological  Magee  College  was 
founded  in  1865.  The  industrial  establishments 
include  linen  (shirt-making)  factories,  distilleries, 
iron-foundries,  flour-mills,  and  shipbuilding- 
yards.  In  Lough  Foyle  are  valuable  salmon- 
fisheries.  The  harbour  is  deep,  extensive,  and 
safe.  The  imports  include  grain,  flour,  timber, 
and  spirits ;  the  exports  are  chiefly  agricultural 
produce.  Londonderry  returns  one  member.  See 
works  by  Hempton  (1861)  and  Dwyer  (1893). 

Long,  Loch,  a  beautiful  Scottish  sea-loch, 
striking  off"  from  the  Firth  of  Clyde  17  miles 
north-north-eastward  between  the  counties  of 
Argyll  and  Dumbarton,  and  3  furlongs  to  2  miles 
broad.  It  sends  oflT  Loch  Goil  (q.v.) ;  is  flanked 
by  steep  and  fantastic  mountains,  2000  feet  high  ; 
and  at  Arrochar,  near  its  head,  approaches  to 
within  1|  mile  of  Tarbet  on  Loch  Lomond.  A 
railway  (1889-94)  from  Helensburgh  to  Fort- 
William  skirts  its  eastern  shore.  Since  1862  the 
loch  has  been  defiled  with  the  dredgings  from 
the  Clyde  at  the  rate  of  1,250,000  tons  a  year. 

Long  Branch,  a  fashionable  bathing-place  of 
New  Jersey,  on  the  Atlantic,  30  miles  S.  of  New 
York,  and  13  S.  of  Sandy  Hook.    Pop.  9231. 

Longchamp,  the  racecourse,  on  the  SW.  side 
of  the  Bois  du  Boulogne,  to  the  W.  of  Paris, 
where  the  race  for  the  Grand  Prix  is  run. 

Long  Eaton,  a  Derbyshire  town,  8  miles  SSW. 
of  Nottingham.    Pop.  13,100. 

Longford,  an  inland  county  of  Leinster,  Ire- 
land, bounded  W.  by  the  Shannon  and  SW.  by 
Lough  Ree.  Its  maximum  length  is  29  miles, 
its  maximum  breadth  20.  Area,  421  sq.  m.  Pop. 
(1841)115,491;  (1901)  46,672,  of  whom  91-6  per  cent, 
were  Roman  Catholics.  The  surface  is  for  the 
most  part  flat,  and  the  soil  on  the  whole  fertile, 
though  extensive  tracts  of  bog  exist ;  51  per  cent, 
of  the  area  is  permanent  grass.  The  county  is 
studded  with  numerous  small  lakes,  and  is  crossed 
by  the  Royal  Canal.  It  returns  two  members 
to  parliament.  The  islands  of  Lough  Ree  are 
especially  rich  in  monastic  remains. — Longford, 
the  county  town,  on  the  river  Camlin  and  a 
branch  of  the  Royal  Canal,  76  miles  NW.  of 
Dublin  by  rail.  Its  best  building  is  the  new 
R.  C.  cathedral  (1840-93).    Pop.  3727. 


LOKG  ISLAND 


427 


LORim 


Long  Island,  an  island  which  forms  three 
counties  of  New  York  state,  bounded  by  Long 
Island  Sound,  the  Atlantic,  and  the  East  River 
(spanned  by  the  Brooklyn  suspension  bridge). 
It  is  115  miles  long,  12  to  24  wide,  and  1682 
sq.  m.  in  area.  On  its  south  shore  is  a  series  of 
lagoons,  the  largest  40  miles  long  and  5  or  6 
wide.  A  line  of  low  hills  rises  in  the  interior 
to  384  feet.  There  are  numerous  small  lakes  and 
watercourses,  and  market-gardening  is  carried  on 
with  success— for  the  most  part  by  Germans. 
But  much  of  the  island  is  waste  land  or  forest, 
and  such  popular  watering-places  as  Coney  Island 
are  planted  among  deserts  of  sand.  There  is  still 
some  game,  and  the  fisheries  and  oyster-beds  are 
very  valuable.  The  chief  towns  are  Brooklyn, 
Long  Island  City,  and  Flushing.  Creedmoor  is 
the  principal  American  rifle-range. 

LoNO  Island  Sound,  lying  between  Long 
Island  and  the  mainland  of  New  York  and  Con- 
necticut, is  from  2  to  20  miles  wide,  and  from  75 
to  about  200  feet  in  depth. 

Long  Island  City,  on  Long  Island,  separated 
from  New  York  City  by  the  East  River,  and  from 
Brooklyn  by  the  navigable  Newtown  Creek,  was 
formed  in  1870  from  live  villages.  Pop.  (1880) 
17,129  ;  (1900)  48,272.  It  is  now  included  in  the 
borough  of  Quefens,  New  York  City. 

Longjumeau  {Longzheemo'),  a  French  town  in 
Seine-et-Oise,  12  miles  SW.  of  Paris.    Pop.  2330. 

Longleat,  the  seat  of  the  Marquis  of  Bath,  in 
Wiltshire,  4^  miles  SW.  of  Warminster.  It  is 
one  of  the  noblest  Elizabethan  mansions  in  the 
kingdom,  with  a  fine  collection  of  portraits, 
memories  of  Bishop  Ken,  and  a  magnificent  park. 

Long  Melford.    See  Melford. 

Longridge,  a  small  manufacturing  town  of 
Lancashire,  6\  miles  by  rail  NB.  of  Preston,  on 
the  side  of  the  Longridge  Fell,  which  extends  5J 
miles  NE.  to  the  Yorkshire  boundary.  Here  are 
Preston  reservoirs  and  manufactures  of  cotton, 
nails,  &c.  Pop.  4301.  See  Tom  C.  Smith,  History 
of  Longridge  (Preston,  1889). 

Longton,  a  municipal  borough  of  Staffordshire, 
at  the  southern  extremity  of  the  Potteries,  2J 
miles  SE.  of  Stoke-upon-Trent,  and  included 
within  its  parliamentary  boundary.  It  was  in- 
corporated as  a  municipal  borough  in  1865.  The 
prosperity  of  the  town  is  due  to  the  manufacture 
of  china  and  earthenware,  though  malting,  brew- 
ing, and  brick-making  are  also  carried  on.  Close 
by  are  ironworks  and  collieries.  Pop.  (1851) 
15,149;  (1881)  18,620;  (1901)85,815,  the  borough 
having  been  extended  in  1883. 

Longtown,  a  town  of  Cumberland,  on  the  Esk, 
8J  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Carlisle.  Pop.  of  Arthuret 
parish,  in  which  it  is  situated,  2439. 

Longwood.    See  St  Helena. 

Longwy  {Long-wee'),  a  small  town  in  the  ex- 
treme north  of  the  French  dep.  of  Meurthe-et- 
Moselle,  18  miles  WSW.  of  Luxemburg.  Its 
fortress  capitulated  to  the  Prussians  in  1792, 1815, 
and  1871.     Pop.  7448. 

Lons-le-Saunier  (Lons-le-Soan-yay'),  capital  of 
the  French  dep.  of  the  Jura,  stands  in  a  basin 
of  the  Jura,  Mountains,  surrounded  with  vine- 
clad  hills,  42  miles  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Ch&lon-sur- 
Saone.  It  was  founded  in  the  4th  century,  when 
its  salt-springs  were  discovered  ;  these  are  still 
in  use  for  bathing,  and  salt  is  manufactured. 
Population,  10,500.  Rouget  de  Lisle,  the  author 
of  tlie  Marseillaise,  was  born  here. 

Loochoo  (otherwise  Liukiu  or  Riu  Kiu),  a  group 
Of  thirty-seven  Japanese  ialands.     The  islands 


extend  SW.  about  halfway  from  Kyushu  in  Japan 
towards  Formosa.  Their  aggregate  area  is  1863 
sq.  m.,  and  the  pop.  is  160,000.  China  has  made 
a  claim  upon  the  islands,  but  they  are  essentially 
Japanese.  Oshima  possesses  a  good  harbour,  but 
Nafa,  the  port  of  Shinri,  capital  of  Okinawa,  is 
an  unsafe  anchorage.  Sugar  is  largely  raised, 
also  tlie  sago-palm,  and  an  aromatic  orange. 

Loodiana.    See  Ludhiana. 

Looe,  East  and  West,  Cornish  fishing-towns 
on  Looe  Bay,  on  either  side  of  the  Looe  stream, 
15  miles  W.  of  Plymouth.  The  population  of  tlie 
urban  district  of  Looe  is  2700. 

Lookout  Mountain,  a  ridge  extending  from 
near  Chattanooga,  in  Tennessee,  across  the  nortlir 
west  corner  of  Georgia,  and  into  Alabama,  and 
rising  to  1600  feet  above  the  Tennessee  River.  It 
was  carried  by  General  Hooker  in  the  battle  of 
24th  November  1863. 

Lorca,  a  town  of  Spain,  86  miles  SW,  of  Murcia. 
The  gloomy  Moorish  part  is  picturesquely  situ- 
ated on  an  eminence  crowned  by  a  castle,  whilst 
the  modern  town  spreads  out  on  the  fertile  plain. 
Here  are  saltpetre,  gunpowder,  and  lead-smelting 
works,  and  manufactures  of  cloth,  with  neigh- 
bouring silver  and  sulphur  mines.    Pop.  68,239. 

Lord  Howe  Islands,  a  main  island,  5  sq.  m.  in 
extent,  with  some  small  islets,  lying  in  the 
Pacific  in  31°  33'  S.  lat.  and  159°  5'  E,  long.,  300 
miles  E.  of  Port  Macquarie  in  New  South  Wales. 
It  was  discovered  by  Lieutenant  Ball  in  1788, 
colonised  in  1840,  and  is  attached  administra- 
tively to  New  South  Wales.  It  consists  of  three 
volcanic  ridges,  rising  to  2840  feet,  and  is  cres- 
centic  in  sliape.  Pop.  50.— A  group  of  the 
Solomon  Islands  bears  the  same  name ;  and  a 
Lord  Howe's  Island  is  one  of  the  Society  Isles. 

Lorelei  (Lo-re-W),  or  Lurlei,  a  rock  rising  427 
feet  perpendicularly  from  the  Rhine,  near  St 
Goar.  It  used  to  be  dangerous  to  boatmen 
(through  the  fascinations  of  a  siren,  according  to 
Heine's  famous  song),  and  has  a  celebrated  echo. 

Lorenzo  Mar'ques,  a  Portuguese  station  on 
Delagoa  Bay  (q.v.),  E.  Africa.  Pop.  about  6500, 
of  whom  3500  are  Europeans. 

Lore'to,  an  interior  dep.  of  Peru,  watered  for 
thousands  of  miles  by  the  Maranon  and  its  tribu- 
taries. Area,  33,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  100,000.  The 
capital  is  Iquitos. 

Loretto  (properly  Loreto),  a  city  of  Italy,  3 
miles  from  the  Adriatic,  and  15  by  rail  SSE.  from 
Ancona.  It  has  a  royal  palace  (designed  by 
Braniante) ;  but  is  chiefly  noticeable  as  the  site 
of  the  Santa  Casa,  or  Holy  House,  reputed  to  be 
the  house  in  which  the  Virgin  lived  in  Nazareth. 
It  was  miraculously  translated,  first  in  1291  to 
the  neighbourhood  of  Fiume  in  Dalmatia,  thence 
in  1294  to  a  wood  near  Recanati  in  Italy,  and 
finally  to  its  present  site  in  1295.  Pop.  7134.— See 
also  Musselburgh. 

L'Orlent  (Lor-yon^'),  a  seaport  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Morbihan,  116  miles  by  rail  NW.  of 
Nantes,  with  a  deep  and  spacious  harbour.  It 
was  founded  in  1664  by  the  French  East  India 
Company  ;  but,  after  the  ruin  of  their  trade  by 
the  English,  their  plant  was  acquired  by  the 
government,  who  since  1815  have  made  L'Orient 
the  principal  naval  shipbuilding-yard  in  France. 
The  inhabitants  are  also  engaged  in  fishing  (espe- 
cially sardines).  Pop.  (1872)  30,928 ;  (1901)  39,781. 
Off  this  port  a  British  fleet  defeated  a  French 
one,  23d  June  1795. 

Lome,  a  district  of  Argyllshire,  between  Locha 
Leven  and  Awe. 


LORRAINE 


428 


LOUISIANA 


Lorraine.    See  Alsace-Lorraine. 

Los  Angeles  (Los  An'je-les),  a  city  of  California, 
capital  of  Los  Angeles  county,  483  miles  SE.  of 
San  Francisco  by  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  western 
states,  and  was  already  a  thriving  place  when 
the  Franciscan  fathers  established  a  mission  here 
in  1781 ;  its  full  name  being  Pueblo  de  la  Reina 
de  las  Angeles.  In  1835-47  it  was  the  capital  of 
the  state  of  California.  To-day  it  possesses  a 
handsome  opera-house,  the  University  of  south- 
ern California,  a  magnificent  observatory,  a 
R  C.  cathedral,  fine  botanic  gardens,  &c.  Pop. 
(1870)  5728  ;  (1900)  102,479,  tlie  Spanish  forming 
only  an  insignificant  minority.  Los  Angeles  is 
the  centre  of  the  orange-growing  industry,  and 
in  the  city  alone  are  two  reservoirs,  with  a 
capacity  of  850,000  gallons,  used  solely  for  irriga- 
tion. The  chief  occupation  is  the  cultivation 
and  export  of  oranges,  grapes,  &c. ,  as  well  as  the 
manufacture  of  wine.  Many  invalids  resort  to 
Los  Angeles  in  the  winter.  See  California  of  the 
South,  by  Lindley  and  Widney  (1888). 

Lossiemouth,  an  Elginshire  seaport,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Lossie  (31  miles  long),  5^  miles 
NNB.  of  Elgin.  Its  liarbour  was  formed  in  1837- 
39,  and  deepened  and  improved  in  1852  and  1893. 
Po]).  398(5,  of  whom  2086  were  in  the  adjoining 
village  of  Branderburgh  (founded  1830). 

Lostwithiel  (Los'withiel),  a  Cornish  mining- 
town  and  municipal  borough  (1885),  on  the  Fowey, 
5  miles  SSE.  of  Bodmin.     Pop.  1339. 

Lot  (Lot'),  a  dep.  in  the  south  of  France,  formed 
out  of  tlie  old  province  of  Guienne,  and  com- 
prising the  arrondissements  of  Cahors  (the  cap- 
ital), Gourdon,  and  Figeac,  is  watered  by  the 
Dordogne  and  the  Lot — the  latter  (anc.  Oltis) 
one  of  the  largest  tributaries  (300  miles)  of  the 
Garonne,  which  rises  in  Mount  Lozere  in  the 
Cevennes.  Area,  2012  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1872)  281,404 ; 
(1901)  226,720. 

Lot-et-Garonne  (Lo-tay-Garonn'),  a  dep.  of  SW. 
France,  formed  out  of  the  old  provinces  of  Guienne 
and  Gascony.  It  comprises  the  arrondissements 
of  Agen,  Villeneuve,  Marmande,  and  Nerac,  and 
is  watered  by  the  Garonne  and  its  tributaries  the 
Gers  and  Lot.  Area,  2067  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1841) 
347,073 ;  (1901)  278,740. 

Lothian,  the  whole  territory  anciently  between 
the  Tweed  and  the  Firth  of  Forth,  which,  from 
547  a  portion  of  Bernicia  or  North urabria,  was  not 
finally  annexed  to  Scotland  till  1018.  The  name 
is  now  restricted  to  Haddington,  Edinburgh,  and 
Linlithgow  shires,  which  are  called  respectively 
East,  Mid,  and  West  Lothian. 

Lothringen.     See  Alsace-Lorraine. 

Loudoun  (Low' don — ow  as  in  now),  an  Ayrshire 
parish,  7i  niiles  E.  by  S.  of  Kilmarnoclc,  with 
the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Loudoun,  and  with  conical 
Loudoun  Hill  (1034  feet),  where  Bruce  routed  the 
English  in  1307. 

Loughborough  (Luff'boroitgh)  a  municipal  bor- 
ough, incorporated  in  1888,  of  Leicestershire,  11 
miles  NNW.  of  Leicester.  The  Decorated  parish 
church  dates  from  the  14th  century,  but  has  a 
Perpendicular  tower.  There  are  a  grammar- 
school  (1495),  a  girls'  grammar-school  (1849),  and  a 
free  library  (1885).  Hosiery  is  the  staple  manu- 
facture ;  and  bell-founding  was  introduced  in  1840, 
the  great  bell  of  St  Paul's  being  cast  here  in  1881. 
Other  industries  are  dyeing,  brick-making,  and 
the  manufacture  of  machinery.  John  Howe  was 
a  native,  and  Chancellor  Wedderburn  took  hence 
his  title  Lord  Loughborough.    Pop.  (1851)  10,900 ; 


(1901)  25,508.  See  Dimock-Fletcher's  two  mono- 
graphs (1883). 

Loughor,  a  town  of  Glamorganshire,  on  the 
Loughor  River,  7  miles  WNW.  of  Swansea.  It 
is  one  of  the  Swansea  (q.v.)  district  boroughs. 
Pop.  2564. 

Loughrea',  a  market-town  in  County  Galway, 
on  a  little  fresh- water  lake,  17  miles  SW.  of  Bal- 
linasloe.  It  has  ruins  of  a  castle  and  Carmelite 
monastery,  both  of  about  1300.    Pop.  2515. 

Loughton  (Low'tun),  an  Essex  town,  4  miles 
SSW.  of  Epping.     Pop.  of  parish,  4880. 

Louisburg,  a  decayed  fishing-village  near  the 
E.  point  of  Cape  Breton  Island,  Nova  Scotia. 
There  are  the  ruins  of  the  old  town,  which  was 
the  strongest  French  fortress  in  North  America, 
imtil  taken  by  Wolfe  in  1758. 

Louisiade  Archipelago  (Looizidd),  a  British 
group  of  islands,  forming  an  eastward  extension 
of  New  Guinea.  It  embraces  Sudest  (45  miles 
long  by  4  to  10  miles  wide),  Rossel,  St  Aignan's 
(28  miles  long),  and  a  vast  number  of  smaller 
islands.  All  are  mountainous,  rising  to  3500  in 
St  Aignan's,  and  covered  with  vegetation. 

Louisiana  (Looiziah'na),  one  of  the  Gulf  states 
of  the  American  Union,  extends  200  miles  from 
N.  to  S.  and  290  from  E.  to  W.  Its  land  area, 
including  the  marshes  bordering  on  the  Gulf, 
is  40,790  sq.  m.  ;  its  inland  waters  cover  2328 
sq.  m.  ;  total  area,  43,118  sq.  m.  This  area  is 
divided  nearly  equally  between  alluvial  lands 
and  uplands.  The  mean  elevation  above  sea- 
level  is  75  feet,  the  highest  point  484  feet.  For 
25  miles  inland  from  the  Gulf,  marshes  subject 
to  tidal  flow  cover  one-eighth  of  the  state's  entire 
surface ;  low,  .sandy  pine  flats  and  prairie  lands 
occupy  about  one-eighteenth  each,  arable  lands 
one-eighth,  the  flood-plains  near  the  rivers  one- 
tenth,  and  bluff  lands,  pine  hills,  and  uplands 
more  than  one-fifth  each.  Most  of  the  large 
rivers  flow  above  the  level  of  the  surrounding 
country  on  ridges  formed  by  tlieir  own  de- 
posits, and  the  plains  around,  protected  by  dykes 
(called  levees),  slope  away  into  dense,  wooded 
swamps.  The  bottom-lands  of  the  Mississippi 
are  from  20  to  70  miles  in  breadth,  those  of  the 
Red,  Ouachita,  and  other  streams  range  from 
6  to  20  miles.  The  uplands  embrace  all  the 
northern  and  north-eastern  parts  of  tlie  state, 
inclining  gently  towards  the  south,  and  crossing 
these  are  bluff  lands,  extending  through  the 
alluvial  lands  to  the  Gulf,  and  forming  wonder- 
ful 'islands'  covered  with  vegetation.  Nor  is 
the  immense  plain  surrounding  these  bluffs  ever 
inundated,  but  elevated  and  fertile,  traversed 
by  deep  '  bayous ' — minor  and  tributary  streams. 
Even  in  the  coast  marshes  occasionally  an  island- 
hill  rises,  with  soil  firm  and  fertile  ;  and  at  other 
points  cattle  graze,  whilst  thousands  of  acres 
yearly  are  being  drained  and  reclaimed  and 
planted  with  rice.  Besides  the  Mississippi  the 
chief  rivers  are  the  Red,  Sabine,  Ouachita,  and 
Pearl ;  there  are  also  several  lakes.  The  forests 
are  dense  with  trees — pine,  cypress,  oaks,  cotton- 
wood,  magnolia,  poplar,  beech,  &c.  Fruits  are 
abundant,  oranges  and  figs  the  most  important. 
The  staple  crops  are  cotton,  sugar,  rice,  and 
maize.  The  principal  manufactures  are  shingles 
and  tanks,  cotton-seed  oil,  machinery,  tobacco, 
and  clothing  and  boots  and  shoes  (by  machinery), 
besides  the  cleaning  and  polishing  of  rice  and 
the  refining  of  sugar  and  molasses.  The  only 
mineral  of  importance  is  rock-salt,  which  is 
found  in  inexhaustible  quantity  at  Petit  Anse 
on  Avery's  Island ;  but  hematite  iron  ore  and 


LOUISVILLE 


429 


LOWELL 


sulphur  have  also  been  discovered,  besides  lig- 
nite. The  principal  city  is  New  Orleans  (pop. 
287,500),  the  next  in  size,  Shreveport,  having 
only  1G,020  inhabitants,  and  Baton  Rouge  (the 
capital)  11,270.  The  population  is  very  mixed. 
The  negroes  in  the  country  disti'icts  are  some- 
what in  excess  of  the  whites,  of  whom  many 
are  of  French  (called  Creoles),  German,  or  Irish 
descent,  and  some  of  Spanish  and  Italian.  In 
most  of  the  southern  parishes  French  is  spoken  ; 
and  Spanish  also  is  still  used  in  a  few  places. 
Pop.  (1820)  153,407  ;  (1860)  708,002  ;  (1880)  939,946  ; 
(1900)  1,381,625.  Louisiana  was  so  named  by  La 
Salle  in  1682  in  honour  of  Louis  XIV.  ;  was  ceded 
to  Spain  in  1762,  and  retroceded  to  France  in 
1800  ;  was  sold  by  Napoleon  to  the  United  States 
for  $12,000,000  in  1803 ;  and  was  admitted  as  a 
state  in  1812.  See  the  History  of  Louisiana  by 
C.  Gayarre  (3d  ed.  4  vols.  1885). 

Louisville  {Loo'i-vil  or  Loo'is-vil),  the  largest 
city  of  Kentucky,  a  port  of  entry  and  capital  of 
Jefferson  county,  is  situated  on  the  Ohio,  130 
miles  below  Cincinnati.  The  river  here  forms  a 
series  of  rapids,  descending  22  feet  in  2  miles ; 
except  during  floods  steamboats  pass  these  by  a 
canal.  The  city  is  handsomely  built,  with  wide 
and  regular  streets,  on  a  plain  sloping  up  from 
the  river.  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral, 
a  law  school,  four  medical  colleges,  colleges  of 
dentistry  and  of  pharmacy,  the  state  institution 
for  the  blind,  &c.  Louisville  is  the  greatest 
market  for  tobacco  in  the  world,  and  has  large 
pork-packing  establishments,  distilleries,  and 
tanneries,  with  manufactures  of  ploughs,  furni- 
ture, castings,  gas  and  water  pipes,  machinery, 
flour,  and  cement.  The  city  is  the  terminus  of 
a  number  of  railway  lines ;  the  Ohio  is  crossed 
here  by  two  railway  bridges,  one  of  them  nearly 
a  mile  long.  Louisville  was  founded  in  1778, 
and  in  1780  named  in  honour  of  Louis  XVI.  of 
Fi'ance,  whose  troops  were  then  assisting  the 
Americans.  A  great  part  of  the  town,  including 
the  tobacco-market  and  the  city-hall,  was  des- 
troyed by  a  cyclone  on  27th  March  1890.  General 
Zachary  Taylor  is  buried  close  by.  Pop.  (1880) 
123,758  ;  (1890)  161,005  ;  (1900)  204,731. 

Loul6  {Loo'lay),  a  toAvn  in  the  S.  of  Portugal, 
10  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Faro  (on  the  coast).  It  is 
surrounded  by  old  Moorish  walls.     Pop.  24,448. 

Lourdes  (Loord),  a  place  of  pilgrimage  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Hautes  Pyrenees,  12  miles  SSW. 
of  Tarbes  by  rail ;  pop.  9182.  The  town  nestles 
at  the  foot  of  a  high  isolated  rock  rising  in  a 
plain  which  is  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  foot- 
hills of  the  PjTenees.  Here,  in  a  niche  above  a 
cave,  the  Blessed  Virgin  is  said  to  have  appeared 
on  11th  February  1858  to  a  poor  girl  fourteen 
years  old,  called  Bernadette  Soubirous ;  the 
apparition  was  seventeen  times  repeated  during 
the  succeeding  six  months.  A  spring  rising  from 
the  spot,  which  was  hitherto  unknown  to  exist, 
was  endowed  with  miraculous  powers ;  and  many 
miracles  were  reported.  A  great  basilica  (1876) 
now  marks  the  spot,  and  on  a  level  with  its 
crypt  has  been  added  the  church  of  the  Rosary 
(1889)  for  the  accommodation  of  the  pilgrims. 

Louth  (hard  th,  as  in  loth),  a  municipal  borough 
of  Lincolnshire,  on  the  rivulet  Lud,  at  the  foot 
of  the  Wolds,  27  miles  BNE.  of  Lincoln,  contains 
a  beautiful  parish  church  in  the  Perpendicular 
style,  built  in  th«  13th  and  rebuilt  in  the  15th 
century,  with  an  octagonal  spire  (1501)  288  feet 
in  height,  'one  of  the  noblest  in  England,'  and 
an  Edward  VI.  grammar-school,  pupils  of  which 
have  been  Tennyson,  Franklin,  and  Hobart  Pasha. 


Ruins  of  Louth  Park  Abbey,  built  by  the  Cister- 
cians in  1139,  exist  1^  mile  E.  of  the  town.  Iron- 
foundries,  carpet-factories,  breweries,  and  car- 
riage-works are  in  operation.  Louth  is  connected 
with  the  Humber  by  a  canal,  dug  in  1761.  Pop. 
(1851)  10,467  ;  (1901)  9518.  See  Goulding's  Loutk 
Corporation  Records  (1892). 

Louth  (soft  th,  as  in  loathe),  a  maritime  county 
of  Leinster,  the  smallest  in  Ireland,  is  washed 
for  49  miles  on  the  east,  from  Carlingford  Lough 
to  the  Boyne,  by  the  Irish  Sea.  The  average 
width  is  10  miles.  Pop.  (1841)  128,240;  (1901) 
65,741.  Its  area  is  202,123  acres,  of  which  40  per 
cent,  is  under  grass.  The  surface  is  flat,  except 
for  a  range  on  the  north,  which  culminates 
in  Carlingford  Mountain  (1935  feet),  overlooking 
Carlingford  Lough.  Coarse  linens  are  manu- 
factured. The  fisheries  are  valuable,  especially 
the  oyster-fishing  in  Carlingford  Lough.  The 
chief  towns  are  Drogheda,  Dundalk,  and  Ardee. 
There  are  two  round-towers,  at  Monasterboice 
and  at  Dromiskin.  At  Mellifont  is  a  beautiful 
ruined  abbey.  In  Drogheda  other  ruined  abbeys 
are  still  visible,  as  also  at  Louth  and  Carlingford. 
But  the  most  interesting  of  all  the  relics  of 
antiquity  are  the  sculptured  crosses  of  Monaster- 
boice, the  largest  18  feet  high.  The  county 
returns  two  members. 

Louvaln  (Loo-vavP ;  Ger.  Lowen,  Flemish  Leu- 
ven),  a  city  in  the  Belgian  province  of  Brabant, 
19  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Brussels.  In  the  14th  cen- 
tury it  was  rich,  prosperous,  and  large  (200,000 
inhabitants),  due  to  its  cloth  manufactures  and 
its  position  as  the  capital  of  Brabant  (from  994). 
In  1382  the  townsmen  revolted  against  their 
rulers,  and  the  harsh  punishment  meted  out  to 
them  drove  large  numbers  away  to  England. 
The  town  was  the  seat  of  a  celebrated  university 
(1426-1797),  with  6000  students  in  the  16th  cen- 
tury. Reconstituted  in  1817,  it  is  still  a  Roman 
Catholic  university,  with  about  1600  students, 
and  a  library  of  250,000  volumes.  A  severe  blow 
was  struck  at  Louvain's  prosperity  by  the  plague 
in  the  16th  century.  The  modern  industry  is 
confined  chiefly  to  bell-founding,  brewing,  and 
the  manufacture  of  leather,  paper,  lace,  starch, 
and  chemicals.  The  town-house  is  a  fine  Gothic 
building  (1448-69) ;  the  church  of  St  Peter  has  a 
beautiful  flamboyant  rood-loft,  a  wrought-iron 
chandelier  by  Quentin  Matsys,  and  some  good 
pictures;  in  St  Gertrude's  Church  are  exquisite 
carved  oak  stalls.  The  Weavers'  Hall  (1317)  was 
appropriated  by  the  university  in  1679.  Pop. 
(1877)  33,917  ;  (1900)  42,308. 

Louviers  (Loov-yay'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Eure,  16  miles  S.  of  Rouen,  has  a  Gothic 
cathedral  (13-1 5th  c),  and  celebrated  cloth  (since 
1681)  and  ticking  manufactures.    Pop.  9973. 

Lovedale,  an  important  educational  and  mis- 
sion station  in  the  eastern  part  of  Cape  Colony, 
40  miles  W.  of  King  William's  Town.  It  was 
founded  in  1841,  and  has  been  generously  sup- 
ported by  the  Free  Church  of  Scotland. 

Low  Archipelago,  the  most  easterly  group  of 
Polynesian  islands,  known  also  as  Paumotu, 
Tuamotu,  Pearl  or  Dangerous  Islands.  They  are 
about  eighty  in  number,  very  flat  and  thinly 
peopled  (8000  in  all),  and  surrounded  by  coral 
atolls.  Since  1846  they  are  under  a  French  pro- 
tectorate. There  are  rich  pearl-fisheries. 
Low  Countries.  See  Holland,  Belgium. 
Lowell,  a  manufacturing  city  of  Massachusetts, 
on  the  Merrimac  River  (mostly  on  the  south 
bank),  25  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Boston.     The  site  is 


LOWESTOFT 


430 


LUCE  BAY 


uneven  and  hilly,  and  the  river  falls  33  feet, 
affording  great  hydraulic  power.  There  are  many 
large  cotton  and  woollen  factories ;  2,500,000 
yards  of  cotton  are  produced  here  in  a  week. 
Among  the  other  manufactures  are  leather,  paper, 
and  iron  goods,  chemicals,  carriages,  &c.  Lowell 
was  incorporated  in  1826.  The  operatives  were 
for  years  gathered  from  the  rural  districts  fifty 
or  a  hundred  miles  round,  and  lived  in  boarding- 
houses  owned  by  the  corporations,  and  kept 
under  strict  management.  Foreign  emigration 
has  brought  a  large  resident  manufacturing  popu- 
lation. Evening  and  technical  schools,  reading- 
rooms,  a  free  library,  and  lectureships  are  main- 
tained, and  unusual  attention  is  paid  to  the  well- 
being  of  the  work-people.  The  painter  Whistler 
was  a  native.     Pop.  (1880)  59,485  ;  (1900)  94,970, 

Lowestoft  (Loa'stoff),  a  municipal  borough  and 
seaport  on  the  Suffolk  coast,  118  miles  NE.  of 
London  by  rail  and  49  NNB.  of  Ipswich,  has  of 
late  years  rapidly  grown  in  favour  as  a  watering- 
place,  its  healthfulness  and  the  picturesqueness 
of  its  neighbourhood,  combined  Avith  its  easy 
means  of  access  to  the  Broads  (q.v.),  all  tending 
to  its  popularity.  The  older  part  of  the  town, 
which  lies  to  the  north,  is  built  on  a  cliff  facing 
the  sea,  on  its  summit  being  a  lighthouse  (1874) 
123  feet  above  the  sea-level,  whilst  at  its  base, 
on  the  Ness— the  most  easterly  point  of  land  in 
England— stands  another  lighthouse  (1866).  The 
modern  part  of  the  town,  whicli  has  a  fine  esplan- 
ade 800  yards  long,  extends  southwards  into  the 
parish  of  Kirkley,  and  is  separated  from  the  old 
town  by  the  harbour,  formed  partly  by  two  piers 
extending  seawards  1300  feet,  and  partly  by  Lake 
Lothing,  a  piece  of  water  stretching  inland  two 
miles  :  adjoining  the  harbour  is  a  dock  (1883) 
with  a  depth  of  water  at  low  tide  of  13J  feet,  and 
extensive  fish-markets  (1865-83),  the  property  of 
the  Great  Eastern  Railway.  On  the  new  South 
Pier  is  a  splendid  pavilion,  opened  in  1890.  Other 
features  of  interest  in  the  town  include  the  parish 
church  (of  which  Whiston,  the  mathematician, 
and  Potter,  the  translator  of  Greek  plays,  were 
former  vicars),  183  feet  in  length,  and  surmounted 
by  a  tower  and  spire  120  feet  high,  dating  from 
the  first  half  of  the  14th  century ;  town-hall 
(1857),  noticeable  for  its  stained-glass  windows ; 
hospital  (1882) ;  and  Bellevue  Park  (1874),  not  far 
from  which  was  found  the  clay  formerly  used  in 
making  Lowestoft  china.  The  principal  incidents 
in  the  history  of  the  town  have  been  visitations 
of  the  plague  in  1349,  1547,  1579,  and  1603 ;  its 
occupation  in  1643  by  Cromwell ;  its  partial 
destruction  by  fire  in  1644 ;  and  a  great  naval 
defeat  of  the  Dutch  off  the  coast  on  the  3d  June 
1665.  Pop.  (1841)  5304  ;  (1901)  29,842.  See  works 
by  Gillingwater  (1790)  and  Nail  (1866). 

Lowther,  a  Westmorland  stream,  flowing  17 
miles  to  the  Eamont  (a  tributary  of  the  Eden),  at 
Brougham  Castle.  Lowther  Castle  (1810),  4  miles 
S.  of  Penrith,  is  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Lonsdale. 

Lozere  (Lozehr'),  a  dep.  in  the  south  of  France, 
derives  its  name  from  Mont  Lozere,  one  of  the 
summits  of  the  Cevennes.  It  comprises  the 
arrondissements  of  Mende  (the  capital).  Florae, 
and  Marvejols.  Area,  1996  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872) 
135,190;  (1901)  128,866.  The  dep.  forms  the 
south-east  extremity  of  the  central  uplands  of 
France,  and  embraces  the  highest  peaks  of  the 
Cevennes  (Pic  de  Finiels,  5584  feet). 

Lualaba.    See  Congo. 

Liibeck,  a  free  city  of  Germany,  the  fonner 
head  of  the  Hanseatic  League,  and  now  an  im- 
portant shipping  town,  stands  on  the  river  Trave, 


12  miles  from  the  Baltic,  and  40  by  rail  NE.  of 
Hamburg.  This  city  was  founded  1143 ;  Henry 
the  Lion,  Duke  of  Saxony,  gave  it  a  charter, 
and  built  the  cathedral.  Frederick  Barbarossa 
greatly  enlarged  its  privileges,  and  Frederick  II. 
made  it  a  free  city  of  the  empire.  The  city  be- 
came the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  Baltic  and 
northern  Europe,  but  decayed  with  the  other 
Hanseatic  cities.  Full  administrative  rights  were 
not  conferred  upon  the  burghers  until  1848  ;  now 
the  constitution,  embracing  a  senate  (14  mem- 
bers) and  a  representative  assembly  (120  mem- 
bers), is  thoroughly  democratic.  The  French 
held  Liibeck  almost  uninterruptedly  from  1806 
to  1815.  In  1866  it  joined  the  North  German 
Confederation.  Liibeck  possesses  115  sq.  m.  of 
territory,  including  the  port  of  Travemiinde, 
near  the  river's  mouth.  The  industries  include 
the  manufacture  of  cigars  and  vinegar,  brewing, 
brandy-distilling,  soap-boiling,  and  iron-founding. 
Liibeck  is  the  great  centre  for  trade  between 
Hamburg,  Germany,  and  the  Baltic  countries. 
The  imports  reach  an  annual  value  of  about  9J 
millions,  and  the  exports  of  8  millions— mostly 
transit  business.  The  port  is  entered  annually 
by  some  2300  vessels  of  443,000  tons.  The  Trave 
was  deepened  to  15  feet  in  1878-82.  The  churches 
include  St  Mary's  (1170  ;  rebuilt  1276-1310),  with 
two  towers  407  feet  high ;  the  cathedral  (1173 — 
14th  c),  with  a  tower  394  feet  high  ;  St  James's, 
built  before  1227,  and  St  Peter's,  before  1163. 
The  town-house  is  the  most  notable  secular  build- 
ing. There  are  a  school  of  navigation,  a  library 
of  98,000  vols.,  ethnographic,  antiquarian,  zoo- 
logical, and  art  collections,  &c.  Pop.  (1875)  44,799 ; 
(1900)  82,089,  besides  15,000  outside  tlie  city. 

Lublin,  the  capital  of  a  Polish  government,  on 
a  sub-tributary  of  the  Vistula,  96  miles  by  rail 
SE.  of  Warsaw.  It  has  a  13th-century  cathedral, 
and  was  plundered  by  the  Mongols  in  1240,  1344, 
and  1477.  From  the  end  of  the  14th  to  that  of 
the  16th  c.  it  was  the  chief  commercial  town 
between  the  Vistula  and  the  Dnieper.  There  are 
manufactures  of  tobacco,  beer,  candles,  soap, 
&c.,  and  a  large  trade  in  corn  and  wool.  The 
population  is  over  50,000.— Area  of  government, 
6497  sq.  m.  ;  pop,  1,165,000. 

Lubnaig,  Loch,  a  Perthshire  loch  (4  miles  x 
3  furlongs  ;  405  feet),  3|  miles  NW.  of  Callander. 

Lucan,  a  village  on  the  Liffey,  9  miles  W.  of 
Dublin.    Pop.  874, 

Lucania,  a  province  of  ancient  Italy,  south- 
east of  Calabria,  and  bordering  on  the  Gulf  of 
Tarentum.  It  corresponds  nearly  to  the  present 
province  of  Potenza  and  part  of  Salerno. 

Lucca  (Look'ka ;  anc.  Luca),  chief  town  of  an 
Italian  province,  is  situated  in  a  plain,  bounded 
by  picturesque  hills  and  watered  by  the  Serchio, 
14  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Pisa.  'Lucca  the  Indus- 
trious' has  a  great  trade  in  olive-oil  and  silk. 
The  cathedral,  begun  in  1063,  has  a  cedar  crucifix 
reputed  to  have  been  brought  hither  in  782. 
There  are  nearly  forty  other  churches,  some 
dating  from  the  7th  and  8th  centuries.  A  splen- 
did aqueduct  (1820)  supplies  the  town  with  Avater 
from  the  Pisan  hills.  The  municipal  buildings 
(1578)  contain  valuable  paintings.  Lucca  was  a 
bishopric  as  early  as  347,  and  in  1726  Avas  made 
an  archbishopric.  The  environs  abound  in  de- 
lightful villas.  In  a  charming  valley,  16  miles 
N.,  are  the  mineral  baths  of  Lucca  (96°  to  136° 
F.),  which  have  been  famous  since  the  15th  cen- 
tury.   Pop.  72,970. 

Luce  Bay,  Wigtownshire,  measures  18^  mileg 


LUCENA 


431 


LUGAB 


from  the  Mull  of  Galloway  to  Burrow  Head,  and 
penetrates  16  miles. 

Lucena  {Loo-thay'na\  a  town  of  Spain,  36  miles 
8.  by  E.  of  Cordova.    Pop.  21,500. 

Lucera  (Loo-tcliay'ra ;  anc.  Luceria),  a  town  of 
southern  Italy,  12  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Foggia, 
has  a  cathedral  (1302),  and  a  ruined  castle  of 
Frederick  II.     Pop.  17,067. 

Lucerne  (usu.  Loo-senV;  Ger.  Luzern),  the 
capital  of  a  Swiss  canton,  59  miles  SE.  of  Basel, 
147  SSE.  of  Strasburg,  and  177  NNW.  of  Milan 
by  the  St  Gothard  railway.  It  is  beautifully 
situated  where  the  Reuss  issues  from  the  Lake 
of  Lucerne,  opposite  Mount  Pilatus,  and  is  partly 
surrounded  (on  the  north)  with  mediaeval  toAvers. 
On  a  rock  in  the  Reuss  is  an  old  tower,  said  to 
have  been  a  lighthouse  (lucerna)  in  Roman  times, 
whence  the  name  of  the  town.  Outside  one  of 
the  gates  is  the  Lion  of  Lucerne,  hewn  (1821)  out 
of  the  solid  rock  after  a  model  by  Thorwaldsen, 
a  monument  to  the  Swiss  guards  who  perished 
at  the  Tuileries  in  1792.  Near  by  is  the  Glacier 
Garden,  with  rocks  illustrating  the  action  of  ice. 
Pop.  29,461.— The  canton  has  an  area  of  579  sq. 
m.  and  a  pop.  (1888)  of  135,722,  mainly  Catholic. 
The  highest  point  is  6998  feet,  a  peak  of  Mount 
Pilatus. 

The  Lake  of  Lucerne,  called  also  Vierwald- 
stcittersee  ('  Lake  of  the  Four  Forest  Cantons  '— 
Uri,  Unterwalden,  Schwyz,  and  Lucerne),  is  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  in  Europe.  In  shape  it 
resembles  a  cross  with  a  crumpled  stem  ;  its 
shores  are  mostly  steep  and  rocky.  Length  from 
Lucerne  to  Fliielen,  23  miles  ;  average  breadth, 
1^  mile ;  area,  44  sq.  m.  ;  greatest  depth,  702 
feet.    The  lake  is  associated  with  William  Tell. 

Luckenwalde  {Look'envalda),  a  town  of  Prussia, 
81  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Berlin.    Pop.  28,400. 

Lucknow  (Ldkhnao),  capital  of  the  province 
of  Oudh,  and  the  fourth  largest  city  in  India, 
stands  on  the  river  Gumti,  42  miles  by  rail  NE. 
of  Cawnpore  and  199  NW.  of  Benares.  The 
appearance  of  magnificence  and  splendour  which 
the  city  presents  when  seen  from  the  oiitside  is 
not  borne  out  by  close  internal  inspection, 
though  a  vast  improvement  has  been  effected 
since  the  Mutiny.  The  chief  architectural  glory 
of  the  place  is  the  Iinambara  or  mausoleum  of 
Asaf-ud-Daula,  the  fourth  Nawab,  who  did  much 
to  embellish  Lucknow.  This  edifice,  built  in 
1784,  stands  within  the  Machi  Bhawan  fort  (built 
by  Asaf  s  predecessor),  and  is  now  converted  into 
a  British  arsenal.  The  Riimi  Dorwaza,  a  grand 
and  massive  gateway,  leading  out  of  the  fort,  the 
magnificent  Residency  palace,  and  the  country 
palace  of  Bibiapur,  were  all  erected  by  the  same 
prince.  The  Jama  Masjid  or  chief  mosque,  and 
the  huge  palaces  of  Chattar  Manzil,  Kaisar  Bagh, 
Farhat  Baksh,  four  royal  tombs,  and  an  observa- 
tory (headquarters  of  the  rebels  during  the 
Mutiny)  are  the  most  noteworthy  amongst  the 
remaining  public  buildings,  though  the  palaces, 
debased  in  style  and  gaudily  decorated,  are  re- 
markable only  for  their  great  size.  The  educa- 
tional establishments  embrace  Canning  College, 
established  in  1864;  the  Martiniere  College, 
in  which  120  soldiers'  sons  are  educated  and 
clothed ;  and  more  than  two  dozen  mission  and 
other  schools.  The  staple  native  industry  is 
gold  and  silver  brocade,  besides  muslins  and  other 
light  fabrics,  embroidery,  glass,  clay-moulding, 
shawls,  jewellery,  and  paper.  There  are  here 
extensive  railway  workshops.  Lucknow  is  a  busy 
commercial  town,  trading  in  country  products 
(grain,  butter,  sugar,  molasses,  spices,  tobacco, 


oil-seeds),  European  piece-goods,  salt,  leather, 
&c.     Pop.  (1869)  284,779  ;  (1901)  264,050. 

Origmally  a  village  called  Lakshmanpur, 
founded  by  a  brother  of  Rama  Chandra,  the 
hero  of  the  epic  Ramayana,  the  city  first  rose 
into  importance  as  the  capital  (1732)  of  the  inde- 
pendent state  of  Oudh.  Lucknow  was  the  scene 
of  stirring  events  during  the  mutiny  of  1857— 
its  defence  by  Sir  Henry  Lawrence,  its  relief  by 
Havelock  and  Outram,  and  its  final  succour  by 
Sir  Colin  Campbell. 

LuQon,  a  French  episcopal  city  (dep.  La 
Vendee),  71  miles  SSE.  of  Nantes.    Pop.  6311. 

Liidenscheld,  a  town  of  Westphalia,  19  miles 
ESE.  of  Elberfeld-Barmen,  is  the  seat  of  numef- 
ous  hardware  manufactures.    Pop.  25,067. 

Luderltzland,  a  name  given  to  Angra-Pequena 
(q.v.)  and  the  adjoining  territory. 

Ludgvan,  a  Cornish  village,  3  miles  NE.  of 
Penzance.    Pop.  of  urban  district,  2274. 

Ludhiana  (Loodiahna),  a  town  of  the  Punjab, 
8  miles  from  the  south  bank  of  the  Sutlej.  It 
was  founded  in  1480,  and  is  now  a  thriving  corn- 
mart,  with  manufactures  of  Cashmere  shawls, 
scarves,  cottons,  turbans,  furniture,  and  car- 
riages.    Pop.  48,334, 

Ludlow,  a  market-town  and  municipal  borough 
of  Shropshire,  at  the  Corve's  influx  to  the  Teme, 
28  miles  S.  of  Shrewsbury.  It  is  a  very  old  and 
interesting  place,  with  two  noble  monuments  of 
antiquity.  First,  there  is  the  massive  Norman 
keep,  110  feet  high,  of  the  castle,  where  Prince 
Arthur  wedded  Catharine  of  Aragon,  and  died 
less  than  five  months  afterwards ;  where,  in  the 
banqueting-hall,  Milton  produced  his  Comus;  and 
where,  too,  Butler  wrote  Hvdibras.  Captured  by 
King  Stephen,  the  Lancastrians,  and  the  Round- 
heads, it  was  finally  dismantled  in  1689.  Secondly, 
there  is  the  cruciform  collegiate  church  (restored 
in  1863-91),  Perpendicular  in  style,  with  a  tower 
130  feet  high.  The  grammar-school,  founded  in 
1282,  and  refounded  in  1552,  is  almost  the  oldest 
in  the  kingdom;  and  one  of  seven  gates  still 
remains.  From  Edward  IV. 's  reign  till  1867 
Ludlow  returned  two  members,  then  one  till 
1885.  S.  J.  Weyman,  novelist,  was  born  here 
Pop.  (1851)  4730 ;  (1901)  4552.  See  works  by  T 
Wright  (1826-69)  and  O.  Baker  (2d  ed.  1889). 

Ludwlgsburg  (Lood'vigsboorg'),  a  town  of  Wiir- 
temberg,  8  miles  N.  of  Stuttgart.  It  grew  up 
round  a  ducal  hunting  castle  (1704),  and  has  a 
military  school  and  a  royal  castle,  with  picture- 
gallery  and  splendid  gardens.  Pop.  20,000.  D. 
F.  Strauss  and  Kerner  were  natives. 

Ludwigscanal.    See  Danube. 

Ludwlgshafen  (Lood'vigs-Mh'fen),  a  town  of  the 
Bavarian  Palatinate,  on  the  Rhine's  left  bank, 
opposite  Mannheim.  Granted  town  rights  only 
in  1859,  it  has  grown  rapidly  owing  to  its  manu- 
factures (soda,  aniline  dyes,  wagons,  <fec.).  Pop. 
(1864)  3911 ;  (1875)  12,093  ;  (1900)  61,920. 

Lugano  (Loogah'no),  a  town  in  the  Swiss  can- 
ton of  Ticino,  on  the  NW.  shore  of  the  Lake  of 
Lugano,  49  miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  from  Milan. 
In  appearance  the  place  is  thoroughly  Italian ; 
from  Monte  Salvatore  (2982  feet)  a  magnifi- 
cent view  may  be  obtained.  Pop.  9129.— The 
Lake  ob'  Lugano,  also  called  Ceresio,  lies  at 
the  southern  foot  of  the  Alps,  889  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Its  length  is  14^  miles,  average  breadth 
IJ  mile ;  area,  19J  sq.  m.  ;  maximum  depth  915 
feet,  and  average  depth  246. 

Lugar,  an  Ayrshire  village,  with  ironworks,  on 


LUGDUNUM 


432 


LUTTERWORTH 


Lugar  Water,  IJ  mile  ENE.  of  Cumnock.    Pop. 
1286. 

Lugdunum.    See  Lyons,  Leyden. 

Luggie,  a  stream,  besung  by  David  Gray,  flows 
11  miles  W.  to  the  Kelvin  at  Kirkintilloch. 

Lugnaquilla.    See  Wicklow, 

Lugo  (lAccus  Augusti  of  the  Romans),  capital 
of  a  province  of  NW.  Spain,  on  the  Minho,  72 
miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Corunna.  Still  walled,  it 
has  a  cathedral  (1129-77),  and  manufactnres  of 
linen  and  leather.  Its  warm  sulphur  baths  were 
known  to  the  Romans.  Pop.  19,938.— Area  of 
'province,  3787  sq.  m. ;  pop.  466,000. 

Lugo,  a  town  of  Italy,  18  miles  by  rail  W.  of 
Ravenna.     Pop.  27,500. 

Luku'ga,  an  intermittent  outflow  from  Lake 
Tanganyika  (q.v.)  into  the  Congo. 

Lulei,  a  town  of  Sweden,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  LnleS,  on  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  It  is  a  great 
iron-ore  exporting  port.     Pop.  9392. 

Lulworth,  East  and  West,  two  Dorset  coast- 
parislies,  bh  and  8^  miles  SW.  of  Wareham. 
Lulworth  Castle  is  the  seat  of  the  Catholic  Welds, 
and  Lulworth  Cove  is  a  beautiful  inlet. 

Lumsden,  an  Aberdeenshire  village,  9^  miles 
NW.  of  Alford.    Pop.  485. 

Lunayrara,  a  state  under  British  protection 
in  Gujarat  province.  Area,  388  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
75,450.  The  capital,  Lunawara,  is  60  miles  N.  by 
W.  from  Baroda.     Pop.  9059. 

Lund  (Londinum  Gothonim),  a  city  of  Goth- 
land, in  the  extreme  south  of  Sweden,  by  rail 
374  miles  SW,  of  Stockholm  and  10  NE.  of  Malmo. 
In  the  10th  century  it  was  a  large  and  powerful 
city,  was  made  a  bishopric  in  1048,  and  an  arch- 
bishopric in  1104.  It  became  the  chief  seat  of 
the  Danish  power  in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula, 
and  capital  of  the  Danish  kingdom,  with  a  pop. 
of  200,000.  But  after  the  Reformation  (1536)  the 
city  began  to  decay,  and  sank  to  a  mere  village 
in  the  17th  century.  The  fine  Romanesque 
cathedral,  with  its  imposing  crypt,  dates  from 
the  11th  century.  Lund  owes  its  revival  to  the 
founding  there  of  a  university  in  1668,  which 
now  has  about  800  students,  a  library  of  150,000 
volumes  and  3000  MSS.,  a  zoological  museum, 
and  a  botanic  garden.    Pop.  17,500. 

Lundy  (Scand.,  'grove  island'),  a  granitic 
island  of  Devonshire,  in  the  mouth  of  the  Bristol 
Channel,  llf  miles  NNW.  of  Hartland  Point, 
17  NW.  of  Clovelly,  24  W.  of  Ilfracombe,  and  30 
SSE.  of  St  Gowan's  Head  in  Wales.  It  measures 
3^  miles  by  1 ;  has  rocky  and  precipitous  shores, 
with  only'  one  landing-place  on  the  south  side ; 
and  attains  an  altitude  of  525  feet.  Here,  near 
the  southern  end  of  the  island,  is  a  lighthouse, 
built  in  1820.  The  antiquities  include  prehistoric 
kists,  remains  of  round  towers  and  a  chapel,  and 
the  ruined  castle  of  the  Mariscoes  (11th  to  14th 
centuries),  from  whose  time  on  into  the  17th 
century  Lundy  was  a  stronghold  successively  of 
pirates,  buccaneers,  privateers,  and  smugglers. 
It  figures  in  Kingsley's  Westivard  Ho/;  was  the 
death-place  of  '  Judas '  Stukely  ;  was  garrisoned 
till  1647  for  Charles  I.  ;  and  in  1834  was  pur- 
chased for  £9870  by  tlie  Heaven  family.  The 
population  is  about  180.  See  Clianter's  Luiidy 
Island  (1877). 

Lune,  a  river  of  Westmorland  and  Lancashire, 
flowing  45  miles  SW.  and  S.  to  the  Irish  Sea,  6 
miles  SW.  of  Lancaster. 

Llineburg  (Lii'ne-boorg),  a  town  of  Hanover,  on 
the  river  Ilmenau,  31  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Ham- 


burg. The  15th-century  church  of  St  Michael 
contains  the  tombs  of  the  Lixneburg  princes. 
The  five-aisled  church  of  St  John  dates  from  the 
14th  century,  is  pure  Gothic  in  style,  and  has  a 
tower  371  feet  high.  The  mediaeval  town-house 
is  adorned  with  old  pictures  and  stained  glass. 
A  salt-mine,  discovered  in  906,  still  has  an  annual 
yield  of  over  21,000  tons.  There  are  also  a 
gypsum-mine,  ironworks,  chemical  manufactories, 
&c.  Llineburg  lampreys  are  well  known  in 
Germany.  Pop.  25,665.  Liineburg  acquired  im- 
portance after  the  founding  of  the  Benedictine 
monastery  in  904,  joined  the  Hanseatic  League 
in  the  14th  c,  and  was  the  capital  of  an  inde- 
pendent duchy.  But  it  lost  most  of  its  privileges 
in  the  16th  c,  and  in  the  17th  suffered  much 
from  the  Swedes  and  their  enemies.  From  the 
Brunswick-Liineburg  princely  line,  founded  in 
1235,  is  descended  the  British  royal  family. — 
South  of  Liineburg  stretches  for  50  miles  the 
Llineburg  Heath,  a  grazing-ground  for  sheep. 

Lunel,  a  town  in  the  south  of  France,  14  miles 
by  rail  NE.  of  Montpellier.     Pop.  6494. 

Luneville  (L%i-nay-veel'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  at  the  confluence  of 
the  Meurthe  and  the  Vezonse,  20  miles  by  rail 
SE.  of  Nancy.  It  was  a  residence  of  the  Dukes  of 
Lorraine  ;  their  palace  is  now  a  cavalry  barrack, 
this  town  being  a  great  cavalry  station.  Here 
was  signed  the  peace  of  Luneville,  on  February 
9,  1801,  between  Germany  and  France.  The  in- 
dustry embraces  gloves,  hosiery,  cottons,  &c. 
Pop.  19,100. 

Lunkah,  or  Lanka  (Sansk.,  'island'),  the 
ancient  name  for  Ceylon.  Lunkah  cheroots  are 
made  in  the  Godavari  delta. 

Lurgan,  a  town  of  County  Armagh,  20  miles 
SW.  of  Belfast  by  rail.     It  manufactures  cam- 
brics, lawns,  damasks,  and  diapers.     Pop.  11,429. 
Lurlstan,  a  mountainous  province  in  the  west 
of  Persia.  Area,  15,060  sq.  m. ;  pop.  about  300,000. 
Lurlel.    See  Lorelei. 

Lusatia  (Lcmsitz),  a  region  in  Germany,  on  the 
borders  of  Bohemia,  now  belonging  in  part  to 
Saxony  and  in  part  to  Prussia. 

Lushai  Hills,  a  hill-country  on  the  borders  of 
Assam  and  Burma. 

Lusignan  (Lu-zin-yan^,  a  picturesque  town 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Vienne,  17  miles  SW.  of 
Poitiers.  It  has  a  fine  11th-century  church,  but 
its  castle,  associated  with  the  fairy  Melusine,  was 
razed  by  the  Catholics  in  1574.  Pop.  2284. 
Lusltanla.  See  Portugal. 
Luss,  a  village  on  the  W.  side  of  Loch  Lomond, 
12  miles  N.  of  Dumbarton. 

Luton,  a  market-town  of  Bedfordshire,  on  the 
little  Lea,  among  the  Chiltern  Hills,  31  miles  by 
rail  NNW.  of  London.  St  Mary's  Church,  mixed 
Decorated  and  Perpendicular  in  style,  is  a  noble 
structure,  witli  a  flint-work  tower  90  feet  high. 
Luton  is  the  chief  seat  in  England  of  the  straw- 
plait  (for  hats,  bonnets,  &c.),  an  industry  which 
dates  from  the  reign  of  James  I.,  and  employs 
20,000  persons  here  and  in  the  neighbourhood. 
The  Plait-hall  (1869)  is  a  fine  building  ;  and  there 
are  also  a  town-hall,  corn  exchange,  people's 
park,  &c.  Luton  was  re-incorporated  as  a  muni- 
cipal borough  in  1876.  Pop.  (1851)  10,648  ;  (1901) 
36,404.     See  F.  Davis,  History  of  Luton  (1855). 

Lutterworth,  a  small  town  of  Leicestershire, 
on  the  Swift,  8  miles  NNE.  of  Rugby.  The  fine 
old  church  contains  the  pulpit  and  other  relics 
of  Wyclif,  who  was  rector  from  1374  till  his  deato 


LUTTICH 


433 


LYNN 


on  28th  December  1384.  He  was  buried  here, 
but  in  1428  his  remains  were  dug  up  and  burned, 
and  the  ashes  cast  into  the  Swift.  'This  brook 
conveyed  his  aslies  into  Avon,  Avon  into  Severn, 
Severn  into  the  narrow  seas,  they  into  the  main 
ocean ;  and  thus  the  ashes  of  Wyclif  are  the 
emblem  of  his  doctrine,  which  now  is  dispersed 
all  the  world  over.'    Pop.  of  parish,  1800. 

Liittich.    See  Lifos. 

Luttringhausen,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
5  miles  SE.  of  Elberfeld.  It  manufactures  cloth, 
calico,  silk,  brandy,  &c.     Pop.  12,216. 

Llitzen,  a  town  of  4501  inhabitants,  in  Prussian 
Saxony,  9  miles  SE.  of  Merseburg.  Two  great 
battles  were  fought  in  its  vicinity— the  first,  a 
brilliant  victory  of  the  Swedes,  who  lost,  how- 
ever, Gustavus  Adolphus,  6th  November  1632 ; 
the  second,  on  2d  May  1813,  a  victory  of  Napoleon 
over  the  Russians  and  Prussians. 

Luxemburg  (Fr.  Luxembourg ;  old  Ger.  Liitzel- 
burg),  since  1815  an  independent  grand-duchy, 
wedged  in  between  France,  Prussia,  and  Belgium. 
It  consists  of  a  plateau,  furrowed  with  valleys, 
and  connecting  together  the  uplands  of  Lorraine, 
the  Forest  of  Ardennes,  and  the  Eifel ;  nearly 
all  its  streams  flow  to  the  Moselle,  which  for 
some  20  miles  forms  its  eastern  border.  The 
country  is  well  wooded,  yields  wheat  and  wine, 
and  is  rich  in  iron  ore.  Area,  998  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
(1871)  197,528  ;  (1900)  236,543,  nearly  all  Catholics, 
and  of  Low  German  stock,  though  French  is  the 
language  of  the  educated  classes.  For  commercial 
purposes  Luxemburg  is  included  in  the  German 
customs  union.  The  grand-duke— the  king  of 
Holland  till  1890,  and  since  then  the  Duke  of 
Nassau— is  the  head  of  the  House  of  Orange- 
Nassau.— The  Belgian  province  of  Luxemburg, 
which  down  to  1839  formed  part  of  the  grand- 
duchy,  constitutes  the  south-eastern  extremity  of 
the  kingdom  of  Belgium.  Area,  1706  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
(1902)  222,500.  Chief  town,  Arlon.— Luxemburg, 
the  capital  of  the  grand-duchy,  by  rail  is  42 
miles  N.  of  Metz  and  32  SW.  of  Treves.  Its 
situation  has  often  been  compared  to  that  of 
Jerusalem  :  the  city  stands  on  a  rocky  platform, 
connected  with  the  neighbouring  country  only 
on  the  west,  and  elsewhere  engirt  by  a  steep 
valley,  200  feet  deep,  in  which  nestle  the  indus- 
trial suburbs  of  Klausen,  Pfaffenthal,  and  Grund. 
The  intermediate  gorges  are  crossed  by  fine  via- 
ducts. The  Spaniards,  Austrians,  French,  and 
Dutch,  who  successively  held  possession  of  the 
town,  increased  and  strengthened  its  fortifica- 
tions, hewn,  like  those  of  Gibraltar,  in  great 
part  out  of  the  solid  rock.  But  they  were  de- 
molished in  accordance  with  the  treaty  of  London 
of  1867,  and  the  site  of  the  walls  has  been  laid  out 
as  beautiful  gardens.  There  are  in  the  town  the 
ruins  of  Count  Mansfeld's  palace,  the  cathedral 
(1613),  the  government  house,  and  the  athenseum. 
There  are  manufactures  of  cotton,  cloth,  and 
brandy,  and  a  trade  in  woollen  and  leather  goods. 
Pop.  21,000. 

Luxor.    See  Thebes. 

Luzern.    See  Lucerne. 

Luzon',  the  largest  of  the  Philippines  (q.v.). 

Lybster,  a  fishing-village  of  Caithness,  13^ 
miles  SW.  of  Wick.    Pop.  610. 

Lycaonia,  a  country  anciently  in  Asia  Minor, 
bounded  by  Cappadocia,  Galatia,  Pisidia,  Isauria, 
and  Cilicia.     Its  capital  was  Iconium. 

Lycia,  a  country  on  the  south  coast  of  Asia 
Minor,  bounded  by  Caria,  Phrygia,  Pisidia,  and 
Pamphylia.  It  is  a  mountainous  region,  formed 
2B 


by  lofty  spurs  of  the  Taurus,  which  reach  10,000 
feet  in  height ;  the  valleys  are  very  fertile. 

Lydd,  a  borough  of  Kent,  3^  miles  SW.  of  New 
Roinney,  gives  name  to  lyddite.     Pop.  3000. 

Lydenburg,  a  mining-village  in  the  Transvaal, 
180  miles  NW.  of  Delagoa  Bay. 

Lydia,  anciently  a  country  in  the  W.  of  ABia 
Minor,  celebrated  for  its  fruitful  soil  and  its 
mineral  wealth,  particularly  for  the  gold  of  the 
river  Pactolus.  Sardis  was  the  capital,  and 
Croesus  its  last  king. 

Lyme  Regis,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of 
Dorsetshire,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Lyme  rivulet,  5 
miles  SE.  of  Axminster  and  23  W.  of  Dorchester. 
The  Cobb  breakwater,  dating  from  the  14th  cen- 
tury, was  reconstructed  by  government  in  1825- 
26.  Chartered  by  Edward  I.,  and  incorporated 
by  Elizabeth,  Lyme  returned  two  members  till 
1832,  and  then  one  till  1868.  It  beat  off  Prince 
Maurice  (1644),  and  was  Monmouth's  landing- 
place  (1685).  Natives  have  been  Sir  George 
Somers,  Captain  Coram,  and  Miss  Mary  Anning, 
the  discoverer  of  the  Ichthyosaurus  and  Plesio- 
saurus  in  the  Lias  rocks  here,  which  are  largely 
quarried.  Pop.  (1851)  2661 ;  (1901)  2095.  See 
Roberts's  History  of  Lyme  Regis  (1834). 

Lymington,  a  watering-place  and  municipal 
borough  of  Hamj^shire,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Lymington  River  in  the  Solent,  12  miles  (by  a 
branch-line  18)  SW.  of  Southampton.  The  salt- 
works belong  to  the  past;  and  yacht-building  is 
now  the  principal  industry.  It  commands  fine 
prospects  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  its  vicinity 
abounds  in  charming  scenery.  Till  1867  it  re- 
turned two  members,  then  till  1885  one.  Pop. 
(1851)  2651 ;  (1901)  4165,  the  borough  having  been 
extended  in  1889.  See  works  by  Garrow  (1825), 
Grove  (1835),  and  King  (1879). 

Lynchburg,  a  city  of  Virginia,  lies  in  a  pic- 
turesque mountain-region,  on  the  James  River, 
124  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Richmond.  It  is  a 
thriving  place,  with  the  electric  light  and  electric 
trams,  and  has  manufactories  of  nails,  cotton, 
iron,  fanning  implements,  furniture,  &c.,  besides 
tobacco,  which  is  the  staple  of  the  town's  trade. 
Pop.  21,000. 

Lyndhurst,  a  Hampshire  village,  the  capital 
of  the  New  Forest,  9  miles  SW.  of  Southampton. 
Its  church  (1863)  is  a  brick  Early  English  struc- 
ture, with  conspicuous  spire,  good  stained  glass, 
a  monument  by  Flaxman,  and  a  fresco  by  Sir 
Frederick  Leigh  ton  of  the  'Ten  Virgins.'  Near 
it  is  the  Verderers'  Hall,  with  Rufus's  stirrup. 
Pop.  of  parish,  2140. 

Lynmouth.    See  Lynton. 

Lynn,  or  Kino's  Lynn,  a  seaport,  parliamen- 
tary and  municipal  borough  of  Norfolk,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Great  Ouse,  48  miles  WNW.  of 
Norwich  and  99  N.  by  E.  of  London.  It  still 
retains  traces  of  the  ramparts  and  a  fosse,  which 
once  guarded  it  on  the  landward  side,  and  abounds 
in  picturesque  old  timbered  houses,  ornamented 
with  carved  work.  Of  its  four  churches  the 
principal  are  St  Margaret's  and  St  Nicholas. 
Other  features  of  interest  are  the  octagonal  Red 
Mount  Chapel ;  the  hexagonal  tower  of  the  Grey 
Friars  ;  a  grammar-school,  founded  in  or  before 
Henry  VIII. 's  reign,  at  which  Eugene  Aram  was 
usher;  a  guildhall,  in  which  is  presers'ed  the 
Red  Register  of  Lynn,  one  of  the  earliest  paper 
books  in  existence ;  custom-house  (1683) ;  hos- 
pital (1834-47)  ;  museum  (1854)  ;  library  (1883) ; 
technical  schools  (1894) ;  and  two  extensive  docks 
(1869-84),  admitting  vessels  drawing  21  feet  at 


LYNN 


434 


LYTHAM 


spring-tides.  Trade  is  carried  on  in  com,  oil- 
cake, coals,  and  timber,  and  shrimps  are  caught 
and  sent  to  London.  In  Edward  I.'s  reign  Lynn 
was  one  of  the  principal  ports  of  the  kingdom ; 
in  1474  the  Hanse  merchants  had  a  factory  or 
'  steelyard '  here  ;  and  in  1549  it  was  a  flourishing 
seat  of  cloth  manufacture.  In  that  year,  during 
Ket's  rebellion,  one  body  of  the  insurgents  was 
encamped  here,  and  in  1643  the  town  capitulated 
to  the  parliamentary  force  after  three  weeks'  re- 
sistance. King  John  (who  in  1204  granted  the 
town  its  first  charter),  the  dowager-queen  Isabella 
(see  Castle  Rising),  Edward  III.,  Henry  VI., 
Edward  IV.,  Henry  VII.,  and  Oliver  Cromwell  all 
visited  Lynn,  which  was  the  birthplace  of  Cap- 
grave  the  chronicler,  and  the  residence  of  Dr 
Charles  Burney.  Pop.  (1801)  10,096  ;  (1901)  20,288. 
See  Richards's  History  of  Lynn  (2  vols.  1812). 

Lynn,  a  city  and  port  of  Massachusetts,  on 
Massachusetts  Bay,  10  miles  NNE.  of  Boston. 
Most  of  the  houses  are  built  of  wood ;  among 
them  are  many  handsome  villas  belonging  to 
Boston  merchants.  The  chief  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  ladies'  and  children's  shoes, 
10,000,000  pairs  sometimes  in  one  year.  There 
are  also  large  tanneries.  Though  founded  in 
1629,  Lynn  became  a  city  only  in  1850.  A  great 
fire  in  1889  destroyed  property  worth  $5,000,000. 
Pop.  (1880)  38,274 ;  (1900)  68,513, 

Lynton  and  Lynmouth,  two  villages  of  North 
Devon,  on  the  Bristol  Channel,  18  miles  NE.  of 
Barnstaple.  Lynmouth  stands  close  to  the  sea, 
and  Lynton  half-way  up  the  cliff",  428  feet  above. 
They  were  'discovered'  in  1883,  and  have  since 
been  developed,  now  possessing  a  cliff"-railway 
1000  feet  in  vertical  ascent,  electric  light,  nine 
hotels,  &c.  Shelley  stayed  at  Lynmouth  in  181^ 
and  Southey  called  it  'the  finest  spot,  except 
Cintra  and  Arrabida,  I  ever  saw.'    Pop.  1700. 

Lyonesse.    See  Scilly  Islands. 

Lyonnais,  a  former  province  of  France,  coin- 
ciding nearly  with  the  present  deps.  of  Rhone, 
Loire,  Haute-Loire,  and  Puy-de-D6me. 

Lyons  (Fr.  Lyon ;  anc.  I/ugdunum),  the  second 
city  of  France,  stands  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Rhone  and  the  Saone,  by  rail  315  miles  SSE.  of 
Paris  and  218  N.  by  W.  of  Marseilles.  The  com- 
mercial and  fashionable  quarters  of  the  city  lie 
on  the  long  narrow  tongue  of  land  between  the 
rivers,  and  are  connected  with  the  suburbs  be- 
yond by  more  than  twenty  bridges.  This  central 
part  of  Lyons  contains  many  narrow  streets, 
with  tall  gloomy  houses ;  but  much  has  been 
done  to  lighten  it  since  1852  by  the  making  of 
long  straight,  wide  streets,  and  the  opening  up 
of  squares.  In  this  district  stand  the  museum 
(1667),  with  valuable  Roman  antiquities,  a  library 
of  120,000  vols,  and  1500  MSS.,  and  art  collec- 
tions ;  the  church  of  St  Martin  d'Ainay,  dating 
from  the  10th  century  ;  St  Nizier  Church,  at  first 
the  cathedral,  a  fine  15th-century  Flamboyant 
building ;  the  graceful  town-house  (1646) ;  the 
museum  of  arts  and  industry ;  the  academy, 
with  five  faculties  ;  the  hospital,  founded  in  the 
6th  century,  though  the  present  building  dates 
only  from  1773 ;  and  the  arsenal.  To  the  north 
lies  the  suburb  of  La  Croix  Rousse,  where  the 
silk-weavers  dwell.  Across  the  Saone,  and  on 
its  right  bank,  is  the  steep,  high  suburb  of 
Fourviferes,  the  Forum  Vetus  of  "Trajan,  whose 
summit  (410  feet)  is  now  crowned  by  the  churcli 
of  Notre  Dame  (the  new  church  dates  from  1872- 
80).  Here  is  the  miracle-working  image  of  our 
Lady  of  Fourvi6res  that  is  believed  to  have  pre- 
served the  city  from  the  cholera  in  1832,  1835, 


and  1850.  From  its  tower,  which  is  surmounted 
by  a  gilded  statue  of  the  Virgin,  18  feet  high, 
a  view  can  be  had  of  the  distant  Alps.  On  this 
elevated  site  too  stands  the  church  of  St  Irenaeus, 
in  the  crypt  of  which  are  preserved  what  purport 
to  be  the  bones  of  19,000  Christian  martyrs  who 
perished  in  the  persecution  by  Severus.  At  the 
foot  of  the  hill  next  the  Saone  is  the  archi- 
episcopal  cathedral  of  St  John,  of  the  13th  and 
14th  centuries,  with  magnificent  stained-glass 
windows  and  a  celebrated  clock  of  1598;  the 
palace  of  the  archbisliop,  who  ranks  as  primate 
of  France ;  and  the  law-courts.  On  the  left 
bank  of  the  Rhone,  which  is  so  low  that  it  has 
to  be  protected  with  embankments,  is  the  hand- 
some new  suburb  of  Les  Brotteaux,  terminated 
on  the  north  by  the  park  of  tlie  Tete-d'Or,  in 
wliich  are  an  oriental  museum,  a  zoological  col- 
lection, and  a  fine  botanical  garden.  Lyons 
possesses  also  a  Roman  Catholic  University  with 
three  faculties,  a  first-class  veterinary  school,  a 
school  of  art  with  1200  pupils,  of  great  value  for 
the  silk  manufactures,  a  school  of  the  industrial 
arts,  a  municipal  library  of  66,000  vols.,  and  a 
silk-conditioning  house.  The  city  is  a  fortress 
of  the  first  rank,  being  defended  by  a  double 
ring  of  forts.  Pop.  (1872)  301,868  ;  (1901)  441,799, 
or,  of  the  commune,  459,099.  The  staple  indus- 
try is  the  silk ;  it  is  computed  that  there  are 
in  all,  within  the  city  and  its  environs,  from 
75,000  to  85,000  hand-looms  and  20,000  power- 
looms  employed  in  this  manufacture.  Silk-dye- 
ing and  printing  give  employment  to  nearly  4000 
workmen ;  25,000  more  are  engaged  in  the  vari- 
ous chemical  industries  (dyes,  starch,  candles, 
soap),  machinery-making  establishments,  foun- 
dries, brass-works,  fancy-wares,  gold  and  silver 
goods,  hats,  paper,  mathematical  instruments, 
&c.  The  position  of  Lyons  makes  it  a  great 
emporium  of  trade  between  central  and  southern 
Europe.  Besides  importing  silk  raw  and  export- 
ing it  manufactured,  chiefly  to  Great  Britain 
and  the  United  States,  cotton  is  imported  from 
America  and  Egypt,  and  a  large  business  done 
in  cloth  and  linen,  chestnuts,  coal,  charcoal, 
cheese,  and  wine  and  spirits.  The  list  of  notable 
persons  born  in  Lyons  includes  Germanicus  and 
the  Roman  emperors  Claudius,  Marcus  Aurelius, 
and  Caracalla,  Jules  Favre,  Roland,  Say,  Suchet, 
the  De  Jussieus,  Ampere,  Mme.  Recamier,  Bon- 
net, Delorme,  Meissonier,  and  Jacquard. 

The  Romans  settled  a  colony  here  in  43  B.C. 
and  made  it  the  starting-point  for  their  network 
of  highways  through  Gaul.  The  introduction  of 
the  silk  industry  must  be  set  down  to  Francis 
I.'s  credit.  The  Reformation,  entering  from 
Geneva,  had  a  short  but  violent  reign  ;  the  emi- 
gration of  the  Huguenots  struck  a  blow  at  the 
industrial  prosperity  of  the  town  from  which  it 
took  long  to  recover.  In  1789  the  city  embraced 
the  cause  of  the  Revolution,  though  royalist 
feeling  was  also  strong  here.  In  1792  it  refused 
obedience  to  the  National  Convention ;  in  re- 
venge it  was  besieged,  captured,  its  buildings 
destroyed,  its  name  changed  (till  1794)  to  Ville- 
Aftranchie,  and  6000  of  its  citizens  slain.  Trade 
riots  in  1831,  1834,  and  1849  assumed  very  for- 
midable dimensions ;  and  since  the  war  of  1870 
Lyons  has  been  a  focus  of  red  republicanism. 

Lys,  or  Leye,  rises  near  Lysbourg,  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Pas-de-Calais,  and  flows  130  miles 
north-eastward  to  the  Scheldt  at  Ghent. 

Lytham,  a  Lancashire  watering-place,  on  the 
N.  sliore  of  the  Ribble  estuary,  14  miles  W.  of 
Preston,  and  7  SSE.  of  Blackpool.    Pop.  7200. 


SIAAU 


435 


BIACON 


>AAM,  a  locality  in  County  Galway,  in 
a  fine  pass  near  the  NW.  end  of  Lough 
Corrib.  To  the  west  are  the  Maam- 
turk  Mountains  ;  8  miles  N.  is  Maani- 
trasna  (2207  feet  high),  giving  name  to 
a  district  west  of  Lough  Mask. 

Maas.    See  Meuse. 

Maastricht.    See  Maestricht. 

Mablethorpe,  a  Lincolnshire  coast-village,  13 
miles  by  rail  (1888)  SE.  of  Louth,  with  good  sands 
and  a  submerged  forest.    Pop.  94D. 

Macao  (Ma-M'o),  a  Portuguese  settlement  on  the 
south  coast  of  China,  and  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Canton  River  estuary,  Hong-kong  being  40  miles 
distant  on  the  opposite  side.  The  settlement 
occupies  a  small  peninsula  projecting  from  the 
SE.  island  of  Hiang-shang.  The  islands  Colavane 
and  Taipa  also  belong  to  the  settlement,  whose 
total  area  is  4^  sq.  ra.  and  pop.  87,030  (less  than 
5000  Portuguese,  the  rest  mostly  Chinese).  Tlie 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  cathedral  and 
churches.  Great  part  of  the  revenue  is  derived 
from  licensed  gambling-houses.  The  Portuguese 
obtained  permission  to  settle  in  Macao  in  1557, 
but  the  Chinese  exacted  an  annual  ground- 
rent  until  1886.  The  anchorage  is  defective ; 
large  vessels  cannot  approach  nearer  than  six 
miles.  Since  the  rise  of  Hong-kong  the  com- 
merce of  Macao  has  suffered  severely.  Shortly 
after  it  was  declared  a  free  port  (1845)  it  became 
the  headquarters  of  the  coolie  trade,  especially 
with  Peru  and  Cuba ;  but  in  consequence  of 
fearful  abuses  the  British  and  the  Chinese  con- 
strained the  Portuguese  government  to  abolish 
the  traffic  in  1873.  The  imports  include  opium, 
kerosene,  piece  goods,  yarn,  and  provisions ;  the 
exports,  tea,  oils,  silk,  and  rice.  In  a  grotto 
here  Camoens  is  traditionally  believed  to  have 
written  his  Lusiad. 

Macassar,  the  most  southern  portion  of  Cele- 
bes, contains  the  chief  town  and  port,  Macassar 
(pop.  20,000),  on  the  west  coast. 

Maccaluba,  a  small  mud  volcano,  138  feet  in 
height,  situated  6  miles  N.  of  Girgenti  in  Sicily. 

Macclesfield,  an  ancient  municipal  borough 
and  important  manufacturing  town  in  the  Mac- 
clesfield parliamentary  division  of  Cheshire,  is 
situated  on  the  river  Bollin,  and  on  the  western 
declivity  of  a  range  of  low  hills,  15  miles  SSE. 
of  Manchester  and  167  NW.  of  London.  Among 
its  buildings  are  the  fine  old  church  of  St  Michael, 
founded  by  Queen  Eleanor  in  1278,  the  town- 
hall  (1823-70),  the  infirmary  (1872),  and  King 
Edward's  grammar-school  (1553),  rebuilt  in  1866, 
and  reorganised  in  1880,  with  an  endowment  of 
£2000  a  year,  which  also  supports  a  modern  free 
school.  Macclesfield  has  a  public  park  of  16 
acres  (1852),  public  baths,  a  free  library,  a  tech- 
nical school,  a  school  of  science  and  art,  &c. 
The  old  button  trade  belongs  to  the  past,  and 
the  sill<  manufacture,  established  in  1756,  is  now 
the  staple  industry ;  cotton  goods  and  small- 
wares  are  also  manufactured,  and  there  are  dye- 
works  and  breweries.  In  the  vicinity  coal,  slate, 
and  stone  are  obtained.  Macclesfield  possesses 
nine  charters  (the  first  by  Prince  Edward,  Earl  of 
Chester,  in  1261),  and  returned  two  members 
from  1832  till  1880,  but  was  disfranchised  in  1885. 
Pop.  (1851)  39,048 ;  (1901)  34,624,  See  works  by 
Corry  (1817)  and  Earwaker  (1877). 

Macduff.     See  Banff. 

Macedonia,  anciently  the  name  of  a  country, 


now  part  of  Turkey,  lying  NW.  of  the  Mge&n  Sea. 
mountainous,  witli  fertile  plains.  Philip  XL  be- 
caiiie  (338  B.C.)  master  of  Greece  ;  liis  son,  Alex- 
ander  the  Great  (356-323  B.C.),  conquered  half  the 
known  world.  The  present  population  is  mainly 
Bulgarian,  with  Greeks  on  the  coast  and  in  some 
districts  ;  the  Turks  are  not  numerous.  In  con- 
sequence of  the  oppression  of  the  Christian 
po[)ulation  and  the  failure  of  Turkey  to  carry 
out  promised  reforms,  there  have  been  troubles 
and  threatened  revolt  since  1875.  These  became 
acute  in  1903,  when  many  encounters  between 
the  antagonistic  nationalities  took  place.  In 
1905  the  Powers  made  a  naval  demonstration  to 
enforce  upon  Turkey  the  carrying  out  of  financial 
and  other  reforms. 

Maceio  (Masay'o),  a  port  of  Brazil,  tlie  capital 
of  Alagoas  state,  on  a  peninsula  that  shuts  in  the 
Lagoa  do  Norte  from  the  sea.    Pop.  12,000. 

Macerata  (Matchayrdta),  a  cathedral  town  of 
Italy,  44  miles  S.  of  Ancona.    Pop.  23,000. 

Macgillycuddy  Reeks,  a  mountain  group  in 
Kerry,  west  of  the  Lakes  of  Killarney ;  Carran- 
Tual  (3414  feet)  is  the  loftiest  peak  in  Ireland. 

Machrihanlsh,  a  bay  on  the  west  coast  of 
Kintyre,  5  miles  across  from  Campbeltown, 
famous  for  its  golf  links  and  as  the  wireless 
telegraph  station  (with  tower  over  400  feet  high) 
for  trans-Atlantic  messages. 

Machynlleth  (Ma-hun'tleth),  one  of  the  Mont- 
gomery district  of  boroughs,  on  the  Dovey,  21 
miles  NNE.  of  Aberystwith.     Pop.  2040. 

M'Keesport,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  Monongahela  River,  at  tlie  mouth  of  the 
Youghiogheny,  15  miles  SE.  of  Pittsburgh.  It 
has  flour,  saw,  and  rolling  mills,  tubing  factories, 
glass-works,  a  distillery,  &c.  Natural  gas  is 
used.     Pop.  (1880)  8212  ;  (1900)  34,227. 

Mackenzie  River,  in  North  America,  has  its 
origin  as  the  Athabasca  (q.v.),  in  a  Rocky  Moun- 
tain lake  in  British  Columbia,  flows  over  600 
miles  to  Lake  Athabasca,  and  240  as  the  Slave 
River  to  Great  Slave  Lake  (q.v.).  As  the  Mac- 
kenzie River,  it  now  conveys  the  waters  of  the 
Great  Slave  Lake  to  the  Arctic  Ocean  at  Mac- 
kenzie Bay,  after  a  final  course  which  is  reckoned 
at  1045  miles,  making  a  total  river-system  of 
nearly  2000  miles.  Its  great  tributaries,  the 
Liard  and  the  Peace  and  Athabasca  rivers,  drain 
an  immense  fertile  country,  with  abundance  of 
petroleum,  and  some  coal  and  lignite.  It  was 
discovered  by  Sir  Alexander  Mackenzie  in  1789. 
The  Mackenzie  district  lias  an  area  of  562,182 
sq.  in.,  and  the  population  does  not  exceed  5250. 
It  is  largely  forested,  and  the  climate  is  exces- 
sively severe  in  winter. 

Mackinaw,  or  Mackinac,  an  island  3  miles 
long  by  2  broad,  in  the  Strait  of  Mackinaw, 
which  connects  Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan. 

Mackinley,  Mount,  the  highest  mountain 
in  North  America,  is  in  Alaska,  in  lat.  63°  4'  N. 
and  long.  151°  W.,  and  is  20,464  feet  high. 

Macon  (Md-kon^;  Matisco  of  Caesar),  the  capital 
of  the  French  dep.  of  Saone-et- Loire,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Saone,  41  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Lyons.  A 
dull,  modernised  place,  it  has  a  twelve-arch  bridge, 
with  a  view  of  Mont  Blanc  ;  a  fragment  of  an  old 
cathedral,  demolished  at  the  Revolution  ;  the 
fine  Romanesque  church  of  St  Pierre  (rebuilt  1866) ; 
and  a  statue  of  Lamartine,  who  was  born  here. 
It  trades  largely  in  wines  known  as  Macon,  like 


MACON 


436 


MADEIRA 


but  lighter  than  Burgundy,  and  manufactures 
watches,  brass,  faience,  &c.    Pop.  18,497. 

Macon  (Mm/kon),  capital  of  Bibb  county, 
Georgia,  on  the  Ocinulgee,  stands  among  forest- 
clad  hills,  at  the  head  of  navigation,  103  miles 
SSE.  of  Atlanta.  It  is  the  seat  of  Mercer  Uni- 
versity (Baptist)  and  a  R.  C.  college,  and  has 
foundries,  flour  and  lumber  mills,  cotton-factories, 
&c.     Pop.  25,300. 

Macquarie  Land,  a  grassy  island,  20  miles 
long,  in  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  in  54°  30'  S.  lat.  and 
158°  50'  E.  long.     It  was  discovered  in  1811. 

Macqtuarle  River,  a  tributary  of  the  Darling 
in  New  South  Wales,  750  miles  long,  named  after 
Governor  Macquarie. 

Macroom,  a  market-town  on  the  Sullane,  25 
miles  W.  of  Cork.    Pop.  3020. 

Madagas'car,  the  third  largest  island  in  the 
world,  is  situated  to  the  SE.  of  Africa,  and  is 
about  four  times  as  large  as  England  and  Wales. 
It  is  in  12°  2'— 25°  85'  S.  lat.  and  42°— 51°  40'  E. 
long.  ;  length,  978  miles  ;  greatest  breadth,  350 
miles ;  area,  230,000  sq.  in.  It  consists  of  two  great 
divisions— (1)  an  elevated  interior  region,  almost 
central,  from  3000  to  5000  feet  above  tlie  sea  ;  and 
(2)  a  comparatively  level  country  surrounding 
the  high  land,  not  much  exceeding  600  feet  in  alti- 
tude, although  there  are  lofty  mountains  extend- 
ing to  the  SE.  corner  of  the  island.  The  interior 
highland  comprises  nearly  half  the  total  area  ;  the 
highest  mountain-mass,  Ankiratra  (9000  feet), 
is  probably  an  ancient  volcano.  The  lower  region 
of  Madagascar  is  fertile  and  well  wooded,  especi- 
ally on  the  eastern  side  of  the  island,  though  a 
large  district  in  the  south  is  barren.  From  the 
SE.  to  the  NW.  and  N.  a  series  of  extinct  volcanic 
craters  has  been  traced,  and  there  are  many  hot 
springs.  There  are  fine  bays  and  harbours  on  the 
NW.  coast.  All  round  the  island  is  a  nearly  un- 
broken belt  of  dense  forest,  10  to  40  miles  across, 
and  most  largely  developed  in  the  NE.  The  flora 
of  Madagascar  is  very  rich  and  varied,  and  con- 
tains large  numbers  of  valuable  timber  trees. 
Three-fourths  of  the  species  of  plants  are  peculiar 
to  Madagascar,  showing  that  the  island  is  of  very 
great  antiquity.  The  fauna  contains  several  ex- 
ceptional and  ancient  forms  of  life  ;  it  is  the  home 
of  the  Lemurs,  including  the  Aye-aye,  as  also  of 
the  chamaeleons.  The  remains  of  an  immense 
struthious  bird  (^^pyornis)  have  been  discovered, 
as  well  as  of  an  extinct  hippopotamus.  The 
Malagasy  people  appear  to  be  mainly  derived 
from  the  Malayo-Polynesian  stock,  with  some 
Melanesian,  African,  and  Arab  admixture.  Tlie 
Hovas,  the  most  civilised  and  powerful  tribe,  in- 
habit the  central  province  of  Imerina.  The 
Sikalivas  are  found  along  the  entire  west  coast. 
Although  there  are  many  dialectic  diff'erences, 
the  language  of  the  whole  country  is  substantially 
one,  and  is  evidently  nearly  allied  to  those  of  the 
Malayan  and  Melanesian  islands.  The  pop.  of 
Madagascar  is  probably  about  3,000,000.  In  their 
heathen  state  they  are  very  immoral  and  untruth- 
ful, and  cruel  in  war  ;  but  they  are  also  courage- 
ous, aff"ectionate,  and  firm  in  friendship,  law- 
abiding  and  loyal,  courteous  and  hospitable. 
The  capital,  Antananarivo,  has  a  pop.  of  about 
100,000.  The  chief  ports  are  Tamatave,  on  the 
east  coast,  and  Mojang^,  on  the  north-west. 
Ambdhiminga  in  Imerina,  and  Fianarants6a  in 
B6tsil6o,  are  important  places  in  the  interior. 

The  principal  exports  (£165,000  per  annum)  of 
Madagascar  are  cattle,  hides,  gum-copal,  india- 
rubber,  rafia  bast,  rice,  ebony,  and  other  valuable 
woods ;  coff'ee,  sugar,  and  vanilla  are  also  culti- 


vated. The  chief  imports  (£165,000  per  annum) 
are  cotton  goods,  ironmongery,  crockery,  and 
rum.  The  principal  trade  is  from  the  eastern 
ports  to  Mauritius  and  Reunion,  and  there  is  also 
now  an  increasing  trade  from  the  western  side 
with  South  Africa.  Iron  is  abundant,  copper  and 
tin  exist,  lead,  silver,  and  gold  are  mined,  sul- 
phur is  plentiful.  The  people  excel  in  weaving, 
iu  straw-work,  in  carpentry,  and  in  the  working 
of  gold  and  silver. 

Madagascar  was  known  to  the  Greeks  as 
Memithias;  it  is  first  mentioned  by  Marco  Polo  as 
Madeigascar  or  Magastar ;  but  the  first  European 
who  saw  the  island  appears  to  have  been  the 
Portuguese  Fernam  Soares  in  1506.  The  Dutch 
formed  short-lived  settlements  ;  the  French,  who 
made  vain  but  persistent  efforts  for  nearly  two 
centuries  to  maintain  military  posts  on  the  east 
coast,  hold  the  islands  of  Ste  Marie  (east  coast) 
and  N6sib6  (north-west  coast);  and  in  1890  the 
English  government  formally  acknowledged  the 
French  protectorate  of  Madagascar,  but  this  has 
never  been  agreed  to  by  the  Malagasy  govern- 
ment. Up  to  the  middle  of  the  17th  century 
Madagascar  was  divided  into  a  number  of  inde- 
pendent chieftaincies  ;  about  that  time,  however, 
the  warlike  Sikalavas  made  themselves  masters 
of  the  western  half  of  the  island.  But  in  the 
early  part  of  the  19th  century  the  Hovas  threw 
off  the  Sikalava  yoke,  and,  with  the  aid  of 
English  arms  and  discipline,  made  themselves 
masters  of  almost  the  whole  of  Madagascar, 
Radama  I.  abolished  the  export  slave-trade,  and 
from  1820  encouraged  English  missionaries.  But 
under  Queen  Ranavalona  I.  the  missionaries 
and  Europeans  generally  were  obliged  to  leave 
(1836),  and  a  severe  persecution  of  the  native 
Christians  ensued.  Madagascar  was  reopened  to 
Europeans  at  the  accession  of  her  son  Radama 
II.  Queen  RAnavalona  II.,  and  her  husband, 
the  prime-minister,  identified  themselves  with 
Christianity  in  1868 ;  idols  were  burnt,  and  masses 
of  tlie  people  put  themselves  under  instruction  ; 
and  erelong  about  1600  Protestant  Christian  con- 
gregations liad  been  formed,  witli  about  280,000 
adherents,  besides  1300  schools,  with  100,000 
scholars.  The  Roman  Catholics  number  some 
50,000.  In  1883  tlie  Frencli  invaded  Madagascar, 
and  two  years  afterwards  it  became  a  French  pro- 
tectorate. Another  French  expedition  in  1895 
forced  Queen  Ranavalona  III.  to  confirm  the 
treaty  of  1885.  In  1896  the  country  was  declared 
a  French  colony ;  and  in  1897  the  queen  was  de- 
posed and  exiled.  The  French  regime,  peaceful 
and  on  the  whole  prosperous,  has  not  been 
favourable  to  Protestant  missions,  nor  to  British 
trade  witli  Madagascar.  See  works  on  Mada- 
gascar by  Ellis  (1838,  1858,  and  1870),  Sibree 
(1870-96),  Oliver  (1886),  Grandidier  (1876-1902), 
Dawson  (1895),  Foucart  (1899),  Killer  (1901),  and 
Matthews  (1904). 

Maddalo'nl,  a  city  of  Italy,  17  miles  by  rail 
NNE.  of  Naples.    Pop.  20,700. 

Madeira  (Maday'ra),  the  largest  (38  miles  by 
15)  of  a  small  group  of  islands  in  the  Nortli 
Atlantic,  390  miles  NW.  of  Morocco,  1164  SW. 
of  the  Lizard,  and  535  SW.  of  Lisbon.  Madeira 
(Portuguese,  'timber'),  first  settled  in  1419,  is 
treated  as  an  integral  province  of  Portugal,  send- 
ing representatives  to  the  Cortes  at  Lisbon. 
Pop.  (1881)  132,223 ;  (1905)  150,500.  Madeira  is 
traversed  by  a  mountain-chain  running  B.  and 
W.,  with  deep  ravines  between  the  lateral  ridges, 
the  most  notable  the  '  Grand  Curral,'  which  is 
more  than  2000  feet  deep.     The  islands  are  of 


MADEIRA 


437 


MADRAS  PRESIDENCY 


Volcanic  origin  ;  there  are  three  summits  between 
5895  and  6059  feet.  Slight  earthquakes  occur. 
The  south  is  treeless  and  arid  ;  the  north  side  is 
more  luxuriant  and  fertile,  with  wider  areas  of 
cultivated  ground ;  in  the  north-west  are  undu- 
lating grassy  plains.  The  coasts  are  steep 
and  precipitous,  the  only  harbour  being  that  of 
Funchal  (q.v.)  on  the  south  coast,  which  is  little 
better  than  an  open  roadstead.  The  clouds, 
attracted  by  the  mountains,  yield  plenty  of 
moisture,  and  the  climate  is  remarkable  for  its 
constancy ;  mean  temperature,  61°  F. ;  minimum, 
50°  F.  ;  while  in  the  hottest  days  of  summer  it 
seldom  rises  above  80° ;  90°  is  exceptional.  The 
average  rainfall  is  29  inches  ;  there  are  few  really 
wet  days.  The  temperate  and  constant  warmth  of 
its  climate  has  made  it  a  favourite  resort  for  in- 
valids affected  by  pulmonary  disease.  The  fruits 
and  grains  of  Europe  are  cultivated  on  the  lower 
levels;  the  products  include  wheat,  barley, 
Indian  corn,  the  potato,  oranges,  lemons,  guavas, 
mangoes,  figs,  and  bananas.  Travellers  praise  the 
golden  splendour  of  the  wide  expanses  of  gorse 
and  broom,  and  of  the  marvellous  masses  of 
colour  of  the  flora.  There  are  between  300  and 
400  genera  of  wild  flowering  plants.  Wine,  especi- 
ally that  known  as  Madeira,  is  the  chief  export. 
The  vines  were  nearly  exterminated  in  1852  and 
succeeding  years  by  oidium,  but  were  soon  re- 
planted ;  and  oidium  and  the  phylloxera  have 
since  been  kept  in  check  by  suljihur.  Sugar- 
canes  flourish.  The  inhabitants  are  of  mixed 
Portuguese,  Moorish,  and  Negro  descent;  they 
are  vigorous,  lively,  and  industrious.  A  great 
drawback  to  visitors  is  the  absence  of  roads. 
Loads  are  carried  on  the  head  by  natives,  and 
hammocks  and  sledges  drawn  by  bullocks  are 
used.  Roman  Catholicism  is  predominant.  At 
Funchal  (q.v.)  are  the  governor's  palace,  town- 
hall,  opera-house,  lyceum,  cathedral,  English 
church,  and  Scottish  Free  Church. 

See  works  by  White  (2d  ed.  1860),  Grabham 
(1869),  Piazzi  Smyth  (1882),  Miss  Taylor  (1882), 
Yate  Johnson  (1885),  Brown  (1890),  Fraser's 
Magazine  (1875),  and  Blackiuood  (1888). 

Madeira,  the  great  affluent  of  the  Amazon, 
has  its  origin  in  the  confluence  of  the  Mamor6 
and  Guapore,  at  about  12°  S.  lat.,  the  Beni 
joining  110  miles  lower  down.  The  river  then 
flows  north-east  to  the  Amazon,  the  distance 
from  its  mouth  to  its  first  falls  being  578  miles  ; 
above  this  point  navigation  is  broken  by  a  series 
of  nineteen  falls,  rapids,  and  cataracts. 

Mad'eley,  a  Shropshire  town,  on  the  Severn,  6 
miles  NE.  of  Much  Wenlock,  and  within  the 
municipal  limits  of  Wenlock,  with  ironworks  and 
coal  and  iron  pits.     Pop.  10,000. 

Mad'ison,  (1)  the  capital  of  Wisconsin,  founded 
in  1836  on  an  isthmus  between  Lakes  Mendota 
and  Monona,  82  miles  W.  of  Milwaukee.  It  con- 
tains the  state  capitol,  university  (founded  in 
1849,  and  open  to  both  sexes),  and  lunatic  asylum, 
and  has  manufactures  of  flour,  farming  imple- 
ments, machinery,  &c.  Pop.  19,426.— (2)  Capital 
of  Jefferson  county,  Indiana,  on  the  Ohio  River, 
86  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Indianapolis.  It  has 
flour-mills,  boiler  and  engine  works,  steamboat- 
yards,  and  manufactories  of  furniture  and  leather, 
besides  pork-packing  establishments.    Pop.  7936. 

Madras'  City  (native  Chemuipatnam)  is  situ- 
ated on  the  Coromandel  Coast  of  India  in  13°  4' 
N.  lat.  and  80°  17'  E.  long.,  and  is  the  capital  of 
the  presidency  of  the  same  name.  The  town, 
originally  a  number  of  separate  villages,  extends 
9  miles  along  the  shore,  and  covers  an  area  of  27 


sq.  m.  The  roadstead,  in  which  till  quite  recently 
all  ships  had  to  lie,  is  very  much  exposed  ;  a  pier 
was  erected  in  1859-62 ;  a  harbour  (1876)  was 
seriously  damaged  in  1881,  but  greatly  facilitates 
the  landing  of  cargo  during  rough  weather— pass- 
engers have  no  longer  to  cross  the  heavy  surf  in 
going  to  or  coming  from  steamers.  The  port  is 
liable  to  be  visited  by  cyclones  towards  the  end  of 
May  and  beginning  of  June,  when  the  south-west 
monsoon  sets  in,  and  in  October,  November,  and 
early  December,  during  the  prevalence  of  the 
north-east  monsoon.  The  climate  is  hot,  moder- 
ately dry,  and  on  the  whole  healthy,  the  rainfall 
averaging  49  inches,  and  the  mean  temperature 
82°  F.  On  the  shore,  midway  between  N.  artd  S., 
is  Fort  St  George  (1750),  the  original  settlement. 
North  of  the  fort  lies  Black  Town,  which  contains 
most  of  the  business  offices  and  a  crowded  native 
population  ;  south  of  it  lies  Triplicane,  the  chief 
Mohammedan  centre.  Inland  and  to  the  extreme 
south  lie  the  houses  chiefly  occupied  by  Euro- 
peans, most  of  which  stand  in  large  'compounds' 
surrounded  by  trees.  Madras  cannot  compete 
with  Calcutta  or  Bombay  in  magnificent  public 
buildings,  yet  Government  House,  the  Chepauk 
Palace,  the  Senate  House,  St  Andrew's  Kirk,  St 
George's  Cathedral  (with  Chantrey's  monument 
to  Bishop  Heber),  the  Madras  Club,  the  post- 
office,  and  the  new  High  Court  buildings  are 
worthy  of  note.  Many  of  the  buildings  are 
rendered  striking  by  the  free  use  of  polished 
chunavi  made  from  shell  lime.  The  Madras  Uni- 
versity, founded  in  1857,  is  simply  an  examining 
body,  the  teaching  being  done  by  affiliated  colleges 
throughout  the  presidency.  In  addition  to  col- 
leges for  the  study  of  arts,  medicine,  and  engineer- 
ing, there  are,  in  or  near  the  city,  a  School  of  Art, 
a  College  of  Agriculture,  a  branch  of  the  Royal 
Asiatic  Society,  and  a  large  museum,  containing 
very  valuable  collections  of  Indian  coins  and  of 
sculptured  marbles  from  the  Buddhist  '  tope '  at 
Amravati.  The  chief  articles  of  export  are  coffee, 
tea,  cotton,  grain,  hides^  indigo,  oil-seeds,  dye- 
stuffs,  sugar,  and  horns.  Pop.  (1871)  397,552; 
(1901)  509,346,  of  whom  between  4000  and  5000 
were  Europeans,  12,000  Eurasians,  54,000  Moham- 
medans, and  the  rest  chiefly  Hindus. 

Madras  Presidency,  one  of  the  administra- 
tive divisions  of  India,  occupies  the  southern 
part  of  the  peninsula.  It  extends  from  lat.  20° 
18'  on  the  east  coast  and  lat.  14°  on  the  west 
coast  to  Cape  Comorin  in  lat.  8°  4'.  The  total 
area,  excluding  native  states,  is  141,189  sq.  m.  ; 
and  the  pop.  in  1901  was  38,209,436.  (The  native 
states  have  an  area  of  10,000  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of 
4,188,000.)  Of  these  about  2i  millions  are  Moham- 
medans, and  1,030,000  Christians.  The  principal 
mountains  belong  to  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Ghats.  The  former  have  an  average  height  of  1500 
feet,  but  rise  in  parts  to  3000  or  4000  feet ;  the 
latter  have  a  greater  average  height,  with  a  num- 
ber of  peaks  rising  from  5000  to  8000  feet,  and  a  few 
even  higher.  A  central  tableland  includes  the 
native  states  of  Mysore  and  the  Deccan,  rising  to  a 
height  of  from  1000  to  3000  feet.  A  very  notable 
geographical  feature  is  the  PalghSt  Gap  in  the 
Western  Ghats,  25  miles  wide,  and  only  1000  feet 
above  sea-lcA'cl.  Through  it  passed  the  old  trade- 
route  between  the  west  and  east  coast,  now 
superseded  by  a  railway,  and  through  it  the 
south-west  monsoon  blows  strongly,  bringing 
rain  to  a  considerable  area  lying  east  of  it.  The 
Neilgherry  (Nilgiri)  Hills,  on  which  at  Ootaca- 
mund  is  the  summer  seat  of  the  government, 
may  be  looked  on  as  the  junction  of  the  Eastern 
and  Western  Ghats.    The  chief  rivers,  the  Goda- 


MADRID 


MADURA 


vari,  Kistna,  and  Kaveri,  all  rise  in  the  Western 
Ghats,  and  cross  the  peninsula  SE.  to  the  Bay  of 
Bengal.  Very  extensive  irrigation-works  have 
been  carried  out.  Railway  communication  is  ex- 
tensive ;  and  there  are  good  roads  in  most  parts 
of  the  presidency.  The  climate  differs  greatly  in 
different  parts.  Rice  is  the  chief  crop.  Cotton 
is  grown  in  the  drier  parts,  and  tobacco  of  ex- 
cellent quality  is  produced.  Trichinopoly  cigars 
and  cheroots  ai'e  increasingly  exported.  On  the 
hills  tea,  coffee,  and  cinchona  are  cultivated. 
The  manufacturing  industry  is  represented  by 
cotton,  sugar,  gunny  bags,  paper,  ice,  and  tiles. 
Madras  is  not  rich  in  minerals  ;  gold  is  found  in 
many  parts ;  excellent  iron  abounds ;  but  the 
want  of  fuel  prevents  any  great  development  of 
the  iron  industry.  Diamonds  have  been  largely 
found,  chiefly  in  the  Karnul  district.  The  forests 
are  now  protected  by  the  state,  and  are  of  great 
value,  especially  the  teak  forests. 

The  first  English  settlement  was  made  at 
Masulipatara  in  1611 ;  in  1616  on  the  west  coast  at 
Calicut  and  Cranganore  ;  and  in  1639  at  Madras. 
Christian  missions  have  made  more  progress  in 
Madras  than  in  any  other  part  of  India,  there  being 
over  240  Christians  in  every  10,000  inhabitants. 

Madrid'  (Span.  pron.  Madh-reedh'),  the  capital 
of  Spain,  is  situated  in  the  dep.  of  Madrid  (part 
of  the  ancient  province  of  New  Castile),  in  40° 
24'  N.  lat.  and  3°  25'  W.  long.,  880  miles  by  rail 
from  Paris.  It  is  built  on  a  treeless,  ill- watered 
plateau,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Manzanares,  2060 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  Manzanares  is 
merely  a  mountain-torrent  falling  into  the 
Jarama,  a  tributary  of  the  Tagus ;  water  is  brought 
from  the  Guadarrama  Mountains  by  an  aqueduct 
42  miles  in  length.  The  sole  recommendation  of 
Madrid  as  capital  is  its  central  position  in  the 
Peninsula.  Swept  during  winter  by  icy  winds 
from  the  snow-capped  mountains  on  the  north, 
and  exposed  in  summer  to  a  burning  sun,  it  has 
a  climate  which,  though  dry  and  bright,  shows 
extreme  variations  of  temperature  (104°  to  14°). 
The  average  of  the  eight  warmer  months  (March 
to  October)  is  66°  F.,  and  that  of  the  four  remain- 
ing ones  44°,  but  the  difference  at  the  same  time 
between  sun  and  shade  is  sometimes  as  great  as 
20°.  At  the  beginning  of  the  19th  century  the 
pop.  was  about  160,000  ;  in  1860  it  was  298,000 ; 
in  1870,  332,000 ;  and  in  1905,  550,000.  Madrid 
in  the  10th  century  was  known  as  Medina 
Magerit,  a  fortified  post  of  some  importance  on 
the  frontier  of  the  Moorish  kingdom  of  Toledo. 
Retaken  by  the  Christians  of  Castile  in  939,  it  was 
not  finally  conquered  till  1085.  On  the  high 
ground  where  the  royal  palace  now  stands  was 
the  stronghold  that  gave  the  place  celebrity. 
The  city  received  its  earliest  charter  in  1202, 
and  the  Cortes  were  first  held  in  it  by  Ferdi- 
nand VI.  (1309).  Under  Isabel  the  Catholic  it 
became  a  place  of  some  importance  owing  to 
the  more  frequent  presence  of  the  court.  It 
received  such  privileges  from  the  Emperor  Charles 
V.  that  its  pop.  rose  rapidly  from  3000  to 
6000  households.  When  in  1561  Madrid  was 
declared  capital  of  Spain  by  Philip  II.,  it  con- 
tained about  30,000  inhabitants.  With  the  court 
came  the  great  nobles,  who  built  palaces,  and 
innumerable  friars,  who  established  convents ; 
nevertheless  till  the  middle  of  the  17th  century 
the  city  presented  a  mean  appearance.  Philip 
IV.  made  some  improvements,  and  in  his  time 
Madrid,  though  still  unpaved  and  filthy,  was 
the  seat  of  one  of  the  most  brilliant  courts  of 
Europe.  The  greatest  benefactor  of  the  city  was 
Charleys   III.,   many  of  whose   splendid  works 


still  exist.  Madrid,  during  the  domination  of 
Napoleon,  made  a  gallant  attempt  (1808)  to 
shake  off  the  foreign  yoke ;  but  although  taken 
by  the  allied  forces  under  the  Duke  of  Wellington 
in  1812,  it  was  not  finally  rid  of  the  French  till 
1813.  Madrid,  aided  by  the  suppression  of  the 
convents  (1836),  the  introduction  of  railways 
(1850),  and  an  abundant  supply  of  good  water 
(1858),  has  rapidly  advanced  in  importance  and 
prosperity. 

The  general  aspect  of  the  city  is  clean  and  gay, 
whilst  the  older  parts  are  picturesque  ;  no  trace 
now  remains  of  the  mediseval  city.  The  new 
streets  are  generally  fine,  broad,  and  planted 
with  trees ;  the  houses  well  built,  lofty,  and 
inhabited  by  several  families  living  in  flats.  A 
great  feature  is  the  magnificent  open  spaces,  chief 
of  which  is  the  Prado,  running  north  and  south 
through  the  eastern  part  of  the  city,  and,  with 
its  continuations,  three  miles  long  :  it  contains 
four  handsome  fountains  with  groups  of  statuary, 
a  fine  obelisk  to  commemorate  the  gallant  struggle 
of  the  citizens  with  the  French  (May  2,  1808), 
monuments  to  Columbus,  Isabel  the  Catholic,  &c. 
The  picture-gallery  here,  founded  by  Charles  III., 
Is  one  of  the  finest  in  Europe,  and  contains  many 
of  the  masterpieces  of  Velasquez,  Murillo,  Raphael, 
Tintoretto,  Rubens,  Teniers,  and  Van  Dyck.  Two 
other  parks  are  the  Buen  Retiro,  the  fashionable 
promenade  on  the  east  of  the  city,  and  the  Casa 
de  CaTupo  on  the  west.  Midway  between  its  ex- 
tremities the  Prado  is  crossed  at  right  angles  by 
the  Calle  de  Alcala,  the  finest  street  in  the  city, 
about  a  mile  in  length,  and  leading  from  outside 
the  fine  triumphal  arch  rebuilt  by  Charles  III. 
to  the  Puerta  del  Sol,  the  square  which  is  the 
heart  of  Madrid ;  here  converge  the  principal 
tramway  lines,  and  in  it  and  the  streets  branch- 
ing off  from  it  are  situated  the  principal  shops 
and  places  of  business.  The  finest  square  is  the 
Plaza  Mayor,  formerly  the  scene  of  bull-fights 
and  autos-da-fe;  it  contains  a  gigantic  equestrian 
statue  of  Philip  III.,  its  founder.  On  the  west 
of  the  city  are  the  new  cathedral  and  the  royal 
palace  ;  the  latter,  commenced  in  1738  to  replace 
the  ancient  Alcazar,  which  had  been  burned  down, 
was  finished  in  1764  at  a  cost  of  £3,000,000. 
Other  fine  buildings  are  the  palace  of  justice, 
formerly  a  convent ;  the  houses  of  parliament ; 
Buena  Vista  Palace,  now  the  ministry  of  war ; 
and  the  new  national  bank.  Besides  a  flourish- 
ing university,  founded  by  Cardinal  Ximenes,  and 
two  high  schools,  Madrid  contains  120  municipal 
(besides  pauper)  schools,  with  an  aggregate  of 
12,000  pupils.  Madrid  is  well  provided  with 
newspapers  and  public  libraries,  the  chief  being 
the  National  Library,  with  more  than  half  a 
million  volumes,  and  the  library  of  the  university. 
The  opera-house  is  one  of  the  finest  in  the  world  ; 
all  the  theatres  must  by  law  be  lit  by  electricity. 
The  bull-ring,  situated  outside  the  gates  on  the 
east,  is  a  solid  structure  seating  14,000.  Iron- 
founding,  and  the  manufacture  of  furniture,  car- 
riages, and  fancy  articles  are  carried  on  on  a  small 
scale.  The  manufacture  of  tobacco  employs  many 
hands,  chiefly  women.  The  publishing  trade  is 
important,  and  books  are  well  printed  and  cheap. 
The  old  tapestry-factory  still  turns  out  beautiful 
work,  as  do  the  potteries  at  Moncloa. 

Madron,  a  Cornish  town,  2  miles  NW.  of 
Penzance.     Pop.  3755. 

Madii'ra,  a  maritime  district  of  India,  in  the 
south  of  Madras  Presidency,  is  bounded  E.  by  the 
Gulf  of  Manaar ;  it  has  an  area  of  8S08  sq.  m., 
and  a  pop.  of  2,908,404.    For  nearly  2300  years 


MADUSA 


4dd 


MAGENtA 


Madura,  its  chief  town  (pop.  above  102,000),  was 
the  capital  of  the  southernniost  part  of  India. 

Madura,  a  barren  Island  of  the  Dutch  East 
Indies,  separated  by  a  narrow  strait  from  the 
north-east  of  Java  (q.v.).  Area,  with  some  eighty- 
smaller  islands,  2040  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,773,948. 

Maeander  (now  Bojuk  Mender),  the  ancient 
name  of  a  river  of  Asia  Minor,  rising  in  Phrygia, 
and  flowing  240  miles  WSW.  to  the  iEgean  at 
Miletus.  Its  windings,  proverbial  since  Cicero's 
day,  are  after  all  nothing  remarkable. 

Maelstrom ('  grinding  stream  '),  a  famous  whirl- 
pool or  rather  current  between  Moskenas  and 
Mosken,  two  of  the  Lofoden  Isles  (q.v.).  The 
strait  is  regularly  navigated  at  high  tide  and 
low  tide,  though  in  one  place  the  water  is  always 
rough ;  and  in  high  winds  is  dangerous.  Tales 
(such  as  Poe's)  of  ships  sucked  down  into  the 
vortex  are  mere  fables. 

Maeshowe,  a  chambered  mound  in  the  Main- 
land of  Orkney,  9  miles  WNW.  of  Kirkwall.  It 
is  36  feet  high  and  92  in  diameter,  and  probably 
belongs  to  the  Stone  Age. 

Maesteg,  a  town  of  Glamorganshire,  on  the 
Llynvi,  9  miles  NW.  of  Bridgend.    Pop.  15,02a 

Maestricht  (Mdhs-trihht),  the  capital  of  the 
Dutch  province  of  Limbu^g,  19  miles  NNE.  of 
Liege  by  rail,  19  WNW.  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  and 
152  SSE.  of  Amsterdam.  It  lies  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  Meuse  or  Maas,  a  stone  bridge  (1683),  133 
yards  long,  connecting  it  with  the  suburb  of 
Wijk.  Formerly  an  important  fortress,  it  is  still 
a  garrison  town ;  but  the  fortifications  were 
dismantled  in  1871-78.  The  town-hall,  with  spire 
and  carillon  (1662),  contains  many  paintings  and 
a  library  ;  and  in  the  three-towered  church  of 
St  Servatius  (12-1 4th  century),  the  cathedral  once, 
is  a  '  Descent  from  the  Cross,'  by  Van  Dyck. 
But  Maestricht's  great  sight  is  the  subterranean 
quarries  of  the  Pietersberg,  formerly  called 
Mons  Hunnornm  (330  feet).  Their  labyrinthine 
passages,  12  feet  wide,  and  20  to  50  feet  high, 
number  16,000,  and  extend  over  an  area  of  13  by 
6  miles.  They  are  supposed  to  have  been  Avorked 
first  by  the  Romans,  and,  amongst  other  fossils, 
have  yielded  two  heads  of  the  huge  Mosasaurus. 
The  manufactures  include  glass,  earthenware, 
and  carpets.  Pop.  (1876)  29,083;  (1903)  35,320. 
Maestricht,  the  Roman  Trajechcvi  ad  Mosam,  was 
six  times  besieged  between  1579  and  1814,  and  in 
1830  withstood  the  insurgent  Belgians. 

Mafeking  {Md-fe-king'),  in  the  NE.  corner  of 
British  Bechuanaland,  near  the  Transvaal  fron- 
tier, and  on  the  railway  (1894)  from  Capetown  to 
the  northward— the  future  'Cape  to  Cairo  rail- 
way;' famous  for  its  defence  by  Baden-Powell 
in  the  Boer  war  of  1899-1902. 

Mafra,  a  town  of  Portugal,  20  miles  NW.  of 
Lisbon.  Pop.  3020.  The  palace  here  (1717-31), 
now  a  barrack,  contains  806  rooms,  and  a  library 
of  50,000  vols. 

Magadoxo,  or  Mukdishu,  a  port  on  the  east 
coast  of  Somaliland,  250  miles  NB.  of  the  mouth 
of  the  Juba  River ;  pop.  5000. 

Mag'dala,  anciently  a  village  of  Palestine,  on 
the  west  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

Magdala  (Mag-ddh'la),  a  hill- fortress  of  Abys- 
sinia, 300  miles  S.  of  Annesley  Bay  on  the  Red 
Sea,  stood  perched  on  a  plateau  9110  feet  above 
sea-level ;  the  stronghold  of  Theodore,  taken  and 
destroyed  by  the  English  expedition  in  1868 
under  Napier,  created  Lord  Napier  of  Magdala. 

Magdale'na,  the  principal  river  of  Colombia, 


rises  in  the  Central  Cordillera,  only  8  miles  from 
the  source  of  the  Caiica.  These  streams  flow 
north  on  either  side  of  the  Cordillera,  uniting 
about  130  miles  from  the  sea.  The  Magdalena, 
which  ends  in  a  large  delta,  is  closed  to  sea-going 
vessels  by  a  bar  ;  merchandise  is  conveyed  by  a 
railway  (18  miles)  from  Barranquilla  to  Puerto 
Colombia,  whence  it  is  navigable  for  500  miles. 

Mag'dalen  Islands,  a  small  group  near  the 
centre  of  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  54  miles  NW. 
of  Cape  Breton  Island.  The  largest  is  Coffin's 
Island.     Pop.  5172. 

Magdeburg  (Mag-de-ioorg),  the  capital  of  Prus- 
sian Saxony,  and  one  of  the  chief  fortresses  of 
the  German  empire,  90  miles  by  rail  SW.  of 
Berlin  and  72  N.  of  Leipzig.  It  lies  in  a  cheer- 
less country,  on  the  left  bank  mainly  of  the 
Elbe,  which,  here  280  yards  wide,  branches  into 
three  channels,  and  forms  two  islands.  On  the 
smaller  of  these  still  stands  the  Citadel  (1683- 
1702);  but  otherwise  the  old  fortifications  have 
since  1866  been  built  over  or  converted  into 
promenades,  their  place  being  taken  by  a  cordon 
of  thirteen  forts.  The  cruciform  Gothic  cathe- 
dral, rebuilt  between  1207  and  1550,  is  400  feet 
long,  and  has  two  western  towers  341  feet  high. 
It  contains  the  tombs  of  the  Emperor  Otho  the 
Great,  of  his  first  wife,  the  English  princess 
Editha,  and  of  Archbishop  Ernest,  whose  monu- 
ment (1497)  is  a  masterpiece  of  Peter  Vischer  of 
Nuremberg,  In  front  of  the  town-hall  (1691- 
1866)  is  the  equestrian  statue  of  Otho  (13th  cen- 
tury) ;  and  of  several  other  monuments  the  most 
noteworthy  are  the  Soldiers'  Memorial  (1877)  and 
a  statue  of  Luther  (1886).  The  industries  com- 
prise huge  ironworks,  distilleries,  cotton-mills, 
&c. ;  for  sugar  it  is  the  first  market  of  Germany. 
Pop.  (1875)  122,789  ;  (1900)  229,670,  of  whom  over 
15,000  are  Catholics,  and  2000  Jews.  Founded 
by  Charlemagne  in  805,  and  refounded  by  Editha 
after  its  destruction  by  the  Wends  in  924,  Magde- 
burg was  in  968  made  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishopric, and  had  40,000  inhabitants  in  1524, 
when,  embracing  the  Reformation,  it  incurred 
the  combined  wrath  of  emperor  and  primate.  It 
successfully  withstood  Maurice  of  Saxony  (1550) ; 
but  during  the  lliirty  Years'  War  it  suff'ered  fear- 
fully. In  1629  it  was  vainly  besieged  for  six 
months  by  Wallenstein  ;  in  May  1631,  after  an 
heroic  defence  (2000  against  25,000),  it  was  taken 
by  Tilly  and  burned  to  the  ground,  the  cathedral 
(reconsecrated  for  Catholic  worship)  being  almost 
all  that  remained  after  the  three  days'  sack,  in 
which  nearly  the  whole  pop.  of  36,000  perished 
by  fire  or  sword  or  drowning  in  the  river.  In 
1648  the  archbishopric  was  converted  into  a 
secular  duchy,  and  conferred  on  the  House  of 
Brandenburg.  In  1803  the  French  annexed  it  to 
the  kingdom  of  Westphalia ;  but  in  1814  it  was 
finally  restored  to  Prussia. 

Magee'  Island  (g  hard),  a  low-lying  peninsular 
portion  of  County  Antrim,  nearly  severed  from 
the  mainland  by  Lough  Larne. 

Magellan  (g  hard),  Strait  of,  separates  South 
America  from  Tierra  del  Fuego.  It  is  375  miles 
long,  and  its  breadth  varies  mostly  between  12 
and  17  miles.  Discovered  by  Magellan  in  1520, 
it  was  explored  by  King  and  Fitzroy  in  the  Adveji- 
ture  and  Beagle  (1826-36).  Tlie  narrower  western 
half  is  shut  in  by  steep,  wooded  mountains  ;  the 
current  runs  strong  through  it.  See  works  by 
Cunningham  (1878)  and  Miller  (1884). 

Magenta,  an  Italian  town,  18  miles  W.  of 
Milan.  Pop.  7573.  Here,  4th  June  1859,  the 
French  and  Sardinians  defeated  the  Austrians. 


MAGERO 


440 


MAINE 


Magero.    See  North  Cape. 

Magersfontein,  on  the  frontiers  of  Griqualand 
West  and  the  Orange  River  Colony,  where  in 
December  1899  Lord  Methiien  failed  to  carry  the 
Boer  entrenchments. 

Maggiore,  Lago  (Madjo'ray),  one  of  the  largest 
lakes  in  Italy,  is  partly  in  the  Swiss  canton  of 
Ticino.  It  is  39  miles  long,  and  ^  mile  to  5J 
miles  broad,  lies  646  feet  above  sea-level,  and  has 
a  maximum  depth  of  1250  feet.  The  river  Ticino 
flows  through  it.  In  a  south-western  expansion 
of  the  lake  are  the  Borromean  Isles  (q.v.). 

Maghera  (Mah'era),  a  market-town  of  London- 
derry, 44  miles  NW.  of  Belfast.     Pop.  879. 

Magne'sia,  an  ancient  city  of  Ionia  in  Asia 
Minor,  nearly  10  miles  NE.  of  Miletus,  in  the 
valley  of  the  Mseander.  Here  stood  a  famous 
temple  of  Artemis ;  and  here  Themistocles  died 
(449  B.C.).  It  was  called  Magnesia  ad  Meeandrum, 
to  distinguish  it  from  Magnesia  ad  Sipylum, 
which  stood  on  the  Hermus,  near  Mount  Sipylus  ; 
this  is  the  modern  Manissa  (pop.  60,000),  41  miles 
NE.  of  Smyrna  by  rail. 

Magus  Mulr,  a  place  in  Fife,  3J  miles  WSW.  of 
St  Andrews,  the  scene  in  1679  of  Archbishop 
Sharpe's  murder. 

Mahabaleshwar,  the  chief  sanatorium  of 
Bombay  Presidency,  on  the  eastern  slope  of  the 
Western  Ghats,  at  a  height  of  4717  feet,  and  74 
miles  S.  of  Poona  ;  pop.  3500. 

Mahanadi  ('  the  great  river '),  a  river  of  India, 
rises  in  the  Central  Provinces.  After  an  east- 
ward course  of  520  miles,  300  of  which  are  navi- 
gable, having  divided  into  several  branches  near 
Cuttack,  which  forms  the  head  of  its  delta,  it 
falls  by  several  mouths  into  the  Bay  of  Bengal. 

Mahanoy'  City,  a  mining-town  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 109  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Philadelphia, 
with  collieries  and  manufactories.    Pop.  13,286. 

Mah6,  the  only  French  settlement  on  the  west 
coast  of  India,  in  the  Malabar  district,  35  miles 
NNW.  of  Calicut.    Area,  8|  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  9280. 

Mahi  Kantha  Agency,  a  group  of  fifty-two 
native  states  in  Bombay  Presidency.  Of  the  total 
area  of  9300  sq.  m.,  nearly  half  belongs  to  the 
state  of  Edar  or  Idar.     Pop.  381,568. 

Mahon.    See  Port  Mahon. 

Maida  Hill,  a  NW.  suburb  of  London. 
"  Maidenhead,  a  municipal  borough  and  mar- 
ket-town of  Berkshire,  is  situate  amidst  beauti- 
ful scenery,  13  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Reading,  and  26 
W.  of  London,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames. 
It  was  the  scene  in  1399  of  an  engagement  between 
the  rival  forces  of  Richard  II.  and  Henry  IV., 
and  in  1647,  at  the  Greyhound  Inn,  of  the  inter- 
view of  Charles  I.  with  his  children.  On  the 
opposite,  or  Bucks,  side  of  the  river  is  Taplow 
(pop.  1029),  whose  wooded  slopes  are  crowned  by 
Cliveden  (q.v.).  Maidenhead  has  a  recjreation 
ground  of  12  acres,  opened  in  1890.  Pop.  (1851) 
3697  ;  (1901)  12,980. 

Maidstone,  the  county  town  of  Kent,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Medway,  34  miles  ESE.  of 
London  by  road  (41^  by  rail),  and  25  W.  of 
Canterbury.  At  its  west  entrance,  overlooking 
the  river,  which  is  spanned  by  a  three-arch  stone 
bridge,  built  1877-79  at  a  cost  of  £55,000,  stand 
the  picturesque  remains  of  All-Saints'  College, 
originally  established  in  1260  as  a  hospital  for 
pilgrims  travelling  to  Canterbury.  Close  by  is 
All-Saints'  Church,  a  fine  example  of  the  Per- 
pendicular style,  built  towards  the  end  of  the 
14th  century.    Schools  of  art  and  music  occupy 


a  former  palace  of  the  archbishops  of  Canter- 
bury ;  and  other  features  of  interest  are  a  gram- 
mar-school, founded  1549,  and  rebuilt  on  a  new 
site,  1871 ;  museum  and  public  librarv,  estab- 
lished 1858  in  Chillington  House;  town-hall 
(1764) ;  county  jail  (1812-19) ;  hospital  (1832-89) ; 
cavalry  and  militia  barracks ;  corn  exchange 
(1835) ;  and  a  public  park  on  Penenden  Heath  to 
the  NE.  of  the  town.  Lining  the  river-banks  are 
numerous  paper-mills  and  a  large  oil-mill,  whilst 
several  breweries  are  in  operation,  and  an  import- 
ant traffic  is  carried  on  in  hops.  Maidstone  re- 
turned two  members  till  1885,  when  the  number 
was  reduced  to  one,  and  was  first  incorporated 
as  a  municipal  borough  in  1548.  Pop.  (1801) 
8027  ;  (1831)  15,387  ;  (1901)  33,516.  Maidstone 
was  stormed  in  1648  by  Fairfax.  Woollett  the 
engraver,  Hazlitt  the  essayist,  and  Newman 
Hall  were  natives ;  and  Sir  Thomas  Wyatt  the 
poet  lived  at  Allington  Castle,  2  miles  distant. 
See  Avorks  by  J.  M.  Russell  (1881)  and  the  Rev. 
J.  Cave-Browne  (1889). 

Maimana  (Ml'tnana),  a  mountainous  state 
tributary  since  1874  to  Afghanistan,  situated  on 
the  northern  frontier  next  Russian  Turkestan. 
Area,  4750  sq.  m. ;  pop.  of  100,000,  mostly  warlike 
Uzbegs  and  Tajiks.  The  capital  is  Maimana 
(pop.  2500). 

Maimansingh,  a  district  of  Eastern  Bengal, 
the  capital  of  which  is  Nasirabad.  Area,  6332 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  3,917,500. 

Maimatchin  (Ml-ma-cheen'),  a  Chinese  trading- 
town  on  the  northern  boundary  of  Mongolia, 
opposite  Kiachta  (q.v.)-     Pop.  3000. 

Main  (Ger.  pron.  Mhie),  the  largest  aflluent  the 
Rhine  receives  from  the  right,  is  formed  by  the 
union  of  two  branches,  the  White  and  the  Red 
Main,  4  miles  below  Kulmbach,  in  north-east 
Bavaria.  The  river  flows  westwards  by  huge 
zigzags  past  Bamberg,  Schweinfurt,  Wiirzburg, 
Aschaff'enburg,  Hanau,  Offenbach,  and  Frank- 
fort, and  mingles  its  yellow  waters  with  the 
green  current  of  the  Rhine  opposite  Mainz,  after 
a  total  course  of  307  miles  (205  navigable).  The 
chief  afl^uents  are,  on  the  right,  the  Saale,  and 
on  the  left,  the  Regnitz.  The  Main  flows 
through  a  beautiful  country,  the  castled  hill- 
slopes  covered  with  vineyards.  Its  waters  com- 
municate with  those  of  the  Danube  by  the 
Ludwigs-Kanal  and  the  Altmiihl.  The  Main 
separates  North  Germany  from  South  Germany. 

Maine,  an  old  French  province  (capital,  Le 
Mans),  with  Normandy  on  the  N.,  Brittany  on 
the  W.,  and  Anjou  on  the  S.,  corresponding  to 
the  modern  deps.  of  Sarthe  and  Mayenne. 

Maine,  the  north-easternmost  state  of  the 
American  Union,  is  bounded  by  the  Canadian 
provinces  of  Quebec  and  New  Brunswick,  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  (Gulf  of  Maine),  and  New  Hamp- 
shire. Area,  33,040  sq.  m.  (somewhat  larger  than 
Ireland),  of  which  one-tenth  is  water,  there  being 
many  large  and  fine  lakes  (Moosehead,  Chesun- 
cook,  Schoodic,  Grand,  Sebago,  &c.)  and  import- 
ant rivers  (Penobscot,  Kennebec,  Androscoggin, 
Saco,  St  Croix,  Aroostook,  and  Walloostook  or 
St  John).  Measured  in  a  direct  line  the  coast 
extends  some  270  miles,  but  counting  sinuosities 
and  the  island-shores  about  2500  miles.  The 
rocky  coast-line,  broken  by  the  force  of  the 
waves  and  trenched  in  bygone  ages  by  glaciers, 
forms  almost  a  hundred  harbours.  Towards  the 
south-west  the  shore  is  sandy,  with  salt-marshes. 
In  the  north-central  regions  and  the  west  the 
surface  is  mountainous.  The  highest  mountain 
is  Katahdin  (5385  feet).    The  soil  is  mostly  stony 


MAINE-ET-LOIRE 


441 


MAJUBA  HILL 


and  hard,  as  in  New  England  generally,  but  some 
sections  are  very  fertile — e.g.  the  Aroostook  region 
in  the  north-east.  The  northern  portion  of  the 
state  is  densely  wooded  and  very  sparsely 
peopled.  Granite  and  lime  are  largely  produced ; 
traces  of  coal  are  found ;  and  there  are  local 
beds  of  valuable  graphite.  Silver,  copper,  felspar, 
flagstone,  excellent  slate  (in  vast  quantities),lead 
ores,  talc,  manganese,  &c.,  are  all  wrought  more 
or  less.  Mineral  waters  are  shipped  in  large 
quantities.  The  cool  climate  and  the  oppor- 
tunities for  fishing  and  shooting  make  this  state  a 
favourite  summer-resort.  The  winter  climate  is 
severe  for  the  latitude.  The  leading  crops  are 
hay,  potatoes,  apples  (of  excellent  quality),  and 
the  ordinary  grains  and  small  fruits.  The 
sweet  varieties  of  maize  (sugar-corn)  are  exten- 
sively cultivated.  The  rainfall  is  copious.  The 
rivers  afford  an  enormous  water-power.  Tim- 
ber, building-stone,  ice,  cattle,  wool,  and  farm 
products  are  shipped,  Maine  has  considerable 
shipbuilding  (more  than  any  other  state),  and 
the  coasting  trade  is  carried  on  largely.  The 
fishing  interests  are  extensive.  The  principal 
manufactures  are  cotton  and  woollen  goods, 
leather,  boots  and  shoes,  flour,  paper,  and  foun- 
dry products,  lumbering,  shipbuilding,  the  can- 
ning of  fruit  and  lobsters,  &c.  The  chief  towns 
are  Portland,  Lewiston,  Bangor,  Biddeford, 
Auburn,  Augusta  (the  state  capital),  Bath,  Rock- 
land, &c.  The  Maine  Liquor  I^aw,  one  of  the  ear- 
liest of  the  stringent  Liquor  Laws  of  the  United 
States,  was  enacted  in  1851.  The  population  is 
mainly  of  the  English  Puritan  stock  of  New  Eng- 
land. Pop.  (1820)  298,335;  (1860)  628,279;  (1880) 
648,936  ;  (1900)  694,466,  including  nmny  French- 
speaking  Canadian  immigrants,  and  a  few  Indians. 
Early  Dutch,  English,  and  French  attempts  at 
settlement  were  failures ;  the  Puritan  settlements 
of  1624  and  1630  proved  permanent.  Western 
Maine  was  long  part  of  Massachusetts  state  (till 
1820);  and  eastern  Maine  until  1691  formed  a 
part  of  Acadia  or  Nova  Scotia.  Maine  became 
a  state  in  1820.  See  G.  J.  Varney,  Brief  History 
of  Maine  (Portland,  1889). 

Malne-et-Lolre  (Mayn-ay-Ltodr),  a  French  dep. 
formed  out  of  the  old  province  of  Anjou,  and 
watered  by  the  Maine  and  Loire,  is  divided  into 
the  arrondissements  of  Angers  (the  capital), 
Beauge,  Cholet,  Sauraur,  and  Segre.  Area,  2749 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872)  518,471  ;  (1901)  514,658. 

Malnpuri  (Mlne-poo'ree),  a  town  of  the  Indian 
province  of  Agra,  75  miles  E.  of  Agra.  Pop. 
20,000.  ^ 

Mainz  (Ger.  pron.  Mlntz;  Fr.  form  Mayence; 
old-fashioned  English  form  Mentz),  an  imperial 
fortress  of  the  first  rank,  in  the  grand-duchy  of 
Hesse,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  opposite  the 
junction  of  the  Main,  22  miles  WSW.  of  Frankfort. 
The  Rhine  is  here  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge  (super- 
seding in  1885  the  former  pontoon  bridge)  to  the 
village  of  Kastel,  included  in  the  fortifications,  and 
by  an  iron  railway  bridge,  140  yards  long,  to  the 
port  of  Gustavsberg,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Main. 
Pop.  (1875)  56,421;  (1900)  84,251,  of  whom  two- 
thirds  are  Roman  Catholics  ;  in  the  14th  century 
it  is  said  to  have  reached  90,000.  Mainz  is  one  of 
the  most  ancient  cities  in  Germany  ;  but  its  oldest 
part,  Kdstrich,  has  been  rebuilt  in  a  modern 
style  since  its  almost  total  destruction  in  1857 
by  the  explosion  of  a  powder-magazine ;  while 
a  handsome  new  quarter  has  sprung  up  on  the 
north,  in  the  space  aflforded  by  the  advancing 
of  the  fortifications  in  1874.  The  cathedral, 
originally  built  in  978-1009,  was  thrice  destroyed 


by  fire,  and  dates  in  its  present  form  from  the 
13-14th  century.  In  1870-78  it  was  thoroughly 
restored,  and  the  present  central  Romanesque 
tower,  270  feet  high,  built.  There  are  also  the 
18th-century  palace  of  the  grand-duke,  an  arsenal 
of  1736,  and  the  large  red-sandstone  electoral 
palace,  with  a  library  of  150,000  vols.,  and  the 
Romano-German  Museum,  a  matchless  anti- 
quarian and  historical  collection.  Mainz  is  an 
important  centre  of  the  Rhine  trade  with  Hol- 
land and  Belgium,  and  also  carries  on  a  very 
large  transit  trade  by  raihvay.  Great  harbour- 
works,  docks,  and  storehouses,  were  opened  in 
1887  at  a  cost  of  £250,000 ;  while  the  Rhine  is 
skirted  by  a  broad  quay,  four  miles  long.  Furni- 
ture, leather  goods,  machinery,  musical  instru- 
ments, chemicals,  gold  and  silver  ware,  hats, 
soaj),  &c.,  are  among  the  manufactures ;  and 
brewing,  printing,  and  market-gardening  in 
the  environs  are  also  important  industries. 
In  13  B.C.  Drusus  built  here  the  fort  of  Mog%int- 
iacuvi  or  Maguntiacum.  The  real  importance 
of  the  town  dates,  however,  from  the  Prank- 
ish emperors.  In  the  13th  century  Mainz  was 
the  head  of  the  confederacy  of  the  Rhenish  cities, 
but  in  1462  it  was  added  to  the  domains  of  the 
archbishops  of  Mainz,  the  premier  spiritual  elec- 
tors of  the  empire.  The  city  was  several  times 
in  the  possession  of  France,  notably  in  1801-14. 
In  1816  it  was  assigned  to  Hesse-Darmstadt,  but 
to  remain  a  federal  stronghold,  garrisoned  by 
Prussian  and  Austrian  troops.  After  1866  it  was 
held  by  Prussian  troops,  until  in  1870  it  was 
declared  an  imperial  German  fortress.  Mainz 
was  the  birthplace  of  Gutenberg. 

Maitland,  a  town  of  New  South  Wales,  93  miles 
NNE.  of  Sydney  by  rail,  and  20  NW.  of  New- 
castle. It  is  divided  by  the  Hunter  River  into 
East  and  West  Maitland,  which  are  separate 
municipalities.  The  town  is  the  see  of  a  Roman 
Catholic  bishop;  and  West  Maitland  has  mills, 
coach-building,  tobacco,  and  boot  factories.  Good 
coal  abounds  in  the  neighbourliood.  Pop.  of  tlte 
two  municipalities,  12,000. 

Maiwand,  50  miles  NW.  of  Kandahar,  where 
an  English  army  was  defeated  by  Ayub  Khan, 
27th  July  1880. 

Majorca  (Ma-yor'ca),  or  Mallorca,  the  largest 
of  the  Balearic  Isles  (q.v.),  lies  about  100  miles 
from  the  Spanish  coast,  and  150  N.  of  Algiers. 
It  is  60  miles  long  by  40  broad,  and  1310  sq.  m. 
in  area.  In  the  north  there  are  mountains  reach- 
ing 3500  to  5000  feet.  The  hillsides  are  terraced  ; 
olive  groves  abound  everywhere,  and  vine,  almond, 
orange,  fig,  and  other  fruit  trees  are  common. 
The  soil  is  extraordinarily  fertile,  and  is  culti- 
vated with  marvellous  patience  and  skill  by 
the  inhabitants,  who  manufacture  cloth,  cotton 
goods,  ropes,  silk,  soap,  shoes,  &c.  There  are 
railways  (total  48  miles)  connecting  the  capital, 
Palma  (pop.  65,052),  with  Manacor  (19,570),  and 
La  Puebla  (5680).  The  marshes  of  Albufera  (5000 
acres)  were  drained  by  a  London  company  in 
1865-71.  Raymond  LuUy  was  born  at  Palma ; 
at  Valdemosa'  George  Sand  resided  in  1838 ;  and 
at  Miramar  is  the  beautiful  seat  of  an  Austrian 
archduke.  Large  quantities  of  lustred  ware 
(Majolica)  were  exported  in  the  15th  century ;  a 
little  is  still  made.    Pop.  253,650. 

See  Bidwell's  Balearic  Isles  (1876)*,  the  siimp- 
tuous  Balearen  in  Wort  und  Bild  (5  vols.  1869-84), 
by  Archduke  Ludwig  Salvator ;  and  C.  W.  Wood, 
Letters  from  Majorca  (1889). 

Maju'ba  Hill,  in  the  extreme  north  of  Natal, 
was  the  scene  of  the  defeat  of  648  British  troops, 


MAKO 


442 


MALDOH 


with  the  loss  of  their  leader,  Sir  George  Colley, 
by  a  greatly  superior  force  of  Transvaal  Boers 
on  27th  February  1881. 

Make,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  on  the 
Maros,  19  miles  ESB.  of  Szegedin.    Pop.  35,663. 

Malabar',  a  district  (5585  sq.  m.)  on  the  south- 
west coast  of  India,  in  the  Presidency  of  Madras. 
Pop.  2,852,565,  over  two-thirds  Hindus,  and  one- 
fourth  Mohammedans.  The  name  is  applied  to 
the  whole  SW.  coast  of  Southern  India. 

Malac'ca,  or  Malay  Peninsula,  anciently 
the  Golden  Chersonese,  the  long  strip  of  land 
extending  from  Indo-China  S.  and  SE.  towards 
Sumatra.  The  peninsula  begins  at  the  head 
of  the  Gulf  of  Siam,  and  thus  includes  part 
of  Siam  proper  and  Tenasserim  in  Burma ;  but 
it  is  usual  to  limit  the  name  to  the  portion 
south  of  the  river  Pakshan,  the  frontier  of 
Tenasserim.  In  the  larger  sense  Malacca  extends 
from  13°  30'  to  1°  16'  N.  lat.,  and  its  area  is 
75,000  sq.  m.,  of  which  40,000  belong  to  Siam, 
and  the  remainder  to  the  Straits  Settlements 
and  their  dependencies,  the  protected  states. 
The  width  varies  from  44  miles  at  the  isthmus 
of  Kra  to  210  at  Perak.  The  interior  consists 
mainly  of  magnificently-wooded  mountain-ranges, 
disposed  parallel  to  the  long  axis  of  the  peninsula 
(Mount  Riam  is  8000  feet  high),  while  along  the 
coast  there  are  mangrove  swamps,  half-a-dozen 
miles  deep,  backed  by  low  fertile  plains  reaching 
to  the  mountains.  A  double  belt  of  islands  runs 
along  parts  of  both  coasts.  The  peninsula  is 
the  richest  tin-yielding  region  in  the  world.  The 
tin  ore  occurs  in  con.j  unction  with  gold  and  silver ; 
iron  and  coal  exist,  the  former  in  great  quantity. 
The  climate  is  pretty  uniform  all  the  year  round. 
The  low  districts  are  hot  and  moist,  and  neither 
they  nor  the  highlands  arejiealthy  for  Europeans. 
Rain  falls  on  190  days  in  the  year.  Pop.  1,200,000 
— 800,000  in  British  territory  and  dependencies. 
They  are  mainly  Siamese  in  the  north,  civilised 
Malays  along  the  coast  and  in  the  south,  and 
uncivilised  Malays,  mixed  with  aboriginal  Negrito 
tribes,  in  the  interior.  The  crops  chiefly  culti- 
vated are  rice,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  tobacco,  yams, 
batata,  and  cocoa  and  areca  nuts.  Politically, 
Siam  extends  as  far  south  as  5°  30'  on  the  west 
coast,  and  to  4°  on  the  east  coast.  The  southern 
portion  embraces  the  British  settlements  Penang, 
Malacca,  and  Singapore,  all  treated  in  separate 
articles,  and  the  protected  states  (Johore,  Perak, 
&c.).  See  Miss  Bird's  Golden  Chersonese  (1883), 
and  Keane's  Malay  Peninsula  (1887). 

The  Strait  of  Malacca  separates  the  Malay  Pen- 
insula on  the  north-east  from  the  island  of 
Sumatra  on  the  south-west,  and  connects  the 
Indian  Ocean  with  the  Chinese  Sea.  It  is  480 
miles  long,  and  from  30  to  115  broad. 

Malacca,  one  of  the  British  Straits  Settle- 
ments, on  the  SW.  coast  of  the  Malay  Peninsula, 
100  miles  from  Singapore.  It  is  42  miles  in 
length,  and  from  8  to  25  broad.  Area,  659  sq.  m. ; 
population, 100,000.  The  coast-lands  are  flat  and 
swampy  ;  inland  there  are  low  hills.  Besides  rice, 
the  chief  products  are  tapioca,  pepper,  fruits, 
&c.  Tin  is  mined.  The  mean  annual  rainfall 
varies  from  68  to  91  inches.  The  town  of  Malacca 
(the  capital),  at  the  mouth  of  a  small  river,  has  a 
pop.  of  20,000,  and  contains  the  church  of  Our 
Lady  del  Monte,  the  scene  of  the  labours  of  St 
Francis  Xavier.  Malacca  was  taken  by  the  Portu- 
guese in  1511 ;  became  a  Dutch  possession  in 
1641,  and  fell  in  1795  into  the  hands  of  the  British, 
who  restored  it  to  the  Dutch  in  1818 ;  but  they 
returned  it  to  Britain  in  1824. 


Maladetta  ('accursed'),  a  great  mountain  of 
the  Pyrenees,  12  miles  SE.  of  Bagneres  de  Luchon, 
containing  the  highest  peak  of  the  whole  range, 
the  Pic  de  Nethou  (11,170  feet). 

Ma'laga,  a  Spanish  seaport  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, 65  miles  NE.  of  Gibraltar.  Sheltered  on 
the  north  and  east  by  mountains,  and  with  a 
wonderfully  dry,  sunny,  and  equable  climate 
(56°  to  82°  F.),  this  place  is  an  admirable  health- 
resort.  The  only  noteworthy  buildings  are  the 
cathedral  (1528-1765;  still  unfinished)  and  the 
Moorish  castle  (13th  c. ;  on  the  site  of  a  former 
Phoenician  stronghold).  Malaga  is  one  of  the 
most  important  seaports  of  Spain,  though  disease 
in  vines  and  orange  and  lemon  groves,  heavy  octroi 
duties,  unscientific  methods  of  agriculture  and 
of  extracting  olive-oil,  have  caused  depression. 
The  exports  include  olive-oil,  wine,  raisins,  lead, 
almonds,  lemons,  grapes,  chick  peas,  and  esparto 
grass ;  the  imports,  cotton,  timber,  coal,  petro- 
leum, sugar,  and  codfish.  The  harbour  is  pro- 
tected by  two  large  moles.  The  manufactures 
comprise  cotton  and  linen  goods,  machinery,  art 
pottery,  flour,  soap,  &c.  Pop.  (1900)  130,200. 
Founded  by  the  Phoenicians,  and  the  Malaca  of 
the  Romans,  the  town  was  an  important  city 
under  the  Moors,  down  to  1487,  when  it  was 
captured  by  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.— Area  of 
province  of  Malaga,  2836  sq.  m. ;  pop.  512,000. 

Malar,  Lake,  most  beautiful  of  Swedish  lakes, 
is  80  miles  in  length  from  E.  to  W.,  and  has 
numerous  long  narrow  arms  and  offsets  ;  area, 
650  sq.  m.  It  is  studded  with  over  1200  wooded 
islands.  Its  east  end  is  close  by  Stockholm, 
where  its  waters  are  poured  into  the  Baltic. 

Malatia  (anc.  Melitene),  a  town  in  the  province 
of  Diarbekir  in  Asia  Minor,  8  miles  from  the 
Euphrates.    Pop.  20,000. 
Malay  Peninsula.    See  Malacca. 
Mal'degem,  a  town  of  Belgium,  12  miles  by 
rail  E.  of  Bruges.     Pop.  8522. 

Maiden,  a  village  of  Surrey,  3  miles  SE.  of 
Kingston-upon-Thames.  The  manor-liouse  and 
estate  here  of  Bishop  Walter  de  Merton  was  the 
original  endowment  (1264)  of  Merton  College  at 
Oxford.  New  Maiden  is  2  miles  E.  of  Kingston, 
of  which  it  is  practically  a  suburb. 

Maiden,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  5  miles  by 
rail  N.  of  Boston.  It  manufactures  india-rubber 
goods,  cords  and  tassels,  sand-paper,  &c.  Pop. 
(1880)  12,017  ;  (1900)  33,664. 

Maiden  Island,  a  British  possession  in  the 
Central  Pacific,  NW.  of  the  Marquesas.  It  is  a 
coral  island  5  miles  long  by  4  broad,  and  has 
deposits  of  guano.    Pop.  168. 

Maldive  Islands,  a  chain  of  coral  atolls  in 
the  Indian  Ocean,  lying  SW.  of  Ceylon,  550  miles 
in  length  by  45  in  breadth  ;  the  seventeen  groups 
embrace  several  hundred  islands,  all  small,  with 
a  total  pop.  of  30,000.  Less  than  200  are  inhabited. 
Male  (pop.  2000),  the  residence  of  the  Sultan,  is 
1  mile  long.  The  people  are  closely  akin  to  the 
Singhalese.  They  are  Mohammedans  by  religion, 
and  are  peaceful,  aifectionate,  and  cleanly.  Coir, 
cowries,  dried  bonito  fish,  cocoa-nuts  and  copra, 
and  tortoise-shell  are  exported.  Ibn  Batuta  lived 
on  the  islands  in  1343-44.  The  Portuguese  had 
factories  there  after  1518.  Since  1645  they  have 
been  dependent  on  Ceylon. 

Maldon,  a  municipal  borough  of  Essex,  9  miles 
E.  of  Chelmsford  and  38  NE.  of  London  (by  rail 
44),  stands  on  a  hill  near  the  confluence  of  the 
Chelmer  and  the  Blackwater,  in  the  vicinity  of 
which  traces  are  still  extant  of  a  Roman  encamp- 


MAT.DON 


443 


MALtA 


ment.  It  has  two  fine  churches,  and  a  quaint 
town  01'  moot  hall  dating  from  the  reign  of 
Henry  VI.,  and  manufactures  salt;  near  it  are 
oyster-fisheries.  From  1328  to  1867  Maldon  re- 
turned two  members  to  parliament,  and  thence 
to  1885  one.     Pop.  (1801)  2358  ;  (1901)  5505. 

Maldon,  a  town  of  Talbot  county,  Victoria,  80 
miles  NE.  of  Melbourne,  It  is  the  centre  of  a 
good  gold  district.     Pop.  3600. 

Maldona'do,  a  coast  dep.  in  Uruguay ;  area, 
1584  sq.  m. ;  pop.  27,000.— Also  a  fortified  seaport 
in  same  department ;  pop.  2500. 

Malines  {Md-leen'),  or  Mechlin  (Flem.  Mech- 
elen),  a  city  of  Belgium,  on  the  navigable  Dyle, 
14  miles  SSE.  of  Antwerp.  It  has  fine  squares, 
noble  buildings,  and  Avide  regular  streets,  but 
is  devoid  of  all  signs  of  life  and  industry.  As 
the  see  of  the  primate  of  Belgium  it  still  retains 
a  certain  degree  of  ecclesiastical  importance,  and 
possesses  numerous  churches,  the  most  note- 
worthy of  which  is  St  Rombold's  cathedral,  a 
vast  building,  covering  nearly  two  acres,  its 
interior  adorned  with  Van  Dyck's  '  Crucifixion ' 
and  many  other  fine  pictures  and  carvings.  It 
was  mostly  built  in  1437-52,  but  its  clock-tower, 
324  feet  high,  remains  unfinished.  The  churches 
of  St  John  and  of  Our  Lady  contain  works  by 
Rubens  ;  the  town-hall  dates  from  the  15th  cen- 
tury ;  the  Cloth  Hall  (1340)  is  now  used  as  a 
guard-house ;  noteworthy  also  are  the  splendid 
modern  archiepiscopal  palace,  the  Beguinage,  the 
Salm  inn  (1534),  and  the  monument  to  Margaret 
of  Austria  (1849).  The  manufacture  of  pillow- 
lace,  so  famous  in  the  17th  century,  has  been 
largely  transferred  to  Brussels  and  elsewhere ; 
but  linen  and  woollen  fabrics,  beer,  needles,  &c. 
are  made  here.    Pop.  57,000. 

Mallaig,  a  hamlet  in  the  NW.  comer  of  Morar, 
Inverness-sliire,  where  Loch  Nevis  unites  with 
the  Sound  of  Sleat,  the  terminus  of  an  extension 
from  Fort  William,  opened  in  1901,  of  the  West 
Highland  Railway. 

Mailing,  West,  a  market-town  of  Kent,  5^ 
miles  NW.  of  Maidstone.  It  has  remains  of 
a  Benedictine  nunnery  (1090).  Pop.  of  parish, 
2320.    See  a  work  by  C.  H.  Fielding  (1893). 

Mallow,  a  watering-place  of  Ireland,  beauti- 
fully situated  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Blackwater, 
20  miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  of  Cork.  Across  the 
river  is  the  suburb  of  Ballydaheen.  The  town 
is  resorted  to  in  summer  on  account  of  its  tepid 
mineral  waters,  and  contains  a  neat  spa-house. 
Close  by  is  the  ivied  ruin  of  the  Desmonds'  castle, 
destroyed  in  1641,  and  the  ISth-century  Mallow 
Castle.  Tanning  and  some  small  manufactures 
are  carried  on.  Pop.  (1851)  5436 ;  (1901)  3016. 
Till  1885  Mallow  returned  one  member. 

Mallwyd  (Mal'lud),  a  Merionethshire  village, 
on  the  Dyfi,  2  miles  SE.  of  Dinas  Mowddwy.  It 
is  a  great  haunt  of  artists  and  fishermen. 

Malmaison,  a  chateau  on  the  Seine's  left 
bank,  10  miles  W.  of  Paris.  It  has  memories  of 
Richelieu,  the  Empress  Josephine,  and  Maria 
Christina  of  Spain,  and  was  restored  by  Napoleon 
III.  in  1861. 

Malmedy  (Mdl-may-dee'),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  on  the  Warche,  51  miles  S.  by  rail  of 
Aix-la-Chapelle.  Here  in  1894  the  German  govern- 
ment established  a  fortified  camp.    Pop.  5078. 

Malmesbury  (Mdmsfbury),  an  old-world  mar- 
ket-town of  Wiltshire,  on  a  bold  eminence  be- 
tween two  head-streams  of  the  Avon,  26  miles 
by  rail  NNE.  of  Bath  and  17  WNW.  of  Swindon. 
It  owes  its  name  to  Maildulf,  an  Irish  missionary. 


Aldhelm,  his  scholar,  became  about  673  first 
abbot  of  the  famous  abbey  here,  in  which 
Athelstan  was  buried,  and  of  which  William  of 
Malmesbury  (c.  1095-1143)  was  librarian  and  pre- 
centor. To  his  time  belong  the  building  of  a 
short-lived  castle,  and  the  rebuilding  (aLso  by 
Bishop  Roger  of  Salisbury)  of  the  abbey  church, 
which.  Transition  Norman  in  style,  and  cruci- 
form in  plan,  with  a  central  spire,  was  350  feet 
long.  Little  more  than  the  nave— now  the  parish 
church— remains  ;  but  this  is  a  most  interesting 
fragment,  its  finest  feature  the  south  porch.  At 
the  Dissolution  (1539)  the  mitred  Benedictine 
abbey  became  a  cloth-factory.  A  beautiful 
market-cross  (temp.  Henry  VII.)  is  also  note- 
worthy. Hobbes  was  a  native.  Malmesbury 
returned  two  members  till  1832,  and  then  one  till 
1885.  It  was  incorporated  in  1886.  Pop.  2864. 
See  works  by  Moftatt  (1805),  Sir  T.  Phillipps 
(1831),  J.  E.  Jackson  (1863),  W.  de  Gray  Birch 
(1874),  and  Brewer  and  Martin  (2  vols.  1879-81). 

Malmo,  the  third  largest  town  of  Sweden,  on 
the  Sound,  nearly  opposite  Copenhagen,  17  miles 
distant.  Besides  being  a  busy  seaport,  it  has 
manufactures  of  cigars,  sugar,  beer,  and  woollens, 
and  some  shipbuilding.  The  exports  include 
grain,  flour,  butter,  eggs,  cement,  chalk,  matches, 
live-stock,  and  timber ;  and  the  imports,  coal, 
machinery,  cotton,  grain,  textiles,  coffee,  &c. 
The  old  castle  in  which  the  Earl  of  Bothwell 
was  confined  is  now  used  as  a  prison.  The  town- 
house  is  a  fine  Renaissance  building  of  1546. 
Pop.  70,000. 

Malpas,  a  Cheshire  market-town,  15  miles  SSE. 
of  Chester.  Matthew  Henry  and  Bishop  Heber 
were  natives.    Pop.  of  parish,  n44. 

Malplaquet  {Mdlplakayf),  a  village  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Nord,  10  miles  S.  of  Mons  in 
Belgium.  Here,  on  11th  September  1709,  Marl- 
borough and  Prince  Eugene  defeated  the  French 
under  Marshal  Villars. 

Malstrom.    See  Maelstrom. 

Malta  (Ital.  Mdhl-ta;  usnaUy  Maulta),  a  British 
Mediterranean  island,  17^  miles  long  by  8J  broad, 
with  an  area  of  95  sq.  m.  It  stands  on  the  sub- 
marine plateau  which,  stretching  across  from 
Sicily  to  Africa,  divides  the  Mediterranean  into 
two  basins.  From  its  central  position  in  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  58  miles  S.  of  Sicily,  and  180 
ESB.  of  Cape  Bon  in  Algeria,  and  from  the  enor- 
mous strength  of  its  fortifications — Disraeli 
called  it '  the  little  military  hothouse  '—Malta  is 
a  very  important  British  dependency.  It  is  the 
headquarters  of  the  British  Mediterranean  fleet, 
the  principal  coaling  station  in  the  Mediterranean 
—between  500,000  and  600,000  tons  of  coal  are 
imported  for  use  and  re-exportation  annually— a 
powerful  stronghold  (Valetta),  a  sanatorium  for 
troops  employed  in  the  Orient,  and  an  interest- 
ing island  historically  and  architecturally.  ITie 
governorship  (area,  117  sq.  m.)  includes  the  island 
of  Gozo  (q.v.),  and  several  smaller  islets.  Malta 
is  oval  in  shape,  the  north-eastern  and  eastern 
shores  being  broken  into  several  good  harbours  ; 
the  southern  coast  rises  in  picturesque  cliff's  400 
feet  high.  The  culminating  point  of  the  island  is 
758  feet.  Malta  has  a  bare,  stony  appearance, 
owing  to  the  absence  of  trees  and  the  fact  that 
the  fields  and  gardens  are  enclosed  in  high  walls, 
to  shelter  the  crops  against  the  violent  winds. 
There  are  no  rivers  or  lakes  ;  but  water  is  easily 
obtained  from  springs,  and  since  1880  there  are 
government  water-works.  The  soil  is  thin,  but 
remarkably  fertile ;  and  its  fertility  is  increased  by 
the  skilful  cultivation  and  the  diligent  toil  of  the 


MALTA 


444 


MAN 


inhabitants.  Large  crops  of  wheat  and  potatoes 
are  raised,  early  varieties  of  the  latter  being 
largely  exported  to  England ;  maize,  barley, 
cotton,  clover,  oranges,  figs,  grapes,  carob  beans, 
and  peaches  and  other  fruits  are  also  grown. 
Fine  honey  is  produced ;  in  spring  the  island  is 
gay  with  flowers.  Filigree  ornaments  and  a  little 
cotton  are  manufactured.  During  the  summer 
months  the  thermometer  ranges  from  75°  to  90° 
F.,  during  the  coldest  from  50°  to  71°.  The 
annual  rainfall  is  24'23  inches.  When  the  hot 
sirocco  wind  blows— not  dry  as  in  Africa,  but 
laden  Avith  moisture— the  climate  is  enervating ; 
otherwise  Malta  is  fairly  healthy.  Earthquakes 
are  not  infrequent. 

In  1881  Malta  (132,129)  and  Gozo  (17,653)  con- 
tained 149,782  inhabitants ;  in  1904,  197,070, 
including  about  20,000  British  and  foreign  resi- 
dents, but  excluding  imperial  troops.  The  lan- 
guage of  the  people  is  a  corrupt  dialect  of  Arabic, 
with  a  strong  admixture  of  Italian  and  other  (but 
not  Phoenician)  words.  Most  educated  Maltese 
speak  Italian  ;  but  in  1899,  on  a  plebiscite,  75  per 
cent,  of  the  inhabitants  chose  English  as  the 
school  language  for  their  children.  The  Maltese 
are  a  sober,  industrious  race,  though  quick- 
tempered and  ignorant,  and  are  devout  Roman 
Catholics.  There  are  two  bishops  (Malta,  Gozo) 
and  1200  clergy.  Canon  law  is  recognised  as  the 
civil  law  of  Malta,  and  a  difficulty  about  mixed 
marriages  was  settled  only  in  1890.  Owing  to 
the  rapid  growth  of  the  population  and  its 
density,  large  numbers  are  compelled  to  emi- 
grate ;  50,000  of  them  are  scattered  all  over  North 
Africa  and  the  Levant.  Education  is  provided 
for  in  a  university  (over  100  students),  a  lyceum 
(530  pupils),  and  about  130  government  schools 
(18,000  pupils).  Causes  of  discontent  have  arisen 
in  the  ecclesiastical  jealousy  of  the  predominant 
church,  and  social  jealousy  between  the  impover- 
ished native  nobility  (for  the  most  part  counts 
and  marquises  created  by  the  Knights  of  St 
John,  and  fully  recognised  since  1878)  and  the 
upper  classes  of  the  British.  A  constitution 
based  on  popular  representation  was  conferred  in 
1887.  Legislation  is  carried  on  by  six  official 
and  fourteen  elected  members,  the  governor, 
with  the  power  of  veto,  being  president.  There 
is  also  an  executive  council ;  the  crown  retains 
the  right  to  legislate  also  through  orders  in  coun- 
cil. There  is  no  direct  taxation.  The  govern- 
ment own  two-sevenths  of  the  land  (the  rest  is 
divided  about  equally  between  the  ecclesiastical 
establishments  and  private  owners);  from  the 
rents  of  this  and  other  crown  property,  and  from 
cu.stoms,  licenses,  &c.,  the  annual  revenue  of 
£3ti0,000  to  £465,000  is  derived.  The  public  debt 
is  £79,000  (1894).  There  is  a  railway,  8^  miles 
long,  connecting  Valetta  (q.v.),  the  present 
capital,  with  the  old  capital  Citta  Vecchia, 
founded  in  700  B.C.,  with  the  cathedral  of  St 
Paul  (1697).  In  the  south  of  the  island  are 
megalithic  Phoenician  temples.  The  traditional 
scene  of  St  Paul's  shipwreck  is  on  the  north  side 
of  the  Bay  of  St  Paul.  The  imports  in  1903-4 
amounted  to  £7,158,079,  and  the  exports  to 
£6,145,883. 

The  Hyperion  or  Ogygia  of  Homer  is  sometimes 
identified  with  Malta.  The  Phoenicians  colonised 
the  island  in  the  11th  century  b.c,  and  after  700 
found  rivals  in  the  Greeks,  who  were  driven  out 
about  480.  The  Romans  finally  took  possession 
in  216  B.C.,  retaining  the  Greek  name  Melita. 
During  the  5th  century  a.d.  it  fell  successively 
under  the  Vandals  and  the  Goths ;  in  533  Belis- 
arius  recovered  it  for  the  Byzantine  empire ;  in 


the  9th  century  the  Arabs  occupied  it ;  in  1282  it 
was  conquered  by  Pedro  of  Aragon  ;  and  in  1530 
given  in  perpetual  sovereignty  by  Charles  V.  to 
the  Knights  of  St  John  of  Jerusalem,  who  raised 
stupendous  fortifications,  and  sustained  success- 
fully a  three  months'  siege  by  the  Turks  in  1565. 
The  island  surrendered  to  the  French  in  1798, 
was  occupied  by  the  British  during  the  French 
war,  and  in  1814  finally  became  British. 

See  historical  works  on  Malta  by  Miege  (1840), 
Eton  (1802),  Avales  (1830),  TuUack  (1861),  Winter- 
berg  (1879),  Bedford  (1894),  and  Bono  (Malta,  1899). 

Malton,  a  town  in  the  North  and  East  Ridings 
of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Dervvent,  22  miles  NE.  of 
York.  It  consists  of  New  Malton,  Norton,  and 
Old  Malton.  The  Derventio  probably  of  the 
Romans,  it  has  the  Norman  church  of  a  Gilber- 
tine  priory  (1160),  and  a  free  grammar-school, 
founded  in  1545  by  Archbishop  Holgate  ;  but  no 
trace  remains  of  a  Norman  castle.  Iron  and  brass 
founding,  tanning,  brewing,  &c,  are  carried  on ; 
and  Norton  is  famous  for  its  training  stables. 
Till  1868  Malton  returned  two  members,  and  then 
till  1885  one.  Population  of  the  urban  district, 
under  6000. 

Malvern,  Great,  one  of  the  most  fashionable 
watering-places  in  England,  is  situated  9  miles 
SW.  of  Worcester,  and  129  WNW.  of  London,  on 
the  east  side  of  the  Malvern  Hills,  at  the  foot  of 
the  Worcestershire  Beacon  (1444  feet).  It  has  a 
fine  cruciform  church,  with  a  central  tower  124 
feet  high,  rebuilt  in  the  reign  of  Henry  VII.,  and 
restored  in  1860-1.  In  the  centre  of  the  town  are 
large  Assembly  Rooms  (1884)  with  winter  pro- 
menade and  gardens,  and  on  the  outskirts  is 
Malvern  College  (1863-65),  a  handsome  Gothic 
building,  with  250  boys.  Madame  Goldschmidt 
(Jenny  Lind)  long  resided  near  Malvern.  Pop. 
(1801)  819  ;  (1881)  7934  ;  (1901)  16,44a 

Malwa,  a  former  kingdoin  of  India. 

Mamers,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Sarthe, 
43  miles  NNE.  of  Le  Mans.     Pop.  4799. 

Mammoth  Cave,  in  Kentucky,  85  miles  by  rail 
SSW.  of  Louisville.  It  is  about  10  miles  long  ; 
but  it  is  said  to  require  upwards  of  160  miles  of 
travelling  to  explore  its  multitudinous  avenues, 
chambers,  grottoes,  rivers,  and  cataracts.  The 
main  cave  is  only  4  miles  long,  but  it  is  from  40 
to  300  feet  wide,  and  rises  in  height  to  125  feet. 
Lucy's  Dome  is  300  feet  high,  the  loftiest  of  the 
many  vertical  shafts  that  pierce  through  all  the 
levels.  Some  avenues  are  covered  with  a  con- 
tinuous incrustation  of  the  most  beautiful 
crystals ;  stalactites  and  stalagmites  abound. 
There  are  several  lakes  or  rivers  connected  with 
Green  River  outside  the  cave,  rising  with  the 
river,  but  subsiding  more  slowly,  so  that  they 
are  generally  impassable  for  more  than  six  months 
in  the  year.  The  largest  is  Echo  River,  three- 
fourths  of  a  mile  long,  and  in  some  places  200 
feet  w  ide.  The  air  of  the  cave  is  pure  and  health- 
ful ;  the  temperature  remains  constant  about  54°. 

Mam  Tor,  a  Derbyshire  height  (1709  feet),  If 
mile  NW.  of  Castleton. 

Man,  LsLE  OF,  is  situated  in  the  Irish  Sea,  16 
miles  S.  of  Burrow  Head  in  Wigtownshire,  27  miles 
SW.  of  St  Bees  Head,  and  27  E.  of  Strangford 
Lough.  Its  length  is  33J  miles,  breadth  12J 
miles,  and  area  145,325  acres  (227  sq.  m.),  of  which 
nearly  100,000  are  cultivated.  At  the  south- 
western extremity  is  an  islet  called  the  Calf  of 
Man,  containing  800  acres.  A  chain  of  mountains 
extends  from  north-east  to  south-west,  culminat- 
ing in  Snaefell  (2024  feet).    The  coast-scenery  from 


MAN 


445 


MANCHE 


MaughoM  Head  on  the  east,  passing  south  to 
Peel  on  the  west,  is  bold  and  picturesque,  especi- 
ally in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  Calf,  where 
Spanish  Head,  the  southern  extremity  of  the 
island,  presents  a  sea-front  of  extreme  grandeur. 
The  Douglas  Head  Marine  Drive  was  opened  in 
1891.  Most  of  the  island  consists  of  clay-slate. 
Through  the  clay-schist  granite  has  burst  in  two 
localities,  in  the  vicinity  of  wliich  mineral  veins 
have  been  largely  worked.  Nearly  5000  tons  of 
lead  are  extracted  annually,  some  zinc,  and  smaller 
quantities  of  copper  and  iron.  The  principal 
mines  are  at  Laxey  on  the  east  coast,  and  Foxdale 
near  the  west.  The  climate  is  mild  and  equable  ; 
myrtles,  fuchsias,  and  other  exotics  flourish 
throughout  the  year.  The  Manx  cat  is  tailless. 
The  fisheries  (herring,  cod,  &c.)  afford  employ- 
ment to  nearly  4000  men  and  boys.  Fat  cattle 
and  wheat  are  shijjped  to  English  markets. 
Castle  Rushen,  probably  the  most  perfect  build- 
ing of  its  date  extant,  was  founded  in  947.  The 
ruins  of  Rushen  Abbey  (1154)  are  picturesquely 
situated  at  Ballasalla.  Peel  Castle,  with  the 
cathedral  of  St  German,  is  a  very  beautiful  ruin, 
dating  from  the  12th  century.  There  are  numer- 
ous so-called  Druidical  remains  and  Runic  monu- 
ments ;  the  Runic  crosses,  of  which  there  are 
some  forty,  are  especially  numerous  at  Kirk 
Michael.  The  circular  and  artificial  Tynwald 
Hill  at  St  John's,  near  the  centre  of  the  island, 
is  a  perfect  relic  of  Scandinavian  antiquity. 
Tlie  towns,  noticed  separately,  are  Castletown, 
Douglas,  the  modern  capital.  Peel,  and  Ramsey. 
_  The  principal  line  of  communication  is  between 
Douglas  and  Liverpool,  by  means  of  a  swift  fleet 
of  steamers.  There  is  a  submarine  cable  between 
Maughold  Head  and  St  Bees  Head.  In  1873  a 
railway  was  opened  between  Douglas  and  Peel ; 
in  1874  to  Castletown  and  the  south  ;  and  in  1879 
to  Ramsey.  Extensive  improvements  in  the  way 
of  harbour-works,  piers,  and  promenades  have 
been  carried  out  at  Douglas,  Ramsey,  and  Peel. 
Pop.  (1821)  40,081 ;  (1871)  54,042  ;  (1901)  54,758, 
the  smallness  of  the  increase  being  due  to  emigra- 
tion.   Visitors  number  about  130,000  annually. 

The  Isle  of  Man  was  ruled  by  Welsh  kings  from 
the  6th  until  near  the  end  of  the  9th  century, 

hand  then  by  Scandinavian  kings,  until  Magnus, 
king  of  Norway,  ceded  his  right  in  it  and  the 
Hebrides  to  Alexander  HI.  of  Scotland  (1266). 
On  Alexander's  death  the  Manx  placed  them- 
selves in  1290  under  the  protection  of  Edward  I. 
of  England ;  in  1406  the  island  was  granted  to 
Sir  John  Stanley  in  perpetuity,  to  be  held  of  the 
crown  of  England.    The  Stanley  family  continued 

!  to  rule  it  as  Kings  of  Man,  until  1651,  when  the 

style  of  Lord  was  adopted.     On  the  death  of 

i  James,  tenth  Earl  of  Derby,  without  issue  in 

1735,  James,  second  Duke  of  Athol,  descended 
from  the  seventh  Earl  of  Derby,  became  Lord  of 
Man.  The  Isle  of  Man  having  long  been  the  seat 
of  an  extensive  smuggling  trade,  the  sovereignty 
of  it  was  purchased  by  the  British  government, 
in  1765,  for  £70,000  and  an  annuity  of  £2000  a 
year,  the  duke  still  retaining  certain  manorial 
rights,  church  patronage,  &c.  The  last  remaining 
interest  of  the  Athol  family  in  the  island  was 
transferred  to  the  British  crown  in  1829 ;  the 
total  amount  paid  for  the  island  being  £493,000. 
The  Isle  of  Man  forms  a  separate  bishopric  under 
the  title  of  Sod  or  and  Man,  the  bishopric  of  the 
Sudoreys— Scandinavian  for  'Southern  Isles'— 
having  for  a  time  been  annexed  to  Man.    The 

]  see  is,  for  certain  purposes,  attached  to  the  prov- 

ince of  York;  the  bishop  sits  in  the  House  of 
Lords,  but  does  not  vote. 


The  Isle  of  Man  has  home  rule— its  own  laws, 
law-officers,  and  courts  of  law.  The  legislative 
body  is  styled  the  Court  of  Tynwald,  consisting 
of  the  Lieutenant-governor  and  Council— the 
latter  being  composed  of  the  bishop,  attorney- 
general,  two  deemsters  (or  judges),  clerk  of  the 
rolls,  water  bailift',  archdeacon,  and  vicar-general 
—and  the  House  of  twenty-four  Keys,  or  repre- 
sentatives. A  bill  is  separately  considered  by 
botii  branches,  and  on  being  passed  by  them  is 
transmitted  for  the  royal  assent ;  it  does  not, 
however,  become  law  until  it  is  promulgated  in 
the  English  and  Manx  languages  on  the  Tynwald 
Hill.  The  House  of  Keys  was  formerly  self-elec- 
tive ;  but  in  1866  an  act  was  passed  establishing 
a  septennial  election  by  the  people  ;  and  another 
in  1880  abolished  the  property  qualification  for 
members,  granted  household  suffrage  in  towns, 
£4  owner  and  £6  tenant  franchise  in  the  country, 
and  conferred  the  suffrage  on  women.  The 
armorial  bearings  of  Man  are  three  legs  in  armour 
conjoined  at  the  thighs.  The  Manx  people  are 
of  Celtic  origin,  with  a  strong  dash  of  the 
Scandinavian.  The  language,  belonging  to  the 
Goidelic  group  of  the  Celtic  languages,  is  now 
but  little  spoken.  Church  service  in  Manx  has 
been  discontinued  since  the  middle  of  the  19th 
century.  There  is  no  literature  beyond  a  few 
songs  and  carols.  The  Prayer-book  was  translated 
into  Manx  in  1765,  the  Bible  in  1772,  A  dictionary 
was  compiled  in  1835.  Down  to  the  middle  of 
the  19th  century  the  island  was  almost  exempt 
from  taxation,  and  consequently  looked  upon  as  a 
cheap  place  of  residence,  while  its  laws  afforded 
protection  to  English  debtors. 

See  works  by  the  Rev.  J.  G.  Gumming,  Joseph 
Train,  Brown,  A.  W.  Moore  (place-names,  1890), 
Hall  Caine  (1891  and  1894),  Spencer  Walpole  (1893), 
A.  W.  Moore  (1893  and,  on  a  larger  scale,  1900); 
also  Chronica  Regum  Maiuiice,  edited  by  Munch 
(Christiania,  1860) ;  and  the  works  published  by 
the  Manx  Society  (19  vols.  1858-68), 

Manaar',  Gulf  of,  between  Ceylon  and  the 
Madras  coast,  is  nearly  200  miles  wide  at  the 
widest,  and  is  closed  on  the  north  by  a  low  reef 
of  rocks  and  islands  called  Adam's  Bridge.  It  is 
famous  for  its  pearl-fisheries. 

Manacor',  a  town  of  Majorca,  in  a  fertile  plain, 
30  miles  E.  of  Palma  by  rail.     Pop.  12,000, 

Mana'gua,  the  capital  of  Nicaragua,  lies  in  a 
fertile  district,  on  the  south  shore  of  Lake 
Managua,  53  miles  by  rail  SB,  of  Leon.  Pop, 
18,000.     For  the  lake,  see  Leon. 

Manaos,  capital  of  the  Brazilian  province  of 
Amazonas,  on  the  Rio  Negro,  12  miles  above  its 
confluence  with  the  Amazon.     Pop.  12,000. 

Manasarowar,    See  Tibet. 

Manassas,  formerly  Manassas  Junction,  a 
village  close  to  Bull  Run  (q.v,).  The  Confederates 
here  won  two  victories. 

Manbhum,  an  eastern  district  of  Chota  Nag- 
pore  (q.v.).    Area,  4147  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,500,000. 

Mancha,  La  (Man'tcha),  a  district  of  Spain,  the 
southernmost  part  of  the  old  kingdom  of  New 
Castile,  comprising  most  of  the  province  of 
Ciudad  Real,  with  parts  of  Albacete,  Toledo, 
and  Cuenca.     It  is  the  country  of  Don  Quixote. 

Manche  (Mon^sh ; '  sleeve '),  a  maritime  Norman 
dep.  of  NW.  France,  derives  its  name  from  La 
Manche  (the  English  Channel),  which  washes 
its  rocky  coasts.  Greatest  length,  81  miles  ; 
average  breadth,  28  miles ;  area,  2289  sq.  m. 
Pop.  (1872)  544,776 ;  (1901)  491,372.  The  dep.  is 
divided  into  the  six  arrondissements  of  St  L6 


MANCHESTER 


446 


MANCHESTER 


(the  capital),   Coutances,  Valognes,  Cherbourg, 
Avranches,  and  Mortaiu. 

Man'chester  (Sax.  Mamcestre),  a  municipal, 
parliamentary,  and  (since  1888)  county  borough 
of  Lancashire,  is  situated  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Irwell,  31  miles  E.  of  Liverpool  and  187  NNW. 
of  London.  Salford  is  on  the  opposite  bank ; 
and  the  two  boroughs,  connected  by  sixteen 
bridges  (besides  railway  viaducts),  may  be  con- 
sidered one  city.  Manchester  is  the  acknow- 
ledged centre  of  the  greatest  manufacturing  dis- 
trict in  the  world,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  ring 
of  populous  suburban  townships,  many  of  which 
have  by  degrees  been  incorporated  with  it.  Pop. 
(1801)  75,275  ;  (1851)  303,382  ;  (1871)  351,189  ;  (1901) 
543,969 — or  with  the  county  borough  of  Salford, 
764,925.  In  and  around  Manchester  and  Salford 
two-thirds  of  the  entire  cotton  manufactures  of 
the  United  Kingdom  are  located ;  and  there  are 
some  700  other  industries  practised  in  the  dis- 
trict, including  bleaching,  dyeing,  with  silk-works 
and  manufactories  of  all  kinds  of  animal  and 
vegetable  fibre.  Both  boroughs  were  enfran- 
chised by  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832,  Manchester 
returning  two  members  and  Salford  one  member 
to  parliament.  The  Reform  Bill  of  1867  gave 
Manchester  three  and  Salford  two  members,  and 
that  of  1885  six  and  three  members  respectively. 

The  Cathedral,  or  '  Old  Church '  (1422),  is  a  flue 
Gothic  structure,  and  between  1845  and  1868 
underwent  complete  restoration ;  it  comprises  a 
stalled  choir  of  great  beauty,  a  retrochoir,  lady 
chapel,  lateral  chapels,  chapter-house,  and  a 
tower  139  feet  high,  with  ten  bells.  Besides 
many  Anglican,  Roman  Catholic,  and  dissenting 
churches,  Manchester  has  5  Jewish  synagogues, 
5  German  churches,  a  Greek  church,  and  an 
Armenian  church.  The  magnificent  Gothic  town- 
hall  (1868-83),  by  Waterhouse,  is  triangular  in 
form,  built  of  brick,  faced  with  freestone  and 
granite,  and  cost  £1,053,000.  Its  great  hall  is 
decorated  with  twelve  remarkable  pictures  illus- 
trating the  history  of  Manchester,  by  Madox 
Brown.  The  clock-tower,  286  feet  high,  contains 
a  fine  peal  of  twenty-one  bells.  In  the  Royal 
Infirmary  (1755)  32,000  patients  are  treated 
annually.  The  Royal  Institution  (1825-30),  a 
noble  Doric  edifice  by  Barry,  contains  a  gallery 
of  paintings,  a  school  of  design,  and  a  lecture 
theatre.  The  Royal  Exchange  (1864-74),  an  im- 
posing building  in  the  Italian  style,  has  a  meet- 
ing-hall with  the  vast  area  of  5170  square  yards. 
The  Free-trade  Hall  (1856)  holds  5000  people,  and 
stands  on  the  scene  of  the  '  Peterloo  Massacre.' 
The  Assize  Courts  (1864),  by  Waterhouse,  are  a 
splendid  specimen  of  Gothic  architecture,  and 
cost  £100,000.  The  Literary  and  Philosophical 
Society  (1789)  has  a  valuable  scientific  library  and 
a  chemical  laboratory,  and  publishes  memoirs. 
There  are  about  seventy  other  societies  and 
institutions. 

The  old  water-supply  was  collected  on  the  slopes 
of  Blackstone  Edge,  distant  about  20  miles  ;  but 
In  view  of  the  rapid  increase  of  the  population 
the  city  council  purchased  Thirlmere  Lake  in 
Cumberland,  from  which  comes,  by  works  100 
miles  long  and  carried  out  in  1885-94,  a  further 
supply  of  25,000,000  gallons  daily.  There  are 
now  in  Manchester  and  Salford  eleven  parks, 
with  eight  recreation  grounds,  covering  alto- 
gether 300  acres.  Manchester  was  the  first 
borough  to  take  advantage  in  1852  of  tlie  Free 
Libraries  Act.  Manchester  in  1890  received 
the  Wliitworth  Institute,  a  park,  library,  and 
museum  from  the  Whitworth  legatees,  to  be 
incorporated    with   the   Technical    School   and 


School  of  Art.  The  Chetham  Library,  founded 
by  Humphrey  Chetham  in  1653,  contains  30,000 
volumes,  with  many  rare  and  curious  books  and 
manuscripts,  and  was  the  first  free  library  in 
England.  Mention  may  be  made  also  of  the 
Atlienseum,  Royal  Exchange,  Portico,  and  Law 
and  Foreign  Libraries,  &c.  Among  statues  and 
monuments  are  those  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington, 
Sir  R.  Peel,  Watt,  Dalton,  Prince  Albert,  Bishop 
Fraser,  Dr  Joule,  John  Bright,  Cobden,  Hum- 
phrey Chetham,  Cromwell,  and  0.  Heywood. 

The  Grammar-school  was  founded  by  Hugh 
Oldham,  Bishop  of  Exeter,  in  1515,  had  a  revenue 
of  £4000  a  year  in  1825,  and  in  1868  was  re- 
organised for  350  boys,  with  scholarships  at 
Brazenose,  Oxford,  and  St  John's,  Cambridge. 
There  is  also  a  hospital  school,  founded  in  1651 
by  Humphrey  Chetham,  for  maintaining,  educat- 
ing, and  apprenticing  forty  (now  100)  healthy 
and  poor  boys.  Owens  College  (1851 ;  cliartered 
as  an  independent  Victoria  University,  1903)  is 
due  to  the  liberality  of  John  Owens,  who  died  in 
1846,  leaving  by  will  £100,000  for  the  purpose ; 
and  in  1870  a  further  sum  of  £90,000  was  ex- 
pended on  new  buildings,  &c.  Tlie  college  has 
professors  and  lecturers  in  the  Arts,  Science,  and 
Law  department,  and  in  the  Medical  department, 
with  dejjartments  for  women  and  for  evening 
classes,  and  excellent  library  and  museum.  The 
students  number  over  1100  (including  about  250 
women),  besides  evening  scliolars.  The  Tech- 
nical  School,  with  which  in  1883  was  incorporated 
the  Mechanics'  Institute,  and  in  1890  the  Man- 
chester Whitworth  Institute,  gives  thorough 
technical  training  in  theoretical  and  practical 
engineering,  designing,  spinning  and  weaving, 
printing,  dyeing,  and  bleaching,  metallurgy, 
chemistry,  &c.  The  sanitary  condition  of  Man- 
chester is  not  a  satisfactory  one,  and  in  conse- 
quence the  death-rate,  averaging  24  per  1000,  is 
abnormally  high  ;  much  has  been  done  to  improve 
matters,  but  the  smoke  nuisance  remains,  and 
the  disease  and  death  dealing  river,  the  Irwell, 
which  flows  through  a  dense  population,  receiving 
sewage  from  more  than  a  million  persons  and 
pollution  from  thousands  of  public  works. 

Manchester  is  mentioned  as  a  Roman  station 
(Mancunium),  and  was  called  by  the  Anglo- 
Saxons  Manigceaster.  In  the  13th  century  there 
was  a  fulling-mill,  and  dyeing  yarns  or  cloth 
was  practised.  Camden,  in  the  reign  of  Queen 
Elizabeth,  writes  of  it  as  surpassing  neighbour- 
ing towns  in  elegance  and  populousness,  with 
woollen  and  cotton  manufactures,  a  church, 
market,  and  college.  In  1724  Stukely  describes 
it  as  '  the  largest,  most  rich,  populous,  and  busy 
village  in  England.  Here  are  about  2400  families, 
and  their  trade,  which  is  incredibly  large,  con- 
sists of  fustians,  tickings,  girth-webbs,  and 
tapes.'  The  great  revolution  in  the  industrial 
life  of  England — the  development  of  the  factory 
system — began  here  about  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century,  and  was  accompanied  by  the  applica- 
tion of  many  inventions,  notably  the  steam- 
engine,  to  the  service  of  man.  In  1720  the  Irwell 
was  made  navigable.  In  1762  the  Bridgewater 
Canal  put  Manchester  in  communication  with  the 
coalfields  of  Lancashire  and  the  salt-mines  of 
Cheshire,  and  made  an  outlet  to  the  sea.  In 
1830  Manchester  had  its  first  perfect  railway. 
To  render  '  Cottonopolis '  an  inland  seaport,  tlie 
gigantic  work  of  making  a  ship-canal  from  East- 
ham  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mersey,  a  distance 
of  35|  miles,  was  carried  out  in  1887-94,  at  a  cost 
of  £15,500,000.  A  perfect  network  of  railways 
and  c;anals  radiates  from  Manchester  in  all  direc- 


MANCHESTER 


447 


MANIPUR 


tions.  It  became  a  city  and  the  see  of  a  bishop  in 
1847,  and  since  1893  its  mayor  is  officially  lord- 
mayor.  The  Anti-corn-law  League  had  its 
origin  here ;  and  the  Manchester  School  was  a 
party  of  English  Radicals,  including  Cobden, 
Bright,  and  Milner  Gibson,  which  identified  itself 
with  free-trade  principles  and  resistance  to 
government  interference  (as  with  factory  labour), 
supported  a  policy  of  laissez  faire,  and  in  foreign 
affairs  was  a  peace  party,  insisting  strongly  on 
non-intervention.  See  works  on  Manchester  by 
Whitaker  (1771),  Prentice  (1850-53),  Reilly  (1861), 
Proctor  (1880),  Axon  (1886),  Saintsbury  (1887), 
Crowther  (1894),  and  Perkins  (1901). 

Manchester,  (l)  the  largest  city  of  New  Hamp- 
shire, stands  mostly  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Merrimac  River,  16  miles  S.  of  Concord,  and  59 
NNW.  of  Boston.  Its  principal  streets  are  wide 
and  shaded  with  elms,  and  it  has  several  public 
parks.  The  river  here  falls  54  feet,  affording 
abundant  water-power.  The  chief  industry  is  the 
manufacture  of  cottons  and  woollens  ;  but  loco- 
motives, fire-engines,  sewing-machines,  wagons, 
edged  tools,  boots  and  shoes,  paper,  &c.  are  also 
manufactured.  Manchester  is  the  seat  of  a  R.  C. 
bishop.  Pop.  (1870)  23,636  ;  (1900)  56,9S7.-;<2)  A 
town  of  Connecticut,  on  the  Hockanum  River,  9 
miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  Hartford,  with  manufac- 
tures of  cotton,  woollens,  silk,  paper,  &c.  Pop. 
10,600.— (3)  A  manufacturing  town  of  Virginia,  on 
the  James  River,  opposite  Richmond.     Pop.  9746. 

Manchuria,  or  the  country  of  the  Manchus, 
is  the  north-easternmost  division  of  the  Chinese 
empire,  bounded  by  the  river  Amur,  the  Usuri, 
the  Russian  Maritime  Province,  Corea,  the  Yellow 
Sea,  and  Mongolia.  It  embraces  three  provinces 
— Moukden,  Heilung-chiang,  and  Kirin.  Total 
area,  280,000  sq.  m. ;  pop.  21,000,000.  The  east 
and  centre  are  largely  occupied  by  the  Long 
White  Mountains  (8000  feet),  whilst  the  northern 
province  is  crossed  by  the  Chingan  Mountains. 
The  central  parts  of  the  country  are  watered  by 
the  Sungari,  which  after  a  course  of  850  miles 
joins  the  Amur.  The  hills  are  rich  in  timber, 
pines  predominating ;  in  minerals,  chiefly  gold, 
silver,  coal,  and  iron ;  and  in  fur-bearing  and 
other  animals.  The  rivers  swarm  with  salmon 
and  trout.  The  climate  is  temperate  in  summer 
(May  to  September),  but  very  severe  in  winter. 
The  soil  is  extremely  fertile.  Of  the  population 
perhaps  a  nnllion  are  Manchus,  the  rest  being 
Chinese  immigrants.  The  principal  towns  are 
Moukden,  the  capital ;  Kirin  ;  Harbin  (or  Khar- 
bin),  junction  of  the  terminal  lines  of  the  Siberian 
railway ;  New-chwang  (q.v.) ;  besides  Port  Arthur 
and  Dalny,  under  Japanese  rule.  The  Russian 
occupation  of  northern  Manchuria  was  a  main 
cause  of  the  Russo-Japanese  war  (1904-5),  of 
which  southern  Manchuria  was  the  main  theatre. 
The  religions  dominant  are  those  found  in  China, 
though  the  original  creed  of  the  Manchus  was 
Shamanism.  In  the  17th  century  a  Manchu  chief 
ascended  the  throne  of  China,  and  founded  the 
reigning  Chin  dynasty.  French  Catholics  have 
had  missions  in  Manchuria  since  1838,  and  Pres- 
byterians since  1861.  See  books  by  Hosie  (1901) 
and  Whigham  (1904). 

Man'dalay,  the  capital  of  Upper  Burma,  stands 
2  miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Irawadi,  a  little 
N.  of  Amarapura,  the  former  capital,  and  410 
miles  by  rail  (1889)  N.  of  Rangoon.  Founded  in 
1860,  it  was  the  capital  of  independent  Burma 
until  its  capture  by  the  British  in  1885.  Silk- 
weaving  is  the  chief  industry ;  the  others  are 
gold  and  silver  work,  ivory  and  wood  carving, 


bell  and  gong  casting,  and  knife  and  sword  mak- 
ing.  In  1886  one-tenth  of  the  city  was  burned 
to  the  ground,  and  an  inundation  of  the  river 
caused  immense  damage ;  in  1892  two- thirds  of 
the  city  were  burned.     Pop.  198,815. 

Mandogarh,  or  Mandu',  a  ruined  city  of  India, 
formerly  capital  of  the  Mohammedan  kingdom  of 
Malwa,  15  miles  N.  of  the  Nerbudda,  and  38  SW. 
of  Indore.  The  ruins  stretch  for  8  miles  along 
the  crest  of  the  Vindhya  Mountains. 

Manduria,  a  town  of  southern  Italy,  22  miles 
E.  by  S.  of  Taranto  ;  pop.  13,120. 

Mandvi,  the  seaport  of  Cutch,  in  India,  on  the 
north  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Cutch  ;  popi  28,155.    . 

Manfredonia,  a  seaport  of  Italy,  on  a  bay  of 
the  Adriatic,  23  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Foggia. 
Founded  by  Manfred  in  1261  from  the  ruins  of 
ancient  Sipontum,  it  has  an  old  castle  and  a 
cathedral.    Pop.  12,200. 

Mangalore,  a  seaport  and  military  station  in 
South  Kanara  district,  Madras.  A  clean,  pictur- 
esque town,  embosomed  in  cocoa-nut  palm  groves, 
it  ships  much  coffee,  has  a  R.  C.  cathedral  and 
college,  and  is  also  the  headquarters  in  India  of 
the  Basel  Lutheran  Mission.  Thrice  sacked  by 
the  Portuguese  in  the  16th  c.,  Mangalore  was 
taken  by  Hyder  Ali  in  1763.  In  1784  its  English 
garrison  yielded  to  Tippoo  Sultan  after  a  nine 
months'  siege.  British  since  1799,  it  was  burned 
by  the  Coorg  rebels  in  1837.     Pop.  44,922. 

Manhattan  Island,  the  island  on  which  the 
great  part  of  New  York  City  stands. 

Manica  (Manee'ca),  a  gold-field  long  worked  by 
the  Portuguese,  130  miles  NW.  of  the  port  of 
Beira  at  the  mouth  of  the  Pungwe  River,  whence 
a  railway  was  making  in  1894.  It  is  now  mostly 
included  with  Mashonaland  (q.v.),  in  the  British 
South  Africa  Company's  territory.  Part  is 
Portuguese. 

Manihiki  Islands  (Mannyhee'kee),  a  group  of 
low,  wooded  atolls,  scattered  over  the  central 
Pacific,  between  the  Marquesas  and  Union  groups. 
Total  area,  55  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1900.  Most  of  them 
(Caroline,  Maiden,  Starbuck,  Penrhyn,  Hum- 
phrey,  Vostok,  Flint,  &c.)  belong  to  Britain. 

Manila  {Manee'la;  often  spelt  Manilla),  chief 
town  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  stands  on  a  wida 
bay  on  the  south-west  coast  of  Luzon,  650  miles 
SE.  of  Hong-kong,  with  which  city  it  has  been 
connected  by  telegraph  since  1881.  On  the  south 
bank  of  the  little  Pasig  River  stands  the  sleepy 
old  town  (founded  in  1571),  with  the  archbishop's 
palace,  churches  and  monasteries,  the  cathedral, 
university,  Jesuit  observatory,  arsenal,  and  bar- 
racks. On  the  north  bank  are  the  modern 
suburbs,  Binondo,  &c.,  the  commercial  and  native 
quarters,  with  the  palace  of  the  governor-general, 
&c.  There  was  a  great  fire  in  May  1893,  and  the 
city  is  specially  liable  to  visitations  of  earth- 
quakes, typhoons,  and  thunder-storms.  The  heat 
is  great,  the  mean  for  the  year  being  82°  F.  The 
total  pop.  is  estimated  at  nearly  300,000,  includ- 
ing some  70,000  Chinese  and  7000  Spaniards. 
Cigars  and  tobacco,  sugar,  the  so-called  Manilla 
hemp  or  abaca,  and  coflee  are  the  chief  exports, 
and  cotton  goods,  rice,  wine,  silk,  and  flour  the 
imports.  In  Manila  Bay  in  1898  Dewey  de- 
stroyed the  Spanish  fleet,  and  since  the  American 
occupation  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  the  city, 
still  the  capital,  has  been  cleansed  and  paved, 
electric  light  has  been  introduced,  and  harbour 
improvements  carried  out. 

Manipur,  a  native  state  in  the  north-east  of 
India,  occupying  some  8000  sq.  m.  of  for  the  most 


MANITOBA 


448 


MANS 


part  heavily  timbered  mountain-land  between 
Burma,  Assam,  Chittagong,  and  Cachar  ;  pop. 
about  284,000— mainly  Kukis  and  semi-Hindu 
hill  and  forest  tribes— collected  most  thickly  in 
one  valley,  650  sq.  m.,  situated  2500  feet  above 
sea-level.  Most  of  the  work  in  the  country  is 
performed  by  women.  The  men  are  incorrigibly 
lazy,  but  passionately  fond  of  the  game  of  polo.— 
The  capital,  called  Manipur,  also  Imphail,  is  a 
vast  group  of  suburban  residences,  situated  in  the 
midst  of  a  large  forest;  pop.  67,100.  In  March 
1892  a  British  force  of  470  men,  that  had  been 
sent  to  depose  the  rebellious  '  senaputti '  or 
commander-in-chief,  was  forced  to  retire,  after 
the  chief  commissioner  and  four  others  had 
been  treacherously  murdered.  In  April  General 
Graham  avenged  this  outrage,  and  the  '  sena- 
putti '  was  hanged. 

Manitoba  (originally  Manit'oba;  now  usually 
Manito'ba),  a  province  of  Canada,  bounded  by 
Saskatchewan,  Keewatin,  Ontario,  and  on  the  S. 
by  Minnesota  and  North  Dakota  in  tlie  United 
States.  Area,  74,000  square  miles ;  population 
(1886)  108,640;  (1901)  254,947  (65,310  Presby- 
terians, 44,874  Anglicans,  35,622  Catholics,  &c.). 
The  chief  towns  are  Winnipeg  (42,340),  Brandon, 
and  Portage  la  Prairie.  The  province  is  traversed 
by  several  rivers,  among  others  the  Assiniboine, 
with  its  many  tributaries,  the  Souris,  Pembina, 
Red  River,  &c.  The  Winnipeg  River  flows  for 
60  or  70  miles  through  the  eastern  portion  of 
the  province  into  Lake  Winnipeg.  The  principal 
lakes  are  Winnipeg,  8500  sq.  m.  ;  Manitoba,  1900 
sq.  m.  ;  and  Winnipegosis,  1936  sq.  m.  The 
country  consists  for  the  most  part  of  a  level 
plain,  with  occasional  undulations.  The  summer 
mean  temperature  is  65°  to  70°— nearly  the  same  as 
that  in  the  state  of  New  York.  In  winter  the  ther- 
mometer occasionally,  but  very  rarely,  sinks  to  30°, 
40°,  and  50°  below  zero.  The  atmosphere  is  bright 
and  dry,  and  the  cold  is  not  so  much  felt  as  in 
many  countries  with  a  higher  temperature  and  a 
more  humid  atmosphere.  Very  little  snow  falls  on 
the  prairies,  the  average  depth  being  about  18  to 
24  inches  ;  the  native  horses  graze  out  of  doors  all 
the  winter.  The  soil  is  of  remarkable  depth  and 
fertility,  and  in  favourable  seasons  the  crops  are 
large.  Vegetables  and  roots  are  unusually  prolific 
and  of  great  size.  Wheat-growing  was  for  some 
few  years  the  staple  industry ;  but  the  farmers  are 
now  engaged  more  in  mixed  farming,  including 
dairy-farming  and  the  raising  of  cattle  and  sheep. 
In  minerals  the  province  is  not  very  rich, but  coal 
is  found  in  southern  Manitoba.  Big  game  is  still 
found  in  the  less  accessible  parts  of  the  province 
— moose,  bear,  and  some  kinds  of  deer.  Small 
game  is  plentiful — principally  prairie  chicken  and 
wild  duck.  A  considerable  fishing  industry  is 
carried  on  in  the  rivers  and  lakes.  The  govern- 
ment is  administered  by  a  lieutenant-governor, 
appointed  by  the  governor-in-council.  He  is 
assisted  by  an  Executive  Council  and  a  Legislative 
Assembly  of  40  members  elected  by  the  people. 
There  is  only  one  House  of  Parliament  in  Mani- 
toba. The  province  is  represented  by  four  mem- 
bers in  the  Dominion  Senate,  and  by  seven  in  the 
House  of  Commons.  Keewatin  (q.v.)  is  under 
the  Lieutenant-governor. 

Manitoba  is  in  communication  by  rail  with  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  and  the  Pacific,  and  with  all 
parts  of  Canada  and  the  United  States.  The 
construction  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway- 
completed  in  1885— has  naturally  been  of  immense 
advantage  to  the  province.  A  railway  is  projected 
from  Winnipeg  to  Hudson  Bay.  Until  1868  what 
is  now  known  as  Manitoba  formed  a  portion  of 


the  territory  under  the  control  of  the  Hudson 
Bay  Company,  and  hither  in  1812  the  Earl  of 
Selkirk  brought  a  party  of  Highland  settlers. 
In  1868  the  company  gave  up  their  rights,  on 
certain  conditions— among  others  a  money  pay- 
ment of  £300,000  and  a  considerable  grant  of 
land.  The  province  was  constituted  by  an  Act 
of  1870.  The  Riel  rebellion  in  1869-70  arose  out 
of  a  feeling  of  some  of  the  inhabitants  that  their 
rights  had  not  been  considered  in  the  transfer. 
See  books  on  Manitoba  by  Bryce  (1882),  Christie 
(1885),  Macoun  (1883),  and  Legge  (1893). 

Manitou,  a  summer- resort  at  the  base  of  Pike's 
Peak,  Colorado,  6296  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is 
the  Saratoga  of  the  west,  with  soda  springs  and 
several  large  sunnner  hotels.     Pop.  1300. 

Manitoulin  Islands,  a  chain  of  wooded  islands 
in  Lake  Huron,  separating  it  from  Georgian  Bay. 
The  chief  are  Grand  Manitoulin  (80  by  28  miles), 
Cockburn  Isle,  and  Drummond  Isle  ;  the  last 
belongs  to  Michigan,  the  rest  to  Ontario. 

Manitowoc',  capital  of  Manitowoc  county, 
Wisconsin,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Manitowoc  River, 
on  Lake  Michigan,  77  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Mil- 
waukee. It  has  a  good  harbour,  and  carries  on 
Shipbuilding,  lumber-sawing,  and  the  manufac- 
ture of  furniture,  machinery,  &c.     Pop.  11,800. 

Manka'to,  capital  of  Blue  Earth  county,  Min- 
nesota, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Minnesota  River, 
86  miles  SW.  of  St  Paul.  It  has  a  state  normal 
school,  R.  C.  college,  &c.     Pop.  10,600. 

Mannheim  (Mann'Mnie),  once  capital  of  the 
Rhenish  Palatinate,  and  now  the  chief  trading- 
town  in  Baden,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
here  joined  by  the  Neckar,  53  miles  S.  of  Frank- 
fort. The  town  is  remarkable  for  its  cleanliness 
and  regularity.  The  palace  (1720-29)  is  one  of  the 
largest  in  Germany,  covering  15  acres,  with  a 
fagade  580  yards  long,  and  1500  windows.  The 
Schillerplatz  is  adorned  with  colossal  statues  of 
Schiller,  Dalberg,  and  the  actor  and  dramatist 
Iffland  (1759-1814).  There  are  manufactures  of 
iron,  cigars,  carpets,  india-rubber,  &c.  Pop.  (1875) 
46,453  ;  (1900)  141,131,  of  whom  about  50,000  were 
Catholics.  Mannheim  was  a  mere  village  till 
1606,  when  a  castle  was  built  by  the  elector- 
palatine,  around  which  a  town  grew  up,  peopled 
chiefly  by  Protestant  refugees  from  the  Low 
Countries.  It  was  totally  destroyed  by  the  French 
in  1689,  rebuilt  and  strongly  fortified,  and  in  1795 
severely  bombarded  by  the  Austrians. 

Manningtree,  an  Essex  town,  on  the  tidal 
Stour,  8|  miles  NE.  of  Colchester.    Pop.  900. 

Manorbier,  a  ruined  castle  on  the  Pembroke- 
shire coast,  5  miles  ESE.  of  Pembroke.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  Giraldus  Cambrensis. 

Manorhamilton,  a  market-town  of  Leitrim, 
23^  miles  E.  of  Sligo.    Pop.  870. 

Manor  Water,  a  Peeblesshire  stream,  running 
lOJ  miles  N.  by  B.  to  the  Tweed,  IJ  mile  WSW. 
of  Peebles.  Manor  parish  was  the  home  of  the 
'  Black  Dwarf.' 

Manresa,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Cardoner, 
41  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Barcelona.  It  has  a  fine 
church  (1020-15th  century),  the  cave  of  Ignatius 
Loyola,  and  manufactures  of  cotton,  broadcloths, 
brandy,  &c.  In  1811  it  was  fired  by  Marshal 
Macdonald.    Pop.  23,835. 

Mans,  Le  {Mom?),  a  picturesque  city  of  France, 
the  capital  formerly  of  the  province  of  Maine, 
and  now  of  the  dep.  of  Sarthe,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  river  Sarthe,  132  miles  SW.  of  Paris  by  rail. 
The  cathedral,  390  feet  long,  has  a  Romanesque 
nave  of  the  11th  at\d  12tli  centuries,  and  a  match- 


MANSFIELD 


449 


MARBURa 


I 


less  Pointed-Gothic  choir  of  the  13th  century, 
104  feet  high,  with  splendid  stained  glass.  In 
the  right  transept  is  the  monument  of  Berengaria, 
Coeur-de-Lion's  queen.  Le  Mans  does  a  large 
trade  in  poultry  and  clover-seed,  and  manu- 
factures candles,  woollens,  lace,  soap,  &c.  Pop. 
(1872)  42,054 ;  (1901)  56,700.  The  Cenovianum  of 
the  Romans,  and  tlie  birthplace  of  Henry  II.  of 
England,  Le  Mans  witnessed  in  1793  the  disper- 
sion of  10,000  Vendeans  ;  and  in  1871  the  defeat, 
after  a  stubborn  resistance,  of  100,000  Frenchmen 
under  Chanzy  by  Prince  Frederick-Charles.  A 
statue  of  Chanzy  was  erected  in  1885,  and  one  of 
the  naturalist  Belon  in  1887. 

Mansfield,  a  municipal  borough  (incorporated 
1891)  of  Nottinghamshire,  in  Sherwood  Forest, 
17  miles  N.  of  Nottingham.  Its  grammar-school 
(1561)  has  been  rebuilt  at  a  cost  of  £10,000  ;  and 
there  are  a  memorial  cross  (1850)  to  Lord  George 
Bentinck,  a  town-hall  (1836),  an  interesting  parish 
church,  &c.  Mansfield  stands  in  the  centre  of 
a  mining  district,  and  manufactures  lace-thread 
andiron.  Pop,  (1851)  10,012;  (1901)  21,445.  See 
Harred's  History  of  Mansfield  (1801). 

Mansfield,  capital  of  Richland  county,  Ohio, 
179  miles  by  rail  NB.  of  Cincinnati.  It  has  iron- 
foundries  and  manufactories  of  flour,  agricultural 
implements,  stoves,  tiles,  &c.    Pop.  18,473. 

Mansourah,  a  town  of  Lower  Egypt,  on  the 
Damietta  branch  of  the  Nile,  30  miles  SW.  of 
Damietta  by  rail.  Pop.  36,942.  The  place  was 
founded  in  1220,  and  here  St  Louis  of  France 
was  imprisoned  in  1250. 

Mantchuria.    See  Manchuria. 

Mantes  (Mon''t),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Seine-et-Oise,  on  the  Seine's  left  bank,  36  miles 
by  rail  WNW.  of  Paris.  It  has  a  striking  tower 
(1344)  and  a  beautiful  church,  a  reduced  copy  of 
Notre  Dame  at  Paris.  The  Celtic  Medunta, 
Mantes  in  1083  was  sacked  by  William  the  Con- 
queror, who  here  received  the  injury  that  caused 
his  death  ;  and  here  too  Henry  IV.  was  converted 
from  Protestantism.     Pop.  7832, 

Mantine'a,  an  ancient  city  of  Arcadia,  in  the 
Peloponnesus,  on  the  river  Ophis.  Here  Epamin- 
ondas  fell  in  the  moment  of  a  great  victory  over 
the  Spartans,  362  b.c. 

Mantua  (Ital.  Man'tova),  a  strongly  fortified 
city  of  northern  Italy,  formerly  capital  of  a 
duchy,  38  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Modena  and  25  S. 
by  W.  of  Verona.  It  occupies  two  islands  formed 
by  the  Mincio,  and,  standing  in  the  jnidst 
of  a  marshy  district,  is  one  of  the  four  fortresses 
of  the  Quadrilateral,  Chief  amongst  the  build- 
ings are  the  ducal  palace,  dating  from  1302  ;  the 
Palazzo  Te,  outside  the  city  walls  on  the  south, 
the  greatest  monument  to  the  skill  of  Giulio 
Romano  as  architect,  painter,  and  sculptor ;  the 
cathedral  of  San  Pietro ;  and  the  church  of  San 
Andrea,  one  of  the  finest  Renaissance  churches 
in  Italy,  containing  the  tomb  of  Mantegna,  There 
are  an  academy  of  arts  and  sciences,  a  library 
with  80,000  vols,  and  1000  MSS.,  a  museum  of 
antiquities,  an  observatory,  &c.  Virgil  was  born 
at  Pietole  (anc.  Andes),  now  a  suburb  of  Mantua. 
The  industries  include  weaving,  tanning,  and 
saltpetre-refining.  Mantua,  an  Etruscan  town, 
was  successively  held  by  RoTuans,  Ostrogoths, 
and  Lombards,  and  from  1328  till  1708  was 
governed  by  the  Gonzaga  family.  The  last  duke 
dying  childless,  his  duchy  was  confiscated  by 
Austria,  who  retained  it  till  1866.  Pop.  30,000 
(soma  4000  Jews). 

Manytch.    See  Asia,  p.  52. 
20 


Manzanarea.    See  Madrid. 

Manzanilla,  (1)  a  port  of  Mexico,  on  a  fine 
bay  opening  to  the  Pacific,  31  miles  by  rail 
WSW.  of  Colima.  Pop.  4000,— <2)  A  port  on  the 
south  coast  of  Cuba,     Pop.  15,000. 

Mapledurham,  (l)  Hainpshire,  2  miles  SW.  of 
PetersHeld,  the  seat  of  Gibbon  the  historian. — 
(2)  Oxfordshire,  on  the  Thames,  3^  miles  NW.  of 
Reading,  a  fine  Tudor  mansion  (1523). 

Mar,  an  ancient  district  of  Scotland,  between 
the  Dee  and  the  Don,  comprising  nearly  the  south 
half  of  Aberdeenshire,  and  subdivided  into  Brae- 
mar,  Midmar,  and  Cromar. 

Maracayho  (Marakibo),  a  fortified  city  of 
Venezuela,  on  the  west  shore  of  the  strait  which 
connects  the  lake  and  gulf  of  Maracaybo.  It  is  a 
handsome  town,  with  many  gardens  and  squares, 
a  college,  theatre,  German  club-house,  &c.  The 
trade  is  chiefly  in  the  hands  of  Germans,  Danes, 
and  North  Americans.  The  staple  exports  are 
coff'ee,  boxwood,  lignum  vitse,  cedar,  and  other 
woods,  hides  and  skins.  Pop.  44,284.— The  Gulf 
of  Maracaybo  is  a  wide  inlet  of  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
connected  with  the  fresh-water  Lake  of  Maracaybo, 
which  is  shut  in  by  lofty  mountains,  and  though 
deep  is  difficult  of  entrance  by  reason  of  a  bar. 

Maragha,  a  town  of  western  Persia,  55  miles 
S.  of  Tabriz.     Pop.  15,260. 

Marajo,  a  low,  fertile  island  (17,860  sq.  m.) 
between  the  Amazon  and  Para  estuaries. 

Maranliam',  or  Maranhao,  a  maritime  state  of 
Brazil,  bounded  N.  by  the  Atlantic.  Area,  177,566 
sq.  m. ;  population,  431,000.— The  chief  city  is 
Maranham,  or  San  Luiz  de  Maranham,  on  an 
island  between  the  mouths  of  the  Mearim  and 
Itapicura.  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  technical  school, 
sugar  and  cotton  factories,  and  docks  that  admit 
ships  drawing  14  feet.  The  exports  are  cotton, 
sugar,  hides,  gum,  balsam,  cotton-seed,  india- 
rubber,  &c.    Pop.  40,000. 

Maraiion.    See  Amazon. 

Marash,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  80  miles 
NE.  of  Alexandretta,  its  port.  It  is  a  market 
for  Kurt  carpets  and  embroideries.  Hittite  anti- 
quities have  been  discovered.    Pop.  about  50,000. 

Mar'athon,  a  village  on  the  east  coast  of 
ancient  Attica,  22  miles  NE.  of  Athens.  It  stood 
in  a  plain  0  miles  long  and  from  3  to  H  miles 
broad,  between  the  sea  and  the  mountain^,  and 
saw  the  great  defeat  of  the  Persian  hordes  of 
Darius  by  the  Greeks  under  Miltiades  (490  B.C.). 

Marazi'on,  or  Market- Jew,  a  Coniish  watering- 
place,  on  Mounts  Bay,  3J  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Pen- 
zance.    Pop.  of  parish,  1342. 

Marblehead,  a  seaport  of  Massachusetts,  18 
miles  NE.  of  Boston.    Pop.  9202. 

Marburg  (Mar'boorg),  a  quaint  old  town  in  the 
Prussian  province  of  Hesse-Nassau,  on  the  Lahn, 
59  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Frankfort.  It  is  built  on  a 
terraced  hill,  whose  summit  is  crowned  by  a 
stately  castle,  dating  from  1005,  in  which  was 
held  in  1529  a  conference  between  the  Witten- 
berg and  the  Swiss  reformers.  The  fine  Gothic 
church  with  two  towers  243  feet  high,  was  built 
in  1235-83  by  the  Teutonic  Knights  over  the 
splendid  shrine  of  St  Elizabeth.  The  university 
occupies  new  Gothic  buildings  of  1879.  It  was 
founded  in  1527  for  the  Reformed  Church  ;  and 
among  its  earliest  students  were  Patrick  Hamil- 
ton  and  William  Tyndale.  It  has  800  to  1000 
students.  Pop.  18,000,— (2)  A  town  of  Austria- 
Hum^ary,  on  the  Drave,  30  miles  NE.  of  Gratz. 
It  is  Uie  seat  of  a  bishop,  and  has  notable  schools 
and  manufactories.     Pop.  24,500. 


MARCH 


450 


MARITZA 


March,  a  market-town  of  Cambridgeshire,  on 
the  Neil,  14  miles  E.  of  Peterborough  and  16 
NW.  of  Ely.    Pop.  7570. 

March  {Marhh;  Slav.  Morava),  the  principal 
river  of  Moravia,  rises  on  tlie  boundary  with 
Prussian  Silesia,  and  flows  214  miles  south  to  the 
Danube,  6  miles  above  Presburg. 

Marchena  (Marchay'na),  a  town  of  Spain,  47 
miles  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Seville,  with  a  ducal 
palace  and  sulphur- baths.     Pop.  14,154. 

Marcianisi  (Marclianee'zee),  a  town  of  Italy,  18 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Naples.     Pop.  11,083. 

Mardin,  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  60  miles 
SE.  of  Diarbekir.    Pop.  15,000. 

Maree',  Loch,  a  beautiful  lake  of  Ross-shire, 
40  miles  W.  of  Dingwall.  Lying  32  feet  above 
sea-level,  it  is  12^  miles  long,  3  furlongs  to  2i 
miles  broad,  360  feet  deep,  and  11  sq.  m.  in  area. 
It  is  overhung  by  mountains  3000  feet  high ; 
sends  off  the  Ewe,  3  miles  long,  to  the  sea  ;  and 
contains  twenty-seven  islets,  one  with  remains 
of  an  ancient  chapel  and  a  graveyard.  Queen 
Victoria  stayed  here  in  1877. 

Marem'ma  (corrupted  from  Marittima,  '  sea- 
board '),  a  marshy  region  of  Italy,  extending 
along  the  Tuscan  sea-coast  from  the  Cecina  to 
Orbitello,  and  about  1000  sq.  m.  in  area. 

Maren'go,  a  village  of  northern  Italy,  in  a 
marshy  district  near  the  Bormida,  3  miles  SE.  of 
Alessandria.  Here,  on  14th  June  1800,  Napoleon 
defeated  the  Austrians." 

Mareo'tis,  or  Mareia,  Lake,  the  modern  El 
Mariut,  a  salt  lake  or  marsh  of  Egypt,  extends 
southward  from  Alexandria,  and  is  separated  from 
the  Mediterranean  by  a  narrow  isthmus  of  sand. 
In  the  15th  and  16th  centuries  it  was  a  navigable 
lake ;  in  1798  the  French  found  it  a  dry  sandy  plain ; 
but  in  1801  the  English  army  cut  the  dikes  of  the 
canal  that  separated  it  from  the  Lake  of  Aboukir, 
to  cut  off  the  French  water-supply,  and  Mareotis 
became  once  more  a  marsh.  The  like  happened 
again  in  1803,  in  1807,  and  in  1882,  when  the  sea 
was  introduced  directly  through  a  cutting  15  feet 
wide  and  half  a  mile  long. 

Margarita  (Margaree'ta),  an  island  in  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  belonging  to  Venezuela.  Area, 
380  sq.  m. ;  pop.  40,000.  Discovered  by  Columbus 
in  1498,  Margarita  was  long  famous  for  its  pearl- 
fisheries,  but  now  its  chief  export  is  salted  fish. 

Margate,  a  seaport  and  municipal  borough  in 
the  Isle  of  Thanet,  Kent,  3  miles  W.  of  the  North 
Foreland  and  74  B.  by  S.  of  London,  is  the  favourite 
seaside  resort  of  London  holiday-makers,  who, 
during  the  season,  by  rail  and  by  steamer,  pour 
into  the  town  in  their  thousands.  Possessed 
of  many  natural  advantages  in  its  bracing  air, 
good  bathing,  and  excellent  firm  sands,  Margate 
ofTers  besides  all  the  custonary  attractions  of 
a  watering-place,  with  its  pier  (900  feet  long), 
jetty  (over  J  mile  long),  theatre,  assembly-rooms, 
baths,  zoological  gardens,  &c.  It  contains  also 
two  interesting  churches— one  exhibiting  traces  of 
Norman  and  Early  English  work,  and  the  other 
with  a  tower  of  135  feet,  forming  a  conspicuous 
landmark ;  the  Royal  Sea-bathing  Infirmary 
(1792  ;  enlarged  1882)  ;  a  town-hall  (1820) ;  and  an 
extensive  deaf  and  dumb  asylum  (1875-86).  Queen 
Victoria  visited  the  town  in  1835,  where  too 
Turner  the  painter  was  at  school.  Pop.  (1801) 
4766;  (1901)23,057. 

Margaux  (Mar-go'),  a  village  15  miles  by  rail 
NNW.  of  Bordeaux,  near  the  Gironde's  left  bank. 
Its  ch§,teau  (a  handsome  Italian  villa)  and  cele- 
brated vineyards  are  i  mile  distant.     Pop.  1819. 


Marghilan,  capital  of  Ferghana  (q.v.). 

Marianna,  an  episcopal  city  of  Brazil,  3  milea 
E.  of  Ouro  Preto.    Pop.  5000. 

Marianne  Islands.    See  Labrones. 

Maria-Theresiopel.    See  Szabadka. 

Mariazell  {Maree' atzeW),  the  most  famous  place 
of  pilgrimage  in  Austria,  in  the  extreme  north 
of  Styria,  25  miles  N.  of  Bruck  and  60  SW.  of 
Vienna.  The  image  of  the  Virgin  (bi'ought  here 
in  1157)  is  enshrined  in  a  magnificent  church, 
rebuilt  in  1644.     Pop.  1165. 

Marie  Galante  (Maree'  GalonH),  a  wooded  coral 
French  island,  in  the  West  Indies,  discovered 
by  Columbus  in  1493,  lies  17  miles  SE.  of  Guade- 
loupe. Area,  58  sq.  m.  Sugar,  cottee,  cocoa,  and 
cotton  are  exported.  Pop.  15,000.  Chief  town, 
Grandbourg  or  Marigot,  on  the  SW.  coast. 

Marienbad  (Maree' enhad),  one  of  the  most 
frequented  of  the  Bohemian  spas,  47  miles  by 
rail  NW.  of  Pilsen,  and  2057  feet  above  sea-level. 
Its  saline  springs  (48"'-54°  F.)  had  long  been  used, 
both  internally  and  as  baths,  by  the  people  of  the 
vicinity,  but  it  is  only  since  1807-8  that  it  has 
become  a  great  health-resort.  The  waters  are 
largely  exported.  Marienbad  is  surrounded  by 
wooded  heights,  has  a  pop.  of  5000,  and  is  visited 
every  season  by  over  14,000  patients. 

Marienberg,  a  mining-town  of  Saxony,  38  miles 
SW.  of  Dresden.     Pop,  7139. 

Marienburg  (Maree' eriboorg'),  a  Prussian  town, 
on  the  Nogat,  30  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Danzig. 
From  1309  till  1457  it  was  the  headquarters  of 
the  Teutonic  Order,  and  thereafter  till  1772  be- 
longed to  Poland.  The  Gothic  castle  (1274)  was 
rastored  in  1817-42.     Pop.  10,736. 

Marienwerder  (Maree' eyiver'der),  a  town  of 
West  Prussia,  3  miles  E.  of  the  Vistula  and  55 
by  rail  S.  of  Danzig.  It  was  founded  in  1233  by 
the  Teutonic  Knights,  and  has  an  old  castle  and 
a  minster  (1384).     Pop.  9679. 

Marietta,  capital  of  Washington  county,  Ohio, 
on  the  Ohio  River,  105  miles  SE.  of  Columbus. 
Founded  in  1788,  it  is  the  seat  of  a  college  (1835), 
trades  in  the  neighbouring  petroleum,  and  has 
remains  of  the  earth-builders.    Pop.  13,350. 

Marinette,  a  town  of  Wisconsin,  on  Green 
Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Menomonee  River,  177 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Milwaukee,  with  a  busy  trade 
in  lumber,  &c.     Pop.  18,000. 

Marino  (Maree'no),  a  toAvn  on  the  Alban  Hills, 
21  miles  SE.  of  Rome,  has  an  old  castle  of  the 
Colonnas,  and  a  cathedral.    Pop.  6071. 

Marion,  (1)  capital  of  Grant  county,  Indiana, 
on  Mississinewa  River,  157  miles  by  rail  SE.  of 
Chicago,  with  foundries,  lumber-mills,  &c.  Pop. 
17,500.— (2)  Capital  of  Marion  county,  Ohio,  46 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Columbus,  with  manufactures 
of  machinery,  farm  implements,  &c.    Pop.  11,900. 

Mariposa,  a  central  county  of  California,  with 
the  Sierra  Nevada  on  its  north-east  border.  It 
contains  the  Yoseinite  Valley,  besides  a  grove  of 
giant  sequoias. 

Marisco  Castle.    See  Lundy. 

Maritime  Province  (Primorslcaya),  part  of 
eastern  Siberia,  extending  along  the  Pacific  from 
Corea  to  the  Arctic  Ocean,  and  including  Kam- 
cliatka  and  north  Saghulien  ;  with  a  length  of 
2300  miles,  and  the  enormous  area  of  730,000 
sq.  m.  (nearly  four  times  the  size  of  Germany). 

Maritza  (anc.  Hebrus),  a  river  of  European 
Turkey,  rises  in  the  Balkans,  and  flows  270  miles 
E.  by  S.  and  S.  by  W.  past  Philippopolis  and 
Adrianople  to  the  Gulf  of  Enos  in  the  iEgean, 


MARITZBURQ 


451 


MARSALA 


Maritzburg.    See  Pietermaritzburg. 

Mariu'pol,  the  seaport  for  the  south  Eussian 
coalfield,  on  the  Sea  of  Azov,  05  miles  W.  of 
Taganrog.  It  was  founded  in  1779  by  Greek 
emigrants  from  the  Crimea.    Pop.  18,980. 

Market-Bosworth.    See  Bosworth. 

Market-Deeping,  a  Lincolnshire  town,  on  the 
Welland,  7^  miles  SSE.  of  Bourn.    Pop.  yso. 

Market-Drayton,  or  Drayton-in-Hales,  a 
town  of  Shropshire,  on  the  Tern,  18  miles  NE.  of 
Slirewsbury.  It  has  a  grammar-school  (1554)  and 
a  church  dating  from  the  12th  century,  up  whose 
spire  Clive  clambered  as  a  boy.  At  Bloreheath, 
3  miles  to  the  east,  the  Yorkists  won  a  victory  in 
1459.  Pop.  of  parish,  5089.  See  works  by  Lee 
(18(31)  and  Marshall  (1884). 

Market-Harborough,  a  market-town  of  Leices- 
tersliire,  on  tlie  river  Welland  and  the  Union 
Canal,  16  miles  SB.  of  Leicester,  18  N.  of  North- 
ampton, and  84  NNW.  of  London.  It  has  traces 
of  a  Roman  camp  ;  a  fine  Perpendicular  church, 
built  by  John  of  Gaunt  as  an  atonement  for  his 
intrigue  with  Catharine  Swynford,  with  a  broach 
spire  154  feet  high  ;  a  corn  exchange  (1858) ;  and 
a  grammar-school  (1614  ;  restored  1869).  Charles 
I.  slept  here  before  Naseby.  Situated  in  a  rich 
grazing  country,  it  is  a  famous  hunting-centre, 
and  gives  title  to  one  of  Whyte-Melville's  novels. 
Pop.  (1851)  2325  ;  (1901)  7735.  See  works  by  John 
H.  Hill  (1875)  and  J.  E.  Stocks  (1890). 

Markethill,  a  town  of  Armagh,  13  miles  NW. 
of  Newry.     Pop.  750. 

Market- Jew.    See  Marazion. 

Market-Rasen,  a  market-town  on  the  Rasen, 
15  miles  NE.  of  Lincoln.     Pop.  3000. 

Market-Welghton,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  19 
miles  ESE.  of  York.     Pop.  of  parish,  1767. 

Markinch,  a  town  of  Fife,  Hi  miles  SSW.  of 
Cupar.     Pop.  1497. 

MaLrlsirdhlMar-ldrhh;  Fr,  Ste- Mar ie-aux- Mines), 
a  town  of  Upper  Alsace,  on  the  Leber,  40  miles 
SW.  of  Strasburg  by  rail,  with  important  cotton 
and  woollen  mills.     Pop.  11,421. 

Marlborough  (Mol'bro),  an  interesting  market- 
town  of  Wiltshire,  pleasantly  situated  in  the 
valley  of  the  Kennet,  near  Savernake  Forest,  75 
miles  W.  of  London  and  11  SSE.  of  Swindon.  Its 
broad  High  Street  contains  some  picturesque 
houses,  and  at  the  east  end  is  St  Mary's  Church 
with  the  town-hall  (1790) ;  at  the  west  St  Peter's 
with  the  college.  Near  the  latter  is  a  British 
mound,  on  which  early  in  the  12th  century 
Bishop  Roger  of  Salisbury  built  a  castle.  This 
afterwards  became  a  royal  residence  ;  and  here  in 
1267  Henry  III.  held  the  parliament  which  en- 
acted the  *  Statutes  of  Marleberge '  for  restoring 
good  government  after  the  Barons'  wars.  An 
ancient  municipal  borough,  Marlborough,  till 
1867,  returned  two  members,  and  till  1885  one. 
Pop.  (1851)  3460;  (1901)  3046.— Marlborough 
College  was  incorporated  in  1845,  and  obtained 
an  additional  charter  in  1853 ;  the  number  of 
pupils  is  between  500  and  600,  about  70,  sons  of 
clergymen,  being  on  the  foundation.  The  nucleus 
of  the  college  buildings  was  formerly  a  famous 
coaching-house;  and  their  special  glory  is  the 
new  Early  Decorated  chapel,  with  apsidal "chancel, 
completed  in  1886,  at  a  cost  of  £30,000.  William 
Morris  was  a  Marlborough  boy.  See  works  bv 
Waylen  (1854),  Hulme  (1881),  Bradley  (1893),  and 
Lockwood  (1893). 

Marlborough,  a  provincial  district  of  New 
Zealand,  in  the  north-east  corner  of  the  South 


Island,  130  miles  long  by  30  broad  ;  area,  3,051,920 
acres,  of  which  200,000  are  agricultural  land  and 
1,300,000  pastoral.  Amongst  the  minerals  are 
gold,  antimony,  copper,  and  coal.    Pop.  12,767. 

Marlborough,  a  Massachusetts  town,  38  miles 
by  rail  W.  of  Boston,  with  boot-factories,  machine- 
works,  (fcc.     Pop.  13,805. 

Marlow,  Great,  a  town  of  Bucks,  on  the 
Thames,  29  miles  W.  of  London  by  rail,  has  manu- 
factures of  lace  and  paper,  an  iron  suspension 
bridge,  a  house  where  Shelley  lived  in  1817,  and 
a  grammar-school.  It  returned  two  members  till 
1867,  and  one  till  1885.     Pop.  of  parish,  4530. 

Mar'mora,  Sea  of  (anc.  Propontis),  separating 
European  from  Asiatic  Turkey,  and  communi- 
cating with  the  iEgean  by  the  Dardanelles,  with 
the  Black  Sea  by  the  Bosphorus.  It  is  175  miles 
long,  50  broad,  4499  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  4250  feet 
in  maximum  depth.  The  Gulf  of  Ismid  extends 
30  miles  eastwards  into  Asia.  The  largest  of  the 
islands  is  Marmora  or  Marmara  (area,  50  sq.  m.), 
famous  for  its  marble  and  alabaster. 

Marne  (Mam),  a  river  of  France,  rises  in  the 
plateau  of  Langres,  and  flows  326  miles  NW.  and 
W.  past  Chalons  and  ]|fipernay  to  the  Seine  at 
Cliarenton,  a  few  miles  above  Paris.  It  is  navig- 
able for  126  miles  up  to  St  Dizier. 

Marne,  a  dep.  of  NE.  France  formed  out  of 
the  old  province  of  Champagne,  is  traversed  by 
the  river  Marne,  and  to  a  less  extent  by  the  Seine 
and  Aisne.  Area,  3159  sq.  m.  ;  population, 
432,000.  Its  arrondissements  are  Chaions-sur- 
Marne  (the  capital),  Epernay,  Rheims,  Sainte- 
Menehould,  and  Vitry-le-Frangois. 

Marne,  Haute,  a  dep.  of  NE.  France,  formed 
chiefly  out  of  the  old  province  of  Champagne, 
and  embracing  the  upper  basins  of  the  Marne 
and  Meuse.  Area,  2402  sq.  m.  ;  population, 
225,000.  There  are  three  arrondissements,  Chau- 
inont  (the  capital),  Langres,  and  Vassy. 

Mamoch,  a  Banffshire  parish,  8^  miles  NNE. 
of  Huntly.  It  figures  in  Disruption  annals. 
Marocco.  See  Morocco. 
Maros-Vasarhely,  capital  of  the  Szekler  dis- 
tricts in  Transylvania,  on  the  Maros,  a  tributary 
of  the  Theiss,  28  miles  SE.  of  Klausenburg.  It 
has  a  castle.     Pop.  19,883. 

Marple,  a  Cheshire  town,  4  miles  SE.  of  Stock- 
port. Bradshaw  the  regicide  was  a  native.  Pop. 
5600. 

Marquesas  Islands  (Markai/sas),  or  Men- 
DANAS,  a  volcanic  group  in  Polynesia,  since  1842 
a  French  protectorate,  N.  of  Tuamotu  or  Low 
Archipelago,  between  8"  and  11°  S.  lat.  and  138° 
and  141°  W.  long.  The  name  strictly  applies  to 
four  or  five  islands  discovered  by  Mendana  in 
1595,  but  usually  includes  now  the  Washington 
group  of  seven  islands,  to  the  north-west.  Total 
area,  492  sq.  m.  In  Cook's  time  (1774)  there  were 
100,000  inhabitants,  but  in  1838  they  had  decreased 
to  20,000,  and  now  to  5000. 

Marquette,  capital  of  Marquette  county, 
Micliigan,  on  the  S.  shore  of  Lake  Superior,  430 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Chicago.  It  has  a  R.  C. 
cathedral,  foundries,  blast-furnaces,  sawmills, 
machine-shops,  and  a  slate-quarry.      Pop.  9993. 

Marsala  (Marsd'la;  anc.  Lilyhoeum),  a  seaport 
on  the  westernmost  point  of  Sicily,  102  miles  by 
rail  and  55  as  the  crow  flies  SW.  of  Palermo.  It 
has  a  citadel,  a  cathedral,  and  a  large  trade 
in  wine,  the  well-known  sherry-like  Marsala. 
It  got  its  present  name  from  the  Saracens,  who 
occupied  it  in  the  9th  c,  but  were  expelled  by 


MARSDEN 


452 


MARTINSBURG 


the  Normans  in  the  11th.  The  harbour,  filled  up 
in  1567  to  prevent  a  Turkish  attack,  was  recon- 
structed during  the  19th  c.  Garibaldi  landed 
here  in  1860.    Pop.  50,750. 

Marsden,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Colne, 
7  miles  SW.  of  Huddersfield.  It  has  woollen, 
cotton,  and  silk  factories.    Pop.  4855. 

Marseilles  (usu.  Marsayle^ ;  Fr.  Marseille), 
the  tliird  city  of  France,  and  the  chief  town  of 
the  dep.  Bouches-du-Rhone,  is  situated  on  the 
south  coast,  about  27  miles  E.  of  the  mouth  of 
the  Rhone,  and  536  by  rail  SSB.  of  Paris.  It  is 
the  principal  commercial  port  of  France,  if  not 
of  the  entire  Mediterranean.  Wheat,  oil-seeds, 
coal,  wine,  spirits,  beer,  sugar,  maize,  oats, 
barley,  coffee,  oils,  pepper,  flour,  and  tallow 
are  the  chief  imports;  whilst  the  exports  com- 
prise clay  tiles,  wheat,  oil-cakes,  flour,  sugar,  oil, 
wine  and  spirits,  soap,  and  candles.  Marseilles 
is  the  headquarters  of  the  Messageries  Maritimes 
and  other  great  French  companies.  The  old 
harbour,  a  natural  basin  of  nearly  70  acres, 
runs  into  the  heart  of  the  city ;  to  the  W.  of  it 
new  docks,  quays,  and  warehouses  extend  fully 
a  mile  along  the  shore,  and  cover  a  hundred 
acres ;  between  these  and  a  breakwater  is  an 
outer  roadstead;  and  there  are  also  dry-docks, 
slips,  &c.  Soap,  vegetable  oils,  oil-cake,  soda, 
sugar,  macaroni,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  tiles,  and 
leather  are  manufactured.  The  city  of  Marseilles 
is  built  on  the  slopes  that  overlook  the  old  har- 
bour, and  at  the  foot,  and  has  of  late  years  ex- 
tended to  the  south-east.  Its  buildings  include 
the  cathedral,  built  in  the  form  of  a  Byzantine 
basilica  (1852-93) ;  the  pilgrimage  church  (1214 ; 
rebuilt  1864),  with  an  image  of  the  ViTgin  greatly 
venerated  by  sailors ;  the  church  of  St  Victor 
(1200),  with  crypt  and  catacombs  of  the  11th 
century ;  the  health  office  of  the  port,  with 
fine  paintings  by  Vernet,  David,  Gerard,  and 
Guerin ;  the  museum  of  antiquities,  in  the  Chateau 
Borely ;  the  Longchamp  palace,  a  very  fine  Re- 
naissance building  (1870),  with  picture-gallery 
and  natural  history  museum  ;  the  public  library, 
with  95,000  volumes  and  1530  MSS.  There  are 
also  a  botanical  and  a  zoological  garden,  a  marine 
and  an  astronomical  observatory,  a  faculty  of 
sciences,  and  schools  of  medicine,  fine  arts. 
Oriental  languages,  music,  commerce,  hydro- 
graphy. Pop.  (1861)  260,910;  (1886)  376,143; 
(1901)474,326,  including  a  colony  of  90,000  Italians. 

Marseilles  was  founded  by  Phoceans  from  Asia 
Minor  about  600  b.c,  and  down  to  300  a.d.  was  a 
centre  of  Greek  civilisation.  The  Greeks  called  it 
Massalia,  the  Romans  Massilia.  It  supported 
Pompey  against  Caesar,  but  was  takeii  by  the 
latter  in  49  B.C.,  after  an  obstinate  defence. 
During  subsequent  ages  it  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Saracens  (9th  c),  Charles  of  Anjou 
(13th  c),  Alphonso  V.  of  Aragon  (1423),  and 
Henry  III.  of  France  (1575).  In  1112  it  had 
become  a  republic  ;  but  in  1660  it  was  deprived 
by  Louis  XIV.  of  the  privileges  it  had  enjoyed 
as  a  free  port  almost  from  its  foundation.  The 
years  1720-21  are  memorable  for  the  devastations 
of  the  plague,  when  nearly  half  the  population  of 
100,000  perished.  Marseilles  was  the  scene  of 
stirring  events  in  1792-93,  and  sent  large  bands 
of  cut-throats  to  Paris ;  in  1871  it  proclaimed 
the  commune.  In  August  1885  tliere  were  1250 
deaths  from  cholera ;  but  the  insanitary  condi- 
tion of  the  place  has,  it  is  hoped,  been  remedied 
by  the  great  drainage  works  inaugurated  in 
1891.  Marseilles  was  the  birthplace  of  Pytheas, 
Petronius,  Thiers,  and  the  sculptor  Puget. 


Marshall,  capital  of  Harrison  county,  Texas, 
40  miles  W.  of  Shreveport.  It  has  railway 
machine-shops,  foundries,  &c.     Pop.  7907. 

Marshall  Islands,  a  group  in  the  western 
Pacific,  annexed  by  Germany  in  1885.  Bisected 
by  10°  N.  lat.,  and  having  the  Caroline  group  to 
the  west,  it  consists  of  two  parallel  chains  of  low 
coral-reefs— one,  the  Ratak  group,  consisting  of 
thirteen  islands  (48  sq.  m.);  the  other,  the  Ralik 
group,  eleven  islands  (107  sq.  m.).  Copra  is  the 
only  export.     Pop.  13,600. 

Marshall  town,  capital  of  Marshall  county, 
Iowa,  near  the  Iowa  River,  50  miles  NE.  of  Des 
Moines.     Pop.  11,550. 

Marshfield,  a  Gloucestershire  town,  on  the 
Cotswolds,  11^  miles  E,  of  Bristol.    Pop.  1250. 

Marshfield,  in  Wisconsin,  is  185  miles  NW.  of 
Milwaukee.     Pop.  5500. 

Marsivan',  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  23  miles 
NW.  ofAinasia.    Pop.  15,000. 

Marske-by-the-Sea,  a  Yorkshire  watering, 
place,  3  miles  SE.  of  Redcar.  Near  it  are  iron- 
stone mines.  Pop.  of  parish,  3090. 
Mars-la-Tour.  See  Vionville. 
Marston  Moor,  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire,  7  miles  W,  of  York,  the  scene  of  a  great 
parliamentary  victory,  2d  July  1644. 

Martaban',  a  town  in  Burma,  on  the  riglit 
bank  of  the  Salween,  opposite  to  Maulmain.  The 
capital  of  Pegu  down  to  1324,  it  was  taken  by 
the  Siamese  250  years  later,  and  by  the  British 
in  1824  and  in  1852.  Pop.  1781.  The  Bay  of 
Martaban  receives  the  Irawadi  and  Salween. 

Martha's  Vineyard,  an  island  on  the  south 
coast  of  Massachusetts,  21  miles  long  by  6  broad. 
It  is  a  summer  health-resort. 

Martigny  (Marteen'yee),  or  Martinach  (anc. 
Octodurios),  three  united  hamlets  in  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Valais,  on  the  Simplon  railway,  24 
miles  SE.  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva.    Pop.  4417. 

Martigues  (Marteeg'),  the  'Provencal  Venice,' 
a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Bouches-du-Rli6ne, 
is  situated  on  several  islands,  united  by  bridges, 
at  the  entrance  to  the  Etang  de  Berre,  20  miles 
NW.  of  Marseilles.     Pop.  6340. 

Martina  {Martee'na),  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  be- 
tween Taranto  and  Monopoli.    Pop.  24,454. 

Martinique  (Martineek' ;  native  Madiann),  one 
of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  in  the  West  India  Islands. 
It  is  43  miles  long  by  12  to  20  broad.  Area,  380 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1889)  175,863;  (1902)  185,000.  The 
island  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniards  in  1493, 
colonised  by  the  French  in  1635,  and  except  for 
three  short  intervals  (1761-63,  1794-1802,  1809- 
14),  when  it  was  held  by  the  British,  it  has  been  a 
French  colony  ever  since.  A  mountain-knot  in  the 
north  (4430  feet)  and  another  in  the  south  are  con- 
nected by  a  low  ridge,  all  being  densely  covered 
with  trees.  Aii  eruption  of  MoTit  Pelee  in  1902 
entirely  destroyed  the  town  of  Saint  Pierre,  the 
chief  commercial  place,  with  about  33,000  people. 
Fort  de  France  (18,000)  is  the  capital.  The  climate 
is  moist  and  hot  (annual  mean  79°  F.),  and  yellow 
fever  is  not  unfrequent.  The  soil  is  very  pro- 
ductive. About  one-half  of  the  land  in  cultiva- 
tion is  occupied  with  sugar-cane.  The  exports 
include  sugar,  molasses,  and  rum  ;  the  imports, 
textiles,  flour,  fish,  rice,  and  cotton.  Slavery  was 
abolished  in  1S4S  ;  labour  is  largely  performed 
by  coolies  (27,000).  Railways  connect  the  prin- 
cipal towns. 
MartinsbTirg,    capital    of   Berkeley  county, 


MARTIN'S   FERRY 


453 


MASSACHUSETTS 


West  Virginia,  in  the  Slieuandoali  Valley,  114 
miles  by  rail  W.  of  Baltimore.  It  lias  a  large 
distillery,  mills,  railway  shops,  &c.    Pop.  7726. 

Martin's  Ferry,  a  town  of  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio 
River,  89  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Pittsburgh,  has  iron- 
works, glass-works,  &c.     Pop.  8250. 

Martos,  a  town  of  Spain,  16  miles  SW.  of  Jaen, 
on  a  castle-crowned  hill.    Pop.  16,627. 

Marugama,  a  seaport  on  the  NW.  coast  of  the 
island  of  Shikoku,  Japan.     Pop.  25,000. 

M4rw4r.    See  Jodhpur. 

Maryborough,  the  capital  of  Queen's  County, 
51  miles  SW.  of  Dublin.    Pop.  2900. 

Mai-yborough,  (l)  a  port  of  Queensland,  on  the 
Mary  River,  25  miles  from  its  mouth  and  180  N, 
of  Brisbane.  Gold  from  Gympie  (61  miles  by 
rail),  copper,  sugar,  and  timber  are  the  chief 
exports.  Pop.  10,360.— <2)  An  important  gold- 
mining  town  of  Victoria,  90  miles  NW.  of  Mel- 
bourne.    Pop.  5700. 

Maryhill,  a  north-west  suburb  of  Glasgow. 

Maryland,  one  of  the  United  States,  on  the 
Atlantic,  separated  from  Pennsylvania  and  Dela- 
ware by  'Mason  and  Dixon's  Line,'  and  from 
Virginia  by  the  Potomac  River.  It  contains 
12,210  sq.  m.— very  nearly  the  size  of  Holland— 
of  which  about  one-fifth  is  water.  The  length 
from  east  to  west  is  196  miles,  and  the  breadth 
128  miles.  The  surface  elevation  varies  greatly, 
from  sea-level  to  an  altitude  of  3500  feet.  In  the 
west  it  is  mountainous  (see  Blue  Ridgk)  ;  in  the 
middle  hilly  and  rolling  ;  in  the  east  and  south- 
east low  and  undulating.  The  mean  summer 
temperature  is  75°,  the  mean  winter  temperature 
34°.  The  annual  rainfall  varies  from  38  inches  in 
the  mountains  to  46  near  the  Atlantic.  The 
minerals  include  fine  bituminous  coal ;  over  200 
kinds  of  marble ;  copper,  chi'ome,  large  beds  of 
clay,  and  soapstone.  The  soil  is  well  adapted  to 
cultivation.  The  forest-trees  are  principally  pine, 
chestnut,  and  oak.  The  staple  fruit-tree  is  the 
peach,  which  covers  many  thousands  of  acres. 
Tobacco  is  the  principal  crop  in  the  peninsula 
between  the  Chesapeake  and  the  Potomac.  Toma- 
toes, melons,  small  fruits,  and  all  kinds  of  vege- 
tables are  cultivated  on  the  eastern  shore.  Deer, 
wild  ducks  (especially  the  famous  canvas-back), 
wild  geese,  swans,  and  turkeys  are  found,  as  well 
as  woodcock,  grouse,  and  quail  (locally  called  par- 
tridge). The  Chesapeake  Bay  divides  Maryland 
into  two  unequal  portions,  the  Eastern  and  the 
Western  Shore.  With  its  estuaries  it  gives  the 
state  a  coast-line  of  more  than  500  miles.  Shad 
and  herring  are  caught  in  large  numbers,  and  the 
average  annual  supply  of  oysters  reaches  20 
millions  of  bushels,  giving  employment  to  more 
than  40,000  persons.  Besides  railways,  Maryland 
has  two  canals  (from  Cumberland  to  Washington, 
184^  miles,  and  between  the  Chesapeake  and 
Delaware  Bays,  12^  miles).  Maryland  returns 
six  members  to  congress.  The  Legislature  is 
styled  the  General  Assembly,  and  consists  of  two 
houses.  The  seat  of  government  is  at  Annapolis. 
Baltimore  is  the  chief  port  and  commercial 
centre.  Other  towns  are  Cumberland,  Hagers- 
town,  Frederick,  Westminster,  on  the  western 
shore ;  Salisbury,  Baston,  and  Cambridge,  on  the 
eastern.  Pop.  (1830)  447,030;  (1860)  687,049; 
(1880)  934,943;  (1900)  1,188.044.  Included  in 
Charles  I.'s  grant  to  Lord  Baltimore  (1632),  Mary- 
land was  named  in  honour  of  Henrietta  Maria. 
It  was  among  the  first  of  the  colonies  to  take  an 
active  part  in  the  War  of  Independence.  Divided 
in  sentiment  in  the  civil  war  of  1861-65,  it  yet 


remained  within  the  Union.    See  Scharf  s  History 
of  Maryland  (2  vols.  Bait.  1879). 

Marylebone,  a  NW.  parliamentary  borough  of 
London,  returning  two  members.     Pop.  132,295. 

Maryport,  a  seaport  of  Cumberland,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Ellen,  28  miles  SW.  of  Carlisle  by 
railway  (1837).  The  town  gets  its  name  from  the 
fact  that  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  landed  here  in 
her  flight  from  Scotland,  though  it  was  called 
Ellenfoot  down  to  1750,  when  its  harbour  was 
constructed.  A  new  dock  was  opengd  in  1884 ; 
and  there  are  shipbuilding-yards,  iron-foundries 
andiron-furnaces,  sawmills,  flour-mills,  tanneries, 
breweries,  &c.     Pop.  (1851)  5698  ;  (1901)  11,897.  ' 

Marysville,  capital  of  Yuba  county,  California, 
on  the  Yuba  River,  at  the  head  of  navigation,  52 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Sacramento.  It  is  a  great 
resort  of  gold-miners,  and  contains  flour-mills, 
a  foundry,  woollen-factory,  &c.    Pop.  3300. 

Masampho  (Ma-san-po),  a  Corean  port  on  the 
south  coast,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Nak-tong 
River.     Pop.  25,000. 

Masaya  (Mazl'a),  a  town  of  Nicaragua,  near  the 
volcano  of  Masaya.     Pop.  18,000. 

Mascara',  a  town  of  Algeria,  50  miles  SB,  of 
Oran,  1800  feet  above  sea-level.    Pop.  21,400. 

Mascarenes,  the  collective  name  given  (from 
the  discoverer)  to  the  islands  of  Reunion,  Mauri- 
tius, and  Rodriguez. 

Mashhad.    See  Meshhed. 

Mashonaland,  or  Mashunaland,  the  region 
lying  NE.  of  Matabeleland,  between  16°  30'— 19° 
10'  S.  lat.  and  30°— 32°  E.  long.  It  embraces  the 
plateau  (4000-4600  feet)  whose  backbone  is  the' 
Umvukwe  Mountains,  and  in  which  rise  some  of 
the  chief  feeders  of  the  Zambesi,  Limpopo,  Sabi, 
and  Mazoe.  It  has  rich  soil,  grass  all  the  year 
round,  and  an  abundance  of  running  streams. 
A  constant  cold  south-east  wind  tempers  the 
heat,  and  renders  the  air  strong  and  bracing, 
though  some  of  the  valleys  breed  fever.  A 
peaceful  and  industrious  people  (392,000  in 
number),  of  Bantu  race,  the  Mashonas  and  their 
kinsmen  the  Makalakas  long  lived  in  fear  of  their 
fierce  neighbours,  the  Matabele.  They  are  the 
best  husbandmen  in  South  Africa,  and  before 
being  dispossessed  of  their  country  owned  large 
herds  of  cattle.  They  now  grow  rice,  Kaffir  corn, 
maize,  ground-nuts,  sweet  potatoes,  tobacco,  and 
cotton ;  this  last  they  weave  into  blankets. 
They  are  also  good  iron- workers.  Iron,  copper, 
and  gold  (in  quartz  and  river  sand)  exist  in 
immense  quantities.  There  are  very  ancient  ruins 
and  old  gold-mines,  especially  at  Zimbabye  (q.v.). 
Mashonaland  was  put  under  British  protection 
in  1888,  and  now,  with  Matabeleland,  forms 
Southern  Rhodesia  (q.v.).  See  Selous'  Travels  in 
South-East  Africa  (1893),  and  other  books  cited 
at  Matabeleland. 

Mask,  Lough,  an  isleted  lake  of  Galway  and 
Mayo,  measures  12  miles  by  2  to  4. 

Massa^  or  Massa  di  Cabraba,  a  city  of  N. 
Italy,  20  miles  by  rail  SB.  of  Spezia.  It  has  a 
cathedral  and  a  ducal  palace.    Pop.  26,400. 

Massachus'etts,  one  of  the  New  England  states 
of  the  American  Union,  is  bounded  B.  by  Massa- 
chusetts Bay,  from  which  the  state  derives  its 
familiar  name  of  the  Bay  State.  It  is  irregular  in 
outline,  its  greatest  length  being  about  182  and  its 
average  breadth  47^  miles  ;  and  it  has  an  area  of 
about  8315  sq.  m.— larger  than  Wales.  The  sur- 
face is  uneven,  varying  from  low  plains,  near  the 
Atlantic  sea-coast,  containing  numerous  small 
lakes,  to  a  rolling  country  in  the  interior,  be- 


MASSAFRA 


454 


MATTERHOfeN 


coming  mountainous  towards  the  western  bound- 
ary. The  highest  of  the  peaks,  most  of  them 
wooded  to  the  summit,  is  Greylock  (3505  feet). 
The  soil  is  in  many  portions,  particularly  in  the 
east,  rocky  and  sterile  ;  along  the  river-valleys, 
however,  and  in  certain  other  sections  it  is 
fertile.  The  woodland  in  the  state  covers  over 
2100  sq.  m.  The  rivers,  while  not  important 
for  navigation,  are  the  source  of  valuable  water- 
power  which  has  been  utilised  in  manufacturing  ; 
and  in  its  annual  output  the  state  leads  all 
others,  except  New  York  and  Pennsylvania.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  textiles,  boots  and  shoes, 
food  preparations,  building  materials,  clothing, 
iron  and  other  metallic  goods,  leather,  wooden 
wares,  rubber  goods,  paper  and  wood-pulp, 
besides  cotton,  woollen,  and  worsted  goods. 
There  are  2150  miles  of  railway  in  the  state. 
The  '  commonwealth  of  Massachusetts '  contains 
fourteen  counties  and  returns  14  members  to 
congress.  The  state  senate  consists  of  40,  the 
House  of  Representatives  of  240  members.  There 
are  in  the  state  two  technical  institutes  and  twelve 
colleges  and  universities,  the  latter  including 
Harvard,  Williams  College,  Amherst  College,  and 
Boston  University  and  College.  The  leading  cities 
are  Boston,  Worcester,  Springfield,  Holyoke, 
Fall  River,  Lowell,  Lawrence,  Lynn,  Haverhill, 
Brockton,  Salem,  New  Bedford,  Taunton,  Glou- 
cester, Cambridge,  the  seat  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity. Pop.  CISOO)  422,845;  (1850)  994,514;  (1880) 
1,783,085 ;  (1900)  2,805,000. 

The  coast  is  supposed  to  have  been  visited  by 
Northmen  about  1000  a.d.,  but  the  first  per- 
manent settlement  was  made  at  Plymouth,  near 
Cape  Cod,  by  the  Pilgrim  Fathers,  December  22, 
1620.  In  1628  a  company  of  Puritans  settled  at 
Salem  upon  the  coast  farther  north,  and,  together 
with  settlements  at  Boston,  Lynn,  and  else- 
where, became  the  Massachusetts  Bay  Company. 
The  two  colonies  were  united  in  1692.  After  the 
War  of  Independence,  begun  in  Massachusetts 
in  1776  with  the  battles  of  Lexington  and  Bunker 
Hill,  the  colony  became  one  of  the  original  thir- 
teen states  of  the  Union.  See  J.  S.  Barry's 
History  of  Massachusetts  (3  vols.  1855-57). 

Massafra,  a  town  of  Italy,  11  miles  by  rail 
NW.  of  Taranto.     Pop.  9463. 

Massillon,  a  city  of  Ohio,  on  the  Tuscarawas 
River,  66  miles  S.  of  Cleveland,  with  manufac- 
tures of  iron,  glass,  and  paper.     Pop.  21,092. 

Massow'ah,  or  Massaua,  a  town  built  on  a 
coral  island  off  the  west  coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  in 
15°  36'  N.  lat.,  39°  28'  E.  long.  It  was  seized  by 
Turkey  in  1557,  but  in  1866  given  by  her  to 
Egypt,  and  in  1885  was  occupied  by  Italy.  The 
island  is  \\  mile  in  circumference,  and  is  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  a  causeway  ;  and  is 
the  terminus  of  a  military  railway  into  the  in- 
terior. Pop.  about  8000,  of  whom  600  are  Euro- 
peans (exclusive  of  the  garrison).  Fishing  for 
pearls  and  mother-of-pearl  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry. The  imports  include  cottons,  chemical 
products,  animals,  grain  and  flour,  groceries, 
spirits,  liides,  and  timber.  Massowah  is  very  hot 
(mean  of  the  year,  85'8°  F.)  and  unhealthy. 

Masullpatam',  a  seaport  in  Madras  presi- 
dency, 215  miles  N.  of  Madras  city.  Vessels 
anchor  5  miles  from  shore.  Here  the  English 
established  an  agency  in  1611.  In  1864  a  storm 
wave  destroyed  30,000  lives.     Pop.  39,809. 

Masuri.    See  Mussooree. 

Matabe'leland,  a  country  stretching  north- 
wards from  the  Transvaal  towards  the  Zambesi, 
find  having  Kharaa's  territory  on  the  south-west. 


and  Mashonaland  (q.v.)  to  the  north-east.  Ifc 
measures  about  180  miles  frum  north  to  south 
and  150  from  east  to  west,  and  embraces  the 
watershed  between  the  river-systems  of  the 
Zambesi  and  the  Limpopo.  When  in  the  first 
quarter  of  the  19th  century  the  de.spotic  Chaka 
ruled  over  the  Zulus,  a  section  of  the  nation 
under  a  rival  chief,  Mosilikatze,  rebelled  and 
moved  off  towards  the  north.  After  remaining 
for  a  while  in  what  is  now  the  Transvaal,  they 
settled  in  1840  in  their  present  country,  almo.st 
exterminating  the  Mashona  and  Makalaka  native 
tribes.  The  Matabele,  who  preserved  the  warlike 
habits  of  the  Zulu  race,  number  in  all  some 
255,000  persons,  of  whom  15,000  are  fighting  men. 
Quartz  reefs  rich  in  gold  exist  in  various  parts  of 
the  country,  and  mines  have  been  worked  at  Tati 
and  elsewhere.  Tlie  British  South  Africa  Com- 
pany in  1893  broke  the  power  of  Lobengida,  son 
of  Mosilikatze,  wliose  kraal  was  Bulawayo,  still 
the  capital,  and  now  connected  by  rail  with  Cape- 
town. Since  1896  the  natives  have  liad  a  share 
in  the  government.  Tlie  di.strict  is  now  the 
southern  part  of  Rhodesia.  See  works  by  Baines 
(1877),  Montagu  Kerr  (1886),  Gates  (1889),  Colqu- 
houn  (189^).  Selous  (1893),  and  Norris  (1895). 

Matadi,  in  the  Congo  State,  is  at  the  liead  of 
the  navigation  of  the  Congo,  100  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  the  starting-point  of  the  railway. 
Pop.  8000. 

Matamo'ros,  (l)  a  river-port  of  Mexico,  oppo- 
site Brownsville,  Texas,  on  the  Rio  Grande's  S. 
bank,  40  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  Pop.  13,740.  — (2)  A  town,  with  coal- 
mines, in  the  Mexican  state  Puebla.    Pop.  13,000. 

Matanzas,  a  fortified  seaport  on  the  north 
coast  of  Cuba,  65  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Havana, 
with  distilleries,  iron-foundries,  and  a  large  trade 
in  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  and  cigars.     Pop.  36,500. 

Matapan',  Cape,  the  southernmost  point,  bold 
and  precipitous,  of  the  Morea  in  Greece. 

Mata'ro,  a  seaport  of  Spain,  17  miles  by  rail 
NE.  of  Barcelona.     Pop.  18,727. 

Matera,  an  Italian  cathedral  city,  37  miles 
NW.  of  Taranto.     Pop.  17,700. 

Mathura.    See  Muttra. 

Matlock,  a  Derbyshire  parish,  17  miles  N.  by 
W.  of  Derby,  containing  MaUock  Bath,  Matlock 
Bridge,  Matlock  town,  and  Matlock  Bank,  which 
extend  2  miles  along  the  romantic  valley  of  the 
Derwent.  Matlock  Bath  has  hot  springs  of  68° 
F.,  charged  with  carbonic  acid.  At  Matlock  Bank 
are  several  hydropathics,  one  dating  from  1S51. 
Pop.  (1901)  of  Matlock  urban  district,  5979. 

Matoppo  Hills,  the  mountainous  region  in 
which  the  Matabele  tableland  (itself  reaching 
4500  feet  above  the  sea)  culminates,  the  water- 
shed between  the  Limpopo  and  the  Zambesi. 
Bulawayo  (q.v.)  is  on  their  slopes  ;  and  amongst 
them  Cecil  Rhodes  was  buried. 

Mat'sumai,  or  Fukuyama,  a  Japanese  port  in 
Yesso,  now  superseded  by  Hakodate  (q.v.).  In 
feudal  days  it  was  the  seat  of  '  the  lords  of  Mat- 
sumai.'    Pop.  15,000. 

Matsuyama,  a  Jai)anese  town  of  40,000  inhabit- 
ants, 5  miles  from  its  port  of  Mitsu,  on  the  west 
coast  of  Shikoku. 

Matterhorn  (French  Mont  Cervin;  Italian 
Monte  Silvio),  a  peak  (14,705  feet)  of  the  Alps 
between  the  SavIss  canton  of  Valais  and  Piedmont. 
It  was  first  scaled  by  Lord  Francis  Douglas,  the 
Rev.  C.  Hudson,  Hadow,  and  Whymper,  with 
three  guides,  on  14th  July  1865,  when  the  three 


MAtTO  G^OSSO 


455 


MAYNOOTfi 


first  named  and  one  of  the  guides  fell  over  a 
precipice  and  were  killed.  See  Whymper,  Ascent 
of  the  Matterhorn  (1880). 

Matto  Grosso  ('dense  forest'),  an  inland  state 
of  Brazil,  bordering  on  Bolivia.  Area,  532,550 
sq.  ni.  (next  in  size  to  Amazonas) ;  pop.  95,000. 
The  capital  is  Cuyaba  (q.v.). 

Mattoon,  a  town  of  Illinois,  172  miles  by  rail 
S,  by  W.  of  Chicago.     Pop.  9833. 

Maturin,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  25  miles  above 
its  port,  Colorado,  by  rail.     Pop.  10,351. 

Maubeuge  (Mo-hmh'),  a  fortified  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Nord,  4  jniles  from  the  Belgian 
frontier  and  23  ESE.  of  Valenciennes.  Pop. 
(1881)5360;  (1901)19,370. 

Mauch  Chunk  (Maivk  Chunk),  a  mining-town 
of  Pennsylvania,  capital  of  Carbon  county,  among 
picturesque  hills  on  the  Lehigh  River,  90  miles 
NNW.  of  Philadelphia.  There  is  a  switchback 
railway,  9  miles  long,  to  Summit  Hill— a  place 
famous  for  its  '  burning  mines,'  which  have  been 
on  fire  since  1858.      Pop.  4100. 

Mauchllne,  a  town  of  Ayrshire,  12  miles  ENE. 
of  Ayr.  It  has  long  been  noted  for  its  wooden 
snuff-boxes  and  similar  nicknacks.  There  is  a 
monument  (1830)  to  five  martyred  Covenanters  ; 
and  1  mile  N.  is  Mossgiel,  Burns's  farm  from  1784 
till  1788,  whilst  in  the  village  itself  are  '  Poosie 
Nancy's,'  the  scene  of  his  Jolhj  Beggars,  and 
Mauchline  kirk,  whose  predecessor  was  the  scene 
of  his  Holy  Fair.  Pop.  1754.  See  works  by  W. 
Jolly  (1881)  and  the  Rev.  Dr  Edgar  (188(3). 

Maulmain,  or  Moulmein,  a  town  in  Tenas- 
serim  province,  Burma,  near  the  Salween's  mouth. 
It  is  backed  by  a  fine  range  of  hills,  on  whose 
heights  flash  the  gilded  spires  of  innumerable 
pagodas.  Pop.  (1856)  43,683  ;  (1901)  58,450.  The 
exports  include  teak-wood  and  rice  ;  the  imports 
piece-goods,  hardware,  and  provisions. 

Mauna  Loa.    See  Hawaii. 

Matiritania,  or  Mauretania,  was  anciently 
the  most  north-western  part  of  Africa,  corre- 
sponding to  Morocco  and  western  Algeria. 

Mauritius,  or  Isle  of  France,  an  island  in 
the  Indian  Ocean,  belonging  to  Great  Britain 
since  1810,  and  situated  550  miles  E.  of  Madagas- 
car. It  is  of  volcanic  origin  and  elliptical  in 
shape.  A  girdle  of  reefs,  broken  only  by  passages 
opposite  the  mouths  of  the  small  streams,  renders 
it  somewhat  difficult  of  approach.  The  contour 
rises  rapidly  into  a  tableland,  that  shoots  up  into 
ridges ;  Riviere  Noire  (2711)  is  the  culminating 
point  of  the  island.  Lavas,  basalts,  and  volcanic 
lakes  abound.  Its  picturesque  beauty  forms  the 
appropriate  background  of  Bernardin  St  Pierre's 
Paul  and  Virginia,  and  is  well  described  in 
Besant  and  Rice's  novel.  My  Little  Girl.  But 
during  the  19th  century  the  forests  were  cut 
down  to  make  room  for  sugar-cane  plantations  ; 
and  this  has  made  the  rainfall  insufficient  and 
uncertain.  The  extinct  fauna  embraced  the  in- 
teresting dodo,  the  rail  called  Aphanapteryx,  and 
a  short-winged  heron.  Fossil  tortoises  of  great 
size  have  been  discovered.  Terrific  cyclones  are 
common  ;  one  in  1892  did  tremendous  damage  to 
Port  Louis  and  other  places.  At  Port  Louis  the 
annual  mean  is  78°  F. ;  in  the  uplands  the  climate 
resembles  that  of  the  south  of  France.  In  1854 
the  cholera  carried  off  17,000  people,  and  thirteen 
years  later  30,000  perished  of  a  malignant  fever. 
The  upper  classes,  very  intelligent,  cultured,  and 
•well  educated,  are  mostly  descended  from  the 
old  French  colonists.  There  is  a  large  number  of 
half-castes,  and  a  considerable  body  of  Negroes, 


Malagasy,  Singhalese,  Malays,  Chinese,  &c.  But 
the  greater  part  of  the  population  consists  of 
Indian  coolies,  who  have  been  imported  nearly 
every  year  since  1842  to  work  the  sugar-fields. 
Pop.  (1881)  359,874;  (1903)  374,644,  of  whom 
207,000  were  Hindus,  113,238  Roman  Catholics, 
41,200  Mohammedans,  and  6650  Protestants.  The 
chief  towns  are  Port  Louis  (q.v.),  the  capital,  on 
the  norfcli-west  coast ;  Curepipe  (pop.  7880) ;  and 
Mahebourg  (4490)  on  the  south  coast.  There  are 
105  miles  of  railway.  The  one  great  crop  of  the 
island  is  sugar ;  and  the  other  exports  include 
rum,  cocoa-nut  oil,  vanilla,  and  aloe  fibres  (Maur- 
itius hemp).  The  crown  colony  of  Mauritius, 
with  its  dependencies  the  Seychelles  Islands,  Rod- 
riguez, Diego  Garcia,  and  several  minor  islands,  is 
administered  by  a  governor,  aided  by  an  execu- 
tive council.  The  island,  then  uninhabited,  was 
discovered  by  Mascarenhas  (see  Mascarenes)  in 
1507.  The  Portuguese  held  it  till  1598;  the 
Dutch,  who  named  it  after  their  Prince  Maurice, 
from  1598  till  1710.  It  was  the  French  governor 
Mahe  de  Labourdonnais  (1 735-46)  who  introduced 
the  sugar-cane,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  its  pros- 
perity as  a  colony,  during  the  French  occupation 
(1715-1810).  Theodore  Hook  was  treasurer  in 
1812-18.  See  works  by  Grant  (1801),  Flemyng 
(1862),  Ryan  (1864),  Boyle  (1867),  J.  G.  Baker 
(1877),  G.  Clark  (1881),  J^pinay  (French,  1890), 
Decotter  (French,  1891),  and  Keller  (1901). 

Maxstoke,  an  Edwardian  castle  of  Warwick- 
shire, 3  miles  SE.  of  Coleshill. 

Maxwelltovm.    See  Dumfries. 

May,  Isle  of,  a  Fife  islet  in  the  Firth  of 
Forth,  5i  miles  SSE.  of  Crail.  It  is  146  acres  in 
area,  rises  150  feet,  was  the  seat  of  a  priory,  and 
has  a  lighthouse,  whose  flashing  electric  light  is 
visible  22  nautical  miles.    Pop.  17. 

Maybole,  a  town  of  Ayrshire,  3|  miles  inland, 
and  9  by  rail  (1856)  S.  by  W.  of  Ayr.  In  feudal 
times  the  capital  of  Carrick,  and  a  burgh  of 
barony  since  1516,  it  is  an  old-world  place,  which 
once  boasted  twenty-eight  baronial  mansions, 
several  of  which  still  remain  ;  besides  which,  it 
has  a  new  town-hall  (1887)  and  a  fine  Roman 
Catholic  church  (1879).  Shoemaking  is  the 
staple  industry.  The  abbey  of  Crossraguel  (q.v.) 
is  in  the  vicinity.    Pop.  5900.  « 

Mayence.    See  Mainz. 

Mayenne  (Ma-yenn' ;  Lat.  Meduana),  a  French 
dep.  formed  out  of  the  provinces  of  Maine  and 
Anjou,  now  containing  the  arrondissements  of 
Laval,  Chateau-Gontier,  and  Mayenne,  has  an 
area  of  1996  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  (1872)  350,637  ; 
(1901)  313,303.— The  river  Mayenne,  flowing  127 
miles  S.,  joins  the  Sarthe  at  Angers  to  form  the 
Maine,  a  tributary  of  the  Loire. — The  town  of 
Mayenne,  on  the  river  Mayenne,  78  miles  by  rail 
S.  by  W.of  Caen,  has  a  picturesque  ruined  castle 
(taken  by  the  English  in  1424),  and  manufactures 
calico  and  linen.     Pop.  8360. 

Mayfield,  a  Staffordshire  village,  on  the  Dove, 
2  miles  SW.  of  Ashborne.  Here  Moore  wrote 
Lalla  Rookh. 

Maynooth',  a  village  of  County  Kildare,  Ire- 
land, 15  miles  NW.  of  Dublin  by  rail ;  pop.  (1891) 
948.  It  has  the  ruined  castle  of  the  Geraldines, 
and  is  the  seat  of  the  Roman  Catholic  college, 
established  (1795)  by  the  Irish  parliament  during 
Pitt's  ministry,  to  meet  a  necessity  created  by 
the  destruction,  through  the  French  Revolution, 
of  the  places  of  education  in  France,  upon  which 
the  Irish  Catholic  clergy  had  been  driven  to  rely. 
The  original  endowment,  an  annual  vote  of  £8928, 


MAYO 


456 


M£C6A 


was  continued,  although  not  without  controversy 
and  keen  opposition  on  the  part  of  zealous  Pro- 
testants, by  the  imperial  parliament  after  tlie  act 
of  union.  In  1846  Sir  Robert  Peel  carried  a  bill 
for  a  permanent  endowment  of  £26,000  a  year,  to 
which  was  added  a  grant  of  £30,000  for  building 
purposes ;  in  1869  the  endowment  was  with- 
drawn, a  capital  sum  of  £364,000  being  granted 
in  its  stead.  The  building  erected  under  the 
original  endowment  is  a  plain  quadrangle.  The 
new  college  is  a  very  striking  Gothic  quadrangle 
by  Pugin,  containing  professors'  and  students' 
apartments,  lecture-halls,  and  a  singularly  fine 
library  and  refectory.  The  chapel  was  (with  the 
exception  of  a  tower  and  spire  275  feet  high)  com- 
pleted at  a  cost  of  £50,000,  and  dedicated  in  1890. 
Designed  by  the  late  J.  J.  M'Carthy  in  the 
Decorated  Gothic  style,  it  consists  of  a  great 
nave,  choir,  and  sanctuary,  ending  in  a  five-sided 
apse,  from  which  radiate  five  chapels.  A  great 
part  of  the  college  buildings  was  burned  in 
November  1878,  but  has  since  been  restored. 

Mayo,  a  maritime  county  of  the  Irish  province 
of  Connaught,  is  bounded  by  the  Atlantic,  Sligo, 
Roscommon,  and  Galway.  Area,  1,360,731  acres, 
of  which  nearly  26  per  cent,  is  bog  and  18  per 
cent,  barren  ;  pop.  (1841)  388,887;  (1901)  199,166, 
of  whojii  213,602  were  Catholics.  The  eastern 
half  of  the  county  is  more  or  less  a  plain,  the 
western  half  mountainous,  the  highest  points 
being  Muilrea  (2688  feet),  Nephin  (2530),  and 
Croagh  Patrick  (2370).  Ironstone  abounds,  but 
is  not  worked  ;  there  are  several  valuable  slate- 
quarries.  The  chief  towns  are  Castlebar,  West- 
port,  Ballina,  and  Ballinrobe.  The  coast-line  is 
about  250  miles,  and  is  indented  by  Killala, 
Blacksod,  and  Clew  Bays,  Killary  Harbour,  and 
Broad  Haven.  Off  Mayo,  too,  lie  the  islands 
Achil  (35,283  acres),  Clare  (3959),  &c.  Loughs 
Mask  and  Corrib  lie  on  the  southern  border,  and 
Loughs  Conn,  Castlebar,  Cullen,  Carragli,  Corra- 
more  within  the  county.  A  valuable  salmon- 
fishery  exists  in  the  river  Moy,  and  Lough  Mask 
is  the  home  of  the  '  gillaroo '  trout.  Four  mem- 
bers are  returned.  The  antiquities  are  cliiefly 
ecclesiastical— four  round  towers,  and  at  Cong  a 
splendid  ruined  abbey  of  the  12th  c. 

Mayotte,  one  of  the  Comoro  Isles  (q.v.). 

Maysville,  capital  of  Mason  county,  Kentucky, 
on  the  Ohio  River,  69  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Lexington.    Pop.  7358. 

Mazamet  (Mazamay'),  a  French  town,  43  miles 
ESB.  of  Toulouse.     Pop.  13,588. 

Mazanderan',  a  province  of  northern  Persia, 
fringing  the  Caspian  Sea  for  200  miles,  consists 
of  a  belt  of  low  marshy  coast-land,  10  to  20  miles 
wide,  backed  by  the  well-wooded  northern  slopes 
of  the  Blburz.  Area,  10,400  sq.  jn. ;  pop.  300,000. 
The  chief  town  is  Sari,  though  Balfrush  is  the 
seat  of  the  trade  with  Russia. 

Mazarron,  or  Almazarron,  a  seaport  of  Spain, 
27  miles  WSW.  of  Cartagena.     Pop.  24,398. 

Mazatlan',  a  Mexican  seaport,  at  the  entrance 
of  the  river  Mazatlan  into  the  Gulf  of  California, 
230  miles  SE.  of  Sinaloa.  It  has  a  cathedral, 
cotton  factory,  foundries,  &c.     Pop.  13,395. 

Mazza'ra,  a  walled  cathedral  coast-town  of 
Sicily,  32  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Trapani.     Pop.  13,074. 

Mazzarlno  (Mazzaree'no),  a  town  of  Sicily,  15 
miles  SE.  of  Caltanisetta.     Pop.  22,964. 

Meadville,  capital  of  Crawford  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, on  French  Creek,  113  miles  by  rail  N. 
of  Pittsburgh.  It  manufactures  woollens,  paper, 
glass,  machinery,  oil,  &c.,  and  is  the  seat  of 


Alleghany  College  (Methodist,  founded  18J5),  and 
of  a  Unitarian  theological  school.     Pop.  10,300. 

Mealfour'vonie.    See  Ness,  Loch. 

Meanee.    See  Meeanee. 

Mearns.    See  Kincardineshire. 

Meath,  a  maritime  county  of  Leinster,  Ireland, 
bounded  E.  for  10  miles  by  the  Irish  Sea,  and  by 
the  counties  of  Dublin  and  Louth.  Area,  906 
sq.  m.,  or  579,861  acres,  of  which  34,300  are 
waste,  bog,  &c.  Pop.  (1841)  183,116 ;  (1861) 
110,373;  (1901)  67,497,  of  whom  71,690  were 
Catholics.  The  soil  is  a  rich  loam ;  but  close 
upon  67  per  cent,  of  it  is  devoted  to  pasture. 
The  surface  is  mostly  undulating.  The  chief 
rivers  are  the  Boyne  and  Blackwater.  The  prin- 
cipal towns  are  Trim,  Navan,  and  Kells.  John's 
Castle  at  Trim  is  one  of  tlie  most  extensive 
monuments  of  English  rule  in  Ireland.  There 
are  a  round  tower  and  sculptured  crosses  at 
Kells,  and  a  round  tower  at  Donoughmore. 
Monastic  ruins  survive  at  Bective,  Clonard,  and 
Duleek.     Meath  returns  two  members. 

Meaux  (Mo),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Seine-et-Marne,  on  a  height  above  the  river  Marne, 
28  miles  NE.  of  Paris.  In  its  noble  Gothic 
cathedral  (12-1 6th  century,  but  still  unfinished)  is 
tlie  grave  of  Bossuet,  who  was  bishop  for  twenty- 
three  years.  Meaux  trades  largely  with  Paris  in 
corn,  flour,  cream-cheeses,  &c.  It  was  besieged 
by  the  serfs  of  La  Jacquerie  (1358),  and  captured 
from  the  League  (1594).    Pop.  12,704. 

Mecca  is  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Arabia  and 
the  capital  of  the  Hedjaz,  and  as  the  birtliplace 
of  Mohammed  a  holy  city  and  focus  of  pilgrim- 
age for  Islam.  It  is  situated  in  21°  30'  N.  lat. 
and  40°  8'  E.  long.,  50  miles  B.  of  Jiddah,  its 
port  on  the  Red  Sea,  in  a  narrow  barren  valley, 
surrounded  by  bare  hills  penetrated  by  two 
passes.  The  streets  are  broad  and  airy,  but 
unpaved  and  filthy  ;  the  houses,  climbing  the 
hills  on  either  side,  are  of  stone,  and  well  built. 
There  are  charitable  lodgings  for  the  jjoorer 
pilgrims,  and  also  public  baths  and  a  hospital. 
Drainage  there  is  none,  though  there  is  plenty 
of  water.  The  pop.,  which  is  notorious  for  its  vice 
and  corruption  of  every  sort,  is  probably  under 
60,000,  but  is  annually  reinforced  by  at  least  as 
many  pilgrims.  The  Great  Mosque  stands  in  the 
broadest  part  of  the  valley,  and  consists  of  a  large 
quadrangle,  capable  of  holding  35,000  persons, 
surrounded  by  arcades  or  cloisters,  with  pillars 
of  marble  and  granite,  and  entered  by  nineteen 
gates  surmounted  by  seven  minarets.  In  the 
centre  is  the  Kaaba  (i.e.  'cube'),  the  temple  of 
Mecca  ages  before  the  time  of  Mohammed,  who 
invented  the  legend  that  the  Kaaba  Avas  built 
by  Abraham.  It  has  been  twice  rebuilt  in  his- 
torical times,  but  the  old  fonn  (which  is  not 
quite  square),  has  been  preserved ;  it  measures 
about  18  paces  by  14,  and  35  or  40  feet  high. 
The  celebrated  fetish,  or  Black  Stone,  is  appar- 
ently a  meteorite,  about  a  span  long,  built 
into  the  south-east  corner  at  the  proper  height 
for  kissing.  Hard  by,  and  also  within  the 
court,  is  the  well  of  Zemzem,  the  tepid  water 
of  which  may  once  have  been  mineral,  but  the 
largest  item  in  whose  present  analysis  consists 
of  sewage  matter.  In  1893  European  scientists 
traced  the  recent  destructive  visitations  of 
cholera  to  this  same  sacred  well ;  and  the  Powers 
alarmed  the  Sublime  Porte  by  demanding  that 
it  should  be  cleansed  or  .shut  up.  Mohammed 
reconquered  Mecca  from  the  Koreish  in  627,  five 
years  after  his  Flight  or  Hegira  therefrom.  It 
long  remained  under   the  rule  of  the  caliphs, 


MECHLIN 


457 


MEDITERRANEAN  SEA 


who  spent  large  sums  in  its  adornment.  In 
930  it  was  sacked  by  the  Karmathians.  Mecca 
afterwards  fell  under  the  influence  of  whatever 
dynasty — Fatimite,  Ayy^bite,  or  Mameluke- 
happened  to  rule  in  Egypt ;  and  tlius  finally  it 
came  into  the  possession  of  the  Ottoman  sultans, 
whose  power,  however,  is  nominal,  whilst  the 
real  governor  is  the  sherif,  or  reputed  head  of 
the  descendents  of  the  Prophet. 

See  Snouck  Hurgronje,  Mekka  (German,  1888) ; 
W.  Robertson  Smith  in  Ency.  Brit.  (1883);  Sir 
Richard  Burton's  Pilgrimage  (1855 ;  new  ed. 
1894) ;  Burckhardt's  Travels  in  Arabia  (1829). 

Mechlin.    See  Malines. 

Mecklenburg  (?i  as  oo),  the  name  of  two  grand- 
duchies  of  Germany,  distinguished  respectively 
as  Mecklenburg-Schwerin  and  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz,  and  bounded  by  the  Baltic,  Pomerania, 
Brandenburg,  Sleswick-Holstein,  and  Liibeck. 
The  former  is  a  compact  territory,  abutting  on 
the  Baltic  for  65  miles,  its  area  being  5197  sq. 
m.  (much  less  than  Yorkshire).  Mecklenburg- 
Strelitz  (1144  sq.  m.)  consists  of  two  detached 
portions,  the  grand-duchy  of  Strelitz,  lying  SB. 
of  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  and  the  principality 
of  Ratzeburg,  wedged  in  between  Schwerin  and 
Liibeck.  The  region  indicated  forms  part  of  the 
great  North  German  plain,  but  is  crossed  by  a 
low  north-westward  ridge.  Along  the  line  of 
this  ridge  there  are  more  than  500  lakes.  Excei)t 
for  some  sandy  tracts  and  turfy  moors  the  soil  is 
fertile  ;  agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation.  The 
chief  ports  are  Wismar  and  Rostock  (Warne- 
miinde).  Pop  of  Schwerin  (1875)  553,754  ;  (1900) 
607,770;  of  Strelitz  (1875)  95,673;  (19(D)  102,602. 
The  rural  population  ai-e  almost  entirely  German- 
ised Slavs,  the  nobility  and  the  townsfolk  for 
the  most  part  of  Saxon  stock.  The  i)opular 
dialect  is  Platt-Deutsch  or  Low  German ;  the 
religious  confession  Lutheran.  Society  in  Meck- 
lenburg is  still  organised  on  a  feudal  basis; 
serfdom  was  abolished  only  in  1824.  At  the 
head  of  each  grand-duchy  stands  a  grand-duke ; 
but  both  grand-duchies  are  represented  in  one 
and  the  same  national  assembly,  which  meets 
every  autumn  at  Sternberg  and  Malchin  alter- 
nately. The  principality  of  Ratzeburg  and  the 
towns  of  Wismar  and  Neustrelitz  have  each  an 
independent  administration. 

Medellln,  (l)  a  Spanish  town  (pop.  1477),  the 
birthplace  of  Cortes,  on  the  Guadiana,  66  miles 
by  rail  E.  of  Badajoz.— (2)  The  second  city  of 
Colombia,  capital  of  the  dep.  of  Antioquia,  lies 
in  a  lovely  mountain-valley,  4850  feet  above  the 
sea,  and  150  miles  NW.  of  Bogota.  It  has  a 
cathedral,  college,  and  manufactures  of  pottery, 
porcelain,  and  jewellery.     Pop.   50,000. 

Medford,  a  Massachusetts  town,  on  the  Mystic 
River,  5  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Boston.  It 
manufactures  rum,  buttons,  &c.,  and  has  a  Uni- 
versalist  college  (1852).     Pop.  19,078. 

Media,  in  ancient  times,  the  NW.  part  of 
Iran  or  Persia,  bounded  by  the  Caspian  Sea  and 
Parthia  on  the  E.  It  corresponded  to  the 
modern  Persian  provinces  of  Azerbijan,  Ghilan, 
and  Irak-AifiiTii,  and  E.  Kurdistan. 

Medina,  El-  (Medee'na;  Arabic  for  'The  City  ;' 
more  fully,  Medinat  en-Nebi,  'City  of  the  Pro- 
phet,'), the  second  capital  of  the  Hed.jaz  in 
western  Arabia,  is  the  holiest  city  of  the  Moham- 
medan world  after  Mecca,  because  it  was  there 
that  Mohammed  took  refuge  after  his  Hegira  or 
Flight  from  Mecca  in  622,  and  there  that  he 
lived  till  his  death.  Situated  250  miles  N.  of 
Mecca,  and  132  N.  by  E.  of  the  port  of  Yanbu' 


on  the  Red  Sea,  it  forms  an  irregular  oval  within 
a  walled  enclosure,  35  to  40  feet  high,  flanked  by 
thirty  towers,  and  enclosing  the  castle  of  the 
Turkish  garrison.  The  Prophet's  Mosque  El- 
Haram,  supposed  to  be  erected  on  the  spot  where 
Mohammed  died,  and  to  enclose  his  tomb,  is 
smaller  than  that  of  Mecca,  being  a  parallelogram, 
420  feet  long  and  340  broad,  with  a  spacious 
central  arcaded  area.  The  present  building  is, 
however,  only  the  last  of  many  reconstructions. 
The  Mausoleum,  or  Hu.jrah,  in  which  the  Prophet's 
body  is  supposed  to  lie  undecayed,  is  an  irregular 
doorless  chamber  in  the  south-east  corner,  and 
is  surmounted  by  a  crescented  '  Green  Dome,' 
springing  from  a  series  of  globes.  That  his  coffin 
rests  suspended  in  the  air  is  of  course  an  idle 
Christian  fable.     Pop.  26,000. 

Medina,  a  river  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  flowing 
12  miles  N.  to  the  Solent  at  Cowes. 

Medina  Sidonia  {Medee'na),  a  city  of  Spain, 
25  miles  SSE.  of  Cadiz,  stands  on  an  isolated 
hill,  and  has  a  ruined  castle,  the  ancestral  seat 
of  the  dukes  of  Medina  Sidonia.     Pop.  11,699. 

Medinet-el-Fayyum.    See  FayyOm. 

Mediterranean  Sea,  so  na)ned  from  its  lying 
between  the  continents  of  Europe,  Asia,  and 
Africa,  is  the  largest  enclosed  sea  in  the  world, 
and  is  connected  with  the  open  ocean  only  by 
the  narrow  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  9  miles  wide. 
Since  1869,  however,  it  has  been  artificially  con- 
nected with  the  Red  Sea  and  Indian  Ocean  by 
means  of  the  Suez  Canal.  The  Mediterranean  is 
2200  miles  long  from  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar  east- 
ward to  the  Syrian  coast ;  its  width  varies  from 
500  or  600  miles  in  some  places  to  less  than  100 
miles  between  Sicily  and  Cape  Bon,  where  it  is 
divided  by  relatively  shallow  banks  into  two 
distinct  hydrographic  basins,  the  eastern  one 
being  the  larger.  It  is  connected  with  the 
Black  Sea  by  the  Dardanelles,  Sea  of  Marmora, 
and  Bosphorus.  The  African  and  Syrian  coasts 
are  con)paratively  even  and  unindented ;  the 
shores  of  Europe  and  Asia  Minor  are  cut  up 
into  numerous  gulfs  and  bays,  the  largest  of 
which  is  the  Adriatic  Sea.  Various  parts  of  the 
Mediterranean  have  been  known  by  special 
names,  such  as  the  Tyrrhenian  and  Iberian  Seas 
in  the  western,  and  the  Levant,  JEgean,  and 
Ionian  Seas  in  the  eastern  basin.  The  principal 
islands  in  the  western  part  are  Sardinia  and 
Corsica,  the  Balearic  and  Lipari  Islands.  The 
continental  islands  of  Sicily  and  Malta  are  situ- 
ated on  the  banks  dividing  the  two  basins.  In 
the  eastern  regions  there  are  the  large  islands  of 
Cyprus  and  Crete,  with  the  loniaTi  Islands  and 
the  islands  of  the  Archipelago.  The  Mediter- 
ranean is  frequently  subject  to  earthquakes,  and 
Vesuvius,  Stromboli,  and  Etna  are  among  its 
active  volcanoes.  The  countries  bordering  the 
Mediterranean  have  been  the  cradle  of  civilisa- 
tion, and  still  this  inland  sea  is  commercially  the 
most  important  waterway  of  the  world. 

The  area  of  the  Mediterranean  is  estimated  at 
about  900,000  sq.  m.,  or,  including  the  Black  Sea 
and  Sea  of  Azov,  at  1,053,000  sq.  m.  The  area 
of  land  draining  into  the  Mediterranean  is  esti- 
mated at  2,969,350  sq.  m.,  or  nearly  3,000,000 
sq.  m.  The  principal  rivers  flowing  into  the 
Mediterranean  are  the  Rhone,  Po,  Danube, 
Dnieper,  Don,  and  the  Nile.  On  the  ridge 
between  Sicily  and  Africa  which  separates  the 
Mediterranean  into  two  basins,  there  is  a  depth 
of  200  fathoms  ;  2040  fathoms  is  the  greatest 
depth  recorded  in  the  western,  and  2187  fathoms 
the  greatest  in  the  eastern  basin  ;  the  mean  depth 


M£i)M£NHA]yi 


4^8 


Melbourne 


of  the  whole  sea  is  T68  fathoms.  The  Mediter- 
ranean is  usually  called  a  tideless  sea.  At 
Algiers  there  is  a  rise  of  3|  iuches  at  springs, 
and  half  that  amount  at  neaps ;  at  other  places 
the  rise  and  fall  is  about  IS  inches,  and  in  the 
Gulf  of  Gabes  the  range  reaches  5  feet.  There  is 
an  extensive  red  coral  fishery  and  tunny  fishery 
on  some  parts  of  the  coasts.  The  Mediterranean 
region  appears  to  have  been  covered  by  the  sea 
from  early  geological  times,  and  daring  Tertiary 
iimes  must  have  had  much  wider  communication 
with  the  open  ocean.  See  Murray's  Mediterranean 
Handbook  (3d  ed.  2  vols.  1890). 

Medmenham  (Med'iiam),  a  village  of  Bucks, 
near  the  Thames,  3  miles  SW.  of  Marlow.  Here 
stood  a  Cistercian  abbey  (1204) ;  and  here,  soon 
after  1750,  Sir  Francis  Dashwood,  afterwards 
Lord  le  Despencer  (1708-81),  founded  his  mock 
brotherhood  of  'Franciscans.' 

Medoc',  a  French  district  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Gironde  estuary,  famed  for  the  quantity  and 
excellence  of  the  wine  it  yields,  some  of  tlie  most 
famous  growths  of  Bordeaux. 

Medway,  a  river  of  Kent,  rising  in  three  head- 
streams  in  Sussex  and  Surrey,  and  flowing  70  miles 
north-eastward  (including  12  miles  of  estuary), 
past  Tunbridge,  Maidstone,  Rochester,  Chatham, 
and  Sheerness,  until  it  joins  the  estuary  of  the 
Thames.  It  is  tidal  and  navigable  to  Maidstone, 
but  large  vessels  do  not  ascend  above  Rochester 
bridge.  In  1667  the  Dutch  sailed  up  the  Medway. 
Meeanee,  or  Miani,  a  village  in  Sind,  India, 
on  the  Indus,  6  miles  N.  of  Hyderabad,  was  the 
scene  of  Sir  Charles  Napier's  victory  with  2800 
men  over  a  Baluch  army,  22,000  strong,  on 
February  17,  1843. 

Meerane  (May-rd'nuh),  a  prosperous  manu- 
facturing town  of  Saxony,  43  miles  by  rail  S.  of 
Leipzig.  From  a  small  country  town,  it  has 
increased  rapidly  through  its  woollen  manufac- 
tures and  export  trade  with  England,  France, 
and  America.    Pop.  (1849)  7345 ;  (i;)00)  23,850. 

Meerut,  or  Merath,  a  town  in  the  North-west 
Provinces  of  India,  40  miles  NE.  of  Delhi,  about 
half-way  between  the  Ganges  and  the  Jumna. 
Its  most  important  edifice  is  the  English  church, 
with  a  fine  spire.  Here  in  1857  the  great  mutiny 
broke  out.  Pop.  (1881)  99,565;  (1901)  118,130, 
Inclusive  of  the  cantonment. 

Meg'arls,  a  mountainous  district  of  Greece, 
between  Attica  and  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 
Meghna.    See  Ganges, 

Megld'do  (g  hard),  an  ancient  city  of  Palestine, 
in  the  plain  of  Esdraelon.  In  the  battle  there 
Josiah  was  slain  in  609  b.c. 

Mehadia  (Mehah'dia),  a  town  (pop.  2500)  of 
SE.  Hungary,  20  miles  N.  of  Orsova  by  rail ;  3 
miles  east  of  it,  in  a  romantic  mountain-valley, 
is  the  Herkulesbad,  or  waters  of  Hercules, 
eighteen  warm  springs,  of  which  nine,  richly 
impregnated  with  various  salts,  have  since  Roman 
times  been  used  for  the  cure  of  rheumatism, 
neuralgia,  gout,  hypochondria,  and  skin  aftec- 
tions.— Mehadia,  or  Mahdiah,  is  also  the  name 
of  an  African  seaport  and  health-resort,  115  miles 
SE.  of  the  town  of  Tunis  ;  pop.  3500. 

Meigle  (Mee'gle),  a  Perthshire  parish,  21  miles 
NB.  of  Perth,  with  remarkable  sculptured  stones. 
Meinam.    See  Siam. 

Meinlngen  (Mi'niiig-en),  the  capital  of  the 
German  duchy  of  Saxe-Meiningen,  lies  in  a 
narrow  valley  on  the  Werra,  43  miles  by  rail 
NW.  of  Coburg.    The  ducal  castle  (1682)  con- 


tains a  library,  picture-gallery,  coin-collection, 
&c.  The  town  has  been  largely  rebuilt  since  the 
fire  of  1874.  It  was  an  appendage  of  Wiirzburg 
1008-1542,  and  in  1583  came  to  the  Saxon  ducal 
family.     Pop.  (1875)  9521  ;  (1900)  14,483. 

Meissen  (Ml'sen),  a  town  of  Saxony,  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  Elbe,  14  miles  by  rail  NW.  of 
Dresden.  Its  chief  building  is  the  cathedral  (c. 
1266-1479),  one  of  the  finest  Gothic  churches  in 
Germany,  surmounted  by  an  exquisite  spire  (263 
feet)  of  open  work.  The  castle  was  built  in 
1471-83,  and  in  1710  was  converted  into  the 
porcelain  factory  presided  over  by  Bottger,  a 
statue  of  whom  was  erected  in  1891.  In  1863 
the  castle  was  restored,  and  its  walls  adorned 
with  frescoes  by  modern  painters,  the  porcelain 
factory  having  been  removed  in  1860  to  other 
premises  ;  800  men  are  employed.  Other  manu- 
factures are  iron,  machinery,  jute,  and  cigars. 
Here  is  the  celebrated  school  of  St  Afra  (founded 
1543),  where  Gellert  and  Lessing  were  educated. 
Meissen  was  founded  in  928,  and  was  burned 
down  by  the  Swedes  in  1637.     Pop.  35,474. 

Meklong,  a  town  of  Siam,  near  where  the 
Mekloiig  enters  the  Gulf  of  Siam.    Pop.  10,000. 

Mekong,  or  Mekhong,  the  greatest  river  of 
the  Siam  peninsula,  the  boundary  in  great  part 
since  1893  of  Siam  and  Indo-China,  is  usually 
identified  with  the  Lan-tsan,  which  rises  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  Chianido  in  Tibet.  It  pursues 
a  generally  southerly  direction  to  the  China  Sea, 
which  it  enters  by  several  mouths  in  Cochin- 
China,  a  country  formed  by  its  deltaic  deposits. 
It  has  a  total  length  of  2800  miles,  but  is  navig- 
able only*to  14°  N.  lat.  owing  to  rapids. 

Melanesia.     See  Polynesia. 

Melbourn,  a  parish  7  miles  SB.  of  Derby. 
It  has  noted  market-gardens. 

Melbourne  (Mel'burn),  the  metropolis  of  the 
Australian  colony  of  Victoria,  and  the  most  im- 
portant city  of  Australasia,  stands  at  the  northern 
extremity  of  Port  Phillip  Bay,  and  is  bisected  by 
the  river  Yarra ;  it  is  in  37°  49'  S.  lat.  and  144° 
58'  E.  long.,  and  is  11,940  miles  from  London 
(via  Brindisi  and  the  Suez  Canal).  Since  1888 
there  is  a  ship-canal  from  a  point  near  the  mouth 
of  the  river  to  the  Melbourne  quays.  Port  Phillip 
Bay,  the  maritime  approach,  is  a  spacious  land- 
locked inlet  covering  800  sq.  m.  The  entrance, 
known  as  '  The  Heads,'  is  very  narrow,  and  strong 
fortifications  have  been  carried  out  since  1875. 
Williamstown  and  Port  Melbourne,  on  the  shores 
of  the  bay,  are  thriving  ports.  Melbourne  is  a 
chessboard  city,  its  streets  intersecting  at  right 
angles  ;  the  principal  thoroughfares  are  of  greater 
width  (99  feet)  than  is  desirable  in  such  a  warm 
climate.  Collins  Street  is  architecturally  im- 
posing, being  lined  on  either  side  by  tall,  massive, 
and  ornate  buildings,  chiefly  banks,  offices,  ware- 
houses, and  hotels.  In  Bourke  Street  most  of 
the  theatres,  music-halls,  and  retail  shops  are 
situated.  Melbourne  has  a  flourishing  university, 
founded  in  1853,  with  three  affiliated  colleges — 
Trinity  (Episcopalian),  Queen's  (Wesleyan),  and 
Ormond  (Presbyterian).  The  last— a  very  fine 
structure— was  built  at  the  expense  of  the  Hon. 
Francis  Ormond,  to  whom  Melbourne  is  indebted 
also  for  its  working-men's  college.  The  Wilson 
Hall  is  also  a  noteworthyadjunctof  the  university. 
The  Exhibition  building  and  the  General  Post- 
office  are  two  of  the  most  striking  public  build- 
ings. The  Houses  of  Parliament,  erected  in  1855- 
91  at  a  cost  of  nearly  a  million  of  money,  form 
a  magnificent  pile  of  buildings.  The  Trades 
Hall  (1857)  stands  on  the  northern  boundary  of 


Melcombe  regis 


459 


MELVILLfi 


the  city  proper,  Melbourne  possesses  a  public 
library  of  over  250,000  vols.,  and  associated  with 
it  are  a  national  art  gallery  and  a  technological 
museum.  The  town-hall  has  an  immense  assembly- 
room,  and  an  organ  of  colossal  size.  Crowning 
the  summit  of  the  western  hiJl  of  Melbourne  are 
the  law-courts,  forming  an  extensive  square,  and 
topped  by  a  lofty  and  graceful  dome.  Close  by 
is  the  Melbourne  branch  of  the  Royal  Mint  (1872). 
Other  notable  public  institutions  are  the  Mel- 
bourne and  Alfred  hospitals,  the  Benevolent 
Asylum,  the  Immigrants'  Home,  the  Orphan 
Asylums,  the  Custom-house,  the  Treasury,  and 
the  Public  Offices,  the  last-named  a  vast  and 
labyrinthine  pile  in  which  most  of  the  govern- 
ment departments  are  housed.  St  Patrick's 
R.  C.  cathedral,  a  towering  Gothic  structure, 
is  the  most  conspicuous  ecclesiastical  edifice  in 
Melbourne.  The  Anglican  cathedral  of  St  Paul 
was  consecrated  in  1891.  The  Scots  Church,  the 
architectural  gem  of  Collins  Street,  has  a  graceful 
soaring  spire  of  211  feet.  In  1841  the  pop.  was 
11,000  ;  in  1851,  the  year  of  the  gold  discoveries, 
it  was  less  than  25,000  ;  in  18(31,  191,000  ;  in  1871, 
with  suburbs,  206,780;  in  1881,  282,907;  in  1901, 
494,129  (of  whom  68,379  were  in  the  'city'). 
Foundries,  flour-mills,  boot  and  clothing  factories, 
&c.  are  numerous  in  the  suburbs.  The  Royal 
Park,  the  Carlton,  Fitzroy,  Botanical,  and  Flag- 
staff Gardens  are  the  principal  recreation  reserves. 
The  abundant  water-supply  (1857)  comes  from  the 
Yan-Yean  reservoir  in  the  Plenty  Valley.  Tram- 
ways were  introduced  in  1886.  The  sanitary  con- 
dition is  not  so  good  as  might  have  been  expected. 

Melbourne  was  first  occupied  by  white  men  in 
1835,  and  known  as  Doutta-Galla  from  the  neigh- 
bouring tribe  of  blacks.  In  1837  it  was  chris- 
tened after  the  reigning  premier,  Lord  Melbourne, 
in  1842  it  was  incorporated,  and  in  1851  it  was 
advanced  to  the  dignity  of  a  capital  when  the 
Port  Phillip  province  was  separated  from  New 
South  Wales  and  erected  into  the  colony  of 
Victoria.  Then  too  the  Victorian  goldfields  were 
opened  up.  The  International  Exhibition  held  in 
Melbourne  in  1888  cost  the  colony  a  quarter  of  a 
million.  A  great  conflict  between  labour  and 
capital  took  place  in  1890,  and  Melbourne  like 
the  rest  of  Australia  suffered  severely  in  the 
commercial  crises  of  1898.  See  Victoria  and  its 
Metropolis  (Melbourne,  2  vols.  1889). 

Melcombe  Regis.    See  Weymouth. 

Melegnano  (Melemjdh'no),  formerly  Marignano, 
a  town  of  northern  Italy,  by  rail  12  miles  SE.  of 
Milan.  Pop.  543S.  Here  in  1513  the  French 
defeated  the  Swiss,  and  in  1859  the  Austrians. 

Mel'fi,  an  ancient  town  of  S.  Italy,  30  miles 
N.  of  Potenza.  The  once  magnificent  cathedral 
(1155)  was  almost  entirely  destroyed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1851.     Pop.  14,765. 

Merford,  Long,  a  picturesque  village  of  Suf- 
folk, 13  miles  S.  of  Bury  St  Edmunds  by  rail. 
It  has  a  very  fine  Perpendicular  church  260  feet 
long.  Pop.  of  parish,  3253.  See  two  works  by 
Sir  W.  Parker  (1873)  and  E.  L.  Conder  (1888). 

Melfort,  Loch,  an  Argyllshire  sea-loch,  oppo- 
site Luing  Island. 

MellUa,  a  fortified  convict  settlement  belong- 
ing to  Spain,  on  the  N.  coast  of  Morocco,  on  the 
E.  side  of  the  mountainous  promontory  of  Tres 
Forcas,  which  in  1893-94  nearly  led  to  a  war 
between  Spain  and  Morocco.     Pop.  9000. 

Melksham,  a  Wiltshire  market-town  on  the 
Avon,  9|  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Bath.     Pop.  2473. 

Mellifont  Atobey,  a  ruin  4  miles  NW.  of  Drog- 


heda,  was  the  first  Cistercian  foundation  in 
Ireland,  founded  by  St  Malachy  in  1142.  Its 
remains  were  excavated  during  1884-85.  See 
Melllfont  Abbey,  by  K.  F.  B.  (1886). 

Melo,  a  town  of  Cerro  Largo  in  Uruguay,  on 
the  Tacuari.     Pop.  5000. 

Melos  {Mel'los;  Ital.  Milo),  a  Greek  volcanic 
island,  the  most  south-westerly  of  the  Cyclades, 
13  miles  long  by  8  broad,  with  4200  inhabitants. 
Amongst  the  ruins  of  the  ancient  city  of  Melos 
was  found  the  priceless  Venus  de  Milo,  now  one 
of  the  chief  treasures  of  the  Louvre. 

Melrose,  a  pleasant  little  town  of  Roxburgh- 
shire, on  the  south  bank  of  the  Tweed,  and  at  t4ie 
north  base  of  the  triple  Eildons  (q.v.),  37  miles 
SSE.  of  Edinburgh  by  rail.  At  Old  Melrose, 
2^  miles  farther  east,  was  founded  about  635  the 
Coluinban  monastery,  of  which  St  Cuthbert 
became  a  monk.  It  was  burned  by  Kenneth 
MacAlpine  in  839,  and  had  been  quite  deserted 
for  upwards  of  fifty  years,  when  in  1136  the  great 
Cistercian  abbey  of  Melrose  itself  was  founded 
by  David  I.  Twice  burned  by  the  English,  this 
was  slowly  rebuilt  on  a  scale  of  increased  mag- 
nificence between  1322  and  1505,  only  forty  years 
after  which  date  two  fresh  English  invasions 
commenced  the  destruction  that  was  speedily 
completed  by  the  Reformers.  The  abbey  was 
beyond  doubt  the  most  beautiful  structure  of 
which  Scotland  could  boast  in  the  middle  ages. 
What  now  remains  is  the  ruined  conventual 
church,  215  feet  long  by  116  across  the  transepts, 
with  some  fragments  of  the  cloister,  which  seems 
to  have  been  a  square  of  150  feet.  The  carv- 
ings and  traceries  are  scarcely  surpassed  by  any 
in  England.  The  second  abbot,  St  Waltheof, 
the  royal  founder's  stepson ;  Alexander  II.  and 
Johanna,  his  queen  ;  the  heart  of  Robert  Bruce  ; 
the  good  Sir  James,  the  Knight  of  Liddesdale, 
the  hero  of  Otterburn,  and  others  of  the  Douglas 
line;  the  'wondrous  Michael  Scott;'  and  Sir 
David  Brewster— all  these  are  buried  here ;  else 
the  annals  of  Melrose  have  little  to  record.  A 
burgh  of  barony  since  1609,  the  town  possesses 
a  market-cross  (1642),  a  suspension  foot-bridge 
over  the  Tweed  (1826),  a  hydropathic  (1871),  and 
half-a-dozen  hotels.     Pop.  2432. 

Melrose,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  7  miles  by 
rail  N.  of  Boston,  with  manufactures  of  boots. 
&c.     Pop.  13,000. 

Melton,  a  Suffolk  village,  on  the  Deben,  li 
mile  NE.  of  Woodbridge.  Near  it  is  a  large 
lunatic  asylum.     Pop.  of  parish,  1510. 

Melton-Mowbray,  a  town  of  Leicestershire, 
in  the  centre  of  a  great  hunting  district,  is  seated 
on  the  river  Eye  neai  its  junction  with  the  Wreak, 
15  miles  NE.  of  Leicester,  and  104  NNW.  of 
London.  It  has  a  fine  cruciform  church,  mainly 
Early  English,  and  is  famous  for  its  manufac- 
tures of  pork  pies  and  Stilton  cheese.  Near  the 
town  in  February  1644  the  royalists  defeated  the 
parliamentarians ;  and  amongst  its  natives  have 
been  Archbishop  de  Melton,  who  lies  buried  in 
the  church,  and  'Orator'  Henley.  Pop.  (1801) 
1766;  (1901)7454. 

Melun  (Melun^'),  the  capital  of  the  French  dep. 
of  Seine-et-Mame,  on  the  Seine,  near  the  Forest 
of  Fontainebleau,  28  miles  SE.  of  Paris.  It 
manufactures  leather,  pottery,  &c.  Melun,  the 
Melodunum  of  Caesar,  was  after  a  six  months' 
siege  held  by  the  English  (1420-30).     Pop.  10,72J. 

Melville,  a  polar  island,  crossed  by  75°  N.  lat. 
and  110°  W.  long.,  and  separated  on  the  west  by 
Fitzwilliam  Strait  from  Prince  Patrick  Island. 


MSMEL 


460 


MEN2ALSH 


Greatest  length,  200  miles ;  greatest  breadth, 
130  miles.  In  1819  Parry  passed  the  winter  here 
with  his  crews. — Melville  Sound,  250  miles  long 
by  200  broad,  extends  south-east  of  the  island, 
and  communicates  with  the  Arctic  Ocean  on  the 
west  by  Banks  Strait,  and  with  Baffin  Bay  on 
the  east  by  Barrow  Strait  and  Lancaster  Sound. 
—Melville  Peninsula  projects  from  the  N. 
American  mainland  at  its  north-eastern  corner. — 
Another  Melville  Island  lies  across  the  entrance 
to  Van  Diemen  Gulf  off"  the  shore  of  the  northern 
territory  of  South  Australia  ;  area,  143  sq.  m. 

Memel  (May'mel),  a  fortified  Prussian  seaport, 
lies  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the  Kurisches 
Haff",  at  its  opening  into  the  Baltic,  70  miles 
NNB.  of  Danzig.  Founded  in  1252,  and  almost 
totally  destroyed  by  fire  in  1854,  it  has  a  large 
harbour,  exports  timber,  flax  and  linseed,  coal, 
manure,  grain,  and  herrings,  and  has  manufac- 
tories of  brandy,  soap  and  chemicals,  saw-mills, 
iron-foundries,  breweries,  and  shipbuilding-yards. 
Pop.  20,748.    For  the  river  Memel,  see  Niemen. 

Memmingen  (Mem'miiig-en),  an  old  town  of 
Bavaria,  33  miles  SSE.  of  Ulm.  Here  Moreau 
defeated  the  Austrians,  May  1800.     Pop.  10,900. 

Memphis,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Tennessee, 
stands  on  a  high  bluff"  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Mississippi  River,  826  miles  above  New  Orleans, 
and  230  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Nashville.  The 
river  to  this  point  is  navigable  for  the  largest 
sea-going  vessels,  and  eight  lines  of  railway 
terminate  here  ;  the  trade  of  Memphis  is  accord- 
ingly very  large.  The  river  is  spanned  here  by 
a  steel  cantilever  bridge  of  five  spans,  with  a 
total  length  of  1886  feet,  and  a  height  above 
high  water  of  75  feet,  which  was  opened  in  May 
1892.  Memphis  is  a  handsome  town,  with  Avide, 
regular  streets,  and  great  warehouses  bordering 
the  esplanade  that  extends  along  the  bluff".  The 
public  buildings  include  a  custom-house,  cotton 
exchange,  a  large  hospital,  a  Roman  Catholic 
college,  &c.  Memphis  is  one  of  the  first  cotton 
marts  in  the  United  States,  and  has  foundries, 
machine-shops,  oil,  lumber,  and  flour  mills, 
steam-gins,  &c.  The  city  was  visited  by  fearful 
epidemics  of  yellow  fever  in  1878  and  1879, 
since  when  its  drainage  and  sewerage  have  been 
thoroughly  reconstructed.  Pop.  (1850)  8841 ; 
(1870)  40,226  ;  (1890)  64,495  ;  (1900)  102,320. 

Menado.    See  Celebes. 

Menai  Strait,  a  channel  between  Carnarvon- 
shire and  Anglesey,  running  14  miles  east-north- 
east from  its  southern  extremity  to  Bangor, 
where  it  widens  out  into  Beaumaris  Bay.  Its 
width  varies  from  about  200  yards  to  2  miles, 
whilst  the  scenery  on  both  sides  is  very  pictur- 
esque. The  navigation  is  hazardous,  but  for 
the  sake  of  expedition  vessels  under  100  tons,  and 
occasionally  some  of  larger  size,  pass  through 
the  strait.  At  its  entrance  the  tides  sometimes 
rise  30  feet ;  ordinary  neap-tides,  however,  do 
not  rise  more  than  from  12  to  15j  feet.  Com- 
munication with  Anglesey  was  formerly  solely 
maintained  by  ferry-boats,  but  since  1825  access 
has  been  aff"orded  by  Telford's  suspension  bridge, 
1710  feet  long,  and  100  feet  above  the  water- 
level,  and  since  1850  by  Stephenson's  Britannia 
Tubular  Bridge. 
Menam.    See  Siam. 

Mende,  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of  Lozfere, 
on  the  Lot,  66  miles  NW.  of  Nimes,  Avith  a 
cathedral,  and  cloth  manufactures.     Pop.  6000. 

Mendip  Hills,  a  range  in  Somersetshire,  extend- 
ing 23   milea  SE.  from    Weston-aupej-Mare   to 


Shepton  Mallet,  and  3  to  6  miles  broad.  The 
highest  point  is  Black  Down  (1067  feet).  The 
limestone  of  the  Mendips  is  pierced  by  numerous 
caverns,  some  of  which  have  yielded  prehistoric 
remains  ;  and  lead-mining,  now  unimportant,  has 
been  carried  on  from  pre-Roman  days,  calamine- 
mining  being  a  later  industry.  See  Compton,  A 
Mendip  Valley  (1892). 

Mendo'za,  a  western  dep.  of  the  Argentine 
Republic.  Aiea,  62,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  117,200. 
The  Andes  occupy  the  western  portion:  Acon- 
cagua (22,427  feet),  the  highest  peak  in  America, 
is  on  the  north-west  frontier.  The  rest  of  the 
province  is  pampa  land,  fertile  where  it  can  be 
iri-igated  by  the  Mendoza  and  other  streams,  but 
elsewhere  almost  worthless. — The  capital,  Men- 
doza, 655  miles  by  rail  W.  by  N.  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  and  2320  feet  above  sea-level,  is  on  the 
trans-continental  railway,  carried  hither  in  1884. 
An  earthquake  in  1861  destroyed  Mendoza 
(founded  1559)  and  13,000  of  its  14,600  inhabitants ; 
many  of  the  ruins  are  still  visible  in  the  larger 
city  raised  on  its  site.    Pop.  20,000. 

Menin  (MeimnF),  a  town  of  Belgium,  7  miles 
SW.  of  Courtrai,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Lys, 
which  separates  it  from  France.    Pop.  19,513. 

Menom'inee,  capital  of  Menominee  county, 
Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  Menominee  River, 
on  Green  Bay,  179  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Milwaukee, 
with  a  large  trade  in  lumber,  &c.  Pop.  (1880) 
3288;  (1900)12,820. 

Menstrie,  a  Clackmannanshire  village,  4^  miles 
NE.  of  Stirling. 

Mentana  (Mentah'na),  a  village  12  miles  NB. 
of  Rome,  where  in  1867  the  Garibaldians  were 
defeated  by  the  papal  and  French  troops. 

Menteith,  Lake  of,  a  beautiful  sheet  of  water 
in  south-west  Perthshire,  17  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Stirling.  Lying  55  feet  above  sea-level,  it  has 
an  utmost  length  and  breadth  of  1^  and  1  mile, 
and  a  depth  in  places  of  80  feet.  It  sends  off" 
Goodie  Water  9  miles  ESE.  to  the  Forth,  and 
contains  three  islets — Inchraahome,  Inchtalla, 
and  Dog  Isle.  Inchmahome  has  remains  of  an 
Augustinian  priory  (1238),  the  refuge  in  1547-48 
of  the  child-queen  Mary  Stuart ;  whilst  on  Inch- 
talla is  the  ruined  tower  (1427)  of  the  Earls  of 
Menteith.  See  works  by  Dun  (1866)  and  Sir  W. 
Eraser  (2  vols.  1880). 

Mento'ne  (Fr.  Menton),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Alpes  Maritimes,  is  pleasantly  situated 
on  the  Mediterranean,  1^  mile  from  the  Italian 
frontier  and  14  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Nice.  Owing 
to  its  southern  exposure,  and  the  fact  that  spurs 
of  the  Alps  shelter  it  on  the  north  and  west,  it 
enjoys  a  beautiful  climate— average  for  the  year 
61° — and  so  has  become  a  favourite  winter  health- 
resort.  The  vegetation  is  luxuriant,  and  lemons 
are  largely  grown.  It  stands  on  a  promontory 
that  divides  its  bay  into  two  portions ;  the  native 
town  clings  to  the  mountain  side,  Avhilst  the  hotels 
and  villas  extend  along  the  water's  edge.  The 
harbour  is  protected  by  a  sea-wall  (1889).  The 
place  belonged  to  Monaco  (q.v.)  from  the  14th  c. 
until  1848.  Great  damage  was  done  by  an  earth- 
quake in  February  1887.    Pop.  10,000. 

Mentz.    See  Mainz. 

Menza'leh,  Lake,  a  coast  lagoon  of  Egypt, 
extending  east  from  the  Damietta  branch  of  the 
Nile,  is  separated  from  the  Mediterranean  by  a 
narrow  strip  of  land,  with  several  openings.  It 
has  an  average  depth  of  only  3  feet,  and  is  460 
sq.  m.  in  extent,  studded  with  islands,  the  most 
interesting  of  them,  Tenneea  (anc.    Tennems), 


MEPPEL 


461 


MERTHYR-TYDVIL 


with  Roman  remains  of  baths,  tombs,  &c.    The 
Suez  Canal  traverses  the  E.  portion. 

Meppel,  a  Dutch  town,  18  miles  N.  by  E.  of 
Zwolle.     Pop.  10,160. 

Me'quinez.    See  Miknas. 

Meran,  a  town  in  the  Tyrol,  at  the  south  side 
of  the  Alps,  100  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Inns- 
bruck, is  a  celebrated  winter-resort,  especially 
for  sufferers  from  chest  diseases.  Pop.  9334. 
•  Mercedes  (Mer-say'des),  in  Argentina,  (1)  a  city 
61  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Buenos  Ayres  (pop,  9000) ; 
and  (2)  a  town  55  miles  by  rail  ESE.  of  San  Luis 
City  (pop.  6000) ;  (3)  the  capital  (4000)  of  Soriano 
province,  in  Uruguay. 

Merchiston,  a  south-west  suburb  of  Edinburgh. 

Mercia,  the  great  Anglian  kingdom  of  central 
England.  The  name  refers  to  the  '  march '  or 
frontier  that  had  to  be  defended  against  the  Welsh. 

Mere,  a  Wiltshire  town,  21  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
Bath.    Pop.  of  parish,  2749. 

Mergui,  a  seaport  of  Burnia,  on  an  island  in 
the  Tenasserim  River,  2  miles  from  its  mouth. 
Pop.  8633.— The  Mkrqui  Archipelago  is  a  group 
of  mountainous,  sparsely  inhabited  islands  in  the 
Bay  of  Bengal,  lying  off  Burma. 

Merlda  (anc.  Augusta  Emerita),  a  decayed  town 
of  Spain,  on  the  Guadiana's  right  bank,  36  miles 
by  rail  E.  of  Badajoz.  Its  Roman  remains 
include  Trajan's  bridge  of  81  arches,  2575  feet 
long  ;  the  ruins  of  half-a-dozen  temples,  an  aque- 
duct, a  circus,  the  Arch  of  Santiago,  44  feet  high, 
&c.  There  is  also  an  old  Moorish  palace.  Merida 
was  built  in  23  B.C.,  ami  flourished  as  the  capital 
of  Lusitania.     Pop.  9159. 

Merida,  (l)  capital  of  the  Mexican  state  of 
Yucatan,  25  miles  S.  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and 
95  miles  NB.  of  Campeachy.  Founded  by  the 
Spaniards  in  1542,  it  has  a  cathedral,  a  university, 
&c.  Pop.  37,000.— (2)  A  town  of  Venezuela, 
lies  5290  feet  above  sea-level,  and  70  miles  S.  of 
the  lake  of  Maracaybo.  Founded  in  1558,  it  was 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake  in  1812,  and  again 
in  1894.  It  has  a  cathedral,  a  university,  and 
woollen  and  cotton  manufactures.    Pop.  11,750. 

Meriden,  a  city  of  Connecticut,  19  miles  by 
rail  N.  by  E.  of  New  Haven,  with  manufactures 
of  metal  wares,  cutlery,  firearms,  woollens,  &c. 
Pop.  (1880)  15,540  ;  (1900)  24,296. 

Meridian,  capital  of  Lauderdale  county, 
Mississippi,  135  miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  of  Mobile, 
has  manufactures  of  iron,  cotton,  blinds,  furni- 
ture, &c.     Pop.  15,000. 

Merion'eth,  a  triangular  county  of  North  Wales, 
with  a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of  45  miles 
by  30,  a  seaboard  on  Cardigan  Bay  of  38  miles, 
and  an  area  of  602  sq.  m.,  or  385,219  acres,  is 
bounded  by  the  counties  of  Carnarvon,  Denbigh, 
and  Montgomery.  Pop.  (1801)  27,506 ;  (1881) 
52,038;  (1901)  49,149.  The  surface  is  rugged 
and  mountainous,  interspersed  with  picturesque 
valleys,  lakes,  and  waterfalls.  Aran  Mowddy 
(2970  feet),  Cader  Idris  (q.v.,  2914),  and  Aran 
Benllyn  (2902)  are  the  highest  peaks ;  Bala  is 
the  largest  lake ;  whilst  of  rivers  the  principal 
are  the  Dee,  Dovey,  and  Mawddach.  The  soil 
generally  is  poor,  and  large  tracts  are  unfit  for 
profitable  cultivation.  Sheep  are  bred,  and 
flannels  and  woollens  manufactured,  but  the 
principal  wealth  of  the  county  arises  from  its 
mineral  products.  Slate  and  limestone  are  largely 
quarried,  much  manganese  ore  is  produced,  and 
gold  has  been  mined  in  the  vicinity  of  Dolgelly 
and  Bala.    Merioneth  is  divided  into  five  hun- 


dreds, and  thirty-three  civil  parishes,  partly  in 
the  diocese  of  Bangor,  and  partly  in  that  of  St 
Asaph.  It  returns  one  member.  The  principal 
towns  are  Dolgelly,  Bala,  Barmouth,  Corwen, 
Festiniog,  Harlech,  and  Towyn. 

Meroe.    See  Ethiopia. 

Merom,  Waters  of.    See  Jordan. 

Merrimac,  a  river  rising  among  the  White 
Mountains  of  New  Hampshire,  flowing  south  into 
Massachusetts,  and  falling  into  the  Atlantic  near 
Newburyport,  after  a  course  of  160  miles.  It 
has  numerous  falls,  affording  immense  water- 
power.    It  is  navigable  to  Haverhill. 

Merse.    See  Berwickshire. 

Mersehurg  (Mer'seh-boorg),  a  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  on  the  Saale,  8  miles  S.  of  Halle.  Its 
Domkirche  is  a  four-towered  pile,  with  Roman- 
esque choir  (1042),  transept  (c.  1274),  and  16th- 
century  nave — the  whole  restored  in  1884-86. 
The  organ  (1666)  has  4000  pipes.  The  picturesque 
15th-century  castle  was  once  the  bishop's  palace, 
and  afterwards  (1656-1738)  the  residence  of  the 
dukes  of  Sachsen-Merseburg.  Beer,  iron,  paper, 
&c.  are  manufactured.     Pop.  19,828. 

Mersey,  an  important  river  of  England,  separ- 
ates, in  its  lower  course,  the  counties  of  Chester 
and  Lancaster,  and  has  its  origin  in  the  junction 
of  the  Etherow  and  Goyt,  on  the  borders  of 
Derbyshire.  It  flows  in  a  west-south-west  direc- 
tion, and  is  joined  on  the  right  by  the  Irwell 
6  miles  below  Manchester,  from  which  point  it 
was  made  navigable  to  Liverpool  for  large  vessels 
in  the  year  1720.  Besides  the  Irwell  the  chief 
affluents  are  the  Bollin  and  the  Weaver  from 
Cheshire.  At  its  junction  with  the  Weaver  the 
Mersey  expands  into  an  estuary  which  forms  the 
Liverpool  channel,  and  which  is  16  miles  long 
and  1  to  3  miles  broad  (IJ  opposite  Liverpool). 
In  this  estuary  on  the  Cheshire  side  is  the  entrance 
to  the  Manchester  (q.v.)  Ship-canal.  The  estuary 
is  much  obstructed  by  sandbanks,  but  excellent 
pilotage,  combined  with  the  admirable  construc- 
tion of  the  sea-walls,  renders  the  navigation 
comparatively  secure.  Entire  length,  with  the 
estuary,  70  miles.  A  railway  Mersey  tunnel 
between  Liverpool  and  Birkenhead  was  opened  on 
January  20, 1886.  The  alluvial  meadows  along  the 
Mersey  are  famous  for  their  fertility  ;  and  by 
embanking  the  river,  many  thousands  of  acres  of 
most  valuable  land  have  been  reclaimed. 

Merthyr-Tydvil  or  Tydfll  (so  called  from  the 
martyrdom  here  of  a  Welsh  princess  of  that 
name),  a  parliamentary  borough  and  market-town 
of  South  Wales,  on  the  confines  of  the  counties 
of  Glamorgan  and  Brecknock,  24  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Cardiff,  its  port,  and  178  W.  of  London.  Pop. 
(1801)  7705;  (1871)  51,949;  (1901)  69,228.  Sur- 
rounded by  lofty  and  bleak  hills,  the  town  stands 
on  the  banks  of  the  Taff,  and  is  partly  built  on 
slag  foundations,  the  refuse  of  mines  in  the 
vicinity.  Its  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular, 
but  since  the  formation  of  a  Local  Board  of  Health 
in  1850,  great  improvements  have  been  effected 
in  the  widening  of  thoroughfares,  the  supply  of 
pure  water,  and  the  construction  of  effective 
sewage-works.  The  industries  depend  on  the 
numerous  collieries  and  iron  and  steel  works  in 
the  vicinity ;  Merthyr  being  the  centre  of  the 
Glamorganshire  coalfield.  With  Aberdare  it  is 
noted  for  the  excellence  of  its  steam  coal,  and 
the  quantity  of  iron  and  steel  annually  turned 
out  from  the  great  works  of  Dowlais,  Cyfarthfa, 
and  Plymouth  is  enormous.  In  1816,  and  again 
in  1831,  the  town  was  the  scene  of  severe  riots, 


MERTON 


462 


METZ 


the  latter  disturbance  being  only  quelled  by  the 
military  witli  a  loss  of  twenty-three  lives.  The 
pari,  borough  (1867),  which  embraces  Aberdare 
and  two  other  outlying  districts,  and  in  1901  had 
a  pop.  of  122,545,  returns  two  members. 

Merton,  Lower,  a  Surrey  parish,  on  the  Wandle, 
10  miles  SW.  of  London  by  rail.  Only  a  frag- 
inent  remains  of  the  Augustinian  priory  (1115) 
where  the  parliament  met  which  passed,  in  1235, 
the  Statute  of  Merton.  Here  were  educated 
Thomas  Becket  and  Walter  de  Merton,  Bishop  of 
Rochester  and  Chancellor,  who  in  1264  founded 
Merton  College,  Oxford.     Pop.  4360. 

Merv,  an  oasis  of  Turkestan,  lying  between 
Bokhara  and  the  north-eastern  corner  of  Persia, 
512  miles  by  rail  (1886)  from  the  Caspian  and  118 
from  the  Oxus.  The  oasis  consists  of  a  district 
60  miles  long  by  40  broad,  watered  by  the  river 
Murghab,  and  is  inhabited  by  from  150,000  to 
200,000  Tekke  Turkomans.  There  is  an  old 
citadel,  and  adjoining  it  a  new  Russian  fort 
garrisoned  by  nearly  3000  men ;  on  the  opposite 
bank  of  the  Murghab  a  new  Russian  town  is 
growing  up.  The  oasis,  in  which  Alexander  the 
Great  built  a  town,  was  held  successively  by 
the  Parthians  and  the  Arabs,  who  made  Merv 
capital  of  Khorassan.  It  was  the  seat  of  a 
Nestorian  archbishop  in  the  5th  century,  and  of 
a  Greek  archbishop  in  the  14th.  Under  the 
Sel.juk  Turks  Merv  enjoyed  its  greatest  splendour, 
and  it  decayed  after  being  sacked  by  the  Mongols 
in  1221.  In  1856  the  Turkomans  made  themselves 
masters  of  the  oasis  ;  but  they  in  turn  submitted 
to  the  Russians  in  1883.  Merv  occupies  an  im- 
portant strategic  position  at  the  intersection  of 
the  routes  Bokhara-Meshhed  and  Khiva-Herat. 
See  works  by  Marvin  (1880),  O'Donovan  (1882), 
and  Lansdell  (1883-85). 

Mesagna  (Mezan'ya),  a  town  in  southern  Italy, 
12  miles  SW.  of  Brindisi.    Pop.  9001. 

Meshhed.  ('  place  of  martyrdom '),  the  principal 
city  of  north-east  Persia,  the  capital  of  Khor- 
assan, on  a  tributary  of  the  Hari-Rud,  460  miles  E. 
by  N.  of  Teheran  and  200  NW.  of  Herat.  Above 
the  walls  shine  the  gilded  dome  and  minarets  of 
one  of  the  most  splendid  mosques  of  the  East, 
that  of  Imam  Riza.  Meshhed  is  the  sacred  city 
of  the  Shiites,  and  is  held  in  as  much  veneration 
by  them  as  Mecca  is  by  the  Sunnite  Moslems  ;  it 
is  visited  yearly  by  almost  100,000  pilgrims.  The 
people  make  excellent  felt-rugs,  carpets,  swords, 
turquoise  jewellery,  velvet,  and  cotton  and  silk 
goods.  The  Transcaspian  Railway  has  given 
Russia  the  predominance  in  trade.  Owing  to  its 
elevated  situation  (3055  feet),  the  city  has  a  cold 
climate  in  winter.  Close  by  are  the  ruins  of  Tus, 
the  old  capital  of  Khorassan,  where  Firdausi, 
Haroun-al-Raschid  and  the  Imam  Riza  were 
buried.     Pop.  50,000. 

Meskoutln,  or  Hammam  Mkskoutin  ('the 
Accursed  Baths '),  a  place  in  Algeria,  48  miles  (77 
by  rail)  E.  by  N.  of  Constantine,  with  remark- 
able hot  baths  (203°  F.),  known  to  the  Romans  as 
Aquce  Tibilitince.  They  and  the  adjoining  fer- 
ruginous and  sulphureous  springs  (170°)  are  still 
used  medicinally. 

Mesolonghl.    See  Missolonghi. 

Mesopotamia  ('  between  the  rivers '),  the  dis- 
trict between  the  rivers  Tigris  and  Euphrates, 
extending  from  the  foot  of  the  Armenian  moun- 
tains south-eastwards  to  near  Bagdad.  It  has  an 
area  of  about  55,000  sq.  m.  The  soil  of  the  great 
plain  is  sandy,  but,  when  well  watered  or,  as  it 
was  in  ancient  times,  well  irrigated,  it  develops 


extraordinary  fertility.  Yet  since  the  Turks 
(Seljuks)  made  themselves  masters  of  the  region 
(1515)  it  has  fallen  more  and  more  a  prey  to 
barrenness  and  neglect.  Held  successively  by 
the  Assyrians,  Babylonians,  Persians,  Greeks, 
Romans,  Arabs,  and  Turks,  it  has  been  the  battle- 
ground of  these  mighty  empires ;  and  amongst 
its  historic  cities  may  be  mentioned  Harran, 
Serug  (Seruj),  Aparaea,  Edessa,  Nisibis,  Nice- 
pliorium  (Rakka),  Hit  (Is),  Mardin,  Mosul 
(Nineveh),  Amid  (Diarbekr),  and  Thapsacus.  In 
summer  excessive  heat  (up  to  122°  F.)  prevails  ; 
in  winter  the  thermometer  may  go  down  to  14°  F. 

Messenia,  the  western  of  the  three  peninsulas 
that  project  southwards  from  the  Peloponnesus, 
now  a  nomarchy  of  the  kingdom  of  Greece. 

Messina  (Messee'na),  the  second  city  of  Sicily, 
stands  on  the  western  shore  of  the  Strait  of 
Messina,  110  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Palermo,  and  195 
SSE.  of  Naples.  It  occupies  a  narrow  strip  of 
coast  between  the  hills  and  the  deep,  safe  harbour, 
whose  opposite  or  eastern  side  is  formed  by  a 
sickle-shaped  tongue  of  rock,  that  only  leaves  a 
narrow  entrance  on  the  north.  Although  a  very 
ancient  city,  Messina  possesses  few  antique  build- 
ings, the  greater  part  of  it  having  been  laid  out 
regularly  after  the  earthquake  of  1783.  The 
archiepiscopal  cathedral  was  begun  by  Count 
Roger  the  Norman  in  1098.  The  citadel  was 
built  by  Charles  II.  of  Spain  in  1680,  the  Gonzaga 
Castle  in  1540,  and  another  castle  in  1547-57. 
There  are  here  a  university,  founded  in  1549,  with 
45  teachers  and  330  students,  a  college  of  the  fine 
arts,  &c.  The  industry  is  confined  chiefly  to 
muslin,  linen,  and  silk  goods,  the  working  of 
coral,  and  the  preparation  of  fruit  essences.  The 
imports  include  wheat,  cottons,  flour,  hides, 
coals,  dried  fish,  woollens,  iron,  &c.  ;  the  exports, 
fruits,  wine,  essences,  olive-oil,  &c.  Pop.  of  the 
commune,  150,000. 

Founded  in  732  b.c.  lay  the  people  of  Cumae, 
the  place  was  first  called  Zancle  (i.e.  'sickle')— a 
name  changed  in  495  to  Messana  (Messene). 
Held  successively  by  Carthaginians,  Mamertines, 
Romans,  and  Saracens,  Messina  was  the  scene  in 
1282  of  the  Sicilian  Vespers'  massacre,  and  from 
then  to  1713  belonged  to  Spain.  It  revolted  in 
1671,  but  was  reduced  to  submission  in  1678. 
In  1743  the  plague,  and  in  1783  an  earthquake, 
wrought  the  ruin  of  the  city.  It  was,  moreover, 
bombarded  by  the  Neapolitans  in  1848,  and  in 
1861  it  was  the  last  place  in  Sicily  to  yield  to  the 
Sardinian  (Italian)  troops. 

The  Strait  of  Messina  (Lat.  Mamertinum  fre- 
turn,  or  Fretum  Sicuhim),  separating  Italy  from 
Sicily,  is  24  miles  long,  and  2^  to  14  miles  wide. 

Metaurus  (modern  Metauro  or  Metro),  a  river 
of  central  Italy,  entering  the  Adriatic  near  Fano. 
On  its  banks  the  Romans  defeated  the  Cartha- 
ginian Hasdrubal  in  207  B.C. 

Methil,  a  coal-shipping  port  with  a  good 
harbour,  on  the  south  coast  of  Fife,  1  mile  SW. 
of  Leven.  Docks  were  constructed  in  1875  and 
1893-94. 

Met'kovich,  in  Dalmatia,  the  port  of  Mostar, 
111  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Sarajevo.    Pop.  1342. 

Mettray,  a  village  of  France,  5  miles  N.  of 
Tours  by  rail,  noted  for  its  great  agricultural  and 
industrial  reformatory  dating  from  1839. 

Metz  (Fr.  pron.  Mess),  the  strongest  fortress 
of  German  Lorraine,  was  before  1871  the  principal 
bulwark  of  the  north-eastern  frontier  of  France, 
and  capital  of  the  dep.  of  Moselle.  It  stands  on 
the  river  Moselle  at  the  influx  of  the  Seille,  2l§ 


MEUDON 


463 


MEXICO 


miles  B.  of  Paris ;  and  its  strength  consists  in 
its  cordon  of  forts.  The  cathedral,  a  Gothic 
edifice  (14th  to  16th  century),  is  remarkable  for 
its  vast  size  and  its  architectural  lightness,  and 
has  a  beautiful  spire  of  open  work,  3(53  feet  high. 
Apart  from  tanning  and  the  making  of  saddles 
and  shoes,  there  are  few  industries,  though  there 
are  several  ironworks  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
(1869)  48,325  ;  (1875)  37,925  ;  (1900)  58,462.  inclnd- 
ing  the  garrison.  Metz,  known  to  the  Romans 
as  Divodurum,  was  afterwards  called  Mettis  (cor- 
rupted from  Mediomatrici,  the  name  of  the 
people).  Under  the  Franks  it  was  the  capital  of 
Austrasia,  and  in  870  passed  to  the  empire.  In 
1552  it  was  treacherously  taken  possession  of  by 
the  French  ;  and,  although  Charles  V.  besieged 
the  place  in  1552-53,  they  kept  it  till  it  was  form- 
ally ceded  to  them  in  1648.  The  fortifications 
were  completely  reconstructed  by  Vauban  in 
1674,  and  often  strengthened.  In  August  1870 
Bazaine  was  forced  to  retire  with  179,000  men 
into  Metz,  which  after  a  long  siege  (27th  October) 
surrendered  to  the  Germans ;  by  the  treaty  of 
Frankfort  it  was  annexed  to  Germany. 

Meudon  (Meh-don^'),  a  village  5  miles  W.  of 
Paris.  The  chateau,  rebuilt  by  Mansard  for  the 
Dauphin  in  1695,  and  fitted  up  for  Marie  Louise 
by  Napoleon  in  1812,  was  reduced  to  ruin  during 
the  bombardment  of  Paris  in  1871.  The  Forest 
is  a  favourite  holiday-resort.  A  chapel,  dedicated 
to  Notre  Dame  des  Flanunes,  commemorates  the 
terrible  railway  accident  of  May  1842,  in  which 
over  100  persons  were  burned  alive.  Rabelais 
was  cur6  of  Meudon.     Pop.  9950. 

Meulebeke  (Meh'le-bay'kay),  a  Belgian  town, 
24  miles  SW.  of  Ghent.    Pop.  9063. 

Meurthe-et-Moselle  (Murt-ay-mozeW),  a  dep. 
of  NE.  France,  formed,  after  1871,  out  of  what 
remained  of  the  former  deps.  of  Moselle  and 
Meurthe.  It  has  four  arrondissements— Briey, 
Luneville,  Nancy  (the  capital),  and  Toul.  Area, 
2020  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872)  365,137  ;  (1901)  484,722. 

Meuse  (Fr.  pron.  nearly  Mehz;  Dutch  Mam),  a 
river  of  France  and  Belgium,  rises  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Haute-Marne,  and  flows  500  miles  N., 
then  E.,  again  N.,  and  W.  past  Verdun,  Sedan, 
Namur,  Liege,  and  Maestricht,  until  it  joins  the 
Waal,  one  of  the  mouths  of  the  Rhine,  from  the 
left  oi)posite  Gorkum.  The  united  streams  take 
the  name  of  the  Maas,  which  soon  divides  again. 
The  southern  branch  passes  through  the  Bies- 
bosch  and  Hollandsche  Diep,  and,  again  dividing, 
reaches  the  sea  in  two  wide  estuaries,  Haringvliet 
and  De  Krammer.  The  northern  branch,  called 
the  Merwede  as  far  as  Dordrecht  and  to  the  west 
of  that  town  the  Old  Maas,  likewise  reaches  the 
sea  in  two  channels,  the  Old  and  the  New  Maas. 
On  this  last  stands  Rotterdam  (q.v.).  The  river 
is  navigable  from  Verdun.  Its  principal  affluents 
are  the  Sambre  and  Ourthe  on  the  right. 

Meuse,  a  dep.  in  NE.  France,  touching  Belgium. 
Area,  2404  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872)  284,725;  (1901) 
283,480.  Its  arrondissements  are  Bar-le-Duc  (the 
capital),  Commercy,  Montm^dy,  Verdun. 

Mevaglssey  (g  hard),  a  Cornish  fishing-town, 
6J  miles  S.  of  St  Austell.     Pop.  of  parish,  2200. 

Mexborough,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  5f  miles 
NE.  of  Rotherham,  with  ironworks  and  potteries. 
Pop.  10,630. 

Mexico  (or  Mejico ;  Spanish  pron.  Meh'he-co, 
from  a  native  word),  a  federal  republic  of  North 
America,  embracing  twenty-seven  states,  a  federal 
district,  and  two  territories.  It  extends  between 
Uie  United  States  and  Guatemala,  with  an  extreme 


length  of  nearly  2000  miles ;  its  breadth  varies 
between  1000  and  (in  the  Isthmus  of  Tehuantepec) 
130  miles.  It  has  a  coast-line  of  almost  6000 
miles,  but  with  scarcely  a  safe  harbour  beyond 
the  noble  haven  of  Acapulco :  on  the  Atlantic 
side,  with  its  sandbanks  and  lagoons,  there  are 
only  open  roadsteads,  or  river-mouths  closed  to 
ocean  vessels  by  bars  and  shallows;  harbour- 
works,  however,  have  been  constructed  at  Vera 
Cruz  and  Tampico.  From  the  SE.  and  NW. 
extremities  of  the  republic  there  extend  the  pen- 
insulas of  Yucatan  and  Lower  California,  enclos- 
ing the  Gulfs  of  Campeche  and  California  re- 
spectively. In  area  (751,300 sq.  m.)  Mexico  almqst 
equals  Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  France,  Ger- 
many, and  Austria-Hungary  together.  Of  the 
entire  pop.— 13,604,923  in  1900— the  whites  are 
estimated  to  form  19  per  cent.,  the  Indians  38, 
and  the  half-castes  (mestizos)  43  per  cent. 

For  the  most  part  Mexico  consists  of  an  im- 
mense tableland,  which  commences  in  the  United, 
States,  and  rises  to  over  8100  feet  at  Marquez,  76 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  Mexico  City :  at  El  Paso,  on 
the  northern  frontier,  the  elevation  is  only  3717 
feet.  The  most  important  range  is  the  Sierra 
Madre  (over  10,000  feet,  and  extending  from 
Tehuantepec  into  the  United  States) ;  parallel 
with  this  run  the  sierras  of  the  east  coast  and 
of  Lower  California.  The  surface  of  the  country 
is  also  much  broken  up  by  short  cross-ridges 
and  detached  peaks,  the  principal  being  tha 
Cordillera  de  Anahuac  (q.v.),  culminating  in 
Toliica  (19,340  feet),  the  highest  point  on  the 
North  American  continent,  and  Popocatepetl 
(17,523).  Orizaba  is  18,205  feet  high.  Most  of 
the  Mexican  volcanoes  are  extinct  or  quiescent, 
and  violent  earthquakes  are  of  rare  occurrence. 
On  the  Atlantic  side  the  plateau  descends 
abruptly  to  the  narrow  strip  (about  60  miles)  of 
gently  sloping  coast-land ;  towards  the  Pacific, 
where  the  coast-lands  vary  in  width  from  40  to 
70  miles,  the  descent  is  more  gradual.  Of  the 
lakes  the  largest  is  Chapala  (q.v.).  The  rivers  of 
Mexico  are  of  little  use  for  navigation.  South  of 
the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte,  on  the  Texan  frontier, 
they  are  mostly  impetuous  mountain-torrents. 
In  the  plateau  region  the  climate  is  almost  that 
of  perpetual  spring ;  but  agricultiire  is  dependent 
on  irrigation,  and  an  immense  desert  tract  extends 
between  Chihuahua  and  Zacatecas.  On  the  coast- 
lands  wood  and  water  are  abundant,  and  the  soil 
fertile,  but  the  climate  is  such  that  white  men 
cannot  work  as  labourers  there.  Northern 
Mexico  is  the  original  home  of  the  '  cattle-ranche ' 
business.  The  coast-belt  and  the  terraces  up  to 
3000  feet  constitute  the  tierras  calientes,  where 
the  temperature  ranges  from  60°  to  110°  F.,  and 
in  the  south  magnificent  tropical  vegetation  and 
yellow  fever  reign.  The  cold  lands,  or  tierras 
frias,  embrace  all  the  country  above  about  8000 
feet.  South  of  about  28°  N.  there  are  only  the 
wet  and  the  dry  season,  the  former  from  June  to 
October.  Farther  north  there  are  four  seasons. 
The  vegetation  of  Mexico  has  the  same  wide 
range  as  the  climate.  In  the  lowlands  dye-woods 
and  valuable  timbers  abound  in  the  virgin  forests, 
as  well  as  medicinal  plants,  india-rubber,  palms, 
&c. ;  and  oranges  and  bananas,  many  varieties  of 
cactus,  agave,  sisal,  olives,  sugar,  coft'ee,  cocoa, 
rice,  indigo,  cotton,  and  tobacco,  besides  the 
omnipresent  maize,  all  thrive.  The  vine  flourishes 
in  some  districts.  In  Lower  California  archil 
is  collected.  But  agriculture  in  Mexico  is 
steadily  developing.  Silver-mining  has  been  an 
important  industry  ever  since  the  conquest. 
Gold  is  also  produced.    Copper  is  largely  mineij 


MEXICO 


464 


MEXICO 


In  some  sections.  Other  minerals  are  iron,  copper, 
lead,  sulphur,  zinc,  quicksilver,  platinum,  cinna- 
bar, asphalt  anil  petroleum,  besides  salt,  marble, 
alabaster,  gypsum,  and  rock-salt  in  great  quan- 
tities. There  are  also  said  to  be  large  deposits  of 
coal.  The  manufacturing  industries  have  in  recent 
years,  owing  to  good  government  and  the  help 
of  foreign  capital,  developed  rapidly  ;  the  chief 
manufacture  is  coarse  cotton  cloth.  In  1903  there 
were  155  factories  with  36,000  looms,  consuming 
60,000,000  lb.  of  raw  cotton  per  annum.  There 
are  also  2000  distilleries  and  over  700  tobacco- 
factories  ;  paper  and  sugar  miUs  ;  with  manufac- 
tures of  candles,  glass,  and  henequen  fibre.  In 
1890-1904  the  imports  advanced  from  65,000,000 
to  78,308,450  dols.,  and  the  exports  from 
148,659,000  to  196,690,500  dols.  (  =  24d.).  Of  the 
exports  the  precious  metals  represented  more  than 
half;  henequen,  coffee,  hides,  animals,  and  tobacco 
came  next.  Nearly  two-thirds  of  the  total  trade 
is  with  the  United  States,  and  one-eighth  with 
Great  Britain.  Great  Britain  imports  from 
Mexico  mainly  mahogany,  logwood,  and  silver 
ore,  and  exports  thither  cottons,  woollens,  and 
linens,  iron,  machinery,  and  coal. 

The  Mexican  constitution  is  closely  modelled 
upon  that  of  the  United  States.  The  president, 
who  is  assisted  by  six  secretaries  of  state,  is 
elected  for  four  years ;  the  senators  and  repre- 
sentatives receive  a  salary  of  3000  dols.  a  year ; 
and  the  several  states  have  elective  governors  and 
legislators.  Since  Diaz  was  first  appointed  presi- 
dent in  1876,  the  progress  in  stability,  order,  and 
prosperity  has  been  marvellous.  Federal  revenue 
has  increased  from  $19,088,158  to  $81,061,078  in 
1904,  and  the  state  and  nuniicipal  revenues  in 
like  proportion.  The  interest  on  the  public  debt 
($25,829,000)  has  been  regularly  paid,  and  a  large 
reserve  fund  exists.  Instead  of  one  bank  there 
are  thirty-two,  with  a  joint  capital  of  over 
$100,000,000;  and  foreign  capital  to  the  amount 
of  over  $1,352,600,000  is  invested  in  the  country. 
The  assessed  value  of  property  has  increased  from 
$283,297,317  to  $1,171,089,076.  Railways  have 
increased  froju  567  to  16,285  kilometres,  seven 
great  lines  crossing  the  country  connecting  all 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  ports.  The  harbours 
have  been  greatly  improved,  roads  have  been 
made,  and  electric  tramways  introduced.  Im- 
ports have  increased  by  four  times,  and  the 
exports  by  eight  times.  Twenty-four  agricultural 
colonies  have  been  established  in  the  country, 
and  the  export  of  agricultural  produce  has  in- 
creased nearly  eleven  times.  The  irrigation  of  the 
great  central  tableland  of  Mexico  is  being  actively 
considered.  The  value  of  cattle  and  horses  has 
increased  from  $14,800,000  to  over  $120,500,000; 
the  mineral  industries  have  greatly  increased. 
Education  is  compulsory,  and  the  pupils  at  the 
public  schools  have  increased  from  192,837  to 
764,353. 

Under  20  per  cent,  of  the  population  are  pure- 
blooiled  whites  ;  43  per  cent,  are  of  mixed  blood, 
mestizos,  who  are  the  farmers  and  rancheros,  the 
muleteers  and  servants.  Whites  and  mestizos 
speak  Spanish.  Indians,  speaking  150  dialects 
(in  three  main  groups,  Otomi,  Maya-Quiche,  and 
Nashua),  may  be  38  per  cent,  of  the  population. 
From  them  chiefly  are  drawn  the  peons,  or  agri- 
cultural labourers.  The  Indians  not  employed 
on  the  estates  usually  live  in  communities  re- 
sembling the  old  village  communities  of  Europe. 
The  houses  in  Mexico  are  mostly  of  adohe  (siui- 
dried  bricks),  one  story  high.  The  great  mass  of 
the  people  are  Roman  Catliolics,  but  there  is  no 
established  church.    In  1867  the  church  property 


was  confiscated ;  convents  and  religious  houses 
were  suppressed. 

The  oldest  inhabitants,  the  Toltecs,  had  by  the 
8th  or  9th  century  a.d.  attained  a  comparatively 
high  civilisation.  About  the  Uth  or  12th  cen- 
tury the  kindred  but  fiercer  Aztecs  became 
dominant,  and  grafted  on  the  institutions  of  the 
Toltecs  gloomy  religious  beliefs  and  bloody  rites. 
Cortes  and  his  Spaniards  landed  at  Vera  Cruz 
in  1519 ;  and  the  conquest  of  the  empire  was 
as  creditable  to  the  audacity  and  bravery  of 
the  Europeans  as  it  was  dishonourable  to  their 
humanity.  Mexico  was  long  the  richest  province 
of  Spanish  America,  and  was  systematically  and 
mercilessly  exploited  for  the  benefit  of  Spain. 
Discontent  on  the  part  of  the  inhabitants, 
Spanish  as  well  as  of  mixed  blood,  broke  into 
open  rebellion  in  1810,  and  the  capital  was  surren- 
dered by  the  last  of  the  viceroys  in  1821.  Itur- 
bide  proclaimed  himself  emperor  next  year;  and 
after  various  convulsions  and  rebellions  the  fed- 
eral republic  was  established  in  1823.  For  the 
next  fifty  years  the  history  of  Mexico  is  a  mere 
record  of  chronic  disorder  and  civil  war.  In 
1845  Texas  was  incorporated  with  the  United 
States ;  and  after  the  war  of  1848,  Mexico  ceded 
half  a  million  square  miles  to  the  United  States. 
The  emperor  Napoleon  III.  declared  war  against 
the  president,  Juarez,  in  1862 ;  the  Austrian 
emperor  of  Mexico,  Maximilian,  imposed  by  the 
French,  was  executed  in  1867,  and  the  republic 
re-established.  Under  Diaz,  the  whole  energy  of 
the  government  has  been  given  to  the  develop- 
ment of  railways,  mines,  and  other  industries. 

See  works  by  Prescott  (1843),  Lester  (1878), 
Castro  (1882),  Bancroft,  Wells,  Ballou  (1890), 
Miss  Hale,  Butler,  Lummis  (1898),  Mrs  Tweedie 
(1901),  and  Mallen  (Mexico,  1904). 

Mexico,  capital  of  the  republic,  is  situated 
7347  feet  above  the  sea,  at  the  lowest  level  of 
the  great  lacustrine  basin  (1400  sq.  m.)  of  the 
Anahuac  plateau.  The  largest  of  the  six  lakes 
that  occupy  this  hill-girt  valley.  Lake  Tezcuco, 
amid  whose  waters,  Venice-like,  the  city  first 
rose,  has  now  retired  2^  miles  to  the  north-west. 
All  the  main  streets  converge  on  the  Plaza  Mayor, 
where  the  site  of  the  old  temple  of  Huitzilo- 
pochtli  is  occupied  by  the  imposing  cathedral 
(1573-1657).  Facing  the  cathedral  is  the  Muni- 
cipal Palace,  and  on  the  sides  of  the  plaza 
are  the  National  Palace,  the  national  Monte 
de  Piedad,  the  post-office,  and  the  national 
museum.  Other  noteworthy  buildings  are  the 
picture-gallery  and  library,  the  school  of  mines, 
the  mint,  the  former  palace  of  the  Inquisition 
(now  a  medical  college),  a  sumptuous  new  legis- 
lative palace,  and  a  national  pantheon  for  the 
ashes  of  the  great  men  of  Mexico.  There  are  also 
schools  of  law  and  engineering,  an  academy  of  fine 
arts.  The  principal  streets  are  broad,  clean,  and 
well  paved  and  lighted,  with  houses  of  stone 
gaily  painted  in  bright  colours.  There  are  monu- 
ments to  Columbus  (1877),  the  last  of  the  Aztec 
emperors,  and  others.  There  is  a  fine  nkmecla, 
and  tree-lined  avenues  stretch  far  into  the 
country.  Since  1607  many  attempts  have  been 
made  to  drain  the  valley  of  Mexico,  but  till 
recently,  in  vain;  typhoid  fever  is  common; 
and  it  is  only  the  extreme  dryness  of  the 
atmosphere  that  renders  the  site  habitable  at 
all.  New  works,  on  a  very  large  scale,  to  dram 
the  valley,  were  begun  in  1890  and  finished  in 
1898,  at  a  total  cost  of  over  $16,000,000.  The 
trade  of  Mexico  is  chiefly  a  transit  trade,  although 
it  has  a  few  manufactures,  slowly  developing, 
as  cigars,  gold  and  silver  work,  paper,  pottery, 


MEXICO 


465 


MIDDELBURQ 


religious  pictures,  hats,  saddlery,  &c.  The  rail- 
way connections  are  extensive.     Pop.  344,721. 

Mexico,  Gulf  of,  a  basin  of  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  is  closed  in  by  the  United  States  and 
Mexico,  and  its  outlet  on  the  east  is  narrowed  by 
the  Jutting  peninsulas  of  Yucatan  and  Florida, 
which  approach  within  500  miles  of  each  other. 
Right  in  tlie  middle  of  tliis  entrance  is  planted 
the  island  of  Cuba,  dividing  the  strait  into  two — 
the  Strait  of  Florida  and  that  of  Yucatan.  The 
extreme  length  from  SW.  to  NE.  is  over  1100 
miles ;  the  area  of  the  gulf,  716,200  sq.  m.  The 
shores  are  very  shallow,  more  than  400,000  sq.  m. 
being  less  than  100  fathoms  deep ;  but  58,000 
sq.  m.  exceed  2000  fathoms  in  depth.  The  best 
of  the  few  good  harbours  are  those  of  New 
Orleans,  Pensacola,  and  Havana.  The  principal 
rivers  the  gulf  receives  are  the  Mississippi  and 
the  Rio  Grande  del  Norte.    See  Gulf  Stream. 

Mezieres  (Mezee-ehr'),  the  capital  of  the  French 
dep.  of  Ardennes,  on  a  bend  of  the  Meuse,  oppo- 
site Charleville  (q.v.),  155  miles  by  rail  NB.  of 
Paris.  In  1521  it  was  successfully  defended  by 
Bayard  (statue,  1893),  with  2000  men,  against 
40,000  Spaniards  ;  in  1815  held  out  for  two  months 
against  the  Allies ;  and  in  1870-71  capitulated 
after  a  frightful  bombardment.  In  its  Flam- 
boyant church,  restored  in  1884,  Charles  IX.  was 
married  (1570).     Pop.  6551. 

Mezo-Tur,  a  town  of  Hungary,  40  miles  by 
rail  SE.  of  Budapest.    Pop.  25,757. 

Mfumbiro,  a  mountain  (10,000  feet)  of  Central 
Africa,  situated  in  1"  30'  S.  lat.  and  30"  30'  E. 
long.,  and  west  of  Victoria  Nyanza,  just  witliin 
the  British  East  Africa  Company's  boundary, 

Mhow,  or  Mhau,  a  Britisli  cantonment  in 
Indore  state.  Central  India,  13  miles  by  rail  SW. 
of  Indore  city.  It  is  1919  feet  above  the  sea. 
Pop.  36,773,  mostly  Hindus. 

Miako.    See  Kyoto. 

Michigan  {Mish'e-gan ;  Chippewa  Mitchi  Saw- 
gyegan,  '  Great  Lake '),  the  third  in  size  of  the 
live  great  fresh-water  lakes  of  North  America, 
and  the  only  one  lying  wholly  in  the  United 
States,  between  Michigan  and  Wisconsin.  It  is 
335  miles  long,  and  50  to  88  broad  ;  the  mean 
depth  is  325  feet,  the  maximum  870.  It  has  tlie 
same  elevation  as  Lake  Huron  (with  which  it  is 
connected  by  the  Strait  of  Mackinaw)— SSl/^  feet 
above  sea-level ;  this  is  20J  feet  lower  than  Lake 
Superior,  and  8^*^  feet  above  Lake  Erie.  Its  sur- 
face area  is  22,450  sq.  m.  There  is  a  neap-tide  of 
IJ  inch,  and  a  spring-tide  of  about  3  inches. 
The  shores  of  Lake  Michigan  are  for  the  most 
part  low.  Its  principal  harbours  are  those  of 
Chicago,  Milwaukee,  and  Racine. 

Michigan,  one  of  the  northern  states  of  the 
American  Union,  the  seventeenth  in  area  and 
ninth  in  population,  has  an  area  of  58,915  sq.  m., 
or  more  than  that  of  England  and  Wales  ;  1114 
sq.  m.  are  occupied  by  5173  small  lakes.  It  is 
sometimes  called  the  Peninsular  State,  being 
divided  into  two  great  peninsulas  by  Lake 
Micliigan.  The  upper,  lying  between  the  north 
end  of  Lake  Michigan  and  Lake  Superior,  is 
mostly  ragged,  broken,  rocky,  and  comparatively 
barren,  though  teeming  with  mineral  wealth.  In 
the  north-west,  near  Lake  Superior,  is  the  high- 
est land  in  the  state,  among  the  hills  known  as 
the  Porcupine  Mountains  (1830  feet).  The  lower 
peninsula  lies  between  Lake  Michigan  and  Lakes 
Huron  and  Erie.  No  part  of  it  is  more  than  1780 
feet  above  sea-level ;  and  the  mean  height  is  only 
160  feet  above  the  environing  lakes.  The  upper 
2D 


peninsula  is  318  miles  by  164  ;  the  lower  277  by 
177.  The  greatest  length  of  the  state  from  Mon- 
treal River  in  the  north-west  to  Maumee  Bay  on 
Lake  Erie  is  about  500  miles.  The  state  touches 
Ohio,  Indiana,  Illinois,  and  Wisconsin,  being  else- 
where bounded  by  the  lakes  and  their  outlets. 
The  mean  annual  temperature  is  46"1°  F,  (summer, 
68-5°;  winter,  23'8°);  the  annual  rainfall  is  35-8 
inclies.  Both  peninsulas,  with  occasional  excep- 
tions of  swamps  or  small  prairies,  were  originally 
covered  with  dense  forests,  the  products  of  which 
have  proved  exceedingly  valuable.  The  centre 
of  the  lower  peninsula  is  a  coal-bearing  area  of 
about  5000  sq.  m.,  carrying,  however,  compara- 
tively little  workable  coal.  In  the  Michigan  salt 
group  are  the  rich  brine  wells  of  the  Saginaw 
valley  ;  in  the  Marshall  or  Waverley  are  the 
Huron  grindstones.  Michigan  is  exceptionally 
rich  in  iron  and  copper ;  tlie  great  Calumet  and 
Hecla  copper-mines  are  on  the  Keweenaw  Pen- 
insula, running  into  Lake  Superior.  Gypsum 
appears  in  immense  deposits  at  Grand  Rapids, 
in  the  lower  peninsula.  Building-stones  abound 
in  both  peninsulas,  and  in  the  upper  there  are 
also  statuary  and  other  marbles,  and  such  orna- 
mental stones  as  agates,  jasper,  chalcedony,  and 
chlorastolites.  Glass  sand  is  found  in  the  extreme 
south-east ;  and  lime,  bricks,  and  tiles  are  made 
in  many  parts.  Of  the  numerous  mineral  springs, 
nineteen  have  become  popular  resorts,  and  the 
waters  of  four  have  a  commercial  value.  Lum- 
bering is  the  second  great  industrial  interest  of 
the  state,  the  forests  of  northern  Michigan  being 
mostly  pine.  Other  leading  manufactories  are 
grist-mills,  foundries  and  machine-shops,  iron 
and  steel  woi'ks,  and  those  of  agricultural  im- 
plements and  of  furniture.  But  agriculture 
remains  the  cliief  industry,  employing  about 
half  the  population.  The  most  important  crops 
are  wheat,  maize,  oats,  and  barley  ;  and  in  the 
'  fruit  belt,'  a  narrow  strip  of  about  200  miles  in 
length  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Michigan, 
peaches,  plums,  grapes,  &c.,  are  grown  in  great 
quantity.  Much  wool  is  produced.  The  com- 
merce of  the  state  is  very  great,  and  is  promoted 
by  three  ship-canals. 

The  Michigan  country  was  probably  visited  by 
Jean  Nicolet  in  1634,  at  the  Sault  de  Ste  Marie, 
where  the  first  permanent  white  settlement  was 
made  by  Father  Marquette  in  1668  for  a  Jesuit 
mission.  Detroit  was  founded  in  1701  by  a 
French  colony.  The  country  passed  to  the  Eng- 
lish in  1760,  and  to  the  United  States  in  1796  ;  it 
was  again  occupied  by  Great  Britain  in  1812,  but 
was  recovered  by  the  Americans  the  next  year. 
It  was  organised  as  Michigan  territory  in  1805, 
and  admitted  as  a  state  in  1837.  Pop.  (1800) 
551 ;  (1840)  212,267  ;  (1900)  2,420,982.  Detroit  has 
remained  the  chief  city  from  the  beginning,  other 
cities  being  Grand  Rapids,  Bay  City,  Jackson, 
Muskegon,  Kalamazoo,  Port  Huron,  Lansing  (the 
capital).  Battle  Creek,  West  Bay  City,  Manistee, 
Ishpeming,  Menonimee,  Flint,  Ann  Arbor,  Adrian, 
&c.     See  J.  M.  Cooley,  Michigan  (Boston,  1885). 

Michigan  City,  a  town  of  Indiana,  on  Lake 
Michigan,  38  miles  by  water  (57  by  rail)  ESE.  of 
Chicago.  It  has  a  good  harbour,  contains  a 
college,  a  state  prison,  and  railway-shops,  and 
manufactures  cars,  refrigerators,  furniture,  boots, 
&c.     Pop.  (1860)  3320  ;  (1900)  14,850. 

Micronesia.    See  Polynesia. 

Middelburg,  capital  of  the  Dutch  province  of 
Zealand,  in  the  island  of  Walcheren,  and  4^  miles 
by  rail  NE.  of  Flushing.  In  former  times  it  was 
one  of  the  leading  mercantile  cities  of  the  United 


MIDDLE  LEVEL 


466 


MIKNAS 


Provinces ;  but  its  commercial  importance  has 
greatly  declined,  though  it  has  cotton-factories. 
Thomas  Cromwell  was  a  merchant  liere.  The 
town-house,  founded  by  Charles  the  Bold  in  1468, 
is  adorned  with  twenty-tive  statues  of  counts 
and  countesses  of  Holland  and  Zealand.  A  once 
celebrated  abbey  (12th  c.)  is  now  used  as  adminis- 
trative offices.     Pop.  19,455. 

Middle  Level.    See  Bedford  Level. 

Middlesbrough,  a  great  iron-manufacturing 
and  shipping  centre  in  the  Nortli  Riding  of  York- 
shire, is  a  municipal,  parliamentary,  and  county 
borough,  and  capital  of  the  district  of  Cleveland. 
It  is  on  the  soutli  bank  of  the  Tees  near  its 
mouth,  15  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  Darlington,  50 
N.  of  York,  and  246  N.  by  W.  of  London.  In 
1829  the  site  was  occupied  by  a  solitary  farm- 
house surrounded  by  marshy  land  ;  the  town  owes 
its  remarkably  rapid  growth  partly  to  the  exten- 
sion thither  (in  1830)  of  the  Stockton  and  Dar- 
lington Railway,  but  mainly  to  the  discovery  of 
iron  ore  in  the  adjoining  Cleveland  hills  (1850). 
Another  industry— that  of  boring  salt— was  added 
in  1886.  There  are  here  iron  and  steel  works, 
blast-furnaces,  chemical  works,  wood  and  iron 
shipbuilding-yards,  saw-mills,  marine  engineer- 
ing works,  wire,  nail,  and  tube  works,  salt 
and  soda  works,  &c.  A  graving-dock  was 
finished  in  1875  at  a  cost  of  £120,000;  and 
the  South  Gare  breakwater  (1864-88)  is  nearly 
2^  miles  long.  The  shipbuilding-yards  einploy 
3000  men ;  and  the  export  of  coal  is  extensive. 
There  are,  besides  Anglican  and  Nonconformist 
churches,  a  Roman  Catliolic  cathedral  and  a 
synagogue.  The  town-hall  and  municipal  build- 
ings were  erected  at  a  cost  of  £120,000,  and  were 
opened  in  1889  by  the  Prince  and  Princess  of 
Wales.  Among  other  public  buildings  are  a 
market-house,  corporation  baths,  royal  exchange, 
high  school,  &c.  ;  and  there  are  tlieatres,  clubs, 
masonic  and  temperance  halls.  The  Albert  Park 
of  72  acres  was  given  in  1868  to  the  borough  by 
Mr  H.  W.  F.  Bolckow  (1806-78),  the  first  mayor 
and  member  of  parliament;  on  the  celebration  of 
lliddlesbrough  Jubilee  in  1881  a  moiiunieut  to 
his  memory  was  unveiled.  There  is  also  a  monu- 
ment in  Exchange  Place  to  Mr  Vaughan,  the 
founder  of  the  Cleveland  iron  trade.  The  first 
governing  body  was  established  in  1841 ;  the 
borough  was  incorporated  in  1853 ;  and  since 
1867.  Middlesbrough  returns  one  member  to 
parliament.  Pop.  (1831)  154 ;  (1841)  6463  ;  of 
municipal  borough  (1861)  18,892  ;  (1871)  39,824  ; 
(1881)  55,288 ;  (1901)  91,302.  See  H.  G.  Reid's 
Middlesborough  and  its  Jubilee  (1881). 

Middlesex,  a  small  county  in  the  south  of  Eng- 
land, bounded  by  Hertfordshire,  Essex,  Buck- 
inghamshire, the  Thames,  and  the  county  of 
London  (as  established  in  1888).  On  the  east 
the  river  Lea  and  on  the  west  the  Colne  and 
Brent  form  the  natural  boundaries.  Although 
the  area  is  only  233  sq.  m.,  the  pop.  is  large 
(792,314  in  1901),  which  is  accounted  for  by  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  county  and  city  of  London. 
(For  the  '  ancient '  county,  including  the  districts 
now  in  London  county,  see  the  table  at  England, 
p.  253.)  We  first  hear  of  Middlesex  as  a  sub- 
kingdom  dependent  on  Essex.  Its  position  be- 
tween the  territory  of  the  East  Saxons  and  that 
of  the  West  Saxons  accounts  for  the  name.  The 
greater  part  of  the  surface  was  covered  with  a 
forest,  of  which  Enfield  Chase  and  Hampstead 
Heath  are  relics ;  but  it  was  traversed  by  the 
great  road  which  crossed  the  Thames,  probably 
by  a  ford  at  Westminster,  and  led  north-west- 


ward under  the  name  of  the  Watling  Street. 
There  is  but  little  tillage,  except  for  market- 
gardens,  and  a  great  part  of  the  county  consists 
of  grazing  land,  being  occupied  largely  with  villa 
residences,  surrounded  in  many  places  with  large 
parks.  Brickfields  occupy  the  western  border, 
and  the  number  of  large  suburban  villages— 
without,  however,  any  important  town — is 
remarkable.  Brentford,  Uxbridge,  and  Ealing 
are  to  the  west  of  London,  and  the  first-named 
is  usually  reckoned  the  county  town.  North- 
ward are  Harrow,  Enfield,  and  Tottenham.  East- 
ward are  Highgate  and  Hornsey.  London,  it 
may  be  well  to  note,  was  never  in  Middlesex. 

Mlddleton,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  on  the  Irk, 
3  miles  W.  of  Oldham  and  6  NNE.  of  Manchester. 
Dating  mainly  from  1791,  when  it  received  a 
charter  for  a  weekly  market,  it  was  incorporated 
as  a  municipal  borough  in  1886,  tlie  boundary 
being  extended  in  1891.  It  is  cliiefly  dependent 
upon  its  manufactures  of  silk  and  cotton,  and 
has  an  interesting  parish  church,  a  grammar- 
school  (1572),  public  baths  and  libraries,  &c. 
Pop.  (1851)  5740  ;  (1901)  25,178. 

Mlddleton,  a  town  of  Ireland,  13  miles  by  rail 
E.  of  Cork.  At  the  college  (1696)  Currau  was 
educated.    Pop.  3446. 

Middleton-in-Teesdale,  a  town  of  Durham,  on 
the  Tees,  9  miles  NVV.  of  Barnard  Castle.  Pop. 
of  parish,  2000. 

Middletown,  (1)  a  port  of  Connecticut,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Connecticut  River,  15  miles 
below  Hartford.  It  is  a  well-built  city,  dating 
from  1636,  with  wide,  shaded  streets,  theWesleyan 
University  (1831),  the  Berkeley  Divinity  School 
(Episcopal),  a  large  state  hospital  for  the  insane, 
a  girls'  industrial  school,  and  manufactures  of 
sewing-machines,  tape,  webbing,  Britannia  ware, 
&c.  Pop.  9613.— (2)  A  town  of  New  York,  67 
miles  NNW.  of  New  York  City.  It  contains  tlie 
state  homoeopathic  insane  asylum,  and  manu- 
factures iron,  blankets,  hats,  &c.  Pop.  14,977.— 
(3)  A  town  of  Ohio,  on  the  Miami  River  and 
Canal,  35  miles  N.  of  Cincinnati,  with  paper- 
mills  and  tobacco-factories.     Pop.  9681. 

Middlewlch,  an  old-fashioned  market-town  of 
Cheshire,  on  the  river  Dane  and  the  Grand  Trunk 
Canal,  21  miles  E.  of  Chester.  Its  salt-manu- 
facture has  declined.     Poj).  4706. 

Midhurst,  a  market-town  of  Sussex,  on  the 
Bother,  a  navigable  tributary  of  the  Arun,  65 
miles  by  rail  SW.  of  London  and  12  N.  of 
Chichester.  Cobden  was  born  close  by,  and 
Lyell  was  educated  at  the  grammar-school  (1672). 
Cowdray  House,  ^  mile  NE.,  was  built  about 
1530  by  the  Earl  of  Southampton,  and  for  239 
years  had  been  the  seat  of  eight  Viscounts 
Montague,  when  in  1793  it  was  reduced  by  fire 
to  a  beautiful  ruin.  Till  1885  Midhurst  borough 
(35  sq.  m.  in  area)  returned  a  member  to  parlia- 
ment.    Pop.  of  parish,  1674. 

Midi,  Canal  du.    See  Garonne. 

Midlothian.    See  Edinburghshire. 

Midnapur,  a  town  of  Bengal,  on  the  Kasai 
River,  68  miles  W.  of  Calcutta.    Pop.  33,264. 

Mid'somer  Norton,  a  town  of  Somerset,  10 
miles  SW.  of  Bath,  with  malting  and  brewing, 
and  a  R.C.  college  (1814).    Pop.  5850. 

Miknas,  or  Mequinez,  a  walled  town  of 
Morocco,  32  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Fez  and  70  from 
the  coast.  The  palace  is  the  sultan's  summer 
residence,  and  the  mosque  of  Muley  Ismail  is  the 
royal  burial-place.    Pop.  30,000. 


MILAN 


467 


MILVERTON 


Milan  (usu.  Milan ;  Ital.  spelling  Milano\  one 
of  the  three  chief  Italian  cities,  stands  in  the 
great  plain  of  Lonibardy,  80  miles  NE.  of  Turin, 
155  W.  of  Venice,  and  25  S.  of  Lake  Conio.  Tlie 
city,  nearly  circular  in  shape,  is  surrounded  on 
three  sides  by  walls,  has  a  circuit  of  nearly  8 
miles,  and  is  entered  by  14  gates.  The  principal 
church  is  the  cathedral  of  the  archbishop,  rebuilt 
by  Gian  Galeazzo  Visconti  in  1386,  and  completed 
by  order  of  Napoleon  I.  in  1805-13.  It  is  built 
entirely  of  marble,  and  in  the  Gothic  style  ;  but 
the  windows  and  portals  of  the  facade  (partly 
of  the  16th  century)  are  not  Gothic,  but  Italian. 
The  exterior  is  adorned  with  pinnacles  and  6000 
statues  in  niches.  Other  churclies  are  St  Ambrose, 
founded  in  868,  on  the  site  of  one  dedicated  by 
the  saint  himself  in  387  ;  St  Eustorgius,  dedicated 
in  320  ;  St  Maria  delle  Grazie  (1463),  on  the  walls 
of  whose  refectory  is  Leonardo  da  Vinci's  '  Last 
Supper ;'  and  St  Maurice  the  Greater  (1497-1506), 
with  paintings  by  Luini  and  his  school.  The 
Brera  Palace  (12th  century),  formerly  a  Jesuit 
college,  has  now  a  great  gallery  of  paintings  by 
Raphael,  Da  Vinci,  Luini,  Mantegna,  the  Bellinis, 
Titian,  Vandyck,  &c.,  an  academy  of  art,  a 
collection  of  casts,  the  magnificent  monument 
of  Gaston  de  Foix,  the  national  library  (1770)  of 
162,000  vols,  and  3650  MSS.,  an  archajological 
museum,  and  an  observatory.  In  the  famous 
Ambrosian  Library  (1609)  there  are  164,000  vols, 
and  8100  MSS.,  besides  collections  of  drawings, 
engravings,  and  pictures.  The  city  is  adorned 
with  numerous  palaces,  as  that  of  the  arch- 
bishop (1570) ;  the  royal  palace,  with  fine  modern 
frescoes  ;  the  Late  Renaissance  municipal  palace 
(1558) ;  the  former  castle  of  the  Visconti  (15th 
century),  with  frescoes  by  Luini  ;  the  Poldi- 
Pezzoli  palace,  &c.  The  arcaded  colonnade  of 
Victor  Emmanuel  (1865-67),  lined  with  fine  shops, 
forms  a  favourite  promenade.  The  Arch  of  Peace, 
built  of  white  marble  (1807-38),  commemorates 
the  exploits  of  Napoleon.  The  Delia  Scala  opera- 
house  (1778)  is  tlie  second  in  size  (after  San  Carlo 
at  Naples)  in  Italy  ;  and  the  Milan  conservatoire 
is  the  most  famous  school  of  music  in  Europe. 
Beccaria,  Manzoni,  the  popes  Pius  IV.  and  Gregory 
XIV.  were  natives.  The  Great  Hospital  (1448) 
can  accommodate  2500  patients.  Owing  to  its 
situation  Milan  has  always  been  a  place  of  great 
commerce,  much  increased  since  the  opening  of 
the  Gothard  railway.  It  manufactures  silks, 
velvets,  gold,  silver,  and  iron  wares,  railway 
carriages,  tobacco,  porcelain,  and  electric-light 
apparatus,  besides  being  an  active  centre  of  the 
printing-trade.  Pop.  (1876)  283,225;  (1881,  city 
and  suburbs)  295,543  ;  (1901,  commune)  491,460. 

Milan  (Lat.  Mediolanum)  was  conquered  by  the 
Romans  in  222  b.c.,  and  sacked  by  the  Huns 
(under  Attila)  in  452,  by  the  Goths  in  539.  It 
passed  to  the  Longobards  (569),  the  Franks,  and 
the  German  empire.  Here  several  of  the  German 
emperors  were  crowned  with  the  Iron  Crown. 
Frederick  I.  twice  besieged  it  and  razed  it  to 
the  ground.  Supreme  power  became  (from  1277) 
vested  in  the  Ghibelline  Visconti,  who  extended 
the  ascendency  of  Milan  over  the  whole  of 
Lombardy,  and  in  1395  became  dukes.  The 
successors  of  the  Visconti  were  the  Sforzas  (1450- 
1535).  From  1555  to  1713  Milan  submitted  to 
Spain,  and  from  Spain  passed  to  Austria.  Under 
Bonaparte  it  was  declared  the  capital  of  the 
Cisalpine  Republic,  of  the  Italian  Republic,  and, 
finally,  of  the  Kingdom  of  Italy.  From  1815  till 
1859,  when  it  became  Italian,  Milan  was  again  the 
capital  of  the  Austro-Italian  dominions. 

Milazzo  (Milat'so;  anc.  Mylce),  a  fortified  sea- 


port of  Sicily,  on  a  promontory  21  miles  W.  of 
Messina.  Off  Mylae  in  260  B.C.  the  Romans  won 
a  great  sea-fight  over  the  Carthaginians;  and 
here  in  1860  Garibaldi,  with  2500  men,  defeated 
7000  Neapolitans.    Pop.  7971. 

Milborne  Port,  a  town  of  Somerset,  3^  miles 
NE.  of  Sherborne.    Pop.  of  parish,  1951. 

Mlldenhall,  a  Suffolk  market-town,  on  the 
Lark,  12  miles  NW.  of  Bury-St-Edmunds.  Pop. 
of  parish,  3732. 

Mile'tus,  anciently  the  most  flourishing  city  of 
Ionia,  in  Asia  Minor,  stood  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Meander.  It  was  the  birthplace  of  Thales, 
Anaximander,  Anaximenes,  and  Hecataeus. 

Milford,  a  parliamentary  borough  (contribu- 
tory to  Pembroke)  and  seaport  of  South  Wales, 
in  the  county  of  Pembroke,  on  the  north  side  of 
Milford  Haven,  271  miles  W.  of  London.  The 
fortified  Haven,  which  as  a  natural  harbour  is 
unequalled  in  area,  complete  shelter,  and  facility 
of  entrance,  stretches  inland  10  miles,  varies  in 
breadth  from  1  to  nearly  2  miles,  and  has  a  depth 
in  most  places  of  from  15  to  19  fathoms.  In  1485 
the  Earl  of  Richmond  (afterwards  Henry  VII.) 
disembarked  here  from  Brittany  shortly  before 
the  battle  of  Bosworth.  Docks  designed  by  Sir 
E.  J.  Reed,  and  capable  of  accommodating  vessels 
of  the  largest  size,  were  completed  in  1882,  but 
not  opened  to  shipping  until  21st  September 
1888  :  their  total  area  is  60  acres,  and  the  depth 
of  water  inside  28  feet.     Pop.  5110. 

Milford,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  36  miles  W. 
by  S.  of  Boston,  with  boot-factories.    Pop.  11,380. 
Military  Frontier.    See  Croatia. 
Militello,  a  town  of  Sicily,  21  miles  SW.  of 
Catania.    Pop.  10,505. 

Millau  (Mee'yo),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Aveyron,  on  the  Tarn's  right  bank,  52  miles  NW. 
of  Montpellier.  During  the  16th  and  17th  cen- 
turies it  was  a  Calvinist  stronghold.  Leather 
and  gloves  are  manufactured.    Pop.  18,181. 

Millbury,  Massachusetts,  on  the  Blackstone 
River,  is  39  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Boston,  and  has 
cotton  and  woollen  factories.     Pop.  4455. 

Milledgeville,  the  former  capital  of  Georgia 
(q.v.),  32  miles  ENE.  of  Macon.     Pop.  4800. 

Mill  Hill,  a  village  of  Middlesex,  8^  miles  NW. 
of  London  by  rail,  with  an  important  Noncon- 
formist school  and  a  R.  C.  missionary  college. 

Millom,  a  town  of  Cumberland,  on  the  west 
side  of  the  Duddon  estuary,  30  miles  SSE.  of 
Whitehaven.  It  has  mines  and  ironworks.  Pop. 
(1851)  1070  ;  (1901)  10,426. 
Millport.  See  Combrae. 
Millville,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  on  the  Maurice 
River,  41  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Philadelphia.  It 
manufactures  cottons  and  glass.     Pop.  10,600. 

Milnathort,  a  town  of  Kinross-shire,  IJ  mile 
N.  by  E.  of  Kinross.     Pop.  1050. 

Milngavie  (Mil-guy'),  a  town  of  Stirlingshire, 
7  miles  NNW.  of  Glasgow.     Pop.  3503. 

Milnrow,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  2  miles  ESE. 
of  Rochdale.  John  Collier  ('Tim  Bobbin')  was 
schoolmaster  here.    Pop.  8246. 

Milnthorpe,  a  town  of  Westmorland,  on  the 
Kent,  7^  miles  S.  of  Kendal.     Pop.  1064. 

Milton-next-Sittingbourne,  a  town  of  Kent, 
at  the  head  of  a  creek  of  the  Swale,  10  miles 
ESE.  of  Chatham.     Pop.  of  parish,  7213. 

Milverton,  a  town  of  Somerset,  13^  miles  SW. 
of  Bridgwater.    Pop.  of  parish,  1562. 


MILWAUKEE 


468 


MINORCA 


Milwau'kee,  capital  of  Milwaukee  county, 
Wisconsin,  and  the  largest  city  in  the  state,  is 
situated  on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  at 
the  common  mouth  of  three  improved  and  navig- 
able rivers,  which,  with  a  canal,  supply  20  miles 
of  dockage.  It  is  85  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Chicago, 
and  overlooks  Milwaukee  Bay,  which  has  a  width 
of  7  miles  and  contains  a  harbour  of  refuge.  The 
parked  and  terraced  bluffs  have  an  average  height 
of  80  feet  above  the  water.  Milwaukee  is  built  with 
light  yellow  bricks,  and  hence  called  '  the  Cream 
City.'  The  streets  are  wide  and  lined  on  either 
side  by  magnificent  elms.  The  public  parks  con- 
tain some  600  acres,  and  are  connected  by  wide 
boulevards.  The  street  railway  lines  are  operated 
by  electricity,  and  the  streets  mainly  lighted  by 
arc  lights.  A  new  and  vast  system  of  intercept- 
ing sewers  is  in  operation,  and  the  river  is  flushed 
by  means  of  a  huge  tunnel  from  the  lake,  built 
at  a  cost  of  $250,000.  In  1889  two  new  railway 
passenger  depots  were  built  at  a  cost  of  $200,000 
each  ;  and  more  recent  undertakings  have  been  a 
new  government  building  to  cost  $2,000,000,  a  new 
city-hall,  and  a  public  library  and  museum  build- 
ing. Tlie  public  library  contains  100,000  volumes. 
In  1888  was  completed  the  Layton  Free  Art 
Gallery,  the  gift  for  which,  exclusive  of  the  value 
of  pictures  and  statuary,  was  $300,000.  Mil- 
waukee, founded  in  1835,  is  essentially  a  manu- 
facturing city,  chief  products  being  lager  beer, 
flour,  pork,  engines,  machinery,  iron  and  brass 
goods,  &c.  In  October  1892  there  was  a  tremen- 
dous fire.  Pop.  (1870)  71,440;  (1880)  115,578; 
(1900)  285,315  (64,000  Germans). 

Minas,  capital  of  a  mountainous  Uruguayan 
province  (area,  4844  sq,  m. ;  pop.  38,200),  75  miles 
by  rail  NE.  of  Montevideo.    Pop.  5000. 

Minas  Geraes  (Meenas  Zhayrah'ez),  the  most 
populous  state  of  Brazil,  lies  inland  from  Espirito 
Santo  and  south  of  Bahia.  Area,  222,160  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  3,218,807.  The  surface  rises  in  the  Serra  do 
Espinhaco  to  5900  feet ;  the  chief  rivers  are  the 
navigable  Sao  Francisco  and  the  Rio  Grande, 
which  with  the  Paranahyba  forms  the  Parana. 

Minch  (Minsk),  the  channel  separating  the 
island  of  Lewis  from  the  mainland  of  Scotland. 
It  is  24  to  40  miles  wide,  and  has  a  rapid  current. 
The  Little  Minch,  separating  Skye  from  North 
Uist,  &c.,  is  14  to  20  miles  wide. 

MincMnhampton,  a  market-town  of  Glouces- 
tershire, 3^  miles  SSE.  of  Stroud.  James  Bradley 
is  buried  in  the  churchyard.    Pop.  of  parish,  3736. 

Mlnchmoor,  a  mountain  (1856  feet),  3  miles 
SE.  of  Innerleithen,  Peeblesshire. 

MinciO  (MintcMo),  a  tributary  of  the  Po,  rises 
in  south  Tyrol,  flows  (as  the  Sarca)  80  miles  to 
Lake  Garda,  and  thence  has  a  southerly  course 
of  93  miles  past  Mantua  to  the  Po. 

Mindanao.    See  Philippine  Islands. 

Mlnden,  a  Prussian  town  in  "Westphalia,  on 
the  Weser,  40  miles  W.  of  Hanover.  Till  1873  a 
second-class  fortress,  it  was  already  a  town  in 
Charlemagne's  day,  and  suff"ered  much  in  the 
Thirty  Years'  War,  and  again  in  the  Seven  Years' 
War,  when,  in  1759,  the  French  were  defeated 
here  by  an  Anglo-Hanoverian  army.  It  has  a 
fine  new  bridge  (1874),  a  Gothic  town-hall,  a 
Catholic  church  (11th  c— 1379 ;  till  1811  cathe- 
dral), and  manufactures  of  tobacco,  beer,  brandy, 
glass,  &c.    Pop.  25,223.    See  also  Mijnden. 

Mlnehead,  a  watering-place  (till  1832  pari, 
borough)  of  Somerset,  on  the  Bristol  Channel,  25 
miles  NW.  of  Taunton.    Pop.  2511. 


Minervlno,  an  agricultural  town  of  southern 
Italy,  44  miles  W.  of  Bari.    Pop.  17,972. 

Mingrelia.     See  Georgia,  Caucasus. 

Minho  (Min'yo;  Span,  Miiio,  anc.  Minius),  a 
river  rising  in  Galicia,  and  flowing  174  miles  SW. 
througli  Spain  and  along  the  Portuguese  frontier 
to  the  Atlantic. 

Minieh,  a  town  of  Egypt,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Nile,  150  miles  above  Cairo.  It  has  a  govern- 
ment cotton-factory.    Pop.  20,500. 

Mlnneap'oUs,  the  largest  city  of  Minnesota, 
stands  on  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi.  The 
Falls  of  St  Anthony,  with  a  perpendicular  de- 
scent of  16  feet,  aflbrd  a  water-power  which  has 
been  a  chief  source  of  the  city's  prosperity.  The 
streets  are  wide  and  handsome,  and  there  are 
beautiful  public  parks.  Notable  buildings  are 
the  masonic  hall,  the  post-office,  the  Exposition 
Building,  and  the  Guarantee  Loan  edifice.  This 
last  is  twelve  stories  higli,  built  of  granite  and 
sandstone ;  it  contains  400  offices,  and  on  the 
roof  is  a  garden  where  concerts  are  given.  The 
state  university  here  has  nearly  four  thousand 
students  of  both  sexes.  There  is  a  imblic 
library  of  over  150,000  volumes.  The  lumber  and 
flour  mills  of  Minneapolis,  which  dates  only  from 
1838,  are  among  the  largest  in  the  country.  Pop. 
(1870)  13,066 ;  (1880)  46,887 ;  (1900)  202,718,  many 
of  them  Scandinavians. — Five  miles  by  rail  SE.  of 
Minneapolis  are  the  Falls  of  Minnehaha  ('  Laugh- 
ing Water '),  celebrated  in  Longfellow's  Hiawatha. 

Minnehaha.    See  Minneapolis. 

Minneso'ta  (an  Indian  name,  signifying  '  sky- 
tinted  water'),  one  of  the  north-central  states  of 
the  American  Union,  the  northernmost  in  the 
Mississippi  valley.  It  is  bounded  by  Manitoba, 
Ontario,  Lake  Superior,  Wisconsin,  Iowa,  and 
North  and  South  Dakota.  Its  area  is  83,530  sq. 
m.,  or  nearly  as  large  as  Great  Britain.  In  Min- 
nesota are  the  remote  sources  of  the  great  rivers 
Mississippi,  Red  River  of  the  North,  and  St 
Lawrence,  whose  waters  flow  in  different  direc- 
tions to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Hudson  Bay,  and 
the  Atlantic.  Within  the  state  the  Minnesota 
River  is  the  largest  tributary  of  the  Mississippi. 
Between  the  St  Croix  River  and  Red  River 
of  the  North  are  hundreds  of  clear  lakes,  the 
largest  of  which  are  Red  Lake  (530  sq.  m.),  Mille 
Lacs,  and  Leech  Lake.  Over  a  half  of  tlie  land 
area  is  under  farms,  but  in  the  north  there 
are  extensive  pine-forests,  and  in  the  north-east 
great  marshes.  The  minerals  include  iron  (which 
is  profitably  worked),  slate,  granite  and  other 
rocks,  and  the  red  pipestone.  The  climate  is 
bracing  in  winter,  very  dry  and  equable,  Min- 
nesota is  an  agricultural  and  especially  a  wheat- 
producing  state  ;  its  principal  manufactories  are 
flour  and  lumber  mills.  The  Mississippi  is  navig- 
able as  high  as  St  Paul ;  the  lakes,  with  Duluth 
for  a  port,  open  a  water-way  to  the  Atlantic  ;  and 
there  are  over  7000  miles  of  railway  in  the  state. 

Minnesota  was  visited  by  French  explorers  in 
1659-60,  and  the  portion  west  of  the  Mississippi 
was  part  of  the  province  of  Louisiana  purchased 
by  the  United  States  from  France  in  1803.  In 
1837  the  Chippeway  Indians  surrendered  all  the 
land  east  of  the  Mississippi ;  immigration  then 
began,  and  Minnesota  became  a  territory  in  1849, 
a  state  in  1858.  In  1862  occurred  a  terrible 
massacre  by  the  Indians,  who  in  ten  days  killed 
some  800  persons.  The  principal  cities  are  the 
capital,  St  Paul,  Minneapolis,  and  Duluth.  Pop. 
(1860)  172,023;  (1880)  780,773;  (1900)  1,751,394, 
including  many  Scandinavians  and  Germans. 

Minorca,  the  second  largest  of  the  Balearic 


J 


MINSK 


469 


MISSISSiPPI-MISSOUKI 


Isles  (q.v.),  lies  25  miles  NE.  of  Majorca.  It  is 
28  miles  long  by  10  wide,  and  has  an  area  of  284 
sq.  m.  Pop.  39,173.  Its  coast  is  rocky  and  in- 
accessible, but  broken  by  numerous  inlets,  and 
its  surface  low,  undulating,  and  stony.  The 
chief  towns  are  Port  Mahon  and  Ciudadela.  The 
island  has  many  megalithic  remains  (called 
talayots)  and  stalactite  caves  (at  Prella). 

Minsk,  the  chief  town  of  a  Russian  govern- 
ment, on  an  affluent  of  the  Beresina,  436  miles  by 
rail  WSW.  of  Moscow  and  331  ENE.  of  Warsaw. 
Pop.  95,048.  Area  of  government,  35,282  sq.  m.,  70 
per  cent,  marsh,  moor,  and  forest ;  pop.  2,156,613. 

Miquelon  {Meek'elon^),  Great  and  Little,  two 
islands  connected  by  a  long,  narrow,  sandy 
isthmus,  off  the  SW.  coast  of  Newfoundland, 
forming  with  St  Pierre  tlie  only  remaining  French 
colony  in  North  America.  Fishijig  is  the  sole  in- 
dustry. Area,  78  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (with  St  Pierre)  6500. 

Mlraj,  a  native  state  of  India  in  the  southern 
Mahratta  country ;  pop.  123,500.  The  capital  is 
Miraj,  near  the  Kistna  River  (pop.  26,060). 

Miramar,  a  palace  on  the  Adriatic,  near  Gri- 
gnano,  6  miles  NW.  of  Trieste,  the  home  of  the 
Archduke  Maximilian,  afterwards  emperor  of 
Mexico.    See  also  Majorca. 

Miramichi  (Meeramishee'),  the  second  river  (2^0 
miles)  of  New  Brunswick,  entering  the  Gulf  of 
St  Lawrence  through  Miramichi  Bay.  It  is 
navigable  to  2  miles  above  Newcastle. 

Miran'dola,  a  cathedral  city  of  northern  Italy, 
19  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Modena.    Pop.  13,800. 

Mlrecourt  (Meercoor'),  a  town  in  the  dep.  of 
Vosges,  236  miles  ESE.  of  Paris.    Pop.  4700. 

Mirfield,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Yorkshire, 
3  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Dewsbury,  and  4J  NE.  of 
Huddersfleld.  It  has  a  town-hall  (1868),  a  parish 
church  (restored  in  1871  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott),  and 
manufactures  of  woollen  cloths,  carpets,  blankets, 
and  the  like.  The  population,  almost  stationary 
since  1881,  is  11,340. 

Mirzapur,  a  town  in  the  North-west  Provinces, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  45  miles  by 
rail  SW.  of  Benares.  It  manufactures  shellac, 
carpets,  and  brass-wares.    Pop.  84,130. 

Miseno  (Meezay'no),  a  promontory  forming  the 
western  side  of  the  Bay  of  Pozzuoli  (Cumce),  10 
miles  SW.  of  Naples.  On  it  are  ruins  of  the 
ancient  city  and  naval  station  of  Misenuni. 

Misiones  (Meezio'nes),  an  Argentinian  territory, 
lies  between  the  Uruguay  and  the  Parana,  and  is 
bounded  on  all  sides  but  the  SW.  by  Brazil  and 
Paraguay.  Area,  20,823  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  30,000. 
Capital,  Posadas  (pop.  3000),  on  the  ParanA. 

Miskolcz,  a  town  of  Hungary,  113  miles  by 
rail  NE.  of  Pesth.    Pop.  40,408. 

Mississip'pl,  one  of  the  Gulf  States  of  the 
American  Union,  lies  west  of  Alabama  and  south 
of  western  Tennessee,  and  is  bounded  on  the  W. 
by  the  Mississippi  River.  Length,  north  to  south, 
335  miles ;  width,  150  miles  ;  area,  46,810  sq.  m. 
The  surface,  except  in  the  Yazoo  delta,  is  gener- 
ally hilly,  though  nowhere  mountainous,  the 
highest  hills  rising  only  800  feet  above  the 
sea-level.  There  are  three  distinct  watersheds, 
represented  by  the  Tombigbee,  the  Pascagoula, 
and  the  Yazoo.  There  are  mineral  springs  here 
and  there.  Mississippi  is  essentially  an  agri- 
cultural state.  The  north-eastern  prairie  region, 
70  miles  long  and  15  to  20  wide,  with  its  fertile, 
black,  calcareous  soil,  contains  much  of  the 
best  farming  and  grazing  land  in  the  state. 
There  are  no  springs  here,  but  cisterns  dug  in 


the  rotten  limestone,  bored  wells,  and  artesian 
wells  furnish  ample  water.  In  the  north  the 
bottom-lands  along  the  numerous  creeks  and 
rivers  especially  are  well  adapted  to  agriculture; 
while  in  the  central  portion  stock-raising  is 
carried  on,  and  in  the  yellow-pine  region  large 
herds  of  sheep  are  raised.  The  Yazoo  Delta,  em- 
bracing the  elliptical  area  of  alluvial  bottoms  be- 
tween the  Mississippi  and  Yazoo  rivers,  was  sub- 
ject to  inundations ;  but  levees  now  protect  the 
lands.  The  delta  contains  4^  millions  of  acres  of 
alluvial  land,  only  500,000  acres  of  which  are  under 
cultivation.  Virgin  forests  of  hardwoods  cover 
the  rest.  Chief  products  are  cotton,  com,  oats, 
fruits,  and  vegetables.  The  winters  are  short  and 
mild,  the  mean  temperature  45°  F., the  annual  rain- 
fall 48  to  58  inches.  Cotton  is  manufactured,  and 
there  is  some  trade  in  lumber.  Mississippi  was 
first  settled  by  the  French  in  1699,  as  part  of 
Louisiana.  It  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain  in 
1763 ;  was  admitted  into  the  Union  as  a  state 
in  1817 ;  seceded  in  1861 ;  was  readmitted  into 
the  Union,  1869.  Vicksburg,  Greenville,  and 
Natchez  are  principal  ports  on  the  Mississippi 
River,  and  Pascagoula  and  Biloxi  on  the  Gulf. 
Meridian  is  the  second  town,  and  Jackson  is  the 
capital.  Pop.  (1820)  75,448 ;  (1850)605,948 ;  (1880) 
1,131,597;  (1900)  1,551,270. 

Mississippi-Missouri.  The  Mississippi  River 
(Algonkin  Missi  Sijn,  *  Great  River '),  the  largest 
river  of  North  America,  is,  with  its  tributarie.s, 
wholly  within  the  boundaries  of  the  United 
States.  It  drains  most  of  the  territory  between 
the  Rocky  and  Alleghany  Mountains,  embracing 
an  area  of  1,257,545  sq.  m.,  or  more  than  two- 
fifths  of  the  United  States.  Besides  the  Missouri, 
Ohio,  Red  River,  and  Arkansas,  there  are  forty- 
one  other  tributaries  navigable.  The  total  length 
of  the  Mississippi  is  2960  miles,  of  which  2161  are 
navigable ;  but  the  Missouri  affluent  is  longer 
than  the  Upper  Mississippi,  and  with  the  lower 
river  gives  a  total  of  4200  miles.  The  total  navig- 
able waters  amount  to  16,090  miles. 

The  source  of  the  Mississippi  is  Lake  Itasca  (7 
by  3  miles)  in  the  north-west  central  part  of 
Minnesota,  which  has,  however,  several  feeders, 
the  principal  being  Elk  or  Glazier  Lake.  The 
remotest  springs  of  Itasca  rise  in  47°  34'  N.  lat. 
and  95°  20'  W.  long.,  and  are  1680  feet  above  sea- 
level.  As  it  issues  from  this  lake  the  Mississippi 
is  about  12  feet  wide  and  18  inches  deep. 
Through  pine-forests  and  swamps  for  hundreds 
of  miles  it  winds  from  lake  to  lake,  with  frequent 
rapids  and  picturesque  falls,  until,  400  yards 
wide,  at  Minneapolis  it  plunges  over  the  Falls  of 
St  Anthony— the  head  of  river-navigation.  After 
receiving  the  St  Croix,  the  Mississippi  becomes 
the  boundary  between  the  states  of  Minnesota, 
Iowa,  Missouri,  Arkansas,  and  Louisiana  on  the 
right,  and  Wisconsin,  Illinois,  Kentucky,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Mississippi  on  the  left.  On  the  Wis- 
consin boundary  the  river  expands  into  Lake 
Pepin,  and  thereafter,  fully  a  mile  wide,  flows 
between  bluffs  200  and  300  feet  high,  and  some- 
times through  dense  forests.  At  Rock  Island 
there  are  rapids  with  22  feet  of  fall,  and  125  miles 
farther  down  are  the  Des  Moines  rapids  with  24 
feet  of  fall.  Around  these  obstructions  to  naviga- 
tion the  United  States  government  has  con- 
structed ship-canals.  For  several  miles  after  the 
entrance  of  the  turbid  Missouri  the  diverse  waters 
refuse  to  mingle,  the  Missouri's  muddy  tribute 
taking  the  right  bank  and  the  Upper  Mississippi's 
clear  stream  the  left.  From  the  mouth  of  the 
Ohio  the  trough  of  the  Mississippi  is  about  1490 
yards  wide,  but  as  it  approaches  the  Red  it  is 


MISSISSIPPI-MISSOURI 


470 


MITAU 


narrowed  to  1000,  and  at  New  Orleans  to  830. 
The  usual  depth  of  the  channel  southward  from 
the  Ohio  is  from  75  to  100  feet,  and  its  surface  is 
sometimes  higher  than  the  country  beyond  its 
banks  ;  from  the  Missouri  to  the  Gulf  the  Missis- 
sippi rolls  in  serpentine  course  through  vast 
alluvial  tracts  or  '  bottoms,'  whose  width  varies 
from  30  to  150  miles.  Though  of  unsurpassed 
fertility,  scarcely  one-tenth  of  these  lands  is 
cultivated  owing  to  the  dangers  of  the  animal 
overflow.  The  melting  of  the  ice  and  snow  in 
the  upper  basin  swells  the  lower  current  from 
March  to  June.  Levees  or  embankments,  largely 
built  by  the  government,  now  extend  for  more 
than  1600  miles.  Below  the  Red  River  the  waters 
are  discharged  through  numerous  '  bayous '  into 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  main  channel  runs 
south-eastward,  and  finally  divides  into  five  or 
six  passes— the  principal,  the  South  Pass.  The 
vast  deposits  and  the  constant  changes  caused 
by  floods  tend  to  embarrass  the  entrance  to  the 
great  river.  To  keep  an  open  channel.  Captain 
Eads  made  (1875-79)  an  admirably  successful 
system  of  jetties  at  the  South  Pass,  which  has 
secured  a  deptli  exceeding  30  feet.  The  mouth 
of  the  Mississippi  is  essentially  tideless.  The 
principal  cities  on  the  great  river  are  Minne- 
apolis, St  Paul,  La  Crosse,  Dubuque,  Keokuk, 
Quincy,  Hannibal,  St  Louis,  Memphis,  and  New 
Orleans,  at  several  of  which  the  river  is  crossed 
by  railway  bridges  (at  St  Louis  by  two). 

Missouri  River  ('Big  Muddy'),  the  principal 
branch  of  the  Mississippi  River,  is  formed  by 
the  confluence  of  the  Jeff'erson,  Gallatin,  and 
Madison  rivers,  at  Gallatin  City,  Montana,  4132 
feet  above  the  sea-level.  These  rivers  rise  in  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  close  to  the  sources  of  the 
Columbia  and  Colorado  rivers,  and  to  the  Con- 
tinental Divide.  The  Madison  has  the  remotest 
source  in  a  small  lake  of  the  same  name  in 
Yellowstone  National  Park  in  Wyoming,  44°  19' 
N.  lat.  and  110°  50'  W.  long.,  at  an  elevation  of 
7632  feet,  and  flows  north-west  and  north  to  the 
junction  of  the  Three  Forks.  Thence  the  Missouri 
flows  N.  and  NE.  to  Fort  Benton,  the  head  of 
navigation,  225  miles  from  Gallatin  City.  About 
40  miles  above  Fort  Benton  are  the  Great  Falls, 
where  the  river  descends  327  feet  in  15  miles  by 
a  series  of  cataracts  (the  highest  87  feet).  Froni 
Fort  Benton  the  course  is  easterly,  the  river 
being  flanked  by  bluifs  about  a  mile  apart  until 
it  passes  the  rapids  400  miles  below,  Avhen  the 
valley  opens  to  a  width  of  10  miles.  The  Milk 
River  is  its  first  large  tributary,  but  at  the 
boundary  of  North  Dakota  the  still  larger  Yellow- 
stone (1152  miles)  joins  it.  From  the  last 
junction,  which  is  the  head  of  navigation  in  the 
low-water  season,  the  Missouri  flows  E.  and  SE. 
through  North  Dakota,  to  Bismarck  (1610  feet 
above  sea-level,  where  it  is  crossed  by  the  splen- 
did bridge  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railroad),  and 
through  South  Dakota  to  Sioux  City,  whence 
flowing  south  the  river  bounds  Nebraska  and 
Kansas  on  the  right  and  Iowa  and  Missouri  on 
the  left.  On  receiving  the  tributary  Kansas  the 
stream  turns  to  the  east,  and  flowing  across  the 
state  of  Missouri  pours  its  muddy  waters  into 
the  Mississippi,  20  miles  above  St  Louis.  The 
Missouri  is  3047  miles  long,  of  which  2682  are 
called  navigable,  but  owing  to  its  tortuous, 
treacherous,  and  obstructed  channel  navigation 
is  attended  with  great  risks.  The  chief  towns  on 
the  banks  are  Bismarck,  Yankton,  Sioux  City, 
Omaha,  Council  Bluff's,  Nebraska  City,  St  Joseph. 
Atchison,  Leavenworth,  and  Kansas  City. 
See  Commerce  and  Navigation  of  the  Mississippi 


(1888),  and  other  works  by  Humphrey  and  Abbot 
(1861),  and  Glazier  (1893). 

Missolonghi  {Missolong'gee;  g  hard),  a  Greek 
seaport,  on  the  N.  shore  of  the  Gulf  of  Patras, 
24  miles  W.  of  Lepanto.  A  modern  place,  built 
on  a  swampy  flat,  it  was  vainly  invested  by  the 
Turks  in  1821-22  ;  in  1825-26,  after  ten  months  of 
resistance,  its  garrison,  reduced  from  5000  to  3000 
fighting-men,  cut  their  way  through  the  enemy, 
carrying  with  them  a  great  number  of  the  women 
and  children.  There  is  a  statue  (1835)  over  the 
grave  of  Bozzaris,  and  one  (1881)  of  Lord  Byron, 
wliere  his  heart  is  interred.    Pop.  8324. 

Missouri  (Mis-soo'ree),  one  of  the  central  states, 
and  the  fifth  in  order  of  population,  of  the 
American  Union.  It  is  280  miles  long  from  N.  toS., 
and  gradually  increases  southward  in  width  from 
208  miles  to  312.  Area,  68,735  sq.  m.,  or  nearly  that 
of  Scotland,  Ireland,  and  Wales.  The  Missouri 
River  divides  the  state  into  two  unequal  sections, 
north  and  south.  North  Missouri  is  generally 
level  or  slightly  undulating,  consisting  of  rolling 
prairies  and  level  bottom-lands,  with  a  luxuriant 
growth  of  timber  along  the  streams.  The  southern 
section  derives  its  distinctive  features  from  the 
Ozark  Mountains,  throughout  the  greater  part 
of  their  length  rather  tablelands,  reaching  their 
highest  altitude  (1500  feet)  in  Greene  and  Webster 
counties,  and  gradually  breaking  up  into  narrow 
ridges,  spurs,  knobs,  and  peaks  farther  east.  The 
entire  eastern  boundary  is  washed  by  the 
Mississippi  River,  with  a  water  front  of  560  miles. 
The  general  drainage  of  the  surface  is  indicated 
by  long  gentle  slopes  toward  the  Mississippi  and 
Missouri  rivers,  except  in  the  south-west,  where 
the  streams  flow  into  the  Arkansas.  The  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold  peculiar  to  this  latitude  are 
experienced ;  but  the  mean  annual  temperature 
is  54°,  and  the  mean  average  rainfall  is  41  inches. 
Missouri  is  pre-eminently  an  agricultural  state. 
The  soils  are  rich,  deep,  and  unsurpassed  in 
variety  and  productiveness.  The  principal  crops 
are  Indian  corn,  oats,  wheat,  potatoes,  rye,  barley, 
hemp,  flax,  cotton,  sorghum,  buckwheat,  hay, 
and  tobacco ;  whilst  orchard  products  are  grown 
in  great  abundance.  There  are  vast  numbers  of 
grazing  animals,  though  sheep  are  not  largely 
raised.  The  immense  quantities  of  dressed  beef 
and  pork  shipped  annually  are  constantly  increas- 
ing. The  mineral  resources  are  exceedingly  rich, 
comprising  coalfields  that  cover  more  than  20,000 
sq.  m. ;  also  vast  deposits  of  iron  ore,  lead,  and 
zinc  ;  while  copper,  cobalt,  nickel,  fireclays,  fine 
marble,  granite,  and  limestone  abound.  Excellent 
transportation  facilities  are  aff'orded  by  the  Missis- 
sippi River  along  the  eastern  border,  and  by  the 
Missouri  River  across  the  state;  and  the  railroads 
are  about  7000  miles  in  length.  The  metropolis 
of  Missouri  is  St  Louis.  Next  come  Kansas  City, 
St  Joseph,  Springfield,  Sedalia,  Hannibal,  Joplin, 
Moberly,  Carthage,  Nevada,  &c.  Pop.  (1820) 
20,845;  (1840)  140,455;  (1860)  1,182,012;  (1880) 
2,168,380;  (1900)  3,106,665.  Missouri  was  first 
explored  by  De  Soto  in  1541.  It  formed  part  of 
the  '  Louisiana  Purchase  '  (1803);  in  1821  Missouri 
was  adjnitted  into  the  Union,  but  the  present 
limits  of  the  state  were  not  established  till  1836. 

Missouri  River.    See  Mississippi. 

Mistassini  (Mistassee'nee),  Lake,  in  Labrador, 
100  miles  long  by  12  broad,  and  some  300  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Quebec,  is  an  expansion  of  the 
Rupert,  which  flows  into  Hudson  Bay. 

Mistretta,  a  town  of  Sicily,  near  the  north 
coast,  60  miles  ESE.  of  Palermo.    Pop.  12,235. 

Mitau  (Mitow'),  the  capital  of  the   Russian 


MITCHAM 


4?1 


MOHAVE  DESERT? 


government  of  Courland,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Aa,  27  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Riga.  Founded 
in  1271  by  the  Teutonic  Knights,  and  annexed 
to  Russia  in  1795,  it  has  a  castle,  begun  by  Biron 
in  1738,  and  a  museum.     Pop.  39,615. 

Mitcham,  a  village  of  Surrey,  8^  miles  by  rail 
SW.  of  Victoria  Station,  London,  lies  in  the 
centre  of  a  district  in  which  flowers  and  aromatic 
herbs  (roses,  lavender,  camomile,  &c.)  are  exten- 
sively grown.     Pop.  of  parish,  15,127. 

Mitchell,  capital  of  Davison  county.  South 
Dakota,  70  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Sioux  Falls,  has  a 
foundry  and  machine-shop,  flour-mills,  packing- 
house, &c.     Pop.  5000. 

Mitchelstown,  a  market-town  of  County  Cork, 
Ireland,  11  miles  N.  of  Ferinoy,  scene  of  a 
memorable  riot  in  1887 ;  7i  miles  NE.  there  are 
stalactite  caves.    Pop.  2100. 

MitO,  a  town  of  the  main  island  of  Japan,  near 
the  coast,  70  miles  NE.  of  Tokyo.    Pop.  33,800. 

Mitrovicza,  a  town  of  Austria-Hungary,  24 
miles  SSW.  of  Petervvardein.     Pop.  11,520. 

Mittweida  (Mit-vl'da),  a  town  of  Saxony,  11 
miles  by  rail  N.  by  B.  of  Chemnitz.    Pop.  16,120. 

Mitylene.    See  Lesbos. 

Moate,  a  Westmeath  market-town,  18  miles 
SW.  of  Mullingar.     Pop.  1280. 

Mobangl.    See  Congo. 

Moberly,  in  Missouri,  148  miles  WNW.  of  St 
Louis,  is  in  a  rich  coal  country.     Pop.  10,000. 

Mobile  (MobeeV),  the  principal  city  and  only 
seaport  of  Alabama,  is  situated  on  the  west  side 
of  Mobile  River,  and  at  the  head  of  Mobile  Bay, 
which  opens  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  is 
defended  by  Fort  Morgan.  It  is  141  miles  by 
rail  ENE.  of  New  Orleans,  and  is  built  with 
broad  shaded  streets  on  a  sandy  plain,  rising 
gradually  from  the  river.  It  has  a  line  custom- 
house and  post-office  (1859),  a  city-hall  and 
market-house  (1857),  a  R.  C.  cathedral,  a  medical 
college,  a  Jesuit  college,  &c.  Mobile  contains 
a  floating  dry-dock  and  shipyards,  foundries, 
cotton  and  cottonseed-oil  mills,  a  tannery,  a 
manufactory  of  chewing-gum,  cigar-factories,  &c. 
Before  the  war  the  chief  business  was  the  export 
of  cotton  ;  but  since  then  this  trade  has  greatly 
shrunk,  while  the  export  of  timber  has  increased. 
Settled  by  the  French  in  1702,  Mobile  was  a 
Spanish  town  until  1813,  and  still  shows  traces 
of  this  Latin  origin.  In  1879  the  city  limits  were 
curtailed.    Pop.  (1870)  32,034 ;  (1901)  38,469. 

Mocha  (usu.  Mokka),  a  decayed  seaport,  once 
the  capital  of  Yemen  in  Arabia,  on  the  Red  Sea, 
130  miles  WNW.  of  Aden.  From  early  in  the 
16th  c.  until  the  middle  of  the  17th,  Mocha  was 
the  port  whence  the  coffee  of  Yemen  ('Mocha 
coffee ')  was  principally  exported.    Pop.  5000. 

Modbury,  a  town  of  Devon,  12  miles  B.  of 
Plymouth.     Pop.  of  parish,  1206. 

Mod'ena  (anc.  Mutina),  capital  of  a  former 
duchy,  stands  on  a  broad  plain  in  northern 
Italy,  23  miles  by  rail  NW,  of  Bologna.  Pop. 
65,000.  The  ancient  Via  Emilia  divides  it  into 
the  old  and  new  city.  The  Romanesque  cathe- 
dral dates  from  1099,  and  has  a  fine  faQade ;  its 
campanile  is  one  of  the  great  towers  of  Italy. 
The  ducal  (now  royal)  palace,  a  picturesque 
structure  of  the  17tn  century,  contains  the  Este 
library  of  132,000  volumes  and  8000  MSS.,  the 
Este  archives,  collections  of  coins,  and  pictures 
by  Guido,  the  Carracci,  Guercino,  Correggio,  &c. 
Modena  possesses  besides  a  university  (1678), 
with  45  teachers  and  500  students.    The  chief 


manufactured  products  are  silk,  leather,  vinegar, 
and  cast  metals.  Originally  an  Etruscan  town, 
Modena  was  conquered  successively  by  the  Gauls 
and  the  Romans,  and  destroyed  by  Constantino 
the  Great,  the  Goths,  and  the  Longobards.  The 
Este  family  became  its  masters  in  1288,  in  1452 
became  dukes,  and  were  expelled  in  1860,  when 
the  duchy  was  incorporated  with  the  Kingdom 
of  Italy. 

Mod'ica,  an  inland  town  of  Sicily,  45  miles  SW. 
of  Syracuse.     Pop.  48,390. 

Moel  Famman,  a  hill  (1823  feet)  of  North 
Wales,  4  miles  W.  of  Mold. 

Moen,  a  Danish  island,  20  miles  long,  in  the' 
Baltic,  at  the  SE.  end  of  Zealand.     Pop.  15,000. 

Moeris  (MeeHs),  Lake,  the  ancient  Greek  name 
of  a  brackish  sheet  of  water  in  Egypt,  now  in 
the  province  of  Fayyftm  (q.v.),  50  miles  SW.  of 
Cairo ;  extreme  length  from  NE.  to  SW.,  35  miles. 
See  a  work  by  Major  Brown  (1893). 

Moero  (Meero),  or  Meru,  Lake,  lies  SW.  of 
Tanganyika  in  Central  Africa,  on  9°  S.  lat.  and 
29°  E.  long.,  and  is  traversed  by  the  Luapula. 
It  was  discovered  by  Livingstone  in  1868. 

Moesia  (Mezia),  an  ancient  Roman  province, 
divided  by  the  river  Cibrus  (Zibritza)  iiito  two 
parts,  the  eastern  corresponding  to  Bulgaria,  and 
the  western  (Moesia  Superior)  to  Servia. 

MoflFat,  a  pleasant  watering-place  and  burgh 
of  barony  (1635)  in  Upper  Annandale,  Dumfries- 
shire, 51  miles  SSW.  of  Edinburgh  by  road,  and 
64  by  a  short  branch  (1883)  of  the  Caledonian 
Railway.  It  lies  370  feet  above  sea-level,  engirt 
by  round  grassy  hills  (the  loftiest,  Hartfell,  2651 
feet),  and  in  the  midst  of  delightful  scenery, 
chief  features  of  which  are  'dark  Loch  Skene,' 
the  Grey  Mare's  Tail,  and  the  Devil's  Beef-tub. 
Its  mineral  springs,  the  principal  of  which,  like 
that  of  Harrogate,  is  saline  and  sulphurous,  have 
been  celebrated  since  1653  ;  and  its  visitors  have 
included  Home,  Hume,  Carlyle,  'Ossian  Mac- 
pherson,'  Boswell,  Blair,  Burns,  and  William 
Black.  Pop.  (1841)  1413  ;  (1901)  2153.  See  Turn- 
bull's  History  of  Moffat  (1871). 

Mogador',  or  SueYra,  a  seaport  130  miles 
WSW.  of  the  city  of  Morocco,  on  a  rocky  promon- 
tory opposite  a  small  island.  It  is  the  best 
built  town  in  the  empire,  having  been  laid  out 
in  1760  by  a  French  engineer.  The  exports  in- 
clude almonds,  olive-oil,  wool,  goat-skins,  hair, 
&c.  ;  the  imports  woollens,  cottons,  glass,  can- 
dles, and  hardware.  The  manufactures  are  brass 
trays,  daggers,  furniture  of  arar  wood,  woollen 
cloth,  &c.  Pop.  19,000,  of  whom  8000  are  Jews, 
and  200  Europeans. 

Mogileff.    See  Mohileff. 

Moguer  (Mo-gayr'),  a  small  port  of  Spain,  on 
the  Rio  Tinto,  near  its  mouth,  and  8  miles  E. 
of  Huelva.     Pop.  8714. 

Mohacs  (Mo'hatch),  a  town  of  Hungary,  on  the 
western  arm  of  the  Danube,  37  miles  by  rail  BSE. 
of  Fiinfkirchen.  Pop.  15,385.  Here,  on  29th 
August  1526,  Louis  II.  of  Hungary,  with  25,000 
Hungarians,  was  routed  by  200,000  Turks.  Here, 
too,  on  12th  August  1687,  the  Turks  in  their  turn 
were  defeated  by  an  Austro-Hungarian  army 
under  Charles  of  Lorraine.  These  two  battles 
marked  the  beginning  and  the  end  of  Turkish 
dominion  in  Hungary. 

Moham'merah,  a  town  of  Khuzistan,  Persia, 
on  the  Lower  Karun,  near  the  Turkish  frontier. 
Pop.  5000. 
Mohavo   Desert  (Mohah'veh),   a   basin,   with 


MOHER 


472 


MOMBASA 


little  water  or  vegetation,  chiefly  in  the  SE.  of 
California,  and  extending  into  Arizona.  The 
Mohave  River  rises  in  the  San  Bernardino  range, 
and  finally  disappears  in  the  Mohave  Sink. 

Moher,  Cliffs  of,  a  wall  of  rock  facing  the 
Atlantic,  on  the  coast  of  Clare,  20  miles  N\V.  of 
Ennis,  4  miles  long  and  from  440  to  660  feet  high. 
MoMleff,  or  Mogileff,  (1)  the  capital  of  a 
Russian  government  (area,  18,551  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
1,715,258),  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Dnieper, 
95  miles  SW.  of  Smolensk.  It  has  two  archi- 
episcopal  cathedrals,  Greek  (1780)  and  Roman 
Catholic  (1692),  an  old  castle,  and  a  town-house 
(1679).  Tanning  is  the  principal  industry.  Pop. 
44,500,  largely  Jews.  The  town  was  burned  down 
by  Peter  the  Great  for  strategical  reasons  in  1708. 
Here,  on  23d  July  1812,  the  French  under  Davout 
defeated  the  Russians  under  Bagration.— (2)  A 
town  of  Podolia,  Russia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Dniester,  190  miles  NW.  of  Odessa.  Pop.  18,421. 
Mohill,  a  town  of  counties  Leitrira  and  Long- 
ford, 5  miles  NE.  of  Dromod  station.  Pop.  790. 
Moidart,  a  coast-district,  SW.  Inverness-shire. 
Moissac  (Mwassak'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Tarn-et-Garonne,  on  the  Tarn,  111  miles  SE. 
of  Bordeaux.    Pop.  8241. 

Mola,  a  seaport  of  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic,  12 
miles  by  rail  SB.  of  Bari.  Pop.  14,070. 
Mola  di  Gaeta.  See  Formia. 
Mold,  a  town  of  Flintshire,  on  the  Alyn,  in  a 
rich  mineral  district,  14  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S. 
of  Chester.  Its  fine  15th-century  church,  rich 
in  stained  glass,  contains  the  grave  of  the  painter 
Wilson.  The  county  prison,  recently  built  at  a 
cost  of  £25,000,  was  sold  in  1880  for  £3500  to 
expelled  French  Jesuits,  who  renamed  it  St  Ger- 
manus'  House,  in  memory  of  the  Britons'  '  Alle- 
luia Victory'  over  the  Picts  and  Saxons.  With 
Flint,  &c.,  Mold  returns  one  member.  Pop.  4257. 
Moldau  (Moldow ;  Bohemian  Vltava),  the  chief 
river  of  Bohemia,  and  an  important  tributary  of 
the  Elbe,  rises  in  the  Bohmerwald  Mountains, 
on  the  south-west  frontier,  at  an  elevation  of 
3870  feet,  and  flows  278  miles  SE.  and  N.  past 
Budweis  and  Prague  to  the  Elbe  opposite  Melnik. 
Moldavia,  a  former  principality,  now  the 
northern  division  of  Roumania  (q.v.). 

Mole,  two  rivers  of  Devon  and  Surrey,  affluents 
of  the  Taw  and  the  Thames. 

Molfetta,  a  seaport  and  cathedral  city  of 
southern  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic,  16  miles  by  rail 
NW.  of  Bari.    Pop.  39,697. 

Moline  (Mo-leen'),  a  city  of  Illinois,  on  the 
Mississippi,  179  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Chicago, 
and  separated  from  Rock  Island  only  by  a  swift 
and  narrow  channel  affording  great  water-power 
to  many  busy  mills  and  factories.    Pop.  17,491. 

MoUendo  (Span.  Mo-yen'do),  a  port  of  Peru, 
lying  SW.  from  Lake  Titicaca.  It  has  railway 
connection  with  Puno  (107  miles),  and  thence  to 
Arequipa  (218).    Pop.  2500. 

Mollwltz  (Mol-veetz),  a  village  of  Prussian 
Silesia,  7  miles  W.  of  Brieg.  An  obelisk  (1878) 
marks  the  battlefield  where  Frederick  the  Great 
defeated  the  Austrians,  April  10,  1741. 

Molo'ga,  a  town  in  the  Russian  government  of 
Jaroslav,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Mologa  and 
Volga,  68  miles  WNW.  of  Jaroslav.  Pop.  6361.— 
The  river  Mologa  winds  337  miles  SE.  through 
Tver,  Novgorod,  and  Jaroslav  governments. 
Molokal.  See  Hawaii, 
Molton,  South.    See  South  Molton. 


Moluc'cas  (also  called  Spice  Islands),  the 
easternmost  division  of  the  Malay  Archipelago, 
comprising  most  of  the  islands  between  Celebes 
and  New  Guinea,  belonging  to  the  Dutch.  The 
northern  group  comprises  Morotai  (Morty)  and 
Rau  (Riao)  in  the  north,  Jilolo,  Ternate,  Tidor, 
&c.  in  the  centre,  Batchian  (Batjan),  Tawali, 
Mandioli,  and  Great  and  Little  Obi  in  the  south, 
with  a  total  area  of  nearly  10,000  sq.  m.  (of  which 
Jilolo  has  7000).  The  pop.  is  estimated  at  60,000, 
nearly  half  in  the  small  but  politically  important 
islands  of  Tidor  and  Ternate.  The  Southern 
Moluccas  comprise  the  two  large  islands  of  Buru 
(8500  sq.  m.) and  Ceram  (7000),  the  small  Amboyna, 
Uliasser,  Banda,  and  Ceram  Laut  sub-groups, 
the  outlying  Ke  and  Aru  clusters,  &c.,  with  a 
collective  area  of  16,500  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of 
350,000,  of  whom  200,000  are  in  Ceram,  60,000 
in  Buru,  and  30,000  in  Amboyna.  Thus  the 
Moluccas  have  a  total  area  of  over  26,000  sq.  m., 
and  a  pop.  of  some  400,000,  chiefly  civilised  Malays 
in  the  Little  Moluccas  (the  small  islands  west  of 
Jilolo),  Banda,  and  Amboyna,  elsewhere  '  Alfuros' 
(uncivilised  natives),  some  Indonesians,  Malays, 
and  Malayo-Papuans. 

The  Moluccas  lie  partly  on  the  line  of  the  great 
volcanic  fault,  which  sweeps  round  in  a  vast  curve 
from  Sumatra  to  the  Philippines  and  Japan,  and 
which  in  the  Moluccas  is  indicated  by  the  still 
active  volcanoes  Gunong-Api  (1870  feet)  in  Banda, 
Tidor  (5730),  Ternate  (5650),  Motir  (2800),  three 
cones  in  Jilolo,  Tolo  in  Morotai.  Despite  their 
tropical  position,  being  nearly  bisected  by  the 
equator,  the  Moluccas  enjoy  a  relatively  healthy 
climate,  and  in  some  places  the  European  race 
(Portuguese  and  Dutch)  has  even  been  acclima- 
tised. The  excessive  heats  are  everywhere  tem- 
pered by  sea-breezes  and  by  the  mountainous 
character  of  the  islands,  which  in  Buru  and 
Ceram  rise  to  heights  of  8000  and  even  10,000 
feet.  Indigenous  to  most  parts  of  this  region 
are  the  clove,  nutmeg,  and  other  spices,  allowed 
by  the  Dutch  to  be  cultivated  only  in  Amboyna 
and  the  Banda  group ;  also  the  sago-palm,  pan- 
danus,  dammar  pine,  and  cajeput.  Amongst 
animals  are  the  babiroussa,  the  bird  of  paradise, 
the  marsupial  cuscus  and  flying  opossum,  the 
cassowary,  the  mound-building  bird,  the  crimson 
lory,  and  many  gorgeous  parrots  and  pigeons. 

Notwithstanding  their  small  size,  Ternate  and 
Tidor  have  always  been  the  chief  centres  of 
political  power  in  the  northern,  and  Amboyna 
in  the  southern  Moluccas,  as  having  long  been 
occupied  by  civilised  Malays.  In  Ternate  is 
still  centred  most  of  the  trade  of  the  northern 
Moluccas,  which  export  spices,  tortoise-shell, 
trepang,  beeswax,  bark,  and  birds  of  paradise. 
Amboyna,  capital  of  all  the  Dutch  Moluccas, 
exports  cloves.  Banda  is  the  home  of  the  nut- 
meg, and  yields  sago  and  cocoa-nuts. 

See  A.  R.  Wallace,  The  Malay  Archipelago  (new 
ed.  1894);  Reclus,  Universal  Geography ;  Miiller's 
Reizen;  and  German  works  by  Bastian,  Von 
Rosenberg,  and  Bernstein. 

Mombas'a,  a  seaport  of  growing  importance 
and  capital  of  the  British  East  Africa  Protecto- 
rate, is  situated  on  a  small  coralline  island  3  miles 
long  by  2^  broad  close  to  the  coast,  150  miles  JN. 
of  Zanzibar.  It  was  held  by  the  Portuguese 
pretty  continuously  from  1505  to  1698 ;  was 
under  British  protection  in  1825-30,  and  then 
under  the  sultan  of  Zanzibar,  who  in  1888  ceded 
it  provisionally  to  the  British  East  Africa  Com- 
pany. They  were  made  definitive  masters  of  the 
place  two  years  later,  when  they  also  were  put 
iu  possession  of  a  vast  tract  of  country,  extend- 


MOMIEN 


473 


MONMOUTHSHIRE 


ing  400  miles  along  the  coast,  and  inland  up  to  the 
Victoria  Nyanza  (see  Ibea)  ;  but  in  1895  the  com- 
pany's territory  was  declared  a  British  protec- 
torate. Hence  in  1896-1902  a  railway  was  made  to 
the  Victoria  Nyanza,  a  distance  of  572  miles.  The 
harbour,  one  of  the  largest,  safest,  and  healthiest 
on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  was  in  1S90  made  a 
British  naval  coaling  station.  The  town  has 
been  largely  rebuilt ;  and  extensive  harbour- 
works  were  undertaken  in  1890.  Pop.  about 
20,000,  mostly  Africans,  with  some  Arabs  and 
Banyans.  On  the  mainland  opposite  is  Frere 
Town,  the  see  of  an  Anglican  bishop. 

Momien,  a  Chinese  frontier-town  in  the  extreme 
west  of  Yunnan,  135  miles  NE.  of  Bhamo. 

Mompox,  or  Mompos,  a  town  of  Bolivar  in 
Colombia,  on  the  Magdalena,  110  miles  SE.  of 
Cartagena.     It  was  founded  in  1538.    Pop.11,000. 

Mon'aco,  a  small  principality  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, 149  miles  ENE.  of  Marseilles,  and  9  from 
Nice.  Area,  S  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1873)  5741  ;  (1900) 
15,180,  of  whom  3292  were  in  tlie  town  of  Monaco, 
6218  in  Condamine,  and  3794  in  Monte  Carlo. 
The  territory,  which  is  encircled  by  the  French 
dep.  of  Alpes  Maritimes  and  the  sea,  consists 
mainly  of  the  rocky  promontory  on  which  the 
capital  is  built,  and  a  small  strip  of  coast.  The 
family  of  Grimaldi  acquired  Monaco  in  968, 
Mentone  and  Roquebrune  and  Castillon  about 
1230,  and  Antibes  in  1237.  Honore  II.  put  his 
country  under  a  French  protectorate  in  1644. 
In  1846  Mentone  and  Roquebrune  were  annexed 
by  Sardinia,  and  after  1859  the  whole  territory 
belonged  for  a  short  time  to  Victor  Emmanuel ; 
and  in  1861  the  lawful  owner  sold  Mentone  and 
Roquebrune  to  Napoleon  III.  for  4,000,000  francs. 
About  1000  of  the  inhabitants  are  employed  in 
the  rooms  and  gardens  of  the  celebrated  Casino. 
These  gambling-rooms,  built  at  Monte  Carlo  on 

f  round  leased  till  1913  from  the  Prince  of  Monaco, 
elong  to  a  joint-stock  company,  and  have  about 
400,000  visitors  annually.  The  climate  of  Monaco 
is  milder  than  that  of  any  other  place  in  the 
Riviera  ;  palms  and  aloes  grow  most  luxuriantly, 
and  rare  wild  flowers  are  found  on  its  rocky 
promontory.  See  Pejuberton's  Monaco,  Past  and 
Present  (1867),  and  French  works  by  Metivier 
(2d  ed.  1865)  and  Boyer  de  Sainte-Suzanne  (1884). 
Monadhliath  (usu.  Monalee'a),  Inverness-shire 
mountains  (3087  feet),  20  miles  W.  of  Kingussie. 

Monaghan  {Mon'ahan),  an  inland  county  of 
Ulster,  Ireland,  between  Tyrone  on  the  N.  and 
Meath  (in  Leinster)  on  the  S.  Its  greatest  length 
from  north  to  south  is  37  miles ;  the  total  area 
being  319,741  acres  (496  sq.  m.),  of  which  about 
140,000  are  under  tillage.  Pop.  (1841)  200,442; 
(1901)  74,611,  of  wliom  54,757  were  Catholics. 
The  general  surface  is  undulatory ;  the  highest 
point  is  1254  feet  above  the  sea.  Monaghan  is 
interspersed  with  lakelets,  and  has  many  small 
streams.  Limestone,  freestone,  and  slates  are 
worked.  The  flax  crop  has  greatly  increased  of 
late  years,  and  the  linen  manufacture  is  thriving. 
The  principal  towns  are  Monaghan,  Carrick- 
macross,  Clones,  and  Castle-Blayney.  There  are 
two  county  members.  Monaghan  possesses  two 
round  towers,  at  Clones  and  Inniskeen  ;  and  there 
are  several  raths  and  Danish  forts. 

Monaghan  (Gaelic  Muinechan,  '  Monkstown '), 
the  county  town,  is  76  miles  NNW.  of  Dublin  by 
rail.  It  returned  two  members  to  the  Irish 
parliament,  and  is  the  centre  of  some  trade  in 
agricultural  produce.  Pop.  (1861)  3910;  (1901) 
2932.  See  Evelyn  P.  Shirley's  History  of  the 
County  of  Monaghan  (1877-80). 


Monasterboice,  6  miles  NW.  of  Drogheda,  has 
a  round  tower  90  feet  high,  three  fine  Celtic 
crosses,  and  the  ruins  of  two  churches. 

Monastere'vIn,  a  Kildare  market-town,  37 
miles  SW.  of  Dublin.     Pop.  769. 

Monastir',  or  Bitoma  (anc.  Pelagonia),  a  town 
of  Turkish  Macedonia,  90  miles  NW.  of  Salonica. 
It  makes  carpets  and  filigree.     Pop.  45,000. 

Moncalieri  (Mon-lca-lyay'rcc),  a  town  of  Italy, 
on  the  Po,  5  miles  S.  of  Turin.    Pop.  11,560. 

Moncontour  (Mon^con^toor'),  a  village  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Vienne,  48  miles  SW.  of  Tours. 
Here  the  Huguenots  were  routed,  3d  Oct.  1569. 

Moncton,  a  New  Brunswick  town,  on  the  Petit- 
codiac,  89  miles  NE.  of  St  John.    Pop.  9500. 

Mon'dovi,  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy,  58  miles 
S.  of  Turin  by  rail.  Here,  on  22d  April  1796, 
Napoleon  routed  the  Sardinians.    Pop.  10,302. 

Moness,  Falls  of.    See  Aberfeldy. 

Moneymore,  a  market-town  of  Londonderry, 
4  Miles  NE.  of  Cookstown.     Pop.  517. 

Monghyr,  a  picturesque  city  of  Bengal,  on 
the  Ganges'  right  bank,  SO  miles  E.  by  S.  of 
Patna,  with  a  fort  on  a  rocky  crag.     Pop.  37,077. 

Mongolia,  the  country  of  the  Mongols,  a  term 
now  vaguely  applied  to  the  northern  portion  of 
the  Chinese  Empire. 

Moniaive  (Minniehive'),  a  Dumfriesshire  vil- 
lage, 16^  miles  NW.  of  Dumfries.    Pop.  530. 

Monk  Bretton,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  3i  miles 
NE.  of  Barnsley.     Pop.  4000. 

Monkland,  Old  and  New,  two  Lanarkshire 
parishes,  containing  Coatbridge  and  Airdrie. 

Monk  Soham,  a  Suffolk  parish,  5  miles  WNW. 
of  Framlingham. 

Monkwearmouth.    See  Sunderland. 

Monmoutli  (Mon'muth),  the  county  town  of 
Monmouthshire,  stands,  girt  by  wooded  hills,  at 
the  influx  of  the  Monnow  to  the  Wye,  16  miles 
N.  of  Chepstow,  18  S.  of  Hereford,  and  26  WSW. 
of  Gloucester.  Its  chief  features  are  the  ruined 
castle  of  John  of  Gaunt,  in  which  Henry  V.  was 
born ;  the  parish  church,  dating  from  the  14th 
century,  and  restored  in  1882  by  Street  at  a  cost 
of  £7000,  with  a  graceful  spire  200  feet  high  ;  the 
bridge  over  the  Monnow  (1272),  with  its  '  Welsh 
gate,'  and  near  it,  a  small  Norman  chapel ;  a 
fragment  of  a  Benedictine  priory,  with  '  Geoff"rey 
of  Monmouth's  study  ; '  the  new  town-hall,  built 
in  1888  at  a  cost  of  £10,000 ;  and  a  grammar- 
school  (1614).  In  the  neighbourhood  are  the 
temple-crowned  Kymin  (800  feet),  commanding  a 
glorious  view ;  the  Buckstone,  a  rocking-stone, 
displaced  by  tourists  in  1885,  but  since  re-poised ; 
and,  7  miles  SW.,  the  superb  ruins  of  Raglan 
Castle,  defended  for  ten  weeks  in  1646  against 
Fairfax  by  the  old  Marquis  of  Worcester.  First 
chartered  by  Edward  VI.,  Monmouth  unites  with 
Newport  and  Usk  to  return  a  member.  Pop. 
5070.  See  Charters  of  Monmouth  (1826),  and  works 
by  Heath  (1804)  and  Greene  (1870). 

Monmoutli,  capital  of  Warren  county,  Illinois, 
179  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Chicago,  is  the  seat 
of  Monmouth  College  (United  Presbyterian,  1856), 
with  400  students,  and  manufactures  farm  imple- 
ments, sewer  pipes,  and  cigars.    Pop.  7936. 

Monmouthshire,  a  county  in  the  west  of 
England,  bounded  by  Hereford,  Gloucester,  the 
estuary  of  the  Severn,  and  South  Wales.  With 
a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of  32  and  28 
miles,  it  contains  578  sq.  m.,  or  370,350  acres,  of 
which  more  than  one  half  is  under  permanent 


MONNOW 


474 


MONT  BLANC 


pasture,  and  about  one-twelfth  in  woods.  Pop. 
(1801)  45,582  ;  (1841)  134,368  ;  (1001)  292,317.  Its 
surface  is  for  the  most  part  hilly,  especially  in 
the  north  and  north-west  (the  Sugar  Loaf  is  1954 
feet  high),  but  the  Caldicotand  Wentloog  Levels, 
which  for  a  distance  of  25  miles  skirt  the  southern 
coast,  are  so  low  as  to  require  in  places  the  pro- 
tection of  sea-walls  and  earthworks.  The  Wye, 
with  its  tributary  the  Monnow,  the  Usk,  Ebwy, 
and  Rumney,  all  flowing  south  into  the  estuary 
of  the  Severn,  are  the  principal  rivers.  There 
are  extensive  orchards.  The  great  wealth  of 
Monmouth.shire  is  derived  from  its  niinerals,  coal 
and  ironstone  abounding  in  the  region  of  Ponty- 
pool  and  Rhymney.  The  county  comprises  six 
hundreds,  the  municipal  boroughs  of  Monmouth 
and  Newport,  and  147  civil  parishes.  Three 
members  are  returned  to  parliament  for  the 
county,  and  one  for  the  combined  borough  of 
Monmouth,  Newport,  and  Usk.  Towns  other 
than  the  above  are  Abergavenny,  Blaenavon, 
Caerleon,  Chepstow,  and  Tredegar.  Monmouth- 
shire, which  until  1535  formed  part  of  Wales,  and 
which  was  treated  as  such  in  the  Welsh  Disestab- 
lishment Bill  of  1894,  is  noted  for  its  beautiful 
scenery  and  for  the  many  remains  of  feudal  castles, 
&c.  scattered  throughout  it.  Of  these  the  finest 
examples  are  the  castles  of  Raglan,  Caldicot,  and 
Chepstow,  and  the  abbeys  of  Llanthony  and 
Tintern.  See  the  county  histories  by  Williams 
(1796)  and  Coxe  (1801). 

Monnow,  a  river  of  Hereford  and  Monmouth, 
flowing  28  miles  to  the  Wye  at  Monmouth. 

Monongahe'la,  a  river  rising  in  West  Virginia 
and  flowing  north  to  Pittsburgh,  where  it  unites 
with  the  Alleghany  to  form  the  Ohio. 

Mono'poli,  a  town  of  S.  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic, 
43  miles  by  rail  N  W.  of  Brindisi,  with  a  cathedral, 
and  ancient  walls  and  castle.     Pop.  23,154. 

Monreale  (Mon-re-ah'le),  a  city  of  Sicily,  5 
miles  SW.  of  Palermo.  On  its  'roj'^al  mount' 
(1231  feet  high)  stands  the  Norman  cathedral 
(1176),  with  its  mosaics.    Pop.  23,898. 

Monroe',  a  city  of  Michigan,  on  the  Raisin 
River,  2  miles  by  a  ship-canal  from  Lake  Erie, 
and  40  by  rail  SSW.  of  Detroit,  with  flour-mills, 
a  woollen-mill,  &c.     Pop.  5068. 

Monrovia.    See  Liberia, 

Mons  {MonPss;  Flem.  Berghen),  the  capital  of 
the  Belgian  province  of  Hainault,  on  the  Trouille, 
38  miles  SSW.  of  Brussels.  Its  fortifications  were 
demolished  in  1862  ;  but  the  country  around  can 
be  laid  under  water.  The  church  of  St  Waudru 
(1450-1580)  is  a  masterpiece  of  Gothic  ;  and  there 
are  a  town-hall  (1458),  a  belfry  (1662)  275  feet 
high,  a  good  library,  &c.  The  manufactures 
include  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  cutlery,  and 
sugar;  in  the  vicinity  is  an  extensive  coalfield. 
Pop.  (1875)  24,539  ;  (liWl)  27,015. 

Montagnana  {Mon-tan-yah'na),  a  town  of 
northern  Italy,  32  miles  SW.  of  Padua.    Pop.  8200. 

Montalcino  (Montalchee'no),  a  cathedral  city  of 
Italy,  on  a  hill  (1900  feet),  22  miles  SSE.  of 
Siena,     Pop,  3353. 

Montana  (Montah'mi),  one  of  the  north-western 
states  of  the  American  Union,  bounded  by  the 
Canadian  provinces  of  Alberta  and  Saskatchewan, 
North  and  South  Dakota,  Wyoming,  and  Idaho.  In 
area— 146,080  sq.  m.,  or  nearly  five  times  the  size 
of  Scotland— it  ranks  third  among  the  states  and 
territories,  but  in  population  only  forty-fourth. 
The  density  of  the  population  is  only  1.7  person 
per  square  mile.  The  Rocky  Mountains  occupy 
fully  one-fifth  of  the  surface,  in  the  south  and 


west ;  the  rest  of  the  state  is  made  up  of  valleys 
or  high,  rolling  prairies.  The  head-waters  of  the 
Columbia  and  Missouri  have  their  sources  in 
Montana.  The  mean  elevation  of  the  state  is 
about  3000  feet ;  the  highest  peaks  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  rise  to  10,000  or  12,000  feet.  The 
Yellowstone  National  Park  forms  part  of  the 
southern  boundary.  In  the  south-east  the  Bad 
Lands  extend  into  the  state  from  Wyoming. 
The  climate  is  mild,  and  the  atmosphere  remark- 
able for  its  clearness.  The  soil  contains  all  that 
is  needed  for  sustaining  vegetation,  but  it  is 
almost  valueless  without  irrigation  ;  with  that, 
however,  the  yield  of  grains  and  vegetables  is 
enormous.  Stock-raising,  however,  is  more  profit- 
able than  agriculture.  But  the  great  industry  is 
the  mining  and  reduction  of  gold,  silver,  lead, 
and  copper  ores.  The  first  systematic  working 
of  placer  mines  for  gold  commenced  in  1862  ;  in 
1863  the  first  gold-quartz  mill  was  built.  The 
portion  of  Montana  east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains 
was  part  of  the  Louisiana  Purchase  ;  that  to  the 
west  was  part  of  Oregon  and  Washington.  It 
was  first  visited  by  the  French  in  1742,  and  by 
Lewis  and  Clarke  in  1804-6  ;  these  were  followed 
by  fur-traders  and  trappers,  and  by  Jesuit  mission- 
aries. Gold  was  discovered  in  1861.  In  1864  the 
territory  was  organised,  and  in  1889  Montana 
became  a  state  of  the  Union.  The  chief  towns 
are  the  capital,  Helena,  and  Butte  City.  Pop. 
(1870)  20,595  ;  (1880)  39,159  ;  (1900)  243,329, 

Montargls  (Mon^tarzhee'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Loiret,  47  miles  E,  by  N.  of  Orleans,  with 
a  fine  church  (12th  century — 1868)  and  ruins  of 
a  vast  castle.  Here  in  1371  is  said  to  have 
occurred  the  famous  judicial  combat  between 
'  the  dog  of  Montargis '  and  Macaire  its  master's 
murderer.     Pop.  10,500, 

Montauban  (MovFtohon^),  the  capital  of  the 
French  dep.  of  Tarn-et-Garonne,  on  the  river 
Tarn,  31  miles  N,  of  Toulouse,  A  well-built, 
handsome  place,  it  has  a  modernised  brick  bridge 
(1335),  224  yards  long;  a  fine  cathedral  (1739)  in 
the  Italian  style ;  and  a  monument  (1871)  to 
Ingres,  the  painter,  a  native.  It  has  woollen 
manufactures,  and  trades  in  wine,  grain,  leather, 
&c,  Montauban  was  founded  in  1144,  became 
the  seat  of  a  bishop  in  1317,  embraced  the 
Reformation  in  1560,  and  acquired  historical 
celebrity  as  the  stronghold  of  the  Huguenots, 
vainly  besieged  for  three  months  in  1621,  Nearly 
half  the  inhabitants  still  are  Protestants,  and  it 
has  a  Protestant  college.  Pop.  (1872)  18,855; 
(1901)  24,979. 

Montl»eliard(Afoji*/>a2/?-j/ar';  Ger,  Mompelgard), 
a  town  in  the  French  dep,  of  Doubs,  48  miles 
NE,  of  BesauQon,  It  lies  in  a  valley  between 
the  Vosges  and  Jura  Mountains,  is  surmounted 
by  an  old  chateau  (now  a  prison),  and  manu- 
factures watch-springs,  watchmaking  tools,  and 
cotton,  A  possession  of  the  House  of  Wiirtem- 
berg  from  1397,  it  was  a  Protestant  centre  from 
1525,  was  formally  ceded  to  France  in  1801, 
and  suff'ered  much  in  the  Franco-German  war. 
Cuvier  was  a  native ;  there  is  a  statue  of  him, 
as  also  of  Denfert,  the  defender  of  Belfort,  Pop. 
(1872)  5865  ;  (1901)  9154,  mostly  Lutherans. 

Mont  Blanc  (Mon^  BloinF),  the  highest  mountain 
in  Europe  (if  we  regard  the  Caucasus  as  Asiatic), 
15,782  feet  above  sea-level,  is  situated  in  France, 
close  to  the  Italian  frontier,  40  miles  S.  of  the 
Lake  of  Geneva,  The  waters  which  spring  from 
its  western  slopes  are  drained  off"  to  the  Rhone, 
those  which  originate  on  the  east  side  to  the 
Po.    It  rises  into  several  sharp  peaks  (aiguilles) 


MONTBRISOIT 


476 


MONTEVIDEO 


and  forms  great  glaciers— the  Glacier  du  Geant, 
Mer  de  Glace,  &c.  la  1760  Saussure  oflFered  a 
prize  for  the  discovery  of  a  practicable  route  to 
the  summit,  which  was  gained  in  June  1786  by 
Balmat  and  Paccard,  guides.  There  is  an  obser- 
vatory (1890)  at  a  height  of  14,470  feet. 

Montbrison,  a  French  town  in  Loire,  35  miles 
SW.  of  Lyons,  with  mineral  wells.    Pop.  6880. 

Mont  Cenls  (Mon^  Saynee'),  or  Monte  Cenisio, 
an  Alpine  peak  (11,792  feet)  and  pass  (6884) 
between  Savoy  and  Piedmont.  Over  the  pass  a 
road  was  constructed  (1802-10)  by  Napoleon's 
orders,  at  an  expense  of  £300,000.  A  railway 
tunnel,  13  miles  W.  of  the  pass  and  7^  miles 
long,  was  begun  in  1857  on  the  Italian  side,  and 
in  1863  on  the  French,  and  was  finished  in  1870 
atacost  of  £3,000,000. 

Mont-de-Marsan  (Mon/'-de-Marson^),  capital  of 
the  French  dep.  of  Landes,  92  miles  by  rail  S.  of 
Bordeaux,  with  a  mineral  spring  and  manufac- 
tures of  chemicals,  iron,  &c.     Pop.  10,954. 

Mont-Dore-les-Bains  {MonP -dor4ay-Ban%  a  vil- 
lage of  Auvergne,  in  the  dep.  of  Puy  de  Dome, 
26  miles  SSW.  of  Clermont-Ferrand.  It  lies  3412 
feet  above  the  sea-level,  in  the  picturesque  valley 
of  the  Dordogne.  The  eight  mineral  springs 
(102M14°)  were  used  by  the  Romans.  The  resi- 
dent pop.  of  the  village  is  1339 ;  but  the  baths, 
which  are  every  year  becoming  better  known, 
are  thronged  during  the  short  season  (July  to 
September)  with  visitors  from  all  parts. 

Montebello  Casteggio  (Mon-tey-bello  Casted'jo), 
an  Italian  village,  14  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Pavia. 
The  Austrians  were  twice  defeated  here— by  the 
French  in  June  1800;  and  by  French  and  Pied- 
montese  in  May  1859. 

Monte  Carlo.    See  Monaco. 

Monte-Casslno  (Montey-Cassee'no),  the  monas- 
tery founded  (529)  by  St  Benedict,  stands  nobly 
on  beetling  cliffs,  70  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Naples 
and  92  SE.  of  Rome.     It  was  dissolved  in  1866. 

Monte  Oatini  (Montey  Catee'nee),  a  watering- 
place  of  Italy,  by  rail  30  miles  NW.  of  Florence. 
Its  saline  springs  range  between  82°  and  86°  F. 
The  season  lasts  from  May  to  September. 

Monte  Como.    See  Apennines. 

Monte  Cristo,  an  uninhabited  islet  of  granite 
off  the  Italican  coast,  26  miles  S.  of  Elba. 

MontegoBay,  a  northern  port  of  Jamaica  (q.  v.). 

Montelth.     See  Menteith. 

Montelima,r  (Mon^-tay-li-marr'),  a  French  town, 
85  miles  S.  of  Lyons.    Pop.  11,121. 

Montene'gro  (Italian  translation  of  the  native 
Czrnagora,  '  Black  Mountain '),  an  independent 
state  in  the  Balkan  Peninsula,  between  Herze- 
govina and  Albania,  about  80  miles  long  by  70 
broad.  Its  area  Avas  extended  in  1878  by  the 
addition  of  a  large  district  on  the  north,  a 
narrow  strip  on  its  east  side,  and  the  port  of 
Antivari  on  the  Adriatic,  and  again  in  1880 
by  the  addition  of  the  port  of  Dulcigno.  The 
area,  thus  extended,  is  3255  sq.  m.,  consider- 
ably less  than  half  the  size  of  Wales.  Beyond 
the  low  coastal  fringe,  which  has  a  climate  like 
that  of  the  south  of  France,  comes  a  rugged 
mountain-region  ranging  up  to  6500-8000  feet, 
not  in  a  series  of  chains,  but  in  a  confusing  maze 
of  peaks  and  gigantic  crags  and  blocks,  wild 
gorges  and  natural  caves,  the  bare  gray  crystal- 
line rock  being  everywhere  visible.  The  streams 
in  some  cases  have  underground  channels.  The 
centre  of  the  country  is  occupied  by  the  branch- 
ing valleys  of  the  rivers  Zeta  aiid  Moratcha, 


which  flow  south  into  Lake  Scutari.  East  and 
north  of  them  the  mountains  are  well  wooded, 
principally  with  beech  and  pine,  and  afford  good 
pasturage  to  sheep,  goats,  and  cattle.  The 
exports  consist  chiefly  of  cattle,  goats,  hides, 
smoked  fish  and  mutton,  cheese,  sumach,  fruits, 
and  wine ;  the  imports,  of  wheat,  gunpowder, 
hardware,  groceries,  cloth,  and  glass.  The  Monte- 
negrins, a  race  of  primitive  mountaineers,  are 
a  brave,  warlike,  and  simple  people,  noted  for 
their  honesty  and  their  chastity.  They  live  in 
small  stone  houses,  in  small  villages.  They 
belong  to  the  Servian  branch  of  the  Slavs, 
number  (1900)  228,000,  and  belong,  except  about 
10,000  Mohammedans  and  4000  Roman  Catholics, 
to  the  Greek  Orthodox  Church.  In  the  14th 
century  the  country  was  tributary  to  Servia ; 
but  maintained  its  independence  when  Servia 
was  subjugated  by  the  Turks  (1389).  From 
that  time  down  to  1880  the  Montenegrins  waged 
almost  incessant  war  with  the  Turks.  From 
1516  till  1851  the  little  state  was  governed  by 
ecclesiastical  princes,  but  the  civil  was  then 
separated  from  the  ecclesiastical  functions,  and 
the  throne  Avas  declared  hereditary.  The  prince 
is  an  absolute  sovereign ;  but  he  is  assisted  by 
a  state  council  and  a  ministry.  During  the 
last  quarter  of  the  19th  century  the  little  land 
has  progressed  greatly  in  civilisation ;  educa- 
tion has  made  rapid  strides,  the  men  have  taken 
to  cultivating  their  fields,  and  roads  have  been 
constructed ;  while  the  old  militia  has  been 
converted  into  a  standing  army  of  30,000  men, 
though  not  more  than  100  serve  permanently,  as 
a  bodyguard  to  the  prince.  The  village  of  Cetinje 
is  the  capital.  See  works  by  Denton  (1877),  Carr 
(1884),  Brown  (18SS),  Wyon  and  Prance  (1903). 

Montenotte  (Monteynot'teh),  a  village  of  north- 
ern Italy,  26  miles  W.  of  Genoa,  where  Napoleon 
won  his  first  victory  over  the  Austrians  in  1796. 

Montepulciano  (Mon-tey-pool-tchee-ah'no),  an 
episcopal  city  of  Italy,  on  a  high  hill,  43  miles 
by  rail  SE.  of  Siena.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Politian  and  Bellarmine,  and  is  famous  for  its 
red  wine.    Pop.  15,400. 

Montereau  (Mon'tero'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Seine-et-Marne,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Seine  and  Yonne,  49  miles  SE.  of  Paris.  Here 
in  1419  the  Duke  of  Burgundy  was  assassinated  ; 
and  near  this  Napoleon,  in  1814,  gained  his  last 
victory  over  the  allies.    Pop.  7479. 

Monterey  (Monteyray'),  a  cathedral  city,  670 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Mexico  City.  Founded  in 
1599,  it  was  taken  by  Taylor  in  1846.    Pop.  66,000. 

Monterey,  a  post-village  of  California,  capital 
of  California  when  it  was  a  Mexican  province,  on 
Monterey  Bay  of  the  Pacific,  94  miles  S.  by  E.  of 
San  Francisco  by  rail.     Pop.  2500. 

Monte  Rosa,  an  Alpine  mountain  mass  with 
four  principal  peaks,  in  the  Pennine  ridge  which 
separates  the  Swiss  canton  of  Valais  from  Italy. 
The  highest  peak,  the  Dufourspitze,  15,217  feet 
high,  was  first  climbed  by  Mr  Smyth  in  1855. 

Monte  Sanf  Angelo  (An'jelo),  a  city  of 
southern  Italy,  28  miles  NE.  of  Foggia,  and 
2790  feet  above  sea-level.     Pop.  25,109. 

Monte  Sarchio  (Sai-'keeo),  a  town  of  southern 
Italy,  13  miles  NW.  of  Avellino.     Pop.  5238. 

Montevideo  (usu.  Mon-tey-vid'e-o ;  Span.  pron. 
Monteyveeday'o),  the  capital  of  the  republic  of 
Uruguay,  is  situated  on  the  north  shore  of 
the  La  Plata  estuary,  125  miles  E.  by  S.  of 
Buenos  Ayres.  It  was  built  originally  on  a 
low  promontory  between  the  ocean  and  a  horse- 


MONTFERRAT 


476 


MONTPELLIER 


shoe-shaped  bay,  2  miles  across ;  but  its  exten- 
sive suburbs  now  stretch  far  into  the  flat  country 
behind,  and  have  crept  round  the  bay  to  the 
landmark  which  gives  the  city  its  name — the 
Cerro,  a  smooth,  isolated  cone,  505  feet  high, 
crowned  with  a  lighthouse  and  an  old  fort.  At 
its  base  there  are  nearly  a  score  of  great  saladeros, 
or  beef-salting  establishments,  where  200,000 
cattle  yearly  are  killed ;  and  here,  too,  is  the 
largest  of  the  city's  dry-docks.  High  above  the 
flat  house-roofs  rises  the  cathedral  (133  feet),  with 
two  side  towers  and  a  dome.  Other  buildings 
are  the  large  oi)era-house,  town-hall,  custom- 
house, exchange,  the  Cabildo  (law-courts  and 
parliament  house),  the  school  of  arts  and 
trades,  the  university,  museum,  the  English  and 
Basque  churches,  &c.  Tramcars  run  in  all  direc- 
tions ;  there  are  local  electric  lighting  and  tele- 
phone companies ;  and  water  is  brought  from  a 
distance  of  34  miles.  The  depth  of  water  in  the 
bay  ranges  from  9  to  15  feet,  and  vessels  of  heavy 
draught  are  compelled  to  anchor  in  the  exposed 
roadstead  outside ;  but  great  port  improve- 
ments were  begun  in  1901.  Pop.  (1877)  110,200 ; 
(1905)  208,000,  of  wliom  nearly  one-tliird  were 
foreigners.  A  fort  was  built  on  the  Cerro,  by 
the  Spaniards,  in  1717,  and  the  first  settlement 
of  the  town  made  in  1726  ;  in  1828  it  became  the 
capital  of  the  newly-formed  republic  of  Banda 
Oriental.    See  Uruguay. 

Montferrat  (Mon^ferrah%  formerly  an  inde- 
pendent marquisate  and  duchy  of  Italy,  between 
Piedmont,  Milan,  and  Genoa,  in  1631-1703  ac- 
quired by  the  Dukes  of  Savoy,  and  now  forming 
part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  It  consisted  of 
two  separate  portions,  both  lying  between  the 
Maritime  Alps  and  the  Po,  and  having  a  united 
area  of  over  1300  sq.  m.    The  capital  was  Casale. 

Montgomery  (Montgum'mery),  the  capital  of 
Alabama,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Alabama  River, 
400  miles  above  Mobile.  It  contains  a  fine  state- 
house  and  a  handsome  Masonic  hall,  and  has 
foundries,  flour-mills,  steam  cotton-gins,  a  cotton 
factory,  and  oil-works.  Several  railways  meet 
here,  and  an  active  trade  is  carried  on,  much 
cotton,  especially,  is  shipped.  Montgomery  was 
for  a  time  the  capital  of  the  Confederate  States. 
Pop.  (1880)  16,713  ;  (1900)  30,346. 

Montgomery,  a  town  of  the  Punjab,  in  the 
Multan  division,  midway  between  Lahore  and 
Multan.  It  was  named  in  1865  after  the  governor 
of  the  Punjab.    Pop.  5500. 

Montgomeryshire,  an  inland  county  of  North 
Wales,  40  miles  long  and  35  broad,  bounded  NB. 
and  NW.  by  the  counties  of  Denbigh,  Merioneth, 
Salop,  Radnor,  and  Cardigan.  Area,  773  sq.  m., 
or  495,089  acres,  of  which  more  than  one-third 
is  laid  down  in  permanent  pasture,  and  58,000 
acres  are  under  tillage.  Pop.  (1801)  47,978 ;  (1831) 
65,700 ;  (1881)  65,718  ;  (1901)  54,901.  The  surface 
is  for  the  most  part  barren,  and  in  places  moun- 
tainous, Plinlimmon  (2469  feet),  on  the  Cardigan 
border,  the  Berwyn  Mountains  in  the  NE.,  and 
the  Breidden  Hills— some  12  miles  E.  of  Shrews- 
bury—being the  principal  elevations  ;  but  to- 
wards the  English  border  it  consists  of  a  series 
of  fertile  and  well-wooded  valleys.  The  Severn, 
with  its  tributary  the  Vyrnwy  (q.v.),  and  the 
Dovey— alike  noted  for  their  fishing— are  the 
most  important  rivers,  whilst  Offa's  Dyke  (q.v.) 
traverses  the  south-east  corner  of  the  county. 
Of  manufactures,  that  of  Welsh  flannel  at  New- 
town is  the  most  extensive.  Tlie  county  com- 
prises nine  hundreds,  the  municipal  boroughs  of 
Llanfyllin,  Llanidloes,  Montgomery,  and  Welsh- 


pool, and  sixty-eight  parishes.  One  M.P.  is  re- 
turned for  the  county,  as  also  one  for  the  Mont- 
gomery district  of  boroughs — viz.  Llanfyllin, 
Llanidloes,  Machynlleth,  Montgomery,  Newtown, 
and  Welshpool. — The  county  town,  Montgomery, 
is  7  miles  S.  of  Welshpool,  and  was  iucorijorated 
in  1885.     Pop.  1038. 

Montilla  (Monteelya),  a  town  of  Spain,  28  miles 
SSE.  of  Cordova  by  rail.    Pop.  13,701. 

Montlviqon  (Mo ti^liisson"'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  AUier,  on  a  castle-crowned  hill  whose 
base  is  washed  by  the  Cher,  202  miles  S.  of 
Paris.  It  owes  its  rapid  growth  to  the  Com- 
mentry  coalfield,  and  has  ironworks  and  plate- 
glass  manufactories.  Pop.  (1872)  20,251 ;  (1901) 
34,042.— Neris-les-Bains,  18  miles  SE.,  is  the 
Neriomagios  of  the  Romans — of  whom  many 
traces  are  left — and  since  1821  has  again  risen 
into  repute  through  its  Avarm  alkaline  mineral 
waters  (126°  F.).    Pop.  2395. 

Montmartre.    See  Paris. 

Montmedy  (Mon^maydee'),  a  town  and  fortress 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Meuse,  25  miles  N.  of 
Verdun  and  31  SE.  of  Sedan,  lies  in  the  valley 
of  the  Chiers,  a  tributary  of  the  Meuse.  It 
long  was  part  of  the  Spanish  Netherlands,  was 
often  taken  and  retaken,  but  became  finally 
French  in  1659,  and  was  re-fortified  by  Vauban. 
It  was,  however,  captured  by  the  Germans  in 
1815  and  again  in  1870.     Pop.  2417. 

Montmorency,  a  river  of  Quebec,  a  tributary 
of  the  St  Lawrence,  famous  for  its  beautiful  falls, 
8  miles  NE.  of  Quebec.  Here  the  stream  is  100 
feet  wide,  and  falls  250  feet. 

Monto'ro,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  Guadal- 
quivir, 26  miles  ENE.  of  Cordova.    Pop.  11,935. 

Montpe'Uer,  the  capital  of  Vermont  since  1805, 
on  the  Winooski  or  Onion  River,  206  miles  by 
rail  NNW.  of  Boston.  It  contains  a  granite  state- 
house,  with  a  statue  of  Ethan  Allen.     Pop.  6260. 

Montpelller  (Mon^pel-yay'),  the  capital  of  the 
French  dep.  of  Herault,  on  the  Lez,  6  miles  from 
the  sea  and  31  SW.  of  Nimes.  Pop.  (1872)  54,466 ; 
(1901)69,193.  Lying  near  the  centre  of  Langue- 
doc,  on  the  great  route  from  Italy  and  Provence 
to  Spain,  with  its  seaport  at  a  point  offering 
the  shortest  land-route  not  only  to  all  parts  of 
Languedoc,  but  to  north  France,  Montpellier's 
position  was  a  highly  favourable  one  during  the 
middle  ages.  Its  schools  of  medicine,  law,  and 
arts  were  formally  constituted  a  university  by 
a  papal  bull  in  1289,  at  which  time  the  schools  of 
law  and  medicine  (the  latter  founded  by  Arabian 
physicians)  rivalled  those  of  Paris.  Among  its 
students  and  professors  have  been  Petrarch, 
Arnaud  de  Villeneuve,  Rabelais,  Rondelet  the 
anatomist,  Casaubon,  Lobel,  Clusius,  the  brothers 
Bauhin,  Magnol,  Tournefort,  the  elder  De  Jussieu, 
and  De  Candolle ;  Clarendon  also  and  Locke  were 
residents.  The  oldest  botanic  garden  in  France 
was  founded  here  in  1592,  and  De  Candolle  laid 
out  the  first  botanic  garden  upon  the  natural 
system  in  1810.  The  medical  school  also  has  had 
a  notable  history ;  and  in  1890  the  university 
celebrated  its  sexcentenary  and  was  reorganised. 
The  town  has  an  important  picture-gallery  and 
library.  A  centre  of  wine  production,  Mont- 
pelller suffered  greatly  by  the  phylloxera  ;  it  Avas 
here  that  the  cure  of  grafting  French  vines  upon 
American  stocks  was  earliest  applied.  Of  the 
mediaeval  town  little  remains,  its  fortifications 
and  most  of  its  buildings,  save  the  cathedral  and 
the  adjoining  bishop's  palace  (which  now  houses 
the  school  of  medicine),  having  been  destroyed 


MONTREAL 


4V7 


MOORFOOT  HILLS 


in  the  religious  wars,  in  the  Revolution,  or  by 
municipal  improvements.  The  chief  modern 
buildings  are  the  theatre  and  law-courts ;  but 
the  principal  glory  of  the  town  is  its  two  great 
terraces,  forming  public  promenades  overlooking 
the  undulating  country  away  to  the  Mediterran- 
ean, Cevennes,  Pyrenees,  and  Alps. 

Montreal  (Montreav)l' ;  Fr.  pron.  Mo-nF-tray- 
ahV),  the  largest  city  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
is  built  on  the  south-east  side  of  an  island  formed 
by  the  junction  of  the  Ottawa  River  with  the  St 
Lawrence,  and  may  be  said  to  be  situated  on 
the  northern  bank  of  the  St  Lawrence,  which  is 
spanned  here  by  the  tubular  Victoria  Railway 
Bridge  (1854-59),  nearly  If  mile  long,  the  rails 
being  60  feet  above  the  river's  level.  The  city 
is  about  4  miles  long  and  2  wide,  the  Central 
Mountain  in  the  rear  narrowing  the  city  at  its 
base.  It  is  not  the  official  capital  of  the  province 
of  Quebec,  but  it  exerts  an  immense  political  and 
commercial  influence,  and  is  also  the  seat  of  the 
greatest  universities,  hospitals,  convents,  and 
seminaries  in  all  Canada.  Finally  it  is  during 
the  season  of  navigation— i.e.  from  May  to  Nov- 
ember—the great  maritime  port  of  the  Dominion, 
headquarters  of  several  transatlantic  shipping 
companies,  irrespective  of  activelakeandrivcrand 
coast  navigation.  It  is  nearly  1000  miles  from 
Montreal  to  the  ocean  proper,  and  250  to  the  first 
salt  water.  Pop.  (1871)  107,225  ;  (1881)  140,747  ; 
(1901)  266,820  (with  suburbs,  323,221),  over  half 
being  of  French  descent.  The  growth  of  the  com- 
merce of  Montreal  is  very  remarkable,  having  more 
than  doubled  since  1870,  though  a  great  fire  in  1901 
caused  damage  to  the  amount  of  $4,000,000.  The 
1500  miles  of  the  St  Lawrence  River  contribute 
to  growth  of  exports,  and  distribute  largely  the 
growth  of  import.  The  canal  system  which  finds 
its  outlet  at  Montreal  is  remarkable,  the  canals 
affording  a  continuous  course  of  water-communi- 
cation extending  from  the  Straits  of  Belle  Isle 
to  Port  Arthur  at  the  head  of  Lake  Superior,  a 
distance  of  2260  miles.  Montreal  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway,  the  Can- 
adian Pacific  Railway  (to  Vancouver  City,  2906 
miles),  the  South-Eastern  Railway,  the  Central 
Vermont  Railway.  In  the  boot  and  shoe  manu- 
facture over  3000  hands  are  employed,  in  cloth- 
ing-factories over  2500,  in  tobacco-factories  3000, 
in  the  breweries  500 ;  and  in  the  railway-work- 
shops a  perfect  army  of  men.  There  are  also 
rubber-factories,  saw-mills,  sack-factories,  tool- 
factories,  silk- factories,  cotton-mills,  and  a  variety 
of  small  industries  protected  by  the  tariff. 

Of  the  Episcopal  churches,  Christ  Church 
Cathedral  has  a  tower  224  feet  in  height,  and 
St  George's  of  230  feet.  The  Catholic  churches 
are  numerous  and  some  of  them  splendid  :  St 
Peter's  Church  is  a  repetition  on  a  smaller  scale 
of  the  church  at  Rome ;  Notre  Dame  is  said  to 
hold  10,000  people ;  St  Patrick's  is  the  church 
of  the  Irish  Catholics.  M'Gill  University  (1821) 
has  been  active  since  1852.  Laval  University  of 
Quebec  has  a  branch  at  Montreal ;  the  seminary 
of  St  Sulpice  (1657)  is  a  theological  institution ; 
the  Presbyterian  College  was  chartered  in  1865 ; 
and  others  in  the  long  list  are  the  Wesleyan 
Theological  College  (1873),  the  Congregational 
College,  the  Anglican  Diocesan  College,  St  Mary's 
Jesuit  College  (1848),  the  Jacques  Cartier  Normal 
School,  &c.  The  Montreal  Gazette  (1778)  was, 
after  the  Quebec  Gazette  (1764),  the  first  paper 
published  in  Canada.  There  are  several  fine 
libraries,  and  musical,  art,  and  historical  asso- 
ciations also,  which  maintain  in  Montreal  a  taste 
for  art,  literature,  and  science  not  common  in 


colonial  commercial  cities.  Founded  as  Villa- 
Marie  de  Montreal  in  1642,  the  town  was  in  1760 
surrendered  by  the  French  to  the  British ;  in 
1776-77  it  was  occupied  by  invaders  from  the 
revolted  American  colonies. 

Montr eux  (Mon^truh'),  a  group  of  villages  on 
the  north  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  15  miles 
by  rail  SE.  of  Lausanne.  The  name  properly 
belongs  to  one  small  hamlet,  but  is  popularly 
extended  to  the  adjoining  villages  of  Clarens, 
Vernex,  Veytaux,  &c.,  with  a  pop.  of  8019.  The 
beauty  and  climate  of  'the  Swiss  Nice'  attract 
many  invalids.    Near  it  is  the  castle  of  Chillon. 

Montrose,  a  seaport  of  Forfarshire,  76  miles 
NNE.  of  Edinburgh  and  42  SSW.  of  Aberdeen. 
It  stands  on  a  level  peninsula  between  Montrose 
Basin  (a  tidal  loch,  measuring  2  by  If  miles, 
but  almost  dry  at  low- water)  and  the  mouth  of 
the  river  South  Esk.  A  fine  suspension  bridge 
(1829),  432  feet  long,  leads  to  Inchbrayock  or 
Rossie  Island,  in  the  Esk's  channel,  and  is  con- 
tinued thence  by  a  drawbridge ;  and  there  is 
also  a  railway  viaduct  (1883).  Montrose  has  a 
plain  town-hall  (1763-1819) ;  a  large  parish  church 
(1791-1834),  with  a  steeple  200  feet  high ;  an 
academy  (1820) ;  a  lunatic  asylum  (1868),  2  miles 
NNW.  ;  good  links  ;  and  a  wet-dock  (1840).  The 
foreign  trade— timber  its  staple— is  chiefly  with 
the  Baltic  and  Canada.  Flax-spinning  is  the 
principal  industry ;  and  ropes,  canvas,  soap,  &c. 
are  manufactured.  Montrose  was  the  birth- 
place of  Robert  Brown,  botanist ;  Joseph  Hume  ; 
Sir  Alexander  Burnes ;  and  George  Paul  Chalmers, 
R.S.A.  It  has  memories  of  Edward  I.,  the  two 
Melvilles,  the  Great  Marquis,  the  Old  Pretender, 
Dr  Johnson,  and  Lola  Montez.  A  royal  burgh 
since  1352  and  earlier,  it  unites  with  Arbroath, 
Brechin,  Forfar,  and  Bervie  to  return  one  member. 
Pop.  (1851)  15,238  ;  (1901)  12,472.  See  Mitchell's 
History  of  Montrose  (Montrose,  1866). 

Montserrat  (Mon'ser-ratf ;  Lat.  Mons  Serratus, 
so  named  from  its  saw-like,  fantastic  outline),  a 
mountain  of  Catalonia,  in  north-east  Spain,  30 
miles  NW.  of  Barcelona.  Its  height  is  4055  feet. 
The  mountain  owes  its  celebrity  to  the  Bene- 
dictine abbey  built  half-way  up,  with  its  wonder- 
working image  of  the  Virgin. 

Montserrat  (Mon-ser-ratf),  one  of  the  Lesser 
Antilles,  belonging  to  Britain,  lies  27  miles  SW. 
of  Antigua.  It  is  about  11  miles  in  length,  7  in 
breadth,  and  has  an  area  of  32  sq.  m.  Pop. 
between  12,000  and  13,000.  The  surface  is  moun- 
tainous (3000  feet),  and  heavily  timbered.  Sugar 
and  limes  and  lime-juice  are  produced.  The  island, 
discovered  in  1493,  was  colonised  by  the  British 
in  1632.  In  1664-68  and  1782-84,  it  was  held  by 
France.    The  chief  town  is  Plymouth  (pop.  1460). 

Mont  St  Michel.    See  St  Michel. 

Monza  (Montsa),  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the 
Lambro,  9  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Milan.  The 
ancient  capital  of  the  Lombard  sovereigns,  it  was, 
in  the  middle  ages,  in  spite  of  thirty-two  sieges, 
conspicuous  for  the  wealth  of  its  citizens  and 
nobles,  and  for  its  cloth-trade.  The  cathedral, 
founded  in  595  by  Theodelinda,  contains  many 
relics  of  this  great  queen.  The  famous  Iron 
Crown,  removed  to  Vienna  in  1859,  was  restored 
in  1866.  The  town  has  an  interesting  town-hall 
(1293),  a  royal  palace  (1777),  and  manufactures  of 
cottons,  hats,  leather,  &c.     Pop.  42,600. 

Mooltan.    See  Multan. 

Moorfoot  Hills,  a  range  in  Midlothian  and 
Peeblesshire,  culminating  in  Blackhope  Scar 
(2136  feet). 


MOORHOUSE 


478 


MOROCCO 


Moorhouse,  a  farm  3  miles  W.  of  Eaglesham, 
Renfrewshire,  was  birthplace  of  Robert  Pollok. 

Moorwinstow.    See  Morwenstow. 

Moradabad',  a  town  of  British  India,  on  the 
Ramganga,  100  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Delhi.  It  is 
noted  for  its  metal-work,  especially  brass  and  tin 
inlay.  Other  objects  of  industry  are  chintz  and 
cotton  cloth.     Pop.  75,500. 

Morano  (Morah'no),  a  city  of  southern  Italy, 
37  miles  NNW,  of  Cosenza.    Pop.  8259. 

Morar,  a  west  coast  district  of  Inverness-shire, 
with  Loch  Morar,  12  miles  long  and  2  wide. 

Morar.    See  Gwalior. 

Morat  (Morah' ;  Ger.  Murten),  a  town  in  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Freiburg,  12  miles  ESE.  of 
Neuchatel,  lies  on  the  Lake  of  Morat  (3^  by  2 
miles,  1428  feet  above  sea-level).  Here  in  1476 
the  Swiss  defeated  Charles  the  Bold.    Pop.  2364. 

Mora'va.    See  March  (river). 

Moravia  (Ger.  Mcihren),  a  crown-land  of  the 
Austrian  empire.  Area,  8579  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1870) 
2,017,274  ;  (1900)  2,437,706.  It  is  enclosed  on  all 
sides  by  mountains,  being  separated  from  Silesia 
by  the  Sudetes,  from  Bohemia  by  the  Moravian 
chain,  and  from  Hungary  by  the  Carpathians ; 
■while  branches  of  these  various  chains  intersect 
the  whole  country  except  in  the  south,  where 
there  are  extensive  plains.  The  March  or 
Morava,  from  which  the  country  derives  its 
name,  joins  the  Danube.  The  Oder,  which  rises 
among  the  mountains  on  the  north-east,  soon 
leaves  the  country.  Moravia  is  essentially  an 
agricultural  region.  The  mineral  products  are 
coal  and  iron,  with  some  graphite.  The  in- 
dustries include  the  manufacture  of  woollen, 
linen,  and  cotton  goods,  and  beet-root  sugar, 
silk-weaving,  lace-making,  iron-founding,  tan- 
ning, brewing,  distilling,  &c.  Brlinn  is  the 
capital,  and  another  chief  town  is  Olmiitz.  The 
majority  (95  per  cent.)  of  the  people  are  Catholics. 
By  nationality  71  per  cent,  are  Slavs  (Czechs  and 
Moravians)  and  28  per  cent.  Germans.  From 
1029  Moravia  was  associated  with  Bohemia,  and 
in  1526,  with  all  the  other  Bohemian  lands,  fell  to 
Austria.  In  1849  it  was  formally  separated  from 
Bohemia,  and  declared  a  distinct  crown-land. 

Moray  Firth,  an  indentation  of  the  German 
Ocean,  on  the  north-east  coast  of  Scotland, 
measuring  21  miles  across  its  entrance  from 
Tarbat  Ness,  in  Ross-shire,  to  Stotfield  Head, 
near  Lossiemouth  in  Elginshire,  and  39  miles 
thence  to  the  mouth  of  the  river  Beauly.  The 
name  is  applied  in  a  wider  sense  to  the  whole 
extent  of  sea  between  Kinnaird's  Head  in  Aber- 
deenshire and  Duncansbay  Head  in  Caithness. 
Moraysliire.  See  Elginshire. 
Morbihan  (MorheeovF'),  a  maritime  dep.  of 
France,  formed  out  of  ancient  Brittany,  with  the 
Atlantic  on  the  south  and  Finistere  on  the  west. 
Area,  2624  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1872)  490,352  ;  (1901) 
563,4(58.  It  is  divided  into  the  arrondissements 
of  Vannes,  L'Orient,  Ploermel,  and  Pontivy. 

More'a,  the  name  borne  since  the  middle  ages 
by  the  ancient  Peloponnesus,  or  southern  pen- 
insula of  Greece. 

Morecambe  Bay,  a  sea-inlet  of  Lancashire  and 
Westmorland,  measuring  10  miles  across  the  en- 
trance (from  Fleetwood  to  Walney),  and  18  miles 
thence  to  its  inmost  recess.— The  watering-place 
of  Morecambe,  3.^  miles  WNW.  of  Lancaster,  is 
a  rising  place,  with  good  sea-bathing,  a  pier, 
aquarium  and  gardens,  and  other  attractions. 
Pop.  12,300. 


Moreleigh,  or  Morley,  a  Devon  village,  5i 
miles  SSW.  of  Totnes. 

Morelia  {Moray'lia),  capital  of  the  Mexican 
state  of  Michoacan,  in  a  valley  6400  feet  above 
sea-level,  115  miles  (234  by  rail)  W.  by  N.  of 
Mexico  City.  It  has  a  cathedral,  and  manufac- 
tures of  cotton,  tobacco,  and  candles.  Morelia, 
which  from  1541  to  1828  was  called  Valladolid, 
was  the  birthplace  of  the  patriot  Morelos,  in 
whose  honour  the  name  was  changed,  and  of 
Iturbide,  emperor  of  Mexico.    Pop.  35,000. 

Morelia  {Morel' ya),  a  town  of  Spain,  80  miles 
N.  by  E,  of  Valencia.     Pop.  6661. 

Moresnet  (Moraynay'),  a  small  neutral  terri- 
tory between  Belgium  and  Prussia,  5  miles  SW. 
of  Aix-la-Chapelle.    Area,  70  acres  ;  pop.  3000. 

Moreton  Bay,  on  the  east  coast  of  Queensland, 
Australia,  is  formed  inside  the  islands  of  Moreton 
and  Stradbroke.  The  bay  is  40  miles  long  by  17 
broad ;  its  southern  half  is  dotted  with  islands 
and  sandbanks.  Brisbane  (q.v.)  is  on  one  of  the 
streams  falling  into  it. 

Moreton-Hampstead,  a  town  of  Devon,  12 
miles  WSW.  of  Exeter.    Pop.  of  parish,  1543. 

Moreton-in-the-Marsh,  a  market-town  of 
Gloucestershire,  6  miles  SE.  of  Chipping-Carap- 
den.     Pop.  of  parish,  1346. 

Morgan,  Mount.    See  Mount  Morgan. 

Mor'garten,  a  mountain  slope  on  the  east 
margin  of  Lake  Egeri,  in  the  Swiss  canton  of 
Zug.  Here  1400  men  of  the  Forest  Cantons 
routed  15,000  Austrians,  November  15,  1315. 

Morlah,  Mount.    See  Jerusalem. 

Morlalx  (Morlay),  a  picturesque  and  flourish- 
ing port  in  the  Breton  dep.  of  Finistere,  on  the 
tidal  Dossen,  6J  miles  from  the  sea  and  38  ENB. 
of  Brest.  It  has  many  quaint  timbered  houses, 
a  huge  railway  viaduct  207  feet  high,  and  manu- 
factures of  tobacco,  paper,  &c.  Moreau  was  a 
native,  and  so  probably  was  St  Bernard,  the 
author  of  'Jerusalem  the  Golden.'  Population 
about  15,000. 

Morley,  a  municipal  borough  in  the  West  Rid- 
ing of  Yorkshire,  5  miles  SW.  of  Leeds,  with 
woollen  manufactures,  coal-mines,  and  stone 
quarries.  Mentioned  in  Domesday,  it  became  a 
borough  only  in  1885,  and  had  its  boundary  ex- 
tended in  1891.     Pop.  (1851)  4821  ;  (1901)  23,636. 

Morningslde,  a  south  suburb  of  Edinburgh. 

Moroc'co,  or  Marocco  (Arab.  Maghreb-el-Aksa, 
'  the  farthest  west '),  is  an  empire  or  sultanate  in 
that  part  of  north-west  Africa  bounded  on  the 
E.  by  Algeria,  and  on  the  S.  by  Cape  Nun  and  the 
Wad  Draa,  though  both  here  and  on  the  Sahara 
side  of  the  Atlas  the  limits  of  the  empire  are  rather 
indeterminate.  It  contains  about  314,000  sq.  m., 
of  which  the  '  Tell,'  or  fertile  region  west  of  the 
Atlas  contains  78,000,  the  Steppes  or  flat  sterile 
upland  pastures  27,000,  and  the  Desert  or  Sahara 
209,000  sq.  m.  Politically,  Morocco  comprises  at 
present  the  old  kingdoms  of  Fez  and  Morocco 
and  the  territories  of  Talilet  (Tafilalet)  and  Sus ; 
but  the  latter  two  are  almost  independent,  recog- 
nising the  sultan  only  as  the  Prince  of  True 
Believers,  an  office  which  he  holds  as  the  most 
powerful  of  the  Shereefs  or  descendants  of  Mo- 
hammed. Many  of  the  Arab  and  most  of  the 
mountain  tribes  are  practically  independent. 
The  pop.  has  been  variously  estimated  at  from 
2,500,000  to  13,000,000— the  actual  number  being 
perhaps  between  three  and  four  millions.  Mor- 
occo is,  as  a  rule,  mountainous,  the  Atlas  (q.v.) 
traversing  it  in  several  chains  from  south-west  to 


MOROCCO 


4V9 


MOROCCO 


north-east,  and  by  various  spurs  both  to  the 
coast  country  and  to  the  desert.  There  are, 
however,  numerous  level  plains,  some  of  which 
are  of  great  extent,  and  very  rich.  There  are  also 
numerous  more  or  less  level  plateaus  similar  to 
those  of  Algeria.  Most  of  the  country  lias  been 
denuded  of  timber.  Consequently  the  country 
looks  bald,  with  its  rolling  liills  and  monotonous 
plains,  green  in  spring,  brown  during  sunnaer 
and  autumn.  Farther  south,  and  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Atlas,  where  long  droughts,  followed 
by  famines,  are  common  calamities,  and  the  rain- 
fall is  at  the  best  of  times  scanty  and  uncertain, 
sandy  wastes  are  the  prevailing  characteristic. 
In  western  Morocco,  though  the  soil  is  some- 
times thin,  actual  desert  is  rare. 

The  central  range  of  the  Atlas  forms  the  water- 
shed separating  the  streams  which  flow  into  the 
Atlantic  and  Mediterranean  from  those  which 
run  southward  toward  the  desert,  where  they 
are  often  lost  in  inarshy  'sinks.'  And  of  the 
streams  falling  into  the  Atlantic  and  Mediter- 
ranean, many  are  in  the  hot  season  or  after  long 
droughts  little  better  than  a  succession  of  pools 
connected  by  threads  of  water,  though  rolling  in 
brown  floods  from  bank  to  bank  during  the  wet 
season.  None  of  them  are  navigable  for  any 
distance.  The  climate  of  Morocco  varies  much, 
though  the  western  slope,  being  tempered  by  the 
sea-breezes  and  protected  from  the  hot  desert- 
winds  by  the  Atlas,  is  temperate,  the  ther- 
mometer seldom  falling  below  40"  or  rising  above 
90\  But  in  summer  the  interior  valleys  are  very 
hot,  and  in  winter  snow  often  falls  in  Fez  and 
Mequinez.  Farther  south  extremes  of  heat  and 
drought  are  more  common,  tliough  as  a  rule  the 
climate  is  equable,  and,  unless  in  swampy  places 
during  summer,  extremely  healthy.  In  the  Sus 
country  and  the  region  of  Tafilet  rain  is  scarce 
and  in  places  almost  unknown.  But  farther 
north,  and  on  the  Atlantic  and  Mediterranean 
slopes,  it  falls  with  tolerable  regularity  every 
year  between  October  and  April,  the  amount 
being  at  times  so  great  that  the  low  lands  are 
flooded  and  the  rivers  impassable.  The  Atlas 
is  capped  deep  with  snow  in  winter.  Morocco 
is  thus  fitted  for  growing  any  crops  of  the  tem- 
perate and  tropical  zones,  and  luider  a  better 
government  would  become,  as  Barbary  was  in 
Roman  times,  the  granary  of  Europe.  Wheat 
and  barley,  were  they  allowed  to  be  freely 
exported,  would  be  produced  in  immense  quan- 
tities. Maize  forms  the  chief  export  of  Mazagan. 
Various  gums,  oranges,  figs,  almonds,  lemons, 
and  dates  are  among  the  other  vegetable  pro- 
ducts, with  cotton,  hemp,  and  sugar.  Most 
European  fruits  grow  well.  The  exports  (maize, 
beans,  chick-peas,  olive-oil,  wool,  almonds,  dates, 
fowls,  eggs,  hides,  bones,  esparto,  cattle  to 
Gibraltar,  &c.)  amount  to  near  £1,600,000,  and 
the  imports  (cotton  goods,  cloth,  tea,  coffee, 
sugar,  candles,  hardware,  &c.)  to  £2,800,000, 
more  than  half  being  from  Great  Britain.  The 
interior  of  the  country  is  so  little  known  that 
little  can  be  said  with  certainty  regarding  its 
mineral  wealth.  But  enough  has  been  ascer- 
tained to  enable  us  to  assert  that  gold  (placer 
and  in  quartz),  silver,  copper,  tin,  argentiferous 
galena,  nickel,  antimony,  iron,  manganese,  and 
rock-salt  abound.  Coal  and  petroleum  have 
been  indicated.  But  these  mineral  deposits  are 
scarcely  touched,  and  no  European  is  allowed 
even  to  visit  the  mines.  The  flora  of  Morocco 
is  essentially  European  on  the  western  side  of 
the  Atlas.  The  fauna  partakes  of  a  similar 
character,  the  Barbary  fallow-deer,   wild  boar. 


Barbary  monkey  (found  also  in  Gibraltar),  a 
species  of  porcupine,  and  wild  cat  being  the 
most  characteristic  mammals;  the  lion  is  now 
very  rare  in  the  inhabited  parts  of  the  country. 
The  birds  and  fishes  are  those  of  southern  Europe ; 
of  the  forty  species  of  reptiles  and  amphibia 
known,  twenty-two  also  belong  to  Spain— facts 
pointing  to  a  time  when  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar 
did  not  divide  Europe  from  Africa.  Locusts 
often  devastate  the  country.  The  inhabitants 
consist  of  six  principal  groups— Berbers  or 
Kabyles  (Tuaregs,  &c.),  the  aborigines,  Arabs, 
Jews,  a  few  thousand  Spaniards,  Moors  (Arabs 
with  an  admixture  of  Spanish  blood,  living  in 
towns,  though  the  name  is  often  given  to  all'the 
Mohammedan  inhabitants),  and  Negroes. 

The  sultan,  who  is  the  last  independent  sove- 
reign in  the  Barbary  States,  is  one  of  the 
most  perfect  specimens  of  an  absolute  monarch 
existing ;  his  so-called  ministers  are  simply  the 
favourites  of  the  hour.  He  receives  the  entire 
revenue,  believed  to  be  about  £1,800,000  per 
annum,  and  spends  as  little  or  as  much  of  it  as 
he  pleases.  Every  office  is  directly  or  indirectly 
purchased,  small  salaries  or  none  are  paid,  the 
holders  recouping  themselves  by  plunder  and 
oppression.  All  justice  is  bought  and  sold. 
Yet,  owing  to  the  religious  fanaticism  of  the 
people,  and  the  mutual  jealousies  of  the  Euro- 
pean powers,  whose  representatives  reside  at 
Tangier,  the  political  equilibrium  is  preserved. 
Spain  has  a  fortress  at  Ceuta,  four  convict  settle- 
ments, and  a  fishing-station  at  Ifni.  The  Grand 
Shereef  of  Wazan,  as  the  nearest  descendant  of 
Mohammed,  governs  that  city  and  is  lord  para- 
mount of  a  large  territory.  Education  is  at  a 
low  ebb  ;  the  so-called  '  university '  of  Fez  is 
nowadays  merely  a  seminary  attached  to  the  chief 
mosque  for  the  training  of  religious  acolytes. 
There  are  no  roads  exCept  bridle-paths,  and  no 
wheeled  carriages  in  the  interior  except  the 
sultan's  state  coaches.  The  chief  industry  be- 
sides the  rude  agriculture  of  the  Berbers  and 
Arabs,  and  the  breeding  of  horses  and  mules,  is 
the  making  of  'morocco'  leather,  harness,  slip- 
pers, red  'Fez'  caps,  cloth  for  native  apparel, 
the  chiselling  of  brass  trays,  the  making  of  rough 
pottery  and  of  inlaid  flint-lock  muskets,  and  the 
weaving  of  carpets  (principally  in  Rabat).  The 
best  mechanics  and  the  jewellers  are  Jews.  The 
anny,  reorganised  under  European  officers,  has 
about  10,000  men,  drilled,  armed,  and  clothed 
after  an  approach  to  the  European  fashion,  the 
rest  being  mainly  undisciplined  native  levies. 
Altogether,  the  sultan  is  believed  to  be  able  to 
mobilise  upwards  of  100,000  men.  Morocco  is 
connected  with  Spain  by  telegraph,  and  the 
telephone  is  in  use  in  Tangier,  Casablanca,  and 
other  coast-towns.  The  posts  also  are  confined 
to  the  Europeans.  Morocco  has  three  capitals 
or  imperial  residences— Fez  (q.v.),  Makinas  or 
Mequinez  (q.v.),  and  Marakesch  or  the  City  of 
Morocco  (q.v.).  Beside  these  the  principal  coast- 
towns  are  Tangier,  Tetuan,  Larache  (El-Arish), 
Rabat,  Sallee,  Casablanca,  Mazagan,  Saffi,  and 
Mogador  (q.v.).  But  all  of  them  are  decaying, 
most  of  them  in  partial  ruins,  and  without  any 
exception  filthy,  nndrained,  and  insanitary. 

Part  of  Mauritania  under  the  Romans,  the 
country  fell  under  the  Vandals  in  429  a.d.,  but 
was  restored  to  the  Eastern  Empire  in  533.  In 
680  the  Arab  invasion  began,  and  with  little 
intermission  the  Arabs  have  ever  since  been 
possessors  of  the  country,  and  the  entire  popula- 
tion are  now  the  most  fanatical  adherents  of 
Mohammedanism.    At  first,  with  Spain,  part  of 


MORON 


480 


MOSCOW 


the  califate  of  Bagdad,  it  was  not  a  distinct  but 
united  kingdom  till  the  beginning  of  the  18th 
century.  It  is  still  very  backward,  and  a  passive 
resistance  is  offered  to  every  improvement ;  but 
though  Christian  slavery  has  been  abolished  and 
traders  liave,  nominally,  access  to  all  parts,  the 
interior  is  little  different  from  what  it  was  a 
thousand  years  ago,  and  many  cities  and  districts 
are  still  dangerous  or  inii)ossible  to  visit.  The 
slave-trade  is  as  brisk  as  ever.  The  unsettled 
condition  of  affairs  compelled  other  countries 
interested  to  come  to  an  understanding,  and  by 
the  Anglo-French  Convention  in  1904,  the  right 
of  France  to  promote  administrative  reforms  in 
Morocco  was  recognised.  A  difficulty  raised  by 
Germany  in  1905  was  referred  to  a  Conference  of 
the  Powers. 

The  city  of  Morocco  (Arab.  Marakesch),  the 
southern  capital  of  the  empire,  is  situated  between 
4  and  5  miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Tensift, 
at  the  northern  end  of  an  extensive  and  fertile 
plain  dotted  with  date-palms,  1447  feet  above 
the  sea,  about  three  and  a  half  days'  journey 
from  Mogador  and  Mazagan.  It  is  surrounded 
by  a  lime  and  earth  wall,  now  dilapidated,  more 
than  five  miles  in  circumference,  between  20 
and  30  feet  high,  flanked  at  regular  intervals  by 
square  towers.  The  town  is  squalid  and  ill-built, 
though  it  bears  the  marks  of  former  grandeur. 
A  large  portion  of  the  immense  space  within  the 
walls  is  occupied  by  ill-kept  gardens,  open  areas, 
and  market-places.  In  the  bazaar  and  merchants' 
quarter  a  considerable  local  trade  is  carried  on 
with  the  country-people,  the  mountaineers  from 
the  neighbouring  Atlas,  and  with  Sus,  Tafilet, 
Mazagan,  Saffi,  and  Mogador.  Morocco  possesses 
many  mosques,  one  of  which,  the  Kutubia,  has  a 
tower  after  the  model  of  the  Hassan  in  Rabat 
and  the  Giralda  in  Seville,  230  feet  high.  There 
are  several  tanning  and  leather-dyeing  establish- 
ments, though  of  late  years  European  goods  have 
been  gradually  displacing  native  manufactures. 
The  population  varies  according  to  the  presence 
or  absence  of  the  sultan,  his  court,  and  army. 
In  ordinary  times  it  does  not  exceed  60,000,  of 
whom  from  7000  to  8000  are  Jews,  living  in  a 
Ghetto.  No  Europeans  reside  permanently  in 
the  city.  On  the  south,  outside  the  walls,  stands 
the  imperial  palace,  an  irregular  conglomeration 
of  gardens  and  buildings  covering  about  ISO  acres. 
Morocco  was  founded  in  1072,  and  reached  the 
summit  of  its  prosperity  in  the  13th  century, 
when  it  is  said  to  have  had  700,000  inhabitants. 
Owing  to  its  excellent  situation  in  sight  of  the 
Atlas,  from  which  cool  streams  are  always  flowing, 
its  genial  healthy  climate,  and  its  command  of 
the  trade-routes  across  the  mountains,  Marakesch 
is  safe  to  have  a  great  future  when  Morocco 
knows  other  masters  than  the  Moors.  See  books 
by  Hooker  and  Ball  (1878),  Stutfield,  Tiiomson, 
Harris,  Cunninghame  Graham,  Meakin,  Beiisusan 
(1904)  ;  and  French  works  by  Chenier,  Godard, 
Renou,  Martiniere,  Montbard. 

Moron  (Moroan'),  a  Spanish  town,  on  the  Gua- 
daira,  32  miles  by  a  branch-line  SE.  of  Seville.  Its 
ruined  castle  was  once  impregnable.   Pop.  16,005. 

Mor'peth,  a  market-town  of  Northumberland, 
on  the  winding  Wansbeck,  16  miles  N.  of  New- 
castle. The  parish  church  dates  from  the  14th 
century ;  the  free  grammar-school  (1552)  was 
rebuilt  in  1859,  after  a  chancery  suit  lasting  150 
years.  The  town-hall  (restored  in  1870)  was 
erected  in  1714  by  Sir  John  Vanbrugh,  and  the 
county-hall  in  1818  at  a  cost  of  £80,000.  Morpeth 
has  flannel-factories,  breweries,  tanneries,  iron- 


foundries,  &c.,  with  neighbouring  collieries  and 
quarries.  From  1553  till  1832  it  returned  two 
members,  but  now  only  one ;  the  parliamentary 
borough  was  extended  in  1868.  Pop,  (1851) 
10,011  ;  (1901)  50,043,  of  whom  only  6158  were  in 
the  nuiiiicii)al  borough. 

Morrlstown,  capital  of  Morris  county,  New 
Jersey,  on  the  Whippany  River,  30  miles  by  rail 
W.  of  New  York.  It  has  ironworks  and  various 
mills  ;  3  miles  to  the  north  is  a  large  state  lunatic 
asylum.    Pop,  11,270, 

Morshansk,  a  town  of  Russia,  58  miles  N.  of 
Tamboff,  almost  wholly  burned  in  1874.  Pop. 
31,190, 

Mortimer's  Cross,  a  Herefordshire  village,  on 
the  Lugg,  5^  miles  NW,  of  Leominster,  Here, 
in  1460,  the  Yorkists  defeated  the  Lancastrians. 

Mortlake,  a  parish  of  Surrey,  on  the  south 
bank  of  the  Thames,  2  miles  ENE.  of  Richmond 
and  8  W.  by  S.  of  London.  From  1619  to  1703  it 
was  famous  for  tapestry  ;  now  malting  and  brew- 
ing are  the  industries.  It  is  also  a  great  boating- 
place,  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  race  being  rowed 
from  Putney  to  Mortlake.  It  has  associations 
with  Archbishops  Anselm  and  Cranmer,  the  astro- 
logers Dr  Dee  and  John  Partridge,  Cromwell,  Swift 
and  Stella,  Sir  Philip  Francis,  Sir  Richard  Owen, 
and  Sir  Richard  Burton.  Pop.  (1851)  3110  ;  (1901) 
7774.  See  John  E,  Anderson's  History  of  Mortlake 
(priv.  printed,  1888). 

Morvan  {Morvon%  Le,  a  barren  district  of 
France,  a  north-easterly  extension  of  the  central 
plateau,  is  mainly  in  the  dep.  of  Nievre. 

Morvern,  a  peninsula  of  north-west  Argyll- 
shire, between  Lochs  Sunart  and  Linnhe.  It  is 
the  '  Highland  parish '  of  Norman  Macleod, 

Morwenstow,  or  Moorwinstow,  a  parish  in 
the  extreme  north  of  the  Cornish  coast,  7  miles 
N.  of  Bude.  Its  church,  dedicated  to  St  Mor- 
wenna,  is  mainly  of  Norman  date  ;  R.  S.  Hawker 
was  its  vicar.    Pop.  704. 

Mos'cow,  formerly  the  capital  of  Russia,  and 
still  venerated  as  such  by  the  Russian  peasantry, 
stands  on  the  little  river  Moskwa,  a  sub-tributary 
of  the  Volga,  403  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  St  Peters- 
burg, 768  ENE.  of  Warsaw,  and  967  NNE.  of 
Odessa.  Its  centre  is  the  enclosure  called  the 
Kreml  or  Kremlin  ('Citadel'),  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls,  crowned  by  eighteen  towers 
and  pierced  by  five  gates.  This  enclosure  is  the 
most  sacred  spot  in  all  the  vast  Russian  empire. 
The  most  notable  of  the  religious  buildings  inside 
the  Kremlin  are  the  cathedral  of  the  Assumption 
(1326 ;  rebuilt  1475-79) ;  its  interior  is  encrusted 
with  mosaics  and  jewelled  ornaments,  adorned 
with  venerated  pictures,  and  sanctified  by  numer- 
ous relics ;  within  its  walls  the  early  czars  and 
all  the  Russian  metropolitans  and  patriarchs 
have  been  consecrated,  and  the  metropolitans 
buried.  In  the  cathedral  of  the  Archangel  (1333  ; 
restored  1505)  were  buried  the  Russian  czars 
down  to  the  brother  of  Peter  the  Great.  The 
cathedral  of  the  Annunciation  (1489;  rebuilt 
1554)  was  formerly  the  private  chapel  of  the 
czars.  There  are  numerous  churches  of  minor 
rank,  and  several  monasteries  ;  in  the  Voznesenski 
monastery  (1393)  the  czarinas  are  buried.  In  1600 
Boris  Godunoff  built  in  the  Kremlin  the  Ivan 
Veliki  tower,  270  feet  high,  the  summit  of  which 
commands  a  magnificent  view  of  Moscow,  with 
her  gilded  cupolas  and  fantastic  towers,  her  half 
Asiatic,  half  European  architecture.  Close  by, 
at  its  foot,  stands  the  gigantic  '  king  of  bells,'  19 
feet  high,  and  198  tons  in  weight ;  it  was  cast  in 


MOSELLE 


481 


MOUNT  EDGCUMBE 


165S,  but  cracke<l,  so  never  hnng.  Hero  are  also 
the  imperial  palace  (1849) ;  the  palace  built  in  the 
reign  of  Ivan  III. ;  the  new  palace  Orushenaya, 
which  serves  as  a  museum  of  Russian  antiquities  ; 
the  palace  of  the  patriarchs,  with  archisological 
treasures  and  rare  M8S.  ;  the  arsenal  (1701-3(3), 
before  which  is  the  trophy  of  1812,  a  pile  of  850 
French  cannon  ;  and  the  Hall  of  the  Synod,  with 
a  valuable  library.  Outside  the  Kreinl  the  chief 
objects  of  interest  are  the  colossal  '  Temple  of  the 
Saviour '  (1838-81),  a  building  commemorative  of 
1812  ;  the  cathedral  of  St  Basil  (1554),  a  '  night- 
mare in  stone,'  with  fantastic  towers ;  the  gigantic 
bazaar ;  the  historical  museum  ;  the  library  of  the 
synod  and  its  typographical  nuiseum ;  the  uni- 
versity (1755),  with  3350  students ;  the  public 
museum  (18G1),  containing  a  library  of  300,000 
vols,  and  5000  MSS.  ;  a  first-rate  ethnological 
museum ;  the  Golitzyn  Museum  (1865),  &c.  ;  an 
observatory ;  and  a  large  foundling  hospital  (1764). 

Next  to  St  Petersburg,  Moscow  is  the  busiest 
industrial  city  in  the  empire,  manufacturing 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  silks,  leather,  tobacco, 
candles,  metallic  articles,  machinery,  paper, 
chemicals,  bricks,  carriages,  pottery,  and  watches. 
Situated  nearly  in  the  centre  of  European  Russia, 
midway  between  the  Baltic,  the  Black  Sea,  and 
the  Caspian,  it  is  a  chief  meeting-place  of  Asiatic 
and  European  commerce.  An  eiiormous  trade  is 
done  in  grain,  timber,  furs,  hides,  tallow,  and 
cattle ;  in  the  mineral  products  of  the  Ural 
region ;  in  tea,  sugar,  and  other  groceries ;  in 
cottons,  silks,  and  woollens,  and  various  Unssian 
maimfactures.  Pop.  (1864)3(55,000;  (1905)1,100,000. 

Finnish  first,  it  became  Great  Russian  in  the 
12th  century.  In  1325  the  metropolitan  of  cen- 
tral Russia  moved  his  seat  here ;  the  Kremlin 
was  built  in  1300.  The  principality  of  Moscow 
continued  to  grow  in  area  and  in  political  in- 
flxience,  and  Ivan  III.  (1462-1505)  assumed  the 
title  Czar  of  all  Russia.  In  1713  Peter  the  Great 
founded  St  Petersburg  and  made  it  his  capital ; 
Moscow  suff'ered  greatly  from  fires  in  1739,  1748, 
and  1753  ;  and  the  cup  of  misfortune  was  filled 
to  the  brim  when  the  city  was  set  on  fire  and 
burned  in  1812,  according  to  the  traditional  belief 
the  patriotic  act  of  its  own  inhabitants  to  save  it 
from  Napoleon  and  the  French.— The  government 
of  Moscow  has  an  area  of  12,855  sq.  m.,  and  a 
pop.  of  about  2,500,000. 

Moselle  (MozeV ;  Ger.  Mo'sel),  a  left-hand 
aflluent  of  the  Rhine,  rises  in  the  SW.  of  the 
Vosges  Mountains  in  France,  at  an  elevation  of 
2412  feet.  Thence  it  winds  315  miles  NW.  and 
NB.,  past  Epinal,  Metz,  Thionville,  and  Treves,  as 
far  as  Toul,  through  Luxemburg  and  Rhenish 
Prussia,  till  it  falls  into  the  Rhine  at  Coblenz.  It 
is  navigable  to  Frouard,  214  miles.  Its  prin- 
cipal tributaries  are  the  Meurthe,  Seille,  and  Saar 
on  the  right,  and  the  Orne,  Sure,  and  Kyll  on 
the  left.    The  Moselle  wines  are  well  known. 

Moselle  was  formerly  a  frontier  department  in 
the  north-east  of  France,  but  the  greater  part  of 
it  was  taken  by  Germany  after  the  war  of  1870- 
71,  and  became  as  of  old  part  of  Lorraine.  The 
small  portion  left  to  France  was  joined  to  the 
dep.  of  Meurthe.    See  Meurthe-et-Moselle. 

Moskwa,  a  navigable  branch  of  the  Volga's 
tributary,  the  Oka,  rises  in  a  marsh  B.  of  Smolensk, 
and  has  a  course  of  305  miles,  passing  Moscow. 

Mosquito  Coast  (Mosl-ee'to),  British  from  1655 
till  1850,  is  now  an  eastern  section  of  Nicaragua 
(q.v.).  The  inhabitants,  of  Mosquito  Indian  and 
African  blood,  number  about  15,000.  The  chief 
town  is  Bluefields  (pop.  500). 

2e 


Mossame'des,  a  seaport  on  Little  Fish  Bay,  in 
Angola,  the  Portuguese  territory  on  the  West 
Coast  of  Africa.     Pop.  6000. 

Mossend',  a  Lanarkshire  mining  town,  4j  miles 
S.  by  E.  of  Coatbridge.  Population  above 
3500. 

Mossgiel  (Moss-geeV;  g  hard).     See  Mauchline. 

Mossley,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Lancashire, 
at  the  Yorkshire  and  Cheshire  boundary,  on  the 
Tame,  3  miles  NE.  of  Ashton-under-Lyne.  A 
municipal  borough  since  1885,  it  has  cotton  and 
woollen  mills,  and  foundries.    Pop.  13,162. 

Moss  Side,  a  southern  suburb  of  Manchester. 

Mostaganem',  a  coast-town  of  Algeria,  45* 
miles  NE.  of  Oran.  Once  a  place  of  40,000,  it 
decayed  utterly,  but  has  thriven  again  since  the 
French  took  possession  in  1833.    Pop.  17,768. 

Mos'tar,  the  chief  town  of  Herzegovina,  on  the 
Narenta,  27  miles  by  rail  NNB.  of  the  port  of 
Metkovich  and  84  SSW.  of  Sarajevo.  It  takes  its 
name  (=  '  old  bridge ')  from  a  so-called  Roman, 
but  really  Venetian  bridge  of  one  arch,  95  feet  in 
span,  has  numerous  mosques,  and  is  the  seat  of  a 
Roman  Catholic  and  a  Greek  bishop.    Pop.  14,655. 

Mosul  (MozooV),  a  decayed  town  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  in  Mesopotamia,  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Tigris,  opposite  the  ruins  of  Nineveh,  200 
miles  up  the  river  from  Bagdad.  Once  it  was  a 
very  prosperous  city,  with  much  industry — muslin 
takes  name  from  it ;  now  its  bazaars  are  filled 
with  the  manufactures  of  the  West,  and  almost 
the  only  export  is  gall-nuts.    Pop.  30,000. 

Motherwell,  a  town  of  Lanarkshire,  12  miles 
SB.  of  Glasgow.  Owing  its  rapid  growth  to  the 
amazing  extension  of  its  mineral  industries,  it 
has  a  good  water-supply  (1877),  nuinicii)al  build- 
ings (1887),  a  public  park  (1887),  large  iron  and 
steel  works,  &c.  Pop.  (1841)  726;  (1861)  2925; 
(1871)  6943  ;  (1881)  12,904  ;  (1901)  30,243. 

Motrll,  a  Spanish  town,  31  miles  S.  by  B.  of 
Granada,  and  3  miles  from  the  sea,  with  sugar 
and  cotton  works,  and  lead-mines.  Esparto  is 
exported.  The  port  is  Calahonda,  6^  miles  SB. 
Pop.  17,016. 

Moukden.    See  Mukden. 

Moulins  (Moolan^'),  capital  of  the  French  dep. 
of  AUier,  on  the  Allier,  here  crossed  by  a  bridge 
of  thirteen  arches,  lies  196  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of 
Paris  and  124  NW.  of  Lyons.  A  clean,  well-built 
town,  with  pretty  promenades,  it  has  a  cathedral 
(1468-1871),  the  choir  old  ;  a  square  tower  of  the 
castle  of  the  dukes  of  Bourbon  ;  and  a  15th- 
century  belfry.  Marshals  Villars  and  Berwick 
were  natives,  and  Clarendon  wrote  here  great 
part  of  his  History.  Nor  must  Sterne's  Maria 
be  forgotten.     Pop.  20,000. 

Moulmein.     See  Maulmain. 

Moulsay,  East  and  West,  two  Surrey  parishes 
on  the  Thames,  opposite  Hampton  Court,  and 
2^  and  3J  miles  WSW.  of  Kingston. 

Moultan.    See  Multan. 

Moultrie  (Moal'try),  Fort,  a  fortress  on  Sulli- 
van's Island,  at  the  mouth  of  Charleston  Har- 
bour, South  Carolina,  celebrated  for  the  repulse 
by  Colonel  Moultrie  of  a  British  squadron  in  1776. 

Mountain  Ash,  a  coal  and  iron  urban  district 
of  Glamorgan,  4  miles  NE.  of  Aberdare.  Pop. 
(1901)  31,093. 

Mount  Bischofif.    See  Bischoff. 

Mount  Carmel,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania, 
135  miles  NW.  of  Philadelphia.     Pop.  13,180. 

Mount  Edgcumbe,  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Mount 
Bdgcinube,  is  opposite  Plymouth, 


MOUNT  MELLERAY 


482 


MULHAUSEN 


Mount  Melleray,  a  monastery  of  Irish  Trappist 
monks  (1830),  on  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Knockmealdown  Mountams,  3J  miles  N.  of  Cappo- 
quin  in  County  Waterford. 

Mountmellick,  a  town  in  Queen's  County,  on 
the  Grand  Canal,  7  miles  N.  of  Maryborough  by 
rail.  It  manufactures  woollens,  tobacco,  leather, 
and  beer.     Pop.  2323. 

Mount  Morgan,  a  gold-mining  township  in 
Queensland,  28  miles  SSW.  of  Rockhampton, 
The  gold-mine  at  the  summit  of  the  mount, 
sold  for  £640  to  a  Copartnery,  including  the 
brothers  Morgan,  became  a  limited  liability  com- 
pany, with  a  capital  of  £1,000,000.     Pop.  9514. 

Mount  Pleasant,  a  town  of  Iowa,  U.S.,  235 
miles  SW.  of  Cliicago  by  rail,  has  a  pop.  of  4118. 

Mountrath,  a  market-town  of  Queen's  County, 
60  miles  SW.  of  Dublin.     Pop.  1350. 

Mount's  Bay.    See  St  Michael's  Mount. 

Mountsorrel,  a  town  of  Leicester.shire,  on  the 
Soar,  4  miles  SE.  of  Loughborough,  with  granite 
quarries  near.     Pop.  of  parish,  2200. 

Mount-Stuart.    See  Bute. 

Mount  Vernon,  residence  and  burial-place  of 
General  Washington,  is  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Potomac,  in  Virginia,  15  miles  below  Washington. 
It  is  national  property  since  1856. — It  has  given 
name  to  many  places  in  the  United  States,  one  of 
them  a  city,  capital  of  Knox  county,  Ohio,  on  the 
Vernon  River,  44  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Columbus, 
with  manufactories  of  doors  and  sashes,  furniture, 
machinery,  &c.  ;  pop.  6627.— Also  a  post-village, 
15  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  New  York,  on  the  Bronx 
River,  which,  with  adjoining  villages  of  the  same 
name  (East,  Central,  West),  lias  a  population  of 
22,500. — Mount  Vernon,  in  Indiana,  142  miles 
ESE.  of  St  Louis,  has  a  population  of  5150. 

Mourne  Mountains.    See  Down. 

Mourzouk.    See  Fezzan. 

Mousa,  a  Shetland  island,  11  miles  S.  by  W. 
of  Lerwick.  Here  is  a  very  perfect  '  broch,'  or 
dry-built  circular  tower,  42  feet  high,  with  walls 
15  feet  thick. 

Mousehole  (Mouz'l),  a  Cornish  village,  2  miles  S. 
of  Penzance.  Here  died  Dolly  Pentreath  (1686- 
1788),  the  last  speaker  of  Cornish. 

Moville,  a  seaside  resort  in  County  Donegal, 
on  Lough  Foyle,  19  miles  NNE.  of  Londonderry. 
Off  it  New  York  steamers  pause  for  the  tender 
with  and  for  mails.     Pop.  1217. 

Moy,  a  market-town  of  Tyrone,  on  the  Black- 
water,  6J  miles  N.  of  Armagh.     Pop.  484. 

Moydart.    See  Moidart. 

Mozambique  (Mozambeek'),  the  collective  name 
for  the  northern  section  of  Portuguese  East 
Africa,  extending  from  the  Rovuma  to  the 
Zambesi,  and  bordering  on  German  East  Africa, 
Lake  Tanganyika,  and  British  Central  Africa. 
The  coast-belt  is  low  and  swampy ;  but  the 
interior  rises  into  well-wooded  plateaus,  which 
furnish  valuable  timber.  The  soil  is  naturally 
fertile,  and  yields,  in  addition  to  maize,  rice, 
manioc,  &c.,  an  abundance  of  natural  products, 
such  as  cotton,  sesame,  cocoa-nut,  medicinal 
plants,  and  india-rubber,  but  very  little  is  done 
to  cultivate  them.  The  imports  are  cotton 
goods,  beads,  hardware,  arms  and  gunpowder, 
coals,  spirits,  and  provisions.  The  shipping  is 
mostly  (seven-tenths)  in  British  hands.  Cu.stoms 
duties  are  exceptionally  heavy  ;  agriculture  does 
not  flourish  ;  mining  is  little  prosecuted,  although 
the  country  is  rich  in  minerals ;  and  pearls  abound 


on  the  reefs.  The  pop.  of  the  province  is  esti- 
mated at  one  million. 

Mozambique,  the  capital,  stands  on  a  small 
coral  island  lying  close  to  the  mainland,  and  has 
a  fine  government  house,  a  cathedral,  an  arsenal, 
&c.  Pop.  7380,  of  whom  6800  are  natives,  280 
Banyans,  and  300  Europeans.  It  was  once  a 
centre  of  the  slave-trade ;  now  its  total  trade 
ranges  annually  between  £250,000  and  £320,000. 
— The  Mozambique  Channel  lies  between  Mada- 
gascar and  the  east  coast  of  Africa. 

Mozdok,  a  town  of  Russian  Caucasus,  on  the 
Terek,  58  miles  N.  of  Vladikavkaz.     Pop.  14,008. 

Mozuflferaugger.    See  Muzaffarnagar. 

Msket,  or  Mtsketha,  capital  of  the  old  Georgian 
kings,  now  little  more  than  a  village,  stands  on 
the  south  side  of  the  Caucasus,  10  miles  NNW.  of 
Tiflis.     Its  cathedral  dates  from  the  4th  century. 

Mtzensk,  a  town  of  Russia,  31  miles  by  rail 
NE.  of  Orel.     Pop.  15,067. 

Much  Wenlock.    See  Wenlock, 

Much  Woolton  (i.e.  'Great  Wool  ton'),  a  town 
of  Lancashire,  6  miles  SE.  of  Liverpool.  Near 
it  are  large  quarries.     Pop.  4745. 

Mudki  (Moodkee),  a  Punjab  village,  26  miles 
S.  of  the  Sutlej,  between  Firozpur  and  Karnal. 
Here,  in  1845,  Sir  Hugh  Gough  repulsed  the  Sikhs. 

Miihlberg,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the 
Elbe,  36  miles  SE.  of  Wittenberg.  Pop.  3441. 
Here,  on  24th  April  1547,  Charles  V.  defeated 
the  Elector  of  Saxony. 

Miihlhausen  {Miilhow'zen),  a  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  on  the  Unstrut,  25  miles  by  rail  NNW. 
of  Gotha.  An  imperial  free  city  in  the  13th 
century,  it  came  finally  to  Prussia  in  1815  ;  it 
has  manufactures  of  woollen  and  cotton  goods, 
hosiery,  &c.    Pop.  35,000. 

Muirkirk,  a  town  of  Ayrshire,  26  miles  E.  by 
N.  of  Ayr,  and  720  feet  above  sea-level.  It  is 
the  seat  of  great  ironworks  (1787).     Pop.  3929. 

Mukden,  or  Moukden,  capital  of  Manchuria, 
is  situated  in  the  southern  part  of  the  country, 
on  a  branch  of  the  river  Liao,  425  miles  NE. 
of  Peking.  The  Chinese  call  it  Shingking.  In 
1625  Nurhachu,  the  founder  of  the  present  Chinese 
dynasty,  made  it  his  capital.  It  was  the  scene  of 
severe  fighting  in  the  war  of  1904-5.  Good  coal 
exists  in  the  vicinity.  The  port  is  Newchwaiig 
(q.v.)    Pop.  250,000. 

Mukdishu.    See  Magadoxo. 

Mulgrave  Castle,  the  seat  of  the  Marquis  of 
Normandy,  in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
4  miles  W.  of  Whitby. 

Mulgrave  Islands,  a  name  given  to  some  of 
the  Marshall  Islands  (q.v.)  from  their  discoverer, 
the  navigator  Lord  Mulgrave  (1744-92). 

Mulhacen.     See  Sierra  Nevada. 

Miilhausen  (Miilhow'zen;  Fr.  Mulhouse),  a 
town  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  on  the  III  and  the 
Rhone  and  Rhine  Canal,  68  miles  by  rail  SSW. 
of  Strasburg  and  20  NW.  of  Basel.  It  is  a  place 
of  first-rate  industrial  importance.  The  cotton 
manufacture  employs  16,000  workpeople  in  the 
town  and  60,000  in  the  adjacent  villages.  Miil- 
hausen has  printing  and  dye  works  for  cotton, 
linen,  calico,  wool,  and  silk  fabrics,  chemical 
factories,  iron,  machinery,  and  other  metal  works, 
&c.  Pop.  (1821)  13,027;  (1861)  45,887;  (1900) 
89,118.  Miilhausen,  a  free  imperial  city  in  1273, 
joined  the  Swiss  Confederation  in  1515  ;  in  1798 
it  was  incorporated  with  France,  and  came  to 
the  front  as  an  industrial  place  after  1829 ;  and 
it  became  German  after  the  war  of  1870-71, 


MULHEIM 


483 


MUNICH 


r 


Miilhelm  (Mi'd'hime),  a  manufacturing  town  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Rulir,  16  miles  N.  of 
Biisseldorf,  with  ironworks  and  a  trade  in  coal. 
Top.  witli  suburbs,  81,000.— Mulhkim-am-Rhein, 
3  miles  above  Cologne,  manufactures  silk, 
velvet,  thread,  leather,  &c.  Population  over 
47,000. 

Mull,  an  Argyllshire  island,  the  largest  of  the 
Hebrides  after  Lewis  and  Skye,  is  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  the  Sound  of  Mull  (19  miles  long 
and  1^  to  3^  miles  wide),  and  is  engirt  by  a  num- 
ber of  smaller  islands— Gometra,  Ulva,  Staffa, 
lona,  &c.  It  is  347  sq,  m.  in  area,  and  has  a 
maximum  length  and  breadth  of  30  and  29  miles, 
but  is  so  deeply  indented,  especially  towards  the 
Atlantic,  by  a  dozen  sea-lochs  and  bays— the 
chief,  Loch-na-Keal  and  Loch  Scridain— that  the 
coast-line  cannot  be  less  tlian  300  miles.  Ben- 
more  (3185  feet)  is  the  loftiest  summit,  Bentalloch 
the  most  beautiful,  where  there  is  much  that  is 
beautiful— these  misty  heights,  the  stretching 
moors,  the  sea-cliffs  at  Carsaig,  the  terraced 
basaltic  plateaus,  the  glens,  streams,  and  lakes, 
and  the  patches  of  wood  and  green  pasture.  The 
climate  is  good  for  the  Highlands,  and  the  soil  of 
fair  fertility,  but  grazing  answers  much  better 
than  corn-crops.  Tobermory,  in  the  north,  28 
miles  WNW.  of  Oban,  is  the  only  town.  It  was 
founded  in  1788  at  the  head  of  its  sheltered  har- 
bour, and  has  a  pier  (1864),  a  telegraph,  a  new 
water-supply  (1882),  and  1174  inhabitants.  Aros 
and  Duart  Castles  are  interesting  ruins ;  and 
Mackinnon's  Cave  was  pronounced  by  Dr  John- 
son '  the  greatest  natural  curiosity  he  had  ever 
seen.'  Pop.  (1851)  7485;  (1901)  4334,  of  whom 
3060  were  Gaelic-speaking.  See  Galloway  (Mull 
of),  Kintyre. 

Mulllngar',  the  chief  town  of  Westmeath,  50 
miles  WNW.  of  Dublin  by  rail,  on  the  Royal 
Canal  and  the  river  Brosna.  It  is  a  trading  town, 
has  infantry  barracks,  and  is  a  centre  for  anglers. 
Pop.  4500. 

Multan  (Mooltan),  an  ancient  city  of  India,  in 
the  Punjab,  4  miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the 
Chenab,  surrounded  except  on  the  south  by  a 
wall  10  to  20  feet  high.  The  European  quarter 
lies  to  the  north  and  west  of  the  city,  whilst  to 
the  south  is  the  citadel,  which  contains  two 
Mohammedan  shrines,  the  ruins  of  an  ancient 
Hindu  temple,  and  a  massive  obelisk  (70  feet)  to 
the  memory  of  Vans  Agnew  and  Anderson,  mur- 
dered here  in  1848.  The  vicinity  abounds  in 
mosques,  tombs,  shrines,  &c.  It  has  much  trade, 
and  manufactures  silks,  cottons,  carpets,  glazed 
pottery,  and  enamel  work.  In  1849  it  was  taken 
and  annexed.     Pop.  88,500. 

Mumbles,  a  lighthouse  at  the  west  extremity 
of  Swansea  Bay. 

Mtinchen.    See  Munich. 

Muncie,  capital  of  Delaware  county,  Indiana, 
54  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  Indianapolis,  is  a  rail- 
way junction,  and  manufactures  furniture,  cast- 
ings, &c.    Pop.  22,500. 

Miinden,  a  town  of  Hanover,  at  the  influx  of 
the  Werra  and  Fulda  to  the  Weser,  15  miles  NE. 
of  Cassel.  Girt  by  wooded  hills,  it  has  a  school 
of  forestry  (1868),  and  manufactures  india-rubber, 
glass,  sugar,  &c.     Pop.  9553.    See  IMinden. 

Munich  (Ger.  Miinclien),  the  capital  of  Bavaria, 
in  a  barren  plain,  1700  feet  above  sea-level,  chiefly 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  impetuous  Isar,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Danube.  By  rail  it  is  440  miles  SSW. 
of  Berlin,  272  W,  of  Vienna,  and  867  SE.  of 
London.    The  elevated  site  and  the  nearness  of 


the  Alps  render  the  city  liable  to  sudden  changes 
of  temperature,  sometimes  ranging  over  20°  in 
twenty-four  hours.  Pop.  (1801)  48,885  ;  (1880) 
230,023;  (1900)  499,959,  Of  whom  84  per  cent,  were 
Catholics.  Munich  is  one  of  the  handsomest  cities 
in  Germany,  and  the  richest  in  art-treasures,  while 
itself  famous  for  its  school  of  painting.  Especi- 
ally under  Louis  I.  (1825-48),  who  spent£l,000,000 
in  beautifying  the  city,  it  was  decorated  with 
buildings  of  almost  every  .style  of  architecture  ; 
wide  and  handsome  streets  have  been  con- 
structed ;  and  the  squares  and  gardens  adorned 
with  statues  and  other  monuments.  Among  thp 
imposing  edifices  are  the  Glyptothek  (1816-80), 
with  its  magnificent  collection  of  ancient  and 
modern  sculpture,  including  the  famous  ^gine- 
tan  marbles ;  the  Old  Pinakothek  (1826-36),  con- 
taining paintings  by  the  old  masters,  besides 
engravings,  drawings,  and  antique  vases;  the 
New  Pinakothek  (1846-53),  devoted  to  the  works 
of  modern  painters;  the  Royal  and  National 
Library,  with  over  1,400,000  volumes  and  30,000 
MSS.  ;  and  the  Bavarian  National  Museum.  The 
New  Palace  includes  an  older  palace  and  chapel, 
the  Konigsbau  (1826-35),  in  the  style  of  the  Pitti 
Palace  at  Florence,  with  Schnorr's  frescoes  of  the 
Nibelungenlied,  and  the  sumptuous  Banqueting 
Hall.  Other  public  structures  are  the  Court 
Theatre ;  the  old  and  the  new  town-house ;  the 
Temple  of  Fame,  a  Doric  colonnaded  building 
containing  busts  of  illustrious  Bavarians,  in  front 
of  which  rises  the  colossal  statue  of  Bavaria,  65 
feet  high  ;  the  Generals'  Portico  (1844),  a  copy  of 
the  Loggia  dei  Lanzi  at  Florence  ;  and  the  Maxi- 
milianeum,  on  its  terrace  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Isar,  a  college  for  civil  servants.  The 
Gate  of  Victory  was  designed  after  Con- 
stantine's  triumphal  arch  in  the  Forum;  the 
old  Isar  gate  has  elaborate  frescoes ;  and  the 
Propylaea  (1862)  commemorates  the  Greek  war  of 
independence.  The  oldest  church  is  St  Peter's 
(1294).  The  huge  brick  cathedral  of  Our  Lady 
(1468-88)  is  remarkable  for  its  two  unfinished 
towers  (325  feet),  now  capped  with  cupolas  ;  in 
the  interior  is  the  elaborate  tomb  of  the  Emperor 
Louis  the  Bavarian.  St  Michael's,  or  the  Jesuits' 
church  (1583-91),  contains  a  monument  by  Thor- 
waldsen  to  Eugene  Beauharnais ;  the  Theatine 
Church  (1767)  contains  the  royal  burial-vault ; 
the  Louis  Church  (1830-44)  is  embellished  with 
Cornelius'  fresco  of  the  '  La.st  Judgment ; '  the 
beautiful  church  of  Mariahilf  (1831-39)  is  noted 
for  its  gorgeous  painted  glass  and  fine  wood- 
carvings  ;  and  the  basilica  of  St  Boniface  (1835- 
50)  for  its  sixty-six  monoliths  of  gray  Tyrolese 
marble  and  resplendent  interior  decoration.  The 
Court  Chapel  is  a  perfect  casket  of  art-treasures. 
The  university,  removed  from  Landshut  to 
Munich  in  1826,  has  200  professors  and  teachers, 
and  some  4100  students;  its  library  contains 
over  400,000  volumes.  Munich's  stained-glass 
Avorks,  iron,  brass,  and  bell  foundries,  litho- 
graphing and  engraving  works,  and  manufac- 
tories of  optical  and  mathematical  instruments, 
and  various  artistic  articles  are  deservedly 
noted.  Still  more  famous  are  the  enormous 
breweries  of  Bavarian  beer,  which  annually  pro- 
duce about  50,000,000  gallons,  of  which  37,000,000 
are  consumed  in  the  city  itself. 

In  1158  Henry  the  Lion  established  here  a 
mint  and  a  salt-emporium.  In  the  13th  century 
the  dukes  of  the  Wittelsbach  dynasty  selected 
Munich  for  their  residence  and  fortified  the  town. 
In  1327  it  was  nearly  destroyed  by  fire,  and  was 
rebuilt  by  the  Emperor  Louis  the  Bavarian  ;  and 
when  the  fortifications  were  razed  at  the  close  of 


MUNKACS 


484 


MUSSELBURGH 


the  18th  centiiry,  the  limits  of  the  town  were 
enlarged.  Identified  with  Munich  are  Klenze  and 
Gartner  the  architects,  Schwanthaler  the  sculp- 
tor, and  Cornelius,  Kaulbach,  Piloty,  and  Diez, 
the  painters.  See  Mrs  Howitt-Watts'  Art-student 
in  Munich  (2d  ed.  1879). 

Munkacs,  a  market-town  of  Hungary,  at  the 
foot  of  the  Carpathians,  101  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Debreczin,  has  mines  of  iron  and  rock-crystals, 
called  Hungarian  diamonds.  The  citadel,  on  a 
height,  is  now  a  state-prison.    Pop.  14,500. 

Munnipore.    See  Manipur. 

Munster,  the  south-west  and  largest  of  the 
four  provinces  of  Ireland.  It  contains  the  six 
counties  of  Clare,  Cork,  Kerry,  Limerick,  Tip- 
perary,  and  Waterford.  Area,  6,064,579  statute 
acres.  Pop.  (1841)  2,39r),161 ;  (1861)  1,513,558; 
(1901)  1,076,188  (1,007,876  Catholics). 

Miinster,  capital  of  Westphalia,  101  miles  by 
rail  N.  by  E.  of  Cologne  and  106  SSW.  of  Bremen. 
It  retains  numerous  remains  of  mediseval  arclii- 
tecture,  including  the  mixed  Romanesque  and 
Gothic  cathedral  (12th-l 4th  c);  the  Gothic  town- 
hall,  in  which,  in  1648,  the  peace  of  Westphalia 
was  signed ;  the  castle,  built  in  1767,  and  sur- 
rounded by  fine  pleasure-grounds ;  and  the 
16th-century  town  wine-cellar,  with  its  old  pic- 
tures. The  Catholic  university  of  Miinster  was 
dissolved  in  1818  ;  there  is  now  an  academy,  with 
a  Catholic  theological  and  a  philosophical  faculty, 
about  470  pupils,  and  a  library  of  123,000  volumes. 
The  industrial  products  include  woollen,  cotton, 
and  silk  fabrics,  and  paper,  besides  dyeing,  print- 
ing, and  enamelling.  Pop.  (1875)  35,705;  now, 
with  suburbs,  72,300,  mainly  Catholics.  In  791 
Charlemagne  made  Mimigardevord  the  see  of  the 
new  bishop  of  the  Saxons,  and  about  1050  a 
monastery  (whence  Miinster)  was  founded  on  the 
spot.  In  the  13th  c.  the  city  became  a  Hanse 
Town  ;  and  in  1535  was  the  scene  of  the  violent 
movement  of  the  Anabaptists,  till  the  bi.shop 
repossessed  himself  of  the  city.  In  both  the 
Thirty  Years'  War  and  the  Seven  Years'  War 
Munster  suffered  severely.  The  principality, 
into  which  the  bishopric  had  been  elevated  in  the 
12th  century,  was  secularised  in  1803,  and  the 
Congress  of  Vienna  gave  the  greater  part  of  it  to 
Prussia.— There  is  another  Miinster  in  Alsace, 
12  miles  SW.  of  Colinar  by  rail ;  pop.  8390. 

Murano.    See  Venice. 

Murcia  (Span.  pron.  Moor'theea),  a.  town  of 
Spain,  46  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Alicante  and  50  N. 
by  W.  of  Cartagena.  An  old-fashioned  Moorish 
town,  it  is  embosomed  in  gardens  of  mulberry, 
orange,  fig,  palm,  and  other  fruit  trees.  The 
cathedral,  reconstructed  in  1521,  is  surmounted 
by  a  fine  bell-tower.  Silks,  saltpetre,  soda,  gun- 
powder, musical  instruments,  and  glass  are  manu- 
factured. Population,  113,000.— The  province  of 
Murcia  has  an  area  of  4478  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of 
580,000. 

Murfreesborougli,  capital  of  Rutherford 
county,  Tennessee,  in  1819-26  capital  of  the  state, 
is  33  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Nashville.  Close  by 
the  battle  of  Stone  River  was  fought,  31st  Decem- 
ber 1862  and  2d  January  1863.    Pop.  4000. 

Murghab,  a  river  that  rises  in  the  mountains 
north-east  of  Herat,  flows  north-west,  and  loses 
itself  in  tlie  desert  of  Turkestan  beyond  Merv. 

Murray  River,  the  principal  river  of  Australia, 
1120  miles  long.  It  rises  in  the  Australian  Alps, 
flows  north-west  along  the  frontiers  of  New 
South  Wales  and  Victoria,  and  in  South  Australia 
passes    southward    through  the   shallow    Lake 


Alexandrina  to  the  sea  at  Encounter  Bay.  It  ia 
navigable  part  of  the  year  as  far  as  Albury,  190 
miles  NE.  of  Melbourne,  but  its  mouth  cannot 
be  entered  by  ships  of  any  size.  The  chief 
tributaries  are  the  Lachlan,  Murrumbidgee,  and 
Darling,  themselves  large  rivers. 

Murshldabad',  a  town  of  India,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Bhagirathi,  a  branch  of  the  Ganges, 
124  miles  N.  of  Calcutta.  During  the  18th  cen- 
tury it  was  the  capital  of  Bengal  ;  but  when,  in 
1772-90,  the  British  made  Calcutta  their  head- 
quarters Murshidabad  began  to  decline,  and  in 
1901  its  pop.  was  only  28,553.  The  chief  build- 
ings of  note  are  the  palace  of  the  Nawab  (1837), 
the  Imambara  ('  house  of  prayer '),  and  a  mosque. 
Two  miles  south  of  the  city  is  Motijhil  or  Pearl 
Lake  ;  on  its  bank  stood  the  palace  of  Suraj-ud- 
Dowlah,  in  which  Clive  enthroned  Mir  Jafar,  and 
where  the  English  Residents — Warren  Hastings 
the  first — dwelt.  The  city  is  noted  for  ivory- 
carving,  embroidery  in  gold  and  silver  lace,  silk- 
weaving,  hookahs,  and  musical  instruments. 

Murten,  battle.    See  Morat. 

Murviedro  (Moor-vee-ay'dro ;  'old  walls'),  or 
Saqunto,  a  town  of  Spain,  18  miles  NNE.  of 
Valencia,  stands  on  the  site  of  Saguntum,  a  Greek 
colony,  the  siege  of  which  by  Hannibal  in  219  b.c. 
began  the  second  Punic  war.    Pop.  6436. 

Murzuk.    See  Fezzan. 

Muscat',  or  Maskat,  capital  of  the  independent 
state  of  Oman  or  Muscat,  in  the  south-eastern 
corner  of  Arabia.  Its  situation  in  a  narrow 
rocky  pass  from  the  interior  to  the  Indian  Ocean 
makes  it  important  for  the  commerce  between 
eastern  Arabia,  Persia,  India,  East  Africa,  and  the 
Red  Sea.  Its  total  trade  reaches  £1,100,000 
annually,  the  chief  exports  being  pearls,  fish, 
salt,  dates,  drugs,  dyestutf,  horses,  and  the  im- 
ports, coft'ee,  rice,  sugar,  piece-goods,  oil,  &c. 
Pop.  20,000.  In  1508  the  Portuguese  took  pos- 
session  of  Muscat,  and  under  them  it  developed 
into  a  prosperous  commercial  centre.  From  1658 
it  was  governed  by  native  rulers  (iinajns),  Avho 
also  (till  1856)  succeeded  the  Portuguese  as 
masters  of  Zanzibar. 

Muscatine,  capital  of  Muscatine  coimty,  Iowa, 
is  mostly  on  rocky  bluffs  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Mississippi,  211  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Chicago. 
It  has  pork-packing,  flour  and  lumber  mills,  and 
plough  and  furniture  factories.     Pop.  14,454. 

Muscovy.     See  Russia. 

Musha  Islands.    See  Obok. 

Muske'gon,  capital  of  Muskegon  county, 
Michigan,  is  on  the  Muskegon  River,  which  here 
(4  miles  from  its  mouth  in  Ijake  Michigan)  widens 
into  Muskegon  Lake,  the  best  harbour  on  the  east 
side  of  Lake  Michigan.  Muskegon  is  40  miles  by 
rail  NW.  of  Grand  Rapids,  and  .saws  and  ships 
enormous  quantities  of  lumber.  It  has  also 
foundries,  machine-shops,  boiler-works,  &c. 
Pop.  21,700. 

Musselburgh,  an  old-fashioned  town  of  Mid- 
lothian, near  the  mouth  of  the  E.sk  in  the  Firth  of 
Forth,  6  miles  E.  of  Edinburgh  by  a  branch-line 
(1847).  Since  1832  it  has  united  with  Leith  and 
Portobello  to  return  one  member,  the  parlia- 
mentary burgh  including  the  large  fishing-suburb 
of  Fisherrow,  with  a  small  tidal  harbour,  and  the 
pretty  village  of  Inveresk,  whose  conspicuous 
spired  church  was  rebuilt  in  1805  by  'Jupiter' 
Carlyle,  and  occupies  a  Roman  prsetorium. 
Musselburgh's  chief  features  are  its  golf-links 
(since  1817  also  the  Edinburgh  racecourse). 
Loretto   school  (marking  the  site  of  a  famed 


MUSSOOREE 


485 


NAIRNSHIRE 


place  of  pilgrimage),  Pinkie  House  (1613),  the 
•Roman'  bridge,  the  quaint  tolbooth,  and  a 
statue  (1853)  of  David  Moir.  Colonel  Yule  was  a 
native.  The  manufactures  include  paper,  nets, 
leather,  &c.  Pop.  (1841)  6366  ;  (1901)  11,711.  See 
Paterson's  History  of  Afusselburgh  (1857). 

Mussooree,  or  Masuri,  a  sanatorium  on  a  range 
of  Himalayan  foot-hills  7433  feet  high,  12  miles 
NE.  of  Dehra,  in  the  NW.  Provinces  of  India. 
It  forms  a  mixnicipality  with  Landaur  (q.v.). 

Mus'tapha,  a  suburb  of  Algiers  (q.v.). 

Muta  Nzlge.    See  Albert-Edward  Nyanza. 

Muttra,  or  Mathura',  a  town  of  India,  in  the 
United  Provinces,  on  tlie  right  bank  of  the 
Jumna,  30  miles  above  Agra.  There  are  numer- 
ous temples  and  mosques  ;  the  river  is  lined  with 
magnificent  flights  of  stairs,  leading  down  to  the 
bathing-places  in  the  sacred  river  ;  large  numbers 
of  pilgrims  resort  to  the  city  on  the  occasion  of 
its  religious  festivals  ;  and  troo])s  of  monkeys  and 
river-turtles  are  supported  by  charity.  The  city, 
for  centuries  a  centre  of  Buddhism,  was  sacked 
by  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  in  1017,  and  plundered  by 
the  Afghans  in  1756 ;  in  1803  it  passed  to  the 
British.     Pop.  61,800. 

Muyscas.    See  Colombia. 

Muzaffarnag'ar,  a  town  in  the  United  Pro- 
vinces, 80  miles  NE.  of  Delhi.     Pop.  23,450. 

Muzaflfarpur',  a  Bengal  town,  on  the  Little  Gan- 
dak,  140  miles  N.  by  rail  of  Patua.    Pop.  45,620. 

Mycale  (Mi'ka-lee),  a  promontory  of  ancient 
Ionia,  over  against  Sainos ;  in  the  channel  between, 
the  Greeks  defeated  the  Persian  fleet,  479  b.c. 

Myce'nas,  a  very  ancient  city  in  the  north- 
eastern part  of  Argolis,  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
built  upon  a  craggy  height.  It  was  the  capital  of 
Agamemnon's  kingdom,  and  the  principal  city 
in  Greece.    About  468  b.c.  it  was  destroyed  by 


the  inhabitants  of  Argos,  and  never  rose  again 
to  its  former  prosperity.  In  Strabo's  time  its 
ruins  alone  remained  ;  these  are  still  to  be  seen 
in  the  neighborhood  of  Kharvati,  and  are  noble 
specimens  of  Cyclopean  architecture.  The  most 
celebrated  are  the  '  Gate  of  Lions,'  chief  entrance 
to  the  ancient  Acropolis,  and  the  'Treasury 
of  Atreus.'  Excavations  by  Schliemann  in  1876- 
89  brought  to  light  another  subterranean  treasury 
and  ancient  tombs  containing  terra-cottas,  vases, 
weapons,  gold  death-ma.sks,  &c.  See  Schlie- 
mann's  Mycence  and  Tiryns  (trans.  1877). 

Mysia,  a  district  of  ancient  Asia  Minor,  having 
the  Propontis  (Sea  of  Marmora)  on  the  N.,  and 
the  Mgean  on  the  W. 

Mysore,  or  Maisur,  a  native  state  of  southern 
India,  surrounded  entirely  by  districts  of  the 
Madras  Presidency.  Area,  29,444  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
(1881)  4,186,188,  (1901)  5,539,399.  Mysore  is  an 
extensive  tableland  nuich  broken  by  hill-ranges, 
and  divided  into  two  portions  by  the  watershed 
between  the  Kistna  and  Kaveri.  Gold  is  mined 
at  Kolar.  The  rivers  are  used  for  irrigation.  The 
annual  value  of  the  exports  (betel-nut  and  leaves, 
coffee,  cotton,  piece-goods,  cardamoms,  rice,  silk, 
and  sugar)  exceeds  £1,200,000;  of  the  imports 
(piece-goods,  cloth,  wheat,  &c.),  £1,500,000.  The 
ruinous  misgovernment  of  the  native  prince  led 
the  British  to  assume  the  administration  in  1831 ; 
but  in  1881  Mysore  was  restored  to  the  native 
dynasty.  The  famine  years  (1876-78)  told  with 
great  severity.— The  capital,  Mysore,  situated 
amid  picturesque  scenery,  245  miles  WSW.  of 
Madras,  is  a  prosperous,  well-built  town.  On  the 
south  stands  the  fort,  which  encloses  the  rajah's 
palace,  with  a  magnificent  throne.  Population 
above  70,000. 

Mzensk,  a  town  in  the  Russian  government  of 
Orel,  200  miles  SSW.  of  Moscow.    Pop.  15,067. 


AAS  (Nayce  or  Nay'as),  a  garrison  town 
of  Kildare,  20  miles  SW.  of  Dublin  by 
rail.  Once  the  capital  of  Leinster,  it 
obtained  charters  from  Henry  V.,  Eliza- 
beth, and  James  I.,  but  was  disfran- 
chised at  the  Union.    Pop.  3S35. 

Nabha,  a  Sikh  principality  of  the  Punjab,  E. 
of  Patiala  ;  area,  928  sq.  m.     Pop.  298,200. 

Nablus  (Na-Uoo^ ;  corrupted  from  Gr.  Nea- 
polls;  anc.  Shechem).  a  town  of  Palestine,  between 
Mounts  Ebal  and  Gerizim.  The  Samaritans'  re- 
ligious centre,  it  was  Justin  Martyr's  birthplace. 

Nadder,  a  Wiltshire  stream,  flowing  18  miles 
E.  to  the  Avon  at  Wilton. 

Nadlad.    See  Nariad. 

Nad'iya,  a  town  of  Bengal,  on  the  Bhagirathi 
River,  63  miles  N.  of  Calcutta.      Pop.  14,105. 

Naga  Hills,  a  mountainous  district  of  British 
India,  the  south-eastern  extremity  of  Assam, 
with  an  area  of  5710  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  (1801)  of 
122,867  aboriginal  Nagas  and  other  semi-savages. 

Nagar.    See  Bednor. 

Nagasaki  (Nagasdh'kee),  a  seaport  of  Kyushu, 
Japan,  for  two  centuries  the  only  Japanese  gate 
of  communication  with  the  outer  world.  Its 
harbour,  famous  for  its  beauty,  is  a  narrow  inlet 
about  3  miles  long.  Near  its  head  is  the  low,  fan- 
shaped  island  of  Deshima,  to  which  from  1637  to 
1859  the  Dutch  traders  were  limited.  The  great 
Takashima  coal-mine  is  on  an  island  8  miles  to 
seaward.  Nagasaki  has  a  fine  dockyard  and 
patent  slip.     Pop.  (1892)  60,581 ;  (1905)  156,500. 


Nagina  (Nagee'na),  a  town  in  the  United  Prov- 
inces, 48  miles  NW.  of  Moradabad.     Pop.  20,503. 

Nagoya,  a  town  of  the  main  island  of  Japan, 
170  miles  W.  of  Tokyo.  It  has  a  famous  Buddhist 
temple,  and  is  the  most  important  pottery  centre 
in  Japan.     Pop.  (1904)  288,700. 

Nagpixr  (Nagpore),  capital  of  the  Central  Pro- 
vinces of  British  India,  450  miles  ENE.  of  Bombay 
by  rail.     Pop.  (1872)  84,441  ;  (1901)  127,734. 

Nahant,  a  summei'-resort  of  Massachusetts 
Bay,  12  miles  NE.  of  Boston.    Pop.  1190. 

Naihati  (Nyhat'ee),  a  town  of  Bengal,  23^  miles 
NW.  of  Calcutta  by  rail.     Pop.  45,293. 

Nailsworth,  a  Gloucestersliire  town,  6  miles 
SE.  of  Stonehouse,  with  woollen  manufactures. 
Pop.  3030. 

Naini  Tal  (Ny'nee  Ted),  the  summer-resort  and 
sanatorium  of  the  United  Provinces  of  India, 
nestles  between  spurs  of  the  Himalaya,  beside  a 
beautiful  lake  6409  feet  above  sea-level,  70  miles 
N.  of  Bareilly.  By  a  landslip  here  in  1880,  150 
lives  were  lost.  Pop.  12,500,  but  much  more  in 
the  season  (September). 

Nairnshire,  the  fourth  smallest  county  of 
Scotland,  is  washed  on  the  north  for  10  miles 
by  the  Moray  Firth,  and  elsewhere  bounded  by 
Elgin  and  Inverness  shires.  Till  1891  it  con- 
sisted of  a  main  body,  with  a  maximum  length 
of  18  miles,  a  mean  breadth  of  11,  and  an  area 
of  169  sq.  m.,  and  also  of  five  detached  portions 
situated  in  Elgin,  Inverness,  and  Ross  shires, 
which,  having  a  total  area  of  31  sq.  m.,  were 


NAIVASHA 


486 


NANTES 


annexed  to  Nairnshire  in  1476,  but  disjoined 
therefrom  by  the  Boundary  Coiniuissioners  in 
1891.  The  chief  rivers  are  the  Nairn  and  the 
Findhorn,  the  former  rising  in  Inverness-shire, 
and  flowing  38  miles  north-eastward  to  the  Moray 
Firth.  The  surface  has  a  generally  southward 
ascent  from  the  fertile  and  well- wooded  '  laigh 
of  Moray'  near  the  coast,  till  at  Carn  Glas  on 
the  southern  boundary  it  attains  2102  feet.  Loch 
Loy  (1^  by  J  mile)  is  the  largest  of  seven  small 
lakes.  Less  than  one-fifth  of  the  entire  area  is 
in  cultivation.  The  chief  antiquities  are  Kil- 
ravock  (1400)  and  Cawdor  Castle  (q.v.) ;  at  Auld- 
earn, near  Nairn,  Montrose  won  his  fourth  vic- 
tory. With  Elginshire  the  county  returns  one 
member;  and  with  Inverness,  &c.  Nairn  town 
returns  another.  Pop.  (1801)  8322  ;  (1841)  9217  ; 
(1881)  10,455  ;  (1901)  9291—1335  Gaelic-speaking. 

Nairn,  the  county  town,  stands  on  the  west 
bank  of  the  river  Nairn  at  its  mouth  in  the 
Moray  Firth,  16  miles  by  rail  BNE.  of  Inverness. 
A  pleasant  little  watering-place,  with  a  small 
harbour  and  golf-links,  it  was  made  a  royal  burgh 
by  William  the  Lion.  Grant,  the  African  trav- 
eller, was  a  native.     Pop,  5000. 

Naivasha,  Lakk,  an  equatorial  lake  in  British 
East  Africa,  SW.  of  Mount  Keiiia. 

Nakhichevan,  or  Nahitchevan,  a  town  of 
Russian  Armenia  (Transcaucasia),  near  the  Per- 
sian frontier,  100  miles  SE.  of  Erivan.   Pop.  12,000. 

Namaqualand,  or  Namaland,  a  region  north 
of  Cape  Colony,  extending  from  the  Orange 
River  to  Damaraland  (q.v.).  Since  1885  a 
German  possession,  with  the  exception  of  the 
British  territory  of  Walvisch  Bay  (q.v.),  it  has 
an  area  estimated  at  460,000  sq.  m.  It  is  mainly 
a  sterile  and  barren  region,  and  along  a  coast- 
line of  upwards  of  400  miles  does  not  present  a 
single  running  stream ;  but  a  few  little  bays 
along  the  coast,  such  as  Angra-Pequena  (q.v.) 
and  Walvisch  Bay,  afford  safe  anchorages.  The 
Rhenish  Mission  has  several  stations  with  over 
2500  converts.  The  country  is  named  from  the 
natives,  the  Namaquas,  a  tribe  of  Hottentots. 
— Little  Namaqualand  is  a  barren  district  of 
Cape  Colony  (q.v.),  south  of  the  Lower  Orange 
River.    Much  copper  is  mined  here. 

Namur  (Nam-ii? ;  Flem.  Namen),  a  city  of 
Belgium,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Sambre  with 
the  Meuse,  35  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Brussels. 
With  the  exception  of  the  picturesque  citadel 
(1784),  the  old  fortifications  have  been  razed 
since  1866,  their  place  being  taken  by  a  cordon 
of  seven  forts.  The  town  itself  has  suff'ered  so 
much  by  war  that  it  offers  little  of  interest— the 
cathedral,  completed  in  1772,  with  the  grave  of 
Don  John  of  Austria ;  the  Jesuit  church  of  St 
Loup  (1653),  a  large  military  school,  an  anti- 
quarian museum,  monuments  of  Leopold  I.  and 
the  geologist  Omalius  d'Halloy  (1783-1875),  &c. 
Namur  is  noted  for  its  cutlery,  and  also  manu- 
factures firearms,  leather,  paper,  and  tobacco. 
Population,  32,700.— The  province  of  Namur,  on 
the  French  frontier,  lying  between  Haiiiault  and 
Luxembourg,  has  an  area  of  1414  sq.  m.  Pop. 
350,000. 

Nanaimo  (Nany'mo),  a  town  on  the  east  coast 
of  Vancouver  Island,  74  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of 
Victoria.  There  are  large  coal-mines  in  the  dis- 
trict, which  has  a  pop.  of  6600. 

Nancy  (Non^see),  a  beautiful  French  town, 
capital  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  lies  on  the  river 
Meurthe,  at  the  foot  of  vine-clad  hills,  220  miles 
by  rail  E.  of  Paris  and  94  W.  of  Strasburg.    It 


owes  much  of  its  architectural  adornment  to 
Stanislas  Leszcinski,  who,  after  abdicating  the 
crown  of  Poland  in  1735,  resided  here  as  Duke 
of  Lorraine  till  his  deatli  in  1766.  His  statue 
(1831)  adorns  the  Place  Stanislas,  the  principal 
square,  which  is  surrounded  by  the  hotel-de-ville, 
the  bishop's  palace,  and  the  theatre.  Other 
noteworthy  features  are  the  cathedral  (1742) ;  the 
churches  Des  Cordeliers  and  Notre  Dame  de  Bon 
Secours  (1738),  St  Epvre  (1875) ;  the  16th-century 
ducal  palace,  with  the  Lorraine  museum ;  statues 
of  General  Drouot  (1853)  and  Thiers  (1879) ;  and 
half-a-dozen  gates.  The  institutions  include  a 
university,  a  lyceum,  and  a  library  of  40,000 
volumes.  Nancy,  which  has  grown  in  importance 
since  the  German  annexation  of  Alsace-Lorraine, 
manufactures  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  artificial 
flowers,  iron,  tobacco,  &c.  ;  but  its  staple  industry 
is  embroidery  on  cambric  and  muslin.  Pop.  (1872) 
52,505 ;  (1901)  90,539.  The  capital  of  the  duchy 
of  Lorraine  (q.v.),  it  was  the  scene  of  the  death 
of  Charles  the  Bold  (1477),  and  the  birthplace  of 
Callot  and  Claude  Lorraine. 

Nanda  Devi.    See  Himalaya. 

Nandidrug.    See  Nundydroog. 

Nanking,  capital  of  the  province  of  Kiangsu, 
formerly  the  capital  of  China,  on  the  Yangtsze 
River,  130  miles  from  its  mouth.  Its  name  sig- 
nifies the  Southern  Capital.  Since  the  removal 
of  the  seat  of  government  to  Peking  (Northern 
Capital)  in  the  15th  century,  the  official  name 
has  been  Kiangning.  From  1853  to  1864  it  was 
the  capital  of  the  Taiping  rebels,  who  destroyed 
nearly  all  the  magnificent  public  buildings  for 
which  the  city  was  once  famous.  Till  then  the 
walls,  50  to  70  feet  high,  enclosed  an  area  nearly 
20  miles  in  circumference.  The  most  memorable 
of  the  ruined  buildings  were  the  Porcelain  Tower 
(1430),  the  summer  palace,  and  the  tombs  of  the 
kings,  with  remarkable  sepulchral  statues.  Since 
its  recapture  by  the  Chinese  imperialists,  Nanking 
shows  few  signs  of  recovery.  Although  the  manu- 
facture of  'nankeen'  (hence  named),  and  of  satin, 
has  been  revived,  its  once  famous  pottery,  arti- 
ficial flowers,  and  paper  now  are  hardly  produced. 
The  government  has  established  an  arsenal  on  the 
European  model.  In  1842  Nanking  was  captured 
by  the  British.     Pop.  150,000. 

Nantes  (NonJ^t),  eighth  largest  city  of  France, 
caijital  of  Loire-Inferieure,  lies  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  tidal  Loire,  35  miles  from  the  sea,  and  248 
by  rail  SW.  of  Paris.  The  old  town  having  been 
demolished  between  1865  and  1870,  Nantes  is  one 
of  the  handsomest  cities  in  all  France,  with  its 
noble  river,  quays,  bridges,  shady  boulevards, 
squares,  and  statues.  The  unfinished  cathedral 
(1434-1852)  contains  Colomb's  splendid  monu- 
ment (1507)  to  the  last  Duke  and  Duchess  of 
Brittany,  and  another  (1879)  to  General  Lamori- 
ciere.  The  ducal  castle,  founded  in  938,  and 
rebuilt  in  1466,  was  the  occasional  residence  of 
Charles  VIII.  and  most  of  his  successors,  and  the 
place  where,  on  15th  April  1598,  Henry  IV.  signed 
the  famous  Edict  of  Nantes.  Other  noteworthy 
buildings  are  the  splendid  church  of  St  Nicholas 
(1854),  the  palais-de-justice  (1853),  the  theatre 
(1787),  and  the  post-office  (1884),  besides  a 
museum,  a  picture-gallery,  and  a  library  of  50,000 
volumes.  Between  1831  and  1887  £180,000  was 
expended  on  harbour-works,  but  the  rise  since 
1845  of  the  port  of  St  Nazaire,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Loire,  and  the  increasing  difficulty  in  the 
navigation  of  the  river,  have  reduced  the  com- 
mercial importance  of  Nantes  ;  to  restore  which 
is  the  object  of  the  ship-canal  (1891)  between  the 


NANllCOiOB 


487 


NAPLES 


two  places.  The  chief  exports  are  hardware, 
cereals,  and  preserved  provisions,  the  chief  im- 
ports sugar,  iron,  cocoa,  and  wines.  Industries 
are  shipbuilding  (decayed),  sardine-preparing,  and 
the  manufacture  of  sugar,  leather,  iron,  nets, 
soap,  machinery,  &c.  ;  whilst  10  miles  below 
Nantes  is  the  vast  government  steam-engine 
factory  of  Indret,  employing  from  2000  to  3000 
hands,  and  familiar  to  readers  of  Daudet's  Jack. 
Pop.  of  Nantes  (1872)  112,947  ;  (1886)  120,106 ; 
(1901)  123,242.  The  Portiis  Namnetum  of  the 
Romans,  and  the  former  capital  of  Brittany, 
Nantes  witnessed  the  'noyades'  of  the  execrable 
Carrier  and  the  fall  of  the  Vendean  leader 
Cathelineau  (1793).  Fouche  and  Jules  Verne 
were  natives. 

Nanticoke,  a  mining  borough  of  Pennsylvania, 
in  the  Wyoming  Valley,  24  miles  SW.  of  Scran- 
ton.     Pop.  13,000. 

Nantuck'et,  an  island  (13  miles  long)  off  the 
SB.  coast  of  Massachusetts.  On  the  N.  shore  is 
Nantucket  town  (pop.  3027X  ^^ith  a  nearly  land- 
locked harbour.  Once  a  great  seat  of  the  whale- 
fishery,  it  is  now  mainly  a  summer-resort. 

Nantwich,  a  market-town  of  Cheshire,  on  the 
Weaver,  4  miles  SW.  of  Crewe.  It  has  some 
quaint  old  timber  houses  ;  a  fine  cruciform  parish 
church,  with  a  central  octagonal  tower,  110  feet 
high ;  a  Gothic  town-hall  (1858) ;  a  market-hall 
(1867);  a  grammar-school  (1611);  and  brine-baths 
(1883).  The  Halen  Gwyn  ('  white  salt  town ')  of 
the  Welsh,  Nantwich  was  once  the  second  largest 
town  in  Cheshire,  the  seat  of  300  salt-works  in 
Leland's  day,  since  when  the  industry  has 
gi-adually  quite  died  out.  Boot  and  shoe  making 
now  is  the  principal  industry.  A  great  fire 
(1583),  and  its  siege  by  the  royalists  under  Lord 
Byron  (1644)  are  the  chief  events  in  the  history 
of  Nantwich.  Pop.  (1851)  5424;  (1901)  7722.  See 
works  by  Piatt  (1818)  and  Hall  (1885). 

Napier,  chief  port  and  city  of  the  provincial 
district  of  Hawke's  Bay,  New  Zealand,  on  the 
east  coast  of  the  North  Island.  Port  Ahuriri 
(or  Scinde  Island)  is  within  the  municipal  boun- 
dary. Timber,  wool,  and  tinned  and  frozen  meat 
are  exported.  Napier  is  the  seat  of  the  bishop  of 
Waiapu.    Pop.  9341. 

Naples  (Nay'pels ;  Gr.  and  Lat.  Neapolis,  Ital. 
Napoli),  till  1860  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Naples,  is  the  largest  of  Italian  cities,  and,  with 
the  doubtful  exception  of  Constantinople,  the 
most  beautifully  situated  in  Europe,  161  miles 
by  rail  SE.  of  Rome.  The  attractiveness  of 
Naples,  due  not  only  to  its  site,  but  to  its 
delightful  climate,  has  inspired  the  proverb, 
'See  Naples  and  die."  Its  charms  have  remained 
proof  against  defective  drainage,  impure  water- 
supply,  and  the  fever  preserves  of  its  poorer 
quarters,  in  course  of  removal  since  1889.  The 
impetus  to  this  work  was  given  by  the  cholera 
outbreak  in  September  1884,  when  in  one  niglit 
nearly  2000  people  were  attacked,  and  half  of 
them  died.  The  new  drainage-works  carry  the 
sewage  to  Cumae,  thus  relieving  the  sea-margin 
of  the  liquid  poison  that  used  to  stain  the  water 
black.     An  aqueduct  opened  in  1885  furnishes 

Sure  drinking-water  to  every  part  of  the  city, 
[ore  recent  still  are  a  new  harbour,  solid  embank- 
ments, and  commodious  promenades,  new  streets 
cut  through  the  n:ore  populous  quarters,  and  a 
fine  embankment  carried  along  the  sea-front. 

Naples  occupies  the  base  and  flanks  of  a  hill- 
range  rising,  amphitheatre-wise,  from  the  sea, 
and  divided  into  two  unequal  parts  by  the  Capo- 
dimonte,  S.  Elmo,  and  Pizzofalcone  heights.    The 


most  ancient  and  populous  part  of  the  city  lie& 
in  the  eastern  crescent,  and  is  intersected  from 
north  to  south  by  the  historic  and  densely 
peopled  Via  Toledo  (now  Via  di  Roma).  A  fine 
quay  extends  eastward  to  the  Castel  del  Car- 
mine. Westward  runs  the  less  ancient  city, 
smaller  in  extent,  but  freer  as  to  air  and  pros- 
pect. Along  the  sea-margin  extend  the  royal 
gardens  and  the  Riviera  di  Chiaja.  Naples  is 
three  miles  long  and  two  broad.  It  has  a  modern 
look,  but  in  spite  of  external  change  still  pre- 
sents the  same  noisy,  vivacious,  mercurial  life. 
Its  National  Museum  is  becoming  daily  richer 
in  archaeological  treasure-trove  from  Pompeii, 
while  its  splendid  aquarium  teems  with  typical 
specimens  of  the  flora  and  fauna  of  the  Medi- 
terranean. Of  architectural  interest  Naples  has 
little.  Besides  her  five  forts  and  four  gates 
of  mediaeval  construction,  she  has  upwards  of  300 
churches,  including  the  archiepiscopal  cathedral 
(1272-1316)  of  St  Januarius,  whose  blood  is  said 
to  liquefy  in  the  phials  containing  it  on  three 
yearly  festiA'als.  The  university  (1224),  with 
nearly  100  teachers  and  5150  students,  the  royal 
palace,  the  catacombs,  and,  still  more,  the  law- 
courts  are  worth  visiting.  The  National  Library 
(1804)  has  375,000  books  and  8000  MSS.  ;  the 
University  Library  (1812),  150,000  books  ;  and 
the  Brancacciana  (1673),  150,000  books  and  3000 
MSS.  The  San  Carlo  Theatre  (chiefly  for  opera) 
is  one  of  the  largest  in  Italy,  though  much  less 
popular  than  the  San  Carlino.  Naples  is  one  of 
the  busiest  ports  of  the  kingdom,  exporting  wine 
and  olive-oil,  chemicals  and  perfumery,  live 
animals  and  animal  products,  hemp  and  flax, 
cereals,  curriery,  &c.  ;  and  importing  cereals, 
metals,  cottons,  woollens,  earthenware,  glass, 
curriery,  silks,  groceries,  specie,  hemp  and  flax, 
dyes,  chemicals,  &c.  She  trades  principally 
with  Britain  and  France.  Naples  has  many 
employments  but  few  industries,  and  these  in- 
significant, consisting  mainly  of  woollen,  silk, 
and  linen  manufactures,  gloves,  soap,  perfumery, 
jewellery,  earthenware,  hats,  and  carriages.  Maca- 
roni is  largely  produced  on  the  Neapolitan  sea- 
board. Fishing  supports  many  of  the  inhabit- 
ants. The  neighbourhood  is  the  market-garden 
of  Italy.     Pop.  (1881)  463,172  ;  (1901)  563,540. 

Naples  owes  its  foundation  to  the  two  Greek 
settlements  of  Palceopolis  and  Neapolis  ('  Old  and 
New  Town'),  combined  in  Parthenope.  In  328 
B.C.  it  was  subdued  by  Rome,  and  under  the 
empire  became  a  fashionable  resort.  It  had  been 
held  successively  by  Normans  and  Hohenstaufens, 
when  the  popes  conferred  the  sovereignty  of 
Naples  on  Charles  of  Anjou.  The  Angevine 
dynasty,  expiring  in  1435,  was  succeeded  by  that 
of  Aragon,  which  had  ruled  Sicily  from  the  time 
of  the  Sicilian  Vespers  (1282).  The  territory  of 
Naples  (great  part  of  south  Italy)  was  united  to 
Sicily,  forming  the  kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies, 
and  till  1707  was  governed  by  Spanish  viceroys. 
Naples  was  wrested  then  from  Spain  by  Austria, 
but  in  1735  was  given  to  Don  Carlos,  third  son  of 
Philip  V.  of  Spain,  who  founded  the  Bourbon 
dynasty.  In  1789  the  troops  of  the  French 
Republic  invaded  Naples  and  converted  it  into 
the  Parthenopean  Republic  (1799).  A  second 
invasion  by  Napoleon  (1806)  ended  in  the  pro- 
clamation of  his  brother,  Joseph,  as  king  of 
Naples  ;  and,  when  Joseph  assumed  the  Spanish 
crown  in  1808,  that  of  Naples  was  awarded  to 
Joachim  Murat.  On  the  defeat  and  execution  of 
Murat  in  1815  the  Bourbon  monarch,  Ferdinand 
IV.,  was  restored.  The  insurrectionary  move- 
ments of  1821  and  1848  were  the  forerunners  of 


NARBADA 


488 


NATAL 


the  overthrow  of  the  Bourbon  rule  by  Garibaldi 
and  the  Sardinians,  and  the  incorporation  of 
Naples  in  the  kingdom  of  Italy  (18(51). 

Narbada.    See  Nebbudda. 

Narberth,  one  of  the  Pembroke  boroughs,  11^ 
miles  NE.  of  Pembroke.     Pop.  1071. 

Narbonne  {Narbonn'),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Aude,  on  the  La  JRobine  branch  of  the 
Canal  du  Midi,  8  miles  from  the  Mediterranean, 
and  93  by  rail  ESB.  of  Toulouse.  The  removal 
since  1865  of  the  fortifications  has  been  an 
improvement,  but  the  place  remains  dirty  and 
unattractive,  with  only  three  noteworthy  build- 
ings. These  are  the  Romanesque  church  of  St 
Paul  (1229) ;  the  quondam  cathedral  of  St  Just 
(1272-1332),  only  the  fine  Gothic  choir  of  which, 
131  feet  high,  has  been  completed ;  and  the 
former  archbishop's  palace,  now  the  hotel-de- 
ville,  in  one  of  whose  three  old  towers  Louis 
XIII.  in  1642  signed  the  order  to  arrest  Cinq 
Mars,  and  in  which  are  a  museum,  library,  and 

Eicture-gallery.  The  white  heather-honey  of 
arbonue  maintains  its  ancient  celebrity;  the 
■wine  is  chiefly  used  for  blending  pvirposes.  Pop. 
28,200  ;  (1901)  27,185.  Narbonne  was  the  earliest 
Roman  colony  (118  B.C.)  beyond  the  Alps.  Varro 
and  Moiitfaucou  were  iiatives. 

Nariad,  a  town  of  Bombay,  29  miles  SB.  of 
Ahmadabad  by  rail.     Pop.  31,500. 

Narragansett  Bay.    See  Rhodk  Island. 

Narva,  a  Russian  town,  101  miles  WSW.  of  St 
Petersburg,  on  the  Narova,  10  miles  from  its 
inouth  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland.  Charles  XII.  won 
a  great  victory  here  in  1700.    Pop.  16,600. 

Narvik,  a  Norwegian  port  opposite  the  Lofoten 
Islands,  shipping  iron  ore  brought  by  rail  from 
the  mines  of  Gellivara  in  Sweden.     Pop.  5000. 

Naseby,  a  Northamptonshire  parish,  7  miles 
SW.  of  Market-Harborough.  Here,  on  14th  June 
1645,  7500  royalists  under  Charles  I.  and  Prince 
Rupert  were  totally  defeated  by  14,000  parlia- 
mentarians under  Fairfax  and  Cromwell. 

Nash'ua,  a  city  of  New  Hampshire,  40  miles 
by  rail  NW.  of  IBoston,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Merrimac  and  Nashua  rivers.  The  falls  of  the 
latter,  rendered  available  by  a  canal  3  miles 
long,  supply  motive-power  to  cotton-factories 
and  ironworks,  paper  and  carpet  mills,  «&c.  Pop. 
25,000. 

Nashville,  capital  and  second  largest  city  of 
Tennessee,  on  the  Cumberland  River,  200  miles 
above  the  Ohio,  and  185  by  rail  SSW.  of  Louis- 
ville. The  city,  which  is  a  great  railway  centre, 
is  built  mainly  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river, 
which  is  crossed  by  a  suspension  bridge  and 
a  railway  drawbridge  to  the  suburb  of  Edge- 
field. Nashville  is  a  handsome,  well-built  town, 
with  an  imposing  state  capitol  of  limestone 
($1,500,000),  a  penitentiary  (400  cells),  a  large 
lunatic  asylum,  the  Nashville  University  (1806), 
Vanderbilt  University  (Methodist  Episcopal 
South,  1875),  Central  Tennessee  College  (for 
coloured  Methodists,  1866),  Fisk  University  (Con- 
gregationalist,  1867),  Roger  Williams  University 
(Baptist),  the  state  normal  college,  &c.  The  city 
has  a  large  wholesale  trade,  the  staples  being 
cotton  and  tobacco ;  while  its  manufactures  in- 
clude cotton,  flour,  oil,  paper,  furniture,  timber, 
leather,  iron,  and  spirits.  Founded  in  1780,  Nash- 
ville became  the  legal  capital  in  1843.  In  Decem- 
ber 1864  the  Confederates  under  Hood  were 
completely  defeated  here  by  General  Thomas. 
Pop.  (1870)  25,865  ;  (1880)  43,350  ;  (1900)  80,865. 

Nasik,  a  town  of  Bombay,  on  the  Godavari,  31 


miles  from  its  source,  100  miles  NE.  of  Bombay,  is 
a  great  Hindu  place  of  pilgrimage.    Pop.  21,490. 

Nasirabad,  capital  of  Maimansingh  district, 
Eastern  Bengal,  75  miles  N.  of  Dacca.  Pop. 
20,500. 

Nassau  {Nass'oiv),  formerly  a  German  duchy, 
now  the  Wiesbaden  district  ot'Hesse-Nassau(q.v.). 
The  reigning  duke  sided  against  Prussia  in  1866, 
and  his  duchy  was  incorporated  with  Prussia ; 
on  the  extinction  of  the  male  line  of  the  Orange 
branch  by  the  death  of  William  III.  of  Holland, 
in  1890,  the  Duke  of  Nassau  became  Grand-duke 
of  Luxemburg. 

Nassau,  on  New  Providence,  is  the  capital  of 
the  Bahamas  (q.v.),  a  bishop's  see,  and  a  great 
winter-resort  of  American  invalids.    Pop.  11,000. 

Natal,  a  British  colony  on  the  SE.  coast  of 
Africa,  formerly  part  of  the  Cape  settlement, 
was  erected  into  a  separate  colony  in  1856.  Zulu- 
land  (10,461  sq.  m.)  was  added  in  1897,  and  after 
the  Boer  war  (1902)  part  of  the  Transvaal  (Utrecht, 
Vryheid,  and  part  of  Wakkerstroom  districts,  in 
all  6970  sq.  m.)  was  also  added,  making  a  total  of 
35,806  square  miles,  with  a  seaboard  of  about 
360  miles,  and  extending  inland  to  the  Drakens- 
berg  or  Qwathlaniba  Mountains.  Durban,  its 
port  and  largest  town,  lies  800  miles  ENE.  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Tlie  coast-region,  extending 
for  30  miles  inland,  is  highly  fertile,  the  climate 
being  subtropical  and  healthy.  In  1856  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  sugar-cane  was  introduced  on  the 
coast,  and  besides  supplying  all  South  Africa,  the 
colony  exports  sugar  to  England.  The  immigra- 
tion of  Indian  coolies  for  sugar  culture  began  in 
1863,  and  in  1891  there  were  35,000  coolies  in  the 
colony  with  their  attendant  traders.  The  Assam 
tea-plant  was  successfully  introduced  in  1877. 
Coffee  and  tobacco  have  been  reared,  as  have 
also  indigo,  arrowroot,  and  ginger.  All  tropical 
fruits  thrive  well.  The  midland  terrace  is  more 
fit  for  the  cereals  and  usual  European  crops  ; 
while  on  the  higher  plateaus  along  the  foot  of 
the  mountains  are  immense  tracts  of  the  finest 
pasturage  for  cattle  and  sheep.  The  climate  is 
very  healthy;  the  thermometer  ranges  between 
90°  and  38°  F.,  but  the  heat  even  in  summer  is 
seldom  oppressive.  The  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture at  Pietermaritzburg,  the  capital,  is  64-71°. 
The  winter  begins  in  April  and  ends  in  Septem- 
ber. In  summer  thunder-storms  are  very  fre- 
quent and  severe  in  the  uplands.  The  annual 
rainfall  averages  nearly  40  inches,  the  greatest 
fall  being  in  summer.  The  colony  has  one 
admirable  harbour  in  Durban  (q.v.)  or  Port 
Natal.  The  Tugela,  Buffalo,  Umkomanzi,  Um- 
geni,  Umzimkulu,  and  Mooi  rivers  have  perman- 
ent streams,  and  though  not  navigable,  are  often 
available  for  irrigating  purposes.  The  area  of 
the  coal-measures  is  estimated  at  1400  sq.  m. 
Copper  has  been  found,  and  nmch  is  hoped  from 
the  iron  near  the  coal.  The  colony  is  also  be- 
lieved to  be  rich  in  asbestos,  mica,  and  plumbago, 
and  some  gold  has  been  obtained.  Great  forests 
of  fine  timber  abound  in  the  mountain -passes. 
A  railway  runs  through  the  colony  to  the  Orange 
Colony  and  Transvaal.  The  government  is  now 
representative,  the  fir.st  colonial  ministry  being 
constituted  in  the  end  of  1893.  The  law  is  a 
modification  of  old  Dutch  law.  Natal's  chief 
exports  are  bullion,  wool,  sngar,  tea,  and  coal, 
Tlie  value  of  exports  by  sea  in  1903  was  £3,302,818 
(besides  £8,007,673  by  land,  principally  to  the 
Transvaal),  and  the  imports  by  sea,  £16,221,617. 
In  1903  the  revenue  was  £4,334,175,  and  expendi- 
ture £5,039,003.     The  trade  is  mainly  with  the 


Natal 


489 


NAZE 


Inotlier-country,  also  with  Australia,  India,  and 
North  and  South  America.  In  1876  the  pop. 
numbered  326,957  (20,490  whites);  in  1904, 
1,108,754,  including  97,109  whites,  100,918  Indian 
coolies,  and  895,041  natives.  Eland  and  harte- 
beest  are  the  only  big  game  left ;  the  hippopo- 
tamus and  alligator  are  found  in  some  of  the 
rivers.     Snakes  are  plentiful. 

Natal  was  discovered  by  Vasco  de  Gama  in  1497, 
on  Christmas  Day  (lience  its  name).  A  large  body 
of  discontented  Boers  from  Cape  Colony  settled  in 
the  country  in  1837,  but  after  a  short  struggle 
and  long  negotiations  with  the  Cape  authorities, 
accepted  British  rule,  the  malcontents  migrating 
to  Transvaal.  Natal  was  annexed  in  1843,  made 
part  of  Cape  Colony  in  1844,  and  constituted  a 
distinct  colony  in  1855.  In  1865  the  Colenso 
case  threw  the  Anglican  church  into  embarrass- 
ments. In  1873  the  chief  Langalibalele  was  sup- 
pressed ;  and  Natal  suffered  severely  in  connec- 
tion with  the  Zulu  war  (1879),  the  Transvaal  war 
(ISSl),  and  the  Boer  war  (1899-1 902X 

See  books  by  Brooks  (1869),  Peace,  Noble, 
and  Bird  (1889),  others  quoted  at  Cape  Colony, 
and  the  blue-books  and  almanacs. 

Natal,  a  seaport  of  Brazil,  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Rio  Grande  do  Norte,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  of  that  name.     Pop.  10,000. 

Natchez,  capital  of  Adams  county,  Mississippi, 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  214  miles 
by  rail  NNW.  of  New  Orleans.  The  public  build- 
ings include  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  and  a 
U.  S.  marine  hospital.  Natchez,  settled  by  the 
French  in  1716,  was  named  from  an  Indian  tribe. 
Pop.  12,250. 

NatiCk,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  on  Charles 
River,  18  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Boston.  It 
makes  shoes,  baseballs,  chairs,  &c.    Pop.  9518. 

National  Parks.  See  Yellowstone,  and 
YosEMiTE.  Others  in  the  States  are  the  Sequoia 
National  Park,  and  the  General  Grant  National 
Park,  both  in  California,  and  the  Hot  Springs 
Reservation  in  Arkansas.  In  Canada  a  domain 
26  miles  by  10  in  extent  has  been  set  aside  as  a 
national  park  at  Banff  in  Alberta  (by  rail  562 
miles  NE.  of  Vancouver) ;  it  embraces  one  of  the 
most  beautiful  sections  of  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
and  contains  hot  sulphur-springs.  Roger's  Pass, 
135  miles  to  the  west,  is  also  reserved  as  a  govei'u- 
ment  park.     See  besides  the  article  Niagara. 

Natron  Lakes.    See  Nitrian  Desert. 

Nau'cratis,  an  ancient  city  of  Egypt,  in  the 
Nile  delta,  47  miles  SE.  of  Alexandria. 

Naugatuck',  in  Connecticut,  on  the  Naugatuck 
River,  22  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  New  Haven, 
manufactures  gloves,  rubber  goods,  cutlery,  and 
iron- wares.    Pop.  10,550. 

Nauheim,  or  BAD-NAUHEiM,in  Hesse-Darmstadt 
and  near  the  Tannus  Mountains,  24  miles  N.  of 
Frankfort.  Its  hot,  saline,  and  chalybeate  springs 
are  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid.    Pop.  5000. 

Naumbnrg  (Nowm'boorg),  a  quaint  old  town 
of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the  Saale,  in  an  amphi- 
theatre of  vine-clad  hills,  30  miles  by  rail  SW. 
of  Leipzig.  Of  its  six  churches,  the  triple- 
towered  cathedral  (1207-42)  is  a  noble  Roman- 
esque and  Gothic  structure.  The  manufactures 
include  ivory  carvings,  combs,  hosiery,  wine,  &c. 
Tlie  yearly  'cherry  feast'  commemorates  the 
raising  of  the  siege  of  Naumburg  by  the  Hussite 
leader  Procop  in  response  to  the  supplication 
of  the  children  (28th  July  1432);  but  recent 
historians  cast  doubt  on  the  whole  episode. 
The  seat  of  a  bishopric  (1059-1564),  Naumburg 


suffered  much  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War  ;  in  1814 
it  came  to  Prussia.    Pop.  28,200. 

Nauplia  (Now'pleea),  a  fortified  seaport  in  the 
Morea,  Greece,  at  the  N.  end  of  theGulfof  Argos 
or  Nauplia,  25  miles  S.  of  Corinth.     Pop.  10,880. 

Naushara,  or  Nowsuera,  a  town  of  the  native 
state  of  Bahawalpnr  (q.v.),  under  the  Punjab,  20 
miles  from  the  left  bank  of  the  Indus,  on  the  rail- 
way between  Mooltan  and  Karachi.    Pop.  15,000. 

Nauvoo'  (from  a  Heb.  word  for  '  beautiful '),  a 
village  of  Illinois,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  14  miles  above  Keokuk.  It  was 
built  by  the  Mormons  in  1840,  and  soon  contained 
a  pop.  of  15,000.  Its  ])rincipal  feature  was  a 
great  temple  of  white  limestone  (1841-45) ;  but 
it  had  also  mills  and  factories,  and  the  begin- 
nings of  a  university.  After  the  expulsion  of 
the  Mormons  in  1846,  the  temple  was  half 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1848,  and  further  ruined  by 
a  tornado  in  1850.  The  town  was  occupied  by  a 
French  Socialist  community.    Pop.  1350. 

Navan  (Nah'van),  a  market-town  in  Meath,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Boyne  and  Blackwater,  16 
miles  W.  of  Drogheda  by  rail.     Pop.  3863. 

Navarino  (Navaree'no;  officially  Pylos),  on  a 
bay  on  the  south-west  coast  of  the  Morea  in 
Greece,  contains  only  1462  iidiabitants,  but  has 
an  excellent  deep  harbour.  The  Bay  of  Navarino 
was  the  scene  of  a  great  sea-victory  of  the 
Athenians  over  tlie  Spartans  (425  b.c.)  ;  and  on 
the  20th  October  1827  it  saw  the  annihilation  of 
the  Turkish  and  Egyptian  navies  by  the  British, 
French,  and  Russian  fleets. 

Navarre  (Basque  Nava,  'a  mountain  plain," 
and  erri,  '  country '),  one  of  the  kingdoms  which 
arose  in  the  Pyrenees  after  the  downfall  of  the 
Goths,  but  since  1512  divided  into  Spanish 
Navarra,  and  French  or  Basse-Navarre  (now 
Basses  Pyrenees).  Spanish  Navarra,  by  far  the 
greater  division,  has  an  area  of  6046  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
304,151,  speaking  Basque  in  the  north. 

Naver,  a  Sutherland  stream,  flowing  19  miles 
N.  by  E.  to  Torrisdale  Bay  out  of  Loch  Naver 
(6i  miles  x  ^  mile). 

Navigators'  Islands.    See  Samoa. 

Nawanagar,  a  seaport  of  India,  and  capital 
of  a  Kathiawar  state  (area,  1379  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
316,147),  stands  on  the  Gulf  of  Cutch,  310  miles 
NW.  of  Bombay.    Pop.  68,530. 

Naworth  Castle.    See  Lanercost. 

Naxos,  the  largest  and  most  fertile  of  the 
Cyclades,  is  situated  in  the  iEgean,  midway 
between  Greece  and  Asia  Minor.  It  is  20  miles 
in  length,  and  has  a  pop.  of  25,880.  The  shores 
are  steep,  and  the  island  is  traversed  by  a  ridge 
of  mountains,  which  culminate  in  Dia  (3289  feet). 
The  wine  of  Naxos  was  famous  in  ancient  as  it 
is  in  modern  times,  hence  the  island  was  cele- 
brated in  the  legends  of  Dionysus  and  Ariadne. 
It  was  Turkish  from  1566  till  Greece  became  a 
kingdom.  Naxos,  the  capital  (pop.  2000),  is  the 
seat  of  a  Greek  bishop  and  a  Latin  archbishop. 

Nazareth,  the  home  of  Jesus,  anciently  in  the 
district  of  Galilee,  21  miles  SE.  of  Acre,  is  still 
a  small  but  flourishing  town  of  Palestine.  The 
principal  building  is  the  Latin  convent,  on  the 
supposed  scene  of  the  Annunciation.  Pop.  10,000, 
of  whom  6500  are  Christians  (mostly  Roman 
Catholics  and  Greek  Catholics)  and  3500  Moslems. 

Naze,  The,  or  Lindesnaes,  the  southernmost 
headland  of  Norway  (q.v.),  near  the  entrance  of 
the  Skager  Rack,  with  a  lighthouse.— A  head- 


KEACa 


4d0 


NEN 


land  of  Essex,  5  miles  S.  of  Harwich.  Naze 
means  'nose'  or  'promontory.' 

Neagh,  Lough  (Lohh  Nay),  the  largest  lake  of 
the  British  Islands,  in  Ulster,  Ireland,  is  sur- 
rounded by  the  counties  of  Armagh,  Tyrone,  Lon- 
donderry, Antrim,  and  Down.  It  is  16  miles  in 
length  and  10  in  average  breadth,  contains  98,255 
acres,  is  102  feet  in  greatest  depth,  and  is  48 
feet  above  sea-level.  The  chief  of  its  numerous 
feeders  are  the  Upper  Bann,  Blackwater,  and 
Callan  ;  and  its  surplus  waters  are  carried  off 
northward  to  the  North  Channel  by  the  Lower 
Bann.  The  southern  shores  are  low,  marshy,  and 
dreary.    Fish  abound— trout,  char,  and  pullen. 

Neanderthal  (Ne-an'der-tal),  a  romantic  valley 
between  Dtisseldorf  and  Elberfeld  in  Rhenish 
Prussia.  In  a  limestone  cave  here  was  found  in 
1857  the  skeleton  of  a  prehistoric  man. 

Neath,  a  parliamentary  and  municipal  borough 
and  river-port  of  Glamorganshire,  on  a  navigable 
river  of  the  same  name,  8  miles  ENE.  of  Swansea 
by  rail.  It  is  believed  to  stand  on  the  site  of 
the  Roman  Nidum ;  and  near  it  are  the  remains 
of  a  castle  burned  in  1231,  and  ruins  of  Neath 
Abbey,  described  by  Leland  as  '  the  fairest  abbey 
in  all  Wales,'  but  now  sadly  decayed  and  begrimed 
by  smoke  and  coal-dust.  Neath  has  copper  and 
tin-plate  works,  iron-foundries,  and  chemical 
works.  It  is  one  of  the  Swansea  district  boroughs. 
Pop.  (1851)  5831  ;  (1901)  13,720. 

Nebraska,  a  central  state  of  the  American 
Union,  the  eleventh  in  area,  lies  between  South 
Dakota,  Iowa  (separated  by  the  Missouri  River), 
Kansas,  Colorado,  and  Wyoming.  Area,  76,855 
sq.  m.  The  surface  is  chiefly  an  elevated,  undu- 
lating prairie ;  it  is  very  level  in  the  eastern  and 
southern  portions,  but  in  the  north  and  west 
the  'Bad  Lands'  extend  into  the  state,  while 
north  of  the  Niobrarah  River  there  are  great 
sandhills.  The  average  elevation  of  the  state 
rises  from  about  1200  feet  in  the  east  to  6000 
feet  towards  the  western  border.  The  principal 
rivers,  the  Platte,  Niobrarah,  and  Republican,  all 
flow  east.  The  atmosphere  is  dry  and  invigor- 
ating; great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  are 
sometimes  experienced.  Wolves,  foxes,  skunks, 
rabbits,  &c.  abound.  The  soil  is  mostly  a  rich 
black  mould,  2  to  8  feet  deep.  The  staple  crop 
is  maize.  Tobacco  and  sugar-beet  also  are  culti- 
vated. The  manufactures  include  agricultural 
implements,  canned  provisions,  vitrified  brick, 
woollen  clothing,  soap,  and  beet-sugar.  Pop. 
(1860)  28,841 ;  (1880)  452,402  ;  (1900)  L0fi6,g00.  The 
principal  cities  are  Omaha,  Lincoln  (the  capital), 
Beatrice,  Hastings,  and  Nebraska  City.  Nebraska, 
included  in  the  Louisiana  Purchase,  was  organised 
in  1854,  with  an  area  of  351,558  sq.  m.  But  of 
this  vast  area  great  portions  were  afterwards 
carved  out  for  Colorado,  Dakota,  and  Idaho. 
Nebraska  became  a  state  in  1867. 

Nebraska  City,  capital  of  Otoe  county,  Ne- 
braska, on  the  west  bank  of  the  Missouri,  74  miles 
below  Omaha  (44  by  rail).  It  contains  the 
Nebraska  College  (Episcopal,  1863),  mills  and 
factories,  &c.     Pop.  7500. 

Nebraska  River.    See  Platte. 

Neches  River  (Netch'ez),  rises  in  eastern  Texas, 
and  flows  350  miles  SSE.  to  Sabine  Lake,  its 
waters  passing  thence  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Neckar,  the  principal  river  of  Wiirtemberg, 
rises  on  the  eastern  declivity  of  the  Black  Forest, 
and  winding  250  miles,  joins  the  Rhine  at  Mann- 
heim—the other  towns  on  its  banks  being  Tubin- 
gen, Heilbronn,  and  Heidelberg.     From  Cann- 


stadt,  about  midway,  the  Neckar  is  navigable. 
Fair  wines  are  grown  on  its  banks. 

Nedjd.    See  Arabia. 

Needham  Market,  a  Suffolk  town,  on  the  Gip- 
ping,  3  miles  SE.  of  Stowmarket.     Pop.  1313. 

Needles,  a  group  of  chalk  rocks  off  the  W.  end 
of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  4|  miles  SW.  of  Yarmouth. 
The  westernmost  bears  a  lighthouse. 

Needwood  Forest,  a  former  royal  forest  in 
Staffordshire,  along  the  Trent. 

Neerwinden  (Nayr'winden),  a  small  village  in 
the  north-west  corner  of  the  Belgian  province  of 
Liege.  Here  the  French  under  Luxembourg 
defeated  the  English  under  William  III.  (29th 
July  1693),  and  here  under  Dumouriez  they  were 
defeated  by  the  allies  (ISth  March  1793). 

Negapatam',  a  seaport  on  the  Coromandel 
coast,  ISO  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Madras  city. 
Originally  Portuguese,  it  was  taken  by  the  Dutch 
in  1660,  and  by  the  English  in  1781.  It  exports 
cottons,  live-stock,  ghi,  and  imports  spices,  piece- 
goods,  coal,  gunny  bags.     Pop.  57,221. 

Negropont.    See  Eubcea. 

Neidpath,  a  ruined  castle,  on  the  Tweed,  1 
mile  W.  of  Peebles. 

Neilgherry  Hills  (Neelgerry,  g  hard  ;  properly 
Nilgiri;  Sansk.  7iila,  'blue,'  and  giri,  'moun- 
tain '),  a  mountainous  district  in  the  south  of 
India,  rising  abruptly  from  the  plains  to  the 
height  of  6000  feet,  though  individual  peaks 
shoot  up  to  8760  feet.  They  have  a  delightfully 
cool  climate,  and  are  much  resorted  to  by  invalided 
Europeans,  the  principal  station  being  Ootaca- 
nunid.     See  a  work  by  H.  B.  Grigg  (1880). 

Neilston,  a  Renfrewshire  town,  on  the  Levern, 
2  miles  SW.  of  Barrhead.     Pop.  2713. 

Neisse  (Nlce-seh),  a  fortified  town  of  Prussian 
Silesia,  on  the  Neisse,  an  aflluent  of  the  Oder, 
50  miles  SE.  of  Breslau.  It  manufactures  arms, 
linen,  and  chemicals,  and  has  great  wool-markets. 
Emin  Pasha  was  born  here.     Pop.  22,444. 

Nejd.    See  Arabia. 

Nellore,  a  town  of  India,  on  the  Pennar,  107 
miles  N.  of  Madras.     Pop.  32,336. 

Nelson,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Lancashire, 
3^  miles  NNE.  of  Burnley,  made  a  municipal 
borough  in  1890.  Pop.  (1871)10,381 ;  (1901)  32,816. 

Nelson,  the  capital  of  a  provincial  district  in 
New  Zealand,  on  a  harbour  at  the  north  end  of 
South  Island,  where  the  Maitai  enters  Blind  Bay. 
Founded  in  1841,  it  has  a  cathedral,  museum, 
and  manufactures  of  cloth,  leaClier,  soap,  and 
jam.     Pop.  7200  ;  with  suburbs,  over  12,000. 

Nelson  River  issues  from  the  north  end  of 
Lake  Winnipeg  in  Canada,  and,  after  a  north- 
easterly course  of  400  miles  through  Keewatin, 
falls  into  Hudson  Bay  (q.v.).  It  is  navigable  for 
127  miles  from  its  mouth,  though  only  some  70 
or  80  miles  for  large  steamers. 

Neme'a,  anciently  the  name  of  a  well-watered 
valley  of  Argolis,  in  the  Peloponnesus. 

Nemi  (Nay'mee),  Lake  of,  an  extinct  crater, 
20  miles  S.  of  Rome,  accounted  for  its  beauty 
the  gem  of  the  Alban  Mountains.  There  was 
here  a  famous  temple  of  Diana. 

Nemours  (Nenwor'),  an  ancient  town  of  4507 
inhabitants  in  the  French  dep.  of  Seine-et-Marne, 
40  miles  SB.  of  Paris  by  rail. 

Nen,  a  river  of  England,  rising  near  Naseby, 
and  flowing  70  miles  NE.  to  the  Wash,  past  North- 
ainpton,  Oundle,  Peterborough,  &c. 


NENAGH 


491 


NEUSfAOT 


Kenagh  (Nay'na),  a  Tipperary  town,  28  miles 
NE.  of  Limerick  by  rail.  Its  Norman  keep  is 
called  Nenagli  Round.     Pop.  4702. 

Nepal  (Ne-pawV),  a  native  kingdom  of  India,  on 
the  southern  slope  of  the  Himalayas,  between 
Tibet  and  Bengal.  It  is  512  miles  in  length,  by  70 
to  150  in  breadth.  Area,  54,000  sq.  m.  ;  jwp.  esti- 
mated by  native  authorities  at  5,500,000,  more 
probably  2,500,000.  The  northern  parts  of  the 
state  embrace  the  main  range  of  the  Himalayas, 
with  Everest,  Dhawalagiri,  &c.  On  the  south 
of  the  state  lies  the  Terai.  The  intervening 
territory  consists  of  mountain-ridges,  embracing 
valleys  drained  by  the  Kurnali,  Gandak,  Kosi, 
&c.  The  climate  varies  greatly  according  to 
altitude ;  tlie  principal  valley,  in  which  stands 
the  capital  Khatmandu  (q.v.),  has  a  climate  like 
that  of  southern  Europe.  The  soil  is  very 
fertile.  The  hillsides  are  terraced  and  the  land 
is  irrigated.  Copper,  iron,  sulphur,  &c.,  are 
little  worked.  The  forests  contain  valuable  tim- 
ber trees.  The  valleys  are  inhabited  by  numer- 
ous different  hill-tribes,  partly  aboriginal,  partly 
of  Mongolian  or  Chinese  descent ;  but  the  domi- 
nant race  are  the  Goorkhas,  whose  ancestors  came 
from  Rajputana  in  the  12th  century,  though  it 
was  not  .until  1769  that  they  made  themselves 
masters  of  Nepal.  In  1815  Sir  David  Ochterlony 
defeated  the  Goorkha  armies  in  the  west ;  and 
in  1816  a  British  force,  33,000  strong,  within 
three  days'  march  of  Khatmandu,  compelled  tlie 
Goorkhas  to  sign  a  treaty  of  peace :  they  have 
since  been  helpful,  especially  during  the  mutiny. 

Nerbudda,  or  Narbada,  a  river  of  India,  rises 
on  the  Amarkantak  plateau,  3493  feet  above  sea- 
level,  and  flows  west,  through  the  Central  Prov- 
inces, past  Jabalpur,  through  the  great  depres- 
sion between  the  Vindhya  Mountains  on  the 
north  and  the  Satpura  Mountains  on  the  south, 
and  reaches  the  Gulf  of  Cambay  half-way  be- 
tween Baroda  and  Surat.  The  river,  a  sacred 
stream,  has  a  total  length  of  800  miles,  and  is 
navigable  to  Broach,  30  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Nerchinsk.    See  Nertchinsk. 

Neris-les-Bains.    See  Montluqon. 

Nertchinsk,  a  mining-town  of  eastern  Siberia, 
in  the  Trans-Baikal  Territory,  on  the  Nertcha,  a 
tributary  of  the  Shilka  (a  head-stream  of  the 
Amur),  875  miles  E.  of  Irkutsk.  Pop.  675a  — 
Nertchinskiy-Zavod,  180  miles  SE.,  on  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Argun,  is  also  a  mining  centre,  many 
of  the  workers  being  convicts.     Pop.  5000. 

Ness,  Loch,  a  long,  narrow  lake  of  Inverness- 
shire,  the  second  largest  in  Scotland,  6J  miles 
SW.  of  Inverness.  Lying  50  feet  above  sea-level, 
it  extends  22^  miles  north-north-eastward,  and 
has  an  average  breadth  of  1  mile,  with  an  area 
of  19  sq.  m.  It  receives  the  Morriston,  Oich, 
Foyers  (q.v.),  and  other  streams,  and  sends  otf 
the  river  Ness  7  miles  to  the  Moray  Firth.  It 
lies  in  the  valley  of  Glenmore,  on  the  line  of 
the  Caledonian  Canal  (q.v.),  and  is  enclosed  by 
steep  mountains— the  highest,  Mealfourvoni'e 
(2284  feet).  Owing  to  its  depth  (in  places  780 
feet)  it  never  freezes  much.    See  Fort  Augustus. 

Neston  and  Parkgate,  a  town  on  the  Dee 
estuary,  12^  miles  NW.  of  Chester.    Pop.  4577. 

Netherlands,  a  triangular  region  between 
France,  Germany,  and  the  sea,  lying  mainly  in 
the  basins  of  the  Scheldt,  the  Meuse,  and  the 
lower  Rhine,  and  now  divided  between  the 
kingdoms  of  Holland  (q.v.)  and  Belgium  (q.v.). 

Nethou.    See  Pyrenees. 

Ketley,  a  place  on  the  east  side  of  Southampton 


Water,  3  miles  SE.  of  Southampton,  with  a  ruined 
Cistercian  abbey,  founded  in  the  time  of  Henry 
III.,  and  the  Royal  Victoria  Military  Hospital 
(for  878  patients),  the  foundation-stone  of  which 
was  laid  by  Queen  Victoria  on  19th  May  1856. 

Neu-Brandenburg  (Noy-Brandenboorg'),  a  town 
of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  on  Lake  Tollens,  20 
miles  NNE.  of  Neu-Strelitz  by  rail.     Pop.  10,550. 

Neuhurg  (Noyboorg),  an  ancient  town  of 
Bavaria,  on  the  Danube's  right  bank,  29  miles 
NNE.  of  Augsburg.     Pop.  8485. 

Neuchatel,  or  NeufchAtel  {Nuh-sha-teV ;  Ger. 
Neuenburg),  a  canton  in  the  west  of  Switzerland; 
between  Lake  Neuchatel  and  the  French  frontier. 
Most  of  its  streams  flow  into  the  Rhine  ;  several 
are  feeders  of  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel,  which, 
lying  1420  feet  above  sea-level,  and  472  feet  deep, 
is  25  miles  long  by  from  3  to  6  wide.  The  Thiele 
carries  its  waters  into  the  lake  of  Bienne,  and 
thence  into  the  river  Aar.  Pop.  (1870)  97,284  ; 
(1900)  126,279,  of  whom  three-fourths  speak 
French,  and  four- fifths  are  Protestants.  The 
speciality  of  the  canton  is  watch-making,  which 
occupies  20,000  persons,  mainly  in  their  own 
homes.  Neuchatel  was  associated  with  Prussia 
from  1707  till  1806,  when  Napoleon  bestowed  it 
upon  General  Berthier;  in  1814  it  was  restored 
to  the  House  of  Brandenburg.  A  republican 
constitution  was  adopted  in  1848  ;  and  there  was 
civil  war  in  1856.  The  connection  with  Prussia 
was  dissolved  in  1857,  and  Neuchatel  became  a 
member  of  the  Swiss  Confederation. 

Neuchatel,  chief  town  of  the  canton,  occupies 
a  magnificent  site  on  the  north-west  shore  of  the 
Lake  of  Neuchatel,  85  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of 
Geneva.  It  is  noted  for  its  many  charitable, 
educational,  and  artistic  institutions,  and  has  a 
chateau  (restored  1866),  a  college  (1828),  a  statue 
of  Farel  (1875),  &c.  It  manufactures  watches, 
jewellery,  &c.  Pop.  (1870)  13,321  ;  (1904)  22,012. 
—The  famous  Neufchatel  cream-cheeses  are  made 
at  Neufchatel-en-Bray,  a  small  Norman  town, 
25  miles  SE.  of  Dieppe  by  rail. 

Neuilly  (Nuh-ee-yee'),  or  Neuilly-sur-Seine,  a 
town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Seine,  N.  of  the  Bois 
de  Boulogne,  and  practically  a  suburb  of  Paris. 
Here,  near  the  Seine,  and  in  a  beautiful  park, 
stood  Louis-Philippe's  favourite  Chateau  de 
Neuilly,  built  by  Louis  XV.,  and  burned  at  the 
revolution  of  1848.     Pop.  39,444. 

Neu-Mecklenhurg.    See  New  Ireland. 

Neumiinster  (Noyniunster),  a  town  of  Holstein, 
20  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Kiel,  with  cloth- 
mills,  dyeworks,  breweries,  &c.     Pop.  13,659. 

Neu-Pommern.     See  New  Britain. 

Neusatz  (Noy-zatz),  or  Uj  Vid6k,  a  town  of 
Hungary,  on  the  Danube's  left  bank,  opposite 
Peterwardein  (q.v.).     Pop.  24,717. 

Neusiedler  Lake  (Noyzeed'ler),  a  shallow, 
brackish  lake  on  the  north-west  frontier  of  Hun- 
gary, 22  miles  SE.  of  Vienna,  which  has  lost 
much  of  its  former  area  (133  sq.  m.)  by  draining. 

Neuss  (Noyss),  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  near 
the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine,  4  miles  W.  of  Diissel- 
dorf  by  rail.  Its  church  of  St  Quirinus  was 
founded  in  1209,  Neuss  has  ironworks,  foundries, 
flour  and  iron  mills,  and  manufactures  of  cottons, 
woollens,  leather,  paper,  chicory,  &c.  Pop. 
close  on  30,000. 

Keu8ta.6.t  (Noy-stat),  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia, 
25  miles  SW.  of  Oppeln.  It  manufactures  woolleii 
and  linen  fabrics  and  carpets.  Pop.  26,093.— (2) 
Nbustadt,  or  Wibner-Neustadt,  one  of  the  most 


NEUSTRELITZ 


492 


NEWARK 


beautiful  towns  of  Lower  Austria,  32  miles  S.  of 
Vienna  by  rail.  It  is  overlooked  by  the  old  castle 
of  the  Dukes  of  Babenberg,  now  a  military 
academy,  whose  fine  Gothic  chapel  (1460),  rich  in 
painted  glass,  is  the  burial-place  of  Maximilian  I. 
Locomotives  and  machinery,  wire,  bells,  pottery, 
starch,  leather,  and  ribbons  are  manufactured. 
The  city,  called  'the  Ever-faithful,'  was  founded 
in  1192,  and  rebuilt  after  a  great  lire  in  1834.  Pop. 
29,040. — (3)  Neustadt-an-der-Hardt,  a  town  of 
Rhenish  Bavaria,  at  the  foot  of  the  Hardt  Moun- 
tains, 20  miles  W.  of  Spires.  It  manufactures 
paper,  cloth,  soap,  wine,  &c.     Pop.  18,255. 

Neustrelitz  (Noy-strmj'litz),  capital  of  the 
grand-duchy  of  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  in  a  hilly 
district,  between  two  lakes,  62  miles  NNW.  of 
Berlin.  Founded  in  1733,  it  is  built  in  the  form 
of  an  eight-rayed  star,  and  contains  the  ducal 
palace,  with  magnificent  gardens.    Pop.  11,540. 

Neustria,  the  portion  of  the  Frank  empire 
containing  Soissons,  Paris,  Orleans,  and  Tours. 

Neuwled  (Noy'veed),  a  town  of  Prussia,  on  the 
Rhine's  right  bank,  8  miles  below  Coblenz,  Avas 
capital  of  the  principality  of  Wied  ;  the  castle 
has  a  beautiful  garden,  with  many  Roman  an- 
tiquities. The  town  contains  a  great  institute  of 
the  Moravian  Brethren.    Pop.  11,650. 

Neva,  a  river  of  Russia,  flows  westward  from 
the  south-west  corner  of  Lake  Ladoga  to  the  Bay 
of  Cronstadt,  in  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  passing 
through  St  Petersburg,  and  carries  to  the  sea  an 
enormous  volume  of  water  (greater  than  that  of 
the  Rhine)  from  the  lakes  Ladoga,  Onega,  Ilmen, 
&c.  Its  total  length,  with  windings,  is  about 
40  miles  ;  its  width  varies  from  4000  feet  to  ISO  ; 
and  in  places  the  navigation  is  embarrassed  by 
reefs  and  rapids.  It  is  frozen  on  an  average  from 
November  25  to  April  21. 

Nevada  (Nevah'da),  one  of  the  Pacific  states  of 
the  American  Union,  is  bounded  by  Oregon, 
Idaho,  Utah,  Arizona,  and  California.  Its  great- 
est length  from  north  to  south  is  a  little  less  than 
600  miles,  and  its  greatest  width  more  than  300 
miles.  In  area  (110,700  sq.  m.)  it  is  the  fourth 
largest  state  of  the  Union  ;  in  population  it  is  the 
lowest  of  all  the  states  and  territories— (1870) 
42,491 ;  (18S0)  62,266  ;  (1900)  42,335.  Nearly  the 
whole  of  Nevada  is  included  in  the  Great  Basin 
(q.v.),  once  occupied  by  a  vast  inland  sea,  whose 
deepest  depressions  are  yet  marked  by  Walker, 
Humboldt,  Carson,  Pyrajiiid,  and  Winnemucca 
lakes,  and  by  other  '  sinks '  and  playas,  while  the 
ancient  sliore-liues  are  clearly  visible  in  places. 
The  climate,  now  nearly  rainless,  was  once  moist; 
the  soil  of  the  Great  Basin  is  now  almost  totally 
unfit  for  agriculture.  At  present  Nevada  is  a 
high  plateau  with  an  average  altitude  of  4000 
feet,  crossed  by  numerous  ranges  of  mountains, 
separated  by  valleys  from  5  to  20  miles  in  width. 
Some  of  these  valleys  are  barren  and  desolate  ; 
others,  through  which  the  rivers  flow,  have 
areas  of  arable  land.  The  mineral  production  of 
Nevada,  especially  of  silver,  has  been  enormous 
in  the  past ;  and  mining  is  still  the  chief  interest. 
Nevada  lies  almost  wholly  in  the  great  basin  of 
interior  drainage,  where  none  of  the  water  reaches 
the  sea.  The  Humboldt  River  pursues  a  winding 
course  of  350  miles.  There  are  numerous  hot 
springs.  The  atmosphere  is  dry,  the  temperature 
subject  to  extremes,  and  the  rainfall  exceedingly 
light.  The  Mormons  established  a  few  temporary 
camps  in  1848,  and  in  1850  a  settlement  was  made 
at  Genoa  ;  but  the  real  history  of  the  state  begins 
with  the  discovery  of  silver  in  1859.  Nevada 
was  sepax-ated  from  Utah  in  1861,  and  in  1864  waa 


admitted  a  state.  The  larger  towns  are  Reno, 
Virginia  City,  and  Carson  (the  capital). 

Never  Never  Country,  a  name  given  to  part 
of  tlie  central  Australian  desert,  north  of  Lake 
Eyre,  mainly  in  tlie  state  of  South  Australia,  but 
including  part  of  western  Queensland. 

Nevers  {Neh-vayt^),  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of 
Nievre,  and  formerly  of  the  province  of  Nivernais, 
is  picturesquely  seated  on  a  hillside  at  the  influx 
of  the  Nievre  to  tlie  Loire,  159  miles  by  rail  SSE. 
of  Paris.  The  Noviodunum  of  Caesar,  it  has  been 
the  seat  of  a  bishop  since  506 ;  its  beautiful 
cathedral  belongs  mainly  to  tlie  13th  century. 
The  industries  comprise  tlie  manufacture  of 
cannon,  iron  cables  and  chains,  porcelain  (intro- 
duced ijy  Italians  about  1565),  &c.     Pop.  25,600. 

Neviansk,  a  town  in  the  Russian  government 
of  Perm,  50  miles  N.  of  Ekaterinburg  by  rail, 
.stands  on  the  Siberian  side  of  the  Ural  Moun- 
tains, and  on  a  tributary  of  the  'Tobol.  The 
district  is  rich  in  gold  and  iron.     Pop.  16,066. 

Neville's  Cross,  IJ  mile  SW.  of  Durham,  the 
scene  of  the  defeat  and  capture  of  David  Bruce, 
17th  October  1346. 

Nevin,  a  Carnarvonshire  fishing-town  on  Car- 
narvon Bay,  5  miles  NW.  of  Pwllheli.  It  is  one 
of  the  six  Carnarvon  boroughs.    Pop.  1798. 

Nevis,  one  of  the  British  Leeward  Islands,  2 
miles  SE.  of  St  Kitts,  with  which  it  is  administra- 
tively connected.  It  is  circular  in  form,  rises  in 
the  centre  to  a  wooded  ancient  crater  (3200  feet), 
and  has  an  area  of  50  sq.  m.  Sugar  is  the  princi- 
pal crop,  and  limes  and  oranges  are  grown.  Pop. 
(1881)  11,864;  (1903)  13,300.  The  capital  is  the 
port  of  Charlestown  (pop.  1500).  Nevis  was  dis- 
covered by  Columbus  in  1498,  colonised  by  Eng- 
land in  1628,  and  long  a  great  slave-mart.  It  has 
suffered  much  from  hurricanes  and  earthquakes. 

Nevis,  Ben.    See  Ben  Nevis. 

Nevis,  Loch,  a  sea-inlet  of  West  Inverness- 
shire,  14  miles  long  and  1  to  4  miles  broad. 

Newabbey,  a  Kirkcudbrightshire  parish,  8 
miles  S.  of  Dumfries,  with  the  beautiful  ruins  of 
New  or  Sweetheart  Abbey,  founded  for  Cistercians 
by  Deverguila  in  1275. 

New  Albany,  capital  of  Floyd  county,  Indiana, 
on  the  north  bank  of  the  Ohio  River,  nearly 
ojjposite  Louisville,  and  317  miles  by  rail  S.  by 
E.  of  Chicago,  267  E.  of  St  Louis.  It  contains 
iron  and  brass  foundries,  rolling-mills,  potteries 
and  brick-yards,  flour,  woollen,  cotton,  and 
planing  mills,  &c.  ;  while  its  plate-glass  works 
are  the  largest  in  the  United  States.  Pop.  (1880) 
16,423  ;  (1900)  20,630. 

New  Almaden.    See  Almaden. 

New  Amsterdam.    See  New  York,  St  Paul. 

Newark,  a  ruined  tower  of  Selkirkshire,  on  the 
right  bank  of  Yarrow  Water,  4\  miles  WNW.  of 
Selkirk  town.  It  figures  in  the  Lay  of  the  Last 
Minstrel.     See  also  Port-Glasgow. 

New' ark,  (l)  the  capital  of  Essex  county.  New 
Jersey,  on  the  Passaic  River,  9  miles  by  rail  W. 
of  New  York.  A  handsome  city,  with  parks 
and  elm-shaded  streets,  it  has  a  city-hall,  court- 
house, public  library,  nearly  150  churches,  and 
400  industrial  establishments,  producing  brass 
and  iron  work,  hardware  and  machinery,  carriages, 
trunks,  saddlery,  boots,  hats,  clothing,  jewellery, 
&c.  The  line  ofdocks  is  over  a  mile  long.  Newark 
was  settled  in  1666  by  a  colony  from  Connecticut, 
and  received  a  city  charter  in  1836.  Pop.  (1850) 
38,983 ;  (1890)  181,830 ;  (1900)  246,070. -<2)  Capitol 


NEWARK-UPON-TRENT 


493 


NEWBURGH 


of  Licking  county,  Ohio,  on  the  Licking  River 
(here  crossed  by  four  iron  bridges),  33  miles  by 
rail  E.  by  N.  of  Columbus.  Stoves,  boilers, 
machinery,  wagons,  flour,  woollens,  and  glass-ware 
are  manufactured.   Pop.  (1880)  9600 ;  (1900)  18,160. 

Newark-upon- Trent,  a  town  of  Notts,  on  a 
navigable  branch  of  the  Trent,  18  miles  by  rail 
NB.  of  Nottingham,  and  120  N.  by  W.  of  London. 
It  is  approached  from  the  north  by  a  causeway, 
1^  mile  long,  constructed  by  Smeaton  in  1770, 
and  carried  over  the  flat  island  formed  by  the 
Trent  on  the  west  and  the  Newark  branch  on 
the  east.  The  fine  parish  church,  built  mainly 
between  1350  and  1489,  has  an  octagonal  spire 
223  feet  high.  Other  edifices  are  the  town-hall 
(1805),  corn  exchange  (1848),  hospital  (1881), 
coflee-palace  (1882),  free  library  (1882),  and 
grammar-school,  founded  by  Archdeacon  Magiuis 
in  1529.  Newark  has  a  very  important  corn- 
market  and  great  malting  industries,  besides  iron 
and  brass  foundries,  manufactures  of  boilers  and 
agricultural  implements,  and  plaster  of  Paris 
works.  Incorporated  by  Edward  VI.,  it  returned 
two  members  to  parliament  till  1885.  Pop.  (1851) 
11,230  ;  (1901)  14,992.  A  British  town  and  Roman 
station,  Newark  in  Saxon  times  became  the  seat  of 
a  castle,  which  was  rebuilt  in  1125  by  Alexander, 
Bishop  of  Lincoln  (hence  the  name  New  Wark), 
and  was  long  known  as  the  'key  of  the  north.' 
King  John  died  in  it  (1216) ;  and  in  the  Great 
Rebellion  it  stood  three  sieges,  in  the  second  of 
which  it  was  relieved  by  Prince  Rupert  (1644), 
whilst  in  the  third  it  was  surrendered  to  the 
Scots  by  order  of  Charles  I.,  who  had  just  delivered 
liimself  up  (5th  May  1646).  It  was  then  dis- 
mantled, and  is  now  represented  only  by  a  very 
picturesque  ruin  in  a  public  garden.  See  works 
by  Shilton  (1820)  and  Cornelius  Brown  (1879). 

Newbattle  Abbey,  Midlothian,  1  mile  S.  by 
W.  of  Dalkeith,  the  seat  of  the  Marquis  of 
Lothian,  on  the  site  of  a  Cistercian  monastery 
(1140).  Andrew  Cant  and  Robert  Leighton  were 
ministers  of  Newbattle. 

New  Bedford,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
Massachusetts,  is  on  the  Acushnet  estuary  (here 
crossed  by  a  bridge  4000  feet  long),  3  miles  N. 
of  Buzzard's  Bay  and  56  by  rail  S.  of  Boston. 
The  public  buildings  include  a  city-hall  of  granite, 
a  custom-house,  a  public  library,  and  a  fine  high 
school  ($126,000).  There  is  a  broad  drive  (4  miles) 
round  Clark's  Point,  where  there  is  a  granite  fort. 
For  a  century  (1755-1854)  New  Bedford  was  the 
chief  centre  of  the  American  whale-fisheries,  send- 
ing out  more  than  400  whaling-vessels.  Besides 
several  great  cotton-mills,  it  has  foundries,  oil- 
refineries,  and  manufactories  of  drills,  cordage, 
boots,  flour,  glass,  plated  ware,  carriages,  candles, 
&c.     Pop.  (1880)  26,845  ;  (1900)  62,412. 

Newbern,  capital  of  Craven  county.  North 
Carolina,  at  the  .junction  of  the  navigable  Neuse 
and  the  Trent  (here  crossed  by  a  long  bridge), 
107  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Raleigh.  It  manufactures 
railroad-cars,  cotton-seed  oil,  and  wood-pulp,  and 
does  oyster-canning.    Pop.  9843. 

Newbiggin,  a  Northumberland  watering-place, 
7i  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Morpeth.    Pop.  2032. 

New  Brighton,  a  Cheshire  watering-place,  4 
miles  N.  of  Birkenhead.     Pop.  4366. 

New  Brighton,  since  1898  part  of  Richmond, 
one  of  the  five  boroughs  of  New  York  city,  on  the 
NE.  shore  of  Staten  Island. — There  is  another 
New  Brigliton  in  the  coal  district  of  Pennsyl- 
vania, 30  miles  NW.  of  Pittsburgh.    Pop.  7100. 

New  Britain,  a  town  of  Connecticut,  9  miles 


SW.  of  Hartford,  producing  hardware,  cutlery, 
locks,  jewellery,  hooks  and  eyes,  hosiery,  &c.  It 
has  two  parks,  the  state  armoury,  and  a  normal 
school.     Pop.   26,800. 

New  Britain,  by  Germans  called  Neu-Pom- 
MERN,  an  island  of  the  Western  Pacific,  a  member 
of  the  German  Bismarck  Archipelago  (q.v.), 
separated  from  the  north-east  coast  of  New 
Guinea  by  the  Dampier  Strait.  In  the  forest- 
clad  interior  there  are  several  volcanoes,  active 
and  quiescent,  the  highest  being  the  Father  (3900 
feet).  The  climate  is  hot  and  moist.  Cocoa- 
nuts,  yams,  bananas,  bread-fruit,  betel-nuts,  and 
similar  fruits  are  the  chief  products.  The  natives 
are  Melanesian  cannibals.    Area,  9600  sq.  m. 

New  Brunswick,  an  eastern  province  of 
Canada,  washed  on  the  E.  by  the  Gulf  of  St 
Lawrence,  and  on  the  S.  by  the  Bay  of  Fundy. 
It  has  an  area  of  27,322  sq.  ni.— rather  smaller 
than  Scotland.  Its  coast-line,  with  many  fine 
harbours,  is  500  miles  in  length,  interrupted 
only  at  the  point  of  juncture  with  Nova  Scotia, 
where  an  isthmus  11  miles  broad  connects  the 
two  provinces.  The  surface  is  generally  undu- 
lating. There  are  low  hills  skirting  the  Bay  of 
Fundy  and  the  rivers  of  St  John  and  Restigouche. 
These  two  rivers  are  450  and  over  200  miles  long  ; 
the  Miramichi  River  is  220.  The  lakes  are  num- 
erous but  small,  the  largest  being  Grand  Lake, 
30  miles  long  and  3  to  7  miles  wide,  communi- 
cating with  the  St  John  River.  Pop.  (1881) 
321,233  ;  (1901)  331,120,  of  whom  nearly  one-third 
were  Catholics.  Tlie  x)rincipal  towns  are  St  John 
(with  Portland,  40,711),  Fredericton  (the  capital), 
and  Monctoii.  The  climate  is  subject  to  extremes, 
ranging  between  80°  and  —  15°,  Except  in  a 
strip  of  country  adjacent  to  the  Bay  of  Fundy, 
the  soil  is  very  fertile,  and  every  kind  of  grain 
and  roots  produced  in  England  is  grown,  as  well 
as  others ;  live-stock  is  raised.  The  province, 
which  has  cheap  coal,  manufactures  sawn  lumber, 
leather,  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  wooden-ware, 
paper,  iron-castings,  nails,  mill  machinery,  bolts 
and  nuts,  railway  engines  and  carriages.  A 
number  of  mines  are  worked.  Shipbuilding  is 
prosecuted.  Timber  is  the  chief  export.  Land 
is  cheap,  and  sport  excellent.  New  Brunswick, 
as  a  part  of  Nova  Scotia,  was  ceded  by  France 
to  Great  Britain  in  1713,  but  the  boimdaries  were 
not  settled  until  1763.  The  first  British  settlers 
emigrated  from  Scotland  to  the  Miramichi  district 
in  1764 ;  and  in  1783,  at  the  close  of  the 
American  revolution,  a  large  body  of  the  loyalists 
from  the  United  States  settled  near  St  John. 

New  Brunswick,  capital  of  Middlesex  county, 
New  Jersey,  is  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Raritan  River,  31  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  New  York. 
It  contains  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  and  is 
the  seat  of  Rutger's  College  (1771),  connected 
with  which  is  the  theological  seminary  of  the 
Dutch  Reformed  Church,  as  well  as  an  observa- 
tory and  a  state  agricultural  college  and  model 
farm.  New  Brunswick  is  noted  for  its  great 
india-rubber  factories,  and  has  also  iron  and 
brass  foundries,  and  manufactories  of  hosiery, 
lamps,  needles,  paper-hangings,  &c.    Pop.  20,000. 

Newburgh,  a  city  of  Orange  county,  New 
York,  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Hudson  (here 
1^  mile  wide),  57  miles  by  rail  N.  of  New  York, 
amid  the  grand  scenery  of  the  Highlands.  Its 
handsome  edifices,  villas,  and  gardens,  rising  300 
feet  from  the  river,  command  a  noble  prospect. 
The  city  has,  besides  foundries,  boiler-works, 
shipyards,  and  powder-mills,  manufactures  of 
woollen  and  cotton  goods  and  carpets,  leather, 


NEWBUROH 


494 


NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE 


flour,  soap,  oilcloth,  brushes,  paints,  plaster, 
tiles,  &c.  Butter,  grain,  flour,  and  coal  are 
shipped.  Newburg  saw  the  clisbandment  of  tlie 
American  army,  23d  June  1V83 ;  and  '  Washing- 
ton's Headquarters '  is  preserved  as  the  property 
of  the  state.     Pop.  27,000. 

New'burgh,  a  royal  burgh  of  Fife,  near  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  11  miles  ESE.  of  Perth.  It  arose 
in  connection  with  the  neighbouring  Benedictine 
abbey  of  Lindores  (c.  1196) ;  and  in  its  vicinity 
also  is  the  famous  Cross  Macduff.  Pop.  1985. 
See  A.  Laing's  Lindores  and  Newburgh  (1876). 

New'bury,  a  thriving  market-town  of  Berk- 
shire, on  the  'swift'  Kennet,  17  miles  W.  by  S. 
of  Reading  and  55  from  London.  Its  gray  old 
church,  restored  in  1867  at  a  cost  of  £15,000,  is 
a  tine  Perpendicular  edifice,  with  a  noble  tower 
added  in  1510  by  John  Winchcombe  or  Small- 
woode,  otherwise  'Jack  of  Newbury,'  a  famous 
clothier,  who  sent  a  hundred  of  his  own  men 
to  fight  at  Flodden.  The  large  Italian  corn 
exchange  was  built  in  1862,  in  which  year  was 
started  a  great  yearly  wool-market ;  and  still 
more  recent  are  the  handsome  municipal  offices 
and  the  new  grammar-school,  though  this  claims 
King  John  for  its  founder  (1216).  Newbury — 
'  new '  only  as  distinguished  from  the  old  Roman 
station  of  Spince  (now  Speen) — besides  has  many 
ancient  and  wealthy  charities.  It  was  incorpor- 
ated by  Elizabeth  in  1596,  and  the  borough 
boundary  was  extended  in  1878.  Pop.  (1801) 
4275;  (1851)  6574;  (1901)  11,061.  Two  hard- 
fought  battles  took  place  here  in  the  Great 
Rebellion — the  one  between  Cliarles  and  Essex, 
on  20th  September  1643 ;  the  other  between 
Charles  and  Manchester,  on  27th  October  1644. 
The  advantage  of  the  first  was,  on  the  whole, 
on  the  side  of  the  king,  but  it  cost  the  lives  of 
Lords  Falkland,  Carnarvon,  and  Sunderland,  to 
whom  a  memorial  was  erected  in  1878.  The 
second  would  have  been  a  decisive  royalist  defeat 
but  for  Manchester's  hesitancy. 

See  the  History  of  Newbury  (1839),  a  work  on 
the  two  battles  by  W.  Money  (1881),  and  liis 
History  of  Newbury  (Oxford,  1887). 

New'buryport',  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of 
Massachusetts,  on  the  Merrimac's  S.  bank,  3  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  87  by  rail  NE.  of  Boston. 
It  has  a  long,  shady  High  Street,  with  a  six- 
acre  pond,  and  manufactories  of  cottons,  shoes, 
combs,  hats,  pumps,  &c.  Here  Whitefield  (died 
1770)  is  buried.     Pop.  15,947. 

New  Caledonia,  a  South  Pacific  island,  be- 
longing to  France,  and  lying  midway  between 
the  Fiji  Islands  and  Queensland ;  on  it  tlie 
Loyalty  Islands  and  Isle  of  Pines  are  dependent. 
Surrounded  by  coral-reefs,  it  is  240  miles  in  length, 
25  in  average  breadth,  and  6450  sq.  m.  in  area. 
The  interior  is  greatly  broken  by  irregular  moun- 
tain-chains (highest  point.  Mount  Humboldt, 
5380  feet).  Noumea,  the  capital  (4601  inhabit- 
ants), is  on  the  south-west  coast.  The  minerals 
include  nickel,  copper,  cobalt,  antimony,  chrome, 
&c.  Wines  and  spirits,  fllour,  drapery,  groceries, 
ironmongery,  machinery,  coal,  &c.  are  imported, 
and  nickel,  cobalt,  and  other  metals,  preserved 
meat,  copra,  coffee,  &c.  exported.  Every  year 
about  130  vessels  of  75,000  tons  visit  the  island, 
one-half  being  British.  Tlie  total  pop.  in  1901 
numbered  51,415,  including — aborigines,  26,106; 
free  Europeans,  12,253  ;  convicts,  6326  ;  liberated 
convicts,  3730.  The  island  was  discovered  by  Cap- 
tain Cook  in  1774,  and  was  annexed  by  France  in 
1853.  She  began  to  use  it  as  a  convict  station,  and 
after  1871  sent  out  great  numbers  of  Communists. 


New  Castile.    See  Castile. 

Newcastle,  (1)  a  watering-place  in  Down,  11 
miles  SW.  of  Downpatrick.  Pop.  1553.— (2)  A 
town,  27  miles  SW.  of  Limerick.     Pop.  2600. 

New  Castle,  capital  of  Lawrence  county, 
Peinisylvaiiia,  on  the  Slienango  River,  50  miles 
by  rail  NNW,  of  Pittsburgh,  has  rolling-mills, 
found tie.s,  and  nail-factories.     Pop.  28,350. 

Newcastle,  a  port  of  New  South  Wales,  75  miles 
NE.  of  Sydney  by  rail,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hunter 
River.  Coal  and  wool  are  the  main  exports.  Tlie 
harbour  is  defended  by  a  fort.  Pop.  (1881)  15,595 ; 
(1901)  with  suburbs,  53,740. 

Newcastle  Emlyn,  a  Carmarthenshire  town, 
on  the  Teifi,  26  miles  NNW.  of  Carmarthen. 
Pop.  855. 

Newcastleton,  a  Roxburghshire  village,  on 
Liddel  Water,  21^  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Hawick. 
Pop.  820. 

Newcastle-under-Lyme,  a  parliamentary  and 
municipal  borough  of  Staftbrdshire,  on  the  Lyme 
brook,  and  in  what  used  to  be  the  Lyme 
Forest,  16  miles  NNW.  of  Stafford  and  147  by 
rail  NW.  by  N.  of  London.  Pop.  (1801)  4604 ; 
(1901)  19,914.  Amongst  new  public  buildings  are 
the  town-hall  (1890)  and  the  high  school  (1876). 
The  high  school  was  reconstructed  in  1874 ;  its 
distinctive  features  are  the  study  of  natural 
science  and  modern  languages.  The  parish 
church,  Early  English  and  Decorated,  was  rebuilt 
in  1876  from  designs  of  Sir  Gilbert  Scott,  and  has 
a  quaint  old  square  tower  of  red  sandstone,  and 
a  fine  peal  of  bells.  Brewing,  malting,  and  the 
making  of  paper  and  army  clothing  (formerly 
hats)  are  industries,  whilst  the  district  is  noted 
for  its  potteries  and  coal-mines.  Of  the  castle 
all  traces  have  disappeared.  The  town  now 
returns  only  one  M.P.  (two  from  1353  till  1885). 

Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  a  city  and  county,  on 
the  north  bank  of  the  Tyne,  275  miles  from 
London,  117  from  Edinburgh,  and  10  from  the 
German  Ocean.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishopric 
founded  in  1882,  and  it  returns  two  members 
to  parliament.  Pop.  (1801)  28,294  ;  (1841)  71,850 ; 
(1881)  145,359;  (1901)  215,328.  The  city,  built 
for  the  most  part  on  steep  slopes  and  gently 
rising  ground,  abounds  in  contrasts,  such  as 
the  grim  old  keep  and  the  High  Level  Bridge ; 
the  modern  Grey  Street  and  the  ancient  Side ; 
the  stately  stone  buildings  erected  by  Grainger 
and  the  half-timbered  Elizabethan  houses  with 
projecting  stories  and  latticed  casements ;  the 
Elswick  Works,  a  mile  in  extent,  and  Jesmond 
Dene,  one  of  the  loveliest  ravines  in  the  country  ; 
the  closely-packed  hillsides  and  the  rolling  ex- 
panse of  common  called  the  Town  Moor.  The 
church  of  St  Nicholas,  now  the  cathedral,  said 
to  have  been  founded  in  1091,  was  destroyed  by 
fire  in  1216.  The  present  building  belongs  to 
the  Decorated  and  Perpendicular  periods ;  the 
nave  and  transepts  dating  from  1359,  the  chancel 
from  1368,  and  the  tower  with  its  beautiful  archi- 
tectural crown  from  about  1435.  The  reredos 
was  erected  in  1888.  There  is  also  a  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral  (1844),  from  designs  by  Pugin. 

The  central  part  of  Newcastle  with  its  stately 
and  ornate  buildings  is  a  monument  to  the  genius 
of  Richard  Grainger  (1798-1861).  Grey  Street  and 
Grainger  Street,  built  in  1834-38,  are  the  finest 
thoroughfares  in  the  city.  Monuments  have  been 
erected  to  Earl  Grey  (1838)  and  George  Stephenson 
(1862).  With  the  town-hall  (1863)  are  associated 
the  corporation  offices  and  the  corn-market. 
Other  public  buildings  are  the  guildhall  (1658) 


NEWCASTLE-UPON-TYNE 


495 


NEWFOUNDLAND 


and  exchange  on  the  Sandhill,  the  Moot  Hall 
(1810),  the  general  post-office  (1876),  the  central 
police-courts  (1874),  the  jail  (1823-28),  the  Wood 
Memorial  Hall  (1870),  the  Trinity  House  (chapel, 
c.  1651 ;  hall,  1721  ;  almshouse,  &c.,  1782-95),  the 
Central  Exchange  News-room  and  Art  Gallery 
ri838),  the  Assembly  Rooms  (1774-76),  the 
(branch)  Bank  of  England  (1834),  the  Royal 
Arcade  (1831-32),  the  Butchers'  Market  (1835), 
and  the  barracks  (1806).  There  are  two  theatres. 
The  museum  of  the  Natural  History  Society  (1883- 
84,  costing  £42,000),  contains  collections  of  British 
birds,  fossils  from  the  coal-measures,  and  a  unique 
series  of  Bewick's  drawings.  The  Literary  and 
Philosophical  Society  (1793)  has  a  library  of 
about  40,000  volumes.  The  public  library  (1881) 
contains  over  70,000  volumes.  The  College  of 
Medicine  (1851)  and  the  College  of  Science  (1871) 
are  both  affiliated  to  the  university  of  Durham  : 
the  College  buildings  were  opened  in  1888,  and 
have  since  been  greatly  extended.  The  Royal 
Free  Grammar-school,  founded  in  1525,  has  since 
1870  occupied  new  premises.  Among  benevolent 
institutions  are  the  Royal  Infirmary  (1751),  the 
Jesus  Hospital  (1681),  the  Keelmen's  Hospital 
(1701),  the  Trinity  Almshouses  (incorporated  1492), 
the  Northern  Counties  Institution  for  the  Deaf 
and  Dumb  (1861),  the  Fleming  Memorial  Hospital 
(1887),  and  the  Northern  Counties  Orphan  Institu- 
tion (1876).  The  Central  Station  in  Neville  Street 
(1850 :  remodelled  1893-94)  is  a  great  railway 
terminus.  The  public  pleasure-grounds  of  New- 
castle are  the  Town  Moor  (987  acres).  Castle 
Leazes,  and  Nuns  Moor,  the  Leazes,  Elswick, 
Brandling,  Heaton,  and  Armstrong  Parks,  the 
Cruddas  recreation-ground,  and  Jesmond  Dene. 
For  the  Armstrong  Park  and  Jesmond  Dene, 
Newcastle  is  indebted  to  Lord  Amnstrong. 

Newcastle  is  connected  with  Gateshead  by  three 
bridges :  (1)  the  High  Level  Bridge,  erected  in 
1846-49  from  the  plans  of  Robert  Stephenson  and 
T.  E.  Harrison,  at  a  cost  of  £491,153 ;  it  is  1337 
feet  long,  and  consists  of  six  cast-iron  arches, 
•which,  springing  from  piers  of  solid  masonry, 
support  a  railway  at  a  height  of  112  feet  and  a 
roadway  at  a  height  of  83  feet  above  high-water. 
(2)  The  Swing  Bridge,  erected  1868-76,  at  a  cost 
of  £233,000,  on  the  site  of  the  Roman,  mediaeval, 
and  18th-century  bridges ;  the  movable  portion, 
which  weighs  1450  tons  and  is  281  feet  long,  is 
worked  by  hydraulic  machinery.  (3)  The  Red- 
heugh  Suspension  Bridge,  erected  1868-71,  at  a 
cost  of  £35,000,  is  1453  feet  in  length.  The  port 
of  Newcastle  is  a  very  ancient  and  important 
one.  Since  1840  some  100  million  tons  of  stuff 
have  been  dredged  from  the  bed  of  the  river, 
which  is  now  navigable  by  large  vessels  to 
Elswick.  The  quay  is  about  1540  yards  in  length. 
Since  the  13th  century  the  chief  trade  of  New- 
castle has  been  in  coal.  In  shipbuilding,  the 
river  Tyne  is  second  to  the  Clyde.  The  principal 
manufactures  of  Newcastle  are  locomotive  and 
marine  engines,  machinery,  heavy  ordnance,  car- 
riages and  harness,  white  and  red  lead,  sheet  and 
pipe  lead,  glass  of  various  kinds,  earthenware, 
chemical  manures,  alkali,  cement,  bricks,  tiles, 
fireclay  goods,  colours,  shovels,  grindstones,  wire 
rope,  nails,  sails,  &c.  The  works  of  Sir  W.  G. 
Armstrong,  Mitchell,  &  Co.,  founded  in  1847, 
comprise  blast-furnaces,  engine-shops,  foundries, 
and  steel-works.  Since  the  amalgamation  of  the 
original  firm  with  that  of  C.  Mitchell  &  Co.,  in 
1882,  several  war-ships  have  been  completed  at 
Elswick,  the  largest  the  ill-fated  Victoria.  New- 
castle is  the  birthplace  of  Lords  Eldon  and  Col- 
lingwood,  Mark   Akerjside,  Hutton  the   njathe- 


matician,  and  Lord  Armstrong.  Under  the 
Romans  the  high  ground  overlooking  the  river 
near  the  castle  was  the  site  of  the  military  station 
of  Pons  M\i\.  At  the  time  of  the  Conquest  it 
was  a  monastic  settlement,  known  as  Monk- 
chester.  Robert  Curthose  in  1080  constructed  a 
fortress  here  ;  but  the  present  Norman  keep  was 
built  between  1172  and  1177  at  a  cost  of  £911, 
10s.  9d.  In  1644  Newcastle,  which  had  declared 
for  the  king,  was  besieged  for  ten  months  by  the 
Scots  under  General  Leslie.  Tragic  events  were 
the  visitations  of  the  Asiatic  cholera  in  1831  and 
1853,  and  the  great  fire  of  1854.  See  works  by 
Gray  (1649),  Bourne  (1736),  Mackenzie  (1827), 
Welford  (3  vols.  1884-87),  Charleton  (1885),  a'nd 
Boyle  (1890). 

New-chwang,  the  port  of  Manchuria,  and  a 
treaty  port  since  1858,  stands  on  the  river  Liao, 
20  miles  from  its  mouth  and  120  from  Mukden. 
Vessels  are,  however,  obliged  to  load  and  dis- 
charge at  Ying-tzu,  at  the  mouth  of  the  river,  now 
called  also  by  the  name  of  the  old  city  farther 
up,  a  greatly  decayed  place.  Ying-tzu  imports 
cotton,  woollen,  and  silk  goods,  sugar,  paper, 
metals,  opium,  tobacco,  &c.,  and  exj)orts  beans, 
silk,  ginseng,  skins,  and  horns.  The  port  is 
closed  four  or  five  months  with  ice.  Pop.  60,000. 
New  Cumnock.  See  Cumnock. 
New  England,  the  six  Eastern  States  of  the 
United  States  of  America — Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire, Vermont,  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and 
Connecticut — einbracing  an  area  of  65,000  sq.  m. 
The  people,  distinctively  known  as  Yankees,  are 
celebrated  for  industry  and  enterprise.  The 
joint  pop.  is  now  about  6,000,000. 

New'ent,  an  old  market-town  8  miles  NW.  of 
Gloucester.     Pop.  of  parish,  2500. 

Newera  Elia,  better  Nuwara  Eliya,  the  sana- 
torium of  Ceylon,  near  Mt.  Pedrotallagalla,  on  a 
plain  6240  feet  above  the  sea.     Pop.  6000, 

New  Forest,  a  triangular  district  of  south-west 
Hampshire,  9  miles  SW.  of  Southampton,  bounded 
by  the  river  Avon,  the  Solent  and  English  Chan- 
nel, and  Southampton  Water.  It  measures  14  by 
16  miles,  and  has  an  area  of  144  sq.  m.,  or  92,365 
acres,  of  which,  however,  only  64,232  belong  to  the 
crown  demesnes.  The  name  dates  from  1079, 
when  the  Conqueror  here  made  a  '  mickle  deer- 
frith,'  and  cleared  away  several  hamlets.  This 
afforestation,  enforced  by  the  savage  'Forest 
laws,'  was  regarded  as  an  act  of  the  greatest 
cruelty ;  and  the  violent  deaths  here  of  two 
of  his  sons,  Richard  and  William  Rufus,  were 
looked  on  as  special  judgments.  The  deer  were 
removed  under  an  act  of  parliament  (1851);  and 
under  another  of  1877  the  New  Forest  now  is 
managed  by  the  court  of  Verderers  as  a  public 
pleasure-ground  and  cattle-farm.  Enclosed  plan- 
tations occupy  one-fourth  of  the  entire  area,  the 
rest  being  open  woodland,  bog,  and  heath.  The 
chief  trees  are  oaks  and  beech.  The  former  once 
supplied  timber  for  the  navy ;  the  beech-mast 
still  feeds  large  herds  of  swine.  There  is  also  a 
herd  of  small,  rough-coated  ponies.  The  hollies, 
the  rhododendrons,  and  therewith  the  general 
absence  of  underwood,  give  a  beautiful  park-like 
aspect  to  the  forest,  within  which  or  on  whose 
verge  are  Lyndhurst,  Beaulieu,  and  Lymington. 

See  Gilpin's  Forest  Scenery  (ed.  by  Heath,  1879) ; 
Blackmore's  Cradock  Nowell  (1866);  and  J.  R, 
Wise's  New  Forest  (1863 ;  4th  or '  Artist's  ed,,'  1883), 
Newfoundland (iVew'/iwidZajid'),  a  British  island 
colony  in  North  America,  not  yet  incorporated 
with  the  Dominion  of  Canada,  lies  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Gulf  of  St   Lawrence,  separated   from 


NEW  GALLOWAY 


496 


NEW  GUINEA 


Labrador  on  the  north  by  the  Straits  of  Bello  Isle 
(q.v.,  11  miles  broad).  It  is  370  miles  in  length 
and  290  miles  in  breadth,  and  has  an  area  of  40,200 
sq.  ni.  Pop.  (1874)  168,958  ;  (1901)  220,249.  By 
the  Anglo-Fi'ench  agreement  of  1904,  the  French 
withdrew  their  troublesome  claim  to  certain  ex- 
clusive rights  'on  the  French  Shore,'  till  then  a 
source  of  trouble  and  a  hindrance  to  its  develop- 
ment. The  fishermen  number  35,000,  and  21,000 
women  and  children  cure  fish.  The  island  pre- 
sents a  wild  and  sterile  appearance.  The  moun- 
tains in  the  Avalon  Peninsula  to  the  SB.  (con- 
nected with  the  rest  of  the  island  by  an  isthmus 
only  3  miles  in  width)  rise  to  over  2000  feet. 
The  number  of  the  lakes  and  '  ponds '  is  remark- 
able, and  about  one-third  of  the  whole  surface 
is  covered  with  fresh  water.  The  coast-line  is 
everywhere  deeply  indented  Avith  excellent  har- 
bours. There  is  considerable  cultivation  along 
the  seaboard  of  the  settled  districts,  but  the 
best  land  and  timber  are  in  the  river-valleys  and 
upon  the  west  coast.  Now  about  1,000,000  bushels 
of  potatoes  are  produceil  annually,  and  turnips, 
liay,  carrots,  clover,  barley,  and  oats  are  culti- 
vated with  success.  The  chief  seat  of  copper- 
mining  is  around  the  shore  of  Notre  Dame  Bay. 
Gold  has  been  found.  Rich  deposits  of  lead  ore 
exist.  Gypsum,  marble,  and  roofing-slate  are 
found  in  abundance.  Coal  and  iron  exist  side 
by  side  near  the  west  coast.  Cod,  herring,  and 
salmon  are  the  most  important  fish.  The  annual 
value  of  the  cod-fishery  is  over  $(3,000,000,  and  of 
lobster-canning  $500,000  ;  seal-(ishing  is  also  im- 
portant. There  are  over  C60  miles  of  railway, 
2450  miles  of  postal  and  district  roads,  and  2100 
miles  of  telegraph. 

Newfoundland  was  discovered  in  1497  by  John 
Cabot,  and  visited  by  the  Portuguese  Cortereal 
in  1500;  by  1578,  400  vessels,  50  of  them  English, 
were  engaged  in  the  fisheries  here.  In  1583  Sir 
Humphrey  Gilbert  took  possession  of  the  island 
for  Queen  Elizabeth  ;  in  1621  Sir  George  Calvert 
(afterwards  Lord  Baltimore)  settled  in  the  Avalon 
peninsula.  In  1713  the  island  was  ceded  to 
Britain,  while  the  French  retained  the  right,  ex- 
tended in  1783,  to  catch  and  dry  fish  on  a  defined 
part  of  the  coast.  The  government,  established 
in  1855,  consists  of  the  governor,  an  executive 
council  of  7  members,  a  legislative  council  of  15 
(appointed  by  the  crown),  and  a  general  assem- 
bly of  36  (elected).  In  1894-95  Newfoundland 
suffered  from  a  great  political  and  commercial 
crisis.  See  works  by  Auspach  (1 827),  Little  (1855), 
Fraser  Rae  (1881),  Murray,  Howley,  Harvey 
Prowse,  Willson,  and  Smith  (1901). 

New  Galloway,  a  royal  (till  1885  also  parlia- 
mentary) burgh  of  Kirkcudbrightshire,  25  miles 
W.  of  Dumfries.  Close  by  was  born  Mr  S.  R. 
Crockett,  the  novelist.    Pop.  374. 

New  Granada.  See  Colombia. 
'  New  Guinea,  the  largest  island  next  after  the 
Australian  continent,  from  wliich  it  is  separated 
by  the  shallow  island-studded  Torres  Strait,  80 
to  90  miles  wide  at  its  narrowest  part.  The  two 
regions  at  one  time  formed  continuous  land,  and 
an  upheaval  of  less  than  sixty  fathoms  would 
again  unite  them.  Elsewhere  the  mainland  is 
washed  by  deep  waters  ranging  from  500  to  1300 
fathoms.  The  island  stretches  1500  miles  NW. 
and  SE.  from  Cape  Goede  Hoop,  just  south  of 
the  equator,  to  South  Cape  ;  its  width  varies 
from  under  20  miles  to  480  miles  at  141°  E.  long. 
It  forms  a  large  central  mass  from  which  two 
peninsulas  project  south-east  and  north-west,  and 
has  a  total  area  roughly  estimated  at  320,000  sq. 


m.,  or  six  times  as  large  as  Engkand.  It  is 
essentially  mountainous,  being  traversed  by  lofty 
ranges,  rising  in  some  x>laces  2000  or  3000  feet 
above  the  snow-line.  These  ranges  develop  in 
the  broader  central  parts  two  or  more  parallel 
chains  with  a  general  south-easterly  trend. 
Thus,  tlie  Arfak  Hills  of  the  north-west  peninsula 
(10,000  feet)  are  continued  in  the  central  region 
by  the  Charles-Louis  range  (over  14,000  feet), 
with  many  peaks  of  18,000  and  even  20,000  feet. 
The  northern  coast-range  is  known  as  the  Finis- 
terre  Mountains  (11,500  feet).  Between  these  two 
chains  run  the  Bismarck  and  Kratke  ranges  (10,000 
feet).  All  these  mountain-ranges  converge  in  the 
south-east  peninsula  in  a  single  lofty  chain  which 
traverses  the  whole  of  British  New  Guinea,  the 
various  sections  of  which  take  the  names  of  the 
Albert  Victor,  Yule,  Owen  Stanley,  and  Lome 
ranges.  The  prevailing  formations  appear  to  be 
very  old  plutonic  and  sedimentary  rocks.  There 
are  numerous  indications  of  gold.  Earthquakes 
are  frequent  in  some  places,  but  no  active  vol- 
canoes appear  to  exist,  although  there  are  several 
recent  craters.  The  three  largest  rivers  appear 
to  be  the  Amberno  (Mamberan,  or  'Great  River') 
in  Dutch,  the  Empress  Augusta  in  German,  and 
the  Fly  in  British  territory.  In  the  rainy  season 
the  Empress  Augusta  is  navigable  for  many  miles 
by  large  vessels  ;  the  Markham  also  gives  access 
to  the  interior.  The  Fly,  discovered  in  1845  by 
Blackwood,  was  ascended  in  a  steam-launch  in 
1889  for  over  600  miles  by  Sir  W.  Macgregor. 
The  tides  ascend  the  Fly  for  150  miles.  The 
Douglas,  Centenary,  Stanhope,  and  Queen's 
Jubilee  all  converge  in  a  common  delta  about 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Papua.  The  east  side  of 
that  gulf  is  joined  by  other  navigable  streams 
from  the  Owen  Stanley  range. 

The  whole  of  New  Guinea  lies  within  the  track 
of  the  south-east  trade-winds,  followed  by  the 
north-west  monsoons,  whose  rain-bearing  clouds 
are  condensed  on  the  cold  alpine  slopes  of  the 
island.  The  consequent  large  rain  or  snow  fall, 
combined  with  an  average  high  temperature  of 
from  85°  to  90°  F.,  results  in  a  hot,  moist  climate 
on  all  the  low-lying  coast-lands  and  fluvial  valleys 
— hence  fever  is  endemic.  But  some  of  the  up- 
lands beyond  the  fever  zone  may  be  found 
adapted  for  the  establishment  of  health-resorts 
for  officials,  traders,  and  missionaries.  New 
Guinea  is  almost  everywhere  clothed  with  a  rich 
and  highly  diversified  floi'a.  Sir  W.  Macgregor's 
party  in  1889,  after  passing  successively  through 
the  domains  of  tropical  plants,  such  as  the  cocoa- 
nut,  sago,  banana,  mango,  taro,  and  sugar-cane, 
and  of  such  temperate  or  sub-tropical  growths 
as  the  cedar,  oak,  fig,  acacia,  pine,  and  tree-fern, 
were  gladdened  on  the  higher  slopes  by  the  sight 
of  the  wild  strawberry,  forget-me-not,  daisy, 
buttercup,  and  other  familiar  British  plants ; 
while  towards  the  summits  these  were  succeeded 
by  a  true  alpine  flora,  in  which  Himalayan, 
Bornean,  New  Zealand,  and  sub-antarctic  forms 
were  all  numerously  represented.  In  New  Guinea 
the  Asiatic  and  Malayan  floras  are  far  more  richly 
represented  than  the  Australian.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  New  Guinea  fauna  is  closely  related  to 
that  of  Australia,  as  is  seen  in  the  almost  total 
absence  of  placental  mammals,  and  the  presence 
of  over  thirty  species  of  marsupials  (such  as  the 
discus  and  kangaroo)  and  the  bower-bird.  The 
spiny  ant-eater  is  allied  to  the  Australian  echidna, 
and  like  it  oviparous.  Of  the  bird  of  Paradise, 
a  typical  New  Guinea  bird,  many  varieties  occur, 
and  many  gorgeous  parrots,  cockatoos,  pigeons, 
•See.    Reptiles  are  numerous.    Between  the  Aua* 


NEW  HAMPSHIRE 


497 


NEW  HAVEN 


tralians  and  Papuans,  who  form  the  great  bulk 
of  the  New  Guinea  population,  there  is  little  in 
common  except  the  dark  colour,  considerably 
darker,  however,  in  the  latter  than  in  the  former. 
But  the  New  Guinea  natives  seem  to  combine 
at  least  four  ethnical  elements  :  Paiman  proper, 
diffused  over  the  whole  region  ;  Negrito ;  Eastern 
Polynesian;  and  Malay.  Through  the  mingling 
of  these  elements  small  tribal  groups  speak  a 
surprising  number  of  distinct  languages.  Canni- 
balism is  very  prevalent ;  some  tribes  are  preda- 
tory ;  but  many  others  are  peaceful,  industrious, 
and  keen  traders,  displaying  remarkable  skill  in 
the  arts  of  pottery,  wood-carving,  and  husbandry. 
New  Guinea  appears  to  have  been  first  sighted 
by  D'Abreu  in  1511 ;  it  received  its  present  name 
in  154G  from  Retez  (Roda),  who  was  struck  by 
the  resemblance  of  its  inhabitants  to  those  of  the 
Guinea  coast.  In  1793  the  East  India  Company 
occupied  the  island  of  Manassari  in  Geelvink  Bay. 
In  1848  the  Dutch  proclaimed  their  sovereignty 
over  the  western  half  of  the  island  as  far  as  141' 
E.  long.,  and  this  meridian  was  accordingly  taken 
as  the  western  boundary  of  the  eastern  half  in 
1884,  when  that  section  was  divided  between 
Great  Britain  and  Germany.  The  boundary 
between  the  northern  or  German  and  the  southern 
or  British  division  coincides  with  the  main  water- 
parting.  The  areas  and  populations  of  the  three 
territories  are  thus  roughly  estimated  : 

Area  in  sq.  m.  Population. 

Dutch  New  Guinea 153,000  200,000 

British  90,000  850,000 

German         „  70,000  100,000 

Total 318,000  650,000 

In  the  Dutch  section  there  are  no  towns  or 
administrative  centres.  German  New  Guinea, 
officially  known  as  Kaiser  Wilhelm's  Land,  is  a 
protectorate  administered  by  the  German  New 
Guinea  Company,  and  yields  for  export  tobacco, 
areca,  sago,  bamboo,  ebony,  and  other  woods. 
British  New  Guinea,  which  includes  the 
D'Entrecasteaux  and  Louisiade  Archipelagoes, 
was  administered  as  a  protectorate  till  1888,  when 
the  sovereignty  of  Britain  was  proclaimed.  It 
was  made  over  to  the  Australian  Conunonwealth 
in  1902,  who  agreed  to  contribute  £20,000  annu- 
ally for  its  administration.  The  territory  is 
divided  into  four  districts,  the  chief  station  being 
Port  Moresby.  The  revenue  does  not  yet  cover 
the  expenditure ;  and  the  exports,  chiefly  gold, 
pearl-shells,  beche-de-mer,  and  copra,  rose  in 
1897-1901  from  £19,320  to  £50,000  a  year. 

See,  besides  A.  R.  Wallace's  Malay  Archipelago 
(1869 ;  new  ed.  1891)  and  A.  H.  Keane's  Eastern 
Geography  (1887),  works  by  D'Albertis  (1881), 
Chalmers  and  Gill  (1885  and  1887),  Lindt  (1887), 
Guillemard  (1887),  Strachan  (1888),  Bevan  (1890), 
J.  P.  Thomson  (1892),  and  Krieger  (1900). 

New  Hampshire,  the  '  Granite  State,'  the  most 
northerly  of  the  thirteen  original  United  States 
of  North  America,  lies  between  the  province  of 
Quebec,  Maine  and  (for  18  miles)  the  Atlantic 
Ocean,  Massachusetts,  and  the  right  bank  of  the 
Connecticut  River.  Area,  9305  sq.  m.— a  fourth 
larger  than  Wales.  The  average  elevation  of  the 
state  is  about  1200  feet,  the  highest  point  being 
Mount  Washington  (6293  feet),  in  the  White 
Mountains ;  among  the  other  peaks  over  5000  feet 
high  are  those  bearing  the  names  of  the  succes- 
sive presidents,  Adums,  Jeflerson,  Madison,  and 
Monroe.  The  largest  lake  is  Winnipiseogee  (72 
sq.  m.)  ;  the  principal  rivers  are  the  Connecticut, 
Merrimac,  and  Piscataqua.  From  Dover  Point 
to  its  mouth  the  Piscataqua  is  about  half  a  mile 
2f 


wide  ;  and  the  volume  and  swiftness  of  Its  current 
at  ebb-tide  prevent  the  freezing  of  the  water  in 
Portsmouth  harbour  during  the  coldest  winters. 
The  Merrimac  is  said  to  turn  more  spindles  and 
propel  more  shuttles  than  any  other  river  in  the 
world.  The  mean  annual  temperature  at  Con- 
cord is  46'  F.  There  are  still  over  a  million  acres 
of  forest  in  the  state.  Of  late  New  Hampshire 
has  become  very  popular  as  a  summer-resort, 
and  the  farmers,  who  owing  to  the  rough  and 
sterile  soil  could  not  compete  in  the  great 
markets  with  those  of  the  West,  now  find  a  new 
and  important  market  brought  to  their  very 
doors.  But  manufacturing  is  the  leading  industry 
in  New  Hampshire,  the  chief  centres  being  Man- 
chester (the  largest  city),  Nashua,  and  Dover. 
Dartmouth  college  was  founded  in  1769.  The 
earliest  settlements  were  made  in  1623  near 
Dover  and  Portsmouth.  In  1641-79,  1689-92, 
and  1699-1741  New  Hampshire  was  joined  to 
the  Massachusetts  colony,  but  during  the  inter- 
vening dates  and  until  1775  it  was  under  royal 
governors  of  its  own.  A  provisional  government 
was  formed  in  1776,  a  state  constitution  adopted 
in  1784;  and  New  Hampshire  was  the  ninth 
state  (1788)  to  ratify  the  national  constitution. 
Among  the  eminent  men  born  here  have  been 
President  Pierce,  Daniel  Webster,  Lewis  Cass, 
Salmon  P.  Chase,  and  Horace  Greeley.  Pop. 
(1840)  284,574  ;  (1880)  346,991  ;  (1900)  411,588. 

New  Hanover,  one  of  the  Bismarck  Archi- 
pelago, lying  off  the  north-east  coast  of  New 
Guinea,  with  an  area  of  570  sq.  m. 

New  Harmony,  a  village  (pop.  1495)  of  Indiana, 
28  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Evansville,  was  first 
settled  in  1815  by  a  German  community  of 
religious  socialists,  called  Harmonists.  In  1824 
the  village  was  purchased  by  Robert  Owen  for 
his  community,  which  failed  after  three  years. 

Newhaven,  a  Sussex  seaport,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Ouse,  8^  miles  E.  of  Brighton  and  56  S.  of 
London,  noted  for  its  steamboat  traffic,  particu- 
larly to  Dieppe  (5^  hours).  It  has  a  large  fort 
(1864-69)and  a  little  Norman  12tli-century  church, 
with  an  east  tower  and  small  semicircular  apse. 
Pop.  (1851)  1358  ;  (1901)  6772. 

Newhaven,  a  fishing-village  of  Midlothian,  on 
the  south  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  1  mile 
WNW,  of  Leith,  and  2  miles  N.  of  Edinburgh. 
Dating  from  about  1490,  it  has  a  tidal  harbour, 
reconstructed  in  1876-77  at  a  cost  of  £10,000,  and 
is  famous  for  its  fish  dinners  and  fishwives. 
Pop.  of  parish  (1841)  2103  ;  (1901)  7636. 

New  Haven,  the  chief  city  and  seaport  of 
Connecticut,  and  capital  of  New  Haven  county, 
at  the  head  of  New  Haven  Bay,  4  miles  from 
Long  Island  Sound,  and  73  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of 
New  York.  Its  broad  streets  are  shaded  with 
elms,  and  the  public  squares,  parks,  and  gardens, 
with  its  handsome  public  and  private  edifices, 
make  it  one  of  the  most  beautiful  of  American 
cities.  It  has  since  1718  been  the  seat  of  Yale 
College,  founded  in  1701  at  Saybrook,  and  having 
over  325  professors  and  lecturers,  3000  students, 
and  libraries  of  380,000  volumes.  New  Haven 
also  contains  the  Sheffield  scientific  school,  and 
the  Hopkins  grammar-school  (1660).  The  har- 
bour has  a  jetty  and  a  breakwater  surmounted 
by  a  lighthouse,  and  the  port  has  a  large  coasting 
trade.  But  New  Haven  is  of  more  consequence 
as  a  manufacturing  town,  employing  many  thou- 
sands of  hands  in  its  large  works,  and  producing 
hardware,  wire,  locks,  clocks,  cutlery,  fireanns, 
corsets,  india-rubber  goods,  carriages,  furniture, 
paper,  matches,  musical  instruments,  &c.    New 


NEW  HEBRIDES 


498 


NEW  MEXICO 


Haven  was  settled  in  1638  by  a  company  from 
London,  and  the  colony  was  not  united  to  that 
of  Connecticut  until  1662;  and  till  1873  it  was 
recognised  as,  jointly  with  Hartford,  the  capital 
of  the  state.  It  was  incorixjrated  as  a  town 
about  1665,  and  chartered  as  a  city  in  1784. 
Pop.  (1850)  22,529  ;  (1880)  62,882  ;  (1900)  108,027. 

New  Heb'rides,  a  chain  of  islands  in  the  Western 
Pacific,  extending  NNW.  to  SSB.,  and  lying  W. 
of  Fiji  and  NE.  of  New  Caledonia.  There  are  in 
all  some  thirty  islands  (area,  5110  sq.  ni,),  of 
which  twenty  are  inhabited,  the  people,  mostly 
of  the  Melanesian  race,  numbering  about  70,000. 
There  are  active  volcanoes,  but  the  islands  rest 
upon  a  coral  foundation.  The  larger  islands  are 
Bspiritu  Santo  (70  miles  long  by  40  wide),  Mallicolo 
(56  by  20),  Anibrym  (22  by  17),  Vate  or  Sandwich 
(30  by  15),  Erromango  (30  by  22),  Tanna  (18  by 
10),  and  Aneityum  (35  miles  in  circumference). 
All  are  wooded,  and  some  lofty,  reaching  3000  feet. 
The  seas  swarm  with  fish.  The  people  are  savage 
cannibals  of  a  low  type,  decreasing  in  number, 
who  speak  a  great  number  of  dialects.  The 
southern  islanders  (Erromango  to  Aneityum) 
have  been  civilised  by  English  and  Scottish 
missionaries.  This  chain  was  discovered  by  the 
Portuguese  Quiros  in  1606,  and  was  thoroughly 
explored  by  Cook  in  1773.  They  are  claimed  by 
the  British,  though  nothing  is  done  to  occupy 
them.  The  French  have  cast  covetous  eyes  upon 
the  group,  but  their  attempts  to  annex  it  have 
encountered  the  strenuous  opposition  of  the 
Australian  colonies.  Since  1863  many  natives 
have  been  carried  away  to  serve  as  labourers  in 
Queensland,  Fiji,  and  New  Caledonia.  See  Dr 
J.  Inglis"  In  the  New  Hebrides  (1887). 

New  Holland.    See  Australia. 

New  Ireland,  now,  as  part  of  the  German 
Bismarck  Archipelago,  called  Neu-Mecklenburg, 
a  long,  narrow  island  in  the  Pacific,  lying  NE.  of 
New  Guinea.  Area,  4900  sq.  m.  ;  length,  800 
miles  ;  width,  15  miles.    The  hills  rise  to  6500  ft. 

New  Jersey,  one  of  the  thirteen  original  states 
of  the  American  Union,  is  bounded  by  New  York, 
the  Hudson  River,  Staten  Island  Sound,  Raritan 
Bay,  the  Atlantic,  Delaware  Bay,  and  the  Delaware 
River.  Its  greatest  length  is  167  miles ;  its  width 
from  32  to  59  miles  ;  and  its  area  7577  sq.  m.  ; 
it  being  the  smallest  of  all  the  states  save 
three,  but  ranking  eighteenth  in  population. 
In  the  north-west  are  two  portions  of  the 
Appalachian  system.  The  Blue  or  Kittatinny 
Mountains  (1400-1800  feet)  extend  along  the 
Delaware  from  the  Water  Gap.  The  Navesink 
highlands,  south  of  Sandy  Hook,  reach  a  height 
of  282  feet,  and  support  two  lighthouses.  The 
central  portion  of  tlie  state  is  generally  level  and 
fertile  ;  the  southern  part  is  in  large  measure 
sandy,  covered  with  pine-woods,  and  marshy  near 
the  coast.  The  state  is  abundantly  watered  ;  its 
chief  rivers,  the  Passaic,  Raritan,  Little  and  Great 
Egg  Harbor,  flow  south-east  into  bays.  The  coast 
from  Sandy  Hook  to  Cape  May  is  generally  pro- 
tected by  peninsular  or  island  beaches.  About 
60  per  cent,  of  the  total  land  area  is  included  in 
farms.  Tlie  chief  products— mainly  agricultural— 
are  maize,  oats,  wheat,  rye,  hay,  potatoes  and 
sweet  potatoes,  cattle,  butter,  and  milk.  The 
leading  mineral  products  are  iron  ore,  limestone, 
zinc,  and  slate.  Glass,  pottery,  machinery, 
leather,  silk,  and  sugar  are  the  chief  manufac- 
tures. New  Jersey  has  two  canals,  and  some 
fifty  railroads,  with  8000  miles  of  length.  Its 
south-west  portion  has  Philadelphia  for  a  market ; 
its  north-east  section,  including  its  two  largest 


towns,  is  a  suburb  of  New  York.  Its  coast  ftora 
Navesink  to  Squan  is  covered  with  villas,  cottages, 
and  hotels.  Cape  May,  Long  Branch,  and  Atlantic 
City  are  noted  seaside  resorts.  Asbury  Park, 
Ocean  Grove,  Seabright,  &c.  are  growing  places, 
crowded  in  summer.  Newark  and  Jersey  City 
are  by  far  the  largest  cities  ;  next  come  Paterson, 
Camden,  Hoboken,  Trenton,  Elizabeth,  New 
Brunswick,  and  Orange.  Pop.  (1800)  211,149; 
(1840)  373,306;  (1880)  1,131,116;  (1900)  1,883,669. 
In  1617  the  Dutch  settled  at  Bergen,  near  New 
York ;  in  1623  Cornelius  May  ascended  the 
Delaware,  and  built  a  fort  four  miles  below  the 
site  of  Camden.  In  1664  the  territory  was 
granted  by  Charles  II.  to  the  Duke  of  York. 
See  the  History  by  Raum  (1880). 

New  Lanark.  See  Lanark. 

New  London,  a  port  of  entry  of  Connecticut, 
is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Thames,  3  miles 
from  Long  Island  Sound,  51  by  rail  E.  of  New 
Haven,  and  126  NNE.  of  New  York.  The  manu- 
factures include  woollens,  sewing-silk,  agricul- 
tural machinery,  hardware,  and  crackers  {Anglice, 
biscuits) ;  fruit-canning  also  is  carried  on.  The 
harbour  (30  feet  deep)  is  one  of  the  best  in  the 
States.  On  the  left  bank  of  the  river  is  a  U.  S. 
navy  yard.  New  London  was  settled  in  1645, 
and  in  1781  was  burned  by  Benedict  Arnold. 
Pop.  18,500. 

Newlyn,  a  Cornish  fishing-village  and  artists' 
headquarters,  on  Mount's  Bay,  2  miles  SW.  of 
Penzance. 

Newmarket,  the  'racing  capital  of  England,' 
lies  on  the  border  of  Sufl'olk  and  Cambridgeshire, 
14  miles  ENE.  of  Cambridge  and  69  NNE.  of 
London.  Twice  almost  destroyed  by  fire,  in  1683 
and  1700,  it  chiefly  consists  of  one  long  street, 
and  contains  an  unusual  number  of  hotels  and 
fine  private  houses,  belonging  to  the  great  patrons 
of  the  turf.  Principal  edifices  are  the  Jockey 
Club  (1773) ;  the  adjoining  Subscription  Rooms 
(1844) ;  the  Proprietary  Club  (1882) ;  the  Rous 
Memorial  Hospital  (1883);  with  almshouses  for 
eight  jockeys  and  trainers  or  their  widows ;  St 
Mary's  Church,  Perpendicular  in  style  ;  and  All 
Saints  (1877).  The  town  owes  its  prosperity  to 
its  horseraces,  as  old  at  least  as  1605  ;  and  nearly 
half  the  male  population  are  jockeys,  trainers, 
or  stablemen  (Holcroft  the  dramatist  was  once 
one  of  their  number).  The  race-ground,  on  New- 
market Heath,  to  the  west,  which  is  traversed 
by  the  Devil's  Dyke,  is  owned  partly  by  the 
Jockey  Club,  partly  by  the  Duke  of  Rutland, 
and,  with  its  soft  elastic  turf,  is  one  of  the  very 
finest  in  the  world.  Of  its  ten  courses,  the 
longest  is  4J  miles  in  circuit.  The  training- 
ground  bears  a  like  character  for  excellence  ;  and 
400  horses  are  constantly  in  training.  There  are 
seven  annual  meetings,  the  principal  events  being 
the  Two  Thousand  at  Easter  and  the  Cesarewitch 
in  October.  Pop.  (1851)  3356  ;  (1901)  10,688.  See 
J.  P.  Hore's  History  of  Newmarket  (3  vols.  1886). 

Newmarket,  a  town  of  County  Cork,  8  miles 
NW.  of  Kanturk  station.    Pop.  966. 

Newmarket-on-Fergus,  a  village  of  County 
Clare,  12  miles  SE.  of  Eiuiis.     Pop.  500. 

New  Mexico,  a  territory  in  the  SW.  of  the 
United  States,  is  bounded  by  Colorado,  Oi<lahoma, 
Texas,  Mexico,  and  Arizona.  Tlie  area  is  122,580 
sq.  m.— larger  than  that  of  Great  Britain  and 
Ireland— and  the  pop.  (1880)  119,565;  (1900) 
195,310.  The  surface  of  New  Mexico  belongs  to 
the  great  plateau  upon  which  rests  the  Rocky 
Mountain  system.    From  an  altitude  of  6000  to 


NEW  MILLS 


499 


NEW  PLYMOUTH 


6500  feet  in  the  north  it  descends  gradually  to 
about  4000  feet  along  the  Mexican  boi-der,  and 
sinks  to  3000  or  3500  in  the  Llano  Estacado  of 
the  south-east.  Except  in  the  east  the  whole 
region  is  traversed  by  broken  ranges  of  mountains 
having  in  general  a  north  and  south  trend.  In 
the  northern  central  part  the  Santa  Fe,  Las 
Vegas,  and  Taos  ranges  form  part  of  the  main 
axis  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  with  peaks  over 
12,000  feet  high.  Farther  south,  and  east  of  the 
Rio  Grande,  are  numerous  broken  ranges ;  and 
west  of  the  Rio  Grande  the  Sierra  Madre  rises 
above  the  level  of  the  mesa  (plateau).  These 
mountains  and  the  intervening  mesas  are  cut  by 
deep  caiions.  Among  the  mountains,  especially 
in  the  north-east,  are  many  'parks'  noted  for 
their  beauty  and  fertile  soils.  The  precious 
metals  are  found  in  almost  all  parts  of  the 
territory.  Some  of  the  mines  were  rudely  worked 
by  the  early  Spaniards,  who  compelled  the 
Pueblos  to  labour  like  slaves.  Copper  and  iron 
occur  in  valuable  deposits,  and  near  Santa  Fe  are 
the  famous  turquoise  mines.  There  are  also 
fields  of  both  bituminous  and  anthracite  coal. 
Mineral  and  hot  springs  are  numerous.  The 
great  mountain-diviile  causes  the  drainage  of 
New  Mexico  to  flow  south  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
and  west  to  the  Pacific  Ocean.  The  Rio  Grande 
traverses  the  central  part  of  the  territory  and 
receives  many  tributaries.  The  Rio  Pecos  which 
joins  it  in  Texas  drains  the  south-eastern  part. 
In  the  north-east  are  streams  which  unite  to  form 
the  Canadian  River,  and  in  the  west  are  the  head- 
waters of  the  San  Juan,  Little  Colorado,  and  Gila, 
all  affluents  of  the  Colorado.  In  the  river-valleys 
the  soil  is  fertile  and  produces  excellent  crops ; 
and  many  acres  in  other  sections  may  be  success- 
fully cultivated  by  irrigation.  The  climate  is 
healthful,  and  on  the  whole  remarkably  uniform, 
and  the  atmosphere  is  very  pure  and  dry.  There 
are  extensive  forests  on  the  mountains,  and  in 
the  hilly  regions  of  the  western  part  of  the 
territory,  and  on  the  pastoral  plains  nutritiotis 
grasses  which  support  great  numbers  of  cattle 
and  sheep.  Stock-raising  is  a  leading  industry ; 
the  herds  need  no  housing  in  the  winter. 

After  the  Mexican  war,  part  of  the  territory 
was  acquired  by  the  United  States  in  1848  ;  addi- 
tions were  made  by  a  later  purchase  from  Mexico, 
and  by  a  cession  from  Texas.  The  bulk  of  the 
pop.,  some  190,000,  are  Mexicans,  or  of  Mexican 
descent,  and  thei-e  are  13,150  Indians.  The  terri- 
tory when  originally  organised  in  1850  included 
Arizona  and  parts  of  Colorado  and  California. 
The  scheme  for  its  incorporation  in  1906  with 
Arizona  (then  to  become  a  state  of  the  Union) 
was  successfully  opposed  both  in  and  out  of 
the  Senate.  The  principal  cities  and  towns  are 
Santa  Fe  (the  capital),  Albuquerque,  Las  Vegas, 
Fernandez  de  Taos,  and  Socorro. 

New  Mills,  a  town  of  Derbyshire,  on  the  Goyt, 
8i  miles  ESE.  of  Stockport.  It  has  manufactures 
of  calico,  cotton  band,  iron,  &c.  Pop.  (1851) 
4366  ;  (1901)  7773. 

Newmilns,  a  police-burgh  of  Ayrshire,  on  the 
Irvine,  7J  miies  E.  by  S.  of  Kilmarnock.  It 
manufactures  lace  and  muslins.     Pop.  4470. 

Newnham,  a  town  on  the  Severn,  11  miles  SW. 
of  Gloucester.     Pop.  1184, 

New  Orleans  (Or' lee-am ;  but  often  Or-leens'), 
the  chief  city  of  Louisiana,  and  a  great  port  and 
mart,  is  situated  on  both  sides  of  the  Mississippi 
River — the  greater  portion  on  the  east  bank — 107 
miles  from  its  mouth,  and  1190  miles  SW.  of 
.  New  York.    The  city  proper  has  a  river  frontage 


of  13  miles,  and  its  western  district,  'Algiers,' 
of  3  miles.  The  Mississippi  makes  two  bends 
here,  whence  the  city  was  called  'The  Crescent 
City,'  but  it  is  now  shaped  like  the  letter  S. 
The  river  is  from  600  to  1000  yards  wide, 
and  60  to  240  feet  deep.  The  bar  at  its 
mouth  was  removed  in  1874-79  by  the  Eads 
jetties  in  South  Pass,  and  vessels  of  30  feet  now 
easily  reach  New  Orleans.  The  city  is  the 
second  in  the  United  States  for  exports  ;  next 
to  Liverpool  it  is  the  greatest  cotton  market 
of  the  world.  It  is  the  terminus  of  three  canals, 
and  of  six  large  railroads  and  three  local  lines,, 
while  tliirty  lines  of  steamships  connect  it  with 
other  American  and  foreign  ports.  Since  1875 
it  has  made  great  progress  in  manufactures, 
particularly  in  cotton  goods,  cotton-seed  oil, 
machinery,  lumber,  furniture,  fertilisers,  sugar- 
refining,  rice-milling,  beer,  cigars,  &c.  "The  site 
is  perfectly  flat,  and  lies  from  3  to  6  feet  below 
the  level  of  the  Mississippi  at  high-water,  being 
protected  from  overflow  by  levees  or  dykes  of 
earth.  Similar  levees  in  the  rear  keep  out  the 
waters  of  Lake  Pontchartrain.  The  soil  is  satu- 
rated with  water,  and  cellars  are  impossible. 
Hence  also  in  its  cemeteries  the  dead  are  buried 
in  mounds  above  the  level  of  the  ground.  The 
climate  is  warm  and  damp,  the  mean  temperature 
for  the  year  being  69°  F.  The  summer  is  tempered 
by  winds  from  the  Gulf,  and  is  not  oppressively 
warm.  On  account  of  its  situation,  the  city  is 
badly  drained. 

The  imposing  custom-house  of  granite  cost 
$4,500,000 ;  the  cathedral  of  St  Louis  (1794)  is  a 
good  sample  of  Creole-Spanish  architecture.  The 
archiepiscopal  palace  (1737)  is  the  oldest  building. 
Other  noteworthy  structures  are  the  cotton  ex- 
change, U.  S.  mint,  St  Charles  Hotel,  Christ  and 
St  Patrick's  churches,  Tulane  University  (known 
as  the  University  of  Louisiana  from  1884  to  1883), 
the  affiliated  Sophie  Newcomb  Memorial  College 
(1887)  for  the  higher  education  of  girls,  and  the 
Jesuit  College  of  the  Immaculate  Conception.  The 
HoAvard  Memorial  (1888),  Tulane,  and  Louisiana 
state  libraries,  all  free,  contain  together  120,000 
volumes.  The  Charity  Hospital  (1784)  is  the 
largest  institution  of  its  kind  in  the  States,  with 
accommodation  for  800  to  1000  persons.  There 
are  several  parks  little  improved,  but  with  monu- 
ments to  Jackson,  Lee,  Franklin,  and  others. 

The  site  of  New  Orleans  was  first  visited  in 
1699  by  Bienville,  who  in  1718  laid  the  founda- 
tions of  the  city,  and  in  1726  made  it  the  capital. 
In  1763  it  was  ceded  to  Spain  by  France,  with  the 
rest  of  Louisiana  ;  but  when  in  1765  the  Spanish 
governor  attempted  to  take  possession,  he  was 
driven  out,  and  the  people  established  a  govern- 
ment of  their  own  till  1769,  when  the  Spaniards 
occupied  it.  It  was  ceded  to  France  in  1802,  and 
transferred  to  the  United  States  a  few  days  later. 
Incorporated  as  a  city  in  1804,  it  was  divided  in 
1836-52  into  three  separate  municipalities,  in 
consequence  of  the  jealousies  between  the  Creoles 
and  the  Americans.  Other  outstanding  events 
have  been  the  defeat  of  the  British  by  Andrew 
Jackson  in  1815 ;  the  capture  in  1862  by  the 
Federal  fleet ;  serious  political  troubles  with 
fighting  in  1874  and  1877  ;  and  the  lynching  in 
1891  of  11  Italian  maffiosi.  In  1880  the  capital  of 
Louisiana  was  removed  from  New  Orleans  to 
Baton  Rouge.  Pop.  (1802)  10,508  ;  (1840)  102,193  ; 
(1880)  216,190 ;  (1900)  287,104— very  cosmopolitan. 

New  Plymoutli,  the  chief  town  of  the  pro- 
vincial district  of  Taranaki,  New  Zealand,  220 
miles  NW.  of  Wellington  by  rail.  Two  miles 
off"  is  an  extensive  harbour.    Pop.  5932. 


NEWPORT 


600 


NEW  SOUTH  WALES 


Newport,  (l)  the  capital  of  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
on  the  navigable  Medina,  near  the  centre  of  the 
island,  4 J  miles  S.  of  Cowes  and  10  SW.  of  Ryde. 
The  church,  rebuilt  in  1854-56  on  the  site  of  one 
nearly  700  years  old,  is  a  fine  Decorated  edifice, 
and  contains  Marochetti's  beautiful  monument, 
erected  by  Queen  Victoria  in  memory  of  the 
Princess  Elizabeth  (died  at  Carisbrooke  Castle  in 
1650).  Newport  besides  lias  a  town-hall  (1810) ;  a 
free  grammar-school  (1612),  the  scene  in  1648 
of  the  fruitless  negotiations  between  the  par- 
liament and  Charles  I.  ;  a  girls'  endowed  school 
(1761) ;  a  diocesan  school  (1860) ;  and  a  literary 
institute  and  museum.  To  the  north-west 
are  a  reformatory  (1838)  and  barracks  (1798). 
A  municipal  borough,  Newport  returned  two 
members  till  1867,  and  then  one  till  1885.  Pop. 
(1851)  8047;  (1901)  10,911.— (2)  A  thriving  town 
of  Monmouthshire,  and  a  parliamentary,  muni- 
cipal, and  county  borough  (the  first  conjointly 
■with  Monmouth  and  Usk),  is  seated  on  the  river 
Usk,  about  4  miles  from  its  mouth,  24  miles 
SSW.  of  Monmouth  and  145  W.  of  London. 
A  principal  outlet  for  great  collieries  and  iron 
and  steel  works,  it  has  greatly  increased  its  ship- 
ping trade  and  its  dock  accommodation,  which 
covers  more  than  80  acres.  Amongst  its  public 
buildings  are  the  town-hall  (1885),  erected  at  a 
cost  of  £30,000,  and  St  Woollos'  Church,  partly 
Norman  and  partly  Perpendicular.  Newport 
manufactures  india-rubber,  gutta-percha,  and 
railway  and  telegraph  plant  and  wagons,  and  has 
brass  and  iron  foundries,  breweries,  lotteries.  In 
1839  the  town  was  the  centre  of  a  Chartist  out- 
break. Pop.  (1801)  1087 ;  (1881)  38,427  ;  (1901) 
67,270. — (3)  A  market-town  of  Shropshire,  on  the 
Shrewsbury  Canal,  11  miles  WSW.  of  Stalford. 
Chartered  by  Henry  I.,  and  burned  in  1665,  it 
has  a  15th-century  cliurch,  a  grammar-school 
(1656),  and  manufactures  of  machinery  and  agri- 
cultural implements.  Population,  3500. — (4)  A 
town  of  Pembrokeshire,  on  Newport  Bay,  6  miles 
E.  by  N.  of  Fishguard.    Pop.  1337. 

Newport,  a  town  of  Fife,  on  the  Firth  of  Tay, 
IJ  mile  by  water  SSB.  of  Dundee.  It  has  a  small 
harbour  designed  by  Telford  (1822),  and  municipal 
buildings  (1890).     Pop.  3000. 

Newport,  (1)  a  watering-place  of  County  Mayo, 
11  miles  NW.  of  Castlebar.  Pop.  578.— (2)  A 
town  of  Tipperary,  on  the  Mulkear,  11  miles  NE. 
of  Limerick.     Pop.  637. 

Newport,  (l)  capital  of  Campbell  county,  Ken- 
tucky, is  on  the  Ohio,  opposite  Cincinnati,  and  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Licking  River,  which  separates 
it  from  Covington.  The  city  contains  large  roll- 
ing-mills, a  foundrv,  bolt-works,  tile-works,  and 
steam-mills.  Pop.  '(1880)  15,693  ;  (1900)  28,301.— 
(2)  Fourth  of  the  cities  of  Rhode  Island,  on  the 
west  shore  of  the  island  of  Rhode  Island,  in 
Narragansett  Bay,  5  miles  from  the  ocean,  and  69 
miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Boston.  It  has  a  deep, 
excellent  harbour,  defended  by  Fort  Adams,  and 
a  torpedo  station ;  also  cotton-mills,  a  brass- 
foundry,  lead  and  fish-oil  works,  &c.  There  are 
a  brick  state-house,  a  custom-house,  a  city-hall, 
the  Redwood  Library,  many  palatial  villas,  and 
large  hotels ;  it  is  one  of  the  most  fashionable 
watering-places  in  America.  In  Touro  Park 
stands  the  'Round  Tower,'  or  'Old  Stone  Mill,' 
which  suggested  Longfellow's  '  Skeleton  in 
Armour.'  It  was  settled  in  1638  by  eighteen 
adherents  of  Roger  Williams ;  Bishop  Berkeley 
resided  here.  Till  1900  it  shared  witli  Providence 
the  dignity  of  capital  of  the  state.  Pop.  (1880) 
15,693  ;  (1S90)  19,457  ;  (1900)  22,034. 


Newport  News,  an  important  seaport  of 
Virginia,  on  the  estuary  of  the  James  River,  75 
miles  SE.  of  Richmond,    Pop.  (1900)  19,635. 

Newport-Pagnell,  a  market-town  of  Bucking- 
hamshire, at  the  influx  of  the  Ousel  to  the  Ouse, 
56  miles  NN  W.  of  London.  Tlie  fine  parish  church 
was  restored  in  1858.     Pop.  4030. 

Newquay,  a  bathing-resort  on  the  N.  coast  of 
Cornwall,  12  miles  N.  of  Truro.     Pop.  3115. 

New  Quay,  a  watering-place  on  an  inlet  of  Cardi- 
gan Bay,  5  miles  SVV.  of  Aberayron.     Pop.  3284. 

New  River,  an  artificial  cut,  running  38  miles 
southward  from  Chadswell  Springs  in  Hertford- 
shire into  reservoirs  at  Hornsey  and  Stoke  New- 
ington.  It  was  designed  for  the  water-supply 
of  London,  and  completed  (1609-20)  at  a  cost  of 
£500,000  by  Sir  Hugh  Myddelton,  goldsmith,  who 
died  poor  in  1631.  The  seventy-five  original 
shares,  sold  for  £100  apiece,  sell  now  at  the  rate 
of  from  £85,200  to  £95,100. 

New  Roclielle,  a  town  of  villas,  on  Long  Island 
Sound,  17  miles  NE.  of  New  York.    Pop.  14,720. 

New  Romney.    See  Romney. 

New  Ross,  a  market-town  and  river-port  of 
Leinster,  on  the  Barrow,  partly  in  Kilkeimy,  but 
chiefly  in  Wexford,  92  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Dublin 
and  15  NE.  of  Waterford.  The  two  portions  of 
the  town  are  connected  by  an  iron  swing-bridge 
(1869).  Before  the  Union  New  Ross— Old  Ross 
lies  5  miles  E. — returned  two  members,  and  down 
to  1885  one.     Pop.  5840. 

Newry,  a  seaport,  mainly  in  County  Down,  but 
partly  in  Armagh,  on  the  Newry  River,  38  miles 
SSW.  of  Belfast  by  rail.  A  canal  connects  it 
with  Carlingford  Lough  and  with  Lough  Neagh. 
Flax  spinning  and  weaving,  with  rope  and  sail 
making,  tanning,  and  granite-polishing,  are  the 
industries.  The  castle  was  taken  by  Edward 
Bruce  in  1318.  Newry  returns  one  M.P.  Pop. 
(1851)  13,191  ;  (1901)  12,884. 

New  Shoreham.    See  Shoreham. 

New  Siberia,  a  Siberian  group  of  uninhabited 
islands,  rocky  and  icebound,  in  the  Arctic  Ocean, 
between  the  mouths  of  the  Lena  and  Indigirka. 
The  principal  are  Kotelnoi  (the  largest),  Liakhov, 
Fadeyeff,  and  New  Siberia. 

New  South  Wales,  the  oldest  colony  of  Aus- 
tralasia, now  a  state  of  tlie  Australian  Connnou- 
wealth.  The  name  formerly  applied  to  the  whole 
of  the  eastern  part  of  Australia ;  but  since  the 
delimitation  of  the  other  'colonies'  New  South 
Wales,  lying  between  Queensland,  Victoria,  and 
South  Australia,  has  an  area  of  310,700  sq.  m., 
five  times  the  size  of  England.  Of  the  Australian 
states  it  is  fourth  in  area,  and  in  1901  first  in 
population.  A  series  of  mountain-chains,  20  to 
100  miles  distant  from  the  sea,  extend  south- 
ward from  near  Cape  York.  The  southernmost 
are  the  Australian  Alps,  running  into  Victoria, 
which  culminate  in  Mounts  Townsend  (7350  feet) 
and  Kosciusko  (7308  feet).  Northward  are  the 
Blue  Mountains,  west  of  Sydney,  with  peaks 
4000  feet,  and  containing  the  Jenolan  Caves 
(q.v.).  Liverpool  Range  is  more  northerly ;  and 
the  New  England  hills,  north-east,  rise  5000  feet. 
With  the  exception  of  some  isolated  mountains, 
the  region  to  the  west  consists  of  vast  plains, 
up  to  the  Barrier  Ranges  near  South  Australia. 
The  mountains  give  birth  to  short  and  rapid 
streams  toward  the  sea,  but  long  and  sluggish 
ones  westward.  The  Hawkesbury  or  Nepean, 
Hunter,  Clarence,  Shoalhaven,  and  Macleay  are 
eastern.    The  Lachlan,  700  miles  long,  runs  into 


New  south  wales 


501 


NEWTON-IN-MAKERPIELD 


the  Murrunibidgee,  which  flows  1350  miles  before 
falling  into  the  Murray.  The  Murray,  after  1100 
miles  on  the  New  South  Wales  border,  passes 
into  South  Australia,  The  Darling,  rising  in 
Queensland,  has  more  than  1000  miles  through 
the  colony  before  reaching  the  Murray.  The 
Macquarie  and  Namoi  go  northward  to  the 
Darling.  The  dry  interior  has  few  streams. 
There  are  some  fine  bays  on  the  coast.  The 
capital,  Sydney  (q.v.),  is  on  Port  Jackson,  and 
is  the  headquarters  of  the  Australian  naval 
squadron.  The  sea-coast,  with  from  40  to  70 
inches  of  rain  a  year,  differs  much  from  the  west- 
ern interior,  where  in  some  years  as  little  as  5 
inches  may  fall.  But  the  climate  is  so  uncertain 
that  a  region  may  suffer  from  fearful  drought  in 
one  season  and  floods  in  another.  Cold  and  ice 
with  heavy  snows  may  be  experienced  on  the  lofty 
plains  ;  but  Sydney,  33°  50'  lat.,  had  no  snow  in 
thirty  years.  Though  in  summer  the  thermo- 
meter may  rise  to  beyond  100°,  the  nights  are 
generally  cool.  The  eucalyi>tus-tree  prevails  in 
the  colony,  but  acacias  also  are  common,  and 
pines  and  cedars,  as  well  as  palms  in  the  north- 
east. The  fauna  consists  mainly  of  marsupials. 
Birds  are  of  great  variety,  many  of  very  beautiful 
plumage,  and  some  of  pleasant  note.  Insects 
are  numerous,  and  not  always  welcome.  Liz- 
ards and  snakes  may  run  to  a  good  size,  but 
there  are  no  alligators.  Fish,  especially  in  the 
bays,  are  plentiful.  The  Silurian  and  Devonian 
formations,  with  granitic,  igneous,  and  meta- 
morphic  rocks,  are  rich  in  gold,  silver,  lead, 
copper,  tin,  and  otlier  metals.  Gold,  known  in 
1823,  and  first  worked  in  1851,  near  Bathurst,  is 
found  over  an  area  of  70,000  sq.  m.  The  output 
to  1903  was  close  on  £53,000,000.  Silver  abounds 
in  the  Barrier  Ranges  near  South  Australia  ;  dis- 
covered in  1883,  the  silver  area  is  100  miles  by  12  ; 
the  Broken  Hill  Company  had,  to  1903,  raised 
115,500,000  oz.  Copper  extends  over  8000  sq.  m. 
Tin,  lead  (cliiefly  from  silver-mines),  antimony, 
manganese,  bismuth,  &c.  are  mined.  Iron  is 
abundant,  but  not  profitable  owing  to  the  cost  of 
labour.  Tlie  diamond,  emerald,  zircon,  sapphire, 
topaz,  &c.  occur.  Asbestos,  zinc,  mercury,  cobalt, 
alum,  graphite,  kaolin,  and  building-stone  are 
also  found.  Coal,  the  most  valuable  mineral,  ex- 
tends over  24,000  sq.  m.  ;  in  1903,  6,354,846  tons 
were  raised,  value  £2,319,660.  There  is  rich 
kerosene  shale  in  the  Blue  Mountains. 

New  Soutli  AVales  is  a  great  pastoral  coun- 
try,  and  owns  50,000,000  sheep.  The  stock  was 
originally  imported  from  Bengal  and  the  Cape ; 
but  as  their  wool  was  rather  hairy,  the  breed 
was  improved  by  the  introduction  of  Spanish 
merinoes.  Wool  exports  exceed  200,000,000  lb. 
weight  annually.  While  140,000,000  acres  are 
devoted  to  flocks  and  herds,  there  are  little  over 
2  million  acres  devoted  to  culture,  of  which  total 
1,501,100  acres  are  under  wheat,  and  226,834 
acres  maize.  The  principal  crops  are  wheat, 
maize,  barley,  oats,  potatoes,  lucerne,  and 
tobacco,  with  sugar  and  wine.  Tlie  sugar- 
plantations  in  the  north-east  are  not  so  pro- 
ductive as  in  Queensland ;  nor  are  tlie  apple- 
orchards  and  potato-furrows  equal  to  those  of 
Tasmania.  But  all  the  fruits  that  thrive  in 
England  and  Italy  grow  here.  Tlie  trade  of  New 
South  Wales,  long  a  free-trade  colony,  exceeds 
that  of  any  of  the  neighbouring  states.  From 
1893  to  1903  the  exports  varied  from  £20,577,673 
to  £28,445,466,  and  the  imports  from  £15,801  941 
to  £27,561,071.  The  chief  exports  to  Britain  are 
wool,  tin,  silver  ore,  copper,  tallow,  and  leather. 
The  imports  from  Britain  are  iron  goods,  cloth- 


ing, cottons  and  woollens.  Over  3200  miles  of 
railway  are  in  use.  The  governor  is  appointed 
by  the  Imperial  Government.  The  executive  is 
of  8  ministers ;  the  Upper  House  or  Legislative 
Council  has  61  members  ;  the  Lower,  or  Legis- 
lative Assembly,  90  members,  receiving  £300  a 
year.  The  franchise  is  adult,  including  females 
since  1902.  The  parliament  is  triennial.  In  1901 
New  South  Wales  joined  with  the  other  Australian 
colonies  in  forming  the  Connnonwealth  of  Aus- 
tralia, and  to  the  Federal  parliament  it  sends  6 
senators  and  26  members  to  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. The  revenue  in  1904  was  £11,248,328, 
The  public  debt,  contracted  for  useful  works,  was 
£80,033,581.  The  militia  and  volunteer  forces 
comprise  about  14,500  men.  The  pop,  (1901), 
1,359,133,  of  whom  646,677  were  female,  included 
7434  aborigines,  black  and  half-caste.  The  Church 
of  England  claims  nearly  one-half  the  population, 
the  Roman  Catholic  about  one-fourth.  There  are 
technological,  industrial,  and  general  museums, 
picture-galleries,  public  libraries,  schools  of  arts, 
and  mining  schools  ;  and  a  noble  state  university, 
having  affiliated  colleges,  crowns  the  educational 
edifice.  The  colony  was  established  in  1788,  under 
Governor  Phillip,  with  a  party  of  transported 
prisoners  from  England.  For  years  the  settlement 
suffered  much  from  want  of  food.  The  introduc- 
tion of  free  colonists,  to  whom  grants  of  land 
were  given,  promoted  pastoral  and  agricultural 
pursuits  ;  and  the  change  from  despotism  to  re- 
sponsible government  was  gradually  made.  The 
cessation  of  transportation  in  1840  was  followed 
by  social  and  political  advance ;  and  the  gold 
discovery  in  1851  gave  a  great  impetus  to  in- 
dustry and  prosperity,  A  great  wave  of  depres- 
sion and  financial  difficulty  passed  over  this 
and  the  other  Australasian  colonies  in  1893. 

See  Australia  and  works  there  cited  ;  Dilke's 
Problems  of  Greater  Britain  (1890) ;  and  works  on 
New  South  Wales  by  Flanagan  (1862),  Trollope 
(1874),  Lang  (1875),  Griffin  (1888),  Coghlan  (1890), 
and  Barton  (1890  et  seq.). 

Newstead  Ahbey,  10  miles  NNW.  of  Notting- 
ham,  on  the  border  of  Sherwood  Forest,  was 
founded  for  Augustinian  Canons  by  Henry  II. 
in  atonement  for  Becket's  murder  (1170),  and  in 
1540,  after  the  dissolution,  was  given  to  'Sir 
John  Byron  the  Little,  with  the  great  beard.' 
His  descendant,  the  poet  Lord  Byron,  made  the 
half-ruinous  old  place  his  home  in  1808,  but  sold 
it  in  1818,  since  which  time  about  £100,000  have 
been  spent  on  its  restoration. 

New  Sweden.    See  Pennsylvania. 

Newton,  (1)  capital  of  Harvey  county,  Kansas, 
134  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Topeka,  is  the  centre 
of  a  rich  coalfield.  Pop.  6605.--(2)  A  city  of 
Massachusetts,  7  miles  WSW.  of  Boston  by  rail, 
and  almost  surrounded  by  the  Charles  River.  It 
manufactures  cloth,  silk,  shoddy,  machinery, 
glue,  &c.     Pop.  35,000, 

Newton -Abbot,  a  market-town  of  Devonshire, 
at  the  influx  of  the  Lemon  to  the  Teign  estuary, 
15  miles  (by  rail  20)  S,  of  Exeter.  Ford  House 
has  lodged  both  Charles  I,  and  William  of  Orange, 
who  here  in  1688  was  first  proclaimed  king.  Pop. 
12,800, 

Newton  Heath,  a  north-eastern  ward  of  the 
city  of  Manchestei". 

Newton-in-Makerfield  (otherwise  Newton-le- 
WiLLOWs),  with  its  suburb  of  Earlstown,  a  thriv- 
ing town  of  Lancashire,  16  miles  E,  of  Liverpool 
and  16  W,  of  Manchester,  An  important  railway 
junction,  it  has  grown  rapidly,  and  has  print- 
ing-works,  paper-mills,  irou-fouudries,  a  sugar- 


NEWTON- STEWART 


502 


NEW  YORK  CITY 


refinery,  brick-fields,  and  rail  way- works.  On 
the  neighbouring  fine  racecourse  a  meeting  is  held 
annually  in  July.  At  Parkside,  J  mile  distant, 
Mr  Huskisson  met  with  the  accident  which  caused 
his  death,  at  the  opening  of  the  railway  (1S30). 
Newton  returned  two  M.P.s  from  1558  to  1832. 
Pop.  (1801)  1455  ;  (1881)  10,580  ;  (1901)  16,699. 

Newton-Stewart,  a  town  of  Wigtownshire, 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Cree,  50  miles  by  rail  W. 
of  Dumfries.  It  owes  its  name  to  a  son  of  the 
Earl  of  Galloway,  who  obtained  a  charter  making 
it  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1677.  Its  buildings  are 
a  fine  town-hall  (1884)  and  an  endowed  school, 
the  Ewart  Institute  (1864).    Pop.  263a 

Newton-upon-Ayr.    See  Ayr. 

Newtown  (Welsh  Drefmwydd;  anc.  Llanfair 
Cedewain),  a  toAvn  of  Montgomeryshire,  18  miles 
SSW.  of  Welshpool.  It  is  the  centre  of  the  Welsh 
flannel  manufacture,  and  also  produces  tweeds, 
shawls,  &c.  With  Montgomery,  (fee,  it  returns 
one  member.  Robert  Owen  was  a  native.  Pop. 
6500. 

Newtownards,  a  town  of  County  Down,  14 
miles  E.  of  Belfast  by  rail.  Flax-spinning, 
muslin-weaving  and  embroidering,  and  nursery- 
gardening  are  industries,  and  there  are  large 
markets.    Pop.  (1851)  9567  ;  (1901)  9110. 

Newtownbarry,  a  Wexford  market-town,  9 
miles  NW.  of  Ferns.     Pop.  909. 

Newtown  Hamilton,  a  market-town,  12  miles 
SE.  of  Armagh.     Pop.  688. 

Newtown  St  Boswells,  a  Roxburghshire 
village,  40i  miles  SB.  of  Edinburgh,  on  the  Tweed, 
opposite  Dryburgh.    Pop.  620. 

New  Westminster,  formerly  the  capital  of 
British  Columbia,  is  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Fraser  River,  10  miles  from  its  mouth  and  118 
miles  by  rail  and  steamer  NNE.  of  Victoria,  on 
Vancouver  Island.  Here  are  saw-mills  and  great 
salmon-canning  establishments.     Pop.  6700. 

New  York,  the  '  empire  state '  of  the  American 
Union,  is  the  twenty-fifth  in  area  and  the  first 
in  population.  It  has  a  very  irregular  outline ; 
two-thirds  along  the  shores  of  Lake  Erie,  the 
Niagara  River,  Lake  Ontario,  the  St  Lawrence, 
and  Lake  Champlain,  and  the  rest  artificial 
straight  lines.  Area,  49,170  sq.  m.,  or  almost 
that  of  England.  Long  Island  is  the  largest, 
and  Manhattan,  containing  the  most  populous 
part  of  New  York  City,  the  most  important 
of  the  many  islands.  The  state  is  traversed 
by  numerous  chains  of  mountains  and  hills, 
among  which  lie  beautiful  valleys.  There  is 
also  much  rolling  land,  and  there  are  several 
extensive  plains.  The  greatest  elevations  are  in 
the  E.  and  NE.,  but  nearly  all  the  SE.  part 
is  hilly  or  mountainous.  From  this  highland 
region  the  land  slopes  gradually,  and  declines 
in  a  series  of  terraces,  north  and  west  toward 
Lake  Ontario.  The  most  level  portions  are 
those  bordering  that  lake  and  the  St  Lawrence 
River.  The  mountainous  region  in  the  east  is 
cut  by  the  gap  of  the  Mohawk  River.  The 
narrow  valley  of  this  stream,  once  traversed  by 
a  mighty  river  which  drained  the  great  Ontario 
basin,  joins  at  right  angles  the  deep  depression 
in  which  are  Lake  Champlain,  Lake  George,  and 
the  Hudson  River.  Both  of  these  valleys  pass 
directly  through  the  Appalachian  system  of 
mountains,  and  divide  the  state  into  three  distinct 
sections.  The  mountains  are  also  disposed  in 
three  groups.  The  Adirondacks  (liighest  point. 
Mount  Marcy,  5400  feet),  in  the  NE.,  are  com- 
pletely isolated  by  the  valleys  of  Lake  Champlain 


and  the  Mohawk  River.  South  of  the  MohaAvk 
valley  are  the  Catskills  with  the  Helderberg  and 
Shawangunk  Mountains,  covering  an  area  of  about 
500  sq.  m.  The  Shawangunk  Mountains  are  con- 
tinuous with  the  Blue  or  Kittatinny  Mountains 
of  Pennsylvania.  The  Taconic  range  of  New 
England  enters  the  state  still  farther  south,  and 
passes  south-westerly  into  New  Jersey.  This 
range  is  cut  by  the  Hudson  River,  aiid  forms  the 
celebrated  Highlands.  There  are  extensive  iron- 
mines,  deposits  of  lead,  copper,  zinc,  &c.,  and 
abundance  of  building-stones.  The  salt-springs, 
especially  those  of  the  Onondaga  salt  group,  are 
of  great  value.  There  are  also  valuable  petroleum 
springs,  and  mineral  and  medicinal  springs. 

The  most  important  river  belonging  entirely  to 
the  state  is  the  Hudson.  The  Oswego,  draining 
a  chain  of  central  lakes,  the  Black,  and  the 
Genesee  are  aOluents  of  Lake  Ontario ;  the  St 
Lawrence  forms  part  of  the  northern  boundary ; 
the  Niagara  connects  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario, 
and  the  Delaware,  the  Susquehanna,  and  the 
Alleghany  rise  within  and  drain  the  southern 
portions  of  the  state.  New  York  lies  inainly  in 
the  lake  region  of  North  America,  and  claims 
the  eastern  part  of  Lake  Erie,  one-half  of  Lake 
Ontario,  and  one-half  of  Lake  Champlain.  Lake 
George  and  the  Adirondack  lakes  are  in  the  NE. 
The  mountains,  rivers,  lakes,  and  waterfalls 
(including  Niagara)  of  New  York  make  it  famous 
for  its  scenery.  Other  beautiful  falls  are  the 
Falls  of  the  Genesee,  Trenton  Falls,  the  Kaaters- 
kill  Falls  in  the  Catskills,  and  those  of  Cohoes, 
Ticonderoga,  and  at  Watkin's  Glen.  The  average 
temperature  is  about  47°  F. ,  with  a  range  of  over 
100°.  More  than  one-half  the  area  is  under 
cultivation.  In  the  lake  valleys  there  are  many 
vineyards  ;  hops  and  tobacco  are  crops  ;  near  New 
York  and  the  other  large  cities  market-gardening 
is  profitable.  But  manufacturing  is  the  leading 
industry,  and  in  the  value  of  its  manufactured 
products  New  York  is  the  foremost  state  of  the 
Union.  Moreover,  its  geographical  position  and 
its  natural  avenues  of  communication  with  other 
parts  of  the  country,  together  with  the  system  of 
canals  and  railroads,  make  it  the  leading  com- 
mercial state.  Of  several  canals  the  Erie  is  the 
most  important,  and  within  the  state  there  are 
nearly  8000  miles  of  railway. 

Before  the  coming  of  the  whites  the  territory 
now  known  as  New  York  was  occupied  by  the 
Iroquois  Indians.  Almost  simultaneously,  in  1609, 
Samuel  Champlain  discovered  the  lake  which 
bears  his  name,  and  Henry  Hudson  explored  the 
Hudson  River  as  far  as  the  present  site  of  Albany. 
A  few  years  later  settlements  were  made  by  the 
Dutch,  but  they  were  looked  upon  as  intruders 
by  the  English,  who  in  1664  forced  them  to  sur- 
render their  city  of  New  Amstf-rdam  (New  York 
City,  q.v.).  In  the  struggle  for  independence, 
in  the  war  of  1812,  and  in  the  civil  war  New  York 
played  a  prominent  part.  No  other  state  hag 
so  many  large  cities  and  thriving  towns.  New 
York  City  is  the  centre  of  a  thickly  populated 
district,  which  is  second  only  to  Loiidon  in  the 
number  of  its  people  and  the  importance  of  its 
commercial  interests.  The  other  most  important 
cities  are  Albany  (the  capital),  Buffalo,  Rochester, 
Syracuse,  Troy,  Utica,  Yoiikers,  Binghamton, 
Schenectady,  Auburn,  Ehnira,  Oswego,  Kingston, 
Pouglikeepsie,  Cohoes,  Newbuigh,  Hudson,  and 
Dunkirk.  Pop.  (1800)  589,051  ;  (1850)  3,097,394 ; 
(1880)  5,082,871 ;  (1900)  7,268,894. 

New  York  City,  the  largest  and  most  impor- 
tant city  on  tlie  American  continent,  the  third 
wealthiest  on  the  globe,  and,  next  to  London, 


KeW  YORK  CITY 


503 


NEW  ZEALAHd 


the  most  populous  in  the  world.  It  is  situated 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Hudson  River,  which  enters 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  through  New  Yorlc  Bay. 
Previous  to  1874  the  city  only  included  Man- 
hattan Island,  but  in  that  year  and  in  1895  it  was 
extended ;  and  in  1898  a  greater  extension  took  in 
Kings  county,  part  of  Queens  county  (Long 
Island),  Richmond  comity  (Staten  Island),  and 
the  towns  of  East  Chester  and  Pelham.  For 
administrative  purposes  the  whole  is  now  divided 
into  live  boroughs — Queens,  Brooklyn,  Richmond, 
tlie  Bronx,  and  Manhattan — and  the  total  area  is 
309  square  miles. 

The  bar  at  Sandy  Hook,  18  miles  south  of  the 
city,  which  divides  the  Atlantic  Ocean  from  the 
outer  or  lower  bay,  is  crossed  by  two  ship-channels, 
from  21  to  32  feet  deep  at  ebb-tide.  Tlie  lower 
bay  covers  88  sq.  m.  The  Narrows,  through  which 
all  large  ships  pass  on  their  way  to  the  inner 
harbour,  is  a  strait  between  Long  Island  and 
Staten  Island,  about  a  mile  in  width,  and  like 
other  api)roaches  is  defended  by  forts.  New 
York's  harbour  or  inner  bay  covers  about  14  sq, 
m.  ;  it  is  one  of  the  amplest,  safest,  and  most 
picturesque  on  the  globe,  open  all  the  year 
round.  Bridges  span  the  East  River  and  Harlem 
River,  and  there  are  some  thirty  steam-ferries. 
The  city  is  the  centre  of  finance  and  commerce  of 
the  United  States.  Of  the  total  trade  of  the 
States  about  46  per  cent,  passes  through  New 
York,  and  the  tonnage  of  vessels  entering  the 
port  in  1904  was  9,235,524,  and  of  the  vessels 
cleared  8,(500,590.  The  animal  exports  of  mer- 
chandise amount  to  about  $550,000,000,  tlie  im- 
ports to  over  $530,000,000.  Much  business  is 
also  done  at  the  wharves  of  Brooklyn  (q.v,). 
Liberty  Island,  in  tlie  harbour,  about  If  mile 
from  the  city,  contains  the  statue  of  Liberty 
(188G)  by  Bartholdi.  The  New  York  and  Brooklyn 
(q.v.)  Suspension  Bridge  and  the  new  East  River 
Bridge  (1S9G-1904)  span  the  East  River. 

Old  New  York  is  laid  out  very  irregularly.  Here 
the  money  interests  and  wholesale  traffic  are 
centred  ;  Wall,  New,  and  Broad  streets  being 
the  great  centres  of  banking  and  speculative 
enterprises.  The  newer  part  of  the  city,  from 
14th  Street  to  the  end  of  the  island,  northward, 
is  divided  into  twelve  great  avenues  and  several 
smaller  ones,  from  75  to  150  feet  in  width, 
running  north  and  south.  These  are  crossed  at 
right  angles  by  streets,  mostly  60  feet  in  width, 
running  from  river  to  river.  Fifth  Avenue,  the 
great  modern  central  thoroughfare,  divides^  the 
city  into  eastside  and  westside.  Several  of  the 
city's  avenues  are  traversed  their  full  length  by 
elevated  steam  passenger- railroads.  Twenty 
street  blocks  measure  a  mile,  and  every  tenth 
street  is  double  the  usual  width,  designed  for 
business  purposes.  Wooden  buildings  have  been 
interdicted  in  the  lower  part  of  the  city.  The 
inodern  method  is  to  build  roomy,  tall,  fireproof 
and  semi -fireproof  structures  for  apartment- 
houses  and  for  business  purposes,  the  ascent 
being  by  elevators.  Most  of  these  range  from 
75  to  100  feet  in  height;  some  of  them  run  to 
twenty  stories,  constructed  of  steel  frames  filled 
in  with  non-conibnstible  material.  Many  of 
them  are  costly  and  elegant.  Among  prominent 
public  edifices  are  the  City  Hall,  County  Court- 
house, Custom-house,  Treasury  Building,  Tombs 
(prison),  Barge  Office,  Masonic  Temple,  Academy 
of  Design,  Cooper  Union,  Post-office,  Produce 
Exchange,  Madi.son  Square  Garden  Hall,  Uni- 
versity of  the  City  of  New  York,  Lenox  Library, 
Temple  Enianuel,'Trinity  Church,  and  the  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral,  besides  large,  imposing  hotels 


and  palatial  dwellings  and  business  depots.  Inl- 
mense  retail  bazaars  and  arcades  are  found  on 
Broadway,  Grand  Street,  14th,  23d,  and  125th 
Streets,  and  3d,  6th,  and  8th  Avenues. 

The  city  government  is  under  a  mayor  and 
board  of  aldermen  ;  these  offices  are  mostly  filled 
by  adopted  citizens  from  Ireland  and  Germany. 
New  York  has  a  fire-department  conducted  at  an 
annual  expense  of  $5,000,000,  divided  into  300 
companies  with  3000  men.  The  Croton  Aqueduct 
conveys  an  ample  supply  of  water  from  the 
Croton  River  and  its  lakes,  a  distance  of  about 
40  miles,  to  the  four  reservoirs  of  the  city.  Thp 
New  York  General  Post-office  building,  erected 
of  granite,  at  a  cost  of  $6,500,000,  was  first  occu- 
pied in  1875.  The  Battery  Green  encloses  twenty- 
one  acres,  and  occupies  the  southern  point  of 
Manhattan  Island.  On  its  west  side  is  Castle 
Garden  (q.v.),  Central  Park  (1857),  comprising 
843  acres  of  beautifully  laid  out  grounds,  con- 
tains the  Egyptian  obelisk  (1880),  and  museums 
of  Art  and  Natural  History.  Other  parks  are 
Riverside,  Jerome,  Van  Cortlandt  parks.  Nearly 
300  newspapers  (daily,  weekly,  and  monthly) 
are  published— some  in  foreign  languages.  There 
are  three  general  colleges— Columbia,  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  City  of  New  York,  and  the  College 
of  the  City  of  New  York,  besides  the  Normal 
College,  Union  Theological  Seminary  (Presby- 
terian), the  Episcopal  Seminary,  &c.  Among 
libraries  may  be  named  the  Astor  (300,000 
vols.).  Mercantile  (250,000),  and  Columbia  College 
(110,000).  The  Museum  of  Art,  Museum  of 
Natural  History,  and  Lenox  Gallery  are  free. 
Noted  clubs  are  the  Manhattan,  Union,  New 
York,  St  Nicholas,  Knickerbocker,  Union  League, 
University,  Lotus,  Harmonic,  and  Century. 

John  Verrazani,  a  Florentine  navigator,  was  the 
first  European  who  entered  New  York  Bay,  in  1525. 
In  1614  the  Dutch  built  a  fort  on  Manhattan 
Island,  and  in  1623  a  permanent  settlement  was 
made,  named  Nieuw  Amsterdam.  In  1674  Man- 
hattan Island  came  into  the  possession  of  Great 
Britain,  who  gave  it  the  name  New  York,  in  honoiir 
of  James,  Duke  of  York.  At  the  Revolution  the 
population  was  less  than  that  of  Philadelphia  and 
Boston.  It  was  evacuated  by  the  forces  of  Great 
Britain  in  1783,  and  from  1785  to  1789  was  the 
seat  of  government  of  the  United  States.  Pop. 
(1774)  22,861 ;  (1800)  60,489  ;  (1825)  166,136  ;  (1850) 
550,394;  (1860)  813,669;  (1870)  942,292;  (1880) 
1,206,599;  (1890)  1,515,301;  and  'Greater  New 
York  '  (1900)  3,437,202.  See  Histories  by  Lossing 
(1885),  Roosevelt  (1891),  and  Grant  Wilson  (4  vols. 
1891-93);  and  Historic  New  York,  by  Misses 
Goodwin,  Royce,  and  Putnam  (1898). 

New  Zealand,  a  British  colony  in  the  South 
Pacific  Ocean,  comprises  three  main  islands — 
North  Island,  South  or  Middle  Island,  and  Stewart 
Island,  the  last  being  much  the  smallest— besides 
a  number  of  islets.  The  North  and  South  Islands 
are  long  and  narrow,  so  that  no  place  is  more 
than  75  miles  from  the  coast.  They  lie  1200  miles 
E.  of  Australia,  and  stretch  600  miles  farther 
south.  The  main  islands  have  a  length  of  1100 
miles,  and  lie  between  34°  22'  and  47°  18'  S.  lat. 
and  166°  27'  and  178°  34'  E.  long.  The  total  area 
of  the  colony  is  106,240  sq.  m.,  or  about  one- 
eighth  less  than  that  of  Great  Britain  and  Ire- 
land. Cook  Strait,  a  deep  and  somewhat  stormy 
passage  of  13  miles,  separates  the  North  and 
South  Islands.  Foveaux  Strait  (15  miles) 
divides  the  South  Island  from  Stewart  Island. 
In  its  northern  half  the  North  Island  is  deeply 
indented  by  the  sea,  and  contains  many  excel- 
lent harbours :   the  southern  half  has  but  one 


NEW  ZEALAND 


504 


NEW  ZEALAND 


harbour,  that  of  Wellington  in  the  SW.  corner. 
The  coast  of  the  South  Island  is  little  broken 
except  in  the  mountainous  north-east  and  south- 
west corners ;  but  the  volcanic  projections  of 
Banks  and  Otago  peninsulas  supply  conunodi- 
ous  harbours.  The  great  ports  are  Auck- 
land, Napier,  and  Wellington  in  the  North 
Island,  and  Lyttelton,  Dunedin  (Port  Chalmers), 
and  Bluff  Harbour  in  the  South  Island.  New 
Zealand  is  composed  of  rocks  of  all  geological 
ages,  and  the  chief  mountain-chains  are  of  great 
antiquity.  Both  of  the  great  islands  are  traversed 
by  a  great  mountain-chain  running  NE.  and 
SW.,  which  practically  divides  them  into  an 
eastern  and  a  western  side,  between  which  traffic 
is  mainly  carried  on  by  sea.  Resting  on  the 
main  chain  of  the  North  Island  on  its  west  side 
lies  a  vast  triangular  plateau.  On  this  stand  up 
two  extinct  volcanoes — the  majestic  cone  of 
Mount  Egraont,  near  the  west  coast,  and  the 
massive  Ruapehu  (9008  feet)  in  the  centre,  with 
the  active  cone  of  Tongariro  hard  by.  In  this 
plateau  the  chief  rivers  of  the  North  Island  take 
their  rise.  The  Waikato,  the  largest  and  longest, 
passes  through  the  beautiful  Lake  Taupo,  and  at 
length  Hows  out  on  the  west  coast.  The  better 
lands  of  the  South  Island  are  now  mostly  taken 
up,  but  in  the  North  Island  there  remain  vast 
tracts  of  excellent  land  waiting  to  be  cleared. 
Much  of  it  belongs  to  the  natives.  Two-thirds 
of  the  South  Island  is  covered  by  the  broad  and 
lofty  chain  of  the  Southern  Alps,  and  its  eastern 
and  southern  offshoots.  It  culminates  in  Mount 
Cook  (12,349  feet),  mantled  by  glaciers  of  greater 
magnitude  than  any  in  the  Alps  of  Europe.  This 
elevated  region  is  penetrated  by  the  great  valleys 
of  the  numerous  rivers  flowing  away  to  the  east 
and  south.  The  principal  rivers  are  the  Buller, 
Waimakariri,  Waitaki,  Clutha,  and  Waiau.  The 
vast  Canterbury  plains  skirt  the  east  coast, 
and  the  Southlands  plain  lies  between  the  moun- 
tains of  Otago  and  the  south  coast.  The  west  coast 
consists  of  a  narrow  belt  of  low  land  clothed  with 
impenetrable  forest,  save  where  miners  and 
farming  settlers  have  made  clearings,  and  where 
the  broad  river-beds  come  down  to  the  sea.  In 
the  North  Island  much  of  the  finest  land  is 
covered  by  forests  of  tropical  luxuriance,  which 
ascend  the  mountains  to  a  height  of  4000  feet, 
but  the  greater  part  of  the  South  Island  is  very 
scantily  supplied  with  timber,  and  mountains 
and  lowlands  alike  are  open  and  well  grassed. 
The  climate  is  one  of  the  best  and  healthiest 
in  the  world.  Owing  to  the  great  length  of 
the  islands  it  presents  considerable  variety,  and 
the  direction  of  the  mountain-chains  increases 
the  difference  due  to  latitude  alone.  The  average 
temperature  is  remarkably  equable,  and  the  air 
is  singularly  fresh,  being  constantly  agitated 
by  winds  (sometimes  chilly  and  boisterous). 
The  average  daily  range  of  temperature  is  20". 
The  average  annual  temperature  of  the  North 
Island  is  7°  higher  than  that  of  London,  and 
of  the  South  Island  4°.  The  great  peninsula 
north  of  Manukau  Harbour  enjoys  a  humid  semi- 
tropical  climate,  and  is  the  home  of  the  kauri  pine. 
Near  the  western  seaboard  the  climate  is  more 
equable  and  much  moister  than  on  the  long 
eastern  and  northern  slopes.  More  rain  falls  than 
in  England,  and  the  weather  is  generally  more 
changeable,  but  there  are  fewer  wet  days.  The 
country  is  everywhere  well  watered,  and  prolonged 
droughts  are  unknown.  Snow  seldom  falls  even 
in  the  south.  The  mildness  of  the  winter  allows 
cattle  and  horses  to  remain  in  the  fields  without 
shelter.    For  variety,  picturesqueness,  and  wild 


grandeur,  the  scenery  of  New  Zealand  is  unrivalled 
in  the  southern  hemisphere.  In  the  North  Island 
is  the  wonderland  of  the  volcanic  belt,  remarkable 
for  its  hot  lakes  and  pools,  which  possess  great 
curative  virtue  for  all  rheumatic  and  skin  diseases, 
its  boiling  geysers,  steaming  fumaroles,  sulphur- 
basins,  and  pumice  plains.  The  exquisite  siliceous 
terraces  of  Rotomahana  are  now  buried  beneath 
the  debris  of  Mount  Tarawera,  shattered  by  the 
gigantic  explosion  of  June  1886.  In  the  South 
Island  the  Central  Alps  of  the  Mount  Cook  dis- 
trict display  to  the  visitor  the  grandest  glaciers 
in  the  temperate  zones,  and  splendid  clusters  of 
snowy  mountain-peaks.  Farther  south  are  the 
lovely  Otago  lakes,  embosomed  in  mountains  6000 
to  8000  feet  high.  Near  Milford  Sound  are  the 
famous  Sutherland  Falls,  1904  feet  high. 

New  Zealand  is  a  group  of  true  oceanic  islands. 
Originally  it  contained  no  mammals  except  two 
species  of  bat.  The  next  highest  animals  were 
a  few  small  lizards.  Among  the  birds  are  several 
parrots,  one  of  which— the  mountain  kea— has 
acquired  the  habit  of  killing  sheep,  and  several 
wingless  kiwis  or  apteryxes,  the  puny  surviving 
relatives  of  the  gigantic  but  extinct  Moas.  The 
Maoris  brought  dogs  with  them,  and  doubtless 
the  native  rat  also.  Cook  gave  them  pigs.  The 
colonists  introduced  the  common  domesticated 
animals  of  Europe,  Many  kinds  of  English 
birds,  and  also  black  swans  from  Australia  have 
been  established  in  the  country.  Unfortunately 
rabbits  also  have  been  acclimatised,  and  become 
a  serious  pest,  which  it  costs  more  than  £100,000 
a  year  to  keep  in  check.  Fresh-water  fishes  of 
many  kinds  have  been  introduced  with  great 
success.  Nearly  all  the  native  trees  and  shrubs 
are  evergreen.  The  most  important  plants  are 
the  timber-trees.  The  Phormium  or  native  flax 
grows  wild  in  great  profusion.  Ferns  of  many 
kinds  greatly  abound,  including  numerous  tree- 
ferns.  The  fruit  and  other  trees  of  temperate 
zones  thrive  admirably.  European  grasses  and 
trefoils  spread  with  great  rapidity,  and  so  do 
weeds  of  every  kind.  Considerable  tracts  of  the 
Canterbury  and  the  inland  plains  are  shallow 
and  arid,  and  require  irrigation.  The  principal 
crops  are  wheat,  oats,  barley ;  of  other  agricul- 
tural produce  wool,  frozen  meat,  butter  and 
cheese  are  the  most  important. 

The  chief  mineral  product  is  gold,  mainly  from 
alluvial  workings.  The  annual  produce  which 
declined  till  1890  (when  it  was  £773,438),  increased 
in  1903  again  to  £2,037,831.  Silver,  lead,  copper, 
antimony,  and  manganese  are  produced  in  small 
quantities.  The  coal  raised  in  1903  was  710,096 
tons.  The  manufactures,  stimulated  by  higli  pro- 
tective duties,  are  mainly  woollen  clotlis,  wools, 
hosiery,  blankets,  soap,  candles,  leather,  biscuits 
and  confectionery,  boots  and  shoes,  paper, 
machinery  and  implements,  apparel,  ropes  and 
twine,  beer,  &c.  From  1893  to  1903  the  imports 
rose  from  £6,911,515  to  £12,788,675  a  year,  and 
the  exports  from  £8,985,364  to  £15,010,378. 
The  imports  from  Britain  in  these  years  were 
between  £4,000,000  and  £7,512,668 ;  the  exports  to 
Britain  between  £7,036,615  and  £11,345,075.  The 
chief  exports  were  in  1903,  wool  (£4,044,223), 
frozen  meat  (£3,197,043),  gold  (£2,038,075),  butter 
and  cheese  (£1,613,065),  kauri  gum  (£631,102), 
flax  (£595,684),  grain  (£494,689),  tallow,  sheep, 
hides  and  leather.  The  imports  are  mainly 
clothing  ami  cloth  ;  iron  and  steel  goods  ;  sugar  ; 
paper,  books,  and  stationery  ;  spirits,  wines,  and 
beer ;  tea  ;  tobacco  and  cigars  ;  fruit ;  and  oils. 
The  revenue  of  the  colony  has  in  1893-1903 
increased    from    £4,407,964    to    £7,201,002,   and 


NEZHIN 


505 


NICARAGUA 


always  exceeds  the  expenditure.  The  debt  in 
1904  was  £57,522,215.  There  are  2440  miles  of 
railway  ;  and  the  islands  are  connected  with  one 
another,  with  New  South  Wales,  and  so  Avith  the 
rest  of  the  world,  by  telegraphs.  Elementary 
education  is  free,  compulsory,  and  secular.  The 
three  university  colleges  at  Auckland,  Christ- 
church,  and  Dunedin,  attended  by  700  students, 
are  affiliated  to  the  University  of  New  Zealand, 
an  examining  body  which  grants  degrees. 

White  pop.  (1851)  26,707  ;  (1861)  99,022  ;  (1871) 
256,260;  (1881)  489,933;  (1901)  772,719,  besides 
43,143  Maoris  (almost  all  in  North  Island).  516,106 
•were  born  in  the  colony  ;  111,964  in  England, 
47,858  in  Scotland,  43,524  in  Ireland,  and  1765  in 
Wales.  Only  18,593  were  of  non-British  descent, 
including  2900  Chinese.  Of  the  total,  603,916 
were  Protestants.  Anglicans  predominate  in 
Canterbury,  Presbyterians  in  Otago,  and  there 
are  many  Wesleyans.  Up  to  1876  the  North 
Island  was  divided  into  four  provinces— Auck- 
land, Hawke  Bay,  Taranaki,  and  Wellington ; 
and  the  South  Island  into  five— Nelson,  Marl- 
borough, Canterbury,  Westland,  and  Otago. 
These  are  now  known  as  provincial  districts,  and 
subdivided  into  numerous  counties.  The  colony 
is  administered  by  a  governor  with  a  ministry  of 
8  members,  a  legislative  council  of  45  members 
appointed  by  the  governor,  and  a  legislative 
assembly  of  SO  members  (four  being  Maoris 
elected  by  natives)  elected  by  adult  suffrage,  in- 
cluding women.  Wellington  is  the  capital  (pop. 
49,344).  Auckland  is  the  largest  city  (pop.  67,226). 
The  other  chief  towns  are  Napier,  Wanganui,  and 
New  Plymouth  in  the  North  Island  ;  and  Nelson, 
Blenheim,  Christchurch  (57,041),  Timaru,  Oaniaru, 
Dunedin  (52,390),  and  Invercargill  in  the  South 
Island.  Stewart  Island  has  a  sparse  population 
on  the  north-east  coast,  and  several  excellent 
harbours.  The  Maori  natives  belong  to  the 
Polynesian  race,  and  are  well-built,  generous, 
and  warlike ;  cannibalism  was  associated  with 
their  warfare.  They  still  own  large  areas  of  land, 
on  which  they  raise  crops  and  keep  great  numbers 
of  sheep,  but  they  are  not  very  industrious. 
The  islands  were  discovered  by  Tasinan,  (and 
called  Nova  Zeelanda,  in  1642,  but  became  known 
really  through  Captain  Cook.  Some  trade  sprang 
up  early  in  the  19th  century,  and  the  islands 
became  definitely  British  in  1840 ;  there  were 
wais  with  the  Maoris  in  1843  and  1869,  and  self- 
government  was  granted  in  1852.  See  books  on 
New  Zealand  by  Hochstetter  (1867),  Pennefather 
(1893),  and  Pember  Reeves  (1898),  besides  the 
official  and  other  handbooks ;  and  histories  by 
Rusden  (1895)  and  Frank  Parsons  (Phila.  1904). 

Nezhin,  or  Nizhan,  a  town  in  the  government 
of  Tchernigov,  Russia,  on  the  Oster  River,  about 
80  miles  NE.  of  Kiev.  It  has  a  historico-philo- 
logical  institute  of  high  rank,  with  a  library  of 
60,000  volumes.  Tobacco  is  cultivated  in  the 
vicinity,  and  vegetables  and  fruit  are  important 
products.     Pop.  32,100. 

Ngami  (Ngah'mee;  ng  as  in  sing),  Lake,  a 
former  South  African  lake,  in  Southern  Rhodesia 
and  situatea  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
Kalahari  Desert,  in  20°  30'  S.  lat.  and  23°  E.  long., 
at  an  altitude  of  2810  feet.  When  discovered  by 
Livingstone  in  1849,  it  was  a  lake  of  about  50 
miles  long  by  10  to  20  miles  broad,  its  chief 
tributary  being  the  Cubango.  It  is  now  only  a 
reed-grown  swamp  in  the  dry  season. 

Ngan-king,  one  of  the  interior  Chinese 
ports,  capital  of  the  province  of  Ngan-hwei, 
opened  to  foreign  commerce  in  1897,  is  situated 


on  the  Yang-tsze-kiang,  190  miles  SW.  of  Nanking. 
Pop.  about  40,000. 

Niagara  (Mog^'ara— originally  Neeagah'ra ; 
'  Thunder  of  Waters '),  a  river  of  North  America, 
which  forms  part  of  the  boundary  between  New 
York  state  aind  the  province  of  Ontario.  It  flows 
from  Lake  Erie  to  Lake  Ontario,  a  course  of  36 
miles,  during  which  it  makes  a  total  descent  of 
326  feet— about  50  feet  in  the  rapids  immediately 
above  the  great  falls,  and  nearly  110  feet  in  the 
seven  miles  of  rapids  below.  It  encloses  several 
islands,  the  largest  Grand  Island,  which  is  nearly 
10  miles  long.  Four  miles  below  this  island  are. 
the  most  famous  falls  in  the  world.  The  centre 
of  the  river  here  is  occupied  by  Goat  Island, 
dividing  the  cataract  into  two— the  Horseshoe 
(Canadian)  Fall,  with  a  descent  of  158  feet,  and 
the  American  fall,  162  to  169  feet ;  the  width  of 
the  former  is  about  2640  feet,  of  the  latter  1000 
feet.  The  volume  of  water  which  sweeps  over 
this  immense  chasm  (nearly  nine-tenths  passing 
over  the  Canadian  fall)  is  about  15,000,000  cubic 
feet  a  minute.  The  depth  of  water  on  the  crest 
of  the  falls  is  less  than  4  feet,  except  in  a  few 
places,  notably  at  the  apex  of  the  Horseshoe 
Fall,  where  it  is  about  20  feet.  The  limestone 
edge  of  both  falls  is  rapidly  wearing  away  in  the 
centre.  For  seven  miles  below  the  falls  (to  the 
point,  that  is,  where  it  has  been  supposed  that 
the  falls  originally  stood)  the  river  is  shut  in 
between  perpendicular  walls  of  rock,  from  200 
to  350  feet  high.  For  some  distance  below  the 
falls  there  is  still  water,  the  body  of  water  which 
pours  over  the  precipice  sinking,  and  only  coming 
to  the  surface  again  two  miles  below,  where  the 
whirlpool  rapids  begin ;  a  little  lower  is  the 
whirlpool,  where  a  sharp  turn  sends  the  waters 
hurling  against  the  Canadian  side,  and  then 
sweeping  round  in  a  great  eddy  before  they  find 
a  vent  at  a  right  angle  with  their  former  course. 
Just  below  the  cataract  the  river  is  crossed  by  a 
suspension  bridge  for  carriages  and  foot-pass- 
engers, and  a  mile  and  a  half  farther  down  there 
are  two  railway  bridges— one  a  cantilever  bridge 
— about  100  yards  apart.  On  both  shores  the 
lands  bordering  on  the  river,  for  some  distance 
above  and  below  the  falls,  are  under  the  im- 
mediate control  of  the  respective  governments. 
The  'New  York  State  Park  at  Niagara  Falls' 
(1885)  embraces  115  acres,  and  the  '  Queen  Vic- 
toria Niagara  Falls  Park '  (1888)  about  154  acres. 
Oiily  in  1890  was  the  tunnel  begun  for  the  utilisa- 
tion of  the  water-power  of  the  falls  to  generate 
electricity  for  transmission  to  more  or  less  dis- 
tant centres ;  by  1900  one  company  alone  had 
usefully  applied  40,000  horse-power,  and  by  1904 
the  plant  on  the  Canadian  side  alone  repre- 
sented 675,000  horse-power  (partly  transmitted  to 
Toronto).— Niagara  Falls,  a  city  of  New  York, 
is  connected  by  the  suspension  bridge  with  the 
Canadian  side.  Pop.  20,000.— Niagara,  a  summer- 
resort  of  Ontario,  is  situated  on  Lake  Ontario,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Niagara,  15  miles  from  the  falls. 
Pop.  4250. 

Nias  (Nee' as),  a  Dutch  island,  W.  of  Sumatra. 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  attaining  1970  feet. 
Area,  1767  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  170,000,  who  grow 
pepper,  rice,  cocoa-nuts,  tobacco,  sugar-canes,  &c, 

Nicaea.    See  Nice. 

Nicaragua  (Nikardh'gioa),  an  independent  state 
of  Central  America,  stretching  right  across  the 
isthmus  from  the  Caribbean  Sea  to  the  Pacific, 
between  Costa  Rica  and  Honduras,  with  an  area 
of  47,837  sq.  m.  The  Central  American  Cordll- 
I  leras  (4000-5000  ft.)  form  the  backbone  of  the 


NICE 


506 


NIERSTEIN 


country.  On  the  west  the  surface  sinks  rapidly 
to  a  longitudinal  depression  (110  feet),  the  south- 
ern two-thirds  of  which  are  filled  by  the  large 
lakes  of  Nicaragua  (115  miles  long,  45  broad,  and 
140  feet  deep)  and  Managua  (35  miles  long,  20 
broad,  30  feet  deep).  This  depression  is  studded 
with  a  chain  of  volcanic  cones,  mostly  quiescent, 
from  3800  to  6800  feet  high.  The  western  dis- 
tricts are  the  chief  seats  of  tlie  population ; 
there  stand  the  towns  Managua  (the  capital), 
Leon,  Granada,  Chinandega,  Rivas.  Rivers  flow- 
ing eastward  are  the  Coco  or  Wanks  (350  miles 
long),  the  northern  boundary  ;  the  San  Juan  (125 
miles),  which  drains  Lake  Nicaragua  and  separ- 
ates Nicaragua  from  Costa  Rica;  the  Bluefields 
and  the  Rio  Grande  (230  miles).  The  low  coast- 
belt,  called  the  Mosquito  Territory  (q.v.),  is  lined 
with  salt  lagoons.  The  mountain-spurs  east  of 
the  main  chain  are  rich  in  minerals— gold,  silver, 
coal,  copper,  tin,  iron,  lead,  zinc,  antimony, 
quicksilver,  marble,  &c.  The  forests  include 
mahogany,  rosewood,  logwood,  fustic,  sandal- 
wood, india-rubber,  medicinal  plants,  gums,  and 
dye-woods.  The  rich  soil  of  the  cultivated 
western  region  yields  maize  (the  staple  food), 
coffee,  cocoa,  sugar,  cotton,  rice,  tobacco,  indigo, 
and  a  great  variety  of  tropical  fruits.  Of  the 
population  of  480,000,  one-third  are  Indians,  and 
one-half  mulattoes  and  negroes.  The  country  is 
governed  by  a  president  (elected  for  four  years), 
a  legislative  assembly  of  eleven  members,  and  a 
senate  of  ten.  A  ship-canal  from  sea  to  sea,  170 
miles  long,  by  way  of  the  San  Juan  River  and 
Lalte  Nicaragua,  was  begun  by  a  U.S.  company 
in  1889;  but,  though  some  authorities  held  this 
route  preferable  on  various  grounds,  the  works 
were  soon  suspended,  and  ultimately  the  Panama 
Canal  (see  PanamX)  was  taken  up  by  the  U.S. 
government.  During  the  Spanish  supremacy 
(after  1550)  Nicaragua  was  a  province  of  Gua- 
temala. In  1821  it  asserted  its  independence, 
and  its  history  down  to  1865  is  a  record  of  war 
and  dissension ;  there  was  a  revolution  and  a 
counter-revolution  in  1893.  See  works  by  Squier 
(1852),  Belt  (1873),  Leoy  (Paris,  1873),  Bancroft 
(1882),  and  Bonvallius  (Stockholm,  1886). 

Nice,  or  Nic^a,  a  city  of  ancient  Bithynia,  in 
Asia  Minor,  situated  on  the  eastern  shore  of  Lake 
Ascania.  The  First  and  Seventh  Ecumenical 
Councils  were  held  here  in  325  and  787  a.d. 

Nice  (Neece;  Ital.  Nizza),  chief  town  of  the 
French  dep.  of  Alpes  Maritimes,  stands  on  a 
beautiful  well-sheltered  site  on  the  coast,  140 
miles  E.  by  N.  of  Marseilles  and  110  SW.  of 
Genoa.  On  the  north  of  the  city  the  hills  rise 
in  terraces  and  shield  it  from  the  cold  winds ; 
on  the  south  it  faces  the  sea,  which  tempers  the 
heat  in  summer.  Owing  to  the  advantages  of 
its  situation,  Nice  has  for  many  years  been  cele- 
brated as  a  winter-resort  for  invalids,  the  number 
of  visitors  ranging  between  15,000  and  45,000. 
The  mean  temperature  of  winter  is  49°  F„  of 
summer  72°.  Pop.  (1872)  42,363  ;  (1901)  98,865. 
The  New  Town  on  the  west  is  the  part  frequented 
by  foreigners,  particularly  English  (whence  its 
name  of  '  English  town ').  Beautiful  promenades 
stretch  along  the  seashore,  and  are  overlooked 
by  villas  and  hotels.  Numerous  bridges  across 
the  little  river  Paglione  (Paillon)  connect  the 
New  Town  with  the  Old  or  Upper  Town.  This 
part,  with  narrow  streets,  clusters  at  the  foot 
of  a  rocky  height,  the  Castle  Hill ;  on  the  other 
(east)  side  of  this  hill  is  the  harbour,  which  was 
enlarged  to  twice  its  original  size  in  1889,  and 
deepened  to  25  feet.    The  Castle  Hill  is  an  isolated 


mass  of  limestone  318  feet  high,  crowned  by  a 
ruined  castle,  and  laid  out  in  public  gardens. 
The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  cathedral,  the 
Gothic  church  of  Notre  Dame,  the  natural  history 
museum,  art  gallery,  library,  observatory,  casino, 
&c.  The  people  manufacture  artistic  pottery, 
perfumery,  and  macaroni,  grow  flowers  and 
southern  fruits,  the  last  of  which  they  preserve, 
and  produce  inlaid  work  in  olive-wood.  The 
chief  export  is  olive-oil.  The  ancient  Ligurian 
town  of  Nicsea,  founded  by  a  colony  of  Phocseans 
from  Massalia  (Marseilles),  became  subject  to 
Rome  in  the  2d  century  b.c.  It  was  in  the 
hands  of  the  Saracens  in  the  10th  century.  In 
1543  it  was  pillaged  by  the  Turks.  From  1600 
onwards  it  was  repeatedly  taken  by  the  French  ; 
they  held  it  from  1792  to  1814  ;  and  in  1860  it 
was  ceded  to  France  by  Sardinia  (Savoy).  Mas- 
sena  was  born  near  the  city,  and  Garibaldi  in  it. 

Nic'obar  Islands,  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
Indian  Ocean,  south  of  the  Andamans,  and  form- 
ing with  them  an  extension  of  the  great  island 
chain  of  which  Java  and  Sumatra  are  the  principal 
links.  Just  a  score  in  number,  of  which  twelve 
are  inhabited,  they  have  an  area  of  684  sq.  m., 
and  consist  of  two  divisions— the  northern, 
low  and  planted  with  cocoa-nut  trees,  and  the 
southern,  mountainous  (2000  feet)  and  covered 
with  timber.  The  people  belong  to  two  races, 
an  indigenous  inland  tribe,  little  civilised,  and 
the  coast  people,  6000  in  number,  who  are  of 
mixed  Malay  blood.  The  archipelago  was  occu- 
pied by  Denmark  1756-1856.  In  1869  it  was 
annexed  by  Britain.  A  penal  colony  for  India 
exists  at  Nankauri,  on  the  island  Kamorta. 

Nicome'dia,  the  capital  of  ancient  Bithynia, 
situated  at  the  NE.  angle  of  an  inlet  of  the 
Propontis,  was  built  in  264  b.  c.  by  Nicomedes  I. 
The  small  town  of  Ismid  now  occupies  its  site. 

Nicop'olis,  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  on  the  Danube, 
56  miles  W.  of  Rustchuk.     Pop.  6652. 

Nicosia,  (l)  called  also  Levkosia,  the  capital  of 
Cyprus,  situated  near  the  middle  of  the  northern 
half  of  the  island,  has  some  manufactures  of  silk, 
leather,  and  cotton.  Pop.  14,536.— (2)  A  city  of 
Sicily,  40  miles  N\V.  of  Catania.     Pop.  15,941. 

Nictheroy,  a  town  of  Brazil,  and  till  1894  the 
capital  of  the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro,  on  the 
east  side  of  the  entrance  to  the  bay,  and  5  miles 
E.  of  the  city  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  It  has  beautiful 
suburbs.     Pop.  25,000. 

Nidderdale,  the  valley  of  the  river  Nidd,  which 
rises  at  the  foot  of  Whernside,  in  Yorkshire,  and 
flows  SE.  and  E.  to  the  Ouse  above  York. 

Niddry  Castle,  a  Linlithgow  ruin,  1  mile  SSE. 
of  Winchburgh.  Queen  Mary  fled  hither  from 
Lochleven. 

Niederwald  (Nee'dervalt),  the  western  end  of 
the  Taunus  range,  that  abuts  upon  the  Rhine 
opposite  Bingen.  On  a  commanding  site  was 
erected  in  1883  the  national  memorial  of  the  war 
of  1870-71— a  pedestal,  surmounted  by  a  bronze 
figure  of  Germania,  34^  feet  high.  Toothed-rail- 
ways carry  visitors  up  from  Riidesheim  and  Ass- 
mannshausen  at  the  foot,  both  noted  for  their  wine. 
Niemen  (Nee'men),  a  river  of  W.  Russia,  whose 
lower  course  (70  of  its  500  miles)  lies  within 
East  Prussia,  where  it  is  called  the  Memel,  rises 
S.  of  Minsk.  It  is  navigable  to  Grodno ;  below 
Tilsit  it  divides  into  two  branches,  which  reach 
the  Kurisches  Half  each  by  four  mouths. 

Nierstein  (Neer'stine),  a  village  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  on  the  Rhine,  10  miles  SSE.  of  Mainz, 
famous  for  its  Rhine  wine.    Pop.  3283, 


NIEUWE  DIEP 


507 


NILE 


Nieuwe  Diep,  or  Willemsoord,  a  small  port 
of  North  Holland,  1  mile  E.  of  the  Helder  (q.v.). 

Nieuwveld  Mountains.    See  Capk  Colony. 

Nievre  (Nyehvr;  y  consonantal),  a  central 
dep.  of  France,  occupies  a  portion  of  the  water- 
shed between  the  Loire  and  the  Seine.  Area, 
2632  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872)  339,917  ;  (1901)  319,506. 
Arrondissements,  Nevers,  Chateau-Chinon, 
Clamecy,  and  Cosne ;  capital,  N«vers. 

Niger,  a  river  of  West  Equatorial  Africa,  whose 
name  first  appears  in  Ptolemy,  and  naay  be 
derived  from  a  native  root  gir  or  jur.  The 
problem  as  to  its  course  remained  almost  till  the 
19th  century  one  of  the  most  perplexed  in  the 
whole  range  of  geography— it  was  an  affluent  of 
the  Nile  ;  an  affluent  of  the  Congo ;  an  inde- 
pendent river  terminating  in  an  inland  basin ; 
and  so  on.  It  was  left  to  Mungo  Park  and 
other  workers  in  the  service  of  the  African 
Association  (1788)  to  lay  the  basis  of  our  present 
knowledge.  The  Niger  proper  ( Joliba,  Isa,  Quorra, 
&c.)  has  a  total  length  of  2600  miles,  and  the  area 
of  the  entire  basin  (including  that  of  the  Benue) 
is  estimated  at  1,023,280  sq.  m.  The  head- waters 
are  situated  in  the  Samory  region,  inland  from 
Sierra  Leone  and  Liberia,  and  are  contiguous  to 
the  sources  of  the  Senegal.  The  Tembi  and  its 
sister  streams  soon  gather  into  a  good  navigable 
river,  which  holds  a  north-easterly  course  as 
far  as  Timbuctoo  (q.v.),  2  miles  from  the  river. 
Beyond  this,  split  into  channels,  it  holds  a  more 
easterly  direction  for  200  miles,  and  then  with  its 
now  united  forces  turns  south-east  to  cut  its  way 
through  a  rocky  tract  of  country,  and  to  pass  in 
succession  Say ;  Bnssa,  where  Park  came  to  his 
untimely  end  ;  Rabba,  one  of  the  largest  cities  on 
its  course  ;  and  Egga,  where  the  river  turns  more 
to  the  south.  Having  received  in  the  Benue  a 
rival  in  volume,  the  united  river  traverses  a  series 
of  bold,  picturesque  hills  by  a  narrow  gorge,  and 
begins  to  break  up  into  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able mangrove-covered  deltas  in  the  world.  The 
upper  and  middle  basin  of  the  Niger  is  under 
French  authority;  the  lower  basin  constitutes 
(British)  Nigeria. 

Nigeria,  since  1900  a  British  protectorate  in 
West  Equatorial  Africa,  includes  all  the  terri- 
tories administered  till  that  date  by  the  Royal 
Niger  Company,  and  the  Niger  Coast  Protectorate. 
On  the  east  it  is  bounded  by  (German)  Cameroon 
north-eastwards  to  the  south-west  corner  of  Ivake 
Tsad  ;  on  the  west  by  the  Lagos  Protectorate  and 
the  (French)  hinterland  of  Dahomey.  It  includes 
the  whole  of  the  lower  basin  of  the  Niger  from 
Ho  downwards,  and  nearly  the  whole  of  its  great 
tributary,  the  Benue.  Its  area  is  from  400,000  to 
500,000  square  miles,  and  the  population  is  esti- 
mated to  be  between  30  and  40  millions.  The 
British  United  African  Company  (after  1886  the 
Royal  Niger  Company)  began  operations  in  1879, 
and  finally  acquired  rights  over  nearly  the  whole 
region  now  called  Nigeria.  In  1899  the  govern- 
ment arranged  to  take  over  all  the  powers  and 
rights  of  the  company  on  1st  January  1900,  on 
payment  of  £565,000,  and  certain  royalties  on 
minerals  for  ninety-nine  years.  For  administra- 
tive purposes  the  protectorate  is  divided  into 
North  and  South  Nigeria  by  a  straight  line  be- 
tween Lagos  and  Cameroon  at  7°  15"  N.,  each 
administered  by  a  High  Commissioner.  Northern 
Nigeria  is  fertile,  with  greatagricultural resources, 
and  fairly  healthy.  Cotton,  indigo,  rubber,  hides, 
ivory,  and  minerals  (silver,  tin,  and  lead)  are  tlie 
chief  products.  The  native  Hanssa  race  is  civi- 
,lised  and  industrious.    The  chief  towns  are  Kano, 


Yola  (capital  of  Adamawa),  Wurno  (capital  of 
Sokoto),  Gando,  Bida,  lllorin,  Yakoba,  Sokoto, 
and  Zaria,  with  a  reserved  port  in  South  Nigeria 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Forcados  River.  There  is 
a  military  force  of  about  3000  Haussas  of  all 
arms.  Southern  Nigeria  includes  the  whole  of 
the  Coast  Protectorate  and  part  of  the  Niger 
Protectorate.  The  inhabitants  are  pagan  negro 
tribes,  more  or  less  cannibal  in  habits.  Asaba, 
Benin,  and  Idda  are  the  chief  inland  towns  ;  and 
on  the  coast,  Wari,  Barutu,  Akassa,  Brass,  New 
Calabar,  Bonny,  Opoba,  and  Old  Calabar,  where 
the  customs  for  both  N.  and  S.  Nigeria  are 
collected.  The  chief  products  are  palm-oil  and 
kernels,  rubber,  ivory,  indigo,  gums,  coffee,  and 
hides.  There  is  a  native  police  force  of  over  7000 
men. 

Nigritia.    See  Soudan. 

Niigata  (Nee-ee-gah'ta),  a  seaport  of  western 
Japan,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Shinano  River,  opened 
to  foreign  trade  in  1859.     Pop.  53,500. 

Nijni -Novgorod  (Nidj'nee  Nov'gorod;  'Lower 
Novgorod '),  a  great  commercial  city  of  Russia, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Oka  with  the  Volga,  274 
miles  E.  of  Moscow.  The  great  fair  (July— Sept.) 
.still  brings  buyers  and  sellers  from  all  climes 
between  Germany  and  China.  During  it  the 
resident  pop.  (95,124  in  1897)  is  increased  fivefold  ; 
and  the  value  of  the  goods  sold  is  not  nmch  short 
of  £20,000,000.— The  government  of  Nijni-Nov- 
gorod  has  an  area  of  19,797  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of 
1,600,000. 

Nijni-Tagilsk  {Nidj'nee  Tah-gilsk' ;  g  hard),  a 
Russian  town  amid  the  Ural  Mountains,  150 
miles  E.  of  Perm  by  rail,  with  great  platinum, 
copper,  and  iron  works.    Pop.  30,000. 

Nikolaevsk  (Ni-ko-lah-evsk),  a  decayed  town  of 
eastern  Siberia,  23  miles  from  the  Amur's  mouth. 
Pop.  3500. 

Nikolaieff  (Nikolieff%  headquarters  of  the 
Russian  Black  Sea  fleet,  in  the  government  of 
Kherson,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Ingul  with  the 
Bug,  and  42  miles  from  the  Black  Sea.  It  is  a 
great  fortified  naval  station,  with  docks,  an 
arsenal,  &c.,  and  exports  grain.    Pop.  95,840. 

Nikolsburg(tt  as  oo;  Czech  Mikulov),  a  town 
of  Moravia,  27  miles  S.  of  Briinn  by  rail,  lies  at 
the  foot  of  hills  famous  for  their  rich  red  wines. 
In  the  middle  of  it,  on  a  rock,  stands  the  castle  of 
the  princely  Dietrichstein  family.    Pop.  8642. 

Nikosia.    See  Nicosia. 

Nile,  the  longest  river  of  Africa,  of  the  greatest 
interest  historically  and  geographically,  and  to 
the  ancient  Egyptians  pre-eminently  the  sacred 
river,  draws  its  largest  supplies  of  water  from 
the  Victoria  and  Albert  Nyanzas.  Its  furthest 
head-streams  (Shimiyu,  Isanga,  &c.)  flow  into  the 
Victoria  Nyanza  from  the  south.  The  Nile  leaves 
Victoria  Nyanza  at  its  northern  end,  pouring 
over  the  Ripon  Falls,  150  to  170  yards  wide 
but  only  12  feet  high,  and  then  for  300  miles 
races  between  high  rocky  walls,  over  rapids 
and  cataracts,  at  first  north-west,  then  west, 
until  it  joins  the  Albert  Nyanza  (q.v.)  near  its 
north-east  corner.  About  20  miles  from  this 
lake  the  river  leaps  down  120  feet  into  a  wild 
gorge,  with  high  rocky  walls.  The  section  be- 
tween the  two  Nyanzas  is  called  the  Victoria 
Nile  or  Somerset  River.  At  its  south-western 
extremity  the  Albert  Nyanza  is  joined  by  the 
river  Semliki,  which  drains  the  Albert  Edward 
Nyanza.  The  combined  river  leaves  the  northern 
extremity  of  the  Albert  Nyanza  as  the  Bahr-el- 
Jebel,  and  from  that  point  flows  in  a  general 


Nltfi 


608 


NIKG-PO 


northerly  direction  to  the  Mediterranean.  At 
Lado  (5°  N.  lat.)  it  enters  the  plains,  and  moves 
thence  slowly  and  sluggishly  down  to  Khartoum, 
900  miles  to  the  north.  The  whole  of  this  stretch 
is  navigable  for  fairly  large  river-steamers.  In 
7j°  N.  lat.,  however,  the  main  channel  divides 
into  two  arms,  which  flow,  at  no  great  distance 
apart,  through  a  low  swampy  region.  In  9^°  N. 
lat.  the  Bahr-el-Jebel  is  met  by  the  Bahr-al- 
Ghazal  from  the  west,  which  gathers  the  waters 
of  many  rivers.  Sixty  miles  east  of  the  con- 
fluence the  river,  now  called  "White  Nile,  receives 
the  Bahr-el-Zeraf,  and  30  miles  farther  east  still 
the  Sobat,  from  the  Galla  country.  Hence  the 
White  Nile  flows  almost  due  N.  to  Khartoum 
without  receiving  a  single  tributary.  At  Khar- 
toum (in  15°  37'  N.  lat.)  the  White  Nile,  or 
Bahr-al-Abiad,  is  joined  from  the  south-east 
by  the  Blue  Nile,  the  Bahr-al-Azrak,  950  miles 
long,  from  Lake  Tana  (5658  feet  above  sea-level) 
on  the  Abyssinian  plateau.  From  Khartoum 
the  Nile  flows  north-north-east,  and  200  miles 
below  that  city  is  joined  from  the  right  by 
the  Atbara  or  Black  Nile.  In  its  course  through 
the  Nubian  Desert  the  great  river  makes  two 
deep  bends,  first  round  by  the  north,  then  round 
by  the  south,  and  subsequently  resumes  its 
northerly  flow.  Below  Khartoum  navigation  is 
rendered  extremely  dangerous  by  the  cataracts 
which  obstruct  the  bed  of  the  river,  the  sixth 
occurring  not  far  north  of  Khartoujn,  the  first 
near  Assouan,  in  Egypt,  just  above  24°  N.  lat. 
The  course  of  the  river  from  Assouan  to  the  sea, 
its  inundations,  &c.,  are  described  under  Egypt 
(q.v.).  The  total  length  of  the  river  cannot  be 
stated  precisely ;  from  Victoria  Nyanza  it  is 
estimated  to  measure  3400  miles.  Irrigation  is 
largely  regulated  by  the  great  Nile  Barrages  at 
Bosetta  and  Damietta,  constructed  by  French 
engineers  in  1843-61,  and  practically  recon- 
structed by  British  engineers  in  1886-90  at  a  cost 
of  £405,000 ;  and  by  the  immense  dams  at  Assouan 
(completed  1902)  and  Assiout,  at  a  total  cost  of 
nearly  £5,000,000. 

The  ancients  had  little  authentic  knowledge  of 
the  Nile  above  Meroe,  half-way  between  Berber 
and  Khartoum.  The  Emperor  Nero  began  the 
work  of  searching  for  the  sources  of  the  Nile  by 
sending  two  expeditions  into  Nubia.  Ptolemy 
speaks  of  two  streams  issuing  from  two  lakes  6 
and  7  degrees  south  of  the  equator  and  uniting 
in  2°  N.  lat.,  and  being  joined  in  12°  N.  lat.  by 
the  Astapus,  which  likewise  flowed  from  a  lake 
(Coloe).  The  two  lakes  in  the  far  south  were 
fed  by  the  melting  snows  of  a  great  range  of 
mountains,  the  Mountains  of  the  Moon.  This 
remained  the  sum  total  of  information  about  the 
river  down  to  the  19th  century,  except  that  in 
1770  Bruce  discovered  that  the  Blue  Nile  issued 
froni  Lake  Tana.  The  Egyptian  government  in 
1839-42  sent  tliree  expeditions  as  far  as  Gondo- 
koro.  In  1858  Speke  reached  the  Victoria  Nyanza, 
in  1860  Sir  Samuel  Baker  discovered  Albert 
Nyanza,  and  in  1868-71  Schweinfurth  explored 
the  western  feeders  of  the  White  Nile.  Stanley, 
in  1875,  sailed  all  round  Victoria  Nyanza,  and 
in  1889  traced  the  course  of  the  Semliki,  and 
discovered  Albert  Edward  Nyanza  and  Mount 
Ruwenzori.  The  British  occupation  of  Uganda, 
between  the  Victoria  and  Albert  Nyanzas,  and 
the  arrangement  made  with  the  Congo  State  in 
1894,  tended  to  retain  the  whole  valley  of  the 
Nile,  from  the  Nyanzas  to  the  Mediterranean, 
under  British  influence. 

See  works  of  the  explorers  named,  also  others 
by  Wilson  and  Felkin,  Petherick,  Junker,  &c., 


with  Walter  Budge's  The  Nile  (1890).  For  the 
battle  of  the  Nile,  see  Aboukir. 

Nilglr'i.    See  Neilgherry. 

Nimach  (Neevmtch),  a  town  of  India,  in  the 
native  state  of  Gwalior,  on  the  nortli-west  border 
of  Malwa,  370  miles  SW.  of  Delhi  by  rail,  1613 
feet  above  sea-level,  with  an  agreeable  climate. 
There  has  been  a  British  cantonment  here  since 
1817.     Pop.  of  town,  5161 ;  of  cantonment,  13,069. 

Nimeguen  (Neem'e-gen;  Fr.  Nimegue;  Dutch 
Nijviegen),  a  town  of  Holland,  in  Guelderland,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Waal,  73  miles  by  rail  E.  of 
Rotterdam.  It  is  built  on  the  slope  of  the  '  Hill 
of  the  Huns,'  on  which  the  Romans  formed  the 
permanent  camp  of  Noviomagum.  Near  by  stood 
till  1796  a  castle,  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
Caesar  and  inhabited  by  Charlemagne  ;  here  still 
stands  a  little  sixteen-sided  Romanesque  bap- 
tistery of  the  12th  or  13th  century.  On  another 
eminence  is  a  modern  Belvidere.  The  fortifica- 
tions have  been  demolished  ;  but  Nimeguen  re- 
tains its  Renaissance  town-hall  (1554),  and  the 
fine  Gothic  church  of  St  Stephen  (dating  from 
1272).  The  manufactures  include  tobacco,  eau 
de  Cologne,  metal-work,  beer,  &c.  Pop.  (1875) 
22,929 ;  (1900)  42,756.  Regained  by  the  Spaniards 
(1585-91),  Nimeguen  is  celebrated  for  its  great 
peace  congress  in  1678-79,  at  which  France  made 
treaties  with  Holland,  Spain,  and  Austria. 

Nimes  (Neem),  the  capital  of  the  French  dep. 
of  Gard,  lies  in  a  fertile  plain,  engirt  by  the  vine- 
clad  Cevennes,  31  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Mont- 
pellier  and  30  SW.  of  Avignon.  The  old  town, 
with  narrow  crooked  streets,  is  separated  by 
shady  boulevards  from  the  well-built  faubourgs  ; 
and  mediaeval  and  modern  edifices  are  a  much 
mutilated  cathedral,  the  prison  (formerly  citadel, 
1687),  the  palais-de-justice,  St  Paul's  (1850),  St 
Baudile's  (1875),  &c.,  with  a  most  magnificent 
fountain,  and  a  monument  (1874)  to  Antoninus 
Pius.  But  the  glory  of  Nimes  is  its  Roman 
remains  of  the  ancient  Nemausus.  These  include 
the  '  Maison  Carree '  (now  a  museum,  with  Dela- 
roche's  masterpiece,  '  Cromwell  looking  on  Charles 
I.'s  corpse'),  a  splendid  specimen  of  Corinthian 
architecture ;  an  amphitheatre  (now  a  bull-arena), 
70  feet  high,  and  seating  20,000  spectators ;  the 
exquisite  Nymphaeum ;  a  mausoleum  ('  La  Tour 
Magne'),  baths,  and  two  gates,  whilst  14  miles 
NE.  is  the  'Pont  du  Gard,'  inost  perfect  of  aque- 
ducts. Nimes  manufactures  silk  and  cotton 
goods,  carpets,  shawls,  wine,  brandy,  boots, 
&c.  Pop.  (1872)  60,020;  (1901)  72,749,  one-third 
Protestants.  Supposed  to  have  been  colon- 
ised from  Massilia  (Marseilles),  Nimes,  one  of 
the  great  cities  of  Roman  Gaul,  was  taken  by 
the  Visigoths  (465),  the  Franks  (507),  and  the 
Saracens  (725),  and  subsequently  became  an 
appanage  of  Aragon,  but  was  restored  to  France 
in  1259.  The  inhabitants  adopted  Calvinism  in 
the  16th  century ;  and  it  was  a  stronghold  of 
the  Camisards.  In  1791  and  1815  it  was  the 
scene  of  bloody  religious  and  political  reactions. 
Nicot,  Guizot,  and  Daudet  were  natives. 

Nin'eveh,  long  capital  of  the  ancient  kingdom 
of  Assyria.  Rich  in  1818  conjectured  that  the 
mounds  of  Kouyunjik,  opposite  the  modern  town 
of  Mosul,  concealed  its  ruins  beneath,  but  it  was 
not  until  the  excavations  of  Botta  in  1842  and 
Layard  in  1845  that  the  remains  of  Nineveh  were 
revealed  to  the  world. 

Ning-po,  a  treaty-port  of  the  Chinese  province 
of  Che-keang,  stands  in  a  fertile  plain,  16  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  Takia  (Ning-po)  River 
and  100  S.  of  Shanghai.    It  is  surrounded  by  a 


NIORT 


609 


NORFOLK 


wall  25  feet  high  and  16  thick,  and  contains 
numerous  temples,  colleges,  &c.,  chief  amongst 
them  the  temple  of  the  Queen  of  Heaven,  founded 
in  the  12th  century,  though  the  present  building 
dates  from  16S0.  The  imports  include  opium, 
cottons  and  woollens,  tin,  iron,  medicines,  &c. ; 
the  exports,  green  tea,  cuttle-fish,  sedge  hats  and 
mats,  silk  goods,  and  cotton.     Pop.  250,000. 

Niort  (Nee-orr'),  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of 
Deux-Sevres,  on  the  Sevre  Niortaise,  43  miles 
NE.  of  La  Rochelle.  An  important  railway 
junction,  it  has  an  old  castle,  an  hotel-de-ville 
(1530),  a  fine  public  garden,  and  the  16th-century 
church  of  Notre  Dame,  with  a  spire  246  feet 
high.  Tanning  and  glove-making  are  the  leading 
industries.  The  population  is  about  21,000. 
Niort,  which  in  the  14th  century  was  held  for 
eighteen  years  by  the  English,  was  the  birth- 
place of  Madame  de  Maintenon. 

Nip'igon,  an  island-studded  lake  of  Ontario,  30 
miles  NW.  of  Lake  Superior,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  the  Nipigon  River.  It  is  70  miles 
long,  but  its  deeply  indented  coast-line  measures 
580  miles.     Its  greatest  depth  is  540  feet. 

Nlp'issing,  a  lake  (50  x  28  miles)  of  Ontario, 
NE.  of  Lake  Huron,  into  which  (Georgian  Bay)  it 
drains  through  French  River  (55  miles). 

Nippon.    See  Japan. 

Nisch  (Neesli),  the  chief  town  of  southern 
Servia,  152  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Belgrade,  con- 
spicuous in  the  Turkish  wars  from  1375  to  1878, 
when  it  was  regained  by  Servia.     Pop.  25,877. 

Nishapur',  a  town  of  the  Persian  province  of 
Khorassan,  53  miles  "W.  of  Meshed.  It  was  the 
birthplace,  and  contains  the  grave,  of  Omar 
Khayyam.     Pop.  11,000. 

Nith,  a  beautiful  Scottish  river,  rising  in  Ayr- 
shire, and  flowing  71  miles  SSE.  (mainly  through 
Dumfriesshire),  until,  14  miles  below  Dumfries, 
its  estuary  joins  the  Solway  Firth. 

Nitrian  Desert,  containing  the  Natron  Lakes, 
lies  W.  of  the  Damietta  branch  of  the  Nile,  and  was 
of  old  famous  for  its  monasteries  and  hermits. 

Nivelles  (Nee-veV ;  Flem.  Nyvel),  a  Belgian  town, 
on  the  Thines,  19  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Brussels.  Its 
fine  Romanesque  church  (1045)  contains  the  relics 
of  Pepin's  daughter,  St  Gertrude.  In  1381  the 
townsfolk  of  Ghent  were  defeated  here  by  Count 
Louis  of  Flanders,  and  6000  burned  in  a  monastery. 
Nivelles  manufactures  cotton,  paper,  lace,  &c. 
Pop.  11,788. 

Nivemals  (Nivernay'),  formerly  a  province  in 
the  middle  of  France,  nearly  corresponding  to 
the  present  dep.  of  Nievre. 

Nizam's  Dominions.    See  Hyderabad, 

Nocera  (No-chay'ra),  an  episcopal  city  of  south 
Italy,  8  miles  NW.  of  Salerno.    Pop.  22,522. 

Nogent-le-Rotrou  (NozlwnP-lch-Rotroo'),  a  town 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Eure-et-Loir,  on  the 
Huisne,  93  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Paris,  with  the 
ruined  chateau  of  the  great  Sully,  his  violated 
sepulchre,  and  a  statue  of  General  Saint-Pol, 
who  fell  before  Sebastopol.  The  Germans  here 
won  two  fights  in  1870-71.    Pop.  7500. 

Noisseville  (Niuass-veel),  a  village  of  Lorraine, 
5  miles  E.  of  Metz,  where  in  1870  Bazaine  vainly 
attacked  the  German  besiegers  of  Metz. 

Nola,  an  episcopal  city  of  Italy,  16  miles  ENE. 
of  Naples,  on  a  very  ancient  Campanian  site. 
Augustus  died  here,  14  a.d.    Pop.  14,700. 

No  Man's  Land,  a  name  given  to  various  out- 
lying districts  prior  to  settlement,  especially 
Griqualand  East,  and  parts  of  South  Australia. 


Nome,  the  largest  town  in  Alaska,  on  the  sonth 
shore  of  the  Seward  Peninsula,  is  the  centre  of 
a  productive  gold-mining  district.  Pop.  about 
13,000. 

Nootka  Sound,  a  harbour  on  the  west  coast  of 
Vancouver  Island,  British  Columbia,  its  entrance 
protected  by  an  island  of  the  same  name. 

Nord,  the  most  northerly  dep.  in  France 
(whence  its  name),  corresponding  with  the  old 
Frencli  Flanders.  Area,  2193  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1881) 
1,603,259;  (1901)1,866,994.  The  arrondissements 
are  Lille  (the  capital),  Douai,  Cambrai,  Valen- 
ciennes, Avesnes,  Hazebrouck,  and  Dunkirk, 

Norden,  a  west  suburb  of  Rochdale. 

Nordenham.    See  Bremerhaven. 

Norderney  (Nonlerni),  a  small  treeless  island, 
lying  3  miles  oft'  the  coast  of  the  Prussian  district 
of  East  Friesland.  Area,  4  sq,  m. ;  pop.  4850. 
Its  sea-bathing  attracts  13,000  summer  visitors. 

Nordhausen  (Nordhow'zen),  a  flourishing  town 
of  Prussian  Saxony,  jjleasantly  situated  at  the 
southern  base  of  the  Harz  Mountains  and  the 
west  end  of  the  fertile  Goldene  Aue  ('golden 
plain '),  on  the  Zorge,  48  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of 
Erfurt.  A  free  imperial  city  from  1253,  Nord- 
hausen fell  to  Prussia  in  1803.     Pop,  80,000. 

Nordlingen  (Ndrd'Ung-en),  a  town  in  the  west 
of  Bavaria,  on  the  Eger,  44  miles  NW.  of  Augsburg 
by  rail,  with  carpet  manufactures.  Here  in  1634 
the  Swedes  were  defeated  by  the  Imperialists 
with  a  loss  of  12,000.    Pop.  8295. 

Nore,  a  sandbank  in  the  estuary  of  the  Thames, 
3  miles  NE.  of  Sheerness  and  47  from  London, 
Off"  its  east  end  is  the  floating  light,  which 
revolves  50  feet  above  high-water.  The  naval 
'mutiny  at  the  Nore'  broke  out  on  20th  May 
and  lasted  until  13th  June  1797, 

Norfolk  (Nor'fok),  an  eastern  county  of  England, 
bounded  by  the  North  Sea,  Suffolk,  Cambridge- 
shire, Lincolnshire,  and  the  Wash.  With  an 
extreme  length  and  breadth  of  66  miles  by  42, 
it  has  an  area  of  2119  sq.  m.  or  1,356,173  acres. 
Pop.  (1801)273,371;  (1831)390,000;  (1881)444,637; 
(1901)  460,040.  Its  coast-line,  upwards  of  90  miles 
in  length,  is  for  the  most  part  flat,  and  skirted 
by  low  dunes,  except  near  Cromer,  and  again 
at  Hunstanton,  where  cliff's,  from  time  to  time 
undermined  by  the  sea,  rise  to  a  height  of  from 
100  to  200  feet.  Inland  the  surface  is  undulating, 
well  timbered,  and  Avell  watered,  the  principal 
rivers  being  the  Ouse,  Bure,  Yare,  and  'Waveney, 
which  last  three  fall  into  the  sea  near  Yarmouth, 
and  in  their  course  link  together  the  numerous 
Broads  (q.v.).  The  soil  consists  chiefly  of  light 
loams  and  sands— in  places  there  are  extensive 
rabbit-warrens,  and  with  so  much  wood  (over 
50,000  acres)  there  is  naturally  an  abundance  of 
game.  Agriculture  has  here  been  brought  to  the 
highest  state  of  perfection  ;  upwards  of  3400  acres 
are  occupied  as  market-gardens  and  orchards ; 
whilst  great  attention  is  paid  to  the  rearing  of 
turkeys  and  geese  for  the  London  markets,  and 
on  the  rich  marsh-lands  in  the  extreme  west  of 
the  county,  as  well  as  on  the  pastures  bordering 
the  various  rivers,  great  quantities  of  cattle  are 
grazed.  Norfolk  comprises  33  hundreds,  the  city 
of  Norwich,  the  municipal  boroughs  of  Lynn, 
Yarmouth,  and  Thetford,  and  736  civil  parishes 
with  parts  of  9  others,  mostly  in  the  diocese 
of  Norwich.  Its  parliamentary  divisions  are  six 
in  number.  Towns  other  than  the  foregoing 
are  Dereham,  Diss,  Downham  Market,  North 
Walsham,  Swaffham,  and  Wymondham.  In  the 
history  of  the  county  the  most  notable  incidents 


NORFOLK 


510 


NORTHAMPTON 


have  been  the  settlements  within  its  borders  of 
the  Flemish  refugees  and  Walloons  in  the  reigns 
of  Henry  I„  Edward  III.,  and  Queen  Elizabeth  ; 
and  Ket's  rebellion  (1549).  Venerable  antiquities 
are  the  ruins  of  priories  at  Castle  Acre,  Thetford, 
and  Walsinghani,  the  castles  of  Norwich,  Castle 
Rising,  and  Caistor,  the  earthworks  at  Bucken- 
hain,  Caistor,  and  Thetford,  and  the  old  halls  of 
Blickling,  Holkham,  Houghton,  Oxburgh,  and 
East  Barsham.  Among  Norfolk  'worthies' 
(omitting  those  noticed  under  Norwich)  are  Sir 
John  Fastolf,  the  Earl  of  Surrey,  Sir  Thomas 
Gresham,  Skelton  and  Shadwell  (poets-laureate), 
Sir  Edward  Coke,  Spelman,  L'Estrange,  Sir  Cloud- 
esley  Shovel,  Sir  Robert  Walpole  and  his  son 
Horace,  Tom  Paine,  Windham,  Godwin,  Lord 
Nelson,  Porson,  Manby,  Sir  Astley  Cooper,  Eliza- 
beth Fry,  Fowell  Buxton,  Lord  Cranworth,  Cap- 
tain Marryat,  Cattermole,  Borrow,  Bulwer  Lytton, 
and  Rider  Haggard.  See  county  histories  by 
Blomefield  (11  vols.  1805-10),  Chambers  (1829), 
Rye  (1885),  and  White  (new  ed.  1890). 

Norfolk,  a  city  and  port  of  entry  of  Virginia, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Elizabeth  River,  8  miles 
from  Hampton  Roads,  and  33  miles  from  the  sea. 
Its  large  deep  harbour  is  fortified.  A  govern- 
ment navy  yard,  dry-dock,  and  hospital  are  at 
Gosport,  a  naval  suburb  of  Portsmoutli,  on  the 
opposite  bank  of  the  river.  Norfolk  ships  cotton, 
oysters,  and  early  fruits  and  vegetables.  Off 
here  the  turret-ship  Monitor  defeated  the  Con- 
federate Merrimac,  9th  March  1862.  Pop.  (1880) 
21,966 ;  (1900)  46,624. 

Norfolk  Island  lies  in  the  Western  Pacific, 
about  half-way  between  New  Zealand  and  New 
Caledonia,  400  miles  NNW.  of  the  former.  The 
coasts  are  high  and  steep,  and  the  surface  gener- 
ally uneven,  rising  in  Mount  Pitt  to  1050  feet. 
The  island  is  6  miles  long,  and  has  an  area  of  13^ 
sq.  m.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  well  watered,  and 
the  climate  healthy.  The  Norfolk  Island  Pine 
grows  to  a  height  of  200  feet.  Norfolk  Island 
was  discovered  by  Cook  in  1774.  In  1788-1805, 
and  again  in  1826-55,  it  was  a  penal  settlement 
for  convicts  sent  from  New  South  Wales.  In 
1856  many  of  the  inhabitants  of  Pitcairn  Island 
(q.v.)  were  transferred  hither  by  the  British 
government.  In  1905  the  pop.  was  830.  Norfolk 
Island  is  the  headquarters  of  the  diocese  of 
Melanesia,  founded  in  1861.  The  people  govern 
themselves,  under  the  superintendence  of  the 
government  of  New  South  Wales ;  they  fish, 
farm,  and  supply  provisions  to  passing  vessels. 

Norham  Castle  (Norr'am),  the  Border  fortress 
of  the  Bishops  of  Durham,  on  the  Tweed's  right 
bank,  8  miles  SW.  of  Berwick.  Founded  in  1121, 
and  deemed  impregnable  in  1522,  it  has  memories 
of  Kings  John,  Edward  I.,  and  James  IV.,  but  is 
known  best  through  Marmion.  The  picturesque 
ruins  comprise  a  great  square  keep,  70  feet  high. 
See  Jerningham's  NorJiam  Castle  (1883). 

Nor'icum,  a  Roman  province,  corresponding  to 
Styria,  Carinthia,  and  part  of  Salzburg  in  Austria. 
The  name  survives  in  the  Noric  Alps. 

Nor'manby,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  3J  miles  SE. 
and  mainly  within  the  parliamentary  bounds  of 
Middlesbrough.     Pop.  9118. 

Nor'mandy,  formerly  a  province  of  France, 
lying  along  the  seaboard  of  the  English  Channel, 
between  Brittany  and  French  Flanders.  In  area 
it  corresponded  approximately  to  the  modern 
deps.  of  Seine-Inferieure,  Eure,  Orne,  Calvados, 
and  Manche,  its  capital  being  Rouen.  Prom  the 
middle  of  the  9th  century  its  coasts  were  harried 
by  the  vikings  or  sea-rovers  of  the  north ;  by 


912  they  had  established  themselves  in  such 
force  along  the  Seine  that  Charles,  king  of  the 
Western  Kingdom,  was  glad  to  make  an  agree- 
ment with  their  leader  Rolf  or  RoUo,  Duke  of 
the  Northmen,  who  became  the  king's  vassal  and 
a  Christian.  After  the  conquest  of  England  by 
Duke  William  (1066),  Normandy  continued  an 
appanage  of  the  English  crown  until  1203-4, 
when  the  duchy  was  taken  away  from  John  by 
the  king  of  France,  on  the  plea  that  as  the 
murderer  of  his  nephew  Arthur  he  (John)  had 
forfeited  his  French  fiefs.  The  claim  to  the  title 
was,  however,  only  formally  renounced  by  Henry 
III.  in  1259.  Twice  subsequently  Normandy  was 
in  English  hands:  Edward  III.  conquered  it  in 
1346,  and  Henry  V.  in  1417-18 ;  but  the  English 
were  finally  driven  out  in  1450.  The  Channel 
Islands  (q.v.)  are  a  remnant  of  the  Norman  pos- 
sessions still  belonging  to  the  descendants  of  the 
Norman  kings  of  England.  See  works  by  Black- 
burn (1869)  and  K.  Macquoid  (1874). 

Nor'manton,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  by  rail  3  miles  NE.  of  Wakefield  and 
10  SE.  of  Leeds,  a  railway  junction  and  seat  of 
coal-mining  and  iron-working.     Pop.  12,234. 

Noronha,  Fernando  (Noron'ya),  a  volcanic 
group  of  one  large  (6^  miles  by  2)  and  several 
small  islands  belonging  to  Brazil,  in  the  South 
Atlantic,  200  miles  ENE.  of  Cape  San  Roque. 
The  islands  are  fertile  and  thickly  wooded.  The 
group  was  visited  in  1775  by  Cook,  in  1832  by 
Darwin,  and  in  1873  by  the  Challenger  Expedi- 
tion.    The  main  island  is  a  penal  settlement. 

Norristown,  capital  of  Montgomery  county, 
Pennsylvania,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river 
Schuylkill  (crossed  by  three  bridges  to  Bridge- 
port), 17  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Philadelphia.  It 
contains  a  fine  marble  court-house,  cotton-mills 
and  woollen  factories,  rolling-mills  and  foundries, 
flour-mills,  and  manufactories  of  glass,  tacks,  &c. 
Pop.  23,500 

Norrkoping  (Nor'chd-ping),  first  manufacturing 
town  of  Sweden  after  Stockholm,  stands  at  the 
head  of  the  BrSvik,  113  miles  by  rail  SW.  of 
Stockholm.  The  rapid  river  Motala  from  Lake 
Vetter  affords  water-power  for  cloth-mills,  cotton 
spinning  and  weaving ;  and  there  are  manufactures 
of  sugar,  paper,  tobacco,  &c.,  and  shipbuilding. 
Pop.  43,300." 

North  Adams,  a  manufacturing  village  of 
Massachusetts,  on  the  Hoosac  River,  near  the 
west  end  of  the  Hoosac  tunnel,  143  miles  by  rail 
W.  by  N.  of  Boston.  It  has  woollen  and  cotton 
mills,  shoe  and  print-cloth  factories,  a  foundry, 
&c.     Pop.  25,200. 

Northal'lerton,  the  capital  of  the  North  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  30  miles  NNW.  of  York.  It  has  a 
town-hall  (1874) ;  a  fine  cruciform  church,  Norman 
to  Perpendicular  in  style ;  a  cottage  hospital 
(1877) ;  and  sites  of  a  Roman  camp  and  a  Norman 
castle  of  the  bishops  of  Durham.  At  Standard 
Hill,  3  miles  N.,  was  fought,  on  22d  August  1138, 
the  great  battle  of  the  Standard,  in  which  Arch- 
bishop Thurstan  routed  David  I.  of  Scotland. 
From  1640  to  1832  Northallerton  returned  two 
members,  and  then  till  1885  one.  Pop.  4050. 
See  works  by  Ingledew  (1858)  and  Saywell  (1886). 

Northamp'ton,  the  capital  of  Northampton- 
shire, and  a  county,  parliamentary,  and  muni- 
cipal borough,  is  seated  on  rising  ground  on  the 
Nen's  left  bank,  66  miles  NW.  by  N.  of  London 
and  50  SE.  of  Birmingham.  It  has  a  fine  town- 
hall  (1861-64),  with  other  municipal  offices ;  a 
county  hall ;  corn  exchange  (1850) ;  museum,  free 


NORTHAMPTON 


611 


NORTH  CAROLINA 


library,  and  schools  of  science  and  art  (enlarged 
1889) ;  large  hospitals  ;  a  theatre  (1884) ;  infantry 
barracks  (1797;  rebuilt  1877-78);  and  thirteen 
churches,  the  most  interesting  of  which  are  St 
Peter's  (Norman),  St  Sepulchre's  (Norman  and 
Decorated,  one  of  the  few  remaining  round 
churches  in  England),  All-Saints',  and  St  Giles'. 
The  town  is  the  English  centre  of  the  boot  and 
shoe  manufacture  ;  leather  is  dressed,  some  lace 
is  made,  and  extensive  breweries  are  in  operation. 
On  the  outskirts  of  the  town  is  a  fine  race- 
course, on  which  meetings  are  held  in  April  and 
November.  In  the  autumn  of  1892  Ubington 
Abbey  and  20  acres  tlierewith  were  offered  as  a 
free  gift  to  Northampton  by  Lord  Wantage.  In 
the  grounds  is  a  mulberry  i)lanted  by  Garrick. 
Pop.  (1801)  7020  ;  (1831)  15,351 ;  of  the  municipal 
borough,  (1901)  76,072,  and  of  the  parliamentary 
borough,  which  returns  two  members,  87,021. 
Northampton  was  burnt  by  the  Danes  (1010); 
it  had  a  castle  (of  which  no  traces  now  remain) 
built  about  1075,  and  a  university,  founded  in 
1260,  but  abolished  some  few  years  later.  In  a 
battle  (10th  July  1460)  fought  in  the  meadows 
below  the  town,  Henry  VI.  was  defeated  by  the 
Yorkists ;  a  great  fire  (20th  September  1675) 
almost  entirely  destroyed  the  town. 

Northampton,  capital  of  Hampshire  county, 
Massachusetts,  stands  near  the  west  bank  of  the 
Connecticut  River  (here  crossed  by  a  bridge  to 
Hadley),  103  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Boston  and  3 
miles  NW.  of  Mount  Holyoke.  It  contains  the 
state  lunatic  asylum,  the  Clarke  Institute  for 
deaf-mutes,  a  public  library,  housed  in  the  hand- 
some Memorial  Hall,  and  Smith  College  for 
women.  The  manufactures  include  paper,  silk, 
cotton  and  woollen  goods,  sewing-machines,  cut- 
lery, baskets,  brushes,  jet  ornaments,  &c.  Pop. 
20,100. 

Northamp'tonshlre,  or  Northants,  a  midland 
county  of  England,  67  miles  long,  and  25  where 
broadest,  is  surrounded  by  the  counties  of  Rut- 
land, Lincoln,  Cambridge,  Huntingdon,  Bedford, 
Buckingham,  Oxford,  and  Warwick.  Area,  984 
sq.  m.,  or  629,912  acres,  of  which  more  than  half 
is  pasture.  Pop.  (1801)  131,757 ;  (1841)  199,208 ; 
(1881)  272,558  ;  (1901)  338,088.  In  the  north-east 
near  Peterborough  the  county  is  flat,  and  forms 
part  of  the  Bedford  Level  (q.v.),  but  elsewhere 
the  surface  is  undulating,  the  highest  ground — 
about  800  feet  above  sea-level — being  found  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Daventry.  The  Neu  and 
the  Welland  are  the  chief  rivers.  Corn  and 
green  crops  are  largely  grown ;  many  cattle  are 
grazed  on  the  broad  pastures,  and  dairy-farming 
is  carried  on  ;  but,  although  Northants  is  a  great 
hunting  county,  the  breeding  of  horses  is  not 
much  encouraged.  Limestone  is  quarried  in  the 
north-east,  and  excellent  ironstone  is  found  near 
Kettering  and  Wellingborough.  The  county  com- 
prises twenty  hundreds,  the  municipal  boroughs 
of  Brackley,  Daventry,  Higham  Ferrers,  North- 
ampton, Peterborough,  and  Stamford  (the  last 
two  extending  into  Huntingdonshire  and  Lincoln- 
shire), and  has  344  civil  parishes,  with  parts  of 
four  others,  almost  entirely  in  the  diocese  of  Peter- 
borough. The  parliamentary  divisions  are  four, 
each  returning  one  member.  Northamptonshire 
has  witnessed  the  battles  of  Edgecote  (1469)  and 
Naseby  (1645),  the  beheading  of  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  at  Fotheringay  Castle  (1587),  and  the  im- 
prisonment of  Charles  I.  at  Holmby  House 
(1647).  Of  its  natives,  besides  Richard  III.  and 
(perhaps)  Catharine  Parr,  the  best  known  are 
Archbishop  Chichele,  Sir  Christopher   Hatton, 


Catesby,  Thomas  Fuller,  James  Harrington, 
Bishop  Cumberland,  Dryden,  Charles  Montagu, 
Earl  of  Halifax,  William  Law,  Doddridge,  James 
Hervey,  Cartwright  ('  the  father  of  Reform '),  Dr 
Paley,  William  Lisle  Bowles,  Clare  (the  peasant 
poet),  the  Earl  of  Cardigan  (leader  of  the  Bala- 
clava charge),  and  Dean  Mansel.  See  the  county 
histories  by  Bridges  (2  vols.  1791),  Baker  (2  vols. 
1822-41),  and  Whellan  (2d  ed.  1874).— Hampshire 
(q.v.)  is  the  county  of  Southampton. 

North  Berwick,  a  fashionable  watering-place 
of  Haddingtonshire,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Firth 
of  Forth,  23  miles  by  a  branch-line  (1848)  ENE. 
of  Edinburgh  and  10  by  water  SSE.  of  Blie  in' 
Fife.  Behind  it  rises  conical  North  Berwick 
Law  (612  feet) ;  and  westward  stretch  splendid 
golf-links.  Tantallon  Castle,  3  miles  E.,  fronting 
the  Bass  Rock,  is  a  magnificent  ruin,  finely  de- 
scribed in  Scott's  Marmion.  A  stronghold  of 
the  Douglases,  and  the  birthj)lace  of  Gawin 
Douglas,  it  resisted  James  V.  in  1528,  but  in  1639 
was  '  dung  down  '  by  the  Covenanters.  Robert 
III.  made  North  Berwick  a  royal  burgh,  and 
till  1885  it  returned,  with  Haddington,  &c.,  one 
member  to  parliament.  Pop.  2900.  See  Ferrier's 
North  Berwick  (11th  ed.  1890). 

North  Cape,  the  northernmost  point  in  Europe, 
in  71°  10'  N.  lat.,  is  on  the  island  of  Magero.  The 
northernmost  point  on  the  continent  is  Cape 
Nordkyn  (71°  6'  N.  lat.),  6  miles  farther  S.,  and 
45  miles  B.  of  North  Cape. 

North  Carolina,  one  of  the  thirteen  original 
United  States,  is  situated  on  the  Atlantic  sea- 
board, S.  of  Virginia.  Its  extreme  length  is  500, 
its  breadth  186  miles.  Area,  52,250  sq.  m.,  or 
larger  than  that  of  England.  The  eastern  part 
is  low,  and  in  parts  swampy,  the  central  part 
undulating,  and  the  western  mountainous;  but 
almost  everywhere  the  soil  is  remarkably  fer- 
tile and  the  climate  healthy.  The  highest  moun- 
tains in  the  United  States  east  of  the  Mississippi 
are  in  North  Carolina,  more  than  fifty  peaks  ex- 
ceeding 6000  feet— Mitchell's  Peak  (6707  feet)  the 
highest.  Most  of  these  are  clothed  to  their  tops 
with  thick  forests,  but  some  have  prairie-like 
summits  covered  with  turf.  All  this  picturesque 
region,  known  as  'the  Land  of  the  Sky,'  is  a 
favourite  resort  in  summer  for  southerners  and 
in  winter  for  northerners.  North  Carolina  is  rich 
in  mineral  products — silver,  lead,  zinc,  iron, 
copper,  plumbago,  coal,  corundum,  granite, 
marble,  gems,  &c.  Maize,  cotton,  wheat,  oats, 
hay,  tobacco,  and  sweet  potatoes  are  the  most 
valuable  products.  A  chief  industry  in  eastern 
North  Carolina  is  the  making  of  tar,  rosin,  and 
turpentine.  Since  1880  the  manufactures  of 
cotton  and  woollen  fabrics  have  largely  increased, 
tobacco-factories  have  been  enlarged,  and  in  1888 
the  first  silk-factory  in  the  southern  states  was 
established.  Fisheries  employ  12,000  men.  The 
state  has  3700  miles  of  railway.  The  cliief  port 
and  largest  city  is  Wilmington,  the  capital  Raleigh. 
In  1584  Raleigh's  first  expedition  landed  on 
Roanoke  Island.  In  1629  Charles  I.  granted  to 
Sir  Robert  Heath  the  territory,  also  claimed  by 
Spain  and  called  Florida,  from  lat.  80°  to  36°  as 
Carolana  Florida.  In  1653  a  colony  from  Virginia 
settled  on  the  Roanoke  and  Chowan  rivers.  In 
1663  Charles  II.  granted  the  region  across  the  con- 
tinent between  lat.  31°  and  36°  N.  (extended  to  29° 
and  36°  30')  to  eight  of  his  favourites,  under  the 
name  of  Carolina.  The  proprietors  adopted  a  con- 
stitution prepared  by  Locke  and  Shaftesbury.  In 
1729  the  king  bought  out  the  proprietors,  and 
North  Carolina  became  a  royal  province.    It  was 


NORTH  DAKOTA 


512 


NORTHUMBERLAND 


the  last  state  but  one  to  ratify  the  federal  constitu- 
tion in  1789.  It  was  the  last,  too,  of  the  eleven 
Confederate  States  to  pass  the  ordinance  of  seces- 
sion in  1861.  Tlie  capture  of  Fort  Fisher  in 
January  1865  led  to  the  federal  occupation  of 
Wilmington,  the  advance  on  Raleigh,  and  the 
surrender  of  General  Johnston,  which  practically 
ended  the  war  of  secession.  Pop.  (1800)  487,103  ; 
(1840)  753,419;  (1880)  1,399,750;  (1900)  1,893,810 
— making  North  Carolina  the  fifteenth  state  in 
order  of  population.  Presidents  Jackson,  Polk, 
and  Johnson  were  natives. 

North  Dakota,  a  state  of  the  American  Union, 
bounded  by  Canada(Saskatchewau  and  Manitoba), 
Minnesota,  South  Dakota,  and  Montana ;  area, 
70,795  sq.  m.— a  fifth  larger  than  England  and 
Wales  ;  pop.  (1900)  319,146.  The  surface  is  largely 
undulating  plain.  The  Turtle  Hills  in  the  north 
cross  the  Canadian  frontier ;  and  a  belt  of  high 
plateau,  the  Coteau  du  Missouri,  crosses  the 
state  from  the  NW.,  dividing  it  into  two 
unequal  sections,  through  the  SW.  of  which 
flows  the  Missouri  River,  with  its  tributaries, 
including  the  Little  Missouri.  Devil's  Lake  or 
Minniwaukon,  in  the  NB.,  has  no  outlet  and  is 
salt.  Great  part  of  the  NW.  overlies  beds  of 
lignite.  In  the  NE.  are  the  rich  wheat  lands 
of  the  Red  River  basin.  Some  of  the  great 
'Bonanza'  farms  of  North  Dakota  are  from  10 
to  80  sq.  m.  in  extent ;  continuous  furrows  are 
sometimes  ploughed  for  miles  in  a  line.  Other 
crops  are  maize,  flax,  oats,  rye,  potatoes,  buck- 
wheat, and  hay.  The  cattle  interest  is  great; 
the  ranche  system  prevails  in  the  less  settled 
districts.  The  rainfall  is  relatively  low.  The 
winters  are  cold,  but  dry  and  sunny.  The  first 
settlement  was  by  French  Canadians  near  Pem- 
bina about  1780.  Dakota  territory,  including 
North  and  South  Dakota,  was  organised  in  1861. 
The  two  Dakotas  were  admitted  as  separate  states 
in  1889.  The  capital  of  North  Dakota  is  Bis- 
marck ;  the  largest  town  is  Fargo  (9600),  others 
being  Grand  Forks  and  Jamestown. 

Northern  Territory.    See  South  Australia. 

Northfleet,  a  western  suburb  of  Gravesend. 

Northleach,  a  Gloucestershire  town,  near  the 
Leach's  source,  10  miles  NE.  of  Cirencester.  It 
has  a  grammar-school  (1607).     Pop.  660. 

North  Marston,  a  Bucks  parish,  7J  miles  N. 
of  Aylesbury.    Here  is  Schorne  College  (1875). 

Northowram,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  since  1900  incorporated  with  Halifax. 

North  Queensferry.    See  Queensferry. 

North  Sea,  or  German  Ocean,  a  southern 
extension  of  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Its  northern 
boundary  would  be  represented  by  a  line  drawn 
from  the  Shetland  Islands  to  the  opposite  coast 
of  Norway,  and  its  southern  boundary  is  the 
Strait  of  Dover;  W.  it  is  bounded  by  Great 
Britain,  and  E.  by  Norway,  Denmark,  Germany, 
Holland,  and  Belgium.  With  the  Atlantic  it 
communicates  through  the  Strait  of  Dover  and 
the  English  Channel  on  the  south,  and  on  the 
north  by  the  Pentland  Firth  and  the  channel 
between  the  Orkney  and  Shetland  Islands ;  and 
with  the  Baltic  by  the  Skagerrack  and  Cat- 
tegat.  The  North  Sea  is  over  600  miles  in 
length  and  about  400  miles  in  maximum  width, 
and  its  area  exceeds  160,000  sq.  m.  By  far  the 
greater  proportion  of  this  area  is  less  than  100 
fathoms  in  depth,  the  only  part  where  deeper 
water — 360  fathoms — is  found  being  off  the  coast 
of  Norway.  The  sea  is  very  shallow  towards  the 
south  and  east,  and  the  coasts  in  this  direction 


are  low  and  flat,  being  in  some  places  below  the 
level  of  the  sea,  whereas  to  the  north  and  west, 
where  the  water  is  deeper,  the  sea-coast  is  high, 
and  the  deep  '  Norwegian  Gully '  is  faced  by  the 
high  and  bold  clifl"s  of  Norway.  The  sea-bottom 
is  very  irregular,  a  number  of  banks  running 
across  from  the  Yorkshire  coast  towards  the 
Skagerrack,  the  most  important  of  which  is  the 
Dogger  Bank  (q.v.),  and  there  are  also  depressions 
like  the  Silver  Pit ;  off  the  low-lying  coasts  of 
Holland,  Belgium,  and  Britain  there  are  numer- 
ous shoals  and  sandbanks  formed  of  the  materials 
brought  down  by  the  rivers.  The  North  Sea 
receives  many  rivers,  the  principal  being  the 
Thames,  Ouse,  Humber,  Tyne,  Tweed,  Forth, 
and  Tay,  the  Scheldt,  Rhine,  Weser,  and  Elbe. 
Tlie  North  Sea  has  been  from  the  earliest  times 
one  of  the  most  important  highways  of  the  world, 
and  is  surrounded  by  some  of  the  most  prosper- 
ous  commercial  nations.  Its  fisheries  are  among 
the  greatest  in  existence,  providing  employment 
for  thousands  of  fishermen. 

North  Shields.    See  Shields. 

Northum'berland,  the  most  northern  county 
of  England,  separated  from  Scotland  by  the 
Tweed,  and  from  Durham  by  the  Tyne  and  Der- 
went.  The  German  Ocean  bounds  it  on  the  E., 
and  Cumberland,  with  a  part  of  Roxburghshire, 
on  the  W.  Among  the  English  counties  it  ranks 
fifth  in  size,  having  an  area  of  1,290,312  acres. 
Its  greatest  length  is  70  miles  and  its  greatest 
breadth  47  miles.  The  surface,  except  near  the 
coast,  is  picturesquely  broken  into  rounded  and 
conical  hills  and  high  moorland  ridges.  The 
main  valleys  are  fertile  and  well  wooded.  Tlie 
principal  heights  belong  to  the  Cheviot  Hills 
(q.v.),  and  are  seated  in  the  north-west  part  of 
the  county.  Tliese  are  Cheviot  (2676  feet),  Hedge- 
hope  (2348),  Cushat  Law  (2020),  Bloody  Bush 
Edge  (2001),  and  Windy  Gyle  (1963).  The  Simon- 
side  Hills  near  Rothbury  attain  1447  feet.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Tyne,  Wansbeck,  Coquet,  Aln, 
Breamish,  Till,  and  Tweed.  In  the  south-west 
are  some  small  sheets  of  water  called  the  North- 
umbrian Lakes,  the  largest  of  which  is  Greenley 
Lough.  Off"  the  coast  lie  Lindisfarne  or  Holy 
Island,  the  Fame  Islands,  and  Coquet  Isle.  The 
climate  is  cold  ;  still,  the  winters  are  often  much 
milder  than  in  the  south,  and  the  average  rainfall, 
except  in  the  Cheviot  district,  is  considerably  less 
than  in  Devon,  Dorset,  Hampshire,  and  Sussex. 
Northumberland  contains  541  civil  parishes,  and, 
ecclesiastically,  is  in  the  province  of  York.  It  is 
divided  into  nine  wards  (answering  to  hundreds 
or  wapentakes),  three  of  which  formed  part  of 
Durham  till  1844  ;  and  it  comprises  four  parlia- 
mentary divisions— the  Tyneside,  Wansbeck,  Hex- 
ham, and  Berwick-upon-Tweed.  The  principal 
towns  are  Newcastle-upon-Tyne,  Alnwick,  Mor- 
peth, Hexham,  and  North  Shields.  A  large 
portion  of  the  county  is  agricultural,  especially 
the  fertile  tracts  along  the  principal  valleys  and 
near  the  coast.  The  western  portion  is  pastoral, 
the  Cheviots  supporting  large  flocks  of  hardy 
sheep.  The  staple  trade  is  in  coal,  and  the  chief 
manufactures  are  connected  with  its  mining  and 
transit ;  there  are  over  110  collieries.  The  salmon- 
fisheries  of  the  Tyne  and  Tweed  have  long  been 
famous.  Pop.  a801)  168,078;  (1841)  266,020; 
(1881)  434,086  ;  (1901)  602,859. 

In  the  6th  century  Northumberland  was 
colonised  by  the  Angles,  forming  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Bernicia.  Being  a  Border  county, 
it  suffered  much  during  the  Scottish  wars, 
and  from  the  11th   to   the   17th   century  wag 


NORTHUMBRIA 


513 


NORWAY 


ffeqnently  the  scene  of  much  bloodslieil.  The 
battles  of  Otterburn,  Hoiiiiklou  Hill,  and  Flodden 
were  fought  on  its  soil.  Northumberland  is  very 
rich  in  memorials  of  the  past,  some  of  which  are 
noticed  separately  under  Bamburgh,  Dunstan- 
burgh,  Hexham,  Alnwick,  Holy  Island,  Norham, 
&c.  Natives  have  been  Bishop  Ridley,  Tliomas 
Bewick,  Akenslde,  Lord  Eldon,  George  and  Robert 
Stephenson,  Grace  Darling,  the  second  Earl  Grey, 
Birket  Foster,  and  Lord  Armstrong.  See  works 
by  Wallis  (1769),  Hutchinson  (1778),  Mackenzie 
(1825),  Hodgson  (1820-40),  Hartshorne  (1858),  and 
Bateson  (1893  et  seq.). 

Northumbria,  the  most  northern  of  the 
ancient  English  kingdoms,  stretching  from  the 
number  northwards  to  the  Firth  of  Forth,  and 
separated  from  Cumbria  and  Strathclyde  by  the 
Pennine  range  and  the  Ettrick  Forest. 

North  Walsham.    See  Walsham. 

North-west  Frontier  Province,  a  new  province 
of  India  (1901)  under  a  chief  commissioner,  com- 
prising the  districts  of  Peshawar  and  Kohat,  with 
parts  of  Bannu,  Dera  Ismail  Khan,  and  Hazaia, 
all  heretofore  in  the  Punjab.  Area,  16,466  sq.  m.; 
pop.  (1901)  2,125,480.    Peshawar  is  capital. 

North-west  Passage,  a  route  for  ships  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  by  the  north  of 
America ;  proved  by  Franklin  and  his  followers 
to  exist,  but  to  be  impracticable  for  commerce. 
The  North-east  Paasage  is  that  by  the  north  of 
Asia,  utilised  by  Nordenskiold. 

North-west  Provinces,  a  lieutenant-governor- 
ship of  British  India  (since  1835),  occupying  the 
upper  basin  of  the  Ganges  and  Jumna,  and  ex- 
tending from  Bengal  to  the  Punjab.  Ondh,  from 
1857  a  separate  government,  was  in  1877  put 
under  the  same  lieutenant-governor,  and  in  1901 
the  name  of  the  whole  was  changed  to  the  United 
Provinces  of  Agra  and  Oudh  (q.v.).  The  pro- 
vince, which  constitutes  the  great  part  of  Hindu- 
stan proper,  is  mainly  a  great  alluvial  plain, 
sloping  from  the  Himalayas,  and  comprises  the 
Doab,  Rohilkhand,  Bnndelkhand,  &c.,  and  the 
Upper  Ganges  valley.  It  is  the  great  wheat 
country  of  India,  but  is  not  on  a  level  with 
Bengal  as  to  resources  or  trade.  The  head- 
quarters of  Hinduism,  and  containing  some  of 
the  most  sacred  memorials  of  the  Aryan  race,  it 
was  long  subject  to  Moslem  sway  ;  still  a  seventh 
of  the  population  are  Mohammedans.  Area  of 
the  United  Provinces,  107,164  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1901) 
47,691,782  (40,757,137  Hindus). 

North-west  Territories,  in  Canada  (q.v.),  has 
been  most  currently  used  of  Alberta,  Saskat- 
chewan, Assiniboia,  and  Athabasca,  rearranged 
and  organised  in  1904  as  the  two  provinces  of 
Alberta  and  Saskatchewan  (which  now  include 
the  others).  Keewatin  is  a  territory  under  Mani- 
toba ;  Yukon  is  since  1898  a  separate  territory ;  but 
under  the  term  Nortli-west  Territories  still  fall 
not  merely  Mackenzie  in  the  north-west,  but 
Ungava  in  the  peninsula  of  Labrador  in  the  far 
north-east,  and  Franklin,  comprising  some  of 
the  Arctic  islands  of  the  north. 

Northwich,  a  town  of  Cheshire,  on  the  river 
Weaver  and  tiie  old  Watling  Street,  18  miles  ENB. 
of  Chester.  Underneath  and  around  are  brine- 
springs,  used  for  making  salt  since  before  the 
Christian  era,  and  the  town  is  being  undermined 
by  the  pumping  of  the  brine.     Pop.  18,500. 

Norwalk  (iV^o/o/c),  a  town  of  Connecticut,  at  the 

mouth  of  Norwalk  River,  on  Long  Island  Sound, 

41  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  New  York.     It  has  a  good 

harbour,   oyster-fisheries,   the  largest  straw-hat 

8G 


factory  in  America,  foundries  and  ironworks,  and 
manufactories  of  felt-hats,  cloth,  woollens,  shirts, 
shoes,  locks,  and  door-knobs.  Pop.  (with  South 
Norwalk,  900)  19,932. —(2)  Capital  of  Huron 
comity,  Ohio,  55  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Cleveland. 
It  manufactures  organs,  shoes,  ploughs,  sewing, 
machines,  tobacco,  and  fanning-mills.    Pop.  7195. 

Norway  (Norweg.  Norge),  the  western  division 
of  the  Scandinavian  peninsula,  extends  from  lat. 
57°  59'  N.  in  the  south-west  to  71°  11'  in  the 
north-east,  overlapping  Sweden  and  Lapland  on 
the  N.  Quite  1160  miles  in  length  (coast-line 
3000  miles),  it  varies  in  width  from  20  to  100 
miles  north  of  63°  N.  lat.  ;  below  that  line  it 
swells  out  to  260  miles.  Area,  124,495  sq.  m. 
Norway  is  separated  from  Sweden  by  the  Kjolen 
Mountains  (3000  to  6000  feet),  the  backbone  of 
the  peninsula,  which  bifurcate  south  of  63° ;  the 
western  branch  widens  out  into  a  broad  plateau, 
undulating  between  2000  and  4000  feet  and  em- 
bossed  with  mountain-knots— Dovre,  Jotun, 
Lang,  Fille,  Hardanger  Fjelde  (fells)— the  separate 
peaks  of  which  shoot  up  to  6000  feet  and  higher 
(Galdhoppigen,  8399  feet).  Norway  presents  a 
bold  front  to  the  Atlantic  ;  on  the  inner  or  eastern 
side— the  '  Eastland  '—the  slope  is  more  gradual. 
Finmark,  which  is  inhabited  chiefly  by  Lapps,  is 
a  monotonous  undulating  plateau  (1000  to  2000 
feet).  The  greater  part  of  the  country  lies  be- 
tween the  same  degrees  of  latitude  as  Greenland, 
and  it  is  mainly  owing  to  the  Gulf  Stream 
that  Norway  is  habitable.  In  winter  the 
west  coast  districts  are  the  warmest,  and  the 
cold  increases  in  intensity  accortling  to  the  dis- 
tance inland.  The  places  that  have  the  lowest 
winter  mean  (11-8°)  are  all  inland  (where  mercury 
sometimes  freezes  at  — 40°  F.).  The  prevalent 
south-west  winds  bring  considerable  rainfall,  40 
to  70  inches  in  the  year,  to  the  west  coast  of 
southern  Norway ;  in  the  interior  only  12  to  16 
inches  fall.  Tlie  pop.  has  much  more  than 
doubled  since  1820,  when  it  was  977,500;  in  1901 
it  was  2,239,880.  There  is  one  town  with  over 
100,000— Christiania  (227,626);  four  above  20,000 
—Bergen  (72,251),  Trondhjem  (38,180),  Stavanger 
(30,613), and Drammen (23,093) ;  eightabove  10,000, 
and  nine  above  5000.  The  density  of  the  popula- 
tion is  only  18  per  sq.  m.  ;  but  then  fully  70  per 
cent,  of  the  total  area  is  wholly  uncultivable, 
and  24  per  cent,  is  forest. 

From  the  North  Cape  to  below  59°  N.  lat.,  to 
the  point  nearest  Scotland  (280  miles  distant), 
the  precipitous  coast  is  protected  from  the 
Atlantic  Avaves  by  a  belt  of  rocky  islands,  called 
the  Skjaergaard  ('  Skerry  Fence ').  The  outermost 
are  Uie  mountainous  Lofoten  and  Vesteraalen 
chains,  where  30,000  fishermen  congregate  in 
winter  to  prosecute  the  herring  and  cod  fisheries. 
All  the  islands  of  the  Skjsergaard  are  frequented 
by  enormoiis  quantities  of  sea-birds.  The  penin- 
sular rampart  is  ci'owned  with  several  gigantic 
glaciers — the  shores  (6000  feet)  of  Lyngen  Fjord 
in  tlie  north  are  lined  with  them,  besides  great 
snowfields  ;  south  Norway  possesses  the  second 
largest  glacier  in  Europe  (Vatnajokull  in  Iceland 
being  the  largest),  the  roof-shaped  Justedal  (4600 
to  5400  feet),  which  has  an  area  of  580  sq.  m.  (87 
miles  long  by  6  to  22  miles  wide).  Throughout 
Norway  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow  ranges  fronv 
3100  feet  on  Justedal  to  5150  on  the  Dovre  Fjeld 
The  lofty  west  coast  region  is  everywhere  cleft 
by  gigantic  fissures,  very  narrow  and  winding, 
into  which  the  sea-water  flows — the  fjords.  In 
some  cases  they  are  of  great  depth,  much  deeper 
than  the  sea  outside  (200  fathoms) :  Sogne  Fjord, 
for  instance,   is   2820   feet   deeper ;   Hardanger 


NORWAY 


514 


NORWAY 


F.jord,  930  feet.  Sogne  Fjord  cuts  its  way  to  the 
foot  of  tlie  Jotun  Fjeld,  106  miles  from  tlie  ocean, 
and  Hardanger  Fjord  is  68  miles  long.  The  finest 
of  the  valleys  stretching  inland  from  the  fjords  is 
Romsdal,  where  the  rounded,  pure  gneiss  moun- 
tains tower  up  to  6000  feet  with  almost  perpen- 
dicular walls.  The  steep  sides  and  extremities 
(2000  to  4000  feet)  of  these  fjords  and  valleys  are 
braided  with  waterfalls.  The  only  considerable 
break  in  the  lofty  coast-wall  is  the  basin  of 
Trondhjem.  The  southern  coast-lands,  bordering 
the  Skagerrack  and  the  wide  Christiania  Fjord,  are 
comparatively  low  and  tame.  East  of  the  penin- 
sular rampart  the  valleys  converge  upon  Chris- 
tiania Fjord.  Most  of  these  valleys  are  traversed 
by  mountain  torrents  and  streams,  the  longest 
being  the  Glommen  (350  miles)  and  Drammen 
(163).  Some  of  these  streams  in  their  lower 
courses  expand  into  long  narrow  lakes.  The 
coast  of  northern  Norway  is  estimated  to  have 
risen  between  400  and  600  feet. 

Norway's  natural  wealth  lies  in  her  fisheries 
(especially  for  cod  and  herring),  her  forests,  and 
her  shipping ;  her  manufactures,  her  mines,  and 
her  agriculture  are  all  unable  to  meet  the  home 
demands.  Salted  fish  and  cod-liver  oil  are  largely 
exported.  Over  100,000  are  engaged  in  the  cod 
and  herring  fisheries.  Tlie  forests,  their  saw- 
mills, and  wood-pulp  factories  employ  some 
12,000  men.  The  rearing  of  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goats  — in  the  north  reindeer— constitutes  im- 
portant branches.  The  area  under  cultivation  is 
only  2  per  cent,  of  the  entire  surface  of  the 
country,  and  meadows  and  grazing  land  add 
another  2-8  per  cent.  The  output  of  the  copper 
and  iron  mines  of  Roros  and  the  silver-mines  of 
Kongsberg  have  greatly  declined.  The  total 
mineral  output  of  Norway  (iron  pyrites,  silver, 
copper,  apatite,  nickel)has  an  average  yearly  value 
of  £300,000,  and  employs  some  3500  men.  The 
purely  industrial  establishments  are  grouped 
mainly  around  Christiania,  include  textile  fac- 
tories, machine-shops,  chemical  works,  flour- 
mills,  breweries,  &c.,  and  do  not  employ  more 
than  80,000  persons  altogether.  The  Norwegians 
rank  amongst  the  busiest  sea-carriers  of  the 
world,  the  Norwegian  mercantile  marine  ranking 
third  among  maritime  nations,  or  first  in  propor- 
tion to  population.  The  number  of  ships  is  about 
7200,  the  tonnage  1,450,000  tons.  The  total  ex- 
ports of  Norwegian  goods  amount  annually  to 
from  £8,500,000  to  £10,700,000  (about  £5,500,000 
to  Britain),  the  chief  being  fish,  timber,  and 
wood-pulp,  minerals,  oils,  tallow,  tar,  liides, 
horns,  textiles,  paper,  and  dyestufi's.  The  im- 
ports have  an  annual  value  of  from  £15,500,000  to 
£16,200,000  (about  £3,000,000  from  Britain),  and 
include  grain,  textiles,  bacon,  butter,  iron,  coffee, 
coals,  wines,  tobacco,  &c. 

The  Norwegians  share  with  the  Swiss  the  dis- 
tinction of  being  the  most  democratic  people  in 
Europe;  all  titles  of  nobility  were  abolished  in 
1821.  During  the  19th  century  large  luuuljcrs  of 
the  population  emigrated,  mostly  to  the  United 
States.  In  1897  the  number  fell  to  4669,  but  in 
1900  increased  to  10,931,  in  1903  to  26,831.  Since 
1871  earnest  endeavours  have  been  made  to 
diminish  the  consumi)tion  of  spirituous  liquors, 
the  agency  chiefly  relied  upon  being  the  Gothen- 
burg licensing  system.  The  railway  lines  radiate 
chiefly  from  Christiania,  and  have  a  total  length 
of  nearly  1500  miles.  Norway  is  now  visited  in 
summer  by  large  numbers  of  tourists.  Attend- 
ance at  school  is  free  and  compulsory.  Besides 
primary  schools,  there  are  84  secondary  schools,  10 
normal  schools,  and  the  university  of  Christiania. 


Except  52,700  persons  (including  10,286  Method- 
ists, 5674  Baptists,  1969  Roman  Catholics,  Jews, 
Mormons,  &c.),  the  entire  population  belong 
to  the  Lutheran  Church  (8000  Lutheran  )ion- 
conformists).  The  language  of  the  educated  is 
Danish,  the  pronunciation  diverging  slightly; 
the  dialect  of  the  people  is  substantially  similar. 
The  Storthing  or  parliament  consists  of  117  (paid) 
members  ;  and  divides  for  legislative  purposes 
into  two  chambers.  The  national  expenditure 
averages  slightly  over  five  and  a  half  millions  per 
annum,  and  is  just  balanced  by  the  revenue.  The 
national  debt  amounted  in  1905  to  £14,500,000. 
Tliere  is  an  army  of  about  30,000  (including 
reserves),  raised- by  universal  military  service; 
and  a  navy  serviceable  only  for  coast  defence. 

When  we  first  hear  of  Norway  it  was  occupied 
by  Lapps  and  by  several  Gothic  tribes.  Harold 
Haarfager  (863-930  a.d.)  unified  the  country  by 
making  himself  over-king  over  numerous  minor 
kings  or  chiefs  as  far  north  as  Trondhjem. 
Many  of  these,  refusing  to  become  his  vassals, 
emigrated  with  their  followers  to  Orkney,  Shet- 
land, the  Hebrides,  Ireland,  and  Iceland.  Olaf 
Tryggveson  (991-994),  a  typical  viking,  yet  made 
his  people  Christian  at  least  in  name ;  Olaf, 
saint  and  king,  welded  the  country  into  a 
united  Christian  kingdom  (c.  1015).  Canute  the 
Great  souglit  to  incorporate  Norway  with  his 
Danish  kingdom  (1028).  Harold  Hardraada,  who 
died  at  Stamford  Bridge  near  York  in  1066, 
conquered  Denmark.  Magnus  Barefoot  waged 
war  in  the  Orkneys  and  Hebrides,  and  fell  in 
Ireland  in  1103.  Iceland  acknowledged  the 
supremacy  of  Ilaco,  who  died  at  Kirkwall  in 
1263,  after  his  defeat  at  Largs.  In  1319  the 
crown  passed  through  a  female  heir  to  tlie  Swed- 
ish royal  house,  and  again  through  marriage  to 
the  Danish  (1380).  The  great  Queen  Margaret  of 
Denmark  united  all  three  kingdoms  (1383).  The 
Hebrides  had  been  ceded  to  Scotland  in  1266; 
the  Orkneys  and  Shetlands  were  iiledged  to 
Scotland  in  1468.  From  1536  Denmark  treated 
Norway  as  a  conquered  province ;  and  it  was 
not  till  1814  that  the  cession  of  Norway  to  Swe- 
den gave  the  Norwegians  (who  at  first  opposed 
the  transference)  their  national  rights  again,  with 
a  free  constitution,  under  the  Swedish  king.  In 
1821  the  Norwegians  abolished  all  titles  of 
nobility ;  and  the  union  of  democratic— almost 
republican— Norway  with  aristocratic  Sweden 
never  worked  smoothly.  Tlie  nationalist  move- 
ment became  pronounced  in  1890.  A  move- 
ment for  an  even  larger  measure  of  home  rule, 
and  diplomatic  representation  distinct  from  that 
of  Sweden,  ended  in  the  refusal  by  Sweden  to 
grant  the  concessions  asked  and  in  the  formal 
proposal  by  Norway,  in  1905,  to  withdraw  from 
the  union  with  Sweden.  After  some  negotiations 
and  the  meetings  of  Swedish  and  Norwegian 
parliaments,  a  separation  was  amicably  agreed 
to,  and  in  October  Norway  was  again  a  distinct 
and  independent  state.  By  a  vast  majority,  the 
Norwegians  agreed  to  ask  Prince  Carl,  second  son 
of  the  Crown-prince  of  Denmark,  to  become  their 
king ;  and  the  new  king  was  welcomed,  as 
Haakon  VII.  (Haco),  in  December. 

See  books  on  Norway  by  Mary  Wollstonecraft 
(1796),  J.  D.  Forbes  (1853),  Wood  (1880),  Du  Chaillu 
(1881),  Vincent  (1881),  Lovett  (1885),  besides 
guidebooks  by  Nielsen,  Baedeker,  Tonsberg,  Ben- 
nett, Joigensen,  and  Wilson  ;  and  for  the  history, 
Laing's  Heimskringla  (1833  ;  new  ed.  1890),  Car- 
lyle's  Early  King's  of  Nonmy  (1878),  Boyesen's 
History  of  Norivay  (new  ed.  1890),  and  Nisbet 
Bain  in  the  '  Cambridge  History '  (1905). 


NORWICH 


515 


NOTTINGHAM 


Norwich  (Nor'rldge),  a  cathedral  city,  the  capi- 
tal of  Norfolk,  and  a  parliamentary,  county,  and 
municipal  borough  (the  first  returning  two  mem- 
bers), is  situated  on  the  Wensum,  immediately 
above  its  confluence  with  the  Yare,  18  miles  W, 
of  Yarmouth  and  114  NNE.  of  London.  Pop. 
(1801)34,975;  (1831).C1,110  ;  (1881)  87,842;  (1901) 
111,728.  Built  on  the  summit  and  slopes  of  a 
hill  which  gradually  rises  from  the  river,  the 
city,  with  its  hamlets,  covers  an  area  of  7472 
acres,  as  compared  with  that  of  1300  enclosed 
by  its  ancient  walls  (1294-1342).  Its  narrow, 
winding  streets  are  rich  in  examples  of  early 
architecture— as  Pull's  Ferry  and  the  Bishop's 
Bridge  (1295),  both  on  the  river-banks  ;  St  Giles' 
Hospital  (1249);  the  Ethelbert  Gateway  (c.  1272); 
Bishop  Salmon's  Gateway  (c.  1325);  the  Guildhall 
(completed  1413);  Erpingham  Gate  (1420);  the 
Music  House  (partly  Norman,  and  once  a  resi- 
dence of  Sir  Edward  Coke) ;  the  Bridewell  (Decor- 
ated and  Perpendicular,  c.  1400) ;  and  the  Dolphin 
Inn  (1587).  The  cathedral,  almost  wholly  Nor- 
man in  plan,  but  the  growth  of  more  than  four 
centuries,  occupies  a  site  close  to  the  river,  and 
Avas  founded  in  1096  by  Bishop  Herbert  Losinga  : 
its  dimensions  are  407  feet  in  length  by  72  in 
breadth  (or  178  across  the  transepts),  and  it  is 
surmounted  by  a  noble  (Norman)  tower  and 
(Decorated)  spire  of  315  feet— the  highest  in 
England  next  to  Salisbury.  Close  by  is  the 
grammar-school,  founded  as  a  Mortuary  Chapel 
in  1319,  and  famous  as  the  place  of  education 
of  Lord  Nelson,  Rajah  Brooke,  and  other  celeb- 
rities ;  also  St  Andrew's  Hall  (Perpendicular; 
formerly  the  church  of  the  Black  Friars),  in 
which  are  held  the  triennial  musical  festivals, 
first  established  at  Norwich  in  1824.  Next  after 
the  cathedral  the  most  striking  edifice  is  the 
castle,  crowning  the  summit  of  a  sugar-loaf 
mound  in  the  centre  of  the  city :  its  massive 
quadrangular  Norman  keep,  the  only  portion 
now  standing,  has  since  1886  been  converted 
from  a  prison  to  a  museum.  On  the  cattle- 
market  beneath  the  castle  is  held  annually,  on 
Maundy  Thursday,  the  famous  cattle  and  sheep 
fair,  formerly  held  on  Tombland,  and  so  graph- 
ically described  in  Borrow's  Lavengro.  The 
churches,  forty-four  in  number,  are  for  the  most 
part  built  of  flint,  and  in  the  Perpendicular 
style :  those  of  St  Peter  Mancroft,  St  Andrew, 
St  Giles,  St  Lawrence,  St  Michael  Coslany,  and 
St  Stephen  are  the  finest  examples ;  whilst  of 
modern  public  buildings  may  be  mentioned  the 
hospital  (founded  1771  and  rebuilt  1879-83),  an 
Agricultural  Hall  (1882),  and  a  Volunteer  Drill- 
liall  (1886).  Formerly  one  of  the  largest  seats 
in  England  of  the  worsted-weaving  trade,  the 
city  is  still  noted  for  its  textile  fabrics — espe- 
cially its  crapes  ;  but  the  principal  manufactures 
now  carried  on  are  those  of  mustard,  starch, 
ornamental  ironware,  boots  and  shoes,  whilst 
extensive  breweries  and  a  vinegar  distillery,  as 
well  as  large  nursery-gardens  on  the  outskirts 
of  the  town,  give  employment  to  many  hands. 
The  bishopric  was  translated  hither  from  Thet- 
ford  in  1094 ;  and  the  chief  subsequent  event  in 
the  city's  history  was  the  encampment  of  Ket's 
rebels  on  Mousehold  Heath  (1549).  Of  citizens 
the  best  known  are  Thomas  Bilney  ;  Archbishop 
Parker ;  Dr  Caius ;  Greene  (the  dramatist) ; 
Bishops  Cosin  and  Tanner ;  Sir  Thomas  Browne  ; 
Dr  Samuel  Clarke ;  '  Old '  Crome,  his  son,  Cot- 
man,  Stark,  and  Vincent  (the  'Norwich  school' 
of  painters) ;  Mrs  Opie  ;  Crotch  (the  composer) ; 
W.  Taylor ;  Professor  Brewer ;  Sir  W.  J.  Hooker ; 
Gurney  and  his  sister,  Elizabeth  Fry ;  Lindley 


(the  botanist);  and  Harriet  Martineau  and  her 
brother  James. 

See  works  by  Stacy  (1819),  Bayne  (1858),  Goul- 
burn  (1876),  Jarrold  (1883),  and  Jessopp  (1884); 
also  those  cited  under  Norfolk. 

Norwich  (Nor'ritch  or  Nor'witch),  capital  of 
New  London  county,  Connecticut,  at  the  head 
of  the  Thames  River,  13  miles  by  rail  N.  of  New 
London.  The  chief  portion  of  the  city  lies  on 
an  eminence  between  the  Yantic  and  Shetucket 
rivers,  which  here  unite  to  form  the  Thames. 
There  are  manufactories  of  paper,  cotton  and 
woollen  goods,  worsted,  picture  cords,  pistols, 
files,  locks,  iron  pipes,  &c.,  besides  rolling-mills 
and  ironworks.  The  city's  site  was  granted  by 
Uncas  the  Mohican  to  an  English  ensign  who 
in  1656  reached  liim  by  night  with  a  canoe-load 
of  provisions,  when  he  was  besieged  ;  a  memorial 
obelisk  was  erected  in  1825.    Pop.  17,260. 

Norwood,  now  part  of  the  county  borough  of 
Croydon,  gives  name  to  a  parliamentary  division 
(pop.  85,730)  of  Lambeth. 

Noss.    See  Bressay. 

Nossi-B^  (Bay),  a  volcanic  island  NW.  of  Mada- 
gascar.   Area,  115  .sq.  m.  ;  pop.  9500, 

Nostell,  or  NosTAL,  a  hamlet  5J  miles  SE.  of 
Wakefield,  with  ruins  of  a  famous  Augustinian 
priory,  founded  1121. 

Notley  Abbey,  Bucks,  2  miles  NNE.  of  Thame, 
a  ruined  Augustinian  canunry  (1162). 

Noto,  an  ancient  episcopal  town  of  Sicily,  16 
miles  SW.  of  Syracuse  by  rail.     Pop.  22,600. 

Nottingham,  capital  of  Nottinghamshire,  a 
parliamentary  (three  members)  and  municipal 
city  (1897),  county  borough,  and  suffragan  see 
under  Lincoln,  is  seated  on  the  Trent,  126  miles 
NNW.  of  London,  15  E.  of  Derby,  and  38  S.  by 
E.  of  Sheffield.  Formerly  surrounded  by  ancient 
walls  (910-1265),  of  which  all  traces  have  now 
disappeared,  the  town  covers  an  area  of  about  16 
sq.  in.,  and  its  appearance  of  late  years  has  been 
much  improved  by  the  widening  of  its  streets ; 
by  the  erection  of  a  new  town-hall.  University 
College,  and  other  public  buildings  ;  by  the  open- 
ing and  laying  out  of  an  arboretum  of  17  acres, 
of  a  public  park  and  recreation  grounds  of  over 
150  acres,  and  of  a  tract  of  open  land,  called 
'Bulwell  Forest'  (135  acres);  as  also  by  the 
spanning  of  the  Trent— which  is  here  200  yards 
wide— with  a  broad  granite  and  iron  bridge 
in  the  place  of  a  former  narrow  structure  of 
seventeen  arches.  Crowning  a  precipitous  rock, 
which  rises  133  feet  above  the  river,  stands  the 
castle,  built  (1674-83)  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 
Norman  fortress,  dismantled  during  the  Parlia- 
mentary wars,  and  itself  much  damaged  by  fire 
during  the  Reform  Bill  riots  of  1831.  It  was 
restored  in  1878,  and  transformed  into  an  art 
museum.  Near  to  it  are  the  county  hall  (1770) ; 
St  Mary's  Church  (restored  1867-85),  a  cruciform 
building  in  the  Perpendicular  style,  216  feet  in 
length  ;  and  a  spacious  market-place,  5^  acres  in 
extent,  having  at  its  eastern  end  the  exchange, 
with  a  richly-decorated  fagade  (rebuilt  1814).  In 
another  group  not  far  off  are  the  guildhall  and 
other  municipal  offices  (1888),  in  the  French 
Renaissance  style  of  architecture  ;  two  theatres 
(1865-84);  and  University  College  (1879-81  ;  char- 
tered in  1903),  with  1700  students,  and  a  library, 
natural  history  museum,  &c.  Other  edifices 
are  a  hospital  (1781,  with  additions  1829-79); 
a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral  (1844) ;  and  the  high 
school,  founded  as  a  grammar  or  free  school  in 
1513,  moved  into  new  buildings  in  1867,  and  since 


NOTTINGHAMSHIRE 


516 


NOVA  ZEMBLA 


1882  controlled  under  a  new  scheme.  Of  the 
various  naanufactures  carried  on  in  the  town  the 
most  important  are  those  of  lace  and  hosiery; 
baskets,  bicycles,  cigars,  and  needles  are  also 
made,  whilst  several  iron-foundries  are  in  opera- 
tion, and  malting  and  brewing  are  carried  on. 
There  is  a  great  Michaelmas  goose-fair.  Pop. 
(1801)  28,801 ;  (1831)  50,220  ;  (1881)  186,575  ;  (1901) 
239,753.  Charles  I.  raised  his  standard  (1642)  at 
Nottingham  ;  and  it  was  the  scene  of  riots  (1795- 
1816),  partly  owing  to  a  bread  famine  and  partly 
to  the  Luddites,  See  works  by  Dickinson  (1816), 
Wylie  (1853-65),  Hine  (1876),  Stevenson  (1890), 
and  the  Records  of  the  Borough  (5  vols,  1882-1900). 

Nottinghamshire,  or  Notts,  an  inland  county 
of  England,  bounded  by  Yorkshire,  Lincolnshire, 
Leicestershire,  and  Derbyshire.  Its  greatest 
length  is  50  miles  ;  average  breadth,  20  miles ; 
and  area,  824  sq.  m.,  or  527,752  acres.  Pop.  (1801) 
140,350  ;  (1831)  225,400  ;  (1881)  391,815  ;  (1901) 
514,537.  Apart  from  the  valley  of  the  Trent, 
which  is  very  flat,  the  general  aspect  of  the 
county  is  undulating  and  well  wooded,  the  highest 
ground — 600  feet  above  the  sea-level — being  in 
the  west,  in  the  vicinity  of  Sherwood  Forest 
(q.v,).  In  the  south  are  the  Wolds,  consisting 
of  upland  moors  and  pasture-lands  broken  up 
by  many  fertile  hollows,  whilst  the  northern 
boundary  for  upwards  of  15  miles  is  skirted  by 
the  Car,  a  tract  of  low-lying  land,  formerly  a 
swampy  bog,  but  since  1796  drained  and  brought 
into  cultivation.  The  Trent,  with  its  tributaries, 
the  Erewash,  Soar,  and  Idle,  is  the  principal 
river.  As  regards  productiveness  the  county  is 
not  above  mediocrity,  except  in  the  Vale  of 
Bel  voir  to  the  east  of  Nottingham,  The  principal 
mineral  products  are  coal,  gypsum,  iron  ore,  and 
limestone.  The  manufactures  are  noticed  under 
the  chief  towns — viz,  Nottingham,  Newark, 
Mansfield,  Retford,  and  Worksop,  Lying  wholly 
in  the  diocese  of  Southwell,  Notts  is  divided  into 
six  wapentakes,  nine  poor-law  unions,  and  273 
parishes,  and  returns  seven  M.P.s,  one  for  each 
of  its  four  divisions  (Bassetlaw,  Newark,  Mans- 
field, and  Rushcliffe),  and  three  for  Nottingham 
(its  capital  and  assize  town).  Of  its  natives  the 
best  known  are  Archbishops  Cranmer,  Seeker, 
Sterne,  and  Manners-Sutton ;  Garnet  (the  Jesuit) ; 
Denzil,  Lord  Holies ;  General  Ireton ;  Colonel 
Hutchinson ;  Lady  Mary  Wortley  Montagu ; 
Bishop  Warburton;  Dodsley,  Kippis,  and  Wake- 
field (the  authors) ;  Admiral  Earl  Howe  ;  Sandby 
and  Bonington  (the  artists);  Dr  Erasmus  Dar- 
win ;  Edmund  Cartwright ;  Kirke  White  and 
Bailey  (the  poets) ;  Lord  Byron ;  '  Speaker ' 
Denison ;  and  'General'  Booth.  See  works  by 
Thoroton  (3  vols.  1797),  Bailey  (4  vols.  1852-55), 
Briscoe  (1881),  White  (1885),  C.  Brown  (1891), 
and  W.  Stevenson  (1893). 

Netting  Hill,  a  London  district,  in  Kensington 
and  Chelsea  parishes. 

Noumea.     See  New  Caledonia, 

Novara,  a  town  of  north  Italy,  60  miles  N.  of 
Turin  by  rail.  Here  the  Sardinians  were  utterly 
defeated  by  the  Austrians  in  1849.     Pop.  45,250, 

Nova  Scotia,  a  province  of  Canada,  consists  of 
a  long,  narrow  peninsula,  and  the  island  of  Cape 
Breton,  which  is  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
the  Strait  of  Canso.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  North- 
umberland Strait  and  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence  ; 
NE.,  S.,  and  SE.  by  the  Atlantic  ;  W.  by  the  Bay 
of  Fundy ;  and  NW.  by  New  Brunswick,  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  an  isthmus  only  11  miles 
wide,  separating  the  Bay  of  Fundy  from  Northum- 
berland Stx-ait.    The  greatest  length  is  350  miles, 


the  greatest  breadth  120  miles,  and  the  area  20,907 
sq.  m.  (13,380,480  acres)— one-third  less  than  that 
of  Scotland.  One-fifth  of  the  area  consists  of 
lakes,  rivers,  and  inlets  of  the  sea.  Of  upwards 
of  6,000,000  acres  occupied,  nearly  2,000,000  are  in 
crop  and  pasture,  and  over  30,000  are  gardens  and 
orchards.  Pop.  (1806)  67,515;  (1851)  276,117; 
(1871)  387,800  ;  (1901)  459,574, 

The  coast-line  is  about  1000  miles  in  length, 
and  the  shores  abound  with  excellent  harbours. 
There  are  numerous  rivers,  few  of  them  more 
than  50  miles  long.  Bras  d'Or  in  Cape  Breton 
(q.v.)  is  a  much  indented  sea-inlet.  Lake 
Rossignol  is  20  miles  in  length ;  Ship  Harbour, 
a  lake  15  miles  long.  Mines  Basin,  the  east  arm 
of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  penetrates  60  miles  inland, 
and  terminates  in  Cobequid  Bay.  The  tides  rise 
30  to  50  feet  in  the  basin  with  great  impetuos- 
ity, and  form  a  'bore.'  On  each  side  of  the 
Cobequid  range  are  two  extensive  areas  of  fine 
arable  lands  ;  the  Annapolis  valley  is  especially 
rich.  The  northern  part  of  Cape  Breton  is  bold 
and  steep  (North  Cape,  1800  feet).  The  principal 
cities  and  towns  are  Halifax,  Dartmouth,  Yar- 
mouth, Truro,  Pictou,  Amherst,  Windsor,  Kent- 
ville,  and  Annapolis.  The  extreme  of  cold  is  20° 
below  zero,  and  of  heat  98°  in  the  shade.  Spring 
is  rather  tedious,  and  the  winter  variable  ;  fogs 
are  prevalent  along  the  coasts,  but  do  not  pene- 
trate far  inland.  Rye,  oats,  and  barley,  buck- 
wheat, Indian  corn,  tomatoes,  potatoes,  turnips, 
and  all  root-crops  grow  in  abundance  ;  wheat  is 
not  much  grown  ;  hay  is  a  very  important  crop. 
Apples,  pears,  plums,  cherries,  and  other  garden 
fruits  attain  the  utmost  perfection.  Attention  is 
now  devoted  to  dairying  and  to  the  raising  of 
live-stock.  Sport  is  excellent  throughout  the 
province.  The  manufactures  are  limited,  but  are 
being  developed.  Mining  (gold,  coal,  iron,  &c.) 
is  extensively  carried  on.  The  fisheries  of  Nova 
Scotia  are  among  the  finest  in  the  world.  Tho 
waters  aboimd  with  mackerel,  cod,  herring,  shad, 
salmon,  halibut,  haddock,  lobsters,  &c.  The  chief 
exports  are  fish,  minerals,  lumber,  agricultural 
products,  and  general  manufactures.  There  are 
700  miles  of  railway.  Education  is  free,  and  there 
are  six  colleges.  The  public  affairs  are  adminis- 
tered by  a  lieutenant-governor,  and  executive 
council  of  twenty-one  members,  and  a  legislative 
assembly  of  tbirty-eight  members  elected  by  the 
people  for  four  years.  The  province  is  represented 
in  the  Dominion  parliament  by  ten  senators  and 
eighteen  members  of  the  Lower  House, 

Discovered  by  Cabot  in  1497,  the  country  was 
partly  settled  in  1604  by  the  French,  to  whom  it 
was  known  as  Acadie.  It  long  remained  a  bone 
of  contention  between  France  and  England,  but 
became  finally  British  in  1713,  The  Acadians 
who  refused  to  fall  in  with  the  new  settlement 
were  expelled  in  1755  (Longfellow's  Evangeline  is 
not  historically  just);  the  well-being  of  Nova 
Scotia  dates  from  the  immigration  of  loyalists 
from  the  United  States  after  the  Revolutionary 
war.  It  entered  the  Dominion  in  1867.  See 
works  by  Haliburton  (1829),  Murdoch  (1867),  and 
Hannay  (1889),  besides  the  histories  of  Canada. 

Nova  Zembla  (Russ,  Novaja  Zemlja,  'New 
Land '),  an  Arctic  island  lying  between  the  Kara 
Sea  and  Barents  Sea,  Long  and  narrow,  it  meas- 
ures 600  miles  from  north  to  south  and  60  in 
average  width,  and  is  cut  in  two  nearly  midway 
by  a  narrow  winding  sea-passage,  the  Matochkin 
Siiar.  The  centre  and  north  are  mountainous, 
rising  to  4000  feet  or  higher,  and  are  covered 
with  snow  and  ice.  Although  not  permanently 
inhabited,  it  is  visited  by  Russian  and  Norwegian 


iiovGoftor> 


517 


NUltEMBERG 


fiearaen  and  hunters.  It  was  known  to  the 
hunters  of  Novgorod  in  the  11th  century,  but 
was  rediscovered  by  Willoughby  in  1553. 

Nov'gorod  ('  new-town '),  a  famous  city  of 
Russia,  is  situated  on  the  Volkhof,  near  where  it 
issues  from  Lake  Ilinen,  110  miles  SSE.  of  St 
Petersburg  by  rail.  It  is  the  cradle  of  Russian 
history.  In  8(54,  according  to  tradition,  Rurik 
(a  Varangian,  apparently  a  Scandinavian)  was 
invited  hither  by  the  neighbouring  tribes,  and 
with  him  Russian  liistory  begins.  In  the  12th 
century  it  had  connections  with  the  Hanse  cities, 
and  it  became  the  market  of  north-east  Europe. 
'Novgoi'od  the  Great,'  a  kind  of  republic,  had 
400,000  inhabitants,  but  in  1471  the  czar  Ivan  III. 
nearly  destroyed  the  town,  and  bereft  it  of  its 
liberties.  St  Sophia,  founded  in  the  11th  cen- 
tury, is  built  on  the  model  of  St  Sophia  at  Con- 
stantinople. Pop.  26,599.  ^The  governvient,  lying 
E.  of  that  of  St  Petersburg,  contains  3000  lakes 
and  for  three-fourths  is  covered  with  forests. 
Area,  47,236  sq.  m,  ;  pop.  1,300,507. 

Novi,  a  town  of  Italy,  30  miles  NW.  of  Genoa. 
Pop.  9917.  Here  in  1799  the  French  were  defeated 
(15th  August)  and  victorious  (tith  November). 

Novibazar'  (also  Jenipasar  and  Rascia),  a  town 
where  Austrian  and  Turkish  authority  meet, 
on  the  river  Rashka,  an  affluent  of  the  Morava, 
120  miles  SE.  of  Saraievo  in  Bosnia.  Pop.  12,000. 
The  sanjak  of  Novibazar  (3842  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
153,000)  is  mountainous  and  barren,  but  as  lying 
between  Servia  and  Montenegro  is  of  strategic 
importance.    The  W.  part  is  occupied  by  Austria. 

Novogeorgievsk  (Novojorjevsld),  a  Russian  for- 
tress of  the  first  rank,  on  the  Vistula,  20  miles 
NW.  of  Warsaw.  With  Warsaw,  Ivangorod,  and 
Brest  Litovsk,  it  forms  the  Polish  Quadrilateral. 

Novorossisk',  a  fortified  port  on  the  Black  Sea, 
to  the  SE.  of  Anapa  in  Caucasia.  A  breakwater 
and  quay  were  begun  in  1890.     Pop.  16,200. 

Novotcherkask',  a  town  of  southern  Russia, 
capital  of  the  province  of  the  Don  Cossacks,  on 
the  Aksai,  a  tributary  of  the  Don,  40  miles  from 
the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  70  ENE.  of  Taganrog.  The 
administration  was  transferred  hither  from  Tcher- 
kask  in  1805  ;  but  the  choice  was  not  a  happy 
one,  the  distance  of  the  town  from  the  Don  (12 
miles)  being  much  felt.    Pop.  47,091. 

Noyon  (Nwa-yon^'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Oise,  67  miles  NNE.  of  Paris  by  rail.  It  has  a 
fine  cathedral  in  the  Transition  style  of  the  12th 
century,  an  hotel-de-ville  (1485-1523),  and  a  former 
episcopal  palace.  Pop.  5812.  The  Noviodxinum 
of  Caesar,  Noyon  was  a  residence  of  Charlemagne 
and  Hugo  Capet,  and  the  birthplace  of  Calvin. 

Nubia  is  a  comparatively  modern  name  for  a 
large  region  of  Africa,  formerly  a  portion  of 
Ethiopia  (q.v.),  and  extending  on  both  sides  of 
the  Nile  from  Egypt  to  Abyssinia ;  touching  the 
Red  Sea  on  the  east  and  the  desert  on  the  west. 
Nubia  Proper,  or  Lower  Nubia,  extends  from 
Assouan  on  the  Egyptian  frontier  to  Dongola ; 
beyond  that  is  Upper  Nubia.  But  of  late  the 
name  of  Egyptian  Soudan,  properly  applicable  to 
a  section  of  Upper  Nubia,  has  come  to  be  used 
for  Nubia  in  its  widest  sense,  together  with  the 
once  Egyptian  territory  actually  in  the  Soudan, 
and  the  Equatorial  Provinces.  Both  in  its  lower 
and  upper  sections  Nubia  is  for  the  most  part  an 
expanse  of  rocky  desert,  with  patches  where  grass 
sometimes  grows,  and  ravines  in  which  moisture 
enough  is  found  to  keep  alive  a  few  mimosas  or 
palms,  and  to  raise  pasture  for  gazelles  and 
camels.    There  are  also  wells  and  small  oases 


here  and  there.  The  great  '  Nubian  Desert '  lies 
east  of  the  Nile,  opposite  the  great  western  bend 
of  the  river.  Below  Khartoum  rain  is  almost 
unknown  ;  the  climate  is  accordingly  excessively 
hot  and  dry,  and,  except  in  the  river-ports  after 
the  fall  of  the  Nile,  is  very  healthy.  The  only 
exception  to  the  general  aridity  is  the  narrow 
strip  of  country  on  both  sides  of  the  Nile,  which 
nowhere  exceeds  four  miles  in  breadth,  and  in 
many  places  is  only  a  quarter  of  a  mile  wide. 
The  most  fertile  part  is  near  Dongola.  A  moun- 
tain barrier  bounds  the  valley  on  both  sides  of 
the  Nile,  and  consists  of  granite  and  sandstone. 

Nuble,  a  province  of  Chili ;  capital,  Chilian  (q.V.). 

Nueva  Esparta.    See  Margarita. 

Nuevo  Leon  (Nway'vo  Lay-oan'),  a  northern 
state  of  Mexico  ;  Monterey  (q.v.)  is  the  capital. 

Nukha  {Noo-hha),  a  town  of  Caucasia ;  it  is  on 
the  southern  slope  of  Caucasus,  and  120  miles  E. 
ofTiflis.     Pop.  24,719. 

Numidla  (Gr.  Nomadia,  'land  of  Nomads'), 
the  Roman  name  for  part  of  the  north  coast  of 
Africa,  largely  corresponding  with  Algiers. 

Nun,  Capk.    See  Morocco. 

Nuncham  Park,  an  Oxfordshire  seat,  on  the 
Thames,  5J  miles  SSE.  of  Oxford. 

Nundydroog,  or  Nandidri5g,  a  fortified  hill 
and  health-resort  in  Mysore,  31  miles  N.  of  Banga- 
lore, and  4810  feet  above  the  sea.  It  was  stormed 
by  a  British  force  in  1791. 

Nun'eaton,  a  market-town  of  Warwickshire, 
on  the  river  Anker  and  the  Coventry  Canal,  14 
miles  NNW.  of  Rugby,  9  N.  by  E.  of  Coventry, 
and  22  E.  of  Birmingham.  It  has  a  good  Gothic 
parish  church,  some  remains  of  a  12th-century 
nunnery,  with  a  modern  church  built  thereon, 
and  a  grammar-school  (1553).  The  ribbon  manu- 
facture has  given  place  to  worsted,  cotton,  and 
woollen  spinning.  '  George  Eliot,'  born  at  Arbury 
farm  to  the  south,  went  to  school  at  Nuneaton, 
and  here  saw  her  Felix  Holt  riot.  Pop.  of 
Nuneaton  and  Chilvers  Coton  (1901)  24,996. 

Nuremberg  (Ger.  Niirnberg),  a  city  in  the 
Bavarian  province  of  Middle  Franconia,  in  a 
sandy  but  well-cultivated  district,  on  the  little 
Pegnitz  (a  sub-affluent  of  the  Main),  95  miles  N. 
by  W.  of  Munich,  and  145  ESE.  of  Frankfort.  It 
is  the  quaintest  and  most  interesting  town  of 
Germany,  on  account  of  the  wealth  of  mediaeval 
architecture  which  it  presents  in  its  many-towered 
walls,  its  gateways,  its  picturesque  streets  with 
their  gabled  house-fronts,  its  bridges,  and  its 
beautiful  Gothic  fountains.  The  Burg  or  royal 
palace  was  built  (c.  1024-1158)  by  Conrad  II.  and 
Frederick  Barbarossa ;  in  its  courtyard  is  a 
coeval  linden-tree.  Of  eight  fine  churches  the 
two  finest  are  St  Lawrence  (1274-1477),  with  two 
noble  towers  233  feet  high,  exquisite  stained 
glass,  the  famous  stone  tabernacle  (1495-1500)  by 
Adam  Krafft,  and  the  wood-carvings  of  Veit 
Stoss ;  and  St  Sebald's  (c.  1225-1377),  with  the 
superb  shrine  of  Peter  Vischer.  Other  note- 
worthy objects  are  the  Italian  Renaissance  town- 
hall  (1622);  the  new  law-courts  (1877);  the 
gymnasium,  founded  by  Melanchthon  (1526) ;  the 
Germanic  museum  (1852) ;  an  industrial  museum 
(1871);  alibraryof200,000  volumes;  Albert Dlirer's 
house  ;  and  the  statues  of  him,  Hans  Sachs,  and 
Melanchthon,  with  the  'Victoria'  or  soldiers' 
monument  (1876).  Although  the  glory  of  Nurem- 
berg's foreign  commerce  has  long  since  passed 
away,  the  home  trade  is  still  of  high  importance. 
It  includes  the  specialities  of  metal,  wood,  and 
bone  carvings,  and  children's  '  Dutch '  toys  and 


NUWARA  ELIYA 


51S 


dATLANDS  PARK 


dolls,  which,  known  as  'Nuremberg  wares,'  find 
a  ready  sale  in  every  part  of  Europe,  and  are 
largely  exported  to  America  and  the  East.  In 
all  there  are  close  on  200  factories,  producing  also 
chemicals,  ultramarine,  type,  lead-pencils,  beer, 
&c.  ;  and  the  town  besides  does  a  vast  export 
trade  in  hops,  and  import  trade  in  colonial  wares 
from  the  Netherlands.  Pop.  (1818)  26,854  ;  (1875) 
91,018 ;  (1900)  261,081— the  great  majority  Pro- 
testants. First  heard  of  in  1050,  Nuremberg 
was  made  a  free  imperial  city  in  1219.  In  1417 
the  Hohenzollerns  sold  all  their  rights  to  the 
magistracy.  This  put  an  end  to  the  feuds  which 
raged  between  the  burggrafs  and  the  municii)al- 
ity ;  and  Nuremberg  for  a  time  became  the  chief 
home  in  Germany  of  the  arts  and  of  inventions — 
watches  or  'Nuremberg  eggs,'  air-guns,  globes, 
&c.  In  1803  it  retained  its  independence,  with  a 
territory  of  483  sq.  m.,  containing  80,000  inhabit- 
ants ;  but  in  1806  it  was  transferred  to  Bavaria. 
See  books  by  Headlani,  Ree,  and  Bell  (1905). 

Nuwara  Eliya.    See  Newera  Elia. 

Nyangwe,  a  station  on  the  Upper  Congo  or 
Lualaba,  where  Stanley  conuuenced  the  descent 
of  the  Congo  in  1876. 

Nyanza.    See  Albert  and  Victoria  Nyanza. 

Nyassa,  or  Nyasa  (Nee-ah'sa),  the  southern- 
most of  the  equatorial  great  lakes  of  East  Africa, 
is  situated  about  260  miles  SE.  of  Tanganyika 
and  400  inland  from  the  east  coast.  It  lies  at  an 
altitude  of  1570  feet,  is  very  deep  in  the  middle, 
shelving  rapidly  from  the  shores,  which  are  rocky 
and  high.  Long  and  narrow,  it  measures  350 
miles  from  north  to  south  and  an  average  of  40 
from  east  to  west.  The  river  Shire  goes  S.  from 
its  southern  extremity  to  the  Zambesi.  Although 
the  Portuguese  knew  of  the  lake  as  Maravi  early 
in  the  17th  c,  Livingstone  was  the  first  to  fix 
in  1859  its  situation  and  to  navigate  it. 

Nyassaland  is  the  unofficial  name  for  a  region 
west  and  south  of  Lake  Nyassa,  in  which,  since 
1878,  the  African  Lakes  Company  and  British 
missionaries— especially  of  the  Established  and 
Free  Churches  of  Scotland — have  been  at  work. 
In  1889  it  was  declared  within  the  British  sphere 
of  influence,  and  in  1891  formally  created  the 
British  Central  Africa  Protectorate.  It  is  the 
most  important  part  of  a  nmch  wider  area  within 
the  British  sphere— British  Central  Africa— which 
extends  from  Lake  Nyassa  on  the  east,  right 


across  Africa  to  the  German  and  Portuguese  west 
coast  possessions,  with  the  Congo  Independent 
State  to  the  north,  and  the  Zambesi  dividing 
it  from  Southern  Rhodesia.  British  Central 
Africa,  since  1891  under  the  British  South  Africa 
Company  as  North-eastern  and  North-western 
Rhodesia,  has  an  area  of  about  500,000  sq.  m.,  and 
a  pop.  estimated  in  1903  at  350,000  (250  Euro- 
peans). Tlie  Protectorate  proper  of  British 
Central  Africa  is  administered  by  an  Imperial 
Coninussioner,whose  authority  also  extends,  under 
the  charter  of  the  British  South  Africa  Company, 
to  the  whole  of  Northern  Rhodesia.  Lying  on 
the  western  and  southern  shores  of  Lake  Nyassa, 
it  forms  the  eastern  boundary  of  North-eastern 
Rhodesia,  and  has  an  area  of  40,000  sq.  m.  and 
a  population  of  about  900,000.  Blaiityre  (pop. 
6000, 150  Europeans)  is  the  largest  place ;  Zomba, 
on  the  Sliire,  is  the  seat  of  the  commissioner. 
Other  places  are  Bandawe,  Port  Maguire,  and 
Fort  Johnston.  The  Liviiigstonia  mission  here 
was  originally  founded  in  accordance  witli  a 
suggestion  of  Dr  Livingstone,  as  was  also  the 
Lakes  Company,  with  the  express  purpose  of 
counteracting  the  influence  of  the  Arab  slave- 
dealing  marauders  who  were  the  curse  of  the 
region.  The  missions  and  the  company  had  a 
fierce  struggle  with  the  slave-catching  interest, 
until  relieved  by  the  government  establishments. 
There  are  also  settlements  on  Lake  Moero  and  on 
Lake  Bangweolo.  Tiie  imports  of  tlie  protec- 
torate (cottons,  provisions,  hardware,  machinery, 
agricultural  implements,  &c.)  have  an  annual 
value  of  about  £180,000 ;  the  exports,  ivory, 
india-rubber,  oil-seeds,  rhinoceros'  horns,  hipijo- 
potamus'  teeth,  strophanthus  seed,  beeswax,  rice, 
are  worth  near  £40,000.  Coffee  and  wheat  are 
also  grown  :  merino  sheep  thrive. 

Nyborg.    See  FUnen. 

Nyiregyh^za,  a  town  of  Hungary,  130  miles 
E.  by  N.  of  Budapest.  It  is  the  centre  of  an 
extensive  wine  district,  witli  allied  manufactures. 
It  has  an  important  annual  fair.  Pop.  (1900) 
31,875. 

Nykerk  (Nye'kerJc),  or  Nieuwkerk,  a  Dutch 
town,  28  miles  SE.  of  Amsterdam  by  rail,  and  1^ 
mile  from  the  Zuider  Zee.    Pop.  7599. 

Nykoplng  (nearly  Nee-chitjYing),  a  seaport  of 
Sweden,  on  a  bay  of  the  Baltic,  62  miles  SW.  of 
Stockholm  (100  miles  by  rail).     Pop.  7374. 


AHU.    See  Hawaii. 

Oajaca  (0-a-hah'ka),  a  mountainous 

Pacific  state  in  the  south  of  Mexico. 

The  capital,  Oajaca,  lies  5060  feet  above 

the  sea,   in    the    fertile  valley  of  the 

Atoyac.     It  has  a  large  cathedral  (1729), 

a  quaint   bishop's  palace,  the  State  Institute, 

manufactures  of  chocolate,  cotton  goods,  cigars, 

candles,  and  soap.     Pop.  37,856. 

Oakengates,  a  Shropshire  market-town,  14 
miles  W.  of  Shrewsbury.     Pop.  10,900. 

Oakham,  the  county  town  of  Rutland,  in  the 
vale  of  Catmose,  25  miles  WNW.  of  Peterborough, 
The  castle,  every  peer  passing  which  must  forfeit 
either  a  horseshoe  or  a  fine,  is  in  ruins  except  the 
hall,  used  for  county  business.  The  fine  parish 
church,  with  a  lofty  spire,  was  restored  by  Scott 
in  1858-59  at  a  cost  of  £6100 ;  and  Archdeacon 
Johnson's  grammar-school  (1584 ;  reconstituted 
1875)  has  an  endowment  of  £1200  a  year.  Beer, 
boots,  and  hosiery  are  made.    Pop.  3342. 


Oakland,  capital  of  Alameda  county,  Cali- 
fornia, on  the  east  side  of  San  Francisco  Bay, 
4^  miles  from  San  Francisco.  It  has  wide  streets 
adorned  with  evergreen  oaks,  and  is  surrounded 
with  gardens  and  vineyards.  It  is  the  terminus 
of  the  Southern  Pacific  Railroad,  and  steam  ferry- 
boats ply  constantly  to  San  Francisco.  Besides 
a  Congregational  seminary,  a  large  R.  C.  college 
(1889),  and  the  state  home  for  the  blind,  the  city 
contains  canning-factories,  manufactories  of  cot- 
tons, woollens,  jute,  iron,  nails,  shoes,  pottery, 
carriages,  &c.     Pop.  (1870)  10,500  ;  (1900)  66,960. 

Oakworth,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 3  miles  SW.  of  Keighley,  with  cotton  and 
worsted  industries.     Pop.  4681. 

Oamaru  (O-a-ma-roo'),  a  port  and  bathing- 
resort  of  New  Zealand,  78  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Dunedin.     Pop.  5621. 

Oatlands  Park,  Surrey,  near  the  Thames,  3 
miles  ESB,  of  Chertsey,  a  former  royal  palace, 
purchased  in  1794  by  the  Duke  of  York,  and  in 
1858  opened  as  an  hotel. 


OBAN 


519 


CELAND 


blo&n,  a  fashionable  watering-place  of  Argyll- 
shire, 84  miles  WNW.  of  Stiriing,  and  130  of 
Edinburgh,  by  a  railway  opened  in  1880.  It 
curves  round  a  beautiful  and  almost  land-locked 
bay,  which,  sheltered  from  every  wind  by  the 
island  of  Kerrera  on  the  west  and  by  the  high 
shores  of  the  mainland,  forms  a  spacious  haven, 
crowded  in  summer  by  yachts  and  steamers.  A 
mere  'clachan'  when  Dr  Johnson  visited  it  in 
1772,  Oban  began  to  be  feued  in  1803-20,  and 
in  1832  was  constituted  one  of  the  Ayr  parlia- 
mentary burghs.  It  is  now  the  great  tourist 
headquarters  of  the  West  Highlands,  possessing 
some  thirty  hotels  and  splendid  steamboat  facili- 
ties. Objects  of  interest  are  the  picturesque 
ruins  of  Dunolly  and  Dunstaffnago  Castles,  and 
a  prehistoric  cave-dwelling,  discovered  in  1890. 
Pop. (1821)  1359  ;  (TOO!)  5274. 

Obeid,  El,  capital  of  Kordofan,  in  the  eastern 
Soudan,  220  miles  SW.  of  Khartoum,  with  trade 
in  gum-arabic,  ivory,  gold,  and  ostrich-feathers. 
Pop.  35,000.  Near  this,  in  Nov.  1883,  an  Egyptian 
force  under  Hicks  Pasha,  with  an  English  staff, 
was  exterminated  by  the  Mahdi. 

Ober-Ammergau  (Ammergow'),  a  village  of  1281 
inhabitants,  in  the  valley  of  the  Ammer  in  Upper 
Bavaria,  45  miles  SW.  of  Munich.  Here  the 
famous  Passion  Play  (established  1633)  has  been 
performed  every  ten  years. 

Oberhausen,  an  important  manufacturing 
town  in  the  Rhine  province  of  Prussia,  40  miles 
N.  of  Cologne.  It  has  large  iron  and  other 
works,  and  coal-mines.     Pop.  42,500. 

Oberland.    See  Bern. 

Obi,  or  Ob,  tlie  great  river  of  Western  Siberia, 
rises  in  two  branches,  the  Biya  and  the  Katun, 
in  the  Altai  Mountains,  within  the  Chinese 
frontier,  and  flows  2120  miles  NW.  and  N.  to 
the  great  Gulf  of  Obi  in  the  Arctic  Ocean.  Its 
chief  tributaries  are  the  Irtish,  Tcharysh,  Tom, 
and  Tchulym,  all  navigable.  It  has  been  proved 
to  be  accessible  for  some  time  yearly  to  sea-borne 
trade  with  Europe  round  the  North  Cape. 

Obock,  a  French  possession  on  the  African 
coast  of  the  Red  Sea,  inside  Bab-el-Mandeb,  and 
opposite  Perim,  including  the  protectorates  of 
Tajurra  and  Koubbet.  Area,  2300  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
24,600.    In  1894  the  capital  was  fixed  at  Djiboutil. 

Ocean  Grove,  a  Methodist  Episcopal  seaside 
resort  and  pleasure  retreat,  on  the  New  Jersey 
coast,  established  by  a  church  society  in  1870,  is 
6  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Long  Branch,  and  54  from 
New  York.  Bathing,  riding,  and  driving  are  as 
stringently  forbidden  on  Sundays  as  are  theatri- 
cals, smoking,  or  drinking  at  all  times  ;  and  the 
25,000  summer  visitors  spend  much  of  their  time 
in  religious  services  in  an  Auditorium  built  to 
hold  5000  persons. 

Oceania,  a  name  sometimes  given  to  the  fifth 
division  of  the  globe,  comprising  all  the  islands 
which  intervene  oetween  the  south-eastern  shores 
of  the  continent  of  Asia  and  the  western  shores 
of  America.  It  naturally  divides  itself  into  three 
great  sections— the  Malay  Archipelago,  Austral- 
asia or  Melanesia,  and  Polynesia  (q.v.). 

Ochll  Hills  (Oa'hil),  a  pastoral  range  occupying 
parts  of  the  Scottish  counties  of  Clackmannan 
and  Fife,  and  extending  24  miles  from  the  vicinity 
of  Stirling  north-east  to  the  Firth  of  Tay.  Chief 
summits  are  Bencleugh  (2363  feet),  Dunmyat 
(1375),  and  King's  Seat  (2111).  See  Beveridge's 
Between  the  Ochils  and  the  Forth  (1888). 

Ochiltree  (Oa'hil-tree),  an  Ayrshire  village,  on 
Lugar  Water,  11^  miles  E.  of  Ayr.    Pop.  699. 


Ocmulgee.    See  Georgia. 

Oconto,  capital  of  Oconto  county,  Wisconsin, 
on  Green  Bay,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oconto  River, 
149  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Milwaukee.  It  has  large 
steam  saw-mills.     Pop.  6219. 

Odense  {O'den-seh;  'Odin's  island'),  the  chief 
town  of  the  Danish  island  of  Fiincn  (q.v.).  Its 
cathedral  was  founded  in  1086.  Pop.  (1880) 
20,804;  (1900)40,138. 

Odenwald,  a  mountainous  system  partly  in 
Baden  and  Bavaria,  but  mainly  in  Hesse  (q.v.). 

Oder  (Slavon,  Vjodr),  one  of  the  principal 
rivers  of  Germany,  rises  in  the  Oderberg  on  the 
tableland  of  Moravia,  1950  feet  above  sea-level, 
and  flows  550  miles  NW.  and  N.  through 
Prussian  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  Pomerania, 
to  the  Stettiner  Haft',  whence  it  passes  into  the 
Baltic  by  the  triple  anns  of  the  Dievenow,  Peene, 
and  Swine,  which  enclose  the  islands  of  Woollin 
and  Usedom.  The  rapidity  of  the  current  and 
the  silting  at  the  embouchures  of  the  numerous 
tributaries  render  the  navigation  diflicult.  Canals 
connect  the  Oder  with  the  Spree,  Havel,  and 
Elbe ;  the  Warthe  is  a  navigable  tributary.  On 
the  banks  are  Ratibor,  Brieg,  Breslau,  Frankfort- 
on-the-Oder,  Stettin,  and  Swinemiinde. 

Odessa,  the  fourth  city  of  Russia,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  midway  between  the  estuaries  of  the 
Dniester  and  Dnieper,  by  rail  967  miles  SSW.  of 
Moscow  and  381  S.  of  Kieff".  It  is  built  facing 
the  sea  on  low  cliff's,  seamed  with  deep  ravines 
and  hollowed  out  by  galleries  in  the  soft  rock, 
in  which  numbers  of  the  poorest  inhabitants  herd 
together.  Above  ground  its  streets  are  long  and 
broad,  and  cross  each  other  at  right  angles. 
Odessa  was  only  founded  in  1794,  near  a  Turkish 
fort  that  fell  into  Russian  hands  in  1789 ;  but  it 
quickly  became  the  port  for  the  corn-growing 
districts  of  South  Russia.  Its  progress  was 
greatly  aided  by  its  being  a  free  port  from  1817 
to  1857,  and  again  by  the  railway  to  Kieff 
(1866).  The  pop.  increased  from  3150  in  1796 
to  25,000  in  1814,  100,000  in  1850,  184,800  in 
1873,  and  405,000  (very  many  Jews  and  some 
Greeks)  in  1905,  when  there  were  fleet  mutinies, 
riots,  massacres  of  Jews,  and  a  local  civil  war. 
The  harbour  or  roadstead,  protected  by  moles, 
is  blocked  by  ice  about  a  fortnight  in  the 
year.  The  exports  include  wheat,  sugar,  wool, 
and  flour  ;  the  imports,  raw  cotton,  oils,  groceries, 
iron  and  steel,  coal,  food-sluffs,  fruits,  tea,  tobacco, 
machinery.  The  chief  industries  are  flour-milling, 
sugar  and  oil  refining,  the  manufacture  of  tobacco, 
machinery,  leather,  soap,  chemicals,  biscuits,  &c. 
Odessa  has  a  university  (1865)  with  600  students, 
a  public  library  (1829)  of  over  40,000  vols.,  the 
cathedral  (1802-49)  of  the  Archbishop  of  Kherson, 
a  very  fine  opera-house  (1887),  palatial  grain-ware- 
houses, corn-elevators,  and  the  'palais  royal,' 
with  its  gardens  and  park.  Monuments  to  Count 
Worontsoff  (1863),  the  Duke  de  Richelieu  (1827)— 
both  great  benefactors  of  Odessa— and  Pushkin 
(1889)  adorn  the  city.  W^ater  is  brought  by 
aqueduct  (27  miles  long)  from  the  Dniester. 
Numerous  coast  batteries  have  been  built. 

Odeypoor.    See  Udaipur. 

Odiham,  a  market-town  of  Hampshire,  23 
miles  NE.  of  Winchester.    Pop.  of  parish,  2667. 

Oedenburg  {Odenhooraf ;  Hung.  Soprony ;  the 
Scarabantia  of  the  Romans),  a  town  of  Hungary, 
3  miles  W.  of  the  Neusiedler  See  and  48  S.  by 
E.  of  Vienna.  It  manufactures  candied  fruits, 
sugar,  soap,  &c.     Pop.  83,320. 

CEland,  a  Baltic  island,  4  to  17  miles  from  the 


OELS 


520 


6iL  CITV 


east  coast  of  Sweden.  It  is  5&  miles  long  and  5 
to  12  broad ;  pop.  80,400.  Scarcely  more  than  a 
limestone  cliff,  it  is  scantily  covered  with  soil, 
but  in  some  parts  is  well  wooded. 

Oels,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Prussian  Silesia, 
16  miles  ENE,  of  Breslau  by  rail.    Pop.  10,876. 

(Er'ebro,  a  town  of  Sweden,  where  the  Svarta 
enters  the  Hjelmar  Lake,  170  miles  W.  of  Stock- 
holm by  rail,  with  an  old  castle.     Pop.  14,893. 

Oesel,  a  Baltic  island  belonging  to  Livonia, 
and  lying  across  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf  of  Riga. 
It  is  45  miles  long  from  NE.  to  SW.,  and  has 
an  area  of  1000  sq.  m.,  with  a  pop.  (cliiefly 
Estlionian)  of  56,600.  The  surface  is  broken  by 
low  hills,  marshy,  and  well  watered  and  wooded. 
The  only  town  is  Arensburg,  on  the  south-east 
coast  (pop.  4000).  Long  governed  by  the  Teutonic 
Knights,  Oesel  became  Danish  in  1559,  Swedish 
in  1645,  and  Russian  in  1721. 

Ofen.    See  Pesth. 

Offa's  Dyke,  the  ancient  boundary  between 
Mercia  and  Wales,  extending  from  the  mouth  of 
the  Dee  to  that  of  the  Severn. 

Offenbach,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  on  the  Main's  south  bank,  5  miles 
by  electric  railway  SB.  of  Frankfort.  Among 
its  manifold  industrial  products  are  chemicals, 
fancy  leather  goods,  machines,  and  carriages. 
Pop.  (1831)  7802  ;  (1875)  26,012  ;  (1900)  50,468. 

Ogasawara.    See  Bonin. 

Ogden,  capital  of  Weber  county,  Utah,  is 
situated,  at  an  elevation  of  4340  feet,  at  the  con- 
fluence of  the  Weber  and  Ogden  rivers,  where  the 
former  passes  through  the  Wahsatch  Mountains, 
37  miles  N.  of  Salt  Lake  City.  A  great  railway 
junction,  it  has  a  Methodist  university  (founded 
1890),  a  foundry  and  mills,  breweries,  and  manu- 
factories of  woollens,  brooms,  boots  and  shoes, 
&c.     Pop.  (1880)  6069  ;  (1900)  16,313. 

Ogdensburg,  a  port  of  New  York,  on  the  St 
Lawrence,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Oswegatchie, 
opposite  Prescott,  Canada,  and  515  miles  by  rail 
NNW.  of  New  York  City.  It  has  a  Catholic 
cathedral,  a  large  lake  and  river  trade,  a  huge 
grain-elevator,  and  manufactories  of  flour,  lumber, 
and  leather.    Pop.  12,662. 

Ogowe,  or  Goo  way,  a  river  of  West  Africa, 
rises  on  the  west  side  of  the  watershed  that  parts 
its  basin  from  that  of  the  Congo,  in  2°  40'  S.  lat., 
14°  30'  E.  long.,  and  flowing  north-west  and  west, 
finally  curves  round  by  the  south  to  Nazareth 
Bay,  on  the  north  side  of  Cape  Lopez.  It  forms 
a  wide  delta  of  some  70  sq.  m.  in  extent.  During 
July-September  it  shrinks  to  a  narrow  current ; 
at  other  times  it  is  a  deep,  broad  stream ;  but 
numerous  islands  and  sandbanks  and  shallows 
prevent  vessels  of  any  size  from  ascending.  It 
has  been  dominated  by  France,  through  her 
colony  on  the  Gaboon  (q.v.),  since  1885. 

Ohi'o,  next  to  the  Missouri  the  largest  aflluent 
of  the  Mississippi,  is  formed  by  the  union  of  the 
Alleghany  and  Monongahela  at  Pittsburgh,  Penn- 
sylvania, and  flows  west-south-west  975  miles, 
with  a  breadth  of  400  to  1400  yards.  In  its 
course  it  separates  the  northern  states  of  Ohio, 
Indiana,  and  Illinois  from  the  southern  states 
of  West  Virginia  and  Kentucky.  Towns  on  its 
banks  are  Pittsburgh,  Wheeling,  Cincinnati,  Louis- 
ville (where  there  are  rapids  of  22  feet  in  a  mile, 
with  a  steamboat  canal),  Evansville,  New  Albany, 
Madison,  Portsmouth,  Covington,  and  Cairo.  The 
chief  affluents  are  the  Tennessee,  Cumberland, 
Wabash,    Kentucky,    Great    Kanawha,    Green, 


Muskingum,  and  Scioto.  It  is  usually  navigabld 
from  Pittsburgh ;  in  1884  it  rose  71  feet. 

Ohio,  the  fourth  in  population  of  the  states  of 
the  American  Union,  lies  between  Lake  Erie  and 
the  Ohio  River.  It  stretches  from  north  to  south 
210  miles,  and  from  east  to  west  220  miles  ;  area, 
39,964  sq.  m.,  equal  to  that  of  Ireland  and  Wales. 
The  country  is  an  extensive,  moderately  undulat- 
ing plain  ;  in  many  places  streams  have  forced  a 
way  through  bold  cliffs  of  sandstone.  A  low 
ridge  enters  the  state  near  the  north-east  corner 
and  crosses  it  in  a  south-westerly  direction  ;  this 
'  divide '  (1300  feet  above  sea-level)  separates  the 
waters  of  Lake  Erie  and  the  Ohio  River.  North 
of  this  ridge  the  surface  of  the  country  gently 
declines  toward  the  lake.  The  central  part  of 
Ohio  is  almost  a  level  plain,  about  1000  feet 
above  the  sea,  slightly  inclining  southward.  The 
southern  part  is  somewhat  hilly,  the  valleys  grow- 
ing deeper  as  they  approach  the  Ohio  River, 
whose  tributaries  here  water  many  extensive 
and  fertile  valleys.  The  coalfields  cover  over 
12,000  sq.  m.  ;  and  immense  deposits  of  lime- 
stone, freestone,  and  mill-stones  abound.  In 
no  other  state  have  been  found  so  many  evi- 
dences of  man's  antiquity  exemplified  in  imple- 
ments of  stone,  bone,  copper,  and  clay ;  while 
the  most  extensive  and  elaborate  systems  of 
earthworks  in  America  are  at  Newark,  near 
Chillicothe,  and  on  the  Miami  bluffs  near  Waynes- 
ville.  Ohio  is  one  of  the  chief  manufacturing 
states  in  the  Union,  leading  all  others  in  the 
manufacture  of  farm  machinery,  carriages  and 
wagons,  woollen  and  cotton  goods,  furniture,  and 
wine  and  spirits.  It  has  also  great  rolling-mills 
and  iron-factories,  glass- factories,  potteries,  and 
oil-works.  In  agriculture  the  state  is  first  in  the 
Union  in  many  regards ;  its  annual  production 
of  maize  is  some  155,000,000  bushels,  of  wheat 
40,000,000,  of  wool  about  15,000,000  lb.  Cattle 
and  hogs  are  reared  in  large  numbers.  In  the 
southern  sections  cattle  may  be  left  in  the  fields 
all  winter.  The  belt  adjoining  Lake  Erie  is 
famous  for  its  fruit ;  excellent  melons  are  grown 
in  almost  all  parts  of  the  state.  The  oil- 
fields and  stores  of  natural  gas  are  sources  of 
wealth. 

Ohio  is  part  of  the  original  North-west  Terri- 
tory, claimed  mostly  by  Virginia  under  charters 
from  English  kings.  In  1787  the  Ohio  Company 
of  Associates  was  organised  by  soldiers  of  the 
revolution  war,  and  under  their  auspices  a  large 
tract  of  land  was  purchased  from  government. 
In  1788  Marietta  and  Cincinnati  were  founded. 
In  1791  the  Indians  became  troublesome,  and  in 
1794  a  signal  victory  was  gained  over  them  by 
General  Wayne.  Soon  after  settlers  occupied 
rapidly  the  land,  and  Chillicothe  was  made  the 
seat  of  government.  In  1803  Ohio  was  admitted 
into  the  Union.  Ohio  has  given  birth  to  four 
presidents— Grant,  Hayes,  Garfield,  and  Benjamin 
Harrison.  The  largest  cities  are  Cincinnati, 
Cleveland,  Columbus  (the  capital),  Toledo, 
Dayton,  Youngstown,  and  Springfield.  Pop. 
(1816)230,760;  (1850)  1,980,329;  (1870)  2,665,260; 
(1880)  3,198,062  ;  (1900)  4,157,545. 

Ohlau  (Oa-low'X  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  20 
miles  SE.  of  Breslau,  on  the  Oder.    Pop.  9575. 

Oich,  a  loch  of  Inverness-shire,  measuring  4 
miles  by  J  mile,  105  feet  above  the  sea,  at  the 
summit-level  of  the  Caledonian  Canal  (q.v.).  It 
sends  off  the  Oich,  6|  miles  NNE.  to  Loch  Ness. 

Oikell,  a  Sutherland  stream,  running  35  miles 
SSW.  and  E.  by  S.  to  the  Dornoch  Firth. 

Oil  City,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Alleghany  River, 


OIL  RIVER6 


521 


OLDHAM 


133  miles  by  rail  N.  by  E.  of  Pittsburgh,  is  a 
great  oil  market,  and  contains,  besides  oil-re- 
Hneries,  engine  and  boiler  factories,  and  a  large 
cooperage.  There  were  fearful  inundations  here 
in  June  1S92.    Pop.  (1870)  2276  ;  (1900)  13,264. 

Oil  Rivers.    See  Niger. 

Oise  (Wdz),  a  dep.  in  the  north  of  France, 
separated  from  the  English  Channel  by  Seine- 
Inferieure  ;  area,  2261  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (18S1)  404,555 ; 
(1901)  405,642.  The  rivers  are  the  Oise,  a  tribu- 
tary of  the  Seine,  150  miles  long,  with  its 
affluents  the  Aisne  and  Therain.  The  arron- 
dissements  are  those  of  Beauvais  (the  capital), 
Clermont,  Compiegne,  Senlis. 

Oka,  a  navigable  river  of  central  Russia,  the 
Volga's  chief  affluent  from  the  south,  rises  in 
Orel,  and  flows  706  miles  NE.  to  the  Volga  at 
Nijni-Novgorod.  Towns  on  its  banks  are  Orel, 
Bielev,  Kaluga,  Riazan,  and  Murom ;  affluents 
are  the  Moskwa,  Kliasma,  and  Tzna. 

Okavango.    See  Ngami. 

Okeechobee,  a  lake  of  Florida  (q.v.). 

Okehampton,  a  Devon  market-town,  26  miles 
W.  by  N.  of  Exeter.  It  returned  two  members 
till  1832.     Pop.  2600. 

Okhotsk,  Sea  of,  an  inlet  of  the  North  Pacific 
Ocean,  on  the  east  coast  of  Siberia,  nearly  en- 
closed by  Kamchatka  and  the  Kuriles  and  Sag- 
halien.  On  its  north  shore,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Okhota,  is  the  seaport  of  Okhotsk  (pop.  300). 

Oklaho'ma,  between  Texas  and  Kansas,  was 
organised  in  1890  as  a  territory,  and  in  1906, 
absorbing  the  Indian  Territory,  became  a  state. 
In  1890  it  consisted  of  two  detached  sections 
separated  by  the  Cherokee  Outlet,  which,  sold  by 
the  Indians  in  1893,  was  then  incorporated  with 
the  territory.  Tlie  Public  Land  Strip  situated 
N.  of  the  Texas  '  pan-handle '  and  S.  of  the  parallel 
37°  N.,  ceded  to  the  United  States  by  Texas  at  its 
annexation,  was  not  included  in  any  state  or 
territory  until  its  incorporation  in  Oklahoma, 
and  was  known  as  No  Man's  Land.  Tlie  area  is 
89,030  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1890)  78,475  ;  (1900)  398,331, 
including  18,831  negroes  and  11,945  Indians. 
The  surface,  which  rises  gradually  toward  the 
north  and  west,  is  for  the  most  part  an  upland 
prairie.  The  most  important  elevations  are  the 
Wichita  Mountains  in  the  south.  Oklahoma 
is  fairly  well  watered  by  the  Red  and  Arkansas 
rivers  and  their  affluents,  but  many  of  the  streams 
are  brackish,  and  so  saturated  with  alkaline  salts 
as  to  be  at  times  unfit  for  drinking  purposes  or 
for  irrigation.  The  rainfall  is  much  ligliter  and 
also  less  uniform  than  in  Indian  Territory.  In 
the  river-valleys  and  in  some  of  the  upland 
regions  there  are  fertile  and  productive  spots. 
The  Public  Land  Strip  has  an  arid  and  unproduc- 
tive soil  covered  here  and  there  with  a  sparse 
growth  of  cactus,  yucca,  and  sage-brush.  The 
climate  is  subject  to  sudden  changes  produced  by 
'northers.'  In  1886  the  tribes  to  whom  the 
lands  of  Indian  Territory  had  been  granted  ceded 
the  western  portion  of  their  domain  to  the  United 
States.  Notwithstanding  the  stipulation  that  it 
should  be  need  only  for  settlement  by  other 
Indian  tribes  or  freedmen,  western  speculators 
claimed  that  the  lands  were  the  property  of  the 
government,  and  open,  like  other  public  lands, 
for  settlement  under  the  Homestead  laws.  In 
1879  an  organised  effort  was  made  to  take  forcible 
possession  of  the  lands,  but  the  adventurers  from 
Texas,  Kansas,  and  Missouri  were  finally  ejected 
by  United  States  troops.  After  many  difficulties 
from  the  renewed  invasions  of  the  'boomers,' 


negotiations  with  the  Indians  were  renewed,  as  & 
result  of  which,  upon  the  receipt  of  an  additional 
sum,  the  Indians  waived  all  claims.  This  un- 
occupied area  was  opened  for  public  settlement 
on  April  22,  1889.  No  one  was  allowed  to 
enter  the  borders  until  noon,  but  bv  twilight  the 
population  had  increased  by  at 'least  50,000. 
Claims  were  selected,  town  sites  staked  out,  and 
portable  houses  erected  before  nightfall.  The 
territory  was  organised  in  1890,  and  was,  with  the 
Indian  Territory  added,  made  a  state  in  1906. 
Chiefcentres  of  population  are  Oklahoma(ll,000), 
Guthrie  (10,000),  East  Guthrie,  and  Kingfisher. 

Old'bury,  a  busy  manufacturing  town  of  Wor- . 
cestershire,  5^miles  WNW.  of  Birmingham,  stands 
in  a  rich  mineral  district,  and  has  iron  and  steel 
works,   factories   for  railway  plant,    edge-tools, 
chemicals,  &c.     Pop.  (1851)  11,741 ;  (1901)  25,191. 

Oldcastle,  a  Meath  market-town,  72  miles  NW. 
of  Dublin.     Pop.  745. 

Oldenburg  (Ol-den-hoorg),  a  grand-duchy  of 
northern  Germany,  consisting  of  three  distinct 
territories— Oldenburg  Proper,  the  principality 
of  LUbeck,  and  Birkenfeld.  Total  area,  2508  sq. 
m.  (less  than  Devonshire);  pop.  (1900)  398,499. 
Oldenburg  Proper,  which  comprises  Jths  of  this 
area,  is  bounded  by  the  German  Ocean  and  Han- 
over. The  principal  rivers  are  the  Weser,  the 
Jahde,  and  various  tributaries  of  the  Ems.  The 
country  is  flat,  part  of  the  great  sandy  plain  of 
northern  Germany,  and  mainly  moors,  heaths, 
marsh  or  fens,  and  sandy  tracts.  The  principality 
of  Liibeck,  consisting  of  the  secularised  bishopric 
of  the  same  name,  does  not  contain  the  city  (north 
of  which  it  lies),  and  is  surrounded  by  Holstein. 
Its  area  is  209  sq.  m.  The  principality  of  Birken- 
feld (q.v.)  lies  among  the  Hundsriick  Mountains, 
in  the  very  south  of  Rhenish  Prussia ;  its  area 
is  192  sq.  m.  Oldenburg  became  an  independent 
state  in  1180.  The  family  that  then  established 
its  power  has  continued  to  rule  to  the  present 
day,  giving,  moreover,  new  dynasties  to  Den- 
mark, Russia,  and  Sweden.  Danish  from  1667  to 
1773,  Oldenburg  acquired  the  LUbeck  territories 
in  1803,  and  Birkenfeld  at  the  Congress  of  Vienna, 
when  it  became  a  grand-duchy. 

The  capital,  Oldenburg,  is  pleasantly  situated 
on  the  Hunte,  30  miles  WNW.  of  Bremen  by  rail. 
It  has  the  grand-ducal  palace,  with  fine  gardens 
and  art  collections,  a  public  library  of  100,000 
volumes,  a  i)icture-gallery,  museum,  &c.  Olden- 
burg is  the  seat  of  an  active  river-trade,  and  is 
noted  for  its  great  cattle  and  horse  fairs.  Pop. 
28,000. 

Oldham,  a  parliamentary,  municipal,  and 
county  borough  of  Lancashire,  on  the  Medlock, 
7  miles  NE.  of  Manchester,  5  SSE.  of  Rochdale, 
and  38  ENE.  of  Liverpool.  It  has  grown  since 
1760  from  a  small  village,  through  its  proximity 
to  the  Lancashire  coalfields  and  the  extension  of 
its  cotton  manufactures.  It  has  nearly  300  mills, 
with  more  than  12  million  spindles,  which  con- 
sume one-fifth  of  the  total  British  imports  of 
cotton ;  and  the  other  manufactures  include 
fustians,  velvets,  silks,  hats  (once  a  leading 
industry),  cords,  &c.,  besides  huge  weaving- 
machine  works,  one  employing  7000  hands.  The 
town-hall  (1841)  is  a  good  Grecian  edifice,  en- 
larged in  1879  at  a  cost  of  £29,000 ;  and  there 
are  the  lyceum  (1854-80),  a  school  of  science 
and  art  (1865),  public  baths  (1854),  an  infirmary 
(1870-77),  and  the  Alexandra  Park  of  72  acres 
(1865).  Oldham  received  its  charter  in  1849.  It 
was  enfranchised  by  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832, 
and  returns  two  members,  the  pari,  borough  (which 


OLD  f>OINT  COMFORT 


522 


ONGAR 


extends  into  Ashton-under-Lyne  parish)  covering 
19^  sq.  m.,  the  municipal  only  7|.  Pop.  of  the 
former  (1891)  183,871 ;  of  the  latter  (1801)  12,024  ; 
(1841)  42,595  ;  (1881)  111,343  ;  (1901)  137,238. 

Old  Point  Comfort,  a  village  and  watering- 
place  of  Virginia,  at  the  mouth  of  James  River, 
on  Hampton  Roads,  is  the  site  of  Fortress  Monroe. 

Old  Sarum.    See  Sarum. 

Oleron  ipiayronP'),  a  fertile  island  2  to  10  miles 
off  the  west  coast  of  France,  and  part  of  the  dep. 
Charente-Inferieure.  It  is  19  miles  long  by  5 
broad.     Pop.  17,020,  mostly  Protestants. 

Olifant  River,  a  forked  stream  of  Cape  Colony, 
rises  in  the  mountains  north-east  of  Capetown, 
and  flows  150  miles  NW.  to  the  ■  Atlantic— 
Another  stream  of  the  same  name  rises  in  the 
Transvaal,  and  goes  east  to  the  Limpopo. 

Olinda,  a  city  of  Brazil,  4  miles  NB.  of  Per- 
nambuco.    Pop.  8000. 

Olivenza,  a  fortified  Spanish  town,  20  miles 
SSW.  of  Badajoz.     Pop.  8934. 

Olives,  Mount  of,  or  Mount  Olivet,  a  lime- 
stone ridge  E,  of  Jerusalem,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  narrow  Valley  of  Jehosaphat. 
The  modern  Jebel-al-T6r,  it  toolc  its  familiar 
name  from  a  once  magnificent  grove  of  olive- 
trees  on  its  western  flank. 

Ollerton,  a  town  of  Notts,  on  the  Maun  and 
near  Sherwood  Forest,  8^  miles  NB.  of  Mans- 
field.    Pop.  (i90. 

Olmiitz,  a  town  of  Moravia,  Austria,  on  the 
March,  129  miles  NNE.  of  Vienna.  The  country 
round  can  be  laid  under  water,  and  during  1839- 
75  the  old  walls  and  moats  were  superseded  by 
an  outer  cordon  of  forts.  Chief  buildings  are 
the  14th-century  cathedral  (restored  1887);  the 
church  of  St  Maurice  (1472),  whose  organ  has 
48  stops  and  2342  pipes ;  the  noble  town-hall, 
with  a  steeple  255  feet  high ;  the  archiepiscopal 
palace ;  and  the  lofty  Trinity  column  on  the 
Oberring.  The  university  (1581-1855)  is  reduced 
to  a  theological  faculty,  with  200  students  and  a 
library  of  75,000  volumes.  Pop.  22,176.  Olmiitz, 
which  in  1640  was  superseded  by  Briinn  as  capital 
of  Moravia,  suffered  severely  in  both  the  Thirty 
and  the  Seven  Years'  Wars. 

Olney,  a  pleasant  little  town  of  Buckingham- 
shire, on  the  Ouse,  11  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Bedford 
and  10  SE.  of  Northampton.  At  the  corner  of 
the  market-place  still  stands  the  house  where 
Cowper  lived  from  1767  to  1786,  writing  with 
John  Newton  the  Olney  Hymns  (1779).  The  place 
has  memories  of  Scott  the  commentator,  of 
Carey,  and  many  more  missionaries.  Brewing 
and  bootmaking  are  industries.  Pop.  2349.  See 
Thomas  Wright's  Town  of  Cowper  (1886). 

Olonetz',  a  government  of  Russia,  bounded 
by  Finland,  Archangel,  Novgorod,  and  St  Peters- 
burg. Area,  57,422  sq.  m.  ;  population,  370,000. 
Petrosavodsk  is  the  capital. 

Oloron  (Oloron^'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Basses-Pyrenees,  on  the  Gave  d'Oloron,  22 
miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Pau.     Pop.  7266. 

Olten,  a  Swiss  town,  on  the  Aar,  23  miles  SE. 
of  Basel.     Pop.  6980. 

Olympia,  scene  of  the  Olympic  games,  was  a 
beautiful  valley  of  Elis,  in  the  Peloponnesus, 
watered  by  the  Alpheus.  Great  excavations  have 
been  carried  out  by  the  Germans  since  1S75. 

Olympia,  capital  of  Washington  state,  on  a 
peninsula  at  the  south  end  of  Puget's  Sound, 
65  miles  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  ancl  121  by  rail 
N.  of  Portland,  Oregon.    Pop.  4098. 


Omagh  (O'ma  or  0-ma' ;  Gael.  Oiqli  magh,  '  seat 
of  the  chiefs'),  county  town  of  Tyrone,  on  the 
Strule,  34  miles  S.  of  Londonderry  and  110  NNW. 
of  Dublin.  It  grew  up  around  an  abbey  founded 
in  792.  On  its  evacuation  by  the  troops  of 
James  II.  in  1689  it  was  partially  burned,  and 
a  second  fire  in  1743  completed  its  destruction. 
But  it  was  well  rebuilt.     Pop.  4790. 

O'maha,  the  chief  city  of  Nebraska,  is  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Missouri,  by  rail  495  miles  W. 
of  Chicago  and  501  NW.  of  St  Louis.  It  is  the 
terminus  of  four  important  railways,  and  the 
Missouri  is  spanned  by  a  bridge  (2750  feet,  cost 
$1,250,000)  to  Council  Bluffs,  where  a  number  of 
others  (including  the  Union  Pacific)  start.  The 
city  is  built  on  a  plateau  80  feet  above  the  river, 
and  has  wide  streets  and  street  railways.  Among 
the  large  buildings  are  the  city-hall,  U.  S.  court- 
house and  post-oflice,  Chamber  of  Commerce 
(1885),  Exposition  (1886),  Creighton  College,  the 
high  school,  &c.  The  manufactures  comprise 
linseed-oil,  boilers,  safes,  &c.  ;  but  Omaha, 
founded  in  1854,  became  famous  for  the  largest 
silver-smelting  works  in  the  world,  and  the  third 
largest  pork-packing  business  in  the  States.  Near 
it  are  the  headquarters  of  the  military  department 
of  the  Platte.  Pop.  (1860)  1912 ;  (1870)  16,083 ; 
(1880)  30,518 ;  (1900)  102,555. 

Oman',  the  most  eastern  portion  of  Arabia,  a 
strip  of  maritime  territory,  extending  between 
the  Strait  of  Ormuz  and  Ras-el-Had,  and  bounded 
on  the  SW.  by  the  deserts  of  the  interior.  At  a 
distance  of  from  20  to  45  miles  inland  a  chain  of 
mountains  runs  parallel  to  the  coast,  reaching 
6000  feet  in  Jebel  Akhdar.  There  are  some  richly 
fertile  tracts  in  this  region,  which  is  under  the 
rule  of  the  sultan  of  Muscat. 

Omdurman  (Om-door'man),  a  town  of  the 
eastern  Soudan,  on  the  Nile,  opposite  Khartoum 
(q.v.),  which,  as  the  headquarters  of  Mahdism, 
for  a  time  it  superseded. 

Omsk,  chief  town  of  the  Siberian  province  of 
Akmolinsk,  at  the  Om's  confluence  with  the 
Irtish,  1800  miles  E.  of  Moscow,  witli  a  military 
academy,  Greek  and  R.  C.  cathedrals,  museum, 
governor's  palace,  &c.     Pop.  44,721. 

One'ga,  a  seaport  in  the  north  of  Russia,  at 
the  Onega's  mouth  in  the  White  Sea,  87  miles 
SW.  of  Archangel.     Pop.  2547. 

Onega,  Lake,  in  the  north  of  Russia  (after 
Ladoga,  to  which  it  sends  off  the  Swir  south- 
westward,  the  largest  lake  in  Europe),  is  146 
miles  long,  50  in  greatest  breadth,  3764  sq.  m. 
in  area,  and  1000  feet  deep.  The  northern  end 
is  studded  with  islands  and  deeply  indented  with 
bays.  The  shores  in  other  parts  are  flat.  Ice- 
bound generally  for  five  months,  the  lake  is  the 
scene  of  busy  traffic  at  other  seasons.  Fish 
abound.  Surveys  were  completed  in  1890  for  a 
canal  to  connect  Lake  Onega  with  the  White  Sea, 
and  to  be  145  miles  long,  10  feet  deep,  and  63  wide, 
mostly  along  natural  water-ways. 

Oneglia  (0-nel'ya),  a  town  on  the  Gulf  of 
Genoa,  3  miles  NE.  of  Porto  Maurizio  by  rail. 
Pop.  8286. 

Oneida  (Onl'da),  a  manufacturing  post-village 
of  New  York,  on  the  Oneida  Creek,  58  miles  8E. 
of  Oswego ;  pop.  6383.  Four  miles  S.  was  the 
Oneida  Community,  long  the  headquarters  of  the 
Perfectionists. 

Ongar,  or  Chipping-Ongar,  a  town  of  Essex, 
6  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Epping,  and  23|  NE.  of 
London.  It  has  memories  of  the  Taylor  family. 
Pop.  of  parish,  970. 


ONTARIO 


523 


OPPELN 


Onta'rio,  the  easternmost  and  smallest  (7240 
sq.  m.)  of  the  five  great  lakes  of  North  America, 
receives  at  its  south-west  corner  the  waters  of 
the  upper  lakes  by  the  Niagara  River,  and  at 
its  nortli-east  corner  issues  into  the  St  Lawrence. 
Its  surface,  which  is  subject  to  periodical  varia- 
tions of  about  3i  feet,  is  32(5f\r  feet  below  the 
surface  of  Lake  Erie  and  24^-[%  feet  above  the 
ocean-level.  Its  mean  depth  is  about  300,  its 
maximum  depth  738  feet.  It  is  190  miles  long, 
55  in  its  widest  part,  and  over  500  in  circum- 
ference. Ports  are  Kingston,  Coburg,  Port  Hope, 
Toronto,  and  Hamilton  on  the  Canadian  shore, 
and  Sackett's  Harbor,  Oswego,  and  Charlotte  in 
the  United  States.  Lake  Ontario  is  connected 
with  Lake  Erie  by  the  Welland  Canal,  with  the 
Erie  Canal  and  river  Hudson  by  the  Oswego 
Canal,  and  by  the  Rideau  Canal  with  the  Ottawa  ; 
and  in  1890  a  ship-railway  (69  miles)  was  pro- 
jected, to  connect  it  with  Lake  Huron.  The  lake 
is  subject  to  violent  storms,  and  it  is  probably 
owing  chiefly  to  the  constant  agitation  of  its 
waters  that  it  freezes  only  for  a  few  miles  from 
the  sliore.  The  shores  are  generally  very  flat, 
but  the  Bay  of  Quinte,  near  Kingston,  a  crooked 
arm  of  the  lake,  50  miles  long,  possesses  attractive 
scenery.  Burlington  Bay,  on  which  Hamilton 
lies,  is  a  large  basin  almost  enclosed  by  a  fine 
natural  bank  of  sand.    The  name  is  Indian. 

Onta'rio,  the  most  populous  and  wealthy 
province  of  Canada,  is  bounded  by  James  Bay, 
Labrador,  Quebec,  the  St  Lawrence  and  the  Great 
Lakes  (separating  it  from  the  United  States), 
Manitoba,  and  Keewatin.  Area,  222,000  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  (f901)  2,182,947.  The  surface  is  generally 
undulating;  for  the  Laurentian  Hills,  see 
Canada,  p.  148.  The  principal  rivers  are  tribu- 
taries of  the  OttaAva,  which  forms  part  of  the  NW. 
boundary.  Among  smaller  lakes  are  Simcoe, 
Nipissing,  and  Nipigon.  Immense  crops  are 
raised  of  all  the  products  of  a  temperate  climate, 
and  in  the  south-west  corner  of  the  province 
Indian  corn  is  a  regular  crop,  and  grapes, 
peaches,  and  tomatoes  ripen  in  the  open  air. 
Stock-raising,  dairy-farming,  and  fruit-growing 
are  important  industries.  Iron  is  found  in  many 
parts  ;  copper,  lead,  plumbago,  apatite,  antimony, 
arsenic,  gypsum,  marble,  and  building-stone  are 
abundant';  there  are  also  gold  and  silver.  The 
nickel  deposits  at  Sudbury  are  probably  the 
most  extensive  in  the  world.  Petroleum  wells 
in  the  SW.,  and  salt  wells  near  Lake  Huron  are 
very  productive.  The  principal  manufactures 
are  agricultural  implements,  iron  and  woodware, 
wagons  and  carriages,  railway  rolling-stock  (in- 
cluding locomotives),  cottons  and  woollens, 
leather,  furniture,  flax,  hardware,  paper,  soap, 
woodenware,  &c.  The  most  thickly  populated 
part  of  Ontario  more  nearly  resembles  England 
than  any  of  the  other  colonies.  There  is  only  one 
large  city,  Toronto  (208,000) ;  but  smaller  cities 
and  towns  (including  Hamilton,  Ottawa,  and 
London,  between  60,000  and  39,000)  are  scattered 
all  over  the  province.  Ontario  has  a  perfect  net- 
work of  railways  (between  6000  and  7000  miles). 
Water-ways  and  water-power  are  exceptionally 
developed.  The  exports  are,  in  order  of  value, 
agricultural  products,  animals  and  their  produce, 
manufactures,  lumber,  and  minerals.  The  public 
affairs  are  administered  by  a  lieutenant-governor 
and  a  legislative  assembly.  Methodists  are  the 
most  numerous  religious  body,  followed  by  Pres- 
byterians and  the  Church  of  England.  Ontario, 
long  known  as  Upper  Canada,  was  largely  founded 
by  immigration  of  loyalists  froni  the  United  T 
after  the  revolutionary  war.    See  Canada. 


Oodeypore.    See  Udaipur. 

Oojein.    See  Ujjain. 

Ookiep  ip-keep),  a  copper-mining  station  in  the 
north-west  of  Cape  Colony,  90  miles  SE.  of  Port 
Nolloth  by  rail. 

Oori.    See  Limpopo. 

Oosterhout,  a  Dutch  town  in  North  Brabant, 
6  miles  NE.  of  Breda.     Pop.  11,91L 

Ootacamund',  or  Utakamand,  the  chief  town 
in  the  Neilgherry  Hills,  the  principal  sanatorium 
of  the  Madras  Presidency.  It  stands  on  a  hill- 
girt  plateau,  7228  feet  above  the  sea,  350  miles 
WSW.  of  Madras  city,  and  24  from  the  nearest 
railway  station  on  the  Madras  line.  There  are  a 
public  library  (1859),  the  Lawrence  Asylum  (1858) 
for  the  children  of  British  soldiers,  and  botanic 
gardens.  The  mean  annual  temi^erature  is  58°  F. 
The  first  house  was  built  in  1821.    Pop.  15,335. 

Ophir,  the  region  to  which  Solomon's  ships 
traded,  has  been  identified  witli  the  east  coast 
of  Africa  near  Sofala,  the  south  of  Arabia,  and 
the  west  coast  of  India,  as  well  as  other  less 
likely  countries  (see  Zimbabye).  The  name  has 
been  given  to  a  mountain  of  Sumatra,  near  the 
equator  (9600  feet) ;  and  to  one  45  miles  NE.  of 
the  town  of  Malacca  (5700  feet). 

Openshaw,  a  SE.  suburb  of  Manchester. 

Oporto  (Port.  0  porto,  '  the  port '),  the  second 
city  of  Portugal,  stands  high  on  the  steep,  rocky, 
right  bank  of  the  Douro,  which  reaches  the  sea 
3  miles  W.  One  of  the  crags  overlooking  the 
river  is  crowned  with  a  Crystal  Palace  (1865). 
Many  of  the  former  monasteries  are  put  to  other 
uses  :  one  is  a  citadel,  another  the  exchange, 
a  third  barracks.  There  are  seven  principal 
churches,  including  the  cathedral  (built  by  Henry 
the  Navigator),  the  old  Gothic  church  of  Cedo- 
feita  (originally  founded  in  559),  and  the  Church 
dos  Clerigos,  with  a  tower  213  feet  high.  The 
English  factory  (1785),  the  bishop's  palace,  and 
the  hospital  of  St  Antony  are  noticeable  secular 
buildings.  Oporto  possesses  a  polytechnic 
academy,  a  medical  school,  art  academy,  com- 
mercial museum,  library  (1796)  of  200,000  vols, 
and  9400  MSS.,  and  two  picture-galleries.  On 
the  south  side  of  the  river,  connected  with  Oporto 
by  a  lofty  bridge,  is  the  suburb  of  Villa  Nova  de 
Gaia,  with  a  pop.  of  9126,  and  extensive  wine- 
cellars.  The  railway  to  Lisbon  (209  miles)  crosses 
the  river  a  little  higher  up,  on  a  fine  steel  bridge  ; 
the  arch  spans  549  feet,  and  its  centre  is  203  feet 
above  the  river.  The  pop.  of  Oi)orto  is  about 
175,000.  They  are  chiefly  engaged  in  the  manu- 
facture of  cloth  and  silks,  hats,  porcelain,  rib- 
bons, tobacco,  soap,  and  candles,  in  metal-cast- 
ing, tanning,  brewing,  distilling,  cork-cutting, 
sugar-refining,  and  brick-making,  and  in  com- 
merce and  shipping.  Oporto  is  the  principal 
place  of  export  for  port  wine  ;  other  exports  are 
cattle,  oranges  and  other  fruits,  cork,  coppe^ 
onions,  meat,  hides,  and  wool.  The  imports  con- 
sist chiefly  of  corn  and  fliour,  cod-fish,  metals, 
machinery,  textiles,  rice,  raw  sugar,  hides,  coal, 
and  timber.  Originally  the  Partus  Cale  of  the 
Romans  (whence  '  Portugal '),  this  city  was  long 
a  stronghold  of  the  Christians  against  the  Moors. 
In  1808  the  inhabitants  were  especially  hostile 
to  the  French  ;  and  they  stoutly  opposed  the 
usurper  Miguel  (1828). 

Opoteca  (Opotay'ca),  a  town  of  1000  inhabit- 
ants, in  Honduras,  15  miles  NNW.  of  Comayagua, 
once  famous  for  its  great  silver-mines. 

Oppeln,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the 
Oder,  51  miles  SE.  of  Breslau.     Its  church  of  St 


OPPENfiEIIVt 


524 


OREGOU 


Adalbert  was  founded  in  995  ;  and  there  is  an  old 
castle  on  an  island  in  the  river.  The  manufac- 
tures include  pottery,  cigars,  cement,  beer, 
leather,  &c.     Pop.  30,120. 

Oppenheim  (Pp'penhiine),  a  town  of  Hesse- 
Darmstadt,  on  the  Rhine's  left  bank,  20  miles 
SSE.  of  Mainz  by  rail.    Pop.  3452. 

Oran  {Ordn' ;  Arab.  Waran),  a  seaport  of 
Algeria,  on  the  Gulf  of  Oran,  261  miles  by  rail  W, 
by  S.  of  Algiers  and  130  by  sea  S.  of  Cartagena  in 
Spain.  It  climbs  up  the  foot  of  a  hill,  has  a 
thoroughly  French  appearance,  and  possesses  a 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral  (1839),  a  grand  mosque, 
a  college,  a  seminary,  and  two  citadels  or  castles. 
The  harbour  is  protected  by  moles  constructed  in 
1887  at  a  cost  of  £280,000 ;  alfa,  iron  ore,  and 
cereals  are  exported.  The  population  is  about 
90,000.  Oran  was  built  by  the  Moors.  In  the 
15th  century  it  was  a  prosperous  commercial 
town,  but  was  taken  by  the  Spaniards  in  1509  and 
made  a  penal  settlement.  Taken  and  retaken  by 
Turks  and  Spaniards,  it  was  finally  annexed  by 
the  French  in  1831.— The  province  has  an  area  of 
33,236  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,150,000. 

Orange,  or  Gariep  (Gareep'),  the  largest  river 
of  Soutli  Africa,  rises  in  the  Kathlamba  Moun- 
tains, in  the  east  of  Basutoland,  and  winds  1000 
miles  W.  by  N.  to  the  Atlantic.  It  separates 
Cape  Colony,  on  the  south,  from  the  Orange  Free 
State,  Griqualand  West,  Bechuanaland,  and  Ger- 
man Namaland.  Its  principal  tributaries  are  the 
Caledon  and  the  Vaal.  Its  volume  varies  greatly 
between  the  dry  season,  when  it  is  not  navigable, 
and  the  rainy  season,  when  it  overflows  its  banks. 
Its  mouth  is  obstructed  by  a  bar. 

Orange  (Fr.  pron,  Oron^zh'),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Vaucluse,  on  the  Aigue's  left 
bank,  18  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Avignon.  The 
Arausio  of  the  Romans,  which  contained  40,000 
inhabitants,  it  has  splendid  Roman  remains — a 
triumphal  arch,  72  feet  high,  and  a  theatre  whose 
fagade  was  340  feet  long  by  118  high.  There  are  a 
Romanesque  cathedral  and  statues  of  two  of  the 
counts.  Pop.  9804.  Orange  was  the  capital  of  a 
small  independent  principality,  which  was  ruled 
by  its  own  sovereigns  from  the  11th  century  to 
1531,  when  it  passed  to  the  Counts  of  Nassau,  and 
so  was  associated  with  the  fortunes  of  Holland  ; 
becoming  finally  French  in  1713. 

Orange,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  12  miles  W.  of 
New  York  by  rail,  and  3  miles  by  tram-car  from 
Newark.  The  slope  of  Orange  Mountain  is  laid 
out  in  beautiful  parks,  with  villas.  There  are 
manufactures  of  hats,  carriages,  &c.  Pop. 
25,000. 

Orange  River  Colony,  a  British  crown  colony 
in  South  Africa,  lying  between  the  Vaal  and 
Orange  rivers,  and  surrounded  by  Cape  Colony, 
the  Transvaal  Colony,  Natal,  and  Basutoland. 
This  region  is  a  plateau,  rising  3000  to  5000  feet 
above  sea-level,  with  very  little  wood,  except 
alongside  the  numerous  watercourses  that  tra- 
verse it.  Its  vast  undulating  plains  slope  down 
to  the  Vaal  and  the  Orange,  and  are  dotted  over 
with  isolated  hills  called  'kopjes '—magnificent 
pasture-land.  Area,  50,100  sq.  in.  ;  pop.  (1880) 
133,518;  (1904)  385,045—143,419  being  whites, 
mainly  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church.  Pastoral 
pursuits  predoniiMate— the  rearing  of  merino 
sheep,  cattle,  horses,  goats,  and  ostriches.  Corn 
(wheat,  maize,  Kaffir  corn)  is  grown  chiefly  in  the 
east.  Coal  is  mined  in  the  north  and  diamonds 
in  the  south-west,  towards  Kiniberley.  The 
climate  is  healthy  and  temperate.  The  adminis- 
tration is  carried  on  by  a  lieutenant-governor 


with  executive  and  legislative  councils.  Thd 
revenue  in  1904  was  £1,139,576,  and  the  expendi- 
ture £929,681.  Bloenifontein  (q.v.),  the  capital, 
is  connected  by  railway  with  both  the  Cape 
and  Johannesburg.  The  exports  include  wool, 
diamonds,  hides,  ostrich-feathers,  &c.  When 
the  Dutch  Boers  left  the  Cape  Colony  (1836) 
and  occupied  this  country,  it  was  inhabited  by 
Bushmen,  Bechuanas,  and  Korannas.  The  Cape 
government  appointed  a  resident  in  the  republic 
in  1845,  and  three  years  later  it  was  annexed  by 
Britain ;  in  1854  it  was  given  up  to  the  Boers, 
who  established  a  republic  (Orange  Free  State) ; 
but  in  consequence  of  its  joining  the  Transvaal 
in  the  Boer  war  (1899-1902),  it  was  finally  annexed 
by  Britain  as  a  crown  colony.  See  books  named 
at  Cape  Colony. 

Oranlenbaum,  a  palace  and  small  town  (pop. 
5500)  of  Russia,  opposite  Cronstadt  (q.v.). 

Orchom'enos,  an  ancient  city  of  Boeotia,  capital 
of  the  kingdom  of  the  Minyte,  was  situated  at 
the  NW.  corner  of  Lake  Copais,  where  it  was 
joined  by  the  Cephissus.  In  1880  Schliemann 
excavated  an  old  'treasury.'— A  second  Orchom- 
enos,  in  Arcadia,  lay  NNW.  of  Mantinea. 

Or'egon,  one  of  the  Pacific  states  of  the 
American  Union,  bounded  by  Washington, 
Idaho,  California,  and  Nevada.  Area,  96,030 
sq.  m.,  or  almost  twice  that  of  England.  Oregon 
on  the  west  is  literally  rock-bound  by  the  Coast 
Range  of  mountains,  having,  however,  numerous 
indentations,  which  furnish  good  harbours.  The 
Columbia  River,  which  bounds  the  state  on  the 
north,  affords  the  largest  and  deepest  entrance. 
Seventy  miles  east  of  the  Coast  Range  is  the 
Cascade  Range,  rising  to  6000  to  8000  feet,  and 
surmounted  by  snow-capped  peaks  of  nearly 
double  v/hat  altitude.  From  the  Cascade  Range 
eastward  to  the  Blue  Mountains,  about  70  miles, 
and  farther  on  to  the  eastern  boundary  the  surface 
is  diversified  by  mountains  and  valleys,  rolling 
plains,  and  tablelands.  Here  the  soil  and  climate 
are  suitable  for  agriculture  and  grazing.  In 
Western  Oregon,  between  the  Coast  and  Cascade 
ranges,  is  the  Willamette  valley,  130  miles  long  and 
60  wide,  every  foot  of  which  is  arable— adapted  to 
grain  and  fruit.  The  climate  is  mild,  in  spite  of 
the  northerly  situation,  owing  to  the  Japanese 
oceanic  current  and  the  shelter  of  the  mountain- 
ranges.  On  the  coast  there  is  fog  in  summer  and 
excessive  rain  in  winter ;  in  the  Willamette  valley 
the  summers  are  pleasant,  the  winters  wet ;  in 
Ea.stern  Oregon  there  is  a  good  deal  of  snow  in 
winter.  The  grain-croyjs  are  wheat,  oats,  barley, 
rye,  and  maize.  Flax-seed,  hay,  potatoes,  tobacco, 
and  hops  are  also  raised.  Great  quantities  of 
butter  and  cheese,  and  of  fruit,  both  green  and 
dried  (prunes,  apples,  pears,  peaches,  grapes,  and 
cherries),  are  annually  shipped.  The  wealth  of 
Oregon  in  timber  is  remarkable.  Among  the 
other  industries  are  the  tinning  of  salmon,  the 
rearing  of  sheep,  and  mining.  The  minerals  com- 
prise coal,  iron  ore,  gold,  copper,  nickel,  quick- 
silver, fireclay,  chrome,  silver,  manganese,  zinc, 
lead,  and  platinum. 

Oregon  formerly  included  all  the  land  between 
the  Rocky  Mountains  and  the  Pacific  Ocean  north 
of  42°  N.  lat.  John  Jacob  Astor  established 
Astoria  (q.v.)  in  1811  ;  in  1813  it  was  sold  to  the 
North-western  Fur  Company,  and  it  afterwards 
passed  to  the  Hudson  Bay  Company.  There  was 
joint  occupation  by  Britain  and  the  United  States 
from  1818  until  1846,  when  the  long  dispute  was 
compromised,  the  boundary  line  with  British 
America  being  fixed  at  49*  N.  lat.    Oregon  became 


OREGON  RIVER 


525 


ORLEANS 


a  territory  in  1848,  and,  \fith  reduced  limits,  a 
state  in  1859.  Tlie  principal  cities  are  Portland 
(90,500),  Astoria  (8400),  Baker  City  (6670),  and 
Salein,  the  capital  (5000).  Pop.  of  the  state  (I860) 
52,464  ;  (1880)  174,768  ;  (1900)  413,536. 

Oregon  River.    See  Columbia. 

Orel',  a  town  of  Rnssia,  on  the  Oka,  222  miles 
by  rail  SSW.  of  Moscow,  manufactures  ropes, 
tallow,  bricks,  machinery,  and  verdigris.  It  was 
burned  down  in  1848  and  1858.  Population, 
70,000.— Area  of  the  goveiiiment,  18,036  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  2,075,000. 

Orenburg  {O'ren-hoorg),  a  toAvn  of  Russia,  on 
the  river  Ural,  by  rail  727  miles  ESB.  of  Moscow. 
Pop.  72,740.— The  government  has  an  area  of  73,794 
sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  1,610,000. 

Oren'se,  capital  of  a  Galician  province  of  Spain 
(area,  2739  sq.  m. ;  pop.  405,074),  near  the  Portu- 
guese frontier,  on  tlie  Minho's  left  bank,  60  miles 
from  its  mouth.     Pop.  15,440. 

Orford,  a  Suffolk  fishing-town  on  the  Ore,  5 
miles  SSW.  of  Aldeburgh.  It  has  a  Norman 
keep,  till  1832  returned  two  members,  and  was 
a  municipal  borough  till  1887.  Pop.  of  parish, 
987.  On  the  promontory  of  Orford  Ness,  2^ 
miles  ESE.,  are  two  lighthouses. 

Orihuela  (Oreehooay'la),  a  town  in  the  Spanish 
province  of  Alicante,  on  the  Segura,  38  miles  N. 
of  Cartagena.  It  has  a  cathedral  and  college,  and 
manufactures  silk,  linen,  hats,  &c.    Pop.  21,125. 

Orino'co,  one  of  the  great  rivers  of  South 
America,  has  its  origin  on  the  slopes  of  the 
Sierra  Parima,  in  the  extreme  south-east  of  Vene- 
zuela. Flowing  at  first  W.  by  N.,  a  mountain- 
stream,  it  divides,  a  little  below  Esmeralda  (65" 
50'  W.  long.),  and  sends  off  to  the  south  an  arm, 
the  Cassiquiare,  180  miles  to  the  Rio  Negro,  a 
tributary  of  the  Amazon.  The  other  branch  on 
reaching  San  Fernando  (68"  10'  long,  and  4°  2'  N. 
lat.)  is  met  by  the  strong  current  of  the  Guaviare  ; 
the  united  stream  then  turns  due  north,  and, 
after  passing  over  the  magnificent  cataracts  of 
Maypures  and  Atures,  and  picking  up  the  Meta 
and  the  Apure,  turns  east  and  traverses  the 
llanos  of  Venezuela,  its  waters  being  here  4  miles 
broad.  About  120  miles  from  the  Atlantic,  into 
which  it  rolls  its  milk-white  flood,  its  delta  (8500 
sq.  m.)  begins.  Of  the  numerous  mouths  seven 
are  navigable.  The  waterway  principally  used 
by  ocean-going  vessels,  which  penetrate  240  miles 
up  to  Ciudad  Bolivar  (Angostura),  is  the  Boca 
de  Navios,  3|  to  23  miles  wide.  The  total  length 
of  the  river  is  some  1550  miles,  of  which  900,  up 
to  the  cataracts  of  Atures,  are  navigable,  besides 
a  farther  stretch  of  500  miles  above  the  cataracts 
of  Maypures.  Most  of  the  larger  affluents  are 
also  navigable — the  Meta,  for  instance,  to  within 
60  miles  of  Bogota  in  Colombia.  See  lives  of 
Raleigh  for  his  last  voyage  hither ;  and  works 
by  Humboldt,  Bonpland,  and  Schomburgk. 

Orissa,  an  ancient  kingdom  of  India,  extended 
from  Bengal  on  the  N.  to  the  Godavari  on  the 
S.  The  present  province  is  the  extreme  south- 
west portion  of  Bengal.  Orissa  was  long  a 
Buddhist  stronghold  ;  in  474  a  new  dynasty  made 
it  Brahmanical,  and  introduced  the  worship  of 
Siva.  Orissa  ceased  to  be  an  independent  state 
in  1568,  being  conquered  for  the  Great  Mogul. 
Its  next  masters  were  the  Mahrattas,  who  seized 
it  in  1742  ;  but  they  were  forced  to  surrender  it 
to  the  English  in  1803.  The  British  commissioner- 
.ship  has  an  area  of  9853  sq.  m.  and  a  popula- 
tion of  4,350,500  ;  the  tributary  states,  a  hilly 
country  with  dense  jungle,  lying  between  the 


low  coast  districts  and  the  interior  plateau,  have 
an  area  of  14,387  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  1,996,710. 
All  this  region  was  visited  by  severe  famine  in 
1868-69.  The  principal  river  is  the  Mahanadi, 
and  the  chief  towns  Cuttack,  Balasor,  and  Puri. 
The  irrigation  of  a  large  portion  of  Orissa  is 
provided  for  by  a  costly  system  of  canals. 

Orlza'ba,  a  town  or  the  Mexican  state  of  Vera 
Cruz,  82  miles  WSW.  of  Vera  Cruz  City,  and  181 
ESE.  of  Mexico,  lies  in  a  fertile  garden  country, 
4030  feet  above  the  sea.  It  has  a  cotton-factory, 
paper  and  corn  jnills,  and  railway-shops.  Pop. 
31,500.— The  volcano  of  Orizaba,  25  miles  to  the 
north,  is  a  noble  pyramid  of  18,205  feet.  Its  last 
severe  eruption  was  in  1566. 

Orkney  Islands,  a  group  of  ninety  Scotch 
islands,  islets,  and  skerries,  of  which  only  twenty- 
nine  are  inhabited,  and  which  have  an  aggregate 
area  of  376  sq.  m.,  the  largest  being  Pomona  or 
Mainland  (207  sq.  m.),  Hoy  (53),  Sanday  (26), 
Westray,  South  Ronaldshay,  Rousay,  Stronsay, 
Eday,  Shapinshay,  Burray,  Flotta,  &c.  They 
extend  50  miles  north-north-eastward,  and  are 
separated  from  Caithness  by  the  Pentland  Firth, 
6^  miles  wide  at  the  narrowest.  With  the  excep- 
tion only  of  Hoy  (q.v.),  which  has  fine  cliffs,  and 
in  the  Ward  Hill  attains  1564  feet,  the  scenery 
is  generally  tame,  the  surface  low  and  treeless, 
with  many  fresh-water  lochs.  The  area  under 
cultivation  has  more  than  doubled  since  1850, 
but  is  still  less  than  one-half  of  the  total  area. 
The  live-stock  during  the  same  period  has  trebled. 
The  holdings  are  small — 16J  acres  on  an  average  ; 
and  agriculture  and  fishing  are  the  principal 
industries.  Kirkwall  and  Stromness,  the  only 
towns,  are  noticed  separately,  as  also  are  the 
standing-stones  of  Stennis  and  the  tumulus  of 
Maeshowe.  Orkney  unites  with  Shetland  to 
return  one  member  to  parliament,  but  it  was 
dissevered  therefrom  as  a  county  by  the  Local 
Government  (Scotland)  Act,  1889.  Pop.  (1801) 
24,445  ;  (1861)  32,395 ;  (1901)  28,699.  The  Orkneys 
(Ptolemy's  Orcades)  were  gradually  wrested  by 
Norse  rovers  from  their  Pictish  inhabitants  ;  and 
in  875  Harold  Haarfager  conquered  both  them 
and  the  Hebrides.  They  continued  subject  to 
the  Scandinavian  crown — under  Norse  jarls  till 
1231,  and  afterwards  uiider  the  Earls  of  Angus 
and  Stratherne  and  the  Sinclairs— till  in  1468 
they  were  given  to  James  III.  of  Scotland  as  a 
security  for  the  dowry  of  his  wife,  Margaret  of 
Denmark.  They  were  never  redeemed ;  and  in 
1590,  on  James  VI. 's  marriage  with  the  Danish 
princess  Anne,  Denmark  formally  resigned  all 
claims  to  the  Orkneys.  The  landed  proprietors 
are  chiefly  of  Scotch  descent,  the  islanders  gener- 
ally of  mixed  Scandinavian  and  Scotch  origin. 
See  Tudor's  Orkneys  and  Shetland  (1883). 

Orleans  (Or'leens  or  Or'le-anz;  Fr.  pron,  Or-lay- 
•on^'),  a  city  of  France,  the  capital  now  of  the  dep. 
of  Loiret,  and  formerly  of  the  old  province  of 
Orleannais,  which  comprised  most  of  the  present 
deps.  of  Loiret,  Eure-et-Loir,  and  Loir-et-Cher, 
with  portions  of  four  others.  It  stands  in  a 
fertile  plain  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Loire,  here 
crossed  by  a  nine-arched  bridge  (1760),  364  yards 
long,  and  by  rail  is  75  miles  SSW.  of  Paris.  The 
walls  and  gates  have  given  place  since  1830  to 
handsome  boulevards,  but  the  town  as  a  whole 
wears  a  lifeless  appearance.  There  are  the 
cathedral,  destroyed  by  the  Huguenots  in  1567, 
and  rebuilt  from  1601  onwards ;  the  Mairie  (1530) ; 
and  the  15th-century  Musee  (till  1853  the  hotel- 
de-ville) ;  besides  the  house  of  Agnes  Sorel,  Diane 
de  Poitiers,  and  Joan  gf  Arc,  of  whom  there 


ORME'S  HEAD 


526 


OSMINGTON 


are  three  statues.  Tlie  commerce  is  far  more 
important  than  the  industries  (of  which  the  chief 
is  market-gardening).  Pop.  (1872)  48,976  ;  (1901) 
59,568.  The  Celtic  Genabum,  Orleans  about  272 
A.D.  was  renamed  Civitas  Aureliani,  of  which 
the  present  name  is  a  corruption.  It  was 
besieged  by  Attila  in  451,  and  twice  plundered 
by  the  Northmen  (855  and  865).  In  1428-29  it 
was  besieged  by  the  English,  but  was  delivered 
by  Joan  of  Arc,  the  Maid  of  Orleans,  It  suffered 
much  in  the  Huguenot  wars,  and  was  occupied 
by  the  Germans  Oct.  11  to  Nov.  9,  1870,  and 
then  became  the  headquarters  of  the  Army  of 
the  Loire  until  its  crushing  defeat  on  Dec.  3-5. 

Orme's  Head,  Great.    See  Llandudno, 

Or'miston,  a  Haddingtonshire  village,  on  the 
Tyne,  12  miles  ESE.  of  Edinburgh.  Moffat,  the 
missionary,  was  born  here. 

Onnskirk,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  12  miles  NNE. 
of  Liverpool.  It  has  a  grammar-school  (1612) ;  a 
church,  with  a  spire  and  the  burial-vault  of  the 
Earls  of  Derby ;  and  manufactures  of  cordage, 
iron,  silk,  cotton,  &c.     Pop.  6898. 

Or'muz,  or  Hormuz,  a  ruined  town  on  the 
island  of  Jerun  (12  miles  in  circuit),  in  the  strait 
of  Ormuz,  at  the  entrance  of  the  Persian  Gulf, 
4  miles  S.  of  the  Persian  coast.  About  300  e.g. 
there  existed  on  the  mainland,  12  miles  E.,  a  city 
Ormuz ;  this  in  the  13th  century  was  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Persian  trade  with  India,  But 
about  1300  its  ruler  transferred  his  people  to  the 
site  of  the  present  town,  to  escape  the  Mongols. 
The  new  city  maintained  its  commercial  suprem- 
acy even  after  Albuquerque's  capture  of  it  in  1507, 
It  was  taken  from  the  Portuguese  in  1622  by  an 
English  fleet,  and  given  to  Sliah  Abbas  of  Persia, 
who  transferred  the  trade  to  his  port  of  Gom- 
broon, 12  miles  north-west  on  the  mainland.  The 
Portuguese  castle  still  stands, 

Orne  (Orn),  a  French  dep,  formed  out  of  the 
provinces  of  Normandy,  AlenQon,  and  Perche. 
Area,  2353  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1861)  423,350 ;  (1901) 
826,952.  Its  arrondissements  are  Alengon  (the 
capital),  Argentan,  Domfront,  and  Mortagne. 

Orontes  (Oron'tees),  the  ancient  name  of  a  river 
in  Syria,  now  called  Nahr-el-Asi.  It  rises  in  the 
highest  part  of  Coele-Syria,  near  Baalbek,  and 
flows  147  miles  N.  and  W,  past  Antioch  to  the 
Mediterranean.  Its  lower  course  is  remarkably 
beautiful,  the  rocky  banks  rising  300  feet. 

Orota'va  (a  as  ah),  a  town  on  the  north  coast 
of  Teneriffe,  one  of  the  Canaries.    Pop.  9293. 

Orpington,  a  village  of  Kent,  12  miles  by  rail 
SE.  of  London,  where  Ruskin's  books  began  to 
be  published  in  1873  (see  E.  T.  Cook's  Studies  in 
Buskin,  1890).    Pop.  of  parish,  4299. 

Orrell,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  3  miles  W.  of 
Wigan.     Pop.  5440. 

Or'sova,  the  name  of  two  towns  on  the  Danube 
at  the  Iron  Gates.  Old  Orsova,  a  Hungarian 
place,  is  478  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Vienna,  and  is 
a  station  for  the  Danube  steamers.  Pop.  5381.— 
New  Orsova,  on  the  Servian  side,  is  a  fortified 
town  held  by  Austria  (since  1878). 

Ortegal',  Cape,  the  north-west  extremity  of 
Spain  (q.v.),  in  Galicia. 

Orthez  (Or-tay),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Basses-Pyrenees,  on  the  Gave  de  Pan,  41  miles 
by  rail  E.  of  Bayonne.  The  '  Tour  de  Moncade ' 
(1240),  the  stately  castle  of  the  Counts  of  Foix, 
which  Froissart  visited  in  1388,  was  reduced  to 
a  ruin  by  Richelieu.  Near  Orthez  Wellington 
defeated  Soult,  27th  February  1814.    Pop.  6374. 


Ortler  Spitz,  highest(l2,874  feet)  of  the  Rhsetian 
Alps,  in  Tyrol,  close  to  the  Swiss  frontier. 

Orton,  a  Westmorland  market-town,  8  miles 
SW.  of  Appleby.    Pop.  of  parish,  830. 

Orto'na,  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the  Adriatic,  104 
miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Ancona.  It  has  a  cathedral 
and  a  recently  improved  harbour.     Pop.  15,000. 

Gru'ro,  capital  of  the  Bolivian  dep.  of  Oruro, 
and  sometimes  of  the  republic,  stands  11,960  feet 
above  the  sea,  near  the  salt  lake  of  Aullagas,  and 
possesses  mines  of  silver,  gold,  and  tin.  Founded 
in  1590,  it  had  70,000  inliabitants  in  the  17th 
century,  but  now  has  15,500. 

Orvieto  (Or-vee-eh'to),  a  city  in  the  Italian 
province  of  Perugia,  7S  miles  NNW.  of  Rome, 
crowns  an  isolated  tufa  rock,  which  rises  765 
feet  above  the  river  Paglia,  and  1327  above  sea- 
level.  The  cruciform  cathedral  (1290-1580),  one 
of  the  most  beautiful  specimens  of  Italian  Gothic, 
is  built  of  black  and  white  marble,  and  measures 
295  feet  by  109.  The  fagade  is  unsurpassed  for  its 
mosaics,  sculptures,  and  elaborate  ornamenta- 
tion. The  interior  also  is  magnificently  decor- 
ated with  sculptures  and  with  paintings  by  Luca 
Signorelli,  Fra  Angelico,  &c.  The  bishop's  palace 
and  St  Patrick's  Well  (1527 ;  disused),  with  its 
250  steps,  are  also  noteworthy.  Pop.  18,500. 
Orvieto,  called  in  the  7th  c.  a.d.  Urbs  Veins— 
whence  its  present  name — has  by  some  been  sup- 
posed to  occupy  the  site  of  the  Etruscan  Volsinii. 
In  the  middle  ages  it  gave  shelter  to  thirty-two 
popes  in  times  of  trouble. 

Orwell.    See  Ipswich. 

Osa'ka,  or  Ozaka,  an  important  city  of  central 
Japan,  situated  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  of  the 
same  name,  and  at  the  mouth  of  the  Yodo  River, 
which  issues  from  Lake  Biwa.  Its  fine  castle, 
the  stones  of  whose  walls  are  of  astonishing  size, 
was  constructed  in  1583,  and  the  palace,  built 
in  its  precincts  and  destroyed  in  1868,  was  per- 
haps the  most  magnificent  structure  in  Japan. 
Intersected  with  canals,  Osaka  is  the  commercial 
centre  of  the  empire,  and  the  headquarters  of 
the  rice  and  tea  trade.     Pop.  821,250.    ■ 

Osborne  House.    See  Cowes. 

Oscott,  a  Roman  Catholic  college,  4  miles  N. 
of  Birmingham.  Dating  from  1752,  and  rebuilt 
in  1835,  it  has  since  1889  become  a  seminary. 

Oshkosh,  capital  of  Winnebago  county,  Wis- 
consin, on  the  Fox  River,  at  its  entrance  to 
Lake  Winnebago,  80  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Mil- 
waukee. The  lake  (30  miles  by  12)  forms,  with 
the  Fox  and  Wisconsin  rivers,  which  are  con- 
nected by  a  canal,  a  water-route  between  Lakes 
Michigan  and  Superior.  The  city  extends  along 
the  lake  for  4  miles,  and  carries  on  a  great  trade 
in  lumber.  It  has  also  extensive  door  and  sash 
factories,  and  large  manufactories  of  furniture, 
matches,  carriages,  and  soap,  besides  pork-pack- 
ing establishments.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  state 
normal  school,  and  close  by  is  a  state  lunatic 
asylum.  Oshkosh  was  incorporated  in  1853,  and 
burned  down  in  1859 ;  it  was  again  partially 
destroyed  by  fire  in  1874  and  1875,  and  in  1885  a 
cyclone  overwhelmed  part  of  the  suburbs.  Pop. 
(1880)  15,748  ;  (1900)  28,284. 

Oskaloosa,  capital  of  Mahaska  county,  Iowa, 
104  miles  WNW.  of  Burlington.  It  mines  bitu- 
minous coal,  and  manufactures  flour,  woollens, 
boilers,  electric  appliances,  &c.  Here  are  Penn 
College  (Quaker)  and  two  others.    Pop.  9558. 

Osmlngton,  a  Dorset  parish,  4  miles  NE.  of 
Weymouth.  Here  is  a  mounted  figure  of  George 
III.  cut  out  in  the  tuyf. 


OSNABRUCK 


527 


OTRANTO 


Osnabriiok,  a  town  in  the  Prussian  province 
of  Hanover,  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Hase,  75 
miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Bremen  and  TO  WSW.  of 
Hanover.  Its  great  Catholic  cathedral,  whose 
see  was  founded  by  Charlemagne  about  810,  and 
re-established  in  1857,  is  in  the  Transition  style  of 
the  first  half  of  the  13th  century,  and  rich  in 
relics  and  monuments  ;  the  town-hall  (1486-1512) 
contains  portraits  of  all  the  plenipotentiaries 
who  here  on  24th  October  1648  signed  the  peace 
of  Westphalia.  Osnabrlick  has  important  iron 
and  steel  works,  and  manufactures  of  railway 
plant,  agricultural  machinery,  gas-meters,  paper, 
tobacco,  &c.  Dating  from  772,  it  suft'ered  nmch 
in  the  Thirty  Years'  War,  but  recovered,  thanks 
to  its  linen  industry,  during  the  18th  century. 
The  name  Osnaburgs  given  to  coarse  linens  in 
England  is  derived  hence.  Pop.  (1852)  13,718  ; 
(1900)  51,578,  of  whom  one-third  were  Catholics. 

Osrhoene  (Oz-ree'nee),  a  district  in  the  north- 
west of  Mesopotamia,  containing  Edessa  (q.v.). 

Ossa,  the  ancient  name  of  a  mountain  on  the 
east  side  of  Thessaly,  near  Pelion  (q.v.),  and 
separated  from  Olympus  by  the  vale  of  Tempe. 

Ossett,  atown  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
8  miles  W.  of  Wakefield.     Pop.  (1901)  12,903. 

Ossining,  the  name  of  what  used  to  be  called 
Sing-Sing  (q.v.). 

Ostashkoflf,  a  town  of  Russia,  107  miles  W.  by 
N.  of  Tver.     Pop.  9905. 

Ostend.',  a  fashionable  watering-place  in  the 
Belgian  province  of  West  Flanders,  on  the  Ger- 
man Ocean,  77  miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  Brussels. 
Its  Digue,  or  sea-wall,  3  miles  long,  40  feet  high, 
and  35  yards  broad,  forms  a  favourite  promenade, 
as  also  do  the  two  Estacades,  or  wooden  piers, 
projecting  on  both  sides  of  the  harbour's  en- 
trance. Two  spacious  floating  basins  for  the 
Dover  mail-packets  (a  four  hours'  passage)  were 
completed  in  1874;  and  as  a  station  also  for 
London  steamers,  and  the  terminus  of  various 
lines  of  railway,  Ostend  is  a  lively  and  active 
place  of  transport  traflic  (butter,  rabbits,  oysters, 
&c.),  and  the  resort  in  the  season  (July  to  Sep- 
tember) of  16,000  to  20,000  visitors  from  all  parts 
of  the  Continent.  It  is,  moreover,  an  important 
fishing-station,  and  has  a  good  school  of  naviga- 
tion, a  handsome  Cursaal  (1878),  an  hotel-de-ville 
(1711),  a  fish-market,  and  a  lighthouse  (1771 ;  175 
feet).  I  The  manufactures  include  linen,  sailcloth, 
candles,  and  tobacco.  Pop.  (1S74)  16,533 ;  (1900) 
39,484.  Dating  from  1072,  Ostend  is  memorable 
for  the  protracted  siege  by  the  Spaniards  which 
it  underwent  from  7th  July  1601  to  20th  Septem- 
ber 1604.  Twice  again  it  surrendered — to  the 
Allies  in  1706,  and  to  the  French  in  1745.  The 
fortifications  have  been  demolished  since  1865. 

Ostero'de,  a  town  of  Hanover,  at  the  western 
base  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  on  the  Sose,  an 
affluent  of  the  Leine,  30  miles  by  rail  NW.  of 
Nordhausen.  Its  church  of  St  Giles  (724;  re- 
built 1578)  contains  the  graves  of  the  Dukes  of 
Grubenhagen,  and  there  is  also  a  fine  town-hall. 
Pop.  6435. — OsTERODE,  in  East  Prussia,  on  the 
Drewenz,  77  miles  N3.  of  Thorn,  has  a  castle  of 
the  Teutonic  knights  (1270).    Pop.  13,170. 

Ostia,  a  city  of  Labium,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tiber,  14  miles  SW.  of  Home.  It  was  a  mere 
ruin  in  830,  when  Gregory  IV.  founded  a  village— 
the  modern  Ostia — neai  the  ancient  one,  whose 
ruins  extend  for  a  mile  and  a  half  along  the  Tiber. 

Ostrau,  the  name  of  two  neighbouring  towns  in 
Austrian  Silesia,  80  miles  W.  by  S.  from  Cracow, 
^oraviaii  Ostrau  has  extensive  irou-works  and 


other  manufactures.  Pop.  30,120.  Polish  Ostrau 
is  the  centre  of  a  rich  coalfield.    Pop.  18,760. 

Ostrog,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  Volhynia,  176 
miles  W.  of  Kielf.     Pop.  16,522,  mostly  Jews, 

Ostu'nl,  a  city  of  south  Italy,  22  miles  NW.  of 
Brindisi  by  rail.     Pop.  18,199. 

Osu'na,  a  town  of  Spain,  66  miles  by  rail  ESE. 
of  Seville,  stands  on  a  triangular  hill  crowned  by 
the  castle  of  the  Girons,  Dukes  of  Osuna,  and 
by  a  collegiate  church  (1534).     Pop.  18,126. 

Oswe'go,  the  capital  of  Oswego  county,  New 
York,  is  situated  at  the  mouth  of  Oswego  River 
(here  crossed  by  three  bridges),  on  Lake  Ontario, 
at  the  extremity  of  the  Oswego  Canal  (to  Syra- 
cuse), 326  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  New  York  City. 
It  has  a  United  States  government  building, 
court-house,  city-hall,  state  armoury,  &c.,  and  is 
the  principal  port  on  the  lake,  with  a  breakwater, 
large  elevators,  and  4  miles  of  wharves.  The 
river  falls  here  34  feet,  and  the  water-power  is 
utilised  in  flour-mills,  knitting-mills,  &c,  Oswego 
starch  and  corn-flour  are  household  words.  Pop. 
(1880)  21,116  ;   (1900)  22,200. 

Os'westry,  a  thriving  market-town  and  muni- 
cipal borough  (1397)  of  Shropshire,  18  miles  NW. 
of  Shrewsbury.  It  has  an  old  parish  church, 
restored  in  1872  at  a  cost  of  £10,000  ;  a  fragment 
of  the  Norman  castle  of  Walter  Fitzalan,  pro- 
genitor of  the  royal  Stewarts  ;  and  a  15th-century 
grammar-school,  rebuilt  in  1810  and  enlarged  in 
1863-78.  Railway  workshops  were  established 
in  1865,  and  sewerage  and  water  works  in  1866. 
Oswestry  derives  its  name  from  St  Oswald,  slain 
here  in  642.  In  1644  it  was  captured  by  the 
parliamentarians.  Pop,  (1851)  4817 ;  (1901)  9579. 
See  works  by  Price  (1815)  and  Cathrall  (1855). 

OtagO  (Otah'go ;  prob.  from  Maori  Otakou,  '  red 
earth '),  the  most  southern  provincial  district  of 
New  Zealand,  in  the  South  Island,  till  1876  one 
of  the  original  six  provinces  in  the  colony.  It 
was  colonised  in  1848  by  the  Otago  Association. 
It  has  a  coast-line  of  400  miles,  and  an  area  of 
over  15,000,000  acres.  Pop,  (1891)  153,005  ;  (1901) 
173,145,  Gold  was  discovered  here  in  1861. 
Dunedin  (q.v.)  is  the  capitaL 

Otaheite.    See  Tahiti, 

Otaru,  a  large  seaport  of  Yezo  (Hokkaido), 
Japan,  on  the  west  coast,  22  miles  W.  of  Sapporo. 
It  has  important  herring-fisheries  and  a  well- 
protected  iiarbour,  and  has  railway  connection 
with  Sapporo.     Pop.  57,000. 

Otchakofif,  a  Russian  seaport,  on  the  north 
shore  of  the  Dnieper's  estuary,  38  miles  ENE.  of 
Odessa,  After  it  had  been  bombarded  by  the 
Allied  fleet  in  1855,  the  Russians  demolished  the 
fortifications.  In  1887  a  ship-canal  was  opened 
here,  which  makes  the  estuary  of  the  Biv.g  and 
Dnieper  accessible  to  large  ships.     Pop.  10,800. 

Otley,  a  market-town  in  the  W^est  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  on  the  Wharfe's  right  bank,  and  at 
the  north  base  of  Otley  Chevin  (925  feet),  10  miles 
NW,  of  Leeds,  It  has  an  interesting  church,  a 
court-house  (1875),  a  mechanics'  institute  (1869), 
and  a  grammar-school  (1602),  Machine-making  is 
the  principal  industry,  with  worsted  and  leather 
manufactures.     Pop.  9500, 

Otranto  (anc,  Hydnmtum),  a  decayed  seaport 
in  the  extreme  south-east  of  Italy,  29  miles  by 
rail  SE.  of  Lecce,  and  on  the  Strait  of  Otranto, 
45  miles  from  the  opposite  coast  of  Albania. 
Long  the  chief  port  for  Greece,  it  has  a  ruined 
castle,  which  gave  title  to  Horace  Walpole's 
story,  and  an  archiepiscopal  cathedral,  restored 


OTTAWA 


528 


OUDH 


since  the  capture  of  Otranto  in  1480  by  the 
Turks.     Pop.  2400. 

Ott'awa,  one  of  the  largest  rivers  of  British 
North  America,  rises  nearly  300  miles  due  north 
of  Ottawa  City,  floAvs  300  miles  west  to  Lake 
Temiscamingue,  and  thence  400  miles  south-east, 
and  falls  into  the  St  Lawrence  by  two  mouths, 
which  form  the  island  of  Montreal.  During  its 
course  it  sometimes  contracts  to  40  or  50  yards  ; 
elsewhere  it  widens  into  numerous  lakes  of  con- 
siderable size.  Of  its  many  tributaries  the  chief 
are  the  Petewawa,  Bonnechere,  Madawaska,  and 
Rideau  on  the  right,  and  the  Coulonge,  Gatineau, 
and  Rivieres  du  Lievre  and  du  Nord  on  the  left. 
These,  with  the  Ottawa,  form  the  means  of 
transit  for  the  largest  lumber  trade  in  the  world. 

Ottawa,  the  capital  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada, 
is  situated  upon  the  south  bank  of  the  Ottawa 
River,  120  miles  from  its  influx  into  the  St  Law- 
rence at  Montreal.  The  river  here  forms  the 
splendid  Chaudiere  Falls  (200  yards  wide  and  40 
feet  high),  above  which  a  suspension  bridge  spans 
the  river,  and  which  supply  the  motive-power  for 
the  numerous  lumber-mills,  flour-mills,  factories, 
&c.  East  of  the  city  the  river  Rideau  forms  a 
second  fall.  The  Rideau  Canal  (1S27)  passes 
through  the  centre  of  the  city,  and  connects  with 
the  Rideau  Lakes,  and  so  with  the  great  lakes 
beyond.  Opposite  the  city,  to  the  NE.,  the 
Gatineau  River  joins  the  Ottawa.  The  industries 
of  Ottawa  are  mostly  connected  with  lumber.  In 
the  winter  thousands  of  men  are  engaged  in  cutting 
timber  and  drawing  it  to  the  streams,  and  in  the 
spring  the  freshets  carry  the  rafts  down  to  the 
mills.  Flour,  iron  wares,  bricks,  leather,  and 
matches  are  also  manufactured.  The  parlia- 
mentary buildings,  constructed  in  the  Italian 
Gothic  style  after  1860,  when  the  Prince  of  Wales 
laid  the  foundation-stone,  are  placed  on  a  bluff"  on 
the  bank  of  the  Ottawa.  These  structures,  includ- 
ing the  handsome  library  building  and  the  Victoria 
Tower  (180  feet  high),  cost  altogether  about 
$8,000,000.  The  residence  of  the  governor-general 
—an  old-fashioned,  ugly  building,  called  Rideau 
Hall— is  about  a  mile  from  the  city.  The.  post- 
office,  city-hall,  banks,  and  telegraph-offices  are 
handsomely  built  of  stone.  Ottawa  is  the  place 
Of  residence  of  the  bishop  of  Ontario  (Church  of 
England),  and  of  the  Roman  Catholic  bishop  of 
Ottawa,  who  has  a  cathedral  here.  There  are  a 
normal  school  and  a  collegiate  institute,  a  very 
large  college  conducted  by  the  Oblate  Fathers,  a 
ladies'  college,  a  musical  academy,  an  art  school, 
a  well-equipped  geological  museum,  and  the 
parliamentary  library,  with  140,000  volumes.  The 
city  was  begun  in  the  last  years  of  the  18th 
century  by  a  settler  named  "Wright,  of  Boston, 
Massachusetts,  who  built  himself  a  residence 
near  the  Chaudiere,  and  called  the  village  which 
he  founded  Hull.  The  construction  of  the  Rideau 
Canal  (1827)  stimulated  the  settlement,  which 
was  called  Bytown.  In  1854  its  name  was 
changed  to  Ottawa,  and  the  town  was  created  a 
city.  Pop.  (1861)  15,000;  (1871)  21,545;  (1881) 
27,412  ;  (1901)  59,120,  about  one-half  being  Roman 
Catholics.  In  1858  Ottawa  was  chosen  as  the 
administrative  capital  of  Canada.  The  first 
parliament  met  here  in  1865. 

Ottawa,  (1)  capital  of  La  Salle  county,  Illinois, 
at  the  confluence  of  the  Fox  and  Illinois  rivers, 
82  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Chicago.  It  has  a 
spring  rich  in  bromine  and  iodine,  and  manufac- 
tures glass,  flour,  cutlery,  tiles,  fire-proofing, 
organs,  and  pianos.  Pop.  10,600.— (2)  Capital  of 
Franklin  county,  Kansas,  on  the  Osage  River,  68 


miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Kansas  City,  with  a  college, 
foundry,  and  railway-shops,  manufactures  flour, 
furniture,  carriages,  and  soap.    Pop.  0948. 

Otter,  a  Devon  stream  running  24  miles  to  the 
English  Channel,  5  miles  SW.  of  Sidmouth. 

Otterbourne,  a  Hampshire  parish,  4  miles  SW. 
of  Winchester. 

Otterbum,  a  small  village  in  Redesdale,  North- 
umberland, 16  miles  S.  of  the  Border,  and  32 
miles  NW.  of  Newcastle,  on  the  benty  uplands 
a  little  to  the  west  of  which,  during  the  moonlit 
night  of  19th  August  1388,  2300  Scots  under  the 
Earls  of  Douglas,  Dunbar,  and  Moray,  defeated 
8600  English  under  Harry  Percy  ('  Hotspur '),  the 
latter  being  made  prisoner,  and  Douglas  slain. 
See  Robert  White's  m.onograph  (1857). 

Ott'ery  St  Mary,  a  town  of  Devonshire,  on 
the  river  Otter,  11  miles  (15  by  rail)  E.  of  Exeter. 
Twice  the  scene  of  a  great  conflagration,  in  1767 
and  1866,  it  retains  its  magnificent  collegiate 
church,  a  reduced  copy  of  the  cathedral  of  Exeter 
(q.v.),  with  the  only  other  transeptal  towers  in 
England.  Begun  about  1260  by  Bishop  Brones- 
combe,  it  is  Early  English,  Decorated,  and  Per- 
pendicular in  style,  and  was  restored  by  Butter- 
field  in  1849-50.  The  Old  King's  Grammar-school 
was  demolished  in  1884.  Alexander  Barclay  was 
a  priest  here ;  Coleridge  was  a  native ;  and 
'Clavering'  in  Pendennis  is  Ottery  St  Mary,  the 
Devonshire  residence  of  Thackeray's  stepfather. 
Silk  shoe-laces,  handkerchiefs,  and  Honiton  lace 
are  manufactured.    Pop.  3500. 

Ottoman  Empire.    See  Turkey. 

Ottum'wa,  capital  of  Wapello  county,  Iowa, 
on  the  Des  Moines  River,  75  miles  by  rail  W.  by 
N.  of  Burlington,  in  the  heart  of  the  state's 
bituminous  coalfields.  The  residence  portion  ex- 
tends along  the  high  bluff's.  A  number  of  rail- 
ways meet  here.  Great  dams  concentrate  the 
river's  water-power  ;  and  there  are  planing,  flour, 
starch,  and  linseed-oil  mills,  foundries,  plough, 
cutlery,  and  screen  factories,  bridge-works, 
cooperages,  manufactories  of  furniture,  boilers, 
&c.,  and  a  pork-packing  establishment.  Pop. 
20,000. 

Oudenardo  (Fr.  pron.  Ood'nard;  Flemish  Ow- 
de-nar'day),  a  town  of  Belgium,  on  the  Scheldt, 
37  miles  W.  of  Brussels.  It  has  a  fine  flamboyant 
Gothic  town-hall  (1535)  and  two  interesting 
churches.  Margaret  of  Parma  was  born  here. 
Pop.  6200.  In  1706  Oudenarde  was  taken  by 
Marlborough  ;  and  a  French  attempt  to  retake 
it  brought  about  the  third  of  Marlborough's  four 
great  victories  over  the  French,  11th  July  1708. 

Oudli  (Owd),  or  AwADH,  a  great  plain  sloping 
soutliward  to  the  Ganges  and  watered  by  the 
Gumti,  Gogra,  and  Rapti  rivers,  was  made  a 
British  commisslonership  in  1858,  and  from  1877 
was  administered  by  the  lieutenant-governor  of 
the  North-west  Provinces  (q.v.)  ;  but  since  1901 
the  latter  term  is  disused,  the  two  areas  being 
jointly  known  as  the  United  Provinces  of  Agra 
and  Oudh.  Area,  24,246  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1881) 
11,387,741  ;  (1901)  12,884,150.  The  bulk  of  the 
inhabitants  of  Oudh  are  Hindus,  though  the 
dominant  native  race  for  centuries  has  been 
Mohammedan.  The  Brahmans  are  about  one- 
eighth  of  the  whole  population.  The  principal 
towns  are  Lucknow  (the  capital),  Faizabad, 
Bahraich,  Shahabad,  Rai  Bareli.  Oudh  was  one 
of  the  oldest  homes  of  Aryan  civilisation  in  India. 
After  being  the  seat  of  a  long  native  Hindu  dynasty 
it  was  subjugated  by  the  ruler  of  Kanauj,  and  in 
1194  was  made  subject  to  the  Mussulman  empire 


OUGHTERARD 


529 


OXFORD 


of  Delhi.  In  1732-43  it  became  virtually  an  inde- 
pendent state,  and  the  dynasty  of  the  Nawabs 
lasted  until  the  annexation  by  the  British  in  1856. 
During  the  mutiny  of  1857  Oudh  was  a  centre  of 
rebellion.— For  the  city  of  Oudh,  see  Ajodhya. 

Oughterard  (Ohh-ter-ard'),  market- town  on  the 
W.  shore  of  Lough  Corrib,  17  miles  NW.  of 
Galway.    Pop.  690, 

Oulton,  (1)  a  Suffolk  parish,  on  Oulton  Broad, 
2i  miles  W.  of  Lowestoft.  George  Borrow  lived 
and  died  here.— (2)  A  village  in  Rothwell  parish. 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  5^  miles  ESE.  of 
Leeds.     Richard  Bentley  was  born  here. 

Oundle,  a  small  but  ancient  and  pleasant  town 
of  Northamptonshire,  13  miles  SW.  of  Peter- 
borough by  rail,  has  an  old  church,  partly  Early 
English  and  partly  Decorated,  restored  in  1864. 
Lace  is  made.  Here  St  Wilfrid  died.  Laxton's 
Grammar-school  dates  from  1550.    Pop.  2480. 

Ouro  Preto  (Ooro  Pray'to ,-  'Black  Gold'), 
capital  of  the  province  of  Minas  Geraes,  Brazil, 
stands  among  barren  mountains,  3780  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  200  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Rio  Janeiro. 
The  gold-mining  is  now  trifling.    Pop.  14,000. 

Ouse  (Ooz),  a  river  of  Yorkshire,  formed  by  the 
union  of  the  Swale  and  the  Ure  near  Borough- 
bridge,  and  flowing  60  miles  south-eastward  past 
York,  Selby,  and  Goole.  About  8  miles  below 
the  last  town  it  joins  the  Trent,  and  forms  the 
estuary  of  the  Huniber  (q.v.).  The  last  45  miles 
(from  York)  are  navigable  for  large  vessels.  Its 
principal  affluents  are  the  Wharfe,  Aire,  and 
Derwent. — The  Great  Ouse,  rising  close  to 
Brackley,  in  the  south  of  Northamptonshire, 
flows  160  miles  north-eastward  through  Bucking- 
ham, Bedford,  Huntingdon,  Cambridge,  and  Nor- 
folk, till  it  falls  into  the  Wash,  2^  miles  below 
Lynn.  It  is  navigable  for  50  miles.  It  receives 
the  Ivel,  Cam,  Lark,  and  Little  Ouse. 

Ousurl,  or  Usuri.    See  Amur. 

Ovenden,  a  NW.  suburb  of  Halifax. 

Over,  a  town  of  Cheshire,  4J  miles  W.  of 
Middlewich.    Pop.  of  parish,  6835. 

Over  Darwen.    See  Darwen. 

Overton,  a  parliamentary  borough  of  Flint- 
shire (detached),  near  the  Dee,  23  miles  NNW.  of 
Shrewsbury.  With -Flint,  &c.,  it  returns  one 
member.    Pop.  1131. 

Overtovm,  a  Lanarkshire  village,  IJ  mile  SE. 
of  Wishaw.    Pop.  1395. 

Overyssel  (y  like  l),  a  Dutch  province,  lying 
east  of  the  Zuider  Zee,  and  separated  from 
Guelderland  on  the  south  by  the  river  Yssel. 
Area,  1291  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  350,000.  Tlie  chief  cities 
are  Zwolle,  Deventer,  and  Kampen. 

Oviedo  (Oveeay'do;  anc.  Ovetum  or  Astrirum 
Lucus),  the  capital  of  the  Spanish  province  of 
Asturias,  20  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Gijon  on  the 
Bay  of  Biscay  and  87  N.  by  W.  of  Leon.  Sheltered 
to  the  north  by  a  hill  470  feet  high,  it  has  four 
main  streets,  branching  off  from  a  central  square, 
and  possesses  a  cathedral,  a  university  (1604),  a 
theatre,  a  botanic  garden,  a  fine  aqueduct,  &c. 
The  cruciform  cathedral,  dating  from  781,  but 
mainly  rebuilt  1388-1528,  is  a  noble  specimen  of 
Gothic,  with  a  tower  284  feet  high,  the  remains 
of  fourteen  early  kings  and  queens  of  Asturias, 
many  relics,  and  a  fine  old  library.  Linens, 
woollens,  hats,  and  firearms  are  manufactured ; 
near  by  are  ironworks,  and  at  Prutia  (12  miles 
W.)  a  government  foundry,  producing  cannon, 
rifles,  bayonets,  &c.    Pop.  46,671. 

Ovoca.    See  Avoca. 

2h 


Owe'go,  capital  of  Tioga  county.  New  York, 
on  tlie  Susquehanna  River  (here  bridged),  at  the 
mouth  of  Owego  Creek,  228  miles  by  rail  NW.  of 
New  York  City.  It  manufactures  pianos,  flour, 
soap,  leather,  &c.    Pop.  5025. 

Owensboro,  capital  of  Daviess  county,  Ken- 
tucky, on  the  Ohio,  160  miles  below  Louisville 
(112  by  rail).  It  has  tobacco- factories,  whisky 
distilleries,  foundries,  flour  and  planing  mills, 
&c.     Pop.  14,000. 

Owen  Sound,  a  town  and  port  of  entry  of 
Ontario,  at  the  head  of  Georgian  Bay,  122  miles 
by  rail  NW.  of  Toronto.  It  possesses  a  deep, 
sheltered  harbour  (12  miles  by  5),  trades  in  lum-* 
ber  and  grain,  and  manufactures  furniture  and 
wooden  wares,  machinery,  woollen  goods,  &c. 
The  Canadian  Pacific  steamers  leave  here  for 
Port  Arthur.    Pop.  9000. 

Owston  Ferry,  a  Lincolnshire  town,  on  the 
Trent,  7  miles  N.  of  Gainsborough.     Pop.  1204. 

Owosso,  or  OwASSO,  a  city  of  Michigan,  on 
the  Shiawassee  River,  78  miles  by  rail  NW.  of 
Detroit.  The  river  supplies  abundant  water- 
power,  and  there  are  flour  and  planing  mills, 
furniture  and  sash  factories,  foundries,  and  rail- 
way-shops.     Pop.  8700. 

Oxenhope,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  5  miles  S.  of  Keighley.     Pop.  2225. 

Oxford,  the  capital  of  the  county,  the  hon^  of 
the  university,  and  the  seat  of  the  bishopric  of 
the  same  name,  stands  about  the  confluence  of 
the  rivers  Cherwell  and  Thames,  52  miles  (63  by 
rail)  WNW.  from  London.  Up  to  1885  the  city 
returned  two  members  to  parliament ;  since  that 
date  only  one.  Until  about  1830  the  area  and 
population  of  the  city  remained  almost  stationary, 
extending  only  a  little  beyond  the  limit  of  the  old 
city  wall  as  reconstructed  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
III.  But  since  then  the  city  has  grown  rapidly, 
and  the  rural  districts  of  St  Giles'  on  the  north, 
St  Clement's  on  the  west,  Grandpont  on  the 
south,  and  Botley  on  the  east  have  been  covered 
with  lines  of  close-built  streets.  Pop.  (1801) 
11,000;  (1861)27,560;  (1881)40,837;  (1901)49,335. 
The  topography  of  Oxford  is  simple  in  the 
extreme.  The  river  Thames  Oocally  called  the 
'  Isis '),  takes  here  a  sharp  bend  to  the  east,  and 
about  a  mile  from  the  angle  receives  the  Cherwell, 
flowing  from  the  north.  All  the  old  part  of  the 
town  stands  in  the  rectangle  thus  formed  by  the 
rivers.  The  centre  of  the  town  is  at  a  place 
called  '  Carfax '  (derived  from  quadrifurcus,  '  four- 
forked  '),  from  which  four  main  streets  (traversed 
since  1883  by  tram-lines)  run  to  the  four  points 
of  the  compass.  North  runs  Cornmarket  Street 
('the  Corn');  east,  High  Street  ('the  High')  to 
Magdalen  Bridge  over  the  Cherwell ;  so2ith,  St 
Aldgate's  Street  to  Folly  Bridge  over  the  Isis; 
and  west,  Queen  Street  to  the  Castle  and  station. 
Among  Oxford's  countless  buildings  are  All 
Souls  College  (founded  1437);  the  Ashmolean 
Museum  (1682);  Balliol  College  (c.  1268);  the 
Bodleian  Library  (1602;  500,000  books,  30,000 
MSS.) ;  Brasenose  College  (1509) ;  Christ  Church 
College  (1525-46  ;  its  chapel  the  cathedral  1120  and 
onwards) ;  the  Clarendon  Building  (1712-30,  till 
1830  the  University  Press) ;  Corpus  Christi  College 
(1516) ;  the  Divinity  Schools  (1445-80) ;  the  Ex- 
amination Schools  (1882) ;  Exeter  College  (1314) ; 
Hertford  College  (1874);  the  Indian  Institute 
(1884) ;  Jesus  College  (1571 ;  still  partly  Welsh) ; 
Keble  College  (1870);  Lincoln  College  (1429);  Mag- 
dalen College  (1458) ;  Manchester  College  (1893) ; 
Mansfield  College  (1886);  the  Martyrs'  Memorial 
(1841) ;  St  Mary's  Church  (1300-1488),  with  a  spire 


OXFORDSHIRE 


530 


PACIFIC  OCEAN 


180  feet  high  ;  Merton  College  (1264) ;  the  New 
Museum  (1856-60);  New  College  (1379);  Oriel 
College  (1326) ;  Pembroke  College  (1624) ;  Queen's 
College (1340) ;  the  domed  Radcliffe  Library  (1749 ; 
since  1861  a  reading-room  for  the  Bodleian) ;  the 
Radcliffe  Observatory  (1795);  St  John's  College 
(1555);  the  Sheldonian  Theatre  (1669;  in  which 
'  Commemoration '  is  held) ;  the  Taylor  Institution 
(1843) ;  Trinity  College  (1554) ;  the  Union  Society 
(1823 ;  new  building  1859) ;  University  College 
(1249 ;  not  founded  by  King  Alfred  in  872) ;  The 
University  Press  (1830) ;  Wadham  College  (1613) ; 
and  Worcester  College  (1714).  To  which  may  be 
added  Soinerville  Hall  (1879),  Lady  Margaret 
Hall,  and  St  Hugh's  Hall,  all  for  women. 

The  university  of  Oxford,  which  dates  from 
the  12th  century,  comprises  twenty-one  colleges. 
It  has  a  teaching  body  of  54  professors,  readers, 
and  lecturers,  and  upwards  of  3500  undergrad- 
uates, including  about  150  unattached  or  non- 
collegiate  students.  A  few  of  its  great  alumni 
have  been  Duns  Scotus,  Roger  Bacon,  Wolsey, 
Raleigh,  Jewel,  Hooker,  Sir  Philip  Sidney, 
Williain  Harvey,  Blake,  John  Hampden,  Burton, 
Herrick,  Jeremy  Taylor,  Lovelace,  Hobbes, 
Clarendon,  Evelyn,  Locke,  Wycherley,  Addison, 
Steele,  Collins,  Dr  Johnson,  Wesley,  Chatham, 
Adam  Smith,  Gibbon,  Gilbert  White,  Fox, 
Southey,  Shelley,  De  Quincey,  Landor,  Keble, 
Cardinals  Newman  and  Manning,  Gladstone, 
Froude,  Freeman,  Green,  Ruskin,  Matthew 
Arnold,  Clough,  and  Swinburne. 

See,  besides  Anthony  Wood's  great  works,  others 
by  the  Rev.  C.  W.  Boase  ('  Historic  Towns '  series, 
Longmans,  1887) ;  Maxwell  Lyte  (1886) ;  Dr  Bro- 
drick  (1886);  the  Rev.  E.  Marshall  ('Diocesan 
Histories '  series,  1882) ;  A.  Lang  (new  ed.  1890) ; 
and  A.  Clark  (1891);  'A  Mere  Don '(1894);  with 
Parker's  Handbook  for  Oxford,  as  an  admirable 
guide  to  the  architectural  features  of  the  city. 

Oxfordshire,  an  inland  county  of  England,  in 
shape  very  irregular,  and  with  an  extreme  length 
and  breadth  of  48  miles  by  26  ;  is  bounded  by 
Warwickshire,  Northants,  Bucks,  Berkshire,  and 
Gloucestershire.  Area,  755  sq.  m.,  or  483,621 
acres.  Pop.  (1801)  109,620  ;  (1881)  179,559  ;  (1901) 
182,768.  Flat  and  bleak  in  the  north  and  west, 
except  near  Edgehill  (q.v.),  on  the  Warwickshire 
border,  and  undulating  in  the  central  district, 
the  county  in  the  south  presents  a  succession  of 
richly  wooded  hills,  alternating  with  picturesque 
dales,  and  terminating  on  the  south-east  border 
with  a  branch  of  the  Chiltern  Hills,  which,  near 


Nuffield,  attain  a  height  of  nearly  700  feet  above 
the  sea-level.  Foremost,  however,  among  the 
natural  beauties  of  Oxfordshire  are  the  numerous 
rivers  by  which  it  is  watered,  notably  the  Thames, 
with  its  affluents  the  Windrush,  Evenlode,  Cher- 
well,  and  Thame.  The  soil  in  general  is  fertile. 
Ironstone  is  extensively  worked  near  Banbury, 
whilst  there  are  manufactures  of  blankets  at 
Witney,  paper  at  Shiplake  and  Henley,  and,  to 
a  certain  extent,  gloves  at  Woodstock.  The 
county  contains  fourteen  hundreds,  the  whole  or 
part  of  the  municipal  boroughs  of  Abingdon, 
Banbury,  Chipping  Norton,  Henley-on-Thames, 
Oxford,  and  Woodstock,  and  292  civil  parishes, 
all  in  the  diocese  of  Oxford.  Three  members 
are  returned  for  the  county,  as  also  one  for  the 
city  of  Oxford  and  two  for  the  university.  The 
battlefields  of  Clialgrove  (1643)  and  Cropredy 
Bridge  (1644)  may  be  mentioned ;  and  among 
Oxfordshire  worthies  are  Edward  the  Confessor, 
Leland  (the  antiquary).  Viscount  Falkland, 
'  Doctor '  Fell,  Warren  Hastings,  Miss  Edgeworth, 
Charles  Reade,  and  Green  (the  historian).  See 
works  by  Skelton  (1823)  and  Davenport  (1869), 

Oxus,  the  ancient  natne  of  the  Amu  or  Amu- 
Daria,  a  river  in  western  Asia,  called  by  Arab 
writers  the  Jihtin.  It  rises  in  the  elevated  table- 
lands between  the  Tian-Shan  Mountains  and  the 
Hindu-Kush,  and  flows  west  as  far  as  66°  E.  long, 
through  Badakshan,  and  then  north-west  through 
Bokhara  and  Khiva,  and  empties  itself  by  several 
mouths  into  the  southern  end  of  the  Sea  of  Aral. 
There  are  two  main  head-streams  issuing  at  13,042 
and  14,177  feet  respectively,  and  uniting  in  71° 
20'  E.  long,  at  7500  feet.  The  Oxus  receives  few 
tributaries  after  it  ttirns  north-west,  its  course 
then  running  through  the  deserts  of  Turkestan. 
The  delta  is  90  miles  long,  and  embraces  many 
lakes  and  marshes.  The  principal  use  made  of 
the  river  is  for  irrigation  ;  Khiva  owes  its  pros- 
perity to  its  waters.  In  1894  it  was  navigated 
by  a  Russian  steamer  as  far  as  Faizabad  Kali  on 
the  Afghan  frontier.  It  is  believed  that  before 
the  Christian  era  the  Oxus  flowed  into  the  Cas- 
pian, and  that  since  600  a.d.  it  has  twice  changed 
its  course.  Between  Merv  and  Bokhara  it  is 
spanned  by  a  railway  viaduct  (1888),  6804  feet 
long.  See  works  by  J.  Wood  (1841 ;  new  ed.  by 
Colonel  Yule,  1872)  and  MacGahan  (1876). 

Oykell.     See  Oikell. 

Oyster  Bay,  a  watering-place  of  New  York 
State,  on  an  inlet  of  Long  Island  Sound,  30  miles 
E.  by  N.  of  New  York.    Pop.  1600. 


^AARL,  capital  of  a  district  in  Cape 
Colony,  40  miles  NE.  of  Capetown  by 
rail.     Pop.  8500, 

Pabbay,  an  Inverness-shire  island,  6| 
miles  S.  of  Barra.     Pop.  7. 
Pabna,  a  town  of  Bengal,  on  an  arm  of  the 
Ganges,  115  miles  N.  of  Calcutta.     Pop.  16,500. 

Pachacamac',  a  village  of  Peru,  18  miles  SE. 
of  Lima,  with  the  ruins  of  a  temple  from  which 
Pizarro  took  immense  treasure, 

Pachmarlii,  a  sanatorium  in  the  Central  Prov- 
inces, India,  2500  feet  above  the  plains,  and  110 
miles  SW.  of  Jabalpur. 

Pacific  Ocean,  the  largest  of  the  great  divisions 
of  the  ocean,  occupying  about  one-half  of  the 
water-surface  of  the  globe  and  more  than  one-third 
of  the  area  of  the  world.  It  is  almost  landlocked 
towards  the  north,  communicating  with  the 
Arctic  Ocean  by  the  narrow  (40  miles)  and  shal- 


low Behring  Strait,  whereas  it  opens  widely 
into  the  deep  Southern  and  Antarctic  Oceans. 
Its  length  from  north  to  south  (the  Antarctic 
Circle)  is  about  9000  miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth, 
at  the  equator,  is  over  10,000  miles  ;  its  area  is 
approximately  70,000,000  sq.  m.  It  was  first  seen 
by  Europeans  in  1513,  when  Balboa,  with  a  few 
followers,  viewed  its  waters  from  the  summit  of 
a  peak  in  Darien ;  the  first  European  to  sail 
upon  it  was  Magellan  (1520),  who  gave  it  the  name 
Pacific.  Sir  Francis  Drake  was  the  first  English- 
man to  sail  upon  it  (1577).  The  area  of  land 
draining  into  it— 7,500,000  sq.  m. — is  less  than 
half  of  that  draining  into  the  Atlantic.  The 
largest  American  river  flowing  into  it  is  the 
Yukon  (2000  miles);  others  are  the  Eraser,  Col- 
umbia or  Oregon,  Sacramento,  and  Colorado. 
The  South  American  rivers  are  little  more  than 
mountain-streams.  The  Asiatic  rivers  include 
some  of  the  largest  rivers  of  the  world— the  Amur, 


PACTOLUS 


531 


PAISLEY 


Hoang-ho,  Yang-tse-kiang,  Mekong,  and  Menani. 
Generally  speaking,  the  American  and  Australian 
coasts  bordering  the  Pacific  are  mountainous  and 
free  from  indentations,  while  the  Asiatic  coasts 
are  low  and  fertile,  with  many  gulfs  and  bays, 
and  fringed  with  island  groups. 

The  Pacific  Ocean  is  remarkable  for  the  in- 
numerable small  islands  and  island  groups  which 
stud  its  surface,  but  the  area  occupied  by  the 
truly  oceanic  islands  is  very  small ;  they  are 
principally  congregated  towards  the  central  and 
western  portions  of  its  basin,  while  the  east- 
ern portion  is  comparatively  free  from  islands. 
The  larger  islands — Borneo,  New  Guinea,  Celebes, 
Java,  Sumatra,  &c.— are  continental.  The 
oceanic  islands — the  Sandwich  Islands,  Ladrones, 
Carolines,  Gilbert  Islands,  Solomons,  Fiji, 
Friendly  Islands,  Samoa,  &c. — of  the  Pacific  are 
all  either  of  volcanic  or  coral  origin,  the  volcanic 
islands  within  the  zone  of  coral-reef  builders  being 
fringed  with  coral  reefs,  while  many  are  entirely 
of  coral  formation.  Some  of  the  greatest  depths 
in  the  world  occur  in  the  Pacific,  in  its  western 
basin ;  on  the  whole  it  is  deeper  than  the 
Atlantic,  its  mean  depth  being  about  2500 
fathoms.  The  eastern  basin  is  comparatively 
uniform  in  depth,  between  2000  and  3000  fathoms. 
The  western  basin  is  much  more  diversified, 
numerous  groups  of  islands,  shallow  water, 
and  immense  depths  occurring  irregularly.  The 
Challenger's  deepest  sounding,  4575  fathoms 
(nearly  b\  miles),  was  in  the  sea  between  the 
Caroline  and  Ladrone  Islands,  while  the  Ameri- 
can ship  Tuscarora  found  a  depth  of  4655  fathoms 
to  the  north-east  of  Japan.  The  surface-currents 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean  depend  to  a  great  extent 
upon  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds,  the 
principal  of  which  are  the  two  trade- winds,  blow- 
ing more  or  less  constantly,  the  one  from  the 
north-east,  the  other  from  the  south-east.  Be- 
tween these  two  regions  is  Avhat  is  called  the 
equatorial  belt  of  calms.  In  addition  to  the 
trade-winds,  there  are  the  monsoons,  which  blow 
with  great  regularity,  but  the  direction  of  which 
changes  according  to  the  season.  A  cold  surface- 
current  flows  constantly  northwards  from  the 
Antarctic.  The  great  equatorial  current  flows  to 
the  westward.  The  temperature  of  the  surface- 
waters  of  the  Pacific  varies  with  the  season,  but 
in  the  tropical  regions  the  variation  is  very  small. 
The  highest  temperature  occurs  among  the 
islands  of  the  Malay  Archipelago  and  off  the 
Mexican  coast,  where  the  mean  temperature  rises 
to  85°  F.  The  temperature  of  the  water  below 
the  surface  as  a  general  rule  decreases  as  the 
depth  increases,  the  lowest  temperature  occur- 
ring at  great  depths,  where  the  bottom  tempera- 
ture appears  to  be  nearly  constant  all  the  year 
round,  usually  about  35°  F. 

Pacto'lus  (mod.  Sardbat),  anciently  the  name 
of  a  small  brook  of  Lydia,  in  Asia  Minor,  flowing 
to  the  Hermus,  and  famous  for  its  gold-dust. 

Padang,  capital  of  a  residency  on  the  west 
coast  of  Sumatra,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Padang 
River.     Pop.  35,000. 

Paddington,  a  parliamentary  and  metropolitan 
borough  of  London.     Pop.  (1901)  143,976. 

LPaderborn,  a  town  of  Westphalia,  50  miles 
SW.  of  Hanover.  It  has  been  largely  rebuilt 
since  a  destructive  fire  in  1875.  The  fine  Roman- 
esque cathedral  (R.  C),  completed  in  1163,  is 
built  over  the  sources  of  the  Pader  (a  feeder  of 
the  Lippe),  and  contains  the  silver  coffin  of  St 
Liborius.  Other  edifices  are  St  Bartholomew's 
Chapel  (1017)  and  the  town-house  (1615  ;  restored 


1870-76).  There  are  glass,  soap,  and  tobacco 
factories,  breweries,  railway  and  printing  works, 
and  mineral  springs  close  by.     Pop.  23,600. 

Padiham,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  3  miles  W.  of 
Burnley  and  S  NE,  of  Blackburn.  Cotton  is  the 
staple  manufacture,  with  coal-mining  and  stone- 
quarrying.     Pop.,  with  Hapton,  12,250. 

Padstow,  a  Cornish  seaport,  on  the  Camel's 
estuary,  12  miles  WNW.  of  Bodmin.    Pop.  1559. 

Pad'ua  (Ital.  Pad'ova),  a  city  of  north  Italy,  23 
miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Venice  and  18  SE.  of 
Vicenza,  is  still  surrounded  with  walls.  The 
municipal  palace  (1172-1219)  is  a  huge  structare 
resting  on  arches,  with  balconies  running  round 
the  upper  story.  The  roof  (1420)  of  its  great  hall 
(267^  feet  long,  by  89  wide,  and  78  high)  is  per- 
haps (with  the  exception  of  King's  Chapel,  Cam- 
bridge) the  largest  in  Europe  unsupported  by 
pillars.  The  churches  (nearly  fifty)  include  the 
cathedral  (1552-1754);  St  Antony  (1230-1307); 
St  Justina  (16th  century)  ;  and  the  chapel  of  the 
Annunciation  (1303),  with  frescoes  by  Giotto. 
The  'saint's  school'  is  adorned  with  frescoes  by 
Titian  and  his  pupils,  illustrating  the  life  of  St 
Antony.  Donatello's  fine  equestrian  statue  of 
Gattamelata,  the  Venetian  captain,  stands  in 
front  of  the  church  of  St  Antony.  Padua  has 
enjoyed  greatest  fame  from  her  university, 
founded  by  the  emperor  Frederick  II.  in  1221, 
though  the  fine  Renaissance  buildings  date  only 
from  1493-1552 ;  there  are  now  68  teachers  and  over 
1200  students.  To  it  is  attached  one  of  the  oldest 
botanical  gardens  in  Europe,  and  a  library  (1629) 
of  158,500  vols,  and  2500  MSS.  The  city  museum 
(1881)  contains  antiquarian,  art,  and  numismatic 
collections,  a  library,  and  archives.  Pop.  (1901) 
82,300.  Padua's  most  celebrated  natives  were 
Livy  and  the  painter  Mantegna.  Patavia  came 
under  the  Roman  supremacy  in  215  b.c.  Venice 
held  it  from  1405  to  1797,  and  then  Austria,  until 
it  was  incorporated  in  Italy  in  1866. 

Padu'cah,  capital  of  McCracken  county,  Ken- 
tucky, on  the  Ohio  River,  48  miles  above  its 
mouth,  just  below  the  entrance  of  the  Tennessee, 
and  226  miles  WSW.  of  Louisville.  It  has  ship- 
yards,  foundries,  railway-shops,  flour,  saw,  and 
planing  mills,  and  manufactures  soap,  vinegar, 
ice,  furniture,  tobacco,  &c.    Pop.  19,500. 

Paestum,  an  ancient  Greek  city  of  soutliern 
Italy,  on  the  Gulf  of  Salerno,  with  three  well- 
preserved  Doric  temples. 

Pago-Pago,  or  Pango-Pango,  an  excellent  har- 
bour and  coaling-station  on  Tutuila,  one  of  the 
Samoan  islands  belonging  to  the  United  States. 

Pahang.    See  Straits  Settlements. 

Paignton  (Pain'ton),  a  Devon  watering-place, 
2J  miles  S.  of  Torquay.  Near  it  is  a  ruined  palace 
of  the  bishops  of  Exeter.  Pop.  of  the  urban 
district  (1901)  8385. 

Painswlck,  a  Gloucestershire  town,  6  miles 
SSE.  of  Gloucester.    Pop.  of  urb.  dist.  8385. 

Paisley,  a  busy  manufacturing  town  of  Ren- 
frewshire, stands,  backed  by  the  Braes  of  Glen- 
iffer  (749  feet),  on  the  White  Cart,  3  miles  above 
its  influx  to  the  Clyde,  7  WSW.  of  Glasgow  and 
16  ESE.  of  Greenock.  Although  commonly 
identified  with  the  Vanduara  or  Vindogara  of 
Ptolemy,  which  Skene  places  rather  at  Loudoun 
Hill  in  Ayrshire,  it  first  is  heard  of  certainly 
about  1157  as  Passeleth,  a  possession  of  Walter 
Fitzalan,  the  first  Scottish  ancestor  of  the  royal 
Stewarts.  He  six  years  later  founded  here  a 
Clugniac  priory,  which  was  dedicated  to  SS. 
James,  Mirin,  and  Milburga,  and  which  in  1219 


FAEENHAM 


532 


PALERMO 


was  raised  to  the  rank  of  an  abbey.  It  was 
burned  by  the  English  in  1307  ;  suffered  much  at 
the  Reformation  in  1561,  and  still  more  by  sub- 
sequent vandalism ;  and  now  is  represented 
chiefly  by  the  aisled  Decorated  nave  (15th 
century :  the  Abbey  parish  church,  restored 
since  1862),  and  by  the  chapel  of  St  Mirin,  called 
the  'Sounding  Aisle'  (1499),  with  the  altar-tomb 
of  Marjory  Bruce.  Near  the  abbey  are  statues 
of  Wilson  the  ornithologist  and  Tannahill,  who, 
like  Professor  Wilson  ('  Christopher  North '), 
were  natives  of  Paisley.  There  are  also  statues 
of  George  A.  Clark,  founder  of  the  town-hall,  and 
(since  1891)  of  Sir  Peter  and  Thomas  Coats. 
Motherwell  and  Alexander  Smith  were  residents  ; 
Elderslie,  2  miles  W.,  is  the  traditional  birthplace 
of  Wallace.  Public  edifices  are  the  municipal 
(formerly  county)  buildings  (1818) ;  sheriff  court- 
house (1885);  tlie  Clark  town-hall,  Italian  in 
style,  and  built  in  1879-82  at  a  cost  of  £110,000  ; 
the  new  county  buildings  (1891),  containing  one 
of  the  finest  council  halls  in  Scotland ;  the  Coats 
free  library  and  museum  (1871),  with  a  picture- 
gallery  and  an  observatory  ;  the  grammar-school 
(1576 ;  rebuilt  1864) ;  and  the  Neilson  educational 
Institution  (1852).  The  Coats  Memorial  Baptist 
Church  (1891-94),  Early  English  in  style,  with 
a  Gothic  crown  completing  the  central  tower, 
is,  it  is  claimed,  the  finest  ecclesiastical 
edifice  built  in  Scotland  since  the  Reforma- 
tion, having  cost  £100,000.  The  Fountain 
Gardens  (1868),  the  Brodie  Park  (1877),  and  St 
James's  Park,  round  which  is  the  racecourse, 
have  an  area  respectively  of  6,  22,  and  40  acres. 

The  linen,  lawn,  and  silk-gauze  industries,  im- 
portant during  the  18th  century,  are  now  extinct ; 
as,  too,  are  the  *  Paisley  shawls,"  so  celebrated 
between  1805  and  the  middle  of  the  century,  their 
sale  sometimes  exceeding  £1,000,000  per  annum. 
The  manufacture  of  linen  sewing-thread,  intro- 
duced in  1722  by  the  witch-denouncer  Christian 
Shaw  of  Bargarran,  has  been  nearly  superseded 
since  1812  by  that  of  cotton  thread,  which  has 
assumed  gigantic  proportions.  There  are  also 
works  for  dyeing,  bleaching,  tartans,  woollen 
shawls,  carpets,  distilling  and  brewing,  chemi- 
cals, starch,  corn-flour,  preserves,  engineering, 
&c.  Paisley  is  connected  with  Glasgow  by  elec- 
tric tramway,  and  the  electric  liglit  has  been  in- 
troduced. Tlie  Cart  since  1786  has  been  deepened 
(to  18  feet  in  1888-90);  and  water-works  (1834- 
90)  furnish  6,000,000  gallons  per  diem  to  Paisley 
and  Johnstone.  Paisley  was  made  a  free  burgh 
of  barony  in  1488,  the  fourth  centenary  of  that 
event  in  1888  being  graced  by  the  presence  of 
Queen  Victoria,  who  afterwards  placed  a  memorial 
of  the  Stewarts  in  the  ruined  choir  of  the  abbey. 
Since  1833  it  has  returned  one  nrember  to  parlia- 
ment. In  1843  the  corporation  had  to  suspend 
payment,  nor  was  the  burgh  clear  of  debt  until 
1877.  Pop.  (1801)  24,324 ;  (1841)  48,125  ;  (1881) 
55,627;  (1901)  79,350.  See  Cosmo  Innes'  Regis- 
trum  Monasterii  de  Passelet  (Maitland  Club,  1832), 
two  works  by  Semple  (1872-74),  Dr  Cameron 
Lees'  Abbey  of  Paisley  (1878),  and  Robert  Brown's 
History  of  Paisley  (2  vols.  1886). 

Pakenham,  a  Suffolk  parish,  5  miles  ENE.  of 
Bury  St  Edmunds.     Pop.  943. 

Pakhol,  a  seaport  of  China,  opened  to  trade 
in  1876,  stands  on  the  northern  shore  of  the 
Gulf  of  Tonking.     Pop.  25,000. 

Palamcottah,  a  town  of  India,  in  Madras,  50 
miles  NNE.  of  Cape  Coniorin.     Pop.  40,000. 

Palanpur',  capital  of  a  native  state  in  Gujarat, 
lies  83  miles  N.  of  Ahniedabad  by  rail.    Pop.  I 


17,800.  The  state  has  an  area  of  3177  sq.  m.  and 
a  pop.  of  222,700. 

Palap'we,  or  Palap'ye,  capital  of  the  Bechuana- 
land  protectorate,  is  60  miles  NE.  of  Shoshong, 
long  Khama's  chief  town,  near  the  Transvaal 
frontier,  and  on  the  trade  route  and  telegraph 
line  to  Matabeleland.     Pop.  10,000. 

Palatinate  (so  called  because  governed  origin- 
ally by  a  Count  Palatine— i.e.  'of  the  palace;' 
Ger.  Pfalz),  two  German  states,  which  were 
united  previously  to  the  year  1623.  They  Avere 
distinguished  as  the  Upper  and  Lower  Pala- 
tinates, having  Amberg  and  Heidelberg  as  their 
capitals ;  and  they  are  now  divided  among 
Bavaria,  Prussia,  Baden,  and  Hesse. 

Pal'atlne  Hill  (Palatium  or  Mons  Palatinus). 
the  central  hill  of  the  famous  seven  on  which 
ancient  Rome  (q.v.)  was  built. 

Palem'bang,  capital  of  a  residency  (formerly 
an  independent  kingdom)  near  the  south  end  of 
Sumatra,  stands  on  the  river  Musi,  50  miles  from 
its  mouth ;  the  houses  of  the  town  are  built  on 
great  log  rafts  on  either  bank.     Pop.  50,000. 

Palencia  (anc.  Pallantia),  a  walled  city  of 
Spain,  in  Old  Castile,  180  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of 
Madrid  and  29  NNE.  of  Valladolid.  The  Gothic 
cathedral  was  built  1321-1504.  The  university 
founded  here  in  1208  was  removed  to  Salamanca 
in  1239.  Pop.  16,277.  Area  of  the  province  of 
Palencia,  3256  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  195,000. 

Palenque  (Palen'kay),  great  ruins  in  Mexico, 
between  the  Michol  and  Cliacamas  rivers,  in  the 
north  of  the  state  of  Chiapas,  6j  miles  E.  of  the 
village  of  Santo  Domingo  de  Palenque.  They 
extend  over  20  to  30  acres,  are  buried  in  a  dense 
tropical  forest,  and  consist  of  vast  terraced 
truncated  pyramids,  surmounted  by  solid  edifices 
of  cut  stone,  covered  witli  figures  in  relief,  or 
figures  and  hieroglyphics  in  stucco,  with  remains 
of  brilliant  colours.  'The  Palace'  is  228  feet 
long,  180  feet  deep,  and  25  feet  high,  not  reckon- 
ing the  terrace.  See  works  by  Charnay  (Eng. 
trans.  1887)  and  La  Rochefoucauld  (Paris,  1888). 

Paler'mo,  formerly  the  capital  of  Sicily,  now 
in  point  of  population  the  fifth  city  of  Italy,  an 
archbishopric,  and  a  seaport.  It  stands  on  a  bay 
in  the  north-west  corner  of  the  island,  at  the 
mouth  of  a  fertile  valley  called  the  Conca  d'Oro 
('  Golden  Shell '),  120  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Messina, 
and  occupies  a  picturesque  site  backed  by  moun- 
tains— on  the  north  by  Mount  Pellegrino.  The 
cathedral  of  St  Rosalia,  built  (1169-85)  by  an 
Englishman,  Archbishop  Walter,  contains  the 
tombs  of  Roger  I.  and  the  emperors  Henry  VI. 
and  Frederick  II.  There  are  close  upon  three 
hundred  churches  and  chapels  in  Palermo.  The 
royal  palace,  built  by  Roger  I.,  is  principally  of 
Spanish  construction  ;  other  public  buildings  are 
the  archbishop's  palace,  town-house,  law-courts, 
university,  arsenal,  &c.  The  university  (1447)  has 
70  teachers  and  over  1100  students.  There  are 
also  a  national  museum,  the  town  library  (1775) 
with  141,000  vols,  and  2640  MSS.,  and  the  national 
library  (1804)  with  110,000  vols,  and  12,000  MSS. 
Machinery,  essences,  sumach,  turnery,  iron- 
founding,  books,  gloves,  and  shoes  represent 
the  industries.  But  Palermo  is  an  important 
seaport,  with  a  large,  though  not  growing,  trade. 
Oranges,  lemons,  dried  fruits,  sumach,  tartar, 
grain,  oils,  manna,  sulphur,  wine,  animal  produce, 
and  lemon-juice  are  the  principal  exports.  The 
imports  include  grain  and  vegetables,  cottons  and 
woollens,  coals,  live-stock,  iron,  timber,  groceries, 
silk,  hides,  petroleum,  machinery,  linen,  metals, 


PALESTINE 


533 


PALESTINE 


and  glcassware.  Population,  310,000.  Panormus, 
tlie  stronghold  of  Carthage  in  Sicily,  was  con- 
qiiered  successively  by  Pyrrhus  (276  b.c),  the 
Romans  (254  b.c.),  the  Vandals  (440  a.d.),  Beli- 
sarius  (535),  the  Saracens  (835),  the  Pisans  (1003), 
and  the  Normans  from  Apulia  (1071).  Hence- 
forward it  was  the  capital  of  the  kingdom  of 
Sicily,  first  of  the  Norman  kingdom,  then  of  that 
of  the  Angevins  and  their  Spanish  successors. 
It  suffered  severely  from  earthquakes  in  1693, 
1726,  and  1823.  The  city  revolted  against  the 
Bourbon  kings  of  Naples  in  1820  and  1848,  and 
was  freed  from  them  in  1860  by  Garibaldi. 

Palestine,  Canaan,  the  Land  of  Israel,  or  the 
Holy  Land,  scene  of  most  of  the  great  events  of 
sacred  story,  is  a  country  in  the  SW.  of  Syria. 
Palestine  proper  (i.e.  without  the  territory  be- 
yond Jordan)  contains  an  area  of  about  6000  sq. 
m. ,  or  less  than  Yorkshire.  The  territory  beyond 
Jordan  may  be  reckoned  at  2000-3000  sq.  m.  in 
addition.  It  is  bounded  N.  by  the  river  Kasim- 
iyeh,  E.  by  the  Jordan,  and  W.  by  the  sea.  At 
first  sight  the  map  shows  ridge  upon  ridge  of  hills 
running  east  and  west,  sloping  gradually  to  the 
west,  and  descending  steeply  to  the  east.  On  the 
west  is  a  long  strip  of  low  seaboard  varying  in 
breadth,  vanishingaltogether  at  the  footofCarmel, 
and  broadening  southward  into  the  Plain  of  Phil- 
istia.  Palestine,  as  a  whole,  is  physically  divis- 
ible into  four  parts  :  (1)  The  maritime  district, 
extending  along  the  Mediterranean,  and  includ- 
ing Philistia  ;  (2)  the  central  tableland  or  '  hill- 
country 'of  Jud«a,  culminating  in  the  Lebanon 
towards  the  north  and  spreading  out  into  the 
great  plain  of  the  Badiet-et-Tih  to  the  south ; 
(3)  the  depression  of  the  Jordan  Valley  and 
Dead  Sea,  separating  Eastern  from  Western 
Palestine  ;  and  (4)  the  tableland  of  Edom,  Moab, 
and  the  region  of  Trachonitis  to  the  east  of  the 
Jordan  Valley,  bounded  by  an  abrupt  and  lofty 
escarpment,  and  stretching  away  towards  the 
east  into  the  Desert  of  Arabia.  In  North  Galilee 
tlie  watershed  runs  at  an  average  height  of  2800 
feet  above  the  sea,  while  the  highest  peak  rises 
to  a  height  of  3934  feet.  In  Samaria  the  hills  are 
lower,  not  rising  above  3000  feet,  while  south  of 
Jerusalem  the  hills  again  rise  to  over  3300  feet. 
The  north  country  contains  the  Plains  of  Buttauf 
and  the  rich  plain  of  Esdraelon,  20  miles  long  and 
9  miles  broad,  elevated,  at  its  highest  point,  250 
feet  above  the  sea.  The  principal  elevations 
are  Jebel  JennCik,  3934  feet ;  Carmel,  1740  feet 
(12  miles  long);  Mount  Ebal,  3084  feet,  and 
Mount  Gerizim,  2849  feet ;  Tell  Asiir,  3318  feet ; 
and  Has  esh  Sherifeh,  3258  feet.  The  Mari- 
time Plain,  formed  partly  by  the  denudation  of 
the  mountains  and  partly  by  accumulation  of 
sand,  possesses  a  fertile  soil';  deep  gullies  run 
across  it,  with,  in  some  cases,  perennial  streams. 
The  Jordan  Valley  begins  with  the  rise  of  the 
stream  1000  feet  above  the  Mediterranean,  and 
in  100  miles  falls  to  1292  feet  below  it.  This  is  a 
drop  of  nearly  2300  feet,  or  23  feet  in  a  mile.  The 
valley  itself  varies  in  width  from  5  miles,  where  it 
begins,  to  13  miles  in  the  Plain  of  Jericho.  The 
country  terminates  southward  with  the  Jeshi- 
mon,  the  'Solitude'  of  the  Old  Testament  or  the 
'  Wilderness  of  Judoea '  of  the  New,  a  plateau  of 
white  chalk  rising  in  cliffs  2000  feet  high  above 
the  Dead  Sea.  Palestine  is  poorly  supplied  with 
rivers.  Among  the  best  known  are  the  Kishon 
(Mukatta),  flowing  to  the  Mediterranean  ;  the 
Jalud  and  the  Farah  flowing  into  the  Jordan 
from  the  west ;  the  Jabbok  (Zerka)  and  the  Arnon 
(Mojib)  flowing  into  the  Jordan  from  the  east. 
There  are  the  three  lakes  of  Huleh  (the  '  Waters 


of  Merom '),  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and  the  Dead  Sea, 
and  plenty  of  springs. 

The  climate  of  Palestine  is  extremely  hot  in 
summer,  when  the  temperature  reaches  100°  F., 
and  in  winter  it  is  wet  and  cold,  though  frost  does 
not  occur  on  the  plains.  There  are  heavy  dews. 
The  '  former  rain '  and  the  '  latter  rain '  are  those 
which  occur  at  the  autumnal  and  vernal  equinoxes. 
The  distinctive  trees  of  the  country  are  the  tere- 
binth, the  olive,  the  cedar,  and  the  sycamore. 
The  shittim-wood  is  supposed  to  have  been  the 
acacia.  The  rose  of  Sharon  is  a  white  narcissus  ; 
and  the  lily  of  the  valley  is  the  blue  iris.  Xhe 
crocodile  is  still  found  in  one  or  two  of  the  rivers. 
The  wild-goat— iftea;— is  found  in  large  herds 
in  the  southern  wilderness  ;  the  lion  is  extinct ; 
the  bear  lingers  in  the  mountains  ;  the  hyaena  is 
common  ;  the  wolf  is  rare  ;  the  dog  is  an  unclean 
creature  living  in  the  outskirts  of  towns,  and 
feeding  on  garbage.  Of  birds,  all  those  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible  which  can  be  identified  may 
yet  be  found.  The  locust  still  devastates  the 
crops,  and  the  grasshopper  serves  for  food. 

Since  the  2d  century,  Palestine  has  been  a  land 
of  pilgrimage,  and  many  early  Christian  writers 
describe  the  country.  After  the  Moslem  con- 
quest, Mohammedans  wrote  largely  of  it.  The 
Crusaders  left  accounts  of  their  wars.  Modern 
exploration  began  in  the  19th  century  with 
Seetzen,  Burckhardt,  Buckingham,  Irby  and 
Mangles,  Tobler,  De  Saulcy,  Van  de  Velde,  and 
Williams.  The  researches  of  Robinson  in  the 
years  1838-52,  forced  upon  the  world  the  necessity 
for  an  exhaustive  survey  of  the  country,  which 
was  carried  out  (1865-77  as  regards  Western  Pales- 
tine) for  the  Palestine  Exploration  Fund  (1865), 
chiefly  by  Major  Conder,  R.E.  The  whole  of 
Western  Palestine  was  (1880-81)  mapped  on  a 
scale  which  includes  every  ruin  as  well  as  every 
spring,  every  watercourse,  every  wood,  and 
every  hillock.  At  least  150  lost  Biblical  sites 
have  been  recovered  ;  by  means  of  these  the 
boundaries  of  the  tribes  can  now  be  laid  down  ; 
one-fourth  only  of  the  Bible  names  remain  to 
be  identified.  The  topography  of  Josephus,  of 
the  Talmud,  of  the  pilgrims,  and  of  the  chroniclers 
has  also  been  illustrated  and  recovered.  All  im- 
portant heights  have  been  ascertained  ;  the  levels 
of  the  Dead  Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee  are  laid 
down  ;  all  the  remaining  ruins  have  been  planned 
and  drawn.  The  survey  of  Eastern  Palestine  was 
begun  under  the  same  auspices  in  1881. 

The  present  condition  of  the  country  shows  the 
beginning  of  rapid  changes  in  every  direction. 
There  is  a  railway  from  Jaffa  to  Jerusalem  ;  other 
railways,  from  Acre  and  Haifa  to  Damascus,  and 
from  Beyrout  to  Damascus,  are  in  progress  ;  there 
are  many  practicable  roads  ;  and  there  is  even  an 
hotel  at  Jericho.  As  regards  Jerusalem,  a  new 
town  has  sprung  up  outside  the  walls  ;  it  is  said 
that  there  are  close  upon  50,000  Jews  in  and 
about  the  Holy  City  ;  the  Mount  of  Olives  is  being 
covered  with  buildings.  There  are  Jewish  col- 
onies between  Ramleh,  Lj-dda,  and  Jaffa ;  there  are 
German  colonies  in  the  same  region  ;  Circassians 
occupy  Amman,  and  are  settling  in  the  Hauran  ; 
the  people  from  the  Lebanon  are  coming  down  and 
covering  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan. 

The  name  Palestine  originally  belonged  merely 
to  the  coast  strip  occupied  by  the  Philistines. 
The  rest  of  the  country  west  of  the  Jordan  was, 
prior  to  the  Jewish  Conquest  (1274  b.c),  occupied 
by  some  six  or  seven  Canaanitish  nations,  all 
except  the  Hittites  apparently  of  Semitic  stock. 
East  of  the  Jordan  were  the  peoples  of  Moab, 
Amnion,  Edom,  and  Midian,  also  Semitic,  like 


PALESTINE 


634 


panamX 


the  Israelites  themselves.  Jerusalem  became  the 
capital  of  a  southern  kingdom  of  Judah  ;  the 
northern  Israelite  kingdom  of  the  Ten  Tribes 
had  its  capital  at  Shechem,  Tirzah,  and  Samaria 
in  succession.  The  Ten  Tribes  mostly  disappeared 
during  the  captivity  in  Assyria  (after  720  B.C.), 
a  small  remnant  mixed  with  Assyrian  colonists 
forming  the  Samaritan  people.  After  the  people 
of  the  southern  kingdom  returned  from  the  great 
captivity  in  Babylon  (538  B.C.),  they  occupied 
most  of  the  country  formerly  belonging  to  the 
whole  people  of  Israel,  and  are  henceforward 
known  to  history  as  the  Jews.  The  kingdom  of 
Herod  the  Great  (37-4  b.c.)  covered  most  of  the 
land  divided  by  Joshua  among  the  twelve  tribes, 
but  was  now  divided  into  Galilee,  Samaria  and 
Judsea,  Idumaea  and  east  of  Jordan,  PerjEa,  Gaul- 
onitis,  Auranitis,  and  Trachonitis.  A  period  of 
prosperity  ended  with  the  siege  and  capture  of 
Jerusalem  by  the  Romans  (70  a.d.),  whereupon 
the  Jews  were  scattered  to  the  four  winds ; 
and  Palestine,  held  by  Persians,  Saracens,  Latin 
Crusaders,  Turks,  has  never  since  been  the  home 
of  a  nation.  In  its  palmiest  days  Palestine  may 
have  had  from  2  to  8  millions  of  inhabitants  ;  the 
present  pop.,  estimated  at  650,000,  is  very  mixed 
in  origin,  but  consists  mainly  of  Syro-Arabian 
fellahin,  speaking  the  Syrian  dialect  of  Arabic. 

See  the  Survey  of  Western  Palestine  (8  vols.  1881 
et.  seq. ;  discussing  excavations,  fauna,  flora, 
geology,  &c.,  by  Conder,  Kitchener,  Warren, 
Tristram,  Hull,  &c,);  The  Survey  of  Eastern 
Palestine;  Tristram,  The  Land  of  Israel  (2d  ed. 
1872);  Conder,  Palestine  (1889),  and  Tent  Work 
in  Palestine  (1878) ;  Thomson,  The  Land  and  the 
Book  (1859;  new  ed.  1880-86);  Guy  le  Strange, 
Palestine  under  the  Moslems  (1892) ;  G.  A.  Smith, 
Historical  Geography  of  the  Holy  Land  (1894); 
Baedeker's  guide  by  Socin,  and  Cook's ;  books 
by  Temple  (1888),  Henderson  (1893),  A.  W.  Cooke 
(1901),  Kelman  and  Fulleylove  (illustrated,  1902) ; 
and  works  cited  under  Jerusalem. 

Palestine,  capital  of  Anderson  county,  Texas, 
151  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Houston.     Pop.  8300. 

Palestrina  (Pa-les-tree'na;  anc.  Prceneste),  an 
Italian  city,  22  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Rome,  on  the 
slope  of  an  offset  of  the  Apennines,  contains  the 
chief  castle  of  the  Colonnas  and  the  palace  of  the 
Barberini,  the  owners  after  1630.  It  is  built 
almost  entirely  upon  the  gigantic  substructions 
of  the  ancient  Temple  of  Fortune.    Pop.  5855. 

Palghat,  a  town  of  Malabar  district,  68  miles 
SE.  of  Calicut  by  rail.     Pop.  44,200. 

P411,  the  commercial  capital  of  Jodhpur  (q.v.), 
45  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Jodhpur  city. 

Palikao,  a  place  on  the  canal  between  Peking 
and  its  port  on  the  Peiho.  Here  in  1860  was 
fought  an  engagement  between  the  Anglo-French 
troops  and  the  Chinese. 

Palk  Strait,  the  northern  portion  of  the  shallow 
passage  between  south  India  and  Ceylon  (q.v.). 

Pallas,  in  Co.  Longford,  2^  miles  SB.  of  Bally- 
mahon,  was  the  birthplace  of  Oliver  Goldsmith. 

Pallice,  La,  a  harbour  opened  in  1889  for  large 
vessels  trading  to  La  Rochelle  (3  miles  distant). 

Palma,  (l)  capital  of  Majorca  (q.v.)  and  of  the 
Balearic  Islands,  stands  on  the  Bay  of  Palma,  on 
the  south  coast.  The  Gothic  cathedral  dates 
from  1232-1601.  The  tomb  of  Raymond  Lully  is 
in  the  church  of  St  Francis.  There  is  a  beautiful 
exchange  (1426-46),  an  old  Moorish  palace,  and  a 
16th-century  town-hall.  Population,  65,000,manu- 
facturing  silks,  woollens,  jewellery,  &c.  The 
port  is  protected  by  a  mole,  and  the  town  by  a 


wall  and  batteries.— <2)  A  town  of  Sicily,  14  miles 
SE.  of  Girgenti.  Pop.  14,702.— (3)  The  name  of 
one  of  the  larger  of  the  Canary  Islands  (q.v.). 

Palmbeach,  a  fashionable  watering-place  of 
Dade  county,  on  the  Atlantic  coast  of  Florida, 
65  miles  N.  of  Miami.  Pop.  300,  multiplied  many 
times  in  the  season. 

Palmerston.    See  also  Port  Darwin. 

Palmy'ra,  in  the  2d  and  3d  centuries  a  mag- 
nificent city  of  northern  Syria,  situated  in  an 
oasis  on  tlie  edge  of  the  Arabian  desert,  150 
miles  NE.  of  Damascus.  The  Semitic  name  was 
Tadmor,  Palmyra  (='city  of  palms')  being  the 
Greek  and  Latin  equivalent.  Magnificent  remains 
of  the  ancient  city  still  exist,  chief  among  them 
being  the  great  temple  of  the  Sun  (or  Baal) ;  the 
great  colonnade,  nearly  a  mile  long,  and  consist- 
ing originally  of  some  1500  Corintliian  columns; 
and  sepulchral  towers,  overlooking  the  city. 

Palni  Hills,  a  range  of  soutliern  India,  linking 
the  soutliern  ends  of  the  Eastern  and  Western 
Ghats  ;  height  of  the  liiglier  ridge,  7000  feet. 

Palo  Alto  (Pdh-lo),  33  miles  SE.  of  San  Fran- 
ci.sco,  the  seat  of  a  university  founded  by  Senator 
Leland  Stanford,  opened  in  1891,  and  destroyed 
by  the  eartliquake  of  April  1906. 

Palos  (Pdh'los),  a  Spanish  port  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Rio  Tinto,  5  miles  SE.  of  Huelva.  Once  an 
important  place,  whence  Columbus  started  on 
his  great  voyage,  it  has  now  sunk  to  a  village  of 
1422  inhabitants. 

Pamir  (Pameer' ;  'roof  of  the  world;'  often 
called  the  Pamirs),  the  nucleus  of  the  Central 
Asian  highland  system,  is  a  lofty  plateau-region, 
with  a  mean  elevation  of  13,000  feet,  uniting  the 
western  terminations  of  the  Himalaya  and  the 
Tian-Shan  Mountains,  and  both  with  the  Hindu- 
Kush.  It  is  traversed  by  mountain-ridges  which 
rise  from  4000  to  5000  feet  above  the  plateaus, 
and  whose  culminating  points  attain  25,500  feet 
above  sea-level.  Between  these  ridges  are  a  series 
of  broad  valleys.  On  the  west  side  the  Pamir 
sinks  rapidly  in  terraces  to  the  deserts  of  Turke- 
stan. These  lofty  plateaus  are  exposed  to  great 
extremes  of  heat  and  cold,  and  are  visited  by 
terrible  snow  and  sand  storms.  Nevertheless  the 
Kirghiz  drive  up  their  flocks  and  herds  for  summer 
pasture,  and  from  time  immemorial  their  passes 
have  been  traversed  by  traders  and  travellers — 
e.g.  by  the  famous  Marco  Polo  on  his  journey  to 
the  court  of  Kublai  Khan.  Among  the  lakes 
are  Karakul,  120  sq.  m.,  and  Shivakul,  100  sq. 
m.  The  Pamir  occupies  the  frontiers  of  Russian, 
Chinese,  and  Afghan  Turkestan,  Bokhara,  and 
Cashmere ;  and  Russian  movements  there  are 
watched  with  jealousy  by  China  as  well  as  by 
Britain.  See  Geiger,  Die  Pamirgebiete  (1887); 
and  the  Earl  of  Dunmore,  The  Pamirs  (1893). 

Pamlico  Sound,  a  shallow  body  of  water, 
some  75  by  10  to  25  miles,  on  the  coast  of  North 
Carolina,  separated  from  the  ocean  by  long, 
narrow  islands  of  sand,  with  narrow  passages. 

Pampelu'na,  or  Pamplona,  a  fortified  city  of 
northern  Spain,  stands  on  a  tributary  of  the 
Ebro,  111  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Saragossa,  and 
50  S.  by  W.  of  Bayonne  in  France.  It  has  a 
citadel  (a  copy  of  that  of  Antwerp),  a  Gothic  cathe- 
dral (1397),  a  viceregal  palace,  a  fine  aqueduct,  and 
some  manufactures.  Pompeiopolis  was  built  by 
Pompey  in  68  B.C.  From  907  it  was  the  capital  of 
Navarre.     Pop.  30,988. 

Pamphylia,  anciently  a  country  on  the  south 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  between  Lycia  and  Cilicia. 
Panamd,    Isthmus   of,  formerly  called    the 


I 


PANCSOVA 


535 


t»ARAGtJAY 


Isthmus  of  Darien  (q.v.),  embraces  the  narrow- 
est part  (35  miles)  of  Central  America,  connect- 
ing Costa  Rica  on  tlie  W.  with  Colombia  on  the 
E.  Formerly  a  department  of  Colombia,  it 
asserted  its  indepeiuieiice  in  1903  and  formed 
a  republic,  which  was  at  once  recognised  by  the 
United  States,  and  since  by  the  chief  European 
powers.  With  an  area  of  31,570  sq.  m.,  and  a 
pop.  of  about  340,000,  it  is  traversed  by  a  low 
chain  of  mountains,  forming  the  barrier  between 
the  Atlantic  and  Pacilic  oceans.  The  chief  trad- 
ing ports  are  Panama  and  Colon  (Aspinwall). 

PanamX,  capital  of  the  dep.,  stands  on  a 
projecting  volcanic  rock  on  the  Pacific  side ; 
the  massive  walls  the  Spaniards  built  to  pro- 
tect their  treasure  city  still  stand  in  places.  Old 
Panama,  founded  in  1518,  was  captured  and  de- 
stroyed by  the  buccaneers  under  Morgan  (1671). 
Modern  Panama  was  built  two  years  later,  4^ 
miles  distant  from  the  old  city  ;  pop.  28,000,  the 
majority  of  Indian  and  negro  descent,  and  half- 
breeds.  Fires  have  destroyed  Panama  repeat- 
edly, as  well  as  its  sister  city  Colon.  The 
principal  buildings  are  the  cathedral  (1760)^ 
town-hall,  and  bishop's  palace  (1880).  Panama 
is  connected  with  Colon  on  the  Atlantic  by  the 
Panama  Railway  (48  miles  long),  built  by  Amer- 
icans in  1850-55. 

PanamX  Canal.— The  idea  of  connecting  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  Oceans  by  a  canal  across 
the  Central  American  isthmus  is  as  old  as  the 
16th  century ;  but  no  steps  were  taken  to  carry 
out  any  plan  until  Ferdinand  de  Lesseps,  of 
Suez  fame,  convened  in  Paris  in  1879  an  inter- 
national congress  to  discuss  the  plan  of  cutting 
through  the  Isthmus  of  Panama.  On  February 
28,  1881,  the  first  detachment  of  canal  employes 
arrived  at  Colon  ;  in  1882  the  Canal  Company 
purchased  the  Panama  Railway.  An  expert 
commission  to  Panama  in  1880  estimated  that 
a  canal  could  be  made  for  843,000,000  francs, 
but  later  De  Lesseps  announced  that  a  tide- 
level  canal  without  locks  could  be  comi)leted  for 
600,000,000  francs.  Work  was  begun,  and  loans 
followed  year  after  year,  until  the  company  was 
forced  into  liquidation  in  1889.  The  Panama 
scandals  followed  (1892-93),  with  prosecutions 
and  imprisonments  (Lesseps,  Eiffel,  &c.).  In 
1902  the  United  States  arranged  to  purchase  the 
existing  works,  with  the  right  to  finish  the  canal; 
but  the  necessary  treaty  was  rejected  by  Colom- 
bia in  1903,  whereon  the  department  of  PanamA 
revolted  (see  above),  and  the  new  republic  signed 
a  treaty  with  the  States  in  November  1903,  giving 
the  Americans  full  control  of  a  strip  of  land  on 
either  side  the  canal,  which  is  practically  a  de- 
pendency of  the  United  States.  The  total  cost  of 
the  canal  to  the  United  States  is  estimated  to  be 
about  $200,000,000. 

Panc'sova,  a  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Temes, 
near  its  junction  with  the  Danube,  9  miles  NE.  of 
Belgrade.     Pop.  19,000. 

Pandharpur,  a  town  of  India,  112  miles  SB.  of 
Poona,  on  a  branch  of  the  Kistna.     Pop.  36,910. 

Pangbourne,  a  Berkshire  parish,  on  the 
Thames,  hero  joined  by  the  Pang,  5h  miles  WNW. 
of  Reading.    Pop.  885. 

Pan'lpat,  a  town  of  the  Punjab,  53  miles  N.  of 
Delhi,  near  the  old  bank  of  the  Jumna,  and  on 
the  great  military  road  of  northern  India  to 
Afghanistan.  Hence  it  has  been  the  scene  of 
three  great  battles  (1526,  1556,  1761)  between 
the  people  of  India  and  her  invaders,  the  two 
first  Mongol  victories,  and  the  third  an  Afghan 
victory  over  the  Mahrattas.    Pop.  27,547. 


Panjab.    See  Punjab. 

Panjdeh.    See  Penjdeh. 

Panjim.    See  Go  a. 

Panna,  capital  of  a  native  state  (area,  2568 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  239,333)  in  Bundelkhand,  173  miles 
SW.  of  Allahabad.     Pop.  14,676. 

Pannanich  Wells.    See  Ballater. 

Pannonia,  an  ancient  Roman  province,  bounded 
N.  and  E.  by  the  Danube,  and  including  most  of 
modern  Hungary,  Slavonia,  Bosnia,  Croatia,  Car- 
niola,  Styria,  and  Lower  Austria. 

Panormus.    See  Palermo. 

Panshanger,  the  seat  of  Earl  Cowper,  2i  miles 
W.  by  N.  of  Hertford. 

Panteg,  a  Monmouthshire  parish,  with  iron- 
works, 2  miles  SE.  of  Pontypool.    Pop.  7746. 

Pantellaria,  a  volcanic  island  in  the  Mediter- 
ranean, 36  miles  in  circumference,  and  60  miles 
SW.  of  Sicily.      It  is  a  great  convict  prison. 

Papal  States.    See  Church  (States  of  the). 

Pap'a  Stour,  a  Shetland  island,  34  miles  NW. 
of  Lerwick.    Pop.  274. 

Pap'a  Westray,  an  Orkney  island,  25  miles  N. 
by  E.  of  Kirkwall.    Pop.  295. 

Papenburg  (Pd-pen-boorg'),  a  small  port  of 
Hanover,  25  miles  W.  of  Oldenburg  by  rail  and 
near  the  Ems.     Pop.  6916. 

Paphlagonia,  anciently  a  province  of  Asia 
Minor,  along  the  south  shore  of  the  Black  Sea. 

Paphos,  two  ancient  cities  in  Cyprus.  Old 
Paphos  (now  Kyklia)  was  in  the  western  part  of 
the  island,  1\  mile  from  the  coast,  and  was  famous 
for  a  temple  of  Venus,  who  was  said  to  have 
risen  from  the  sea  close  by.  The  other  Paphos 
(Papho  or  Baffa)  was  on  the  sea-coast,  8  miles 
W.,  and  was  the  place  in  which  Paul  preached. 

Papua  (Papoo'a).    See  New  Guinea. 

Par,  a  Cornish  seaport,  4J  miles  SSW.  of 
Lostwithiel.    Pop.  1634. 

Para,  the  name  which  the  river  Tocantins  (q.v.) 
receives  in  its  lower  course  (138  miles),  20  miles 
wide  opposite  the  city  of  Para.  The  Paranan, 
an  arm  of  the  Amazon,  which  isolates  Marajo 
Island,  runs  into  it. 

Para  (ofiicial  name  BeUm),  a  seaport  of  Brazil, 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  river  Para,  70  miles  from 
its  mouth.  The  harbour  is  nearly  landlocked  by 
wooded  islands.  Tram-cars  and  telephones  are 
in  general  use,  and  there  is  a  railway  to  Braganga 
(108  miles).  The  principal  buildings  are  the 
theatre,  the  government  building,  custom-house, 
and  cathedral  (1720).  Para  is  the  emporium  of 
the  Amazon  river-trade,  supplying  the  interior 
with  foreign  goods,  and  exporting  india-rubber, 
cacao,  Brazil  nuts,  fish,  &c.  Pop.  50,600.— Area 
of  the  state  of  Para,  443,653  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  335,000. 

Paraguay  (Paragway'  or  Paragwl),  an  import- 
ant river  of  South  America,  an  affluent  of  the 
Parana  (q.v.),  rises  in  the  Brazilian  state  of  Matto 
Grosso,  pursues  a  generally  southward  course  of 
about  1800  miles  through  plains,  swamps,  and 
forests  in  Brazil,  between  Brazil  and  Bolivia,  and 
then  through  Paraguay  to  its  junction  with  the 
Parana,  a  few  miles  above  Corrientes.  Its  chief 
affluents  are  the  Cuj'aba,  Tacuary,  Mondego,  and 
Apa  on  the  left,  and  the  Jauru,  Pilcomayo,  and 
Vermejo  on  the  right.  It  is  navigable  for 
steamers  to  the  mouth  of  the  Cuyaba. 

Paraguay,  an  inland  republic  of  South 
America,  divided  into  two  distinct  portions  by 
the  Paraguay  River.    Eastern  Paraguay,  or  Para- 


^^ARAGUAY 


536 


PARAY-LE-MONIAi. 


guay  proper,  is  a  parallelogram  between  the 
Paraguay  and  Parand  rivers,  and  is  bordered  by 
the  Brazilian  and  Argentine  republics.  Western 
Paraguay,  or  the  Chaco  (see  Gran  Chaco),  the 
smaller  part,  lies  mainly  between  the  Paraguay 
and  its  tributary  the  Pilcomayo.  The  total  area 
of  Paraguay  is  estimated  at  about  142,000  sq.  m. 
— a  territory  considerably  larger  than  Great 
Britain  and  Ireland.  The  population  of  Paraguay 
is  composed  of  whites  of  Spanish  descent,  Indians, 
a  few  negroes,  and  a  mixture  of  these  several 
races,  and  in  1905  was  estimated  at  535,000,  ex- 
clusive of  the  Indians  in  the  Chaco.  The  north- 
ern portion  of  Paraguay  is  in  general  undulating, 
covered  by  low,  gently-swelling  ridges,  separated 
by  large  grass  plains,  dotted  with  palms.  There 
are  mountains  in  the  north-east  and  north-west 
corners.  The  southern  portion  is  one  of  the 
most  fertile  districts  of  South  America,  consist- 
ing of  hills  and  gentle  slopes  richly  wooded,  of 
wide  savannahs,  which  afford  excellent  pasture- 
ground,  and  of  rich  alluvial  plains,  some  of 
which  are  marshy,  but  a  large  proportion  are  of 
extraordinary  fertility  and  highly  cultivated. 
The  banks  of  the  rivers  Parana  and  Paraguay  are 
occasionally  belted  with  forest ;  but  in  general 
the  lowlands  are  destitute  of  trees.  The  tempera- 
ture occasionally  rises  to  100°  in  summer,  but  in 
winter  is  usually  about  45°.  The  natural  pro- 
ductions are  very  varied,  although  they  do  not 
include  the  precious  metals  or  other  minerals. 
Much  valuable  timber  is  found  in  the  forests, 
also  dye-woods,  india-rubber,  orange-trees,  gum- 
yielding  trees,  the  mat6,  or  Paraguay  tea  shrub 
(growing  wild  in  the  NE.),  which  yields  one  of 
the  chief  articles  of  commerce.  Wax  and  honey 
are  collected,  as  is  also  cochineal,  and  the  medi- 
cinal plants  are  very  numerous.  The  chief  culti- 
vated crops  are  maize,  rice,  coffee,  cocoa,  indigo, 
manioc,  tobacco,  and  sugar-cane.  Tapirs,  jaguars, 
pumas,  ant-eaters,  wild-boars,  peccaries,  and  deer 
abound  ;  birds  are  innumerable  ;  the  rivers  teem 
with  fish,  and  their  banks  are  the  resort  of 
alligators  and  coypus.  Snakes,  including  enor- 
mous boas,  are  numerous,  but  very  few  of  them 
are  venomous.  The  commerce  of  the  country 
has  greatly  increased  since  1880.  In  1880  the  value 
of  exports  was  £252,000,  that  of  imports  less ; 
in'!  1903  their  respective  values  were  £850,350 
and  £710,360.  The  chief  exports  are  yerba-niate, 
tobacco,  hides,  oranges,  timber,  bark  for  tanning, 
and  lace;  the  imports,  cotton  goods,  hardware, 
wine,  grain,  rice,  linen,  silk,  petroleum,  &c. — 32 
per  cent,  of  the  imports  being  from  Britain, 
mostly  passing  through  Brazil  and  the  Argen- 
tine Republic.  There  are  no  direct  exports  to 
Britain.  The  revenue  fluctuates  much  —  from 
about  $9,000,000  to  $15,000,000;  the  expendi- 
ture generally  exceeds  the  revenue.  The  foreign 
debt  is  about  £6,500,000,  the  interest  of 
•which  is  sometimes  seriously  in  arrears  or  un- 
paid. Trade  in  the  towns  is  almost  wholly  in 
the  hands  of  Italians,  French,  and  Germans.  The 
military  force  consists  of  1500  men.  The  estab- 
lished religion  is  the  Roman  Catholic.  Educa- 
tion is  free  and  compulsory  ;  but  of  the  adult 
Paraguayans  only  one  in  five  can  read  and  write. 
Paraguay  was  discovered  by  Juan  Diaz  de  Solis 
in  1515,  and  settled  as  a  province  of  the  viceroyalty 
of  Peru  in  1535.  The  warlike  Guaranis  long 
successfully  resisted  the  Spanish  arms.  In  the 
17th  century  the  home  government  placed  in  the 
Jesuits'  hands  the  entire  administration,  civil  as 
well  as  religious.  From  this  time  forward  the 
progress  of  civilisation  as  well  as  of  Christianity 
was  rapid.    On  the  expulsion  of  the  Jesuits  from 


Paraguay  in  1768,  the  province  was  again  made 
subject  to  the  Spanish  viceroys.  In  1810  Para- 
guay joined  with  the  other  states  in  declaring  its 
independence.  In  1814  Dr  Francia  was  pro- 
claimed dictator,  and  exercised  absolute  power 
till  his  death  in  1840.  In  1865-70  the  Paraguayans 
made  a  heroic  but  unavailing  fight  against  the 
combined  forces  of  Brazil,  the  Argentine  Con- 
federation, and  Uruguay,  closed  by  the  defeat 
and  death  of  the  president  Lopez  at  the  battle 
of  Aquidaban,  March  1,  1870.  The  results  of  the 
war  may  be  read  in  the  returns  of  the  pop. — 
(1857)  1,337,439  ;  (1873)  221,079,  including  only 
28,746  men  and  106,254  women  over  fifteen  years 
of  age.  Of  late  the  country  has  made  considerable 
progress.  In  1870  a  new  constitution  was  adopted. 
It  is  modelled  on  that  of  the  Argentine  Confedera- 
tion. Asuncion  (the  capital)  has  a  pop.  of  53,000, 
and  is  connected  by  railway  (92  miles)  with  Villa 
Rica.  See  works  by  Robertson  (1840),  Mansfield 
(1856),  Page  (New  York,  1867),  Kennedy  (1869), 
Masterman  (1869),  Thompson  (New  York,  1869), 
Washburn  (Boston,  1871),  and  Mulhall  (1885). 

Parahyba  (Par-a-ee'ba),  capital  of  the  Brazilian 
state  of  Parahyba,  on  the  Parahyba  River,  10 
miles  from  the  sea.  It  has  a  cathedral,  govern- 
ment palace  (formerly  the  Jesuit  college),  and 
large  sugar-mill  (1889).  At  the  mouth  of  the 
river  is  a  bar ;  but  a  railway  (12  miles)  was  built 
in  1889  to  the  port  and  pier  of  Cabedello.  The 
exports  include  sugar,  cotton,  and  cotton-seed, 
chiefly  to  Great  Britain.  Pop.  18,000.— The 
state,  the  easternmost  in  the  republic,  has  an 
area  of  28,854  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  460,000. 
— A  more  important  Parahyba  River,  farther 
south,  enters  the  Atlantic  in  the  state  of  Rio 
de  Janeiro,  after  a  course  of  nearly  500  miles.  It 
is  navigable  for  50  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Paramaribo,  capital  of  Dutch  Guiana,  on  the 
Surinam,  10  miles  from  its  mouth.    Pop.  32,000. 

Paramatta.    See  Parramatta. 

Parana,  (l)  a  river  of  South  America,  rises  as 
the  Rio  Grande  in  the  Brazilian  state  of  Minas 
Geraes,  and  is  known  as  Parana  after  its  junction 
with  the  Paranahyba  (not  the  Parnahyba,  q.v.). 
Thence  its  course  is  S.,  SW.,  and  W.,  separating 
Parand  state  from  Matto  Grosso  and  from  Para- 
guay, round  the  southern  border  of  which  re- 
public it  sweeps  westward  to  its  confluence  with 
the  Paraguay  River.  It  then  rolls  southward 
through  the  Argentine  provinces,  past  Santa  Fe, 
below  which  its  channel  frequently  divides  and 
encloses  numerous  islands,  and  finally  south- 
eastward, till  it  unites  with  the  Uruguay,  above 
Buenos  Ayres,  to  form  the  Rio  de  la  Plata.  The 
entire  length  is  over  2000  miles ;  it  drains  1,100,000 
sq.  m.  At  San  Pedro  (33°  40'  S.  lat.)  a  delta 
begins.  The  principal  towns  on  its  banks  are 
Corrientes,  Parana,  Santa  Fe,  and  Rosario— all 
Argentinian.  The  river  is  navigable  to  the 
influx  of  the  Paraguay  (705  miles),  and  except 
at  low  water  to  the  mouth  of  the  Iguassu  (460 
miles).  Immediately  above  this  point  occurs 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  rapids  in  the  world, 
extending  for  100  miles  between  ranges  of  frown- 
ing cliff's. — (2)  A  southern  state  of  Brazil,  on  the 
coast,  with  an  area  of  85,453  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop. 
of  250,000,  including  several  colonies  of  Germans 
and  Italians.  The  capital  is  Curitiba  (14,000), 
with  a  railway  (69  miles)  to  the  port  of  Parana- 
gua.— (3)  Capital  of  the  Argentinian  province  of 
Entre  Rios,  stands  on  a  high  bluff  overlooking 
the  Parana,  opposite  Santa  Fe,  410  miles  by 
steamer  from  Buenos  Ayres  ;  pop.  25,000. 

Paray-le-Monial     {Par-ay-leh-Mon-ee-ahV),     a 


PARCHIM 


637 


PARIS 


town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Saone-et-Loire,  48 
miles  by  rail  W.  by  N.  of  Macon.  In  its  chapel 
Mary  Alacoque  (d.  1690)  believed  herself  to  have 
had  a  vision  of  the  Saviour,  and  it  is  now  the 
object  of  pilgrimages.    Pop.  4141. 

Parchim  (Par-hheem),  a  town  of  Mecklenburg- 
Schwerin,  23  miles  SE.  of  Schwerin.    Pop.  10,250. 

Par'dubitz,  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Elbe's 
left  bank,  55  miles  E.  of  Prague.     Pop.  17,292. 

Parhafii,  a  Suffolk  village,  2J  miles  SSB.  of 
Framlingham.  Moated  Parham  Hall  here  was 
the  seat  of  the  Willoughbys. 

Paris  (Fr.  pron.  Par-ee'),  capital  of  France,  and 
the  largest  city  in  Europe  after  London,  is  situ- 
ated in  48°  50'  N.  lat.  and  2"  20'  E.  long.,  on  the 
river  Seine,  about  110  miles  from  its  mouth.  It 
lies  in  the  midst  of  the  fertile  plain  of  the  lie- 
de-France,  at  a  point  to  which  converge  the  chief 
tributaries  of  the  river,  the  Yonne,  the  Marne, 
and  the  Oise ;  and  is  the  centre  of  a  great  net- 
work of  rivers,  canals,  roads,  and  railways  ;  hence 
its  commercial  importance.  The  present  city  is 
bounded  by  fortilications — a  rampart  (1840-60) 
upwards  of  22  miles  in  length.  The  extension  of  the 
city  boundary  to  this  line  exijlains  the  increase 
of  pop.  from  1,174,346  in  1856  to  1,696,741  in 
1861;  subsequent  pop.  (1866)  1,825,274;  (1881) 
2,269,023  ;  (1901)  2,714,068.  Montmartre,  within 
the  fortifications,  is  400  feet  high ;  the  city  is 
encircled  at  a  distance  of  from  two  to  five 
miles  by  an  outer  range  of  heights,  including 
Villejuif,  Meudon,  St  Cloud,  and  Mont-Valerien 
(650  feet),  some  of  which  are  crowned  by  the 
detached  forts  which  now  form  the  main  defences 
of  the  city.  At  the  fifty-six  gates  in  the  walls 
of  Paris  are  paid  the  octroi  dues.  The  Seine 
divides  the  city  into  two  parts,  and  forms  the 
islands  of  La  Cite  and  St  Louis,  both  covered 
with  buildings. 

France  has  long  been  the  most  highly  central- 
ised country  in  Europe,  and  Paris  as  its  heart 
contains  a  great  population  of  government  func- 
tionaries. Paris  is  a  city  of  pleasure,  and  attracts 
the  wealthy  from  all  parts  of  the  world ;  hence 
it  is  a  city  of  capitalists  and  a  great  financial 
centre.  The  provincial  universities  of  France 
have  been  deprived  of  their  attraction  by  the 
schools  of  Paris,  to  which  flock  the  youth  of 
France.  The  publishing  trade  has  followed  the 
same  course.  The  chief  and  peculiar  industries 
of  Paris  produce  articles  which  derive  their 
value  from  the  skill  and  taste  bestowed  on  them 
by  individual  workmen,  and  include  jewellery, 
bronzes,  artistic  furniture,  and  decorative  articles 
known  as  '  articles  de  Paris.'  The  private  houses 
as  well  as  the  public  buildings  of  Paris  are  built 
of  a  light-coloured  limestone,  quarried  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  the  city.  With  this  material 
they  are  reared  in  huge  blocks  to  a  height  of  six 
or  seven  stories,  each  floor  constituting  a  distinct 
dwelling ;  access  to  all  the  floors  in  a  tenement 
being  gained  by  a  common  stair,  which  is  usually 
placed  under  the  charge  of  a  porter  or  concierge 
at  the  entrance.  Very  frequently  the  tenements 
surround  an  open  quadrangle.  Among  the  great 
new  streets  formed  in  the  time  of  Napoleon  III.  are 
the  Rue  de  Rivoli,  two  miles  in  length,  the  Rue 
de  la  Paix,  the  Rue  du  Faubourg  St  Honore,  and 
the  Rue  Royale.  The  Boulevards,  which  extend  in 
a  semicircular  line  on  the  right  side  of  the  Seine, 
between  the  nucleus  of  the  city  and  its  surround- 
ing quarters,  present  the  most  striking  feature  of 
Paris  life.  In  all  the  better  parts  of  the  city  they 
are  lined  with  trees,  seats,  stalls,  and  kiosques. 
,  Among  the  public  squares  or  places  the  most  note- 


worthy is  the  Place  de  la  Concorde,  which  con- 
nects the  Gardens  of  the  Tuileries  with  the 
Champs-Elysees,  and  embraces  a  magnificent 
view  of  some  of  the  finest  buildings  and  gardens 
of  Paris.  In  the  centre  is  the  famous  obelisk  of 
Luxor  (73  feet),  brought  hither  in  1836.  On  the 
site  of  this  obelisk  stood  the  revolutionary 
guillotine,  at  which  perished  Louis  XVI.,  Marie 
Antoinette,  Philipi)e  Egalit6,  Charlotte  Corday, 
Danton,  ai\d  Robespierre.  Of  the  other  squares 
the  following  are  some  of  the  finest :  the  Place 
du  Carrousel,  including  the  site  of  the  Tuileries 
burned  by  the  Commune  and  not  restored ;  thb. 
Place  Vendome,  with  Najwleon's  Column  of* 
Victory  ;  the  Place  de  la  Bastille,  where  once 
stood  that  famous  prison-fortress ;  the  Place 
Royale ;  and  the  Place  de  1' Hotel  de  Ville. 
Triumphal  arches  are  a  feature  in  the  archi- 
tecture of  Paris.  The  Porte  St  Martin  and  Porte 
St  Denis  were  erected  by  Louis  XIV.  to  com- 
memorate his  victories  in^  the  Low  Countries ; 
the  Arc  de  Triomphe  de  I'Etoile,  built  in  1806-36 
at  a  cost  of  more  than  £400,000,  is  profusely 
adorned  with  bas-reliefs  and  alto-reliefs.  The 
great  streets  which  radiate  from  the  Arc  de 
Triomphe  were  among  the  most  magnificent  of 
those  constructed  by  Napoleon  III.  The  Seine 
in  passing  through  Paris  is  spanned  by  twenty- 
eight  bridges.  The  most  celebrated  and  ancient 
are  the  Pont  Notre  Dame  (1500),  and  the 
Pont-Neuf  (1578-1604),  which  crosses  the  Seine 
at  the  north  of  the  tle-de-la-Cite.  The  bridges 
all  communicate  directly  with  spacious  quays, 
planted  with  trees,  which  line  both  banks  of 
the  Seine.  Among  the  churches  the  grandest  and 
most  interesting  is  the  cathedral  of  Notre  Dame, 
which  stands  on  a  site  successively  occupied  by 
a  pagan  temi)le  and  a  Christian  basilica  of  the 
Merovingian  time.  The  main  building,  begun 
in  the  12th  century,  is  400  feet  long,  150  wide, 
and  110  high.  The  height  of  two  towers  is  218 
feet,  that  of  the  fleche  300.  It  has  been  said 
that  if  the  pillars  of  Notre  Dame  could  speak 
they  might  tell  the  whole  history  of  France.  In 
1793  it  was  converted  into  a  '  Temple  of  Reason." 
The  building  was  carefully  restored  in  1845.  The 
Sainte  Chapelle,  built  by  St  Louis  in  1245-48,  is 
perhaps  the  greatest  existing  masterpiece  of  Gothic 
art,  and  was  restored  by  Napoleon  III.  at  a  cost- 
of  £50,000.  St  Severin  is  partly  in  the  English 
Gothic  of  the  15th  century  ;  it  was  erected  dui»' 
ing  the  English  occupation  of  Paris.  St-Germain- 
des-Pres,  probably  the  most  ancient  ,chiirch  in 
Paris,  was  comi)leted  in  1163  ;  St  Etienne  du 
Mont  contains  the  tomb  of  St  Genevieve ;  and 
St  Germain  I'Auxerrois  has  very  fine  decorations. 
Among  modern  churches  is  the  Madeleine  (1806- 
42),  like  a  Corinthian  temple  ;  also  the  imposing 
Romanesque-Byzantine  Sacre  Coeur  (1875-1900), 
crowning  the  height  of  Montnjartre.  The 
Pantheon  (1764)  Avas  begiui  as  a  church,  but 
converted  by  the  Constituent  Assembly  into  a 
temi)le  dedicated  to  the  great  men  of  the  nation, 
next  restored  to  the  church  by  Napoleon  III. 
and  rededicated  to  St  Genevieve,  but  once  mora 
on  the  occasion  of  the  funeral  of  Victor  Hugo 
(1885),  reconverted  into  a  valhalla ;  here  are  the 
tombs  also  of  Voltaire,  Rousseau,  and  Carnot. 

Paris  has  upwards  of  forty  theatres.  The  lead- 
ing houses  are  the  Opera,  the  Theatre  Frangais — 
chiefly  devoted  to  classical  French  drama— the 
Opera  Comique,  and  the  Odeon,  which  receive  a 
subvention  from  government.  The  new  opera- 
house,  completed  in  1875,  cost,  exclusive  of  the 
site,  £1,120,000.  Beyond  the  fortifications  at  the 
west  of  Paris  is  the  Bois  de  Boulogne,  converted 


PASilS 


538 


PARIS 


by  Napoleon  III.  from  a  wood  covered  with 
stunted  trees  into  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
gardens  in  Europe.  East  of  Paris  is  the  Bois  de 
Vincennes.  Paris  has  three  large  and  twelve 
lesser  cemeteries,  of  which  the  principal  one  is 
Pere-la-Chaise  (over  2()p  acres).  The  Morgue  at 
the  upper  end  of  the  Ile-de-la-Cite  is  a  building 
in  which  the  bodies  of  unknown  persons  found 
in  the  Seine  are  placed  temporarily  for  recogni- 
tion. The  vast  caverns  under  southern  Paris, 
whence  the  limestone  for  building  has  been 
quarried,  were  converted  in  1784  into  catacombs, 
in  which  are  deposited  the  bones  of  the  dead, 
collected  from  the  ancient  cemeteries  of  Paris. 
Two  most  interesting  civil  buildings  of  the  15th 
century  still  exist— the  Hotel  de  Cluny,  one  of 
the  finest  existing  monuments  of  the  Gothic 
Flamboyant  style;  and  the  Hotel  de  Sens,  the 
old  palace  of  the  archbishops  of  Sens,  now 
used  for  business  purposes.  The  Palace  of  the 
Tuileries  was  begun  in  1566  by  Catharine  de 
Medicis,  and  enlarged  by  successive  monarchs, 
until  it  formed  a  structure  nearly  J  inile  long, 
running  at  right  angles  to  the  Seine.  It  was 
connected  with  the  Louvre  (begun  1541  on  the 
site  of  a  13th-century  castle,  and  completed  by 
Louis  XIV.)  by  a  great  picture-gallery  ;  between 
the  two  palaces  lay  the  Place  du  Carrousel.  The 
Tuileries  continued  to  be  occupied  as  the  resi- 
dence of  the  imperial  family ;  but  the  Louvre 
proper  formed  a  series  of  great  galleries  filled 
with  pictures,  sculptures,  and  collections  of 
Egyptian,  Greek,  and  Roman  antiquities.  The 
Commune  attempted  to  burn  the  whole  pile,  but 
only  succeeded  in  destroying  the  Tuileries  and  a 
corner  of  the  Louvre.  North  of  the  Louvre  is 
the  Palais  Royal,  a  mass  of  buildings,  including 
the  old  palace  of  the  Orleans  family,  the  Theatre 
Frangais,  and  a  quadrangle  of  shops,  restaurants, 
and  cafes,  enclosing  a  park  or  garden  open 
to  the  public,  700  feet  long  by  300  feet  wide. 
The  Palace  of  the  Luxembourg,  south  of  the 
Seine,  since  1879  the  meeting-place  of  the  French 
senate,  was  built  by  Marie  de  Medicis  in  the 
Florentine  style.  Close  to  it  a  gallery  has  been 
constructed  for  the  reception  of  the  works  of 
living  artists  acquired  by  the  state.  The  Hotel 
de  Ville,  north  of  the  Seine,  was  burned  by  the 
Commune,  but  has  been  rebuilt  and  restored  in 
the  style  of  its  predecessor.  On  the  island  of  La 
Cite  stands  the  Palais  de  Justice,  a  vast  pile,  also 
set  fire  to  by  the  Commune ;  some  parts  of  it 
date  from  the  14th  century  (the  Sainte  Chapelle 
being  within  its  precincts),  and  others  are  modern. 
The  old  Conciergerie  here  constitutes  one  of  the 
eight  prisons  of  Paris.  The  largest  of  the  numer- 
ous hospices  or  almshouses  is  La  Salpetriere 
for  old  women ;  Bicetre  receives  only  men. 
The  Hospice  des  Enfans  Trouves  is  the  famous 
Parisian  foundling  hospital.  The  Creches  receive 
the  infants  of  poor  women  for  the  day  at  the 
cost  of  20  centimes.  The  oldest  and  most  noted 
hospitals  are  the  Hotel  Dieu,  La  Charite,  and 
La  Pitie. 

The  chief  institutions  connected  with  the  Uni- 
versity of  France,  and  with  education  generally, 
are  still  situated  in  the  Quartier  Latin.  The 
Sorbonne,  the  seat  of  the  Paris  faculties  of  letters, 
science,  and  Protestant  theology,  has  been  rebuilt 
and  increased  in  size  (1885-93).  Near  the  Sor- 
bonne is  the  College  de  France,  where  gratuitous 
lectures  are  also  delivered  by  eminent  scholars 
and  men  of  letters.  The  Scotch  College  stands 
as  it  did  in  the  17th  century.  The  ;^cole  Poly- 
technique,  the  School  of  Medicine  and  the  School 
of  Law,  the  Observatory,  and  the  Jardin  des 


Plantes  are  situated  in  the  same  quarter  of  Paris. 
The  principal  of  the  public  libraries  are  those  of 
the  Rue  Richelieu,  now  called  the  Bibliotheque 
Nationale,  rivalled  only  by  the  British  Museum 
in  the  number  of  its  books  and  manuscripts.  No 
city  on  this  side  of  the  Alps  is  richer  than  Paris  in 
fine-art  collections,  and  a)nong  these  the  museums 
at  the  Louvre  stand  pre-eminent.  Among  its 
chief  treasures  may  be  mentioned  the  famous 
Venus  of  Milo,  and  the  great  works  of  the  Italian, 
Flemish,  and  Spanish  masters ;  there  is  a  long 
succession  of  galleries  in  which  are  exhibited 
Egyptian,  Assyrian,  Elamitic,  Greek,  Roman, 
mediaeval,  and  Renaissance  relics  and  works  of 
art.  The  Musee  Carnivalet  is  the  historical 
museum  of  the  municipality.  The  Palais  des 
Beaux- Arts  is  used  as  an  exhibition  of  art,  manu- 
factures, and  architectural  models.  The  Hotel 
de  Cluny  contains  curious  relics  of  the  arts  and 
usages  of  the  French  people  from  the  earliest 
ages.  The  Museum  of  Artillery  at  the  Hotel  des 
Invalides  is  devoted  to  arms  and  armour,  flags 
and  war  dresses.  The  Musee  Guimet  includes 
objects  used  in  religious  ceremonies,  savage, 
Indian,  Chinese,  &c.  The  Mint  deserves  notice 
for  the  perfection  of  its  machinery ;  and  the 
Gobelins,  or  tapestry  manufactory,  may  be 
included  under  the  fine  arts.  The  Conservatoire 
des  Arts  et  Metiers  contains  a  great  collection 
of  models  of  machinery,  and  class-rooms  for 
workmen.  The  Palace  of  Industry,  built  for  the 
exhibition  of  1854,  now  forms  a  permanent 
exhibition.  The  building  for  the  exhibition  of 
1878,  named  Palace  of  the  Trocadero,  is  now 
used  for  musical  entertainments  and  as  an  archi- 
tectural and  ethnological  museum.  For  the 
exhibition  of  1889  was  erected  the  Eiff'el  Tower, 
of  iron,  985  feet  high.  On  the  left  bank  of  the 
Seine  is  the  jficole  Militaire  (1752) ;  near  it  is  the 
Hotel  des  Invalides,  founded  in  1670  for  disabled 
soldiers,  containing  in  its  crypt  the  remains  of 
Napoleon,  deposited  there  in  1840.  The  prefect 
of  the  Seine  is  the  chief  of  the  municipal  govern- 
ment, and  is  appointed  by  the  government.  There 
is  a  large  elected  municipal  council.  Each  of  the 
20  arrondissements  has  a  maire  and  two  assistant- 
councillors.  The  prefect  of  police  is  at  the  head 
of  the  civic  guard  or  gensdarmes,  the  fire-brigade, 
and  the  sergents  de  ville  or  city  police,  who  are 
armed  with  swords.  The  cleaning,  sewerage, 
and  water-supplies  of  Paris  are  under  the  charge 
of  the  prefect.  Paris  is  now  abundantly  supplied 
with  pure  and  wholesome  water.  Large  cattle- 
markets  are  held  near  the  licensed  abattoirs  or 
slaughter-houses,  since  1818  all  in  the  suburbs. 
There  are  in  the  heart  of  the  city  numerous  halles, 
or  wholesale,  and  Tnarches,  or  retail  markets  ;  the 
principal,  the  Halles  Centrales,  near  the  church 
of  St  Eustache,  covering  nearly  20  acres. 

The  small  town  of  Lutetia,  on  the  Ile-de-Cite, 
was  the  capital  of  the  Parisii,  an  unimportant 
tribe  of  Gauls,  and  did  not  take  their  name  till 
the  time  of  the  Roman  emperors,  of  whom  Con- 
stantius  Chlonis  and  Julian  lived  much  at 
Paris.  Christianity  came  to  the  banks  of  the 
Seine  with  St  Denis  in  the  2d  or  3d  century  ;  St 
Genevieve  settled  here  in  the  5th.  Clovis,  the 
Frank  emperor,  made  it  his  home  and  the  capital 
of  the  Prankish  states.  Philip  Augustus  in  the 
13th  century  greatly  extended  the  city  and  in- 
creased its  privileges  ;  and  Paris  has  down  the 
centtiries  been  not  merely  the  capital  of  France 
and  the  centre  of  its  social  and  political  history, 
but  in  a  very  special  sense  the  headquarters  of 
French  literature  and  art.  Of  recent  episodes, 
the  most  notable  was  the  siege  by  the  German 


I 


PARld 


539 


PASCAGOULA 


armies,  from  September  1870  till  the  capitulation 
in  January  1871.  The  disastrous  Communist  out- 
break was  suppressed  in  May  1871. 

See  the  guidebooks  of  Murray,  Baedeker, 
Joanne,  and  topographical  works  by  Du  Camp 
(7th  ed.  6  vols.  1884),  Colin  (1885),  Pontich  (1884), 
and  the  official  Annuaire  Statistique  (since  1883) ; 
G.  A.  Sala,  Pans  Herself  Again  (1879) ;  P.  G. 
Hamerton,  Paris  in  Old  and  Present  Times  (1884  ; 
new  ed.  1892) ;  books  by  A.  J.  C.  Hare  (1888),  De 
Amicis  (1892),  Grant  Allen  (1897),  H.  Belloc 
(1900),  T.  Okey  (1904) ;  besides  historical  works 
by  French  authors,  such  as  Piton  (1891),  Hoff- 
bauer  (1890),  Lebeuf  (15  vols.  1863),  Dulaure  (7 
vols,  new  ed.  1874),  De  Gaulle  (1840),  Gabourd 
(1863-65),  Arago  (2d  ed.  1867);  and  the  copious 
Histoire  Generale  de  la  Ville  de  Paris,  issued, 
since  1866,  by  the  municipal  authorities. 

Paris,  (1)  capital  of  Bourbon  county,  Ken- 
tucky, on  Stoner  Creek,  19  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Lexington.  It  has  a  military  institute,  and  manu- 
factures whisky,  flour,  cordage,  &c.  Pop.  6000. 
—(2)  Capital  of  Lamar  county,  Texas,  98  miles  by 
rail  NE.  of  Dallas,  making  brooms,  furniture, 
sashes,  wagons,  ploughs,  &c.     Pop.  9354. 

Parkersburg,  capital  of  Wood  county,  West 
Virginia,  on  the  Ohio  River  (here  crossed  by  a 
railway  bridge  IJ  mile  long),  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Little  Kanawhai  195  miles  by  rail  E.  by  N.  of 
Cincinnati.  It  has  great  oil-refmeries,  chemical 
works,  lumber-mills,  and  manufactories  of  furni- 
ture, barrels,  &c.     Pop.  11,850. 

Parma,  a  town  of  Italy,  from  1545  to  1860  the 
capital  of  the  duchy  of  Parma,  is  situated  on  the 
ancient  Via  Emilia,  and  on  the  river  Parma,  12^ 
miles  S.  from  the  Po,  and  by  rail  56  miles  NW. 
of  Bologna  and  79  SE.  of  Milan.  It  is  sur- 
rounded by  walls  and  has  a  citadel  (1591);  the 
streets  are  straight  and  wide.  Of  some  sixty 
churches  the  chief  is  the  Lombardo-Romanesque 
cathedral  (1059-74),  with  frescoes  by  Correggio. 
Other  notable  edifices  are  the  splendid  baptis- 
tery (1196-1281) ;  the  church  of  Madonna  della 
Steccata  (1521-39),  containing  the  tombs  of  the 
Farnese  dukes  ;  the  ducal  palace,  containing  art- 
galleries  (Correggio's  works),  a  library  (214,000 
vols,  and  4500  MSS.),  the  archives,  &c.  ;  and 
numerous  other  palaces,  public  and  private. 
There  are  also  a  university  (1599),  with  45 
teachers  and  over  250  students,  a  music  school,  a 
museum  of  antiquities,  (fee.  The  principal  in- 
dustrial products  are  pianofortes,  silks,  cast-iron 
wares,  woollens,  earthenware,  paper,  soap,  &c. 
Pop.  49,370.  Founded  by  the  Etruscans,  Parma 
became  a  Roman  colony  in  183  B.C.  It  was 
besieged  and  taken  by  Frederick  II.  in  1245,  and 
again  invested,  but  without  success,  in  1248. 
It  then  belonged  successively  to  the  houses  of 
Correggio,  Este,  Visconti,  and  in  1511  to  the  pope. 

Pamahyba  (Pdrndee'ba),  a  river  of  Brazil,  rises 
in  the  Serra  Mangabeiras,  about  9°  S.  lat., 
throughout  its  course  (650  miles)  forms  the 
boundary  between  the  states  of  Maranhao  and 
Piauhy,  and  enters  the  Atlantic  by  six  mouths. 
Fourteen  miles  from  its  mouth  is  the  unhealthy 
town  of  Pamahyba  ;  pop.  8000.    See  also  Parana. 

Parnassus,  a  mountain  in  Phocis,  on  whose 
southern  slope  lay  Delphi  (q.v.),  the  seat  of  the 
famous  oracle,  and  the  fountain  of  Castalia.  The 
highest  peak  (8036  feet)  was  the  scene  of  the 
orgies  of  the  worship  of  Dionysus  (Bacchus) ;  all 
the  rest  was  sacred  to  Apollo  and  the  Muses. 

Paropami'sus,  an  ancient  name  still  used  for 
a  ridge,  less  than  1000  feet  above  the  adjacent 
CQuntry,  which  forms  part  of  the  northern  edge 


of  the  great  plateau  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan, 
almost  connecting  the  Hindu  Rush  (q.v.)  on  the 
east  with  the  Elburz  Mountains  to  the  west. 

Pares,  one  of  the  larger  Cyclades  (q.v.);  it  has 
an  area  of  64  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  nearly  7800, 
of  whom  some  2500  live  in  the  capital,  Paroekia. 
The  quarries  of  the  famous  white  Parian  marble, 
near  the  summit  of  Mount  St  Elias  (anc.  Mar- 
pessa),  are  not  yet  exhausted. 

Parramatta,  a  town  of  New  South  Wales, 
stands  on  a  western  extension  of  Port  Jackson, 
14  miles  W.  of  Sydney.  The  streets  are  wide  and 
regular.  'Colonial  tweeds,'  'Parramatta  cloths' 
(first  made  at  Bradford  from  wool  exported  hence), 
beer,  soap,  candles,  and  tiles  are  manufactured. 
Much  fruit,  especially  the  orange,  is  grown  here. 
Pop.  (1881)  8433 ;  (1901)  12,560.  Parramatta  is, 
after  Sydney,  the  oldest  town  in  the  colony, 
having  been  laid  out  (as  '  Rosehill ')  in  1790. 

Parret,  a  river  of  Dorset  and  Somerset,  running 
35  miles  N.  and  NW.  to  the  Bristol  Channel  at 
Stert  Point. 

Parry  Islands,  a  name  sometimes  given  to 
Melville  Islands,  and  adjoining  Arctic  Islands. 

Parsonstewn,  or  Birr,  a  market-town  of 
King's  County,  on  the  Brosna,  89  miles  by  rail 
W.  of  Dublin.  The  castle,  anciently  the  seat  of 
the  O'Carrols,  was  granted  by  James  I.  to  Laur- 
ence Parsons,  ancestor  of  the  present  proprietor, 
the  Earl  of  Rosse.  There  are  barracks,  a  statue 
(1747)  of  the  Duke  of  Cumberland,  and  another 
in  bronze  (1876)  by  Foley  of  the  Earl  of  Rosse, 
the  astronomer.     Pop.  4513. 

Partabgarh,  (l)  a  division  of  Oude,  east  of 
Allahabad.  Area,  1439  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  910,895. 
There  is  a  town  of  Partabgarh;  pop.  13,000. — 
(2)  A  native  state  of  llajputana,  bordering  on 
Gwalior.  Area,  959  sq.  m. ;  pop.  53,000.  Its 
capital  is  Partabgarh,  in  the  centre. 

Parthia,  anciently  a  district  in  what  is  now 
northern  Persia,  lying  between  Media  on  the 
west  and  Bactria  on  the  east.  Parthia  had  been 
subject  successively  to  the  Assyrians,  Medes, 
Persians,  Greeks  (Alexander  the  Great  and  his 
generals),  and  the  Seleucids  of  Syria,  when  from 
250  B.C.  to  224  A.D.  it  became  an  independent 
kingdom,  its  most  famous  ruler  Mithridates  I. 
(171-138  B.C.).  The  capital  was  Ctesiphon.  The 
Parthian  empire  was  finally  overthrown  by 
Ardashir,  who  founded  the  dynasty  of  the 
Sassanids.  See  histories  of  Parthia  by  Rawlinson 
(1873  and  1893). 

Partick,  a  town  of  Lanarkshire,  situated  chiefly 
on  a  rising  ground  on  the  Kelvin,  immediately 
above  its  junction  with  the  Clyde,  and  3  miles 
WNW.  of  the  Cross  of  Glasgow,  of  which  city  it 
now  forms  a  suburb.  Nine-tenths  of  the  work- 
men of  Partick  are  engaged  in  shipbuilding- 
yards,  but  there  is  also  brass-founding,  machine- 
making,  (fee.  A  large  proportion  of  the  inhabit- 
ants are  engaged  in  business  in  Glasgow. 
Partick  was  made  a  police-burgh  in  1852-66 ;  it 
has  its  own  police,  fire-brigade,  &c.,  but  depends 
on  Glasgow  for  its  gas  and  water  supply.  Pop. 
(1851)  3131;  (1881)  27,410;  (1901)  54,274.  See 
Wallace's  Parish  ofGovan  (1877). 

Partinico  (Partinee'ko),  a  town  of  Sicily,  32 
miles  SW.  of  Palermo  by  rail.    Pop.  23,000. 

Parton,  a  Cumberland  seaport,  IJ  mile  N.  of 
Whitehaven.    Pop.  of  parish,  1452. 

Pasade'na,  a  town  of  California,  10  miles  E.  of 
Los  Angeles.    Pop.  (1880)  391  ;  (1900)  9117. 

Pascagoula  (ou  as  oo),  a  navigable  river  of  SE. 


PASCO 


540 


PATIALA 


Mississippi,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Leaf 
and  Chickasawlia.  It  flows  85  miles  south  to  a 
small  bay  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Pasco.    See  Cerro  de  Pasco. 

Pas-de-Oalais  (Pdh-de-Calay' ;  originally  the 
name  of  the  Strait  of  Dover),  a  dep.  in  the  north 
of  France^  formed  out  of  Artois  and  Picardy. 
Area,  2550  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1861)  724,338 ;  (1901) 
949,968.  There  are  six  arrondissements — Arras 
(the  capital),  Bethuiie,  St  Omer,  St  Pol,  Bou- 
logne, and  Montreuil. 

Pasewalk  (Pd-ze-valk),  a  town  of  Prussia,  26 
miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  Stettin.     Pop.  10,450. 

Passage,  a  fishing-village,  6  miles  SE.  of 
Waterford.     Pop.  530. 

Passage  West,  a  seaport,  7  miles  SE.  of  Cork. 
Pop.  2030. 

Passa'ic,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  on  the  Passaic 
River,  11  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Jersey  City. 
It  has  foundries  and  print-works,  and  manufac- 
tures woollens  and  shoddy,  whips,  india-rubber, 
chemicals,  &c.     Pop.  (1880)  6532 ;  (1900)  27,777. 

Passamaquoddy  Bay,  in  North  America, 
opens  out  of  the  Bay  of  Fundy,  at  the  mouth  of 
the  St  Croix  River,  between  Maine  and  New 
Brunswick.  It  is  15  miles  long  by  10  wide,  and 
shut  in  by  a  cluster  of  islands. 

Passar'ovltz,  a  town  of  Servia,  9  miles  S.  of 
the  Danube  and  40  SE.  of  Belgrade.    Pop.  13,000. 

Passau  (Passow'),  a  town  of  Bavaria,  stands  on 
a  rocky  tongue  of  land,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Danube,  beside  the  influx  of  the  Inn,  close  to  the 
Austrian  frontier,  72  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Ratisbon. 
The  cathedral  was  rebuilt  after  a  fire  in  1680 ; 
the  bishop's  palace  is  now  in  part  public  ofiices. 
Passau  was  long  an  important  fortified  post, 
being  the  key  of  the  Danube  in  that  part  of  its 
course.  There  were  two  strong  citadels,  one 
dating  from  737,  the  other  from  1215-19.  The 
town  grew  up  around  an  old  Roman  camp,  and 
in  739  was  made  the  seat  of  a  bishopric  founded 
by  St  Boniface.  Bavarian  since  1803,  it  manufac- 
tures leather,  porcelain,  parquet-floors,  boats, 
metal-ware,  and  mirrors.     Pop.  18,633. 

Passy,  a  western  suburb  of  Paris  (q.v.). 

Paste,  a  town  in  the  south-west  of  Colombia, 
in  a  fertile  valley  8350  feet  above  sea-level. 
Above  it  rises  the  volcano  of  Pasto  (14,000  feet 
above  the  sea).    Pop.  10,000. 

Paston,  a  Norfolk  coast  parish,  8  miles  NNE. 
of  Norwich. 

Patagonia  (from  patagones,  the  large  'foot- 
steps '  seen  by  early  Spanish  voyagers ;  or  from 
the  Indian  patacuna,  '  terraces  '),  the  most  south- 
ern region  of  the  South  American  continent, 
extending  from  S.  lat.  39°  southwards  to  the 
Strait  of  Magellan.  Length,  upwards  of  1000 
miles  ;  greatest  breadth,  480  miles  ;  area,  322,550 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  about  20,000.  Like  the  rest  of  the 
continent,  Patagonia  is  divided  by  the  Andes  into 
two  very  unequal  and  dissimilar  territories.  Since 
1881  nearly  the  whole  country  east  of  the  water- 
shed is  recognised  as  part  of  the  Argentina; 
Chili  has  contented  herself  with  the  country  to 
the  west  and  a  strip  along  the  southern  coast. 

Western  or  Chilian  Patagonia  (63,000  sq.  m.),  a 
narrow  strip  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea, 
is  rugged  and  mountainous.  Along  the  coast  are 
numerous  islands,  the  principal  being  Chiloe,  the 
Chonos  Archipelago  (q.v.),  and  Wellington  Island. 
In  the  Cordilleras  proper  the  summits  are  less 
lofty  towards  the  south ;  the  volcanoes  of  Min- 
chinmavida  and  Corcovado  are  8000  and  7510  feet 


high,  and  Monte  San  Valentin  12,697  feet.  In 
Chiloe  the  mean  temperature  of  winter  is  about 
40°,  that  of  summer  rather  above  50°.  The  atnio- 
sphere  is  very  damp  ;  prevailing  western  winds 
constantly  deposit  their  burden  of  rain.  South 
of  47°  S.  lat.  hardly  a  day  passes  without  rain, 
snow,  or  sleet.  This  continual  dampness  has 
produced  luxuriant  forests.  Coal  is  mined  near 
Punta  Arenas  (Sandy  Point),  where  there  is  a 
Chilian  penal  settlement  (pop.  6500).  The  popu- 
lation consists  of  small  nomadic  tribes  of 
Araucaniau  stock,  and  a  few  Chilian  settlers. 

Eastern  or  Argentine  Patagonia  consists  mainly 
of  high  undulating  plains  or  plateaus  rising  in 
successive  terraces,  and  frequently  intersected  by 
valleys  and  ravines.  These  plateaus  are  occa- 
sionally covered  with  coarse  grass,  or  stunted 
bushes  and  herbs ;  elsewhere  the  surface  is 
rugged  with  heaps  of  stones  or  ridges  of  bare 
rock.  Keen  blasts  sweep  chiefly  from  the  west ; 
and  as  this  wind  has  already  parted  with  its 
moisture  on  the  other  side  of  the  mountains, 
hardly  any  rain  falls  in  Argentine  Patagonia 
during  seven  or  eight  months  of  the  year.  The 
soil  in  many  places  is  strongly  impregnated 
with  saltpetre,  and  salt-lakes  and  lagoons  are 
numerous.  Along  the  eastern  base  of  the  Andes 
there  is  a  great  tract  of  picturesque  and  fertile 
forest-clad  territory.  The  principal  rivers  of 
Argentine  Patagonia  rising  in  the  Andes  are  the 
Rio  Negro  (q.v.),  which  forms  its  northern  bound- 
ary, the  Chubut  (q.v.),  and  Deseado.  Herds  of 
horses  and,  in  the  more  favoured  regions,  cattle 
are  bred;  guanacos,  pumas,  foxes,  armadillos, 
skunks,  and  tucotucos  (a  peculiar  rodent)  are 
met  with ;  and  among  the  birds  are  rheas,  con- 
dors, hawks,  partridges,  flamingoes,  and  ducks. 
Argentine  herdsmen  are  beginning  to  pasture 
their  cattle  in  the  northern  valleys,  and  Chilian 
immigrants  are  moving  eastwards.  The  Pata- 
gonians  proper  or  Tehuelche  Indians,  who  are 
confined  to  Eastern  Patagonia,  are  now  almost 
quite  extinct.  They  are  often  large  but  not  gigan- 
tic men,  sometimes  over,  generally  under,  6  feet. 
Patagones,  18  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Negro,  has  a  pop.  of  about  2000,  composed  of 
Spanish  settlers,  negroes,  and  convicts.  There 
is  a  Welsh  colony  on  the  Chubut  (q-v.).  Magellan 
sailed  along  the  Patagonian  coast  in  1520.  English 
works  on  Patagonia  are  Falkner's  (1774),  Snow's 
(1857),  Musters'  (1871),  Beerbohm's  (1878),  Lady 
Florence  Dixie's  (1880),  and  Coan's  (1880). 

Patan,  a  town  of  India,  in  Baroda,  64  miles 
NW.  of  Ahmadabad,  with  lofty  walls  and  ancient 
ruins.  It  manufactures  swords,  pottery,  silks, 
and  cottons.     Pop.  42,646. 

Pateley  Bridge,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  on  the 
Nidd,  11  miles  WSW.  of  Ripon.    Pop.  7910. 

Paterno,  a  town  of  Sicily,  11  miles  NW.  of 
Catania,  at  the  base  of  Mt.  Etna.    Pop.  25,230. 

Paterson,  capital  of  Passaic  county,  New 
Jersey,  is  on  the  Passaic  River  (which  here  has  a 
perpendicular  fall  of  50  feet),  and  on  the  Morris 
Canal  (connecting  it  with  the  Delaware  River), 
15  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  New  York  City.  It 
has  locomotive-works,  an  iron-forge  and  rolling- 
mill,  and  manufactures  cotton,  paper,  linens,  and 
woollens,  &c, ;  but  chiefly  it  is  famous  for  its 
more  than  100  silk-factories,  which  have  made  it 
'the  Lyons  of  America.'  Pop.  (1870)  33,579; 
(1880)  51,031 ;  (1890)  78,347  ;  (1900)  105,171. 

Pathhead,  a  village,  on  the  Tyne,  11  miles  SE. 
of  Edinburgh.     Pop.  466. 

Patiala  {Putteedh'la),  a  native  Indian  Punjab 


FATMOS 


541 


PEACE  RIVER 


state,  partly  S.  of  the  Siitlej,  partly  in  hills. 
Area,  5951  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,583,521.  The  capital, 
Patiala,  has  a  pop.  of  55,856. 

Patmos  (mod.  Patino),  a  rocky  and  barren 
island,  in  the  iEgean  Sea,  one  of  the  Sporades, 
lies  to  the  south  of  Samos.  Area,  16  sq.  m.  The 
apostle  John,  exiled  hither,  saw  here  the  visions 
of  the  Apocalypse.  On  a  mountain  stands  the 
monastery  of  'John  the  Divine,'  built  in  1088. 
The  island  is  under  Turkish  rule,  but  is  inhabited 
by  about  4000  Greek  sponge-fishers. 

Patna,  an  Ayrshire  village,  on  the  Doon,  10 
miles  SB.  of  Ayr.     Pop.  486. 

Patna,  called  also  Azimabad,  a  city  of  Bengal, 
140  miles  E.  of  Benares  by  rail,  extends  9  miles 
along  the  Ganges  and  2  miles  back  from  the  river. 
The  chief  buildings  are  the  Gola  or  government 
granary  (1786),  the  government  opium-factories, 
Patna  College,  the  shrine  of  Shah  Arzani,  the 
mosque  of  Slier  Shah,  a  Roman  Catholic  church, 
and  a  Mohammedan  college.  Its  railway  com- 
munication, and  its  central  position  at  the  junc- 
tion of  three  great  rivers,  the  Son,  Gandak,  and 
Ganges,  render  Patna  of  great  importance  as  a 
commercial  centre.  Pataliputra  was  founded 
about  600  B.C.     The  massacre  here  of  British 

Erisoners  in  1763  led  to  annexation ;  and  mutiny 
roke  out  at  Dinapur,  the  military  station  west 
of  Patna,  in  1857.  Bankipur,  the  civil  station, 
between  the  city  and  Dinapur,  was  in  1905  made 
a  sub-capital  for  Western  Bengal.  Pop.  (1872) 
158,900;  (1881)170,654;  (1901)134,785. 

Patna,  a  native  state  of  the  Central  Provinces, 
India  ;  area,  2399  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  287,959.  Patna, 
the  chief  town,  has  a  pop.  of  2053. 

Patras',  or  Patr^,  the  chief  seaport  in  the 
west  of  Greece,  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Patras,  by  rail  81  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Corinth  and 
137  W.  by  N.  of  Athens,  is  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop, and  has  a  spacious  harbour  (1880)  pro- 
tected by  a  mole.  It  ships  great  quantities  of 
currants,  also  olive-oil,  wine,  valonia,  &c.  Pop. 
(1879)  25,494 ;  (1897)  37,960.  Patrce  alone  of  the 
'  twelve  cities '  of  Achaia  still  exists  as  a  town. 

Patrlcroft,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  5  miles  W. 
of  Manchester,  with  a  huge  iron-foundry,  machine- 
works,  &c.     Pop.  15,902. 

Patrington,  a  decayed  town  of  Yorkshire,  15 
miles  ESB.  of  Hull.    Pop.  of  parish,  1107. 

Pattan.    See  Patan. 

Patterdale,  a  village  of  Westmorland,  at  the 
head  of  Ullswater,  8^  miles  N.  of  Ambleside. 

Pau  (Po),  the  chief  town  of  the  French  dep.  of 
Basses-Pyrenees,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Gave- 
de-Pau,  66  miles  by  rail  ESB.  of  Bayonne  and 
143  SSE.  of  Bordeaux.  It  occupies  a  rocky 
height,  623  feet  above  sea-level,  and  commands 
magnificent  views  of  the  Pyrenees.  The  ancient 
capital  of  the  kingdom  of  Beam  and  French 
Navarre,  it  has  a  noble  five-towered  castle. 
Rebuilt  about  1363  by  the  Comte  de  Foix,  and 
restored  by  Louis-Philippe  and  Napoleon  HI., 
this  castle  was  the  birthplace  of  Henri  IV.,  as 
also  of  his  mother  Jeanne  d'Albret;  and  Abd- 
el-Kader  was  a  prisoner  here  in  1848.  Bernadotte 
was  a  native.  Linen  and  chocolate  are  manu- 
factured; and  in  the  vicinity  Jurangon  wine  is 
grown,  and  many  swine  are  fed.  Pau  is  a  great 
English  resort,  especially  during  the  winter  season 
(October  to  May),  and  is  famous  for  its  golf-links. 
Pop.  (1872)  25,607  ;  (1901)  30,811.  See  a  work  by 
Count  Henry  Russell  (new  ed.  1891). 

Pauillac  {Po-eel'yac),  a  French  port  on  the  left 


bank  of  the  Gironde's  estuary,  30  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Bordeaux  by  rail.     Pop.  5332. 

Paul,  a  town  and  urban  district  of  Cornwall,  2 
miles  S.  of  Penzance.     Pop.  (1901)  6332. 

Pavia(Ital.  Pawe'a),acity  of  nortliern  Italyand 
a  bishop's  see,  on  tlie  left  bank  of  the  Tici'iio,  2 
miles  above  its  confluence  with  the  Po,  and  21 
miles  by  rail  S.  of  Milan,  is  still  partly  sur- 
rounded by  walls,  and  was  called  the  '  city  of  a 
hundred  towers.'  The  Lombard  basilica  of  San 
Michele  is  inentioned  as  early  as  661 ;  in  it  the 
old  '  kings  of  Italy '  were  crowned  ;  in  1863  it  was 
granted  the  title  of  '  royal  basilica,'  and  was 
restored  1863-76.  The  unfinished  cathedral,  com- 
menced in  1488,  .shelters  the  ashes  of  St  Augustine 
and  Boetius  and  also  Roland's  lance.  The  Cer- 
tosa,  5  miles  N.,  is  a  celebrated  Carthusian 
monastery  (1396).  The  castle  of  the  Visconti 
(begun  in  1360)  is  a  massive  square  arcaded 
structure.  The  university,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Charlemagne,  but  not  formally  con- 
stituted until  1361,  has  1100  students  and  57 
teachers.  Attached  to  it  are  two  colleges— Borro- 
meo  (1563)  and  Ghislieri  (1569)— for  poor  students, 
and  a  library  (1772)  of  185,000  vols.,  a  botanic 
garden,  &c.  Pop.  35,500.  Pavia  (anc.  Ticinum; 
later  Papia,  whence  the  modern  name),  was 
founded  by  Gallic  tribes,  and  was  sacked  by  Attila 
(452)  and  by  Odoacer  (476) ;  Theodoric  selected  it 
as  his  capital  after  489.  Later  on  the  Lombards 
made  it  their  capital,  and  then  it  became  the 
chief  city  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy.  It  was  sacked 
in  1500  and  1527-28  by  the  French,  who  in  1525 
were  defeated  here  by  the  imperialists,  Francis 
I.  being  taken  prisoner.  It  fell  to  Austria  in 
1814,  and  to  Italy  in  1859.  Lanfranc  and  Pope 
John  XIV.  were  natives. 

Pavlograd,  a  town  of  South  Russia,  45  milea 
by  rail  ENE.  of  Ekaterinoslav,     Pop.  17,442. 

Pawtuck'et,  a  city  of  Rhode  Island,  on  the 
Pawtucket  River,  4  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Providence. 
On  account  of  a  fall  of  nearly  50  feet  on  the  river, 
it  was  made  in  1790  the  site  of  the  first  cotton- 
factory  in  the  United  States.  It  now  contains 
numerous  large  mills,  where  cottons,  woollens, 
haircloth,  and  thread  are  manufactured,  besides 
great  calico-printing  works,  and  bleaching  and 
dyeing  establishments,  &c.  Pawtucket,  settled 
about  1655,  became  a  city  in  1886.  Pop.  (1870) 
6619 ;  (1900)  39,231. 

Paxo,  ail  Ionian  island,  has  with  Antipaxo  an 
area  of  8J  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  4000. 

Paysandti,  the  chief  town  of  a  Uruguayan 
department  (pop.  38,507),  on  the  Uruguay  River, 
280  miles  by  rail  N\V.  of  Montevideo.  It  exports 
tinned  meat.     Pop.  24,000. 

Payta,  or  Paita,  a  good  port  in  the  north  of 
Peru,  only  370  miles  distant  from  the  point  on 
the  Maranon  to  which  steamers  from  the  Atlantic 
come.     Pop.  5000. 

Paz,  La.    See  La  Paz. 

Pea'body,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  16  miles 
NNE.  of  Boston.  Formerly  called  South  Danvers, 
it  was  in  1868  named  after  the  philanthropist 
Peabody,  who  was  born  here.     Pop.  15,000. 

Peace  River,  a  large  river  of  Canada,  rises  in 
two  branches  in  the  Rocky  Mountains,  in  British 
Columbia,  and,  flowing  1100  miles  north-east, 
joins  the  Slave  River  by  five  widely  separate 
mouths.  The  delta  thus  fonned  is,  with  that 
of  the  Athabasca  River,  the  most  fertile  part  of 
the  country.  The  river,  which  is  much  encum- 
bered with  rapids,  was  followed  by  Sir  A.  Mac- 
kenzie in  his  expedition  of  1792-93. 


PEAK 


542 


PEKING 


Peak,  the  hilly  district  of  north-west  Derby- 
shire, having  Castleton  for  its  capital,  10  miles 
NE.  of  Buxton.  Measuring  some  30  by  22  miles, 
it  is  watered  by  the  Dove,  Derwent,  and  Wye, 
and  culminates  in  Kinderscout  (2082  feet),  other 
eminences  being  Axe  Edge  (1810  feet)  and  Mam 
Tor  (1710).  The  Peak  Cavern  or  Devil's  Hole 
near  Castleton  penetrates  750  yards  ;  and  crown- 
ing a  rock  above  the  village  is  Peveril  Castle,  so 
named  from  its  first  lord,  a  bastard  of  William 
the  Conqueror's.  Tlie  wonders  of  the  Peak  were 
celebrated  early  by  Thomas  Hobbes  (1666)  and 
Charles  Cotton  (1683) ;  recent  works  are  by  Cros- 
ton  (1862  ;  new  ed.  1889),  Bradbury  (1879),  Jenn- 
ings (1880),  and  Leyland  (1891),  besides  others 
cited  at  Dkrbyshire. 

Pe'-chi-li,  Gulf  of,  a  land-locked  extension  of 
the  Yellow  Sea  (q.v.),  between  Corea  and  the 
Chinese  province  of  Slian-tung,  into  which  the 
Pei-ho  (q.v.)  discharges. 

Pechora.    See  Petchora. 

Peckforton  Castle,  the  Cheshire  seat  (1851) 
of  Lord  Tollemache,  4  miles  SSW.  of  Tarperley. 

Pecos,  a  river  of  New  Mexico  and  Texas,  flow- 
ing 800  miles  SSE.  to  the  Rio  Grande. 

Pedrotallagalla.    See  Ceylon. 

Peeblesshire,  or  Tweeddale,  a  southern 
county  of  Scotland,  bounded  by  Edinburgh,  Sel- 
kirk, Dumfries,  and  Lanark  shires.  Irregular  in 
outline,  it  has  a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of 
29  and  21  miles,  and  an  area  of  356  sq.  m.  or 
227,869  acres.  The  Tweed,  rising  in  the  extreme 
south,  winds  36  miles  NNE.  and  E.,  descending 
therein  from  1500  to  450  feet;  and  from  it  the 
surface  rises  into  big,  round,  grassy  hills— 
Windlestraw  Law  (2161  feet),  Minchmoor  (1856), 
Hartfell  (2651),  Broad  Law  (2754),  &c.  Among 
the  Tweed''s  numberless  affluents  are  Talla, 
Biggar,  Lyne,  Manor,  Eddleston,  Leithen,  and 
Quair  Waters ;  and  St  Mary's  Loch  touches  the 
southern  boundary.  Less  than  one-fifteenth  of 
the  entire  area  is  under  corn  and  root  crops  ;  but 
nearly  200,000  sheep  graze  on  the  hillsides.  The 
antiquities  include  over  fifty  hill-forts,  the 
'Romanno  terraces,'  a  Roman  camp  at  Lyne, 
the  ruined  castles  of  Neidpath  and  Drochil,  and 
the  old  mansion  of  Traquair.  Peebles  and  Inner- 
leithen are  the  towns.  The  county  unites  with 
Selkirkshire  to  return  one  member.  Pop.  (1801) 
8735  ;  (1841)  10,499  ;  (1901)  15,066. 

Peebles,  the  pleasant  county  town,  stands  on 
the  Tweed,  22  miles  S.  of  Edinburgh.  It  has  a 
new  parish  church  (1887)  and  five  other  modern 
churches  ;  the  Chambers  Institution  (1859),  with 
library,  museum,  &c.,  in  the  old  house  of  the 
Tester  and  Queensberry  families  ;  a  hydropathic 
(1881) ;  a  public  park  (1887) ;  tweed-manufactures ; 
and  the  tower  of  St  Andrew's  Church  (1196), 
restored  in  1882  by  Dr  William  Chambers,  who 
rests  beneath  its  shadow,  and  who,  like  his 
brother  Robert,  was  a  native.  Mungo  Park 
was  a  surgeon  here.  Peebles  was  made  a  royal 
burgh  in  1367,  and  till  1832  returned  one  mem- 
ber.    Pop.  5500. 

See  Dr  A.  Pennicuik's  Description  of  Tweeddale 
(3d  ed.  1875),  Dr  W.  Chambers's  History  of  Peebles- 
shire (1864),  Dr  John  Brown's  Minchmoor  (1864), 
and  Charters  of  Peebles  (1873). 

Peekskill,  a  manufacturing  village,  on  a  beauti- 
ful point  of  the  Hudson  River,  42  miles  N.  of  New 
York.    Pop.  10,360. 

Peel,  a  coast-town  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  11 J  miles 

by  rail  NW^of  Dmifflas.     On  Peel  Hill  (450  feet) 

,  vAlamrVida  and  CovcowB^do^^}^'  ^"^^  ^n  an  island 


sheltering  the  harbour  stand  the  beautiful  ruing 
of  Peel  Castle,  celebrated  by  both  Scott  and 
Wordsworth.  It  dates  from  the  12th  century, 
but  was  mainly  rebuilt  by  the  fourth  Earl  of 
Derby  in  1593.  St  German's  Cathedral,  a  cruci- 
form ruin,  with  a  crypt  and  low  central  tower, 
is  included  in  its  area.  Fishing  is  Peel's  chief 
industry,  but  the  place  attracts  yearly  more  and 
more  visitors.    Pop.  3331. 

Pegu',  a  town  of  Lower  Burma,  on  the  river 
Pegu,  46  miles  NE.  of  Rangoon,  was  long  the 
capital  of  a  powerful  kingdom  ;  travellers  in  the 
16th  century  speak  of  its  magnificence.  It  was 
destroyed  in  the  middle  of  the  18th  century.  A 
celebrated  pagoda  still  stands  within  part  of  the 
old  walls.  Pop.  10,700.— The  river  flows  180  miles 
S.  to  tlie  Rangoon  or  Hlaing  River. 

Pei-ho,  a  river  of  China,  rises  near  the  borders 
of  Mongolia,  flows  NE.  and  SB.,  past  Peking  and 
Tien-tsin,  and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li  after 
a  course  of  more  than  350  miles.  Its  mouth  is 
defended  by  the  forts  of  Taku. 

Peipus  (Pl-poos),  Lake,  in  NW.  Russia,  lies 
between  the  government  of  St  Petersburg  and 
Livonia.  On  the  south  it  is  connected  with 
Lake  Pskoff"  by  a  long,  narrow  channel,  the 
length  of  both  lakes  being  87  miles,  the  greatest 
breadth  30,  the  area  1356  sq.  m.,  and  the  depth 
from  14  to  49  feet.  Their  waters,  which  abound 
in  fish,  are  carried  to  the  Gulf  of  Finland  by  the 
Narova.    The  shores  are  marshy  and  flat. 

Pekin,  capital  of  Tazewell  county,  Illinois,  on 
the  Illinois  River,  10  miles  S.  of  Peoria.  It  has 
foundries,  flour-mills,  distilleries,  and  manu- 
factures organs,  ploughs,  wagons,  &c.     Pop.  8993. 

Peking,  or  Pei-Ching  ('Northern  Capital'),  the 
capital  of  the  Chinese  empire,  is  in  39°  54'  36"  N. 
lat.  and  116°  27'  E.  long.  It  is  situated  in  a 
sandy  plain,  and  is  surrounded  by  walls  with 
sixteen  gates,  each  surmounted  by  towers  100 
feet  high  ;  and  it  consists,  in  fact,  of  two  cities 
—the  Inner  and  the  Outer— known  also  as  the 
Manchu  or  Tartar  and  the  Chinese,  the  Northern 
and  the  Southern.  The  walls  of  the  Manchu 
city  average  50  feet  in  height,  and  are  fully  60 
feet  wide  at  the  bottom;  those  of  the  Chinese 
city  (rectangular  in  plan)  are  30  feet  high  and  25 
wide.  The  circuit  of  the  two  cities  measures  21 
miles,  including  an  area  of  nearly  26  sq.  m. 
Peking  is  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  the 
world ;  in  the  13th  century  a.d.  its  Tartar  con- 
querors fell  before  the  invading  Mongols  ;  Kublai, 
a  grandson  of  Genghis  Khan,  made  Peking  his 
capital  in  1280,  and  there  he  was  found  by  Marco 
Polo,  who  styles  tlie  city  Khan-baligh,  'city  of 
the  Khan ' — hence  Cambahic.  Soon  the  Mongols 
were  driven  out  by  the  Chinese  Ming  dynasty, 
the  founder  of  which  fixed  his  capital  at  Nanking 
(q.v.).  The  third  Ming  emperor  returned  to  Peking 
in  1421.  The  Manchus,  who  became  masters  of 
the  empire  in  1643,  found  this  city  ready  for  them. 
A  new  era  in  its  history  commenced  in  1860,  when 
it  surrendered  to  the  English  and  French  allies. 

The  Manchu  or  Inner  City  is  divided  into  three 
portions ;  and  at  the  heart  of  it  are  two  enclo- 
sures, into  the  innermost  of  which  entrance  is 
forbidden  to  all  except  such  as  have  official  con- 
nection with  the  court.  It  is  called  the  Purple 
Forbidden  City,  is  very  nearly  2J  miles  in  circuit, 
and  in  it  are  the  palaces  of  the  emperor,  his 
empress,  and  other  members  of  the  imperial 
family.  The  Tdi  Ho,  or  'Hall  of  Grand  Har- 
mony,'  is  built  of  marble  on  a  terrace  20  feet 
high,  and  rising  itself  other  110  feet;  its  prin- 
cipal apartment  is  200  feet  long  and  90  wide. 


PELESCH 


643 


PEMBROKESHIRE 


Surrounding  the  Forbidden  City  is  the  '  Imperial ' 
or  '  August,'  about  6  miles  in  circuit,  and  encom- 
passed by  a  wall  20  feet  high.  In  the  W.  part  of 
the  '  August  City'  is  the  '  Western  Park  '  with  a 
large  artificial  lake,  a  summer-house,  gardens, 
the  copper  statue  of  Buddha  (60  feet  high), 
and  the  temple  of  'Great  Happiness.'  In  the 
General  City  are  the  princiiml  offices  of  tlie 
government,  the  observatory,  tlie  Provincial  Hall 
for  literary  examinations,  the  Colonial  Office,  and 
the  '  National  Academy.'  In  the  north-eastern 
corner  is  the  Russian  mission,  and  west  from  it 
the  'Palace  of  Everlasting  Harmony,'  a  grand 
lamasery  for  over  a  thousand  Mongol  and  Tibetan 
monks.  A  little  farther  W.  stands,  amidst 
cypresses,  the  temple  of  Confucius.  To  the 
'Temple  of  Emperors  and  Kings,'  near  the  south 
wall,  the  emperor  goes  to  worship  the  spirits  of 
nearly  two  hundred  predecessors  ;  the  great  Tute- 
lary Temple  of  the  capital  is  grimy,  and  full  of 
fortune-tellers.  All  the  foreign  legations  and 
Christian  missions  are  within  the  Inner  City. 
The  new  R.  C.  cathedral  (1888)  is  conspicuous. 

The  Chinese  or  Outer  City  is  very  sparsely 
populated ;  much  of  the  ground  is  under  culti- 
vation or  wooded.  The  'Altar  to  Heaven,'  with 
its  adjunct  the  'Altar  of  Prayer  for  Grain,' and 
the  'Altar  of  Agriculture,'  are  both  near  the 
southern  wall.  The  '  Altar  to  Heaven '  stands  on 
a  splendid  triple  circular  terrace  of  white  marble, 
richly  carved,  in  a  grove  of  fine  trees.  The 
'  Altar  of  Prayer  for  Grain,'  a  similar  but  smaller 
structure,  was  burned  down  in  1889.  The  prin- 
cipal streets  of  the  Chinese  City  are  more  than 
100  feet  wide,  but  the  side  streets  are  mere  lanes. 
The  streets  are  seldom  paved,  and  are  deep  either 
in  mud  or  in  dust.  In  the  smaller  streets  the 
houses  are  miserable  shanties ;  in  the  main  streets 
both  private  houses  and  shops  are  one-story 
brick  edifices,  the  shops  gay  with  paint  and  gild- 
ing. There  are  three  Catholic  cemeteries  (Portu- 
guese, French,  and  native)  and  a  Russian  one  ; 
and  there  are  mission  buildings,  Russian  and 
other,  and  hospitals.  Free  schools  and  charitable 
institutions  are  not  infrequent.  The  climate  of 
Peking  is  severe,  the  temperature  in  winter  being 
from  25°  to  10'  F.,  and  in  summer  the  heat  is 
great,  the  thermometer  rising  to  105°,  though  the 
usual  summer  temperature  is  75°  to  90°.  The 
population  is  usually  believed  to  be  a  million  or 
somewhat  less ;  the  Chinese  outnumbering  both 
Mauchus  and  Mongols.  Peking  was  connected 
by  railway  with  Tien-tsiu  in  1897;  the  line  to 
Hankow,  on  the  Yang-tsze-kiang,  was  completed 
in  1902.  There  are  also  lines  to  Tang-ku  (British) 
and  to  the  hill  coal-mines.  There  is  also  direct 
telegraphic  communication  with  Europe.  Since 
1868  there  is  an  imperial  university  with  American 
and  European  professors.  Peking  was  the  scene 
of  the  troubles  connected  with  the  '  Boxer '  rising 
in  1900,  the  siege  of  the  legations,  and  their  relief 
by  tlie  allied  forces,  who  occupied  the  '  Forbidden 
City'  after  the  flight  of  the  Cliinese  court  to 
Singanfoo.     See  works  cited  under  China. 

Pelesch,  a  royal  castle  of  Roumania,  built  in 
1873-84,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Transylvanian 
Alps,  70  miles  N.  of  Bucharest. 

Pelew  Islands,  also  Palau,  a  group  in  the 
Pacific,  SE.  of  tlie  Philippines,  purchased  by 
Germany  from  Spain  in  1899.  There  are  twenty- 
five  islands,  mountainous,  wooded,  and  sur- 
rounded with  coral-reefs ;  total  area,  170  sq.  m. 
The  10,000  inhabitants  are  Malays. 

Pellon,  the  ancient  name  of  a  wooded  moun- 
tain-range in  Thessaly,  extending  along  the  east 


coast.  According  to  the  myth,  the  Titans,  to 
scale  Olympus,  the  gods'  abode,  piled  Ossa  on 
Pelion,  the  highest  peak  (5310  feet)  of  the  range. 

Pella,  capital  of  Macedonia  and  birthplace  of 
Philip  II.  and  Alexander  the  Great,  stood  amidst 
marshes,  a  few  miles  NW.  of  Thessalonica. 

Peloponnesus.    See  Greece,  Morea. 

Pemba,  a  coral  island  off  the  east  coast  of 
Africa,  lies  50  miles  NB.  of  Zanzibar  Island  ;  area, 
372  sq.  in.  With  Zanzibar  it  forms,  since  1890, 
the  British  Zanzibar  protectorate.    Pop.  50,000. 

Pemberton,  a  town  in  Lancashire,  2  miles 
from  Wigan,  with  collieries  and  cotton-mills. 
Pop.  (1901)  21,664. 

Pembina,  capital  of  Pembina  county.  North 
Dakota,  on  the  Red  River  of  the  North,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Pembina  River,  68  miles  by  rail 
SW.  of  Winnipeg  and  293  NW.  of  St  Paul. 

Pembrey,  a  Carmarthen  port,  on  the  Burry, 
5J  miles  W.  of  Llanelly.    Pop.  of  parish,  6435. 

Pembroke,  the  county  town  of  Pembrokeshire, 
on  a  navigable  creek  of  Milford  Haven,  9  miles 
W.  of  Tenby  and  80  W.  by  N.  of  Cardiff.  On  the 
extremity  of  the  ridge  on  which  the  town  is  built 
stands  Pembroke  Castle,  founded  in  1094  by 
Arnulf  de  Montgomery,  a  very  imposing  ruin, 
with  a  Norman  keep  75  feet  high  and  52  in 
diameter.  Beneath  is  a  huge  natural  cavern,  70 
by  50  feet.  The  birthplace  of  Henry  VII.,  this 
castle  in  1648  was  taken  by  Cromwell  after  a  six 
weeks'  siege.  Monkton  Priory,  with  its  roofless 
Decorated  choir,  is  another  interesting  structure. 
The  Pembroke  district  of  boroughs,  returning 
one  member,  comprises  Pembroke,  Milford, 
Tenby,  Wiston,  and  also  (since  1885)  Haverford- 
west, Fishguard,  and  Narberth.  Pembroke  for 
more  than  four  centuries  has  given  the  title  of 
earl  to  the  House  of  Herbert.  At  Pembroke 
Dock,  or  Pater,  2^  miles  north-west,  is  the  naval 
dockyard  and  arsenal,  established  in  1814.  With 
an  area  of  70  acres,  it  has  since  1861  been  fortified 
at  a  cost  of  more  than  a  quarter  of  a  million. 
Pop.  of  Pembroke  (1861)  15,071;  (1901)  15,853; 
of  Pembroke  district  of  boroughs,  36,880. 

Pembrokeshire,  a  maritime  county  of  South 
Wales,  the  westernmost  of  the  Principality. 
Measuring  30  by  25  miles,  it  has  an  area  of  611 
sq.  m.,  or  391,181  acres,  of  which  three-fourths  is 
arable.  The  coast-line  is  much  of  it  rugged  and 
precipitous ;  and  inland  the  surface  is  undulat- 
ing, green  hills  alternating  with  fertile  valleys, 
and  attaining  a  maximum  altitude  of  1754  feet  in 
the  Precelly  range,  which  traverses  the  north  of 
the  county  from  east  to  west.  Rivers  are  the 
Teifi,  separating  Pembrokeshire  from  Cardigan, 
and  the  East  and  the  West  Cleddau.  Coal,  slate, 
lead,  and  iron  have  been  worked.  St  David's 
Cathedral  and  half-a-dozen  mediaeval  castles 
make  up  the  antiquities  with  Ogam  inscriptions, 
neolithic  implements,  and  Roman  coins.  At 
Haverfordwest  and  Tenby  a  colony  of  Flemings 
was  established  in  1107.  They  adopted  the  Eng- 
lish tongue  ;  and  Pembrokeshire,  or  '  Little  Eng- 
land beyond  Wales,'  is  now  over  more  than  half 
its  area  inhabited  by  an  English-speaking  popula- 
tion, although  it  is  the  remotest  of  all  the  Welsh 
counties.  It  was  harried  by  Owen  Glendower  in 
1405  ;  and  on  22d  February  1797  it  witnessed  the 
last  French  invasion,  when  600  regulars  and  800 
jail-birds  landed  near  Fishguard,  only  to  surrender 
to  some  militia  and  yeomanry  under  Lord  Cawdor. 
Pembrokeshire  returns  one  member.  Pop.  (1801) 
56,280  ;  (1861)  96,278  ,•  (1901)  88,732.  See  a  work 
by  Fenton  (1811). 


PENANG 


544 


PENNSYLVANIA 


Penang  (Ptdo  Pin'ang,  'Betel-nut  Island'), 
officially  Prince  of  Wales  Island,  one  of  the 
British  Straits  Settlements  (q.v.),  lies  at  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Strait  of  Malacca,  2 
to  10  miles  from  the  west  coast  of  the  Malay 
Peninsula,  and  360  miles  NNW.  of  Singapore. 
Length,  15  miles  ;  breadth,  5  to  10  miles  ;  area, 
107  sq.  m.,  three-fifths  being  hilly.  A  sana- 
torium crowns  the  highest  point,  2920  feet 
above  sea-level.  The  whole  is  covered  with 
forest  and  vegetation,  cocoa-nut  and  areca 
palms  predominating.  In  the  low  lands  the 
thermometer  ranges  from  70°  to  95°,  and  at  the 
sanatorium  from  60°  to  75°.  The  rainfall  averages 
111  inches  a  year.  The  exports  include  tin, 
spices,  sugar,  and  tobacco.  Pop.  90,951,  of  whom 
one-half  were  Chinese,  nearly  one-fourth  Malays, 
and  one-sixth  Tamils  and  others  from  India. 
Georgetown,  the  capital,  is  situated  at  the  NE. 
extremity,  and  is  defended  by  forts.  Pop.  30,000. 
Province  Wellesley,  on  the  peninsula  opposite, 
forms  part  of  this  same  settlement,  and  is  45  miles 
in  length  by  4  to  11  in  breadth,  with  an  area  of 
270  sq.  m.  It  produces  tapioca,  sugar,  rice,  and 
cocoa-nuts.  Another  dependency  is  the  Din- 
dings,  including  the  island  of  Pangkor,  80  miles 
S.  of  Penang.  Tlie  native  raja  ceded  Penang  to 
Britain  in  1785  for  a  pension  of  £1000 ;  Province 
Wellesley  was  acquired  in  1798.  Pop.  (including 
Province  Wellesleyand  the  Bindings,  1901)248,207. 

Penarth,  a  Glamorganshire  seaport,  3  miles  S. 
of  Cardiff,  with  a  large  dock  (1851-65).  Pop.  in 
1851,  105  ;  now,  15,000. 

Pendennis  Castle.    See  Falmouth. 

Pendle  Hill.    See  Clitheroe. 

Pendleton,  a  NW.  suburb  of  Manchester, 
wholly  within  the  borough  of  Salford. 

Penge,  a  township  in  the  Dulwich  division  of 
Camberwell,  6  miles  S.  of  London  Bridge  Station. 

Penlche  {Pay-nee' shay),  a  seaport  in  the  Portu- 
guese province  of  Estremadura.    Pop.  2969. 

Penicuik  (Pennycook),  a  town  of  Edinburgh- 
shire, on  the  North  Esk,  10  miles  S.  of  Edinburgh 
by  road,  but  16  by  a  branch  line  (1872).  It  has  a 
Romanesque  church-tower  and  large  paper-mills, 
dating  from  1709  ;  whilst  2  miles  NNB.  are  Glen- 
corse  barracks  (1804-82),  originally  a  depot  for 
French  prisoners.  Pop.  (1841)  907 ;  (1901)  3574. 
See  Wilson's  Annals  of  Penicuik  (1891). 

Penielheugh,  an  eminence  (774  feet)  in  Rox- 
burghshire, 4^  miles  NE.  of  Jedburgh,  crowned 
by  a  Waterloo  column,  150  feet  high. 

Penistone,  a  market-town  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Don,  13J  miles  NNW.  of 
Sheffield.  It  has  steel-works,  collieries,  &c.,  and 
a  railway  viaduct  76  feet  high.     Pop,  3080. 

Penjdeh,  an  important  strategical  position,  near 
the  fork  of  the  Khushk  and  Murghab  rivers,  was 
seized  from  Afghanistan  by  the  Russians  in 
March  1885,  and  since  1887  has  been  formally 
included  in  Russian  Turkestan. 

Penkill  Castle,  an  Ayrshire  mansion,  8  miles 
E.  by  N.  of  Girvan,  with  paintings  by  W.  B. 
Scott  and  memories  of  Ros.sotti. 

Penkridge,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  on  the 
Penk,  6  miles  S.  of  Stafford  by  rail.     Pop.  2343. 

Penmaenmawr,  a  Carnarvonshire  watering- 
place  (pop.  3510)  4  miles  SW.  of  Conway  by  rail. 
On  Penmaenmawr  mountain  (1553  feet),  the 
northern  extremity  of  the  Snowdon  group,  are 
remains  of  a  great  British  fort,  Dinas  Penmaen. 

Pennar,  or  Ponnair,  two  rivers  of  southern 
India,  both  running  eastwards  through  Madras 


Presidency  to  the  Indian  Ocean— the  first  (355 
miles)  a  little  N.  of  Nellore,  the  second  (245)  N. 
of  Cuddalore. 

Pennine  Alps.    See  Alps. 

Pennine  Range,  '  the  backbone  of  England,'  a 
cliain  limning  southward  from  Northumberland 
to  Derbyshire,  and  varying  in  height  from  1200 
feet  to  near  3000  (in  Cross  Fell). 

Pennsylvania,  since  1830  the  second  in  popu- 
lation of  the  United  States,  is  a  parallelogram 
lying  between  New  York  and  Maryland,  Ohio 
and  New  Jersey.  The  Delaware  is  the  boundary 
on  the  E. ;  and  in  the  NW.  the  state  has  45  miles 
of  coast  on  Lake  Erie.  It  is  160  miles  wide  and 
302  long  (B.  to  W.);  in  area  (45,215  sq.  m.)  it 
is  the  twenty-ninth  state  of  the  Union.  The 
Appalachians  (q.v.)  cross  the  state  from  NE.  to 
SW. ;  between  the  Blue  or  Kittatinny  Mountains 
on  the  east  and  the  higher  Alleghany  range  (some 
peaks  2500  feet)  on  the  west  lie  numerous  minor 
forest-clad  chains.  The  surface  is  naturally 
divided  into  three  sections,  the  low  district  south- 
east of  the  mountains  containing  some  of  the 
best  farming  land ;  the  mountainous  region  em- 
bracing a  fourth  of  the  area  of  the  state,  and  cele- 
brated for  its  picturesque  scenery  (especially  for 
the  gaps  cut  by  the  rivers  through  the  raiiges  of 
hills) ;  and  the  broken  hilly  plateau  in  the  west, 
covering  half  the  state,  much  of  it  heavily  wooded. 
The  geology  is  remarkable  for  the  great  develop- 
ment of  the  different  periods  of  Palaeozoic.  The 
breaking  of  the  strata  and  the  enormous  pressure 
to  which  the  eastern  coal-deposits  have  been  sub- 
jected has  resulted  in  giving  Pennsylvania  the 
most  valuable  anthracite  basins  of  the  country. 
The  excellent  bituminous  coal  (especially  around 
Pittsburgh)  is  practically  inexhaustible ;  iron 
ore  has  contributed  materially  to  the  prosperity 
of  the  state  ;  petroleum  and  natural  gas  are  im- 
portant products  of  western  Pennsylvania ;  her 
anthracite  coal-basins  are,  however,  the  speci- 
alty. The  anthracite  tract  covers  an  area  of  472 
sq.  m.,  and  is  situated  in  the  highland  district 
between  the  Delaware  and  Susquehanna  rivers. 
The  proximity  of  coal  and  iron  in  such  vast  quan- 
tities has  made  Pennsylvania  a  great  mining  and 
manufacturing  state  ;  it  leads  in  the  manufacture 
of  pig-iron.  The  successful  boring  for  petroleum 
in  1859  produced  an  excitement  hardly  surpassed 
by  the  discovery  of  gold  in  California.  There 
has  been  extensive  utilisation  of  natural  gas  for 
heating  and  manufacturing  purposes.  Gold, 
silver,  copper,  and  tin  exist,  but  not  in  paying 
quantities ;  there  are  large  zinc-works  at  South 
Bethlehem,  and  nickel  is  obtained  in  Lancaster 
county.  The  eastern  part  of  the  state  is  drained 
by  the  Delaware  and  its  tributaries  the  Schuylkill 
and  Lehigh.  The  Susquehanna,  with  its  affluents, 
occupies  the  central  drainage  area.  The  greater 
part  of  western  Pennsylvania  is  drained  by  the 
Alleghany  and  Monongahela  rivers,  uniting  at 
Pittsburgh  to  form  the  Ohio.  The  climate  is 
subject  to  extremes,  and  much  modified  by 
differences  of  elevation.  Nearly  one-fourth  of 
the  state  is  wooded ;  lumbering  is  one  of  the 
sources  of  wealth  in  the  north,  and  farther  south 
and  west  are  great  forests  of  hemlock,  which 
maintain  some  of  the  largest  tanneries  in  tlie 
world.  The  soil,  except  in  the  mountains,  is 
rich  and  fertile.  The  mountain  regions  and  the 
western  plateau  are  well  suited  for  grazing.  The 
most  important  industries  of  Pennsylvania  are 
mining  and  manufacturing.  Shipbuilding  is  an 
important  interest. 

The  first  permanent  settlement  was  made  in 


PENNSYLVANIA  CASTLE 


545 


FERAK 


1643  at  Chester  by  Swedes,  whose  colony  of  New 
Sweden  was  twelve  years  later  conquered  by 
the  Dutch.  In  1664  the  English  obtained  pos- 
session, and  the  territory  now  called  Penn- 
sylvania was  in  1681  granted  by  Charles  II.  to 
William  Penn.  In  the  revolutionary  and  in  the 
civil  war  Pennsylvania  took  a  prominent  part. 
Many  of  the  miners  and  ironworkers  are  of  Irish, 
Hungarian,  and  Italian  birth,  and  serious  riots 
have  not  seldom  occurred  ;  a  large  proportion  of 
the  farmers  are  of  German  desee^it,  and  still 
speak  the  patois  known  as  '  Pennsylvania  Dutch.' 
Philadelphia,  chief  manufacturing  city  of  the 
Union,  ranks  third  in  population  (1,293,697). 
Other  cities  are  Pittsburgh  (321,616),  Allegheny 
(129,896),  Scranton  (102,026),  Reading  (78,961), 
Erie  (52,733),  Wilkesbarro  (51,721),  Harrisburg, 
the  capital  (50,167),  Lancaster  (41,459),  Altoona 
(38,973),  Johnstown  (35,936),  Allentown  (35,416). 
Pop.  of  the  state  (1800)  602,365  ;  (1840)  1,724,033; 
(1880)  4,282,891  ;  (1900)  6,302,115. 

Pennsylvania  Castle.    See  Portland  (Isle). 

Penob'scot,  a  river  of  Maine.  The  West  Branch 
rises  near  the  Canadian  frontier,  and  floAvs  E. 
and  SE.  to  meet  the  East  Branch  or  Seboois 
River.  Afterwards  its  course  is  SSW.  to  Penob- 
scot Bay,  a  broad  and  sheltered  inlet  of  the 
Atlantic,  35  miles  long  and  20  wide,  with  numer- 
ous islands.  The  river  is  tidal  and  navigable  for 
large  vessels  to  Bangor,  60  miles  from  its  mouth. 

Penrhyn,  great  slate-quarries  in  Carnarvon- 
shire, near  Bethesda  (q.v.).  Penrhyn  Castle, 
close  to  Bangor,  is  the  seat  of  Lord  Penrhyn. 

Penrith,  a  market- town  of  Cumberland,  in  a 
picturesque  and  fertile  valley,  on  the  outskirts 
of  the  Lake  District,  18  miles  SSB.  of  Carlisle. 
It  has  a  fine  old  ruined  castle,  where  Richard 
III.  (then  Duke  of  Gloucester)  is  said  to  have 
resided,  and  a  grammar-school  (1395 ;  refounded 
1564).  In  the  churchyard  are  two  ancient  monu- 
ments, the  'Giant's  Grave'  and  the  'Giant's 
Thumb,' often  visited  by  Sir  Walter  Scott;  and 
north-east  of  the  town  is  the  wooded  Beacon 
(937  feet).  There  are  sawmills,  tanneries,  and 
breweries,  but  the  chief  trade  is  agricultural. 
Pop.  (1851)  6668  ;  (1881)  9268 ;  (1901)  9182.  See 
works  by  J.  Walker  (1856),  and  G.  Watson  (1893). 

Penryn  (Corn,  'head  of  the  river'),  a  town  of 
Cornwall,  at  the  head  of  a  creek  of  Falmouth 
harbour,  3  miles  NW.  of  Falmouth  town,  with 
which  it  returns  one  member  to  parliament  (till 
1885  two).  Scarce  a  trace  i-emains  of  Glasney 
College,  founded  in  1264  for  thirteen  Black 
Augustinian  Canons ;  and  none  of  a  palace  of 
the  bishops  of  Exeter.  Neighbouring  quarries 
supply  the  famous  Penryn  granite— the  material 
of  Waterloo  Bridge,  the  Chatham  Docks,  &c. ; 
and  the  town  has  besides  some  manufactures  of 
paper,  woollen  cloth,  gunpowder,  &c.  Incorpor- 
ated by  James  I.,  it  was  taken  by  Fairfax  in 
1646.     Pop.  (1851)  3959  ;  (1901)  3190. 

Pensaco'la,  the  capital  of  Escambia  county, 
Florida,  is  244  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  New  Orleans, 
on  the  west  shore  of  a  deep  bay  opening  into  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  entrance  is  defended  by  Fort 
McRee  and  Fort  Pickens,  the  latter  on  Santa  Rosa 
Island  ;  and  near  by  is  a  navy-yard.  Pensacola 
contains  foundries  and  lumber  and  planing  mills, 
and  ships  much  yellow  pine.  It  was  settled  by 
the  Spaniards  before  1700,  occupied  by  the  British 
in  1763-81,  taken  from  them  by  Andrew  Jackson 
in  1814,  and  passed  with  Florida  to  the  United 
States  in  1819.     Pop.  (1880)  6845  ;  (1900)  17,747. 

Penshurst,  a  parish  of  Kent,  4  miles  SW.  of 
§1 


Tunbridge  ;  pop.  1677.  Penshurst  Place,  a  splen. 
did  old  mansion,  was  the  birthplace  of  Sir  Philip 
Sidney  and  Algernon  Sidney. 

Pentland  Firth,  a  dangerous  but  much  navi- 
gated channel  between  the  Atlantic  and  German 
Oceans,  separating  the  mainland  of  Scotland 
from  the  Orkney  Islands.  It  is  14  miles  long 
and  6i  broad  at  the  narrowest.  The  Pentland 
Skerries,  5  miles  NE.  of  Duncansbay  Head,  con- 
sist of  two  islets  and  several  rocks.  On  the 
larger  of  the  islets  is  a  lighthouse  (1794). 

Pentland  Hills,  Scotland,  extend  16  miles  SW. 
from  a  point  3  miles  S.  of  Edinburgh,  through 
the  counties  of  Midlothian,  Peebles,  and  Lanark, 
have  a  breadth  of  4  to  6  miles,  and  attain  a 
maximum  height  in  Carnethy  (1890  feet)  and 
Scald  Law  (1898).  In  the  battle  of  the  Pentlands 
or  Rullion  Green,  2  miles  NNW.  of  Penicuik, 
Sir  Thomas  Dalyell  routed  900  westland  Cov- 
enanters, 28th  November  1666. 

Pentonville,  a  populous  district  in  London  in 
the  parish  of  St  James's,  Clerkenwell,  the  first 
buildings  in  which  were  erected  in  1773  on  fields 
belonging  to  Henry  Penton,  Esq.  The  name  has 
since  been  extended  to  part  of  Islington  parish, 
in  which  stands  (in  Caledonian  Road)  Fentonville 
Prison,  built  in  1840-42. 

Penza,  a  large  rural  town  of  Russia,  330  miles 
by  rail  SE.  of  Moscow,  has  a  cathedral  (17th  cen- 
tury), a  botanical  garden,  and  manufactures  of 
paper,  soap,  &c.  Pop.  60,000.— Tlie  government 
has  an  area  of  14,992  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  1,470,500. 

Penzance'  (Com.,  'holy  headland'),  a  town  of 
Cornwall,  the  most  westerly  in  England,  at  the 
head  of  Mount's  Bay,  10  miles  ENE.  of  Land's 
End,  80  W.  by  S.  of  Plymouth,  and  328  (by  road 
281)  WSW.  of  London.  Standing  on  a  finely- 
curved  shore  surrounded  by  rocky  eminences,  it 
is  famous  for  its  mild,  equable  climate,  though 
the  annual  rainfall  is  heavy  (43  inches).  Its  fine 
esplanade  commands  splendid  land  and  sea  views ; 
and  its  chief  buildings,  constructed  largely  of 
granite,  include  a  market-hall  (1837)  with  a  statue 
before  it  of  Sir  Humphry  Davy  (a  native),  an 
infirmary  (1874),  a  post-office  (1883),  and  public 
rooms  (1867),  Italian  Renaissance  in  style,  and 
comprising  a  guildhall,  inuseum,  library,  &c.  The 
harbour  has  two  piers  (1772-1845)  half  a  mile  long, 
forming  a  tidal  basin  of  21  acres  ;  and  docks  have 
been  added  since  1882.  Penzance  is  a  head- 
quarters of  the  mackerel  and  pilchard  fisheries ; 
market-gardening  is  an  important  industry ;  and 
of  recent  years  the  place  has  grown  much  in 
favour  as  a  watering-place.  Burned  by  Spaniards 
in  1595,  and  sacked  by  Fairfax  in  1646,  it  was 
incorporated  in  1614,  and  from  1663  to  1838  was 
one  of  the  five  'coinage  towns.'  Pop.  (1851) 
9214  ;  (1901)  13,136.  See  works  by  Lach-Szyrma 
(1878)  and  Millett  (1876-80). 

Peo'ria,  capital  of  Peoria  county,  Illinois,  on 
the  west  bank  of  the  Illinois  River,  at  the  outlet 
of  Peoria  Lake,  161  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Chicago. 
It  is  an  important  railway  centre,  and  is  con- 
nected by  .steamboat  navigation  with  the  Missis- 
sippi and  by  canal  with  Lake  Michigan.  It  has 
a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a  high  school,  a 
medical  college,  three  hospitals,  and  ten  parks, 
the  largest  Jefferson  (35  acres).  Mines  of  bitu- 
minous coal  supply  the  great  distilleries,  breweries, 
foundries,  manufactories  of  flour,  oatmeal,  starch, 
glucose,  pottery,  &c.  In  the  lower  city  are  large 
stockyards.     Pop.  (1880)  29,259  ;  (1900)  56,100. 

Pera,  a  suburb  of  Constantinople  (q.v.). 

Perak',  a  Malay  state  on  the  west  side  of  the 


PERCY'S  CROSS 


546 


PERSEPOLIS 


Malay  peninsula,  since  1874  under  the  protection 
of  Britain.  Area,  7950  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1879)  55,880  ; 
(1901)  329,665.  The  interior  attains  8000  feet 
above  sea-level.  The  soil  is  fertile,  and  covered 
mostly  with  luxuriant  vegetation.  Tin  is  the 
chief  product,  and  after  it  lead,  besides  rice, 
sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  tea,  spices,  &c.  See 
M'Nair's  Perak  and  the  Malays  (1877). 

Percy's  Cross,  a  Northumbrian  monument,  6 
miles  SSE.  of  Wooler,  to  Sir  Ralph  Percy,  who 
fell  fighting  against  Edward  IV.  (1463). 

Perekop,  Isthmus  of,  connecting  the  Crimea 
(q.v.)  with  the  mainland  of  Russia.  In  the  north 
of  it  is  the  small  town  of  Perekop  ;  pop.  5000. 

Pereslavl,  a  town  of  Russia,  96  miles  NE.  of 
Moscow  by  rail.  It  has  a  12th-c.  cathedral,  cotton- 
manufactures,  and  lake-fisheries.    Pop.  7466, 

Per'gamus,  or  Pergamum,  an  ancient  city  of 
Mysia  in  Asia  Minor,  on  the  river  Caicus,  15 
miles  from  its  mouth.  It  still  exists  as  Bergama, 
and  is  noted  for  the  splendour  of  its  ruined 
temples,  palaces,  aqueducts,  gymnasia,  amphi- 
theatres, and  city  walls.  These  were  excavated 
for  the  Prussian  government  in  1878-86. 

Perlgueux  (Payr-ee-guh'),  a  town  of  France, 
formerly  capital  of  Perigord,  now  in  the  dep.  of 
Dordogne,  and  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Isle,  a  tributary  of  the  Dordogne,  95  miles  by 
rail  NE.  of  Bordeaux.  The  cathedral  of  St  Front 
is  a  Byzantine  edifice,  built  in  984-1047,  but 
spoilt  by  'restoration'  in  1865.  The  town 
museum  is  especially  rich  in  Roman  and  other 
antiquities.  Statues  of  Montaigne,  F^nelon,  and 
the  soldiers  Daumesnil  and  Bugeaud  adorn  the 
town.  Iron  is  mined  and  worked,  and  woollens 
are  manufactured.  The  celebrated  pates  de  Peri- 
gueux,  made  of  partridges  and  truffles,  are  largely 
exported.  Pop.  (1872)  21,316  ;  (1901)  28,875.  The 
Romans  built  another  town  on  the  opposite  side 
ot  the  river  to  the  Gallic  Vesunna,  at  the  junc- 
tion of  five  Roman  roads.  Close  to  the  modern 
town  are  remains  of  a  vast  amphitheatre,  aque- 
ducts, baths,  and  temples.  The  tower  of  Vesunna, 
89  feet  high  and  200  in  circumference,  has  walls  6 
feet  thick,  but  has  neither  doors  nor  windows. 
The  district  of  P6rigord  is  noted  for  its  caves  and 
archaeological  finds. 

Perlm  {Per-eem'),  a  barren  island,  since  1883  a 
coaling  and  telegraph  station  belonging  to  Britain, 
in  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  at  the  southern 
entrance  to  the  Red  Sea,  97  miles  W.  of  Aden,  1^ 
from  the  Arabian  shore,  and  9  from  the  African. 
It  is  ^\  miles  long  by  2^  wide,  and  crescent 
shaped,  the  two  horns  embracing  a  deep  and 
spacious  harbour.  The  island,  held  by  the 
British  in  1799-1800,  and  again  occupied  in  1857, 
is  under  the  jurisdiction  of  Bombay  Presidency. 
Pop.  about  400,  mostly  coolie  coal-heavers.  See 
H.  Spalding,  Perim  as  it  is  (1890). 

Perleberg  (Per'leh-berg),  a  Prussian  town,  in 
Brandenburg,  80  miles  NW.  of  Berlin.    Pop.  7825. 

Perm,  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the  Kama,  by 
which  it  is  685  miles  NE.  of  Kazan.  It  is  the 
chief  seat  of  the  extensive  transit  trade  between 
European  Russia  and  Siberia,  and  has  a  cathedral, 
tanneries,  distilleries,  flour-mills,  oil-works,  and 
a  government  arsenal  and  cannon-foundry.  Pop. 
45,400.— The  government  has  an  area  of  128,173 
sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  3,003,300. 

Pernambu'co,  or  Recife  (Re-see'feh),  the  busiest 
seaport  of  North  Brazil,  stands  at  the  eastern- 
most point  of  the  coast.  It  consists  of  three 
portions,  connected  by  hvidges— Recife  ('the  reef) 
iproper,  with  narrow,  winding  streets,  the  chief 


seat  of  commerce,  on  a  peninsula  ;  San  Antonio, 
with  straight,  wide  streets,  on  an  island  between 
the  peninsula  and  the  mainland  ;  and  Boa  Vista, 
where  are  the  merchants'  villas,  on  the  mainland. 
The  principal  buildings  embrace  two  arsenals,  an 
observatory,  the  palace  of  the  Bishop  of  Olinda 
(8  miles  to  the  north),  a  law  school,  &c.  The 
harbour,  formed  by  a  reef,  has  been  much  im- 
proved  since  1889.  Cottons,  machinery,  and 
tobacco  are  manufactured,  and  shipbuilding  is 
carried  on.  The  principal  exports  are  sugar 
and  cotton,  with  rum,  hides,  dye-woods,  &c. ; 
the  principal  imports  are  cottons  and  wool- 
lens, fish  and  meat,  vegetables,  minerals,  wines, 
&c.  Britain,  the  United  States,  and  France 
have  the  largest  shares  in  this  trade.  Pop.  (1878) 
94,493;  (1905)  130,000.  Recife  was  founded  by 
the  Spaniards  in  the  second  half  of  the  16th  cen- 
tury. Sir  James  Lancaster  captured  it  in  1595, 
the  Dutch  in  1630,  and  the  Portuguese  in  1654.— 
The  province  has  an  area  of  49,625  sq.  m.  and  a 
pop.  of  1,254,000. 

Pemow  (Ger.  Pernau),  a  seaport  of  the  Baltic 
Provinces  of  Russia,  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Pernow,  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
Gulf  of  Riga,  100  miles  N.  of  Riga.  Besides 
linseed  and  barley,  it  ships  large  quantities  of 
flax,  principally  to  Great  Britain.     Pop.  12,918. 

Perpignan  (Per-peen-yon"'),  a  town  and  a  for- 
tress in  the  French  dep.  of  Pyrenees-Orientales, 
stands  on  the  river  Tet,  7  miles  from  the  Medi- 
terranean, 40  by  rail  S.  of  Narbonne,  and  17  from 
the  Spanish  frontier.  It  commands  the  passes  of 
the  Eastern  Pyrenees,  and  is  defended  on  the 
south  by  a  citadel,  which  encloses  the  old  castle 
of  the  Counts  of  Roussillon,  and  by  a  detached 
fort.  There  are  a  cathedral  (begun  in  1324), 
the  Moorish-Gothic  cloth-hall  or  bourse  (1396), 
a  town-house  (1692),  the  building  of  a  former 
university  (1349— French  Revolution),  a  palace 
of  justice,  and  a  college.  The  industries  in- 
clude the  making  of  good  red  wine,  brandy, 
cloth,  &c.  As  capital  of  the  former  county  of 
Roussillon,  Perpignan  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
kings  of  Aragon  from  1172  to  its  capture  by 
France  in  1475 ;  it  was  restored  to  Spain  in 
1493  ;  but  Richelieu  retook  it  in  1642.   Pop.  32,950. 

Perranza'buloe  ('Perran  in  the  sands'),  a 
Cornish  coast  parish,  10  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Truro. 
The  rude  little  stone  oratory  (25  by  12 J  feet)  of 
St  Piran,  sent  to  Cornwall  by  St  Patrick  in  the 
5th  century,  had  been  buried  in  the  sands  for 
a  thousand  years,  when  it  was  discovered  in  1835. 
Perran  Round  is  a  circular  enclosure,  with  seven 
rows  of  seats  that  could  seat  2000,  in  which 
miracle  plays  were  performed  of  old.  See  works 
by  Haslam  (1844)  and  Trelawny  (8th  ed.  1884). 

Perryville,  a  village  of  Kentucky,  40  miles 
SW.  of  Lexington,  was  the  scene  of  a  hard-fought 
battle  between  the  Union  and  Confederate  armies 
of  Buell  and  Bragg,  8th  October  1862. 

Persep'olis  ('  Persian  City '),  the  Greek  name  for 
the  capital  of  ancient  Persia,  was  situated  to  the 
east  of  the  river  Medus  (Murghab),  14  miles  above 
its  confluence  with  the  Araxes  (Bendemir),  35 
miles  NE.  of  Shiraz.  A  series  of  most  remark- 
able ruins  is  now  all  that  remains  of  that  city, 
with  which  'no  other  city  could  be  compared 
either  in  beauty  or  in  wealth,"  and  which  was 
called  'The  Glory  of  the  East."  Three  groups 
are  chiefly  distinguishable  in  the  vast  ruins 
existing  on  the  spot.  First,  the  Great  Hall  of 
Xerxes,  or  Chehel-Minar  (Forty  Pillars),  with  the 
Mountain  of  the  Tombs  (Rachmed),  also  called 
Takht-i- Jamshid  or  the  throng  of  Jamshid,  afte^- 


FERSHORE 


547 


PERSIA 


the  reputed  founder  of  Persepolis,  The  next  in 
order  is  Naksh-i-Rustam,  to  the  north-west,  with 
its  tombs ;  and  the  last,  the  building  called  the 
Haram  of  Jamshid.  See  the  travels  of  Chardin, 
Niebuhr,  Ker  Porter,  Rich,  &c.  ;  Fergusson's 
Palaces  of  Nineveh  and  Persepolis  Restored,  Vaux's 
Nineveh  and  Persepolis,  Rawlinson's  Five  Great 
Monarchies,  and  for  photographic  views,  Perse- 
polis, by  Stolze  and  Noldeke  (Berlin,  18S2). 

Pershore,  a  pleasant,  old-fashioned  market- 
town  of  Worcestershire  (q.v.),  in  a  fruit-growing 
district,  on  the  Avon,  9  miles  SE.  of  Worcester, 
Holy  Cross,  the  church  of  a  Benedictine  abbey, 
originally  founded  in  689,  is  but  a  fragment- 
choir,  south  transept,  and  central  tower,  mainly 
Decorated  in  style.  It  was  restored  by  Scott  in 
1863-65.  Pershore  manufactures  stockings  and 
farm  implements.  Pop.  of  parish,  2500.  See  a 
work  by  Styles  (1838). 

Persia,  called  by  the  natives  IrXn,  the  most 
important  native  kingdom  of  western  Asia,  is 
bounded  by  Russian  Caucasia,  the  Caspian  Sea, 
the  Russian  Transcaspian  provinces,  Afghanistan, 
Beluchistan,  the  Strait  of  Ormuz,  the  Persian 
Gulf,  and  Asiatic  Turkey.  Extending  900  miles 
from  E.  to  W.  and  700  miles  from  N.  to  S.,  it 
has  an  area  of  about  638,000  sq.  m.,  consisting 
for  the  most  part  of  a  great  tableland  from  2000 
to  5000  feet  in  height.  North  of  this  the  majestic 
range  of  Elburz  (with  its  peak  Deniavend,  q.v.) 
runs,  south  of  the  low  Caspian  shores,  eastward 
towards  Afghanistan  and  the  Paropamisus  ;  and  a 
mountain  belt  running  from  the  NW.  to  SE.  with 
snow-capped  peaks,  descends  by  steep  terraces  to- 
wards the  Persian  Gulf,  and  bounds  it  on  the  W. 
(see  Asia).  Demavend  is  an  extinct  volcano  ;  and 
earthquakes  occasionally  occur.  A  great  part  of 
Khorassan,  the  north  half  of  Kerman,  the  east 
of  Irak-Ajemi,  which  form  the  great  central  plain, 
and  detached  portions  of  all  the  other  provinces, 
with  the  exception  of  those  on  the  Caspian  Sea, 
forming  more  than  three-fourths  of  the  surface 
of  Persia,  are  desert — that  is  to  say,  are  unculti- 
vated owing  to  the  want  of  rain  ;  but  by  far  the 
greater  portion  of  this  region  consists  of  light 
dry  soil,  which  only  requires  irrigation  to  be- 
come fruitful.  This  great  central  desert  con- 
tains a  few  oases.  A  narrow  strip  of  low 
and  level  country  extends  along  the  Persian 
Gulf  and  the  Strait  of  Ormuz.  Some  parts 
of  the  country  are  of  exceeding  fertility  and 
beauty ;  the  immense  valleys,  some  of  them  100 
miles  in  length,  between  the  various  ranges  of 
the  Kerman  Mountains,  abound  with  the  rarest 
and  most  valuable  vegetable  products.  Great 
portions  of  the  provinces  of  Pars,  Khuzistan, 
Ardelan,  and  Azerbijan  have  been  lavishly 
endowed  by  nature  with  the  most  luxuriant 
vegetation ;  while  the  provinces  of  Ghilan  and 
Mazanderan,  which  lie  between  the  Elburz  and 
the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  southern  slopes  of  the 
Elburz  are  as  beautiful  as  wood,  water,  and  a 
motlerately  hot  climate  can  make  them. 

Persia  has  hardly  one  river  that  can  properly 
be  termed  navigable,  though  some  of  them  are 
several  hundred  miles  in  length,  and  of  great 
width  and  volume  of  water.  The  Karun  (q.v.) 
was  opened  to  foreign  steam-navigation  from  its 
mouth  to  Ahwaz  in  1889.  Most  of  the  ancient 
irrigation  works  are  ru'ns.  Persia  abounds  with 
saline  lakes,  the  chief  being  Urmia  (q.v.)  and 
Bakhtegan  (60  miles  by  9).  Persia  possesses  three 
climates— that  of  the  Dushtistan,  of  the  elevated 

flateau,  and  of  the  Caspian  provinces.    In  the 
(ushtistan,  the  southern  lowland,  the  autumnal 


heats  are  excessive,  those  of  summer  more  toler- 
able,  while  in  winter  and  spring  the  climate  is 
delightful.  On  the  plateau  the  climate  of  Pars  is 
temperate.  To  the  north  and  north-west  the 
winters  are  severe.  The  desert-region  of  the 
centre  and  east,  and  the  country  on  its  border, 
endure  most  oppressive  heat  during  summer 
and  piercing  cold  in  winter.  The  Caspian 
provinces,  from  their  general  depression  below 
the  sea-level,  are  exposed  to  a  degree  of  heat 
in  summer  almost  equal  to  that  of  the  West 
Indies,  and  their  winters  are  mild.  Rains,  how- 
ever, are  frequent  and  heavy,  and  many  tracts 
of  low  country  are  marshy  and  extremely  un- 
healthy. Except  in  the  Caspian  provinces,  the 
atmosphere  of  Persia  is  remarkable  above  that 
of  all  other  countries  for  its  dryness  and  purity. 
The  cultivated  portions  of  Persia,  when  supplied 
with  moisture,  are  very  fertile,  producing  an 
immense  variety  of  crops.  The  chief  cultivated 
products  are  admirable  wheat,  barley,  and  other 
cereals,  cotton,  sugar  and  rice  (in  Mazanderan), 
and  tumhaku  or  tobacco  for  the  narghileh  or 
water  pipe.  The  vine  flourishes  in  several 
provinces,  and  the  wines  of  Shiraz  are  cele- 
brated. Mulberries  are  also  largely  cultivated, 
and  silk  is  a  most  important  product.  The 
forests  of  the  Elburz  swarm  with  wild  animals, 
as  wolves,  tigers,  jackals,  boars,  buffaloes,  foxes, 
and  the  Caspian  cat.  Leopards  abound  in  Mazan- 
deran, and  lions  in  parts  of  Pars  and  Arabistan. 
The  horses  have  always  been  celebrated  for  their 
beauty,  speed,  and  endurance.  The  Caspian 
rivers  abound  with  fish,  especially  sturgeon,  great 
quantities  of  which  are  cured  and  exported  to 
Russia.  Except  only  salt,  the  mineral  products 
are  insignificant,  though  iron,  copper,  lead,  anti- 
mony, coal,  sulphur,  and  naphtha  exist  in  p»lenty. 
The  settled  population  are  chiefly  Tajiks,  the 
descendants  of  the  ancient  Persian  race,  with 
an  intermixture  of  foreign  blood.  To  this  class 
belong  the  agriculturists,  merchants,  artisans, 
&c.  The  Tajiks  are  Mohammedans  of  the  Shiite 
sect,  with  the  exception  of  the  remaining  Parsees 
(some  9000  in  number),  who  are  found  chiefly  at 
Yezd,  and  still  retain  their  purity  of  race  and 
religious  faith.  The  nomad  or  pastoral  tribes  are 
of  four  distinct  races — Turks  (not  Osmanli  Turk), 
Kurds,  Luurs,  and  Arabs.  Of  the  four  the  Turk 
is  the  most  numerous,  and  to  it  belongs  the 
present  Kajar  dynasty.  There  is  a  small  popula- 
tion of  native  Christians — the  Nestorians  of 
Urmia  and  Telmais,  and  Armenians,  whose  prin- 
cipal settlement  is  at  Julfa  (Ispahan),  where 
there  is  an  archbishop  and  a  cathedral.  Includ- 
ing a  few  Roman  Catholics  and  Protestants,  the 
whole  number  of  Christians  can  hardly  exceed 
50,000.  The  Jews  number  35,000.  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  in  antiquity,  and  even  during  the 
middle  ages,  while  the  irrigation-works  still  ferti- 
lised large  tracts  of  country,  Persia  supported  a 
great  population ;  in  the  1 7th  century  it  was  esti- 
mated at  40  millions.  In  1905  the  population 
was  estimated  at  about  9^  millions,  and  the  prin- 
cipal cities  thus:  Teheran,  250,000;  Tabriz, 
180,000  ;  Ispahan,  80,000  ;  Meshhed  and  Kerman, 
70,000  each  ;  Yezd,  55,000  ;  Barfurush  and  Shiraz, 
50,000  each ;  Hamadan,  Kazvin,  Kom,  Kashan, 
Resht,  from  30,000  to  40,000  each.  Of  the  nomads 
260,000  are  Arabs,  720,000  Turks,  675,000  Kurds 
and  Leks,  234,000  Liiurs,  and  20,700  Beluchis  and 
gypsies.  The  houses  are  generally  built  of  mud, 
and,  seen  from  without,  look  contemptible,  but  the 
interiors  of  the  houses  of  the  wealthy  are  some- 
times perfect  paradises  of  elegance.  The  miser- 
able look  of  the  towns  is  greatly  redeemed  by  the 


PERSIA 


548 


PERTH 


beauty  of  the  gardens  which  surround  them.  The 
roads  are  utterly  neglected. 

Persian  trade  is  comparatively  small.  Silk  has 
declined,  opium  is  increasing,  cottons  and  wool- 
lens, shawls,  carpets,  and  felts  are  manufactured 
both  for  home  use  and  for  export.  The  exports 
mainly  consist  of  wheat,  rice,  wine,  raisins, 
almonds  and  nuts,  olive-oil,  tobacco,  drugs, 
gums,  resins,  manna,  opium,  colouring  matters, 
boxwood,  walnut-wood,  silk,  wool,  carpets, 
skins  and  furs,  wax,  pearls,  turquoises,  sulphur, 
naphtha,  salt ;  the  chief  imports  are  cotton 
goods  from  Britain,  and  broadcloths,  jewellery, 
arms,  cutlery,  watches,  earthen,  glass,  and  metal 
wares,  &c.  The  whole  foreign  trade  has  been 
estimated  roughly  at— imports,  £5,500,000;  ex- 
ports, £3,000,000.  The  imports  of  British  produce 
have  of  late  years  varied  from  £300,000  to  £500,000 ; 
while  the  exports  to  Britain  were  worth  from 
£100,000  to  £250,000,  without  reckoning  the  much 
greater  value  sent  to  India  and  other  British 
dependencies.  In  the  north-west,  north,  and 
north-east  districts  a  decided  Russian  superiority 
in  trade  is  in  parts  disputed  by  British  and 
Indian  competition;  in  the  south  and  west 
British  ascendency  is  established.  Many  pro- 
jects of  railways  have  been  formed,  but  up  to 
1894  only  one  of  them  had  been  carried  out— viz. 
from  Teheran  to  Shah  Abul  Azim  (6  miles).  Tram- 
ways have  been  laid  down  in  Teheran.  The  Karun 
river  has  been  open  since  1888  to  foreign  (mainly 
British)  navigation.  Russia  has  easy  access  by 
the  Caspian.  The  principal  centres  of  trade  are 
Tabriz,  Teheran,  and  Ispahan ;  the  chief  ports 
Gombroon  (Bender- Abbas),  Lingah,  and  Bushire 
on  the  Persian  Gulf,  and  Enzeli,  Meshed-i-Sar, 
and  Bender-i-Gez  on  the  Caspian.  The  govern- 
ment of  Persia  is  a  pure  despotism,  limited  only 
by  the  power  and  influence  of  the  Mohammedan 
mollahs  or  priests,  domestic  intrigues,  dread  of 
private  vengeance,  and  an  occasional  insurrection. 
The  'Shah,'  or  'Padishah,'  possesses  absolute 
authority  over  the  lives  and  property  of  his  sub- 
jects. His  deputies,  the  governors  of  provinces 
and  districts,  possess  similar  authority  over  those 
under  them  ;  their  actions  are,  however,  liable  to 
revision  by  the  Shah,  who  may  summarily  inflict 
any  punishment  upon  them  for  real  or  alleged 
misgovernment.  Frightful  bribery  and  extortion 
prevail.  It  is  believed  that  the  irregular  exactions 
amount  to  a  sum  equal  to  the  legal  assessments, 
and  that  not  a  penny  of  the  money  so  extorted  is 
applied  to  public  purposes.  The  annual  reveiuie 
in  1890-1905  may  be  stated  at  from  £1,400,000  to 
£1,775,000.  The  regular  army  is  really  composed 
of  about  30,000  infantry  and  1000  artillery,  while 
there  are  about  10,000  irregular  cavalry,  a  few 
thousand  irregular  infantry,  and  the  guards. 

The  Medes  (akin  to  the  Persians),  who  occupied 
the  NE.  of  Persia,  rebelled  against  the  Assyrians 
and  founded  a  kingdom  in  708  b.c,  subverted  in 
537  by  the  Persians  under  Cyrus,  who  established 
a  vast  and  mighty  empire,  extending  from  the 
.Sgean  to  the  Oxus  and  Indus.  Cambyses  con- 
quered Egypt  (525  B.C.) ;  Darius  I.  and  Xerxes  I. 
failed  in  490  and  480  to  subdue  Greece.  After  the 
reign  of  Artaxerxes  I.  (465-425)  decay  set  in,  and 
Alexander  the  Great  reconstructed  a  new  Persia 
under  Greek  influence.  At  his  death  Persia  fell 
to  the  Seleucidse,  but  Bactria  and  Parthia  soon 
became  independent ;  and  then  the  Arsacidse,  a 
Parthian  dynasty,  ruled  all  Persia  from  138  B.C. 
to  218  A.D.,  when  the  Sassanian  princes,  of  the 
old  Persian  stock,  restored  a  real  Persian  empire, 
which  contended  with  Rome  on  equal  terms,  re- 
peatedly defeated  Roman  armies,  and  took  a 


Roman  emperor  captive  (260  a.d.).  Tlie  Sas- 
sanians  were  crushed  in  639  a.d.  by  the  Moham- 
medan Arabs,  under  whom  Persia  became  a 
favoured  province  of  the  Caliphs.  After  the  9th 
century  various  Turkish,  Persian,  or  Tartar 
dynasties  ruled  over  portions  of  Persia,  but  were 
swept  away  by  the  Mongols  of  Genghis  Khan 
(1335).  Timur  the  Tartar  made  Persia  part  of  his 
dominion  (1370).  A  Turkish  dynasty  had  great 
representatives  in  Ismail  (1500-23)  and  Abbas  the 
Great  (1585-1628).  The  present  Turkoman  dynasty 
was  established  by  Aga-Mohammed  in  1795.  See 
books  on  Persia  by  Arnold  (1876),  Wills  (1883-86), 
Benjamin  (1886),  Curzon  (1891),  and  Browne  (1893) ; 
Morier's  tale  of  Hajji  Baha;  and  histories  by 
Rawlinson  (of  ancient  Persia,  1876),  Malcolm  (1828), 
Watson  (1866),  and  Clements  Markham  (1874). 

Persian  Gulf,  an  arm  of  the  Indian  Ocean 
which  penetrates  650  miles  north-westward  be- 
tween Arabia  and  Persia.  Its  breadth  varies 
from  55  miles  at  the  mouth  to  250  miles,  and  the 
area  is  estimated  at  77,450  sq.  m.,  not  including 
the  islands,  which  qre  scattered  over  the  western 
half,  or  lie  close  inshore  along  the  eastern  side. 
The  chief  of  these  islands  are  Ormuz,  at  the 
mouth ;  Kishm,  810  sq.  m.  in  extent ;  and  the 
Bahrein  Islands.  The  Great  Pearl  Bank  stretches 
along  the  western  side  from  Ras  Hassan  to  nearly 
half  way  up  the  gulf.  On  the  Arabian  side  the  coast 
is  low  and  sandy,  occasionally  broken  by  moun- 
tains and  cliffs ;  while  on  the  Persian  side  it  is 
higher  and  abrupt,  with  deep  water  close  inshore, 
owing  to  the  mountain-ranges  of  Pars  and  Laristan 
running  close  to  the  water's  edge.  The  islands, 
mostly  barren  and  destitute  of  springs,  present 
numerous  traces  of  volcanic  eruptions.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Shat-el-Arab  (see  Euphrates), 
the  Persian  Gulf  receives  only  insignificant 
streams.  Its  eastern  side  offers  good  anchorage, 
either  in  the  numerous  bays  or  in  the  lee  of 
islands.  The  greater  portion  of  its  southern 
shores  now  belongs  to  the  Imam  of  Muscat,  while 
the  whole  of  the  northern  shore  belongs  to  Persia. 
The  greatest  depth  does  not  exceed  50  fathoms. 
The  submarine  telegraph  cables  of  the  govern- 
ment of  India  traverse  the  whole  length  of  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  connect  with  the  systems  of 
Persia  and  India. 

Perth,  the  county  town  of  Perthshire,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  tidal  Tay,  43  miles  NNW.  of 
Edinburgh,  22  WSW.  of  Dundee,  and  62  NE.  of 
Glasgow.  The  beauty  of  its  surroundings— the 
noble  river ;  the  two  wooded  heights,  Moncreifle 
and  Kinnoull  Hills,  725  and  730  feet  high ;  and 
away  to  the  north,  the  Grampians— makes  the 
'  Fair  City '  worthy  of  the  name.  A  handsome 
nine-arch  bridge  (1772  ;  widened  1871),  840  feet 
long,  and  stretching  over  a  waterway  of  590  feet, 
leads  to  the  suburb  of  Bridgend,  where  Ruskin 
spent  much  of  his  childhood  ;  along  the  Tay's 
west  bank  extend  two  beautiful  public  parks,  the 
North  and  South  Inches,  98  and  72  acres  in  area. 
St  John's  Cluirch  is  the  only  old  building— a 
cruciform  Decorated  pile,  with  an  earlier  central 
square  tower.  Other  edifices  are  St  Ninian's 
Episcopal  Cathedral  (1850-90),  an  Early  Middle 
Pointed  structure ;  the  Tudor  municipal  build- 
ings (1879),  the  Grecian  county  buildings  (1819- 
67),  the  city  hall  (1844),  the  infirmary  (1837-69X 
and  the  penitentiary  and  general  prison  for  Scot- 
land (1812-59),  besides  the  water-works  (1830-80), 
tAVO  museums,  the  Albert  statue  (1864),  and  the 
auction-mart  (1875).  Railways  have  largely 
diverted  the  river-trade ;  and  dyeing  is  now  the 
leading  industry,  with  manufactures  of  ink,  gauge- 


^EitTa 


54d 


PERU 


I 


glasses,  linen,  iron,  beer,  &c.  A  royal  burgh 
since  1210  or  earlier,  and  taking  precedence  of  all 
others  save  Edinburgh,  Perth  returns  one  mem- 
ber.    Pop.  (1831)  19,238  ;  (1901)  32,873. 

Perth,  or  St  Johnstoun,  as  it  was  formerly 
called,  has  a  wealth  of  historic  memories— the 
bloody  combat  on  the  North  Inch  between  sixty 
members  of  the  clans  Chattan  and  Kay  (1396) ; 
the  murder  of  James  I.  (1437);  Knox's  'thunder- 
ing sermon  against  idolatry '  in  St  John's  (1559) ; 
the  Gowrie  Conspiracy  (1600);  and  Montrose's 
victory  of  Tippermuir  (1644) ;  besides  sixteen 
ecclesiastical  councils  and  fourteen  parliaments, 
and  visits  innumerable  from  royal  personages, 
including  the  two  Pretenders  and  Queen  Victoria. 
See  Pertli  Memorabilia  (1806),  Maidment's  Chron- 
icle of  Perth  (Maitland  Club,  1831),  and  works 
by  Penny  (1836),  Lawson  (1847),  Peacock  (1849), 
and  J.  Wilson  (1860). 

Perth,  the  capital  of  Western  Australia,  occu- 
pies a  picturesque  site  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Swan  River,  12  miles  from  Fremantle,  its  port,  at 
the  mouth.  The  buildings  include  a  town-hall, 
Protestant  (1888)  and  R.  C.  cathedrals,  mechanics' 
institute  and  museum,  and  the  governor's  resi- 
dence.    Pop.  (1881)  5044 ;  (1901)  36,274. 

Perth,  capital  of  Lanark  county,  Ontario,  on 
the  river  Tay,  141  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Mon- 
treal, contains  mills  and  manufactories  of 
machinery,  leather,  woollens,  &c.    Pop.  4467. 

Perth  Amboy,  a  port  of  entry  of  New  Jersey, 
opposite  South  Amboy  on  the  other  side  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Raritan  River,  on  the  Kill  van  KuU, 
26  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  New  York.  There  is  a 
steam-ferry  to  Tottenville  on  Staten  Island 
opposite.  The  manufactures  include  corks, 
bricks,  white-ware,  and  drain-pipes.    Pop.  17,700. 

Perthshire,  the  fourth  largest  county  of  Scot- 
land, bounded  by  Inverness,  Aberdeen,  Forfar, 
Fife,  Kinross,  Clackmannan,  Stirling,  Dumbar- 
ton, and  Argyll  shires.  Its  greatest  length,  from 
east  to  west,  is  77  miles ;  its  greatest  breadth, 
from  north  to  south,  68  miles ;  and  till  1891  its 
area  was  2601  sq.  m.,  or  1,664,690  acres,  of  which 
38,274  were  water.  In  that  year  no  fewer  than 
eighteen  alterations  were  made  by  the  boundary 
commissioners,  Perthshire  receiving  eight  small 
enclaves  from  Forfar,  Fife,  Kinross,  and  Stirling 
shires,  whilst  giving  off  to  the  last  three  a  like 
number,  including  the  Culross  and  Tulliallan 
portion  (13,125  acres).  Partly  Lowland,  but 
mainly  Highland  (Strathmore  the  dividing  line), 
it  is  called  by  Scott  '  the  fairest  portion  of  the 
northern  kingdom,'  and  such,  indeed,  it  is,  with 
its  mountains  and  glens,  its  rivers  and  lakes,  its 
forests  and  fertile  vales.  The  chief  rivers  are  the 
Forth  and  Tay,  the  former  receiving  the  Teith, 
Allan,  and  Devon,  the  latter  the  Tummel,  Lyon, 
Isla,  Braan,  Almond,  and  Earn  ;  whilst  amongst 
upwards  of  eighty  lakes  are  Lochs  Tay,  Ericht, 
Earn,  Rannoch,  Lydoch,  Katrine,  Achray,  Ven- 
nachar,  and  Menteith.  In  the  south  rise  the 
Ochils,  with  Dunmyat  (1375  feet),  and  Blairdenon 
Hill  (2072) ;  in  the  south-east  the  Sidlaw  Hills, 
with  Dunsinane  (1012)  and  King's  Seat  (1235) ; 
and  the  Highland  area  is  largely  occupied  by  the 
Grampians,  of  whose  forty-six  summits  exceeding 
2300  feet  may  be  mentioned  Ben  Lawers  (with 
cairn,  4004),  Benmore  (3843),  Ben-y-Gloe  (3671), 
Schiehallion  (3547),  Ben  Vorlich  (3224),  Ben  Ledi 
(2875),  Ben  Vrackie  (2757),  and  Ben  Venue  (2393). 
The  soil  is  extremely  varied,  in  places  of  great 
fertility— e.g.  in  Strathearn  and  in  the  Carse  of 
Gowrie,  which  skirts  the  north  side  of  the  Tay's 
estuary  ;  but  barely  a  fifth  of  the  entire  surface 


is  in  tillage,  the  rest  being  pasture,  woods,  deer- 
forests,  mountain,  and  desolate  moorland,  such 
as  Rannoch.  The  woods  cover  nearly  100,000 
acres ;  and  the  annual  rental  of  the  Perthshire 
deer-forests,  grouse-moors,  and  rod-  and  net- 
flshings  exceeds  in  some  years  £70,000.  Ancient 
divisions  were  Athole  (N.),  Rannoch  (NW.), 
Breadalbane  (W.),  Balquhidder  (SW.),  Menteith 
(S.),  Perth  (SE.),  Gowrie  (E.),  Stormont  and 
Strathearn  (central).  The  county  since  1885 
returns  two  members,  one  for  the  eastern  and 
one  for  the  western  division,  besides  one  for 
Perth.  Other  towns  and  villages  are  Aberfeldy, 
Abernethy,  Auchterarder,  Birnam,  Blair-Athole, 
Blairgowrie,  Callander,  Comrie,  Coupar-Angus, 
Crieff,  Doune,  Dunblane,  Dunkeld,  Pitlochry, 
Scone,  and  Stanley.  The  Roman  camp  at  Ardoch 
is  famous ;  and  Perthshire  contains  the  battle- 
fields of  the  Grampians,  Tippermuir,  Killie- 
crankie,  and  Sheriffmuir ;  whilst  possessing 
memories  of  Bruce,  Queen  Mary,  Rob  Roy,  Burns, 
Scott,  Lady  Nairne,  Wordsworth,  and  Queen 
Victoria.  The  mansions,  which  are  very  numer- 
ous, include  Taymouth,  Drummond,  and  Blair 
castles.  Pop.  (1801)  125, 583  (1831)142,166;  (1881) 
129,007;  (1901)  123,283,  of  whom  11,524  were 
Gaelic-speaking.  See  works  by  Drummond  (1879), 
MarshaU  (1880),  Hunter  (1883),  and  Millar  (1890). 

Peru  (Per-oo'),  a  republic  of  South  America, 
extending  from  near  2°  to  17°  20'  S.  lat.  Previous 
to  the  annexations  by  Chili,  the  Peruvian  terri- 
tory stretched  southward  to  22°  10',  with  a  length 
along  the  Pacific  coast  of  1400  miles,  and  a  width 
of  300  miles.  It  borders  on  the  Pacific,  Ecuador, 
Brazil,  Bolivia,  and  Chili.  The  area  is  roughly 
estimated  at  500,000  sq.  m.  The  population  was 
in  1900  estimated  to  be  about  4,600,000,  the 
aboriginal  Inca  Indians  forming  57  per  cent.,  the 
Mestizos  or  half-castes  23  per  cent.,  and  the  rest 
being  of  pure  Spanish  descent,  negroes,  Chinese, 
&c.  The  Coast  extends  from  the  base  of  the 
Andes  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  consists  of  a 
sandy  desert  crossed  by  some  forty  rivers  along 
whose  banks  there  are  fertile  valleys  ;  the  Sierra, 
or  region  of  the  Andes,  about  250  miles  wide,  con- 
tains stupendous  chains  of  mountains,  elevated 
plains  and  tablelands,  warm  and  fertile  valleys 
and  ravines ;  and  the  Montana,  skirting  the 
eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes,  consists  of  tropical 
forests  traversed  by  great  tributaries  of  the 
Amazon.  The  absence  of  rain  on  the  coast  strip 
of  land  between  the  mountains  and  the  sea  is 
caused  by  the  action  of  the  lofty  uplands  of  the 
Andes  on  the  trade-wind  ;  the  last  particle  of 
moisture  is  wrung  out  of  the  wind  by  the  very 
low  temperature,  and  deposited  as  snow,  and  the 
wind  rushes  down  to  the  Pacific  coast,  cool  and 
dry.  From  November  to  April  there  is  usually 
constant  dryness  on  the  coast,  from  June  to 
September  the  sky  is  obscured  for  weeks  by  mist, 
sometimes  accompanied  by  drizzling  rain.  The 
maximum  temperature  is  about  78°  in  summer 
and  60°  in  winter.  Since  1570  there  have  been 
seventy  destructive  earthquakes  recorded  on  the 
west  coast,  including  those  of  1868  and  1877. 

The  Peruvian  Andes  attain  22,000  feet.  The 
mountain-system  consists  of  three  chains  or  Cordil- 
leras. Two  of  these  chains,  running  parallel  and 
near  each  other,  are  of  identical  origin.  The  west- 
ern one  is  the  maritime  cordillera  and  comprises 
the  volcanoes.  The  eastern  cordillera  is  a  magnifi- 
cent and  almost  continuous  range,  in  great  part 
of  Silurian  formation,  with  clay-slates  and  erup- 
tive granitic  rocks.  The  western  cordillera  is 
cut  through  by  several  streams  which  flow  into 
the  Pacific,  and  the  eastern  cordillera  by  six 


VEBJJ 


550 


PERU 


tributaries  of  the  Amazon,  but  the  central  chain 
is  an  unbroken  water-parting,  consisting  mainly 
of  crystalline  and  volcanic  rocks.  The  valleys 
and  plateaus  between  these  ranges  form  the 
Sierra  of  Peru,  and  include  every  variety  of 
climate  and  scenery.  They  may  be  divided  into 
four  sections,  commencing  from  the  north ;  in 
the  third  is  Cuzco,  the  capital  of  the  Incas,  while 
the  fourth  section  is  the  basin  of  Lake  Titicaca, 
about  150  miles  in  length  and  breadth.  The 
lake  itself  is  80  miles  long,  and  12,545  feet  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.  The  Sierra  of  Peru  is  the 
original  home  of  the  potato.  The  animals  which 
specially  belong  to  the  Peruvian  Sierra  are  the 
domestic  llamas  and  alpacas,  and  the  wild  vicunas, 
the  viscacha,  the  chinchilla,  deer,  dogs,  and  foxes  ; 
notable  among  birds  are  the  condor  and  the  flamin- 
goes, geese  and  wading  birds  of  Lake  Titicaca. 

The  Montana  is  the  region  of  tropical  forests 
within  the  basin  of  the  river  Amazon  ;  the  forests 
drained  by  the  Maraiion,  Huallaga,  and  Ucayali 
forming  the  northern  portion.  The  whole  length 
of  the  Montana,  from  the  Maranon  to  the  Bolivian 
frontier,  is  800  miles.  The  subtropical  portion, 
comprising  the  eastern  slopes  of  the  Andes,  is 
the  region  of  the  cinchona-trees,  and  of  the  coca, 
and  here  coffee  and  cacao  of  the  finest  quality 
are  cultivated.  From  the  forest-covered  plains 
come  india-rubber,  sarsaparilla,  and  a  great 
variety  of  useful  and  ornamental  timber.  The 
fauna  of  the  forests  includes  monkeys,  bats, 
bears,  pumas,  jaguars,  tapirs,  wild  cats,  deer, 
and  many  rodents ;  with  curassows,  ibises,  cranes, 
spoonbills,  parrots,  toucans,  and  many  snakes. 
The  chief  crops  of  the  fertile  valleys  on  the  coast 
of  Peru  are  sugar,  cotton,  and  grapes.  Good  wine 
and  spirits  are  made ;  and  before  the  disastrous 
Chilian  war  (1879)  mulberries,  silkworms,  and 
cochineal  were  successfully  cultivated.  The  ex- 
portation of  guano  from  the  Chincha  Islands 
began  in  1846  and  ended  in  1872,  the  supply 
being  exhausted ;  and  the  nitrates  of  Tarapaca 
were  seized  and  annexed  by  Chili.  The  staple 
exports  of  the  Sierra  of  Peru  are  silver  and  wool, 
the  great  centre  of  mining  industry  being  at  Cerro 
Pasco.  Copper  is  also  exported ;  and  there  are 
rich  gold  washings.  The  total  value  of  metals 
exported  in  1903  was  £952,812.  From  the  Mon- 
taiia  the  exports  are  cinchona  bark,  coca,  coffee, 
cacao,  tobacco,  india-rubber,  and  sarsaparilla, 
besides  maize  and  wheat. 

In  the  five  years  1899-1903  the  exports  varied 
from  $33,600,000  to  $47,300,000,  and  the  imports 
from  $21,230,000  to  $34,300,000  (10  'soles'  or  dol- 
lars =  £1),  about  one-half  of  the  total  trade  being 
with  Great  Britain.  The  exports  to  Britain  are 
chiefly  copper  and  silver  ore,  wool,  cotton,  rubber, 
sugar,  and  guano ;  the  imports  from  Britain 
being  cotton  and  woollen  manufactures,  iron- 
work and  machinery,  and  jute  goods.  In  the 
five  years  to  1903  the  revenue  varied  from 
$13,500,000  to  $16,472,000,  and  the  expenditure 
from  $12,630,000  to  $14,800,000.  Tlie  system 
of  railways  consists  of  a  dozen  short  lines  in 
the  coast-valleys,  and  of  two  long  lines  across 
the  Andes.  The  first  of  these,  from  Callao  and 
Lima  to  Oroya,  was  commenced  in  1870,  and 
tunnels  the  Andes  at  an  altitude  of  15,645 
feet.  The  other  great  line  across  the  Andes 
connects  the  port  of  Mollendo  with  Puno  on 
the  shores  of  Lake  Titicaca,  passing  by  Are- 
quipa.  The  summit  is  crossed  at  a  height  of 
14,660  feet,  and  the  line  is  346  miles  long.  Great 
public  works  were  mainly  responsible  for  raising 
the  debt  from  £4,400,000  (1868)  to  £49,000,000 
(1872).    The  financial  difficulties  culminated  with 


the  disastrous  war  with  Chili,  when  the  nitrate 
of  Tarapaca,  the  chief  resource  of  Peru,  passed 
into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  The  payment  of 
interest  ceased  in  1876,  having  been  regularly 
paid  since  1849 ;  in  1890,  when  the  outstanding 
interest  of  the  debt  amounted  to  £23,000,000,  the 
bondliolders  had  the  railways,  mines  of  guano 
deposits,  and  state  lands  ceded  to  them  for  66 
years  ;  and  Chili  made  itself  responsible  for  some 
part  of  the  payment. 

The  bulk  of  the  Peruvian  population  is  com- 
posed of  the  aboriginal  Inca  Indians,  whose  lan- 
guage, called  Quichua,  is  still  spoken  in  the 
Sierra.  The  Incas  had  attained  to  a  high  state 
of  civilisation  before  the  arrival  of  the  Spaniards  : 
they  cultivated  many  of  the  arts,  and  had  some 
knowledge  of  astronomy.  Three  centuries  of 
oppression  under  Spanish  rule  have  deteriorated 
the  character  of  the  Inca  Indian,  but  he  is  still 
industrious  and  honest.  The  wild  Indians  of  the 
Montana  were  never  subjugated  by  the  Span- 
iards. Spanish  administration  caused  a  rapid 
diminution  of  the  population.  The  Indians  of 
the  Sierra  were  decimated,  while  those  of  the 
coast-valleys  disappeared  altogether.  Negro 
slaves  were  then  introduced,  and  kept  in  bondage 
until  1855,  when  slavery  was  abolished.  From 
1860  to  1872  as  many  as  58,646  Chinese  coolies 
were  imported.  Lima  (q.v.),  the  capital  of  Peru, 
is  nearly  in  the  centre  of  the  coast  region,  and  has 
a  population  of  almost  150,000.  Trujillo  is  the 
chief  coast  town  to  the  north,  and  Arequipa  to 
the  south ;  there  are  many  ports,  including  Callao 
and  Mollendo.  The  Roman  Catholic  is  the  re- 
ligion of  the  state,  but  practically  (not  legally) 
there  is  tolerance  for  dissent.  Besides  the  uni- 
versity of  Lima,  there  are  lesser  universities  at 
Cuzco,  Arequipa,  and  Trujillo,  besides  several 
state-supported  high  schools,  and  about  1870 
primary  schools  witli  105,000  enrolled  pupils. 

For  four  centuries  before  the  Spanish  Conquest 
under  Pizarro  (1532)  the  Incas  swayed  a  mighty 
empire,  under  a  highly  civilised  and  centralised 
system  of  government.  After  the  rapid  con- 
quest, there  were  many  quarrels  between  the 
Spanish  occupants  and  the  mother-country  ;  but 
the  people  were  incessantly  ground  down  in 
order  to  satisfy  the  continual  demands  of  Spain 
for  treasure.  A  great  national  rising  in  1780  was 
crushed,  but  left  the  seeds  of  the  desire  for 
national  independence,  secured  by  the  liberation 
wars  of  1821-24.  Subsequently  Peru  repeatedly 
had  considerable  spells  of  peace  and  prosperity. 
But  the  quarrel  with  Chili  led  to  war  in  1879, 
invasion  and  disastrous  defeats  ending  in  1884  in 
the  permanent  cession  of  Tarapaca,  the  occupa- 
tion (to  be  terminated  after  10  years  on  a  plebiscite 
to  that  effect)  of  Tacna  and  Arica,  and  other  con- 
cessions  favourable  to  Chili. 

See  works  on  Peru,  its  exploration  and  antiqui- 
ties by  Markham  (1862  and  1880),  Hutchinson 
(1873),  Duffleld  (1877),  Squier  (1877),  and  others ; 
the  histories  of  the  conquest  by  Prescott  (1847  ; 
new  ed.  1889),  Robertson,  Helps,  &c. ;  for  the 
war  of  independence,  works  by  Stevenson,  the 
autobiography  of  Lord  Dundonald ;  for  the  war 
with  Chili,  Markham  (on  the  Peruvian  side,  1883). 

Peru,  (1)  a  city  of  Illinois,  at  the  head  of 
navigation  on  the  Illinois  River,  100  miles  by 
rail  WSW.  of  Chicago.  It  contains  zinc-works, 
a  foundry,  a  plough-factory,  and  several  ice- 
houses. Pop.  7000.  —(2)  Capital  of  Miami  county, 
Indiana,  on  the  Wabash  River,  and  on  the 
Wabash  and  Erie  Canal,  75  miles  by  rail  N.  of 
Indianapolis.  Its  factories  produce  woollens, 
bagging,  furniture,  basket-ware,  &c.    Pop.  8500. 


I 


^EftUGlA 


&51 


PETEHBOftOtTGlE 


l»erugia  (Per-oo'ja),  a  city  of  Italy,  stands  (1600 
feet  above  sea-level)  on  the  Tiber's  right  bank, 
11  miles  E.  of  the  Lake  of  Perugia  (anc.  Lacus 
Trasiinenus)  and  127  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Rome. 
It  is  surrounded  with  walls  pierced  by  gates, 
one  of  them  very  ancient.  The  broad  Corso 
unites  two  squares,  in  one  of  which  stands  tlie 
Gothic  cathedral,  dating  from  the  end  of  the 
15th  century,  and  adorned  with  many  paintings, 
carvings,  &c.  The  church  of  St  Dominic  (1632) 
contains  the  tomb  of  Pope  Benedict  XI.  by 
Giovanni  Pisano,  and  stained  windows  (1402); 
the  remarkable  church  of  St  Peter  (11th  c.)  has 
granite  pillars  and  pictures  by  Raphael,  Peru- 
gino,  Parmigiano.  In  the  cathedral  square  stand 
also  the  Gothic  municipal  palace  (1281);  the 
great  fountain,  adorned  with  statues  by  Niccolo 
and  Giovanni  Pisano  ;  the  statue  of  Pope  Julius 
III.  (1555),  described  in  Hawthorne's  Marble 
Faun;  and  the  old  money-changers'  hall  (1453- 
57),  decorated  with  some  of  Perugino's  best 
works.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  city  many  Etrus- 
can tombs  were  discovered  in  1840 ;  they  con- 
tained cinerary  urns,  lamjjs,  vases,  bronze  arm- 
our, ornaments,  &c.  The  university  (1307)  has 
21  teachers  and  160  students,  a  botanical  garden, 
an  observatory,  a  library  (1852)  of  30,000  vols., 
&c.  Silk  and  woollen  goods,  wax-candles,  and 
liqueurs  are  manufactured.  Pop.  61,385.  Peru- 
gia (anc.  Perusia)  was  one  of  the  twelve  Etrurian 
cities.  It  was  captured  by  the  Romans  in  310 
B.C.  and  in  40  b.c,  and  by  Totila  (549  a.d.).  At 
different  periods  it  was  subjected  to  the  popes, 
at  other  times  it  was  in  the  power  of  native 
despots,  and  in  1860  it  was  made  a  part  of  the 
kingdom  of  Italy.  In  the  15th  century  it  became 
the  centre  of  the  Umbriau  school  of  painting. 

Perugia,  Lake  of.    See  Trasimene  Lake. 

Pes'aro  (anc.  Pisaurum),  a  town  of  Italy,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Foglia,  here  crossed  by  a 
bridge  of  Trajan's  age,  1  mile  from  the  Adriatic 
and  37  miles  NW.  of  Ancona  by  rail.  Walled  and 
defended  by  a  citadel  (1474)  and  a  fort,  it  has  two 
cathedrals.  Pop.  25,100.  Pesaro  is  associated 
with  Tasso,  and  was  Rossini's  birthplace. 

Pescadores  Islands.    See  Formosa. 

Peschlera  (Pes-kee-ay'ra),  a  fortress  of  Italy,  a 
member  of  the  Quadrilateral,  stands  partly  on  an 
island  in  the  Mincio  and  partly  on  the  right  bank 
of  that  river,  at  its  outlet  from  the  Lake  of  Garda, 
14  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Verona.     Pop.  2360. 

Peshaw'ar,  or  Peshawub,  a  town  of  India,  10^ 
miles  from  the  entrance  of  the  Khyber  Pass,  190 
E.  by  S.  of  Kabul,  and  276  by  rail  NW.  of  Lahore. 
It  is  since  1903  the  capital  of  the  North-west 
Frontier  Province  (formerly  in  the  Punjab). 
Although  occupying  a  strategic  position  of  the 
utmost  importance,  its  fortifications  are  incon- 
siderable.    Pop.  about  100,000. 

Pesth  (Pest),  or  more  correctly  Budapest,  be- 
cause since  1873  it  has  been  united  with  Buda 
(Ger.  Ofen)  into  one  municipality,  is  the  capital 
of  Hungary,  and  next  after  Vienna  the  second 
city  of  the  Austrian-Hungarian  empire.  It  stands 
on  the  Danube,  Buda  on  the  right  bank  and  Pesth 
on  the  left,  173  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Vienna. 
The  two  towns  are  connected  by  three  bridges,  a 
chain  bridge  (designed  by  Clark  Brothers  of  Eng- 
land in  1842-49),  1280  feet  long,  uniting  the 
busiest  quarters  of  the  two  ;  another,  built  in 
1872-75,  a  little  higher  up  (1555  feet  long) ;  and  a 
railway  bridge.  Pesth  is  essentially  a  modern 
place,  the  growth  principally  of  the  19th  century  ; 
it  has  many  fine  streets  and  squares,  the  magnifi- 
cent quays  (3  miles  long)  beside  the  Danube  being 


the  favourite  promenades.  The  buildings  include 
the  Jewish  synagogue  ;  the  parish  church  (1500) 
and  the  new  Leopold  basilica  (1851-68);  the 
national  museum  (1850),  with  valuable  picture- 
galleries  and  a  library  of  400,000  volumes  and 
63,000  MSS. ;  the  academy  of  sciences  (1862) ;  the 
university  (1635),  established  first  at  Tyrnau, 
then  at  Buda  in  1777,  and  lastly  at  Pesth  in  1873, 
with  316  lecturers  and  about  5000  students, 
equipped  with  laboratories,  &c.,  and  a  library  of 
250,000  volumes ;  the  parliament  house,  the  old 
town -house,  the  redoubt  (1859-65),  the  custom- 
house  (1870-74),  barracks,  the  military  academy 
(1872),  the  slaughter-house  (1870-72),  &c.  Whilst 
Pesth  stands  on  a  plain,  Buda  straggles  over 
steep  hills.  It  is  a  much  older  town,  its  central 
features  being  the  castle  on  the  citadel  (1749-71), 
with  the  chapel  of  St  Sigismund,  in  which  are 
preserved  the  regalia  of  Hungary  and  the  hand 
of  St  Stephen  ;  the  church  of  the  Ascension  and 
that  of  St  John  (13th  century);  the  palaces  of 
the  premier  and  Archduke  Joseph ;  the  monu- 
mental tomb  of  Gul  Babas  (1543-48),  a  Turkish 
saint ;  and  the  lunatic  asylum  (1860-68). 

Both  towns  are  exceptionally  well  provided 
with  baths,  which  are  supplied  both  by  the 
Daiuibe  and  by  natural  springs  of  mineral  waters. 
Some  of  these  last — Hunyadi  Janos,  Rakoczy, 
&c.— are  exported.  The  artesian  well  (1868-79) 
in  the  jjublic  garden  of  Pesth  yields,  at  a  depth 
of  3182  feet,  water  of  a  temperature  of  165°  F. 
The  water-works  of  Pesth  were  planned  and  built 
by  the  English  engineer  Lindley  in  1868.  There 
is  in  Pesth  a  polytechnic  (in  Buda,  1846-72),  with 
faculties  of  chemistry,  architecture,  and  engineer- 
ing. There  are  two  beautiful  public  gardens, 
one  in  Pesth,  the  other  on  Margaret  Island  in  the 
Danube,  just  above  the  town.  The  squares  and 
streets  of  both  Pesth  and  Buda  are  adorned  with 
many  monuments,  among  them  the  Honved 
Memorial  (1893).  The  manufacture  of  machinery 
and  agricultural  implements,  wagons,  ships, 
small-arms,  spirits,  tobacco,  beer,  gold  and  silver 
wares,  cutlery,  starch,  glass,  &c.,  the  grinding 
of  corn,  washing  of  wool,  and  printing  are  all 
prosecuted  on  the  large  scale.  But  the  commerce  is 
even  more  important :  immense  quantities  of  com 
are  brought  into  the  town,  and  exported  further 
either  as  corn  or  flour;  wool,  wine  and  spirits, 
seeds,  hemp,  tobacco,  plums,  honey  and  wax, 
bacon,  hides,  feathers,  timber,  coal,  and  manu- 
factured wares  are  the  principal  articles  of  the 
extensive  trade.  Vast  numbers  of  swine  are 
fattened  and  killed  in  huge  yards  just  outside 
Pesth.  Pop.  of  Budapest  (1813)  36,153;  (1857) 
116,683  ;  (1900)  716,476.  The  Romans  had  a  mill- 
tary  colony  on  the  site  of  Buda.  In  the  13th  c. 
there  existed  here  a  flourishing  German  town. 
Old  Buda,  destroyed  by  the  Mongols  in  1241 ; 
but  it  soon  recovered,  and  Buda  was  regarded  as 
the  capital  down  to  its  capture  by  the  Turks  in 
1527.  From  1541  to  1686  the  Turks  held  Buda, 
though  it  was  often  besieged.  Pesth  meanwhile 
was  reduced  to  a  heap  of  ruins. 

Petcho'ra,  a  large  river  in  the  north  of  Euro- 
pean Russia,  rises  on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Urals,  flows  N.  through  the  eastern  parts  of  the 
governments  of  Vologda  and  Archangel,  then  SE. 
for  150  miles,  and  finally  sweeping  northward, 
and  expanding  into  an  isleted  estuary  30  miles 
wide,  falls  into  the  Arctic  Ocean,  after  a  course 
of  975  miles.    See  a  work  by  Seebohm  (1880). 

Peterborough,  a  city  partly  in  Huntingdon- 
shire, but  chiefly  in  Northamptonshire,  the  latter 
portion  being  on  the  left  or  north  bank  of  the 


t>£tERBOROt;Gfl 


552 


i?ETROVSK 


river  Nen,  at  the  edge  of  the  fen-country,  76 
miles  N.  of  London  and  42  NB.  of  Northampton. 
Here,  at  Medeshanistede,  in  655,  was  founded  a 
great  Benedictine  abbey,  which,  destroyed  by 
the  Danes  in  870,  was  restored  in  966,  plundered 
by  Hereward  in  1069,  and  again  burned  down  in 
1116.  Its  noble  church,  the  cathedral  since  1541 
of  a  new  diocese  carved  out  of  that  of  Lincoln, 
was  built  between  1118  and  1528,  and  thus,  whilst 
essentially  Norman,  offers  every  variety  of  archi- 
tecture down  to  the  Perpendicular.  It  is  471 
feet  long,  by  202  across  the  transept,  and  81  high. 
The  Early  English  west  front  (c.  1200-22)  consists 
of  three  mighty  arches,  and  '  is  perhaps,'  says 
Freeman,  'the  grandest  conception  for  a  single 
feature  which  mediaeval  architecture  has  produced, 
a  Greek  portico  translated  into  Gothic  language.' 
Noteworthy  also  are  the  flat  painted  wooden  ceil- 
ing of  the  12th  century,  the  portrait  of  'Old 
Scarlett'  the  sexton  (1496-1594),  the  blue  slab 
inscribed  'Queen  Catharine,  a.d.  1536,'  and  the 
grave  for  twenty-live  years  (1587-1612)  of  Mary 
Queen  of  Scots.  In  1643  Cromwell  and  his 
troopers  did  hideous  havoc  to  monuments,  stained 
glass,  and  cloisters.  In  1883  the  fine  central 
tower  was  condemned  as  unsafe ;  but  it  has  been 
lovingly  rebuilt,  and  in  1890  the  cathedral  was 
reopened  after  restoration.  Paley  was  a  native. 
Two  ancient  gateways,  the  bishop's  palace  and 
the  deanery  (once  the  abbot's  and  prior's  houses), 
and  the  chancel  of  a  Becket  chapel  (now  a 
museum)  make  up  the  remaining  objects  of 
interest.  A  training-college  for  schoolmasters 
(1864),  a  grammar-school,  the  town-hall  (1671), 
the  corn  exchange  (1848),  a  cattle-market  of  five 
acres  (1867),  and  the  bridge  over  the  Nen  (dating 
from  1140,  but  in  its  present  form  from  only 
1872)  may  be  mentioned.  Peterborough  is  an 
important  railway  centre,  has  manufactures  of 
agricultural  implements,  and  carries  on  a  large 
trade  in  malt,  coal,  farm-produce,  &c.  Incor- 
porated as  a  municipal  borough  in  1874,  it  has 
returned  two  members  from  1547  till  1885,  and 
since  then  one.  Pop.  (1841)  6959  ;  (1881)  22,394 ; 
(1901)  30,872.  See  works  by  Gunton  (1686 ;  new 
ed.  1825),  Britton  (1828),  Paley  (1849),  Davys  (3d 
ed.  1863),  Sweeting  (1869),  and  Poole  (1881). 

Peterborough,  chief  town  of  Peterborough 
county,  Ontario,  on  the  Otanabee  River,  82 
miles  by  rail  NB.  of  Toronto.  It  exports 
lumber  and  agricultural  products,  and  manu- 
factures flour,  woollens,  farming  implements, 
machinery,  furniture,  canoes,  &c.    Pop.  11,250. 

Peterhead.',  a  seaport  and  burgh  of  barony  of 
Buchan,  Aberdeenshire,  on  a  peninsula,  32  miles 
by  road,  but  44  by  a  branch-line  (1862),  NNE.  of 
Aberdeen.  Founded  in  1593,  it  is  somewhat 
irregular  in  plan,  but  clean  and  largely  built  of 
the  celebrated  'Peterhead  granite,'  whose  red- 
dish variety  is  so  much  used  for  monumental 
purposes.  The  Keiths,  Earls  Marischal,  were 
superiors  of  the  place  till  the  '15,  when  the  Old 
Pretender  landed  here,  and  after  which  their 
forfeited  estates  were  purchased  by  the  Edin- 
burgh Merchant  Maiden  Hospital,  to  whose 
governors  many  improvements  are  owing.  Of 
Marshal  Keith  a  bronze  statue  was  presented  to 
the  town  in  1869  by  King  William  of  Prussia ; 
and  the  market-cross,  a  granite  Tuscan  pillar 
(1833),  bears  the  arms  of  the  Earls  Marischal. 
The  public  buildings  include  the  town-hall  (1788), 
with  a  spire  125  feet  high ;  the  parish  church 
(1803),  with  one  of  118  feet ;  the  free  library  and 
museum  (1891);  the  academy  (1846);  and  con- 
Vict-prison  (1889).    Industries  are  woollen  manu- 


facture, boat-building,  and  granite-polishing. 
Peterhead  was  made  a  head-port  in  1838.  From 
1788  it  gradually  became  the  chief  British  seat 
of  the  seal  and  whale  fisheries,  until  in  1852  it 
sent  out  30  ships  ;  but  since  then  there  has  been 
a  great  decline.  At  present  Peterhead  is  chiefly 
important  for  its  great  herring-fishery,  which 
during  the  herring  season  brings  some  5000 
persons  to  the  place.  The  south  harbour  was 
commenced  in  1773,  and  the  north  harbour  in 
1818,  a  canal  being  formed  between  them  in 
1850  ;  whilst  a  new  harbour  was  formed  and  the 
south  harbour  deepened  under  Acts  of  1873  and 
1876.  Their  three  basins,  hewn  out  of  the  solid 
rock,  together  cover  about  22  acres,  and  have 
cost  £300,000  ;  but  all  three  are  as  nothing  com- 
pared with  the  great  harbour  of  refuge,  com- 
menced in  1886,  and  to  be  completed  in  1921  (by 
convict  labour),  at  a  cost  of  £1,044,520.  In  the 
neighbourhood  are  the  ruins  of  Inverugie,  Ravens- 
craig,  and  Boddam  castles,  all  strongholds  of 
diff'ereut  branches  of  the  Keiths  ;  Buchan  Ness, 
the  most  easterly  point  of  Scotland,  with  a  light- 
house (1827) ;  and  the  Bullers  of  Buchan  (q.v.). 
Since  1833  Peterhead  has  united  with  Elgin,  &c. 
to  return  one  member.  Pop.  (1801)  3264 ;  (1851) 
7298;  (1901)  11,794.  See  works  by  W.  Laing 
(1793),  Arbuthnot  (1815),  and  Peter  Buchan  (1819). 

Peterhof  (Pay'ter-hof),  a  palace  of  the  em- 
peror of  Russia,  on  the  S.  shore  of  the  Gulf  of 
Finland,  18  miles  W.  of  St  Petersburg.  Built  by 
Peter  the  Great  in  1711,  it  contains  fine  paintings, 
and  is  surrounded  by  beautiful  parks.  The  town 
of  Peterhof  has  14,298  inhabitants. 

Petersburg.    See  St  Petebsburo. 

Petersburg,  the  third  city  of  Virginia,  on  the 
south  bank  of  the  Appomattox  River,  23  miles 
by  rail  S.  of  Richmond.  The  falls  above  supply 
water-power  for  tobacco-factories,  foundries, 
cotton,  flour,  and  paper  mills.  In  1864  Grant, 
failing  to  take  Richmond,  besieged  Petersburg, 
and  was  repulsed  with  heavy  loss.    Pop.  22,680. 

Petersfield,  a  Hampshire  market-town,  20 
miles  NNE.  of  Portsmouth  by  rail.  Till  1832  it 
returned  two  members,  and  then  till  1885  one. 
Pop.  of  parish,  3270. 

Peterwardein  (Paytervar'dine),  one  of  the 
strongest  fortresses  in  the  Austrian  dominions, 
is  situated  in  a  marshy,  unhealthy  locality  on 
the  Danube's  right  bank,  44  miles  by  rail  NW.  of 
Belgrade,  and  is  connected  with  Neusatz  opposite 
by  a  bridge  of  boats.     Pop.  of  town,  5603.  ■ 

Petherton,  South,  a  Somerset  town,  on  the 
Parret,  4^  miles  N.  of  Crewkerne.    Pop.  2250. 

Petra  (the  Greek  equivalent  of  the  Heb.  Sela, 
'Rock'),  the  ancient  stronghold  of  the  Naba- 
tfeans  was  situated  in  the  '  desert  of  Edom '  in 
northern  Arabia,  near  the  points  of  intersection 
of  great  caravan-routes  from  Palmyra,  Gaza, 
Egypt,  and  the  Persian  Gulf,  four  days'  journey 
from  the  Mediterranean  and  five  from  the  Red 
Sea.    From  it  Arabia  Petrsea  got  its  name. 

Petropavlovsk',  (l)  a  town  of  Asiatic  Russia, 
on  the  river  Ishim,  175  miles  WNW.  of  Omsk. 
Pop.  25,000.— (2)  A  small  port  on  tlie  east  coast  of 
Kamchatka,  with  an  admirable  harbour. 

Petropolis,  a  town  of  Brazil,  25  miles  N.  of 
Rio.  It  was  originally  a  colony  of  Germans 
(1845),  and  superseded  Nictheroy  as  capital  of 
the  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro  in  1894.  Pop.  12,000, 
mainly  Germans. 

Petrovsk',  a  town  of  Russia,  65  miles  NW.  of 
Saratov,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Don.    Pop.  13,316. 


PEtR02AV0DS]g 


563 


PHILADELPHIA 


Petrozavodsk',  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the  west 
shore  of  Lake  Onega,  300  miles  NE.  of  St 
Petersburg,  has  a  cannon-foundry  and  small- 
arms  factory.    Pop.  13,027. 

Pettigoe,  a  village  of  Donegal  and  Fermanagh, 
23i  miles  NW.  of  Enniskillen. 

Petworth,  a  market-town  of  Sussex,  on  an 
eminence  near  the  West  Ilother  River,  14  miles 
NNE.  of  Chichester.  Petworth  House,  the  seat 
of  Lord  Leconfield,  is  an  18th-century  mansion, 
with  a  fine  park  and  many  portraits  and  other 
relics  of  the  Percies  and  Wyndhams.  Pop.  of 
parish,  2967.     See  F.  H.  Arnold's  Petworth  (1864). 

Pev'ensey,  a  village  of  Sussex,  on  the  English 
Channel,  12  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Hastings. 
The  Romans  built  here  a  castle,  whose  walls 
enclose  a  Norman  keep.  The  church  is  Early 
English.  William  the  Conqueror  landed  on  the 
shore  of  Pevensey  Bay.  Pop.  of  parish,  467.  See 
Lower's  Chronicles  of  Pevensey  (3d  ed.  1880). 

Peveril  Castle.    See  Peak. 

Pewsey,  a  small  market-town  of  Wiltshire,  in 
a  fertile  vale,  18  miles  E.  of  Devizes  and  7  SSW. 
of  Marlborough.     Pop.  of  parish,  1781. 

Pezenas  {Payz-na'),  a  town  of  France  (dep. 
H^rault),  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Herault, 
32  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Montpellier.  The  vicinity 
produces  excellent  wine  and  brandy,  and  makes 
woollen  and  linen  goods.  Here  Moliere  wrote 
Les  Precie^ises  Ridicules.    Pop.  6991. 

Pfafers  (P'fay'fers),  hot  springs  in  the  Swiss 
canton  of  St  Gall,  in  the  deep  and  gloomy  gorge 
of  the  Tamina  torrent,  which  joins  the  Rhine  at 
Ragatz,  2i  miles  to  the  north. 

Pfalz,  German  for  the  Palatinate  (q.v.). 

Pfalzburg.    See  Phalsbouro. 

Pforzheim  (P'fort^hime),  the  chief  manufactur- 
ing town  of  Baden,  at  the  northern  border  of  the 
Black  Forest,  20  miles  SE.  of  Carlsruhe  by  rail. 
It  contains  the  remains  of  an  ancient  castle,  from 
1300  to  1565  the  residence  of  the  Margraves  of 
Baden-Durlach,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  Reuch- 
lin.  The  town  is  famous  for  the  manufacture  of 
gold  and  silver  ornaments,  in  which  8000  people 
are  employed,  and  has  further  chemical  and  iron 
works,  machine-shops,  tanneries,  paper-mills,  &c. 
Pop.  (1871)  19,801 ;  (1900)  43,351. 

Phalsbourg,  or  Pfalzburg,  a  town  of  Lor- 
raine, stands  on  the  north-west  shoulder  of  the 
Vosges,  25  miles  NW.  of  Strasburg.  It  was  forti- 
fied by  Vauban  in  1680  ;  invested,  but  not  taken, 
by  the  Allies  in  1814-15 ;  and  bombarded  and 
taken  by  the  Germans  in  1870,  after  which  they 
razed  the  fortifications.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Erckmann,  and  is  widely  known  through  the 
Erckmann-Chatrian  novels.    Pop.  3680. 

Phantassie,  a  Haddingtonshire  seat,  near  East 
Linton,  was  the  birthplace  of  Rennie. 

Pharsalus,  now  Fersala,  a  town  of  Thessaly, 
to  the  south  of  Larissa,  on  a  branch  of  the  Salam- 
bria,  notable  for  Ctesar's  great  victory  over  Pom- 
pey,  9th  August  48  b.c. 

Pha'sls,  a  river  in  Colchis,  now  called  Rion  or 
Faz.  It  rises  in  the  Caucasus,  and  flows  west 
into  the  Euxine  near  the  ancient  city  of  Phasis. 

Phigalia,  an  ancient  town  of  SW.  Arcadia. 
From  its  temple  of  Apollo,  at  Bassse,  6  miles 
distant,  a  sculptured  frieze  was  brought  to  the 
British  Museum  in  1812.  Next  to  the  Theseum 
at  Athens  it  is  the  most  perfect  architectural 
ruin  in  all  Greece.  See  Cockerell,  Temples  of 
uEgina  and  Bassce  (1860). 


Philadelphia.    See  Ala-shehr. 

Philadelphia,  the  chief  city  of  Pennsylvania 
and  the  third  city  of  the  United  States,  is  situated 
on  the  Delaware  River,  about  100  miles  by  ship- 
channel  (via  Delaware  Bay  and  River)  from  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  90  by  rail  SW.  of  New  York 
City  and  136  NE.  of  Washington.  It  lies  along 
the  Delaware  from  the  mouth  of  the  Schuylkill 
River  at  League  Island,  northward,  for  about  15 
miles,  and  has  an  average  breadth  of  some  8 
miles.  Philadelphia  is  notably  a  '  city  of  homes' 
of  the  well-to-do  middle  class.  The  dominant 
architecture  of  the  older  sections  is  of  the  severely 
plain,  substantial  style  (mainly  in  red  brick) 
which  characterised  its  Quaker  founders,  and  is 
laid  out  with  the  regularity  of  a  chessboard.  A 
marked  departure  has,  however,  lately  taken 
place  in  the  style  of  both  the  public  and  the 
private  buildings  of  Philadelphia,  as  shown  in  the 
city  hall  and  public  buildings  (1871  et  seq.),  built, 
at  a  cost  of  $20,000,000,  of  white  marble  upon 
a  granite  base,  in  French  Renaissance  style, 
and  covering  an  area  of  486  by  470  feet.  The 
height  of  the  tower  and  dome  is  537  ft.  ^  in.  ;  or 
573  ft.  4i  in.  with  the  colossal  figure  of  Penn  (36 
ft.),  to  sunnount  the  whole,  the  structure  being 
thus  the  second  highest  in  the  world.  Other 
buildings  are  the  Masonic  Temple,  of  granite 
(cost  $1,500,000);  a  United  States  government 
building  of  granite— containing  the  Post-oflice, 
court-rooms,  &c.— (cost  $8,000,000);  a  custom- 
house of  marble,  modelled  after  the  Parthenon 
at  Athens ;  a  naval  asylum ;  the  United  States 
Mint ;  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  ;  the  Academy 
of  Natural  Science  (Gothic),  with  a  scientific 
library  and  museum  ;  the  Academy  of  Music  ;  and 
the  buildings  of  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 

Nearly  every  street  of  importance  is  traversed 
by  electric  tramways,  on  the  overliead  trolley 
system.  There  are  numerous  well-sliaded  com- 
mons in  the  older  portion  of  the  city.  In  the 
Fairmount  Park,  some  3000  acres  in  extent,  and 
bisected  by  the  Schuylkill  River  and  its  aflfluent 
the  Wissahickon,  was  held  in  1876  the  Centennial 
Exhibition  ;  and  in  its  environs  are  the  Zoological 
Garden,  the  Fairmount  Water-works  (supplying 
100,000,000  gallons  daily),  the  beautiful  Horti- 
cultural Hall  and  Memorial  Hall— remains  of  the 
Centennial  Exhibition— the  Laurel  Hill  Cemetery, 
&c.  Among  the  statues  are  bronze  equestrian 
figures  of  Generals  Meade,  McClellan,  and  Rey- 
nolds. The  churches  include  the  old  Swedes' 
Church  (1700),  Christ  Church  (Episcopal,  1727- 
54),  where  Washington's  pew  is  preserved,  and 
a  R.  C.  cathedral.  Philadelphia  is  noted  for  its 
benevolent  institutions  :  prominent  are  the  Penn- 
sylvania Hospital  (1751);  Episcopal,  Presby- 
terian, and  Methodist  hospitals,  and  the  St 
Joseph's  and  St  Agnes'  hospitals ;  the  hospitals 
in  connection  with  the  university  and  the  several 
medical  schools,  &c.  Besides  the  Girard  College, 
founded  in  1831  by  the  miser-philanthropist 
Stephen  Girard  for  poor  male  white  orphans, 
the  city  contains  the  Drexel  Industrial  Institute 
(endowed  with  $2,000,000)  and  the  Cahill  R.  C. 
High  School;  whilst  in  Philadelphia  or  its  im- 
mediate environs  are  the  Williamson  Free 
School  of  Mechanical  Trades  (endowed  with  some 
$2,200,000),  state  institutions  for  the  blind  and 
deaf  and  dumb,  the  Franklin  Institute  (1824, 
for  the  mechanic  arts).  Spring  Garden  Institute 
(for  drawing,  painting,  and  mechanical  handi- 
work), the  Episcopal  Academy  (1785),  several 
R.  C.  colleges  and  convents,  and  Episcopal, 
Lutheran,  and  R.  C.  theological  seminaries. 
Crowning  all  these  is  the  University  of  Penn- 


miti& 


564 


PHILIPPINE  ISUNDS 


gylvania,  founded  as  an  academy  by  the  sons  of 
William  Penn,  which  became  a  college  in  1753, 
and  a  university  in  1779  ;  now  it  has  over  2600 
students  and  270  professors  and  instructors, 
and  embraces  faculties  of  arts,  science,  architec- 
ture, natural  history,  finance  and  economy, 
medicine,  dentistry,  veterinary  medicine,  law, 
and  physical  education.  The  Jefferson  Medical 
College  (1825),  with  nearly  600  students,  is  a  famous 
medical  school ;  others  are  the  Hahnemaim 
Medical  College  (1869),  the  Medico-Chirurgical 
College  (1880),  the  Woman's  Medical  College 
(1850),  and  the  Philadelphia  Polyclinic  and 
College.  The  capital  employed  in  manufacturing 
is  estimated  at  $477,000,000,  the  number  of  hands 
employed  at  260,000,  and  the  value  of  the  annual 
products  at  $733,000,000.  Among  prominent  in- 
dustries are  the  manufacture  of  locomotives,  car- 
pets, woollens,  and  worsteds,  upholstery,  cottons, 
and  iron  and  steel  products  (saws,  principally 
made  by  one  firm,  employ  5000  workmen,  and 
have  an  annual  value  of  $2,500,000).  There  are 
sugar-refineries,  oil-refineries,  chemical  works, 
and  many  breweries.  The  imports  are  of  the 
annual  value  of  about  $50,000,000,  and  the 
exports  about  $80,000,000. 

Foxxnded  in  1682,  Philadelphia  the  year  after 
was  made  the  capital  of  Pennsylvania,  It  was 
the  central  point  in  the  war  of  independence, 
and  the  city  still  preserves  the  Carpenters'  Hall 
(1770),  where  the  first  congress  met  (1774),  and 
the  old  State  House  (1735)  or  Independence  Hall, 
where  the  Declaration  of  Independence  was 
adopted  in  1776.  At  Philadelphia  the  federal 
union  was  signed  in  1778  ;  and  here,  too,  the  con- 
stitution was  framed  in  1787.  From  1790  to  1800 
Philadelphia  was  the  federal  capital.  Franklin, 
Paine,  and  Cobbett  lived  here  ;  C.  G.  Leland  was 
a  native.  Pop.  (1700)  4500 ;  (1800)  70,287  ;  (1860) 
568,034;  (1880)  847,170;  (1900)  1,293,697.  See 
Scharf  and  Thompson's  History  of  Philadelphia 
(3  vols.  1884);  Philadelphia  and  its  Environs 
(Lippincott,  1890) ;  and  works  by  W.  P.  Hazard 
(1879),  T.  Westcott  (1877),  F.  Cook  (1882),  S.  C. 
Woolsey  (1888),  and  Agnes  Repplier  (1899). 

PhilS9  (Fye'lee ;  Egyptian  Pdlek),  a  Nile  island 
of  Nubia,  near  Assouan  and  S.  of  Syene.  It  is  a 
small  granite  rock,  fringed  with  rich  verdure, 
about  400  yards  long  and  150  broad,  almost 
covered  with  ancient  buildings  of  great  archi- 
tectural beauty.  They  include  a  hypsethral  or 
roofless  hall,  commonly  called  '  Pharaoh's  bed  ; ' 
the  great  temple  of  Isis,  to  whom  the  island  was 
sacred ;  and  the  propylon  or  gateway,  60  feet 
high  and  over  120  wide,  which  is  the  oldest  part 
of  the  temple  (about  361  b.c).  The  great  irriga- 
tion dam  at  Assouan,  completed  in  1902,  does 
not  submerge  or  injure  the  ruins,  which  have 
been  carefully  protected. 

Philiphaugh  (Philiphaivhh'),  on  Yarrow  Water, 
3  miles  WSW.  of  Selkirk,  the  property  from  1461 
till  1889  of  the  line  of  the  '  Outlaw  Murray '  of 
the  ballad.  Here,  on  13th  September  1645,  Mon- 
trose was  defeated  by  David  Leslie,  who  butchered 
more  than  a  hundred  Irish  prisoners. 

PWlippeville  (Philipveel'),  a  seaport  of  Algeria, 
the  harbour  of  Constantino,  from  which  it  lies 
64  miles  NNE.  by  rail.  There  is  a  magnificent 
harbour  (1882)  protected  by  two  moles,  one  4590 
feet  long,  the  other  1310.  The  town  was  built 
since  1838.     Pop.  25,788. 

Phillppi  (Gk.  pron.  Fil'ipee),  a  city  of  Mace- 
donia, named  after  Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  who 
enlarged  it  because  of  the  neighbouring  gold- 
mines.    Two  battles   were   fought  in   42   b.c. 


between  Antony  and  Octavianus  on  the  one  side 
and  the  republicans  under  Brutus  and  Cassius 
on  the  other,  in  the  second  of  which  the  republic 
finally  perished.  The  apostle  Paul  addressed  an 
epistle  to  the  church  he  had  founded  here. 

Philippine  Islands,  a  large  insular  group  form- 
ing a  northern  section  of  the  Eastern  Archipelago, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  the  two  profound 
abysses  of  the  Sulu  (Mindoro)  and  Celebes  Seas, 
2000  to  4000  fathoms  deep.  It  is  washed  on  the 
east  side  by  the  Pacific  Ocean  and  on  the  north- 
west by  the  China  Sea,  lies  in  4°— 21°  N.  lat.  and 
117°— 127°  E.  long.,  and  comprises  a  vast  aggregate 
of  over  2000  islands  of  all  sizes,  ranging  from 
mere  rocks  and  reefs  to  Luzon  and  Mindanao, 
the  former  rather  more,  the  latter  somewhat  less, 
than  40,000  sq.  m.  in  area.  The  other  chief 
members  of  the  group,  collectively  called  Visayas, 
are  Mindoro,  9000  sq.  m.  ;  Palawan  (Paragua), 
5500 ;  Samar,  5000  ;  Panay,  4500 ;  Negros,  4300 ; 
Leyte,  3000;  Cebu  and  Bohol,  both  1500;  and 
Masbate,  1200.  The  total  area  is  116,000;  the 
pop.  is  variously  estimated  at  from  7,500,000  to 
9,500,000.  The  archipelago  is  disposed  nearly 
due  north  and  south,  and  is  essentially  moun- 
tainous and  volcanic.  Two  main  ridges  ramify 
through  the  group,  and  comprise  several  vol- 
canoes;  the  highest  peak  being  Apo  in  the 
SE.  of  Mindanao  (10,400  feet).  The  underground 
forces  are  still  active,  and  reveal  themselves  by 
tremendous  eruptions,  and  especially  by  earth- 
quakes, which  are  almost  continuous.  Manilla 
was  nearly  destroyed  by  the  earthquake  of  1863. 
Cyclones,  here  called  typhoons,  range  as  far  south 
as  about  10°  N.  lat.  Thanks  to  the  general  eleva- 
tion of  the  land  and  the  prevailing  sea-breezes, 
the  climate,  although  moist  and  hot,  is  less  in- 
salubrious than  that  of  most  tropical  lands.  The 
temperature  varies  from  about  77°  F.  in  December 
to  86°  F.  in  May.  The  rainfall  is  68  to  70  inches. 
The  magnificent  primeval  forests  contain  dye- 
woods,  hard-grained  timbers,  and  medicinal  and 
other  useful  plants.  On  the  plantations  are 
grown  rice,  maize,  sugar-cane,  cotton,  coftee,  and 
tobacco  (second  only  to  that  of  Cuba).  The 
largest  wild  mammal  is  the  buffalo,  and  next  to 
it  the  gibbon  ;  there  are  several  other  species  of 
apes  and  lemurs,  antelopes  and  deer.  The  carni- 
vora  are  chiefly  represented  by  several  species  of 
civet,  the  insectivora  by  the  porcupine.  The 
only  dangerous  animals  are  the  crocodile,  snakes, 
and  some  other  reptiles.  Birds  are  very  numer- 
ous, of  the  gallinacean  family  especially.  Insects 
are  very  various  ;  and  the  fresh  and  marine  waters 
abound  in  fishes,  turtles,  molluscs,  and  sponges. 
Of  minerals  the  most  widely  diffused  are  coal  and 
iron ;  copper  also  occurs,  as  well  as  gold,  lead, 
sulphur,  cinnabar,  quicksilver,  alum,  besides 
jasper,  marble,  and  fine  building  stones.  The 
original  inhabitants  of  the  Philippines  were 
undoubtedly  the  Negritos  (Atas,  Itas),  now 
reduced  to  a  few  isolated  groups  numbering  alto- 
gether less  than  20,000.  Half-caste  Negrito  com- 
munities are  extremely  numerous,  the  indigenous 
element  having  amalgamated  with  the  intruding 
Indonesian  and  Malay  peoples.  The  Indonesians 
(akin  to  the  Polynesians)  are  mostly  pagans, 
whereas  nearly  all  the  Malays  are  either  Roman 
Catholics  or  Mohammedans.  The  Tagal  and 
Visayan  languages  are  the  predominant  types. 

Discovered  in  1521  by  Magellan,  who  was  killed 
here,  the  Philippines  were  officially  annexed  to 
Spain  in  1569,  and  till  1898  remained  an  integral 
part  of  the  Spanish  dominion.  A  rebellion  in 
1896  went  on  till  the  Spanish-American  war  was 
begun  in  1S93.    As  a  result  of  the  war  the  islands 


PHILIPPOPOLIS 


555 


PIAUH7 


Wefe  ceded  to  the  United  States  (1898)  on  a  pay- 
meut  of  £4,000,000,  Besides  Manila  (the  capital ; 
pop.  294,000)  tliere  are  several  otlier  considerable 
towns— Banang  (39,000),  Lipa  (38,000),  San  Miguel 
(35,000),  Laoag  (30,000),  Cabaera  (30,000),  and  San 
Carlos  (27,000).  The  exports  amount  to  £6,000,000 
annually— chiefly  of  sugar,  hemp,  tobacco,  and 
copra.  There  is  a  submarine  cable  to  Hong- 
kong. See  works  by  Sir  J,  Bowring  (1851),  Fore- 
man (1899),  Robinson  (N.Y.  1901),  and  Blair  and 
Robertson  (55  vols.  1903  et  seq.). 

Phillppo'polis,  capital  of  Eastern  Roumelia  or 
Southern  Bulgaria,  on  the  navigable  Maritza,  110 
miles  by  rail  W.  by  N.  of  Adrianople.  It  manu- 
factures silk,  cotton,  tobacco,  leather,  &c.,  and 
prepares  and  exports  otto  of  roses  (to  the  value 
of  £55,000).  It  is  the  seat  of  a  Greek  archbishop. 
Population,  43,800. 

Philippsburg,  a  town  of  Baden,  on  the  Rhine's 
right  bank,  16  miles  N.  of  Carlsruhe.  Fortified 
until  1800,  it  was  often  besieged.    Pop.  2922. 

Philipstown,  a  market-town  of  King's  County, 
49  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Dublin,  took  its  name  from 
Queen  Mary's  consort,  Philip  of  Spain.    Pop.  780. 

Philllpsburg,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  on  the 
Delaware  River  (crossed  by  two  railroad  bridges), 
opposite  Easton,  at  the  western  terminus  of  the 
Morris  Canal,  and  73  miles  W.  of  New  York  by 
rail.  It  contains  a  rolling-mill,  foundries,  boiler- 
and  locomotive- works,  &c.    Pop.  10,100. 

Phocsea,  the  most  northerly  of  the  Ionian  cities 
in  Asia  Minor,  stood  on  a  peninsula  between  the 
gulfs  of  Elais  and  Smyrna. 

Phocis,  a  province  of  ancient  Greece,  west  of 
Boeotia,  and  N.  of  the  Gulf  of  Corinth.  With 
Phthiotis  it  forms  a  province  of  modern  Greece. 

PhCBnicia  (Gr.  Phoenike)  was  a  coinparatively 
narrow  strip  of  country  lying  to  the  north  of 
Palestine,  along  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean 
Sea,  bounded  by  that  sea  westwards,  and  east- 
wards extending  to  the  mountain-crests  of  Bar- 
gylus  and  Lebanon.  The  coast-line  was  about 
230  miles  in  length,  and  the  area  of  Phoenicia 
proper  about  3000  sq.  m.  The  tract  included 
within  these  limits  is  one  of  a  remarkably 
diversified  character;  lofty  mountain,  steep 
wooded  hill,  chalky  slope,  rich  alluvial  plain, 
and  sandy  shore  succeeding  each  other.  This 
was  the  home  of  a  famous  and  enterprising  Semitic 
people,  the  Phoenicians,  who  in  1600-1300  b.c. 
seem  to  have  been  dependent  on  Egypt.  After 
this  date  the  country  rose  to  a  high  pitch  of 
prosperity  and  influence,  and  its  people  became 
famous  for  their  trading  and  nautical  enterprise, 
for  their  great  colonies,  their  glass  manufactures, 
purple  dye,  and  metal  utensils.  Perhaps  their 
greatest  gift  to  civilisation  was  the  alphabet, 
from  which  practically  all  civilised  systems  of 
writing  and  printing  are  derived  ;  possibly  they 
developed  it  out  of  one  of  the  Egyptian  hiero- 
glyphic systems.  Sidon  and  Aradus  were 
amongst  the  most  ancient  cities ;  Tyre  the 
greatest  and  most  populous.  Carthage  was  the 
greatest  foreign  colony,  surpassing  the  mother- 
country  in  power;  but  there  were  Phoenician 
settlements  in  states  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Greek 
islands,  Cyprus,  Crete,  Sicily,  the  Balearic 
islands,  and  southern  Spain  (Carthagena,  Tartes- 
sus,  &c.).  Phoenicians  traded  for  tin  and  copper 
with  Cornwall  and  the  Scilly  islands,  and  with 
the  Baltic  for  amber ;  and  seem  to  have  been  a 
means  of  exchanging  the  produce  of  Greece  and 
the  extreme  west  with  those  of  Babylon,  Persia, 
India,  and  East  Africa.    Iliram  of  Tyre  cherished 


friendly  relations  with  David  and  Soloirlon. 
Like  Palestine,  Phoenicia  had  to  bow  the  neck  to 
the  Assyrian  yoke  (880-630  B.C.).  Egypt  and 
Babylon  then  quarrelled  over  Phoenicia,  which 
next  fell  a  prey  to  Persia  (527-333),  and,  after  the 
famous  seven  months'  siege  of  Tyre  to  332,  to 
Alexander  the  Great  and  his  successors.  See 
works  by  Canon  G.  Rawlinson  (1889). 

Phoenix,  since  1891  the  capital  of  Arizona,  in 
the  Salt  River  valley,  35  miles  N.  by  a  branch- 
line  from  the  Southern  Pacific  railway,  and  890 
miles  SE.  of  San  Francisco.    Pop.  5600. 

Phoenix  Park.    See  Dublin. 

PhOBnixvlUe,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Schuylkill  River,  28  miles  NW.  of  Philadelphia. 
Here  are  the  extensive  works  of  the  Phoenix 
Iron  Company  and  the  Phoenix  Bridge  Company. 
Other  manufactures  are  cotton  goods,  stockings, 
shirts,  needles,  pottery,  &c.    Pop.  9200. 

Phrygia  (Fridj'ia),  a  country  in  Asia  Minor, 
which  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  invasion 
comprised  the  districts  of  Lesser  and  Greater 
Phrygia— the  former  stretching  along  the  shores 
of  the  Propontis  and  the  Hellespont  to  Troas 
(afterwards  part  of  Mysia),  the  latter  occupying 
the  centre  of  Asia  Minor. 

Phthiotis,  the  south-east  corner  of  Thessaly, 
the  home  of  Achilles. 

Piacenza  (P'yachentz'a),  a  city  of  northern 
Italy,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Po,  a  little  below 
its  confluence  with  the  Trebbia,  43  miles  by  rail 
SE.  of  Milan,  and  35  NW.  of  Parma.  It  is  de- 
fended with  bastioned  walls  and  an  outer  ring  of 
forts.  The  cathedral,  in  the  Lombard-Roman- 
esque style  (1122-1233),  has  an  immense  crypt,  a 
campanile  223  feet  high,  and  paintings  by  L. 
Carracci,  Guercino,  &c.  The  church  of  Sant' 
Antonino,  the  original  cathedral,  was  founded  in 
324,  but  has  been  several  times  rebuilt.  The 
church  of  Santa  Maria  della  Campagna  is  adorned 
with  fine  frescoes  by  Pordenone  ;  and  it  was  for 
San  Sisto  that  Raphael  painted  the  celebrated 
Sistine  Madonna,  sold  in  1754  by  the  monks  to 
Frederick  Augustus  of  Saxony.  Among  the  other 
buildings  are  the  Palazzo  Farnese  (1558),  once  a 
sumptuous  edifice,  but  since  1800  In  use  as 
barracks ;  the  communal  palace  (1281) ;  the 
palace  of  justice  ;  and  2  miles  E.  the  theological 
seminary  founded  by  Cardinal  Alberoni.  The 
municipal  library  contains  120,000  volumes.  The 
principal  square  is  adorned  with  colossal  bronze 
equestrian  statues  of  Alessandro  and  Ranuccio 
Farnese.  Manufactures  of  silks,  cottons,  pottery, 
hats,  &c.  are  carried  on.  Founded  as  Placentia 
by  the  Romans  in  219  B.C.,  Piacenza  was  cap- 
tured by  the  Gauls  in  200  and  by  Totila  in  546, 
was  the  scene  of  two  church  councils  in  1095  and 
1132,  was  sacked  by  Sforza  in  1447,  and  finally 
was  united  with  Parma  (q.  v.).    Pop.  36,987. 

Plana  Dei  Greci  {Piah'na  Day-ee  Greh'chee),  a 
town  of  Sicily,  10  miles  SW.  of  Palermo.  It  was 
the  chief  Albanian  colony  in  Sicily  in  the  16th 
century.    Pop.  8847. 

Piatigorsk,  a  town  in  Russian  Caucasia,  at 
the  southern  foot  of  Mount  Beshtau  (4587  feet), 
facing  Mount  Elburz,  and  124  miles  by  rail  NW. 
of  Vladikavkaz,  with  warm  sulphur-springs  (83"7' 
to  117-5°  F.),    Pop,  18,665. 

Piatra,  a  town  of  Moldavia,  60  miles  W.  by  S. 
of  Jassy,  on  the  Bistritza,  at  the  foot  of  the  Car- 
pathians, has  a  trade  in  timber.    Pop.  20,000. 

Piauhy,  a  maritime  province  of  northern  Brazil, 
of  which  Paranahyba  (q.v.)  is  the  principal  town- 


PIAZZA 


556 


PtNOS 


Piazza  (Peeat^a),  an  episcopal  town  of  Sicily, 
16  miles  SE.  of  Caltanisetta.    Pop.  27,038. 

Plc'ardy  (Picardie),  an  ancient  province  in  the 
north  of  France,  bounded  W.  by  the  English 
Channel,  and  now  foiining  the  dep.  of  Somme, 
with  portions  of  Aisne  and  Pas-de-Calais. 

Pic  du  Midi  (Peak  dii  Meedee'),  a  summit  of  the 
Pyrenees,  9466  feet  high,  in  the  south-east  corner 
of  the  French  dep.  of  Basses-Pyrenees. 

Pichinclia  (Pitcheen'tcha;  'boiling  mountain'), 
the  most  populous  province  of  Ecuador,  em- 
braces the  Quito  plateau  and  its  slopes.  Area, 
8300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  205,000.  The  active  volcano  of 
Pichincha,  8  miles  NW.  of  Quito,  the  chief  town, 
has  five  peaks,  two  of  which  (15,918  feet)  Mr 
Whymper  ascended  in  1880.  The  enormous  crater, 
nearly  a  mile  across  at  the  top,  and  1500  feet  at 
the  bottom  (which  is  2500  feet  below),  is  said  to 
be  the  deepest  in  the  world. 

Pickering,  in  the  North  Riding,  32  miles  NNE. 
of  Yorlf,  has  a  ruined  castle  and  a  fine  parish 
church.     Pop.  3500. 

Picton,  capital  of  Prince  Edward  county  in 
Ontario,  38  miles  SW.  of  Kingston,  has  canning 
industries.     Pop.  7000. 

Pictou  (Pictoo'),  a  port  on  the  N.  coast  of  Nova 
Scotia,  on  a  large  and  sheltered  harbour,  85  miles 
NNE.  of  Halifax.  Coal,  mined  near  by,  is  exported. 
Sir  J.  AV.  Dawson  was  a  native.  Pop.  3250. 
Picts'  Work  Ditcli.  See  Catrail. 
Piedmont,  or  Piemont  {Peed'mont;  Fr.  pron. 
Pyay-mon^' ;  pied,  'foot,'  mont,  'mountain'),  a 
former  Italian  principality,  which  now  forms  the 
north-west  part  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy,  is  by 
the  Alps  separated  from  Switzerland  on  the  N. 
and  from  France  on  the  W.  It  embraces  the 
provinces  of  Alessandria,  Cuneo,  Novara,  and 
Turin.  Area,  11,389  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  3,365,000.  See 
a  work  by  S,  Butler  (new  ed.  1890). 

Pieria  (Pye-er'i-a),  a  coast  district  of  ancient 
Macedon,  at  the  base  of  the  Olympus,  the  fabled 
birthplace  of  the  Muses  and  of  Orpheus. 

Pierre  (Pee-err'),  the  capital  of  South  Dakota, 
is  a  small  town  in  the  centre  of  the  state,  on  the 
Missouri  River,  at  the  mouth  of  Bad  River,  781 
miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  Chicago.  Pop.  3235. 
Piershill.  See  Jock's  Lodge. 
Pietermaritzburg  (Peetermar'itzboorg),  or 
Maritzburg,  capital  of  Natal  (q.v.),  occupies  a 
fine  situation  near  the  river  Umgeni,  54  miles  N. 
of  Durban  by  rail.  The  chief  buildings  are 
government  house  and  the  office  of  the  colonial 
secretary.  It  takes  its  name  from  its  founders, 
the  Boer  leaders  Pieter  Retief  and  Gert  Maritz. 
Pop.  35,000  (20,000  Europeans). 

Pike's  Peak,  a  peak  (14,134  feet)  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  in  Colorado,  65  miles  8.  of  Denver, 
discovered  by  Captain  Pike,  U.S.A.,  in  1806.  It 
is  situated  in  38°  50'  N.  lat.  and  105°  2'  W.  long. 
On  its  summit  is  one  of  the  highest  meteorological 
stations  in  the  world.  There  is  a  railway  to  the 
top,  9  miles  long  (4^  miles  of  curves),  with  a 
maximum  gradient  of  1  in  4. 

Pilatus,  Mount  (Swiss  pron.  Pee-lah'toos;  Lat. 
Mo7is  Pileatus,  'the  hooded  peak,'  from  its  top 
being  frequently  enveloped  in  cloud  ;  the  Pilate 
legends  have  grown  out  of  the  altered  name),  an 
isolated  mountain  at  the  W.  end  of  the  Lake  of 
Lucerne,  rising  opposite  the  Rigi.  The  lower  half 
is  clothed  with  wood  and  meadow;  the  upper 
portion  is  a  mass  of  bare  and  jagged  peaks,  in 
the  Toinlishorn  attaining  6998  feet.  Below  the 
Bumuiit  lies  Lake  Pilatus.    On  two  of  the  peaks 


there  are  hotels ;  and  since  1889  there  has  been  a 
tooth-and-rack  railway  from  Alpnach  to  the  top, 
whence  there  is  a  splendid  view  of  the  Bernese  Alps. 

Pilcomayo  (Pil-co-mye'o),  a  river  of  South 
America,  which  takes  its  rise  in  two  branches  in 
the  Bolivian  Andes,  in  the  dep.  of  Potosi,  flows 
in  a  very  winding  course  south-east  through  the 
Gran  Chaco,  separating  Paraguay  and  Argentina, 
and  finally  joins  the  Rio  Paraguay  a  little  below 
Asuncion.  Its  length  is  1700  miles.  The  volume 
of  water  brought  down  is  comparatively  insignifi- 
cant, much  being  spent  in  lagunes  on  its  way. 
It  is  rendered  like  brine  by  the  great  salt  lakes 
of  the  Chaco.  There  have  been  many  attempts, 
all  fruitless,  made  to  open  the  river  route  be- 
tween Argentina  and  Bolivia. 

Pilibhit,  a  town  in  the  United  Provinces,  30 
miles  NB.  of  Bareilly  by  rail.    Pop.  33,799. 

Pillar  Mountain,  in  Ennerdale,  Cumberland, 
2927  feet  high. 

Pillau  (Pil-lou'),  a  Prussian  fortified  town,  on  a 
spit  of  land  at  the  entrance  of  the  Frisches  HaflF, 
30  miles  W.  of  Konigsberg  by  rail.    Pop.  4000. 

Pillnitz,  the  ordinary  summer  residence  of  the 
Saxon  royal  family,  in  a  beautiful  situation  on 
the  Elbe,  5  miles  SE.  of  Dresden. 

Pilsen,  the  second  town  of  Bohemia,  in  a  fer- 
tile and  beautiful  valley,  67  miles  by  rail  SW.  of 
Prague.  There  are  numerous  active  industries, 
producing  building  materials,  machinery,  metal- 
work,  porcelain,  spirits,  liqueurs,  leather,  &c 
In  the  neighbourhood  are  mines  of  iron,  alum, 
vitriol,  coal,  and  sulphuric  acid  ;  and  the  town 
gives  its  name  to  the  best  Bohemian  beer.  Pilsen 
was  stormed  by  Ziska  in  the  Hussite  War  and  by 
Count  Mansfeld  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618) ; 
it  was  Wallenstein's  headquarters  in  1633-34. 
Pop.  (1869)  23,681  ;  (1900)  68,079. 

Pim'lico,  a  district  of  Westminster,  south  of 
the  Green  Park. 

Pind  Dadan  Khan,  a  town  in  the  Punjab, 
1  mile  N.  of  the  Jhelum  and  110  miles  NW.  of 
Lahore.  The  people  (17,724)  make  brass  and 
copper  utensils,  pottery,  and  woollens. 

Pindus.    See  Greece,  p.  311. 

Pine  Bluff,  capital  of  Jefferson  county, 
Arkansas,  on  a  high  blufif  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Arkansas  River,  120  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
43  by  rail  SSE.  of  Little  Rock.  It  ships  cotton, 
and  manufactures  iron,  cotton-seed  oil,  flour, 
bricks,  &c.    Pop.  (1880)  3203  ;  (1900)  11,500. 

Pinero'lo,  or  Pignerol,  a  cathedral  city  of 
north  Italy,  at  the  east  foot  of  the  Alps,  23  miles 
S  W.  of  Turin.  From  1042  a  town  of  Savoy,  it  was 
until  1713  strongly  fortified,  having  a  citadel,  in 
which  the  Man  with  the  Iron  Mask,  Lauzun,  and 
Fouquet  were  imprisoned.  This  fortress  was  in 
French  hands,  1536-74,  1630-96, 1704-6,  and  1801- 
14.  Cloth,  paper,  leather,  cotton,  and  silk  are 
manufactured.    Pop.  18,000. 

Pinkie,  the  scene  of  a  battle  fought  on  10th 
September  1547  near  Musselburgh  in  Midlothian, 
in  which  14,000  English  under  the  Protector 
Somerset.routed  twice  that  number  of  Scots. 

Pinner,  a  Middlesex  parish,  2^  miles  NW.  of 
Harrow,  with  the  Commercial  Travellers'  school 
(1855).     Pop.  3370. 

Pines  (Pee'nos),  Isla  de,  a  Spanish  island  in 
the  West  Indies,  south  of  Cuba,  of  which  it  is  the 
largest  dependency.  Discovered  by  Columbus  in 
1494,  it  is  part  low  and  swampy,  and  part  hilly 
(1500  feet).    Area,  1200  sq.  m.  ;"pop.  2200. 


pmsK 


557 


PITCAIRN  ISLAND 


Pinsk,  a  town  of  West  Russia,  98  miles  by  rail 
E.  of  Brest-Litovsk.     Pop.  28,000. 

Piombino  (P'yombee'no),  a  former  principality 
of  Italy,  lies  opposite  the  island  of  Elba.  Its 
extent  was  139  sq.  m.  ;  and  its  pop.,  previous 
to  its  incorporation  with  Italy  in  1860,  about 
25,000.  The  town  of  Piombino,  on  a  promontory 
50  miles  S.  of  Leghorn,  is  connected  by  a  branch- 
line  (1892)  with  Campiglia,  and  is  the  seat  of  large 
iron-rolling  mills.     Pop.  8000. 

Plotrkow  (Ger.  Petrikau),  a  town  of  Russian 
Poland,  87  miles  by  rail  SVV.  of  Warsaw.  Pop. 
82,200.— The  government  has  an  area  of  4730 
sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  1,410,000,  and  is  a 
centre  of  the  cotton  and  woollen  industries. 

Piqua,  a  city  of  Ohio,  on  the  Miami  River 
(here  crossed  by  two  bridges),  28  miles  by  rail  N. 
of  Dayton.  It  has  manufactures  of  flour,  furni- 
ture, mattresses,  &c.    Pop.  12,200. 

PlraBUS  (Pye-ree'us;  Gr.  Peiraieus),  called  also 
Port  Draco,  the  harbour  of  Atliens  since  the 
days  of  Pericles ;  this  ruler  and  Cimon  before 
him  built  the  three  '  long  walls '  that  connected 
it  with  the  capital  (5  miles  to  the  NE.),  and  so 
ensured  a  safe  passage  from  one  to  the  other. 
Its  fortifications  were  destroyed  by  Sulla  in  86 
B.C.,  and  from  that  time  the  town  sank  into 
decay.  The  modern  Pirseus,  which  has  grown 
up  since  1834,  is  a  mean-looking  place,  with 
a  naval  and  military  school,  arsenal  depots, 
and  some  manufactures.  A  railway  connects  it 
with  Athens,  and  with  the  Turkish  frontier. 
The  imports  include  coal,  railway  plant,  petro- 
leum, sheep,  and  cattle ;  the  exports,  tobacco, 
valonia,  hides,  bones,  horns,  cheese,  wool,  &c. 
Pop.  (1871)  11,000  ;  (1879)  21,055  ;  (1900)  42,169. 

Pirano  (Pee-rah'no),  a  seaport  of  Austria,  on  a 
promontory  on  the  S.  side  of  the  Gulf  of  Trieste 
and  12  miles  SW.  of  Trieste  city.    Pop.  13,340. 

Plrmasens  (Peer-mah'zens),  a  town  of  the 
Bavarian  Palatinate,  34  miles  by  rail  W.  of 
Landau.  It  manufactures  shoes  and  musical 
instruments.  Close  by  the  Prussians  defeated 
the  French  in  1793.    Pop.  30,200. 

Pima,  a  Saxon  town,  stands  on  the  Elbe's  left 
bank,  11  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Dresden.  Here  are 
a  line  16th-century  church  ;  a  castle  (1573),  used 
as  a  lunatic  asylum  since  1811 ;  manufactures  of 
glass,  chemicals,  tobacco,  stoves,  &c. ;  and  great 
sandstone-quarries.    Pop.  18,898. 

Pirot',  a  town  of  Servia,  on  the  Nischava,  30 
miles  ESE.  of  Nisch.    Pop.  10,450. 

Pisa  (Pee-za),  one  of  the  oldest  cities  of  Italy, 
the  rival  of  Venice  and  Genoa,  is  situated  on  the 
Arno,  6  miles  from  its  mouth,  by  rail  49  miles  W. 
of  Florence,  and  13  NE.  of  Leghorn.  It  was 
formerly  a  great  port,  but  as  the  river  has  silted 
up  and  long  ceased  to  be  navigable,  its  commerce 
has  been  transferred  to  Leghorn.  The  cathedral 
(1003-1118),  with  a  noble  dome,  fine  paintings  by 
Cimabue,  Andrea  del  Sarto,  &c.,  has  the  form  of 
a  Latin  cross,  311  feet  long  by  252  wide ;  the 
nave  is  109  feet  high.  Externally  it  has  a  mag- 
nificent faQade  of  four  superimposed  rows  of 
pilasters  and  arches,  and  fine  bronze  doors  by 
Giovanni  da  Bologna  and  others.  Near  the 
cathedral  stands  the  round  marble  campanile, 
the  '  Leaning  Tower  of  Pisa '  (1174-c.  1350),  a  mag- 
nificent specimen  of  the  southern  Romanesque 
architecture,  which  is  183  feet  high,  and  deviates 
14  feet  from  the  perpendicular— a  peculiarity  not 
due  to  original  design.  The  marble  Baptistery, 
or  Church  of  St  John  (1152-1278).  opposite  the 
cathedral,   is    circular,   and    supports    a  dome, 


crowned  with  a  cupola.  The  interior,  noted  for  its 
wonderful  echo,  contains  the  grand  and  elabo- 
rate pulpit  of  Niccola  Pisano  (1260)  and  a  large 
marble  font.  The  beginning  of  the  Campo 
Santo,  the  famous  burial-place,  was  several  loads 
of  earth  brought  from  Jerusalem ;  in  1278-83  it 
was  surrounded  by  cloisters  by  Giovanni  Pisano, 
whose  walls  were  adorned  with  fresco-paintings 
by  Orcagna  and  others.  The  university  (1338) 
has  a  natural  history  museum,  a  botanical  garden, 
a  library  (1742)  of  120,000  volumes,  60  lecturers, 
and  600  students.  Amongst  natives  may  be  named 
the  popes  Eugenius  III.  and  Nicholas  V.,  the 
Visconti,  Giovanni  (but  not  Niccola)  Pisano,  and 
Galileo.  The  industrial  activity  is  now  confined 
to  cottons,  silks,  ribbons,  and  the  working  of 
coral  and  alabaster.  Dromedaries  are  bred  at  a 
royal  farm  near.    Pop.  61,350. 

Pisagua  (Pee-zaJi'gwa),  a  small  port  of  the  now 
Chilian  province  of  Tarapacd,  40  miles  N.  of 
Iquique  by  rail ;  pop.  2131.  It  was  bombarded 
during  the  Chilian  civil  war  in  1891. 

Piscat'aqua,  a  river  which  is  part  of  the 
boundary  between  Maine  and  New  Hampshire, 
and  forms  the  harbour  of  Portsmouth. 

Plsek',  a  walled  town  of  Bohemia,  on  an  affluent 
of  the  Moldau,  84  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of 
Prague.  It  manufactures  iron,  brass,  paper, 
boots,  hats,  &c.    Pop,  14,596, 

Pisgah,  the  mountain-range  to  the  east  of  the 
Lower  Jordan,  also  called  Abarim,  one  of  whose 
summits  is  Mount  Nebo  (2644i"eet), 

Pishin,  a  district  of  Southern  Afghanistan,  just 
north  of  Quetta,  which  has  been  governed  by  a 
British  political  agent  since  1878.  Area,  3600 
sq,  m,  ;  elevation,  5000  feet ;  pop.  60,000.  A 
branch  of  the  Indus  line  traverses  it. 

PIsldia,  an  ancient  southern  division  of  Asia 
Minor,  was  separated  from  the  sea  by  the  narrow 
strip  of  Pamphylia. 

Plstoia  {Pis-to'ya  ;  anc,  Pistoria),  a  walled  town 
of  Italy,  stands  21  miles  by  rail  NW,  of  Florence, 
on  a  spur  of  the  Apennines,  The  cathedral 
(12th  and  13th  centuries)  contains  a  magnificent 
altar  of  silver  (1286-1407) ;  the  church  of  St  Bar- 
tholomew, a  fine  white  marble  pulpit  by  Guido 
of  Como  (1250) ;  St  Andrea's,  Giovanni  Pisano's 
pulpit  (1301) ;  and  St  John's,  a  font  by  Giovanni 
Pisano,  The  principal  manufactures  are  iron  and 
steel  wares,  and  firearms — the  word  'pistol'  in 
all  probability  takes  its  name  through  pistolese, 
'a  dagger,'  from  Pistoia  (Pistola).  Pop,  30,190, 
Here  Catiline  was  defeated  in  62  b,c, 

Pltcalm  Island,  a  solitary  island  in  the  Pacific 
Ocean,  between  Australia  and  South  America,  in 
25°  3'  S,  lat,  and  130'  8'  W,  long.,  measures  2J 
miles  by  1  mile.  When  discovered  by  Carteret 
in  1767  it  was  uninhabited.  In  1790  it  was 
taken  possession  of  by  nine  of  the  mutineers  of 
H.M.S.  Bounty,  with  six  Tahitian  men  and  a 
dozen  women.  Four  years  later  the  Tahitian 
men  one  night  murdered  all  the  Englishmen, 
except  one,  who  afterwards  assumed  the  name 
of  John  Adams,  Thereupon  the  women,  in 
revenge,  murdered  all  the  Tahitian  men.  Accord- 
ing to  another  account,  the  white  men  and  the 
Tahitians  murdered  each  other  at  intervals. 
Certain  it  is  that  at  the  end  of  ten  years 
John  Adams  was  left  alone,  with  eight  or  nine 
women  and  several  children  ;  and  from  them  the 
present  inhabitants  (126  in  1901)  are  descended, 
Adams,  changed  by  these  tragic  adventures, 
set  about  the  Christian  education  of  his  com- 
panions.   The  little  colony  was  discovered  in 


PITCAITHLY 


558 


PLASENCIA 


1808  by  an  American  sealing  ship ;  the  first 
British  vessel  to  visit  it  arrived  in  1814.  The 
islanders  in  1831  had  increased  to  87,  so  at  their 
own  request  they  were  removed  to  Tahiti  by  the 
British  government.  But,  disgusted  by  their 
Tahitian  relatives,  most  of  them  came  back  to 
Pitcairn  Island  after  about  nine  months.  The 
island  was  annexed  to  Britain  in  1839.  Nearly 
200  of  the  islanders  were  transferred  to  Norfolk 
Island  in  1856,  but  a  number  of  them  again 
returned.  Pitcairn  Island  enjoys  a  lovely  climate ; 
its  mountainous  surface  reaches  1008  feet  in  Out- 
look Ridge  ;  the  soil  is  fertile,  and  produces  yams, 
cocoa-nuts,  bread-fruit,  sweet  potatoes,  bananas, 
&c.  The  people  are  degenerating,  from  inter- 
marriage and  their  being  able  to  live  without 
exertion.  See  works  by  Sir  J.  Barrow  (1831), 
Lady  Belcher  (1870),  and  T.  B.  Murray  (1854: 
new  ed.  1885). 

Pitcaithly,  or  Pitkeathley,  mineral  springs 
in  Perthshire,  4^  miles  S.  of  Perth. 

Pitcll  Lake.    See  Trinidad. 

Pitcur,  Perthshire,  3  miles  SE.  of  Coupar- 
Angus,  has  a  large  weem  and  a  ruined  castle. 

Pitlochry,  a  Perthshire  village,  on  the  Tum- 
mel's  left  bank,  13  miles  NNW.  of  Dunkeld.  It 
is  a  great  health  and  summer  resort,  and  has  a 
tweed  factory.    Pop.  1530. 

Pltsligo,  New,  a  town  of  Aberdeenshire,  11 
miles  SW.  of  Fraserburgh.    Pop.  1676. 

Plttenweem,  a  seaport  of  Fife,  a  royal  (since 
1542)  and  parliamentary  burgh  (St  Andrews 
group),  3^  miles  NE.  of  Elie  by  rail,  with  fisheries 
and  a  ruined  12th-century  priory.    Pop.  1802. 

Pittsburgh  (JPitts'burg),  the  second  city  of  Penn- 
sylvania, is  built  on  a  narrow  strip  of  land  where 
the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela  rivers  meet  to 
form  the  Ohio :  it  extends  7  or  8  miles  up  the 
rivers,  and  2  or  3  down  the  Ohio.  By  rail  it  is 
444  miles  from  New  York,  354  from  Philadelphia, 
and  468  from  Chicago.  Allegheny  City  (q.v.), 
north  of  the  Allegheny  River,  is  a  distinct 
municipality.  The  business  portion  of  Pitts- 
burgh is  on  a  plain,  less  than  a  mile  in  width, 
while  the  hills  are  covered  with  handsome  resi- 
dences. In  this  region,  where  the  prevailing  soft 
shales  and  sandstones  have  been  worn  away  by 
the  rivers  to  a  depth  of  500  or  600  feet,  the  hori- 
zontal layers  of  coal  are  exposed  ;  the  great  Pitts- 
burgh coal  layer,  8  feet  thick,  like  a  broad  black 
band  extends  around  the  city  300  feet  above  the 
river.  The  court-house,  costing  $2,500,000,  is  of 
Quincy  granite,  and  is  connected  with  the  jail  by 
a  'bridge  of  sighs.'  The  government  building 
cost  $1,500,000,  and  there  are  besides  a  city  hall, 
the  Exposition  Building,  a  large  R.  C.  cathedral, 
and  Trinity  Church  (Episcopal).  Pittsburgh  is 
the  seat  of  a  Catholic  college ;  its  Carnegie  free 
library  was  built,  and  tlie  Carnegie  Institute 
built  and  endowed,  in  1890.  The  three  rivers 
are  crossed  by  fifteen  bridges ;  and  the  different 
parts  of  the  city  are  connected  by  several  lines 
of  electric  cars. 

Pittsburgh  is  now  one  of  the  most  important 
industrial  cities  in  the  United  States,  The 
district,  which  practically  extends  over  25  miles 
up  the  Allegheny  and  Monongahela  rivers  and 
10  miles  down  the  Ohio  (including  the  allied 
boroughs  of  Allegheny  and  McKeesport  and 
about  thirty  smaller  boroughs),  is  the  great 
centre  of  the  steel,  iron,  and  glass  industries  of 
the  United  States.  Its  coalfields  are  very  rich, 
and  it  is  an  extensive  shipping-point  for  bitu- 
Winons   coal.      Including    the   great    Carnegie 


steel-works  at  Homestead,  and  the  Westinghouse 
works,  the  district  contains  nearly  3500  manu- 
factories, with  an  estimated  capital  of  over 
$1,800,000,000,  and  employing  over  240,000 
people.  Its  manufactures  include  everything 
that  can  be  made  of  iron,  from  a  58-ton  gun  to 
nails  and  tacks  ;  steel  in  its  various  applications  ; 
all  descriptions  of  glass  and  glassware ;  silver 
and  nickel-plated  ware ;  Japan  and  Britannia 
ware ;  pressed  tin,  brass,  copper,  bronzes ; 
earthenware,  crucibles,  fire-pots,  bricks ;  furni- 
ture, wagons  and  carriages ;  brushes,  bellows, 
mechanical  supplies  of  all  kinds ;  natural-gas 
fittings,  and  tools  for  oil  and  gas  wells.  After 
1883  natural  gas  was  largely  used  for  domestic 
and  manufacturing  purposes ;  but  of  late  the 
supply  is  less  abundant,  and  the  manufac- 
tories have  returned  to  the  use  of  coal.  Over 
$15,000,000  have  been  spent  in  dams  and 
locks  on  the  Allegheny,  Monongahela,  and 
Ohio,  to  give  slack-water  navigation,  and  an 
ultimate  expenditure  of  $50,000,000  is  contem- 
plated. The  tniftlc  on  these  rivers  is  enormous, 
chiefly  coal  and  iron  manufactures.  Much 
lumber-rafting  is  done  on  the  Allegheny.  The 
assessed  value  of  Pittsburgh  in  1903  was 
$375,163,000,  and  the  revenue  for  general  pur- 
poses was  just  over  $7,094,200.  In  1754  a  few 
Engli.sh  traders  built  a  stockade  here,  but  were 
driven  away  by  the  French.  The  latter  replaced 
the  stockade  by  a  fort,  which,  in  honour  of  the 
governor  of  Canada,  they  called  Duquesne.  In 
1758  it  was  taken  by  the  English,  who  next  year 
commenced  a  large  and  strong  fortification, 
which,  in  honour  of  the  elder  Pitt,  then  prime- 
minister,  they  called  Fort  Pitt.  The  settlement 
became  a  borough  in  1804,  and  in  1816  was 
incorporated  as  the  city  of  Pittsburgh.  Pop, 
(1810)  4768;  (1840)  21,115;  (1870)  86,076  (with 
Birmingham,  included  soon  after,  121,799) ;  (1880) 
156,389;  (1900)321,616. 

Plttsfield,  capital  of  Berkshire  county,  Massa- 
chusetts, 151  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Boston.  Beauti- 
fully situated  on  a  plateau  where  six  lakes  round 
the  city  give  rise  to  the  Housatonic  River,  it  has 
a  marble  court-house,  a  handsome  athenaeum,  and 
a  fine  park.  Cotton  and  woollen  goods,  silk, 
boots  and  shoes,  and  tacks  are  manufactured. 
Pop.  22,500. 

Pittston,  a  mining-town  of  Pennsylvania,  on 
the  Susquehanna  River,  9  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Wilkesbarre.  Besides  a  railway  bridge,  there  are 
two  other  bridges  connecting  it  with  West  Pitts- 
ton.  It  has  foundries,  knitting-mills,  and  a  silk- 
factory.    Pop.  13,500. 

Pluro  (P'yoo'ro),  near  the  Val  d'Aosta,  once  a 
rich  city  full  of  palaces,  was  crushed  with  all  its 
wealth  and  thousands  of  people  by  the  fall  in  1618 
of  an  overhanging  mountain.  It  now  is  a  chaos 
of  wooded  knolls  and  moss-grown  rocks. 

Pladda,  an  islet  with  a  lighthouse  off  the  SE. 
extremity  of  Arran.    Pop.  6. 

Plainfield,  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  on  Green 
Brook,  24  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  New  York. 
Clothing,  hats,  and  machinery  are  manufactured. 
Pop.  15,800. 

Plaistow,  an  East  London  district,  in  West 
Ham  parliamentary  borough. 

Plasoncia,  a  decayed  town  of  Spain,  in  Estre- 
madura,  130  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Madrid,  is  sur- 
rounded with  double  walls  (1197),  and  has  a  fine 
Gothic  cathedral  (1498).  Pop.  8000.  The  monas- 
tery of  San  Yuste,  to  which  Charles  V.  retired, 
lies  24  miles  E, 


PLASSE7 


559 


PLYMOUTH 


Plassey  (Bengali  Paldsi),  a  battlefield,  96  miles 
N.  of  Calcutta,  on  the  Bhagirathi  River,  which 
has  eaten  away  the  scene  of  the  struggle.  Here 
Clive  defeated  Suraj  ud  Dowlah,  subahdar  of 
Bengal,  23d  June  1757,  a  victory  which  laid  the 
foundation  of  British  supremacy  in  India, 

Platasa  (Gr.  Plataiai),  a  city  in  the  western 
part  of  Boeotia,  on  the  borders  of  Attica,  and  at 
the  foot  of  Mount  Cithaeron,  6  miles  from  Thebes. 
In  479  B.C.  it  witnessed  the  glorious  victory  won 
by  the  Lacedaemonian  Greeks,  under  Pausanias 
and  Aristides,  over  the  Persians  ;  in  429-27  it  was 
besieged  by  a  Theban-Lacedaemonian  force,  and 
razed  to  the  ground. 

Platte,  or  Nebraska,  an  affluent  of  the  Miss- 
ouri, formed  by  the  junction  of  the  North  and 
South  Forks,  which  rise  among  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains, in  Colorado,  and  flow  800  and  550  miles. 
It  winds  450  miles  eastward,  in  a  wide  shallow 
stream,  over  the  treeless  plains  of  Nebraska. 

Platten-See.    See  Balaton. 

Plattsburg,  capital  of  Clinton  county.  New 
York,  on  Lake  Champlain,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  Saranac,  73  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Montreal. 
It  has  planing-mills,  machine-shops,  and  manu- 
factures of  iron,  wagons,  and  sewing-machines. 
In  Plattsburg  Bay,  on  September  11,  1814,  a 
British  flotilla  was  defeated.    Pop.  9010. 

Plattsmouth,  capital  of  Cass  county,  Nebraska, 
on  the  Missouri,  below  the  mouth  of  the  Platte, 
and  21  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Omaha.  It  manufac- 
tures flour,  engines,  organs,  &c.     Pop.  5000. 

Plauen  (Plov/en),  a  town  of  Saxony,  on  the 
Elster,  78  miles  S.  of  Leipzig  by  rail.  It  manu- 
factures cotton  goods,  muslin,  cambric,  jaconet, 
embroidered  fabrics,  cigars,  paper,  and  machinery. 
Pop.  (1875)  28,756  ;  (1900)  73,891. 

Playford,  a  Suff'olk  parish,  4  miles  ENE.  of 
Ipswich.     Clarkson  lived  and  died  here. 

Plessis-les-Tours.    See  Tours. 

Plevna,  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  19  miles  S.  of  the 
Danube  and  85  NE.  of  Sophia  ;  pop.  18,546.  Here 
in  December  1877  Osman  Pasha,  the  Turkish 
general,  after  a  three  months'  defence,  was  forced 
to  surrender  to  the  Russians. 

Plinllmmon,  a  large  mountain-mass  (2469  feet) 
of  Wales  with  three  summits,  on  the  boundary 
between  Montgomery  and  Cardigan,  10  miles  W. 
of  Llanidloes.  The  name  is  said  to  be  a  corrup- 
tion of  a  Celtic  word  signifying  Five  Rivers,  the 
Severn,  Wye,  and  three  other  rivers  rising  here. 

Flock  (Ger.  Plozk),  an  ancient  town  of  Russian 
Poland,  on  the  Vistula,  60  miles  NW.  of  Warsaw, 
with  an  11th-century  cathedral.    Pop.  28,660. 

Plojeshtl,  or  Ploesci,  a  town  of  Roumania,  37 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Bucharest,  with  petroleum- 
refineries.    Pop.  42,700. 

Plombi^res  (Plomb-yehr'),  a^spa  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Vosges,  14  miles  S.  of  Epinal,  was  brought 
into  fashion  by  Napoleon  III.,  though  its  waters 
were  known  to  the  Romans.  There  are  nearly 
thirty  springs  of  from  66°  to  150°  F.  ;  they  are 
helpful  against  skin  diseases,  gout,  rheumatism, 
dyspepsia,  female  complaints,  &c.  A  handsome 
casino  was  opened  in  1876.    Pop.  1819. 

Plumstead.    See  Erith. 

Plus'carden,  a  ruined  Cistercian  priory  (1230), 
6  miles  SW.  of  Elgin.    See  Macphail's  work  (1881). 

Plymouth  (Plim'muth),  one  of  the  most  famous 
of  English  seaports,  an  ancient  parliamentary, 
municipal,  and  county  borough,  lies  in  the  ex- 
treirie  SW.  corner  pf  Devonshire,  246  miles  by 


rail  (216  by  road)  WSW.  of  London,  128  SW.  of 
Bristol,  and  53  SW.  of  Exeter.  It  occupies  the 
northern  shore  of  Plymouth  Sound,  immediately 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Plym.  The  remaining  space 
between  it  and  the  Hamoaze,  the  estuary  of  the 
Tamar,  is  occupied  by  the  sister  but  much  smaller 
town  of  Stonehouse  (q.v.),  while  still  farther  west, 
along  the  Hamoaze  itself,  stretches  the  third  of 
the  'Three  Towns,'  Devon  port  (q.v.),  now  all 
united  by  continuous  lines  of  houses.  The  chief 
government  establishments  are  at  Devonport— 
the  dockyard,  gun-wharf,  steam-factory,  and 
principal  barracks;  while  Stonehouse  has  the 
victualling  yard,  marine  barracks,  and  navM 
hospital.  Plymouth  is  the  chief  seat  of  com- 
merce, trade,  and  manufacture.  The  site  is  a 
very  fine  one.  Between  the  two  natural  inlet 
harbours  of  Sutton  Pool  and  Mill  Bay  stretches 
the  bold  rocky  ridge  of  the  Plymouth  Hoe,  its 
eastern  end  occupied  by  a  citadel  built  by 
Charles  II.  Northward  the  ground  rises  in  a 
series  of  long  hills,  along  which  the  town  stretches 
until  it  passes  into  a  suburban  hill  of  singular 
attractiveness.  From  the  Hoe  thei-e  are  mag- 
nificent views  both  seaward  and  landward.  Here, 
according  to  tradition,  the  captains  of  the  fleet 
assembled  to  meet  the  Armada  whiled  away  the 
time  with  a  game  of  bowls,  which  was  not  inter- 
rupted by  the  news  of  the  enemy's  approach ;  and 
here  stand  a  tercentenary  memorial  to  the  Armada 
heroes  (1890),  and  a  statue  (1884)  of  Sir  Francis 
Drake  (one  of  Boehm's  finest  works).  The  upper 
portion  of  the  lighthouse  erected  by  Smeaton  on 
the  Eddystone  (q.v.)  was  also  rebuilt  here  in  1882- 
84.  Old  Plymouth  is  chiefly  clustered  round  the 
shores  of  Sutton  Pool— a  dingy  unattractive  set 
of  narrow  streets ;  but  of  recent  years  miles  of 
excellent  thoroughfares  and  many  handsome 
buildings  have  been  erected,  chief  among  them 
a  noble  Gothic  guildhall,  opened  in  1874  by  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  Lord  High  Steward  of  the 
borough.  The  15th-century  church  of  St  Andrew 
is  a  fine  Perpendicular  edifice ;  Charles  Church 
(1646-58)  is  a  singularly  good  example  of  post- 
Reformation  Gothic  ;  the  Rom'an  Catholic  cathe- 
dral is  an  eff"ective  Early  English  edifice  (1858). 
The  Cottonian  collection  of  sketches  by  the  lead- 
ing continental  masters  is  at  the  Proprietary 
Library ;  there  is  a  good  local  museum  at 
the  Athenaeum ;  the  South  Devon  Hospital  was 
opened  in  1884  at  a  cost  of  £40,000;  and  the 
Marine  Biological  Laboratory  in  1888.  In  Mill 
Bay  are  the  Great  Western  Docks,  which  are 
capable  of  taking  the  largest  merchant-vessels. 
Sutton  Pool,  the  ancient  tidal  harbour  of  Ply- 
mouth, in  addition  to  a  large  general  trade,  is  the 
seat  of  important  fisheries.  Manufactures,  mainly 
chemical,  are  carried  on— at  Cattedown  chiefly, 
but  also  at  Mill  Bay.  There  is  a  large  foreign, 
and  a  very  extensive  coasting  trade,  and  the  port 
is  used  by  many  lines  of  great  passenger-steamers. 
Though  only  a  fishing-village  at  the  Conquest, 
under  the  name  of  Sutton,  Plymouth  has  for 
centuries  played  a  leading  part  in  the  national 
life.  It  was  the  favourite  port  of  the  Black 
Prince;  the  chief  Elizabethan  rendezvous  of 
Drake,  Hawkins,  Grenville,  and  Raleigh ;  the 
final  port  of  departure  of  the  Mayflower  with  the 
Pilgrim  Fathers.  In  the  civil  wars  it  sided  with 
the  parliament,  and  it  was  the  first  town  to 
declare  for  William  of  Orange.  In  the  great 
French  war  it  rivalled  Portsmouth  in  naval 
activities.  Among  its  natives  are  Sir  John  Haw- 
kins, Sir  Richard  Hawkins,  Joseph  Glanvill, 
R.  S.  Hawker,  Mortimer  Collins,  with  North- 
cote,  Haydon,  S.  Prout,  Sir  C.  Eastlake,  P.R.^., 


PLYMOUTH 


560 


POLA 


and  S.  Hart,  the  artists.  Plymouth  was  first 
incorporated  by  Henry  VI.  in  1439,  and  has  since 
always  returned  two  members  to  parliament. 
Pop.  (1801)  43,194;  (18S1)  7(5,080  ;  (1901)  107,636. 

PLYMOUTH  Sound  is  a  deep  inlet,  2^  to  3  miles 
wide,  and  3  deep,  into  which  the  river  Taniar 
falls  from  the  west,  and  the  river  Plym  from  the 
east.  It  is  sheltered  by  a  great  breakwater,  con- 
structed in  1812-41  at  a  cost  of  £1,300,000— an 
insulated  mole  of  stones,  a  mile  in  length, 
stretching  across  the  middle  of  the  Sound,  2 
miles  from  the  Hoe.  About  half  a  mile  from  the 
Hoe  is  a  little  islet,  Drake's  Island,  which  is 
strongly  fortified.  A  formidable  stone  fort  has 
also  been  built  on  an  artificial  island  immediately 
within  the  breakwater ;  while  on  either  shore 
there  are  extensive  forts  and  batteries.  The 
estuary  of  the  Plym  is  called  the  Cattewater, 
and  is  a  capacious  inner  mercantile  anchorage, 
protected  by  the  Batten  breakwater.  The  estu- 
ary of  the  Tamar  is  called  the  Hamoaze,  and 
from  the  spot  at  which  it  enters  the  Sound 
between  Devil's  Point  and  Mount  Edgcumbe  to 
Saltash  is  nearly  4  miles  in  length— a  still  more 
thoroughly  protected  anchorage  for  vessels  of 
the  largest  size,  and  occupied  by  men-of-war. 
Plymouth  Sound  is  exceedingly  beautiful,  and 
has  even  been  likened  to  the  Bay  of  Naples.  On 
its  western  shore  is  Mount  Edgcumbe,  the  de- 
lightful seat  of  the  Earl  of  Mount  Edgcumbe. 
Picturesque  Rame  Head  is  crowned  by  the  ruins 
of  a  mediaeval  chapel ;  and  the  Yealm's  estuary, 
with  the  peaked  Mewstone  at  its  mouth,  is  full  of 
romantic  beauty. 

See  Worth's  History  of  Plymouth  (1871 ;  new  ed. 
1891),  and  The  Three  Towns  Bibliotheca  (1873) ; 
Jewitt's  History  of  Plymouth  (1873) ;  and  four 
works  by  J.  B.  Rowe  (1873-76). 

Plymouth,  (1)  capital  of  Plymouth  county, 
Massachusetts;  on  Plyjnouth  Bay,  37  miles  by 
rail  SE.  of  Boston,  is  famous  as  the  landing-place 
in  1620  of  the  Pilgrim  Fathers.  Plymouth  Rock 
is  a  granite  boulder  at  the  water's  edge  on  which 
they  landed.  It  is  covered  by  a  handsome  granite 
canopy,  and  there  is  also  a  national  monument 
(1858-89)  to  the  pilgrims ;  the  pedestal,  also  of 
granite,  stands  on  a  hill  overlooking  the  landing- 
place,  and  is  46  feet  high,  surmounted  by  a  figure 
of  Faith,  36  feet  high,  with  Morality,  Education, 
Freedom,  and  Law  grouped  round  the  base.  In 
Pilgrim  Hall  (1824-25)  are  many  relics.  Pop. 
9600.— (2)  A  mining-town  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Susquehanna,  20  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Scranton. 
Pop.  13,650.--(3)  The  capital  of  Montserrat  (q.  v.). 

Plympton,  a  Devon  market-town,  near  the 
Plym,  4i  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Plymouth.  It  re- 
turned two  members  till  1832.  At  its  grammar- 
school  (1658)  were  educated  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds 
(a  native)  and  Haydon.    Pop.  of  parish,  1119. 

Plynlimmon.    See  Plinlimmon. 

Pnom  Penh.    See  Cambodia. 

Po  (anc.  Eridanus  and  Padus),  the  largest  river 
of  Italy,  rises  on  Monte  Viso,  one  of  the  Cottian 
Alps,  at  an  altitude  of  6405  feet,  close  to  the 
French  frontier,  and  flows  360  miles  E.  to  the 
Adriatic.  Over  55  miles  from  its  mouth,  above 
Ferrara,  it  begins  to  form  its  delta,  60  miles  wide 
from  north  to  south,  and  growing  rapidly  in  area. 
Ravenna,  once  on  the  seashore,  now  stands  4 
miles  inland.  The  Po  receives  from  the  left  the 
Ticino,  Adda,  Mincio,  &c.,  and  from  the  right  the 
Trebbia.  Below  Piacenza  its  stream,  now  con- 
siderably above  the  level  of  the  plain,  has  from 
ante-Roman  days  been  embanked. 

PQCklingtoi^,    ft    market-town    in    the    East 


Riding  of  Yorkshire,  16  miles  ESE.  of  York.  It 
has  an  Early  English  church  (restored  1850) 
and  a  grammar-school  (1514 ;  reconstituted  1876), 
where  Wilberforce  was  educated.  Archbishop 
Ullathorne  was  son  of  a  grocer  here.    Pop.  2557. 

Podgoritza,  a  town  of  Montenegro,  16  miles  E. 
of  Cetinje,  ceded  by  Turkey  in  1879.    Pop.  7200. 

Podolia,  or  Kamenetz,  a  government  of  West 
or  'White'  Russia,  north  of  Bessarabia,  and 
touching  Austria.  Area,  16,224  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
3,050,000,  mostly  Rnssniaks. 

Point-a-Pitre.    See  Guadeloupe. 

Point  de  Galle.    See  Galle. 

Poitiers  (Fr.  pron.  Pwahteeay'),  the  capital  of 
the  French  dep.  of  Vlenne,  occupies  the  summit 
and  slopes  of  a  little  eminence,  round  whose 
base  flow  the  Clain  and  the  Boivre,  61  miles 
SSW.  of  Tours.  Before  the  revolution  it  had  an 
immense  number  of  religious  edifices,  which  even 
yet  are  sufficiently  numerous.  The  most  interest- 
ing are  the  little  Temple  de  St  Jean,  originally  a 
baptistery  of  the  6th  or  7th  century ;  the  abbey 
church  of  St  Radegonde,  with  the  saint's  ceno- 
taph, much  visited  by  pilgrims ;  and  the  noble 
cathedral  of  St  Pierre  (1161-15th  century),  in 
which,  or  in  the  older  edifice  that  occupied  its 
site,  twenty-three  councils  were  held — the  first 
in  the  4th,  and  the  last  in  the  15th  century. 
Other  edifices  are  the  Palais-de-Justice  (the 
palace  formerly  of  the  Counts  of  Poitou)  and  the 
H6tel-de-Ville  (1876).  A  university,  founded  by 
Charles  VII.  in  1431,  is  now  represented  by  a 
school  of  law,  with  faculties  also  of  science  and 
literature.  There  are  besides  a  public  library  of 
30,000  volumes  and  400  MSS.,  a  museum,  &c. 
Pop.  (1872)  28,247 ;  (1901)  39,886.  Poitiers,  the 
Limonum  of  the  Romans,  derives  its  present 
name  (earlier  Poictiers)  from  the  Pictavi  or  Pic- 
tones.  In  and  around  it  are  numerous  Celtic 
and  Roman  remains,  a  dolmen,  baths,  fragments 
of  a  huge  amphitheatre,  &c. ;  and  here  in  1882  the 
remains  of  a  whole  Gallo-Roman  town  were  dis- 
covered, with  temple,  baths,  and  streets,  spread 
over  14  acres.  In  the  vicinity  Alaric  II.,  the 
Visigoth,  was  defeated  and  slain  by  Clovis  in 
,507;  and  between  Poitiers  and  Tours  Charles 
Martel  won  his  great  victory  in  732  over  the 
Saracens.  Later  still  (19th  September  1356),  at 
a  spot  5  miles  north  of  Poitiers,  Edward  the 
Black  Prince  defeated  King  John  of  France, 
killing  11,000  and  taking  more  than  2000  prisoners, 
among  these  the  monarch  himself  and  one  of  his 
sons.  St  Hilary  was  the  first  bishop  of  Poitiers, 
which  long  was  capital  of  the  province  of  Poitou. 

Poitou  (Pivahtoo'),  a  former  province  of  south- 
western France,  coincident  with  the  present 
deps.  of  Deux  Sevres,  Vendue,  and  Vienne. 

Pokhurn  (PoTcaran),  a  town  of  India,  in  the 
Rajput  state  of  Jodhpur,  70  miles  NW.  of  Jodh- 
pur.    Pop.  15,000. 

Pola,  the  chief  naval  station  of  Austria-Hun- 
gary, near  the  south  end  of  the  peninsula  of 
Istria,  105  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Trieste,  with  a 
sheltered,  deep,  and  spacious  harbour.  The 
town  is  protected  by  forts  and  batteries,  and  is 
overlooked  by  the  citadel.  The  arsenal  employs 
2400  men.  The  cathedral  dates  from  the  15th 
century.  Pola  is  also  a  shipping  port,  exporting 
wood,  fish,  sand,  and  building  stones,  and  im- 
porting provisions,  coal,  and  bricks.  Pop.  (1851) 
1100 ;  (1900)  45,205.  Pola  was  destroyed  by 
Augustus,  but  rebuilt  at  the  request  of  his 
daughter  Julia,  and  hence  was  named  Pietas 
Julia.    About  200  a.d.  it  had  30,000  inhabitants, 


POLA 


561 


POLAND 


and  was  a  station  of  the  Roman  fleet.  It  was 
destroyed  in  1267  by  the  Venetians,  who  had 
conquered  it  in  1148 ;  and  in  1379  the  Genoese, 
after  routing  the  Venetians  in  a  sea-fight  off  the 
town,  once  more  ravaged  it.  But  it  only  passed 
from  Venice  in  1797  to  Austria,  who  made  it  her 
chief  naval  harbour  in  1848.  It  contains  many 
Roman  remains,  among  them  a  well-preserved 
amphitheatre,  450  feet  long  and  360  broad. 

Poland  (called  by  the  natives  Polska,  a  word 
of  the  same  root  as  Pole,  '  a  plain  '),  a  former  king- 
dom of  Europe,  was,  immediately  previous  to  its 
dismemberment,  bounded  N.  by  the  Baltic  Sea 
from  Danzig  to  Riga,  and  by  the  Russian  prov- 
inces of  Riga  and  Pskov  ;  E.  by  the  Russian 
provinces  of  Smolensk,  Tchernigoff,  Pultowa,  and 
Kherson ;  S.  by  Bessarabia,  Moldavia,  and  the 
Carpathian  Mountains ;  and  W.  by  the  Prussian 
provinces  of  Silesia,  Brandenburg,  and  Pomerania. 
Its  greatest  length  from  N.  to  S.  was  713  English 
miles,  and  from  E.  to  W.  693  miles,  embracing 
an  area  of  about  282,000  sq.  m.  (40,000  larger  than 
Austria-Hungary  is  now).  This  extensive  tract 
forms  part  of  the  great  European  central  plain, 
and  is  crossed  by  only  one  range  of  hills,  which 
run  NE.  from  the  Carpathians,  forming  the  water- 
shed between  the  Baltic  and  Black  Seas.  The 
soil  is  mostly  a  light  fertile  loam,  though  there 
are  large  barren  tracts  of  sand,  heath,  and  swamp, 
especially  in  the  east.  Much  of  the  fertile  soil  is 
rich  pasture-land,  and  much  is  occupied  with 
forests  of  pine,  birch,  oak,  &c.  Rye,  wheat, 
barley,  and  other  cereals,  hemp,  timber,  honey 
and  wax,  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses,  vast  mines  of 
salt  and  coal,  some  silver,  iron,  copper,  and  lead 
constitute  the  natural  riches  of  the  country  ;  and 
for  commerce  the  Vistula,  Dnieper,  Dvvina,  and 
their  tributaries  afford  great  facilities.  The 
present  population  of  the  provinces  included  in 
the  Poland  of  former  days  consists  of  Poles, 
Lithuanians,  Germans,  Jews,  Malo-Russians, 
Roumanians,  Gypsies,  &c.  The  Poles,  who  num- 
ber 10,000,000,  form  the  bulk  of  the  population  ; 
the  Lithuanians,  2,100,000  in  number,  inhabit  the 
north-east  of  the  country ;  the  Germans,  of 
whom  there  are  2,000,000,  live  mostly  in  the 
towns ;  the  Jews  are  very  numerous,  being 
reckoned  at  2,200,000.  Of  Roman  Catholics  there 
are  about  9,400,000;  of  members  of  the  Greek 
Church  (including  Uniates),  7,900,000 ;  of  Pro- 
testants, 2,360,000 ;  the  rest  are  Jews,  Armenians 
in  Galicia,  &c. 

The  Polish  people  takes  its  name  from  the 
Poliani,  a  tribe  that  early  became  dominant 
amongst  the  Slavonic  inhabitants  of  the  Polish 
area.  The  history  of  the  kingdom  begins  with 
its  Christianisation  about  the  end  of  the  10th 
century;  in  the  11th  the  kingdom  was  extended 
beyond  the  Oder,  the  Carpathians,  and  the 
Dniester.  In  the  12th  century  a  contested  suc- 
cession led  to  dissensions  and  the  loss  of 
Pomerania.  In  the  13th  the  Teutonic  Knights 
were  summoned  by  the  kings  to  assist  them,  but 
soon  became  the  most  formidable  enemy  of  the 
Polish  monarchy,  conquering  large  districts  and 
necessitating  frequent  wars.  The  Mongol  in- 
vasion  of  1241  devastated  the  country,  and  was 
followed  by  the  immigration  of  German  colonists 
and  Jews.  The  marriage  of  Hedwig  or  Jadviga, 
daughter  of  King  Louis,  in  1385  to  Jagiello, 
grand-duke  of  Lithuania,  led  to  the  union  of 
Lithuania  and  Poland  under  the  Jagellon 
dynasty— a  imion  made  permanent  and  indis- 
soluble in  1569.  The  kingdom  at  its  greatest 
extent  was  subdivided  into  about  forty  palatinates, 
which  were  mostly  governed  by  hereditary  chiefs. 
2  J 


The  people  were  divided  into  two  great  classes — 
nobles  and  serfs.  The  noble  class,  which  was  the 
privileged  and  governing  class,  included  the  higher 
nobles,  the  inferior  nobles  (a  numerous  class,  corre- 
sponding to  the  knights  and  gentry  of  other  coun- 
tries), and  the  clergy,  and  numbered  in  all  200,000 ; 
the  serfs  formed  the  agricultural  labourers,  and 
were  attached  to  the  soil.  Their  condition  is 
described  by  all  travellers  as  a  very  pitiable  one. 
Such  trade  as  the  country  had  was  mostly  in  the 
hands  of  the  Germans  and  Jews.  The  nobles  were 
the  proprietors  of  the  soil,  and  appropriated  the 
larger  portion  of  its  products.  They  were  brave 
and  hospitable,  but  quarrelsome,  and  generally 
preferred  their  own  interests  to  that  of  their 
country ;  the  serfs  were  sunk  in  poverty  and 
ignorance.  Long  ere  the  union  with  Lithuania, 
the  diet,  first  summoned  in  1331,  had  absorbed 
almost  all  the  kingly  power,  and  was  becoming  the 
centre  of  furious  and  selfish  dissensions  amongst 
the  nobles,  which  did  more  than  anything  else  to 
ruin  the  nation.  Other  causes  were  the  feuds  of 
Catholics  and  Protestants,  and  the  persecution 
of  the  Greek  Catholics  ;  the  miserable  condition 
of  the  serfs,  downtrodden  by  the  nobles  ;  and 
the  want  of  natural  frontiers.  The  crown  was 
practically  elective— another  source  of  difficulty 
and  civil  war.  Moldavia  and  Wallachia,  long 
under  a  Polish  protectorate,  were  taken  by  the 
Turks  ;  Livonia  was  conquered  by  Sweden  (1605), 
and  ceded  in  1660  ;  and  Brandenburg  became  in- 
dependent (1657).  The  Cossacks,  goaded  by 
Jesuit  persecution,  went  over  to  Russia  (1654). 
Sobieski's  glorious  victory  over  the  Turks  (1683) 
brought  little  good  to  the  country,  torn  as  it  was 
by  the  dissensions  of  the  nobles.  Disputed 
elections  and  rival  claimants  to  the  crown  led  to 
the  intervention  of  the  adjoining  powers,  and  the 
first  partition  (1772)  of  Poland,  by  which  84,000 
sq.  m.  of  Polish  territory  were  divided  between 
Russia,  Prussia,  and  Austria.  Renewed  dissen- 
sions in  1792  led  to  a  like  result ;  a  second  parti- 
tion (1793)  gave  Russia  and  Prussia  another  slice 
of  118,000  miles,  in  spite  of  the  efforts  of  Kosciusko 
and  other  patriots.  A  Polish  national  rising  was 
utterly  unsuccessful,  and  merely  precipitated  the 
third  partition  (1795),  when  82,000  miles  of  Polish 
soil  were  divided  amongst  Russia,  Prussia,  and 
Austria,  and  the  Polish  monarchy  was  at  an  end. 
Some  readjustment  took  place  by  the  Treaty  of 
Vienna  in  1815  ;  and  rebellions  against  Russian 
rule  in  1830, 1848,  and  1863  have  only  brought  fur- 
ther humiliation  on  Polish  hopes  and  aspirations. 
The  so-called  '  Kingdom  of  Poland,'  united  to 
Russia  in  1815,  had  its  own  constitution  till 
1830,  and  a  separate  government  till  1864,  when 
after  the  suppression  of  a  widespread  revolt, 
the  last  visible  remnant  of  independence  was 
taken  away.  The  administration  was  at  first 
given  to  eight  military  governors,  and  then 
to  a  commission  sitting  in  St  Petersburg. 
Finally,  in  1868,  the  Polish  province  was  ab- 
solutely incorporated  with  Russia,  and  the  ten 
governments  into  which  it  was  divided  are 
grouped  with  the  governments  of  Russia  proper. 
In  1867  the  area  of  this  section  of  old  Poland 
was  about  49,000  sq.  m.,  with  a  pop.  of  about 
5,700,000,  of  whom  4,330,000  were  Roman 
Catholics.  In  1905  the  ten  Polish  provinces— 
Kaliscz,  Kielce,  Lomza,  Lublin,  Piotrkow, 
Plock,  Radom,  Siedlce,  Ssuwalki,  and  Warsaw 
—had  a  collective  pop.  of  over  9,500,000.  Com- 
merce is  still  mostly  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews. 

The  Polish  language,  a  typical  representative 
of  the  western  Slavonic,  is  a  highly  cultivated 
tongue,  with  a  literature  already  extensive  ix\ 


POLAR  SEAS 


562 


POLYNESIA 


the  16th  century.  Mickiewicz  (1798-1855)  is  the 
greatest  poet;  Sienkiewicz  one  of  the  most 
esteemed  and  prolific  of  recent  novelists.  See 
historical  works  on  Poland  by  Lelewel  (French 
trans.  1844),  Moltke's  Foland  (trans.  1855),  and 
Morflll's  Poland  (1893). 

Polar  Seas,  the  seas  about  the  North  and 
South  Poles,  are  the  Arctic  and  Antarctic 
oceans,  and  have  been  separately  discussed  in 
this  work  under  these  heads,  where  mention  is 
made  of  the  principal  exploring  expeditions  to 
either,  and  references  given  to  books. 

Polesworth,  a  Warwickshire  village,  on  the 
Anker,  4  miles  ESE.  of  Tamworth.  Pop.  of 
parish,  4670. 

Poligny  (Pol-een-yee),  a  town  of  the  French 
dep.  of  Jura,  prettily  situated  at  the  foot  of  the 
Jura,  18  miles  NE.  of  Lons-le-Saunier.    Pop.  4186. 

Pollanarrua,  a  ruined  city  of  Ceylon,  60  miles 
ENE.  of  Kandy,  with  a  massive  dagoba,  a  rock- 
cut  temple,  and  a  wide  area  of  ruined  buildings 
that  attest  the  size  of  the  city,  which  became  the 
capital  about  770  a.d. 

PoUokshaws,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Ren- 
frewshire, on  the  White  Cart,  3  miles  SSW.  of 
Glasgow.  It  derives  its  name  from  the  '  shaws ' 
or  woods  of  the  estate  of  Pollok,  held  for  more 
than  six  centuries  by  the  Maxwells.  It  was 
made  a  burgh  of  barony  in  1814 ;  and  its  in- 
dustries, started  in  1742,  comprise  power-loom 
weaving,  dyeing,  tapestry  and  chenille  manu- 
facturing, bleaching,  iron-founding,  paper-mak- 
ing, &c.     Pop.  (1841)  4627 ;  (1901)  11,369. 

Pollokshields,  a  SW.  suburb  of  Glasgow. 

Polmont,  a  Stirlingshire  village,  4^  miles  W. 
by  N.  of  Linlithgow.     Pop.  561. 

Polotsk,  a  town  of  Russia  on  the  Dwina,  62 
miles  by  rail  N  W.  of  Vitebsk.    Pop.  19,134. 

Polperro,  a  small  Cornish  fishing-town,  6  miles 
E.  of  Fowey. 

Poltava.    See  Pultowa. 

Polynesia  (Gr.  polys,  '  many,'  nesos,  '  island '), 
a  term  applied  collectively  by  some  writers  to  all 
the  Pacific  islands  of  strictly  oceanic  character— 
i.e.  either  of  volcanic  or  coralline  origin  ;  by 
others  restricted  to  the  eastern  groups  inhabited 
by  the  brown  Polynesian  race.  Here  it  will  be 
taken  in  the  broader  sense  so  as  to  include  all 
the  Pacific  lands  east  of  the  Philippines,  New 
Guinea,  and  Australia,  except  Japan,  the  Kuriles, 
Aleutians,  Queen  Charlotte,  Vancouver,  Revil- 
lagigedo,  and  Galapagos,  which  are  geographical 
dependencies  of  the  surrounding  Asiatic  and 
American  continents.  These  Polynesian,  or 
'  South  Sea '  islands  (most  of  them  annexed  by  one 
of  the  greater  European  powers),  are  distributed 
over  a  hundred  degrees  of  longitude  from  New 
Britain  (149°  E.)  to  Easter  Island  (109°  17'  W.),  and 
across  seventy  degrees  of  latitude  from  Hawaii 
(23°N.)to  Stewart  Island  at  the  southern  extremity 
of  New  Zealand  (47°  20'  S.).  But  the  aggregate 
extent  of  dry  land  in  this  boundless  expanse  of 
some  11  million  square  miles  scarcely  exceeds 
170,000  sq.  ra.,  of  which  nearly  two-thirds  are 
cojnprised  in  the  New  Zealand  Archipelago, 
while  the  total  pop.  is  probably  less  than 
1,500,000.  Polynesia  comprises  the  three  broad 
divisions  of  Micronesia,  Melanesia,  and  East 
Polynesia,  which  are  determined  partly  by  geo- 
graphical position,  and  partly  by  ethnological 
conditions,  and  each  of  which  is  again  subdivided 
into  several  secondary  groups.  Thus,  Micronesia 
(Gr.  mikros,  'small,'  msos,  'island')  lies  in  the 


extreme  north-west  almost  entirely  north  of  the 
equator,  and  consists  exclusively  of  small  vol- 
canoes and  atolls,  forming  the  five  archipelagoes, 
all  inhabited  by  heterogeneous  populations  in 
which  most  of  the  oceanic  and  perhaps  some  of 
the  continental  elements  are  represented.  So 
also  Melanesia  (Gr.  melas,  'black')  lies  in  the 
extreme  west  entirely  south  of  the  equator,  and 
consists  mainly  of  comparatively  large  upraised 
crystalline,  coralline,  and  volcanic  islands  dis- 
posed in  parallel  chains  from  north-west  to  south- 
east, forming  eleven  archipelagoes,  all  inhabited 
by  the  Melanesian  or  dark  Oceanic  race.  Lastly, 
East  Polynesia  lies  on  both  sides  of  the  equator, 
mainly  east  of  a  line  drawn  from  New  Zealand 
between  Fiji  and  Samoa  to  Hawaii,  and  consists 
of  twelve  volcanic  and  coralline  archipelagoes 
(suitable),  besides  the  large  sedimentary  and 
igneous  region  of  New  Zealand  and  numerous 
sporadic  islets,  such  as  Norfolk,  Chatham,  Rapaiti, 
Easter,  Manihiki,  Tongareva,  Uvea,  and  many 
others.  This  division  is  the  exclusive  domain, 
apart  from  recent  white  immigrants,  of  the  large 
brown  race,  commonly  called  '  Polynesians '  in  a 
special  sense.  The  table  shows  the  size,  area,  and 
Ijolitical  connection  of  these  multitudinous  groups. 

Group.  Area  in  sq.  m.  Pop.  State. 
Micronesia— 

Mariana 460  2,000  Ger.  and  U.S. 

Pelew 200  12,000  Germany. 

Caroline 400  30,000  Germany. 

Marshan 160  15,000  Germany. 

Gilbert  (Kingsmill). . .  170  35,000  England. 
Melanesia — 

Admiralty 770  2,000  Germany. 

Bismarck 16,000  188.000  Germany. 

D'Entrecasteaux 1,100  1,000  (?)  England. 

Loulsiade 870  2,000  (?)   England. 

Solomon 16,300  175,000  Eng.andGer. 

Santa  Cruz 200  5,000  England. 

Banks 190  4,500  England. 

New  Hebrides 5,000  62,000  Independent. 

Kew  Caledonia 6,500  43,000  France. 

Loyalty 1,100  20,000  France. 

Fiji 8,000  120,000  England. 

East  Polynesia— 

Hawaii 6,700  154,000  Un.  States. 

Phoenix 15  60  England. 

EUice 14  3,300  England. 

Tokelau 12  520  England. 

Samoa 1,000  35,000  Germany. 

Tonga 450  30,000  England. 

Kermadec 40  100  England. 

Austral 105  1,400  France. 

Cook  (Hervey) 140  11,500  England. 

Tahiti  (Society) 600  17,000  France. 

Tuamotu  (Low) 360  5,600  France. 

Marquesas 480  6,000  France. 

New  Zealand 104,000  772,720  England. 

Lying  almost  entirely  within  the  tropics,  and 
consisting  nearly  everywhere  of  igneous  or  coral- 
line groups  exposed  to  the  same  atmospheric 
and  marine  currents,  Polynesia  presents  great 
uniformity  in  its  climatic  and  biological  condi- 
tions (New  Zealand,  however,  differs  widely). 
The  rainfall  is  generally  high,  the  flora  relatively 
rich,  the  fauna  remarkably  poor,  especially  in 
mammals.  There  is  a  general  consensus  that 
Polynesia  has  been  occupied  from  prehistoric 
times  by  two  distinct  races,  the  dark  Melanesians, 
who  belong  to  the  same  stock  as  the  Papuans 
of  New  Guinea  and  Malaysia,  and  the  brown 
Polynesians,  called  also  Mahori  and  Sawaiori, 
whose  racial  affinities  have  not  been  satisfactorily 
determined.  Nearly  all  the  Pacific  languages 
appear  to  be  members  of  the  great  Malayo- 
Polynesian  family ;  however  it  is  to  be  explained, 
both  the  dark  and  brown  peoples  speak  idioms 
derived  from  a  common  stock.  For  over  a  cen- 
tury the  Oceanic  peoples  have  been  in  contact 
with  Europeans,  and  nearly  all  the  Polynesians, 


POMERANIA 


563 


PONTIAC 


F 


8s  well  as  many  of  the  Melanesians,  profess  some 
form  of  Christianity— the  first  mission  established 
being  that  to  Tahiti  in  1797  by  the  London 
Missionary  Society.  But  as  western  influences 
increase,  the  races  themselves  decrease.  See 
works  by  Ellis  (1829),  Sir  George  Grey  (1855), 
De  Quatrefages  (1866),  Pritchard  (1866),  Angus 
(1867).  Moresby  (1877),  Fornander  (1878-86),  Gill 
(1880),  Keane  (1880),  and  Codringtou  (1891),  and 
the  articles  on  the  separate  groups. 

Pomerania  (Ger.  Pommern),  a  Prussian  prov- 
ince, from  1100  to  1637  an  independent  duchy, 
bounded  N.  by  the  Baltic,  and  S.  by  Branden- 
burg. Area,  li,620  sq.  m.  ;  population,  1,750,000. 
It  is  one  of  the  lowest  and  flattest  regions  in 
Germany,  and  has  numerous  lakes.  Stettin  (the 
capital)  and  Stralsund  are  the  most  important 
towns.     Greifswald  is  the  seat  of  a  university. 

Pomeroy,  capital  of  Meigs  county,  Ohio,  be- 
tween the  Ohio  River  and  a  range  of  precipitous 
hills,  133  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Columbus.  Coal- 
mining and  the  manufacture  of  salt  are  the  chief 
industries.     Pop.  4640. 

Pomfret.    See  Pontefract. 

Pomona,  or  Mainland.    See  Orkney. 

Pompeii  (Pompee't;  Ital.  pron.  Pompay'yee),  once 
a  seaport  at  the  mouth  of  the  Sarnus,  on  the  Nea- 
politan Riviera,  founded  about  600  b.c.  by  the 
Oscans,  and,  after  them,  occupied  by  the  Tyr- 
rheno-Pelasgians,  and  by  the  Samnites,  till  these, 
about  80  B.C.,  were  dispossessed  by  the  Romans. 
From  that  time  down  to  its  destruction,  79  a.d., 
it  became  (with  Herculaneum)  a  sort  of  Rome- 
super-Mare,  frequented  by  the  aristocracy ;  and 
its  public  monuments  were  out  of  all  jjroportion 
to  its  size.  On  February  5,  63  a.d.,  by  an  earth- 
quake, these  buildings  were  all  but  levelled  with 
the  ground,  and  some  years  elapsed  ere  the 
fugitive  citizens  recovered  confidence  to  re- 
occupy  and  rebuild.  Reconstruction  was  carried 
out  with  haste  and  tawdriness.  The  city  had 
relapsed  into  more  than  its  former  gaiety  and 
licentiousness,  when  on  the  23d  August  (or, 
more  probably,  on  tlie  23d  November)  79,  with 
a  return  of  the  shocks  of  earthquake,  Vesuvius 
was  seen  to  throw  up  a  column  of  black  smoke, 
expanding  into  a  great  swarthy  cloud,  dense  with 
ashes,  pumice,  and  red-hot  stones,  which  settled 
down  on  the  doomed  cities  with  a  force  increased 
by  the  rain-torrents  that  intermittently  fell. 
Amid  the  impenetrable  gloom  the  panic  of  the 
citizens  was  aggravated  by  repeated  shocks  of 
earthquake,  and  for  three  days  the  flight  con- 
tinued till  Pompeii  was  abandoned  by  all  who 
could  effect  their  escape.  The  Emperor  Titus 
organised  relief  on  an  imperial  scale,  and  even 
undertook  the  rebuilding  of  the  city.  This 
attempt  was  soon  abandoned,  and  Pompeii 
remained  a  heap  of  hardened  mud  and  ashes, 
gradually  overgrown  with  grass — the  wall  of 
the  great  theatre  and  the  outline  of  the  amphi- 
theatre alone  marking  its  site— till  1592,  when 
the  architect  Fontana,  in  cutting  an  aque- 
duct, came  on  some  ancient  buildings.  Un- 
systematic, unscientific  excavations  proceeded 
fitfully  from  1748  till  1860,  when  the  Italian 
kingdom  took  in  hand  the  unearthing  of  the 
city.  This  was  carried  out  with  admirable  in- 
genuity, care,  and  success ;  and  the  wonderfully 
preserved  remains  of' temples,  theatres,  shops, 
and  dwelling-houses  attract  pilgrims  from  all 
lands  to  study  these  unique  object-lessons  of  the 
public  and  private  life  of  antiquity. 

See  works  by  Neville  Rolfe  (1884),  Mazois 
(Paris,  1812-38),  Nissen  (Leip.  1877),  Overbeck- 


Mau  (Leip.  1884),  and  Bagot  Molesworth  (1903); 
also  Bulwer  Lytton's  Last  Days  of  Pompeii. 

Ponap^.     See  Caroline  Islands. 

Ponce,  a  town  and  port  on  the  south  coast  of 
Porto  Rico,  50  miles  SW.  of  San  Juan.  Pop.  28,000. 

Pondicherry  {Pon'di-sherr'ee),  the  chief  of  the 
French  settlements  in  India,  on  the  Coromandel 
Coast,  90  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Madras.  It  is 
divided  into  two  parts  by  a  canal.  White  (Euro- 
pean) town  being  next  the  sea.  It  has  liandsome 
streets,  a  government  house,  a  college,  a  light- 
house, and  a  cotton-mill  employing  1500  hands. 
Pop.  48,283.  It  cxi)orts  cliiefly  oil-seeds.  The* 
Frencli  colony  of  Pondicherry  has  an  area  of  115 
sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  175,000.  Its  governor 
is  governor-general  of  French  India.  The  French 
first  settled  here  in  1674,  but  the  town  was  held 
by  the  Dutch  in  1693-97,  and  by  the  English  in 
1761-63,  1778-83,  and  1793-1816. 

Pondoland,  a  district  of  Kaffraria,  on  the 
Natal  frontier.  South  Africa,  was  mostly  an- 
nexed to  Cape  Colony  in  1884-87,  the  remainder 
being  incorporated  in  1894.    Pop.  200,000. 

Ponta  Delgada.    See  Azores. 

Pont-a-Mousson  (Pon^-ta-Moosson'),  a  town  in 
the  French  dep.  of  Meurthe-et-Moselle,  on  the 
Moselle,  18  miles  NNW.  of  Nancy  and  18  SSE.  of 
Metz.     Pop.  11,750. 

Pontarlier,  a  French  town  (dep.  Doubs),  35 
miles  SE.  of  BesauQon,  on  the  main  Jura  route 
from  Switzerland  to  France.    Pop.  7760.' 

Pontchartrain  (Pon-shar-train'),  Lake,  in 
Louisiana,  5  miles  N.  of  New  Orleans,  is  40  miles 
long  and  25  wide. 

Pontecorvo  (Pontehcor^vo),  a  cathedral  city  of 
Italy,  37  miles  NW.  of  Capua.     Pop.  12,240. 

Pontefract,  or  Pomfret,  a  pleasant  market- 
town  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  an 
eminence  near  the  influx  of  the  Calder  to  the 
Aire,  13  miles  SE.  of  Leeds,  8  E.  by  N.  of  Wake- 
field, and  14  NNW.  of  Doncaster.  It  stands  on 
the  line  of  a  Roman  road,  but  seems  to  have 
arisen  round  its  Norman  castle,  which,  founded 
about  1076  by  llbert  de  Lacy,  was  the  scene  of 
the  execution  or  murder  of  the  Earl  of  Lancaster 
(1322),  Richard  II.  (1400),  and  Earl  Rivers  (1483), 
was  taken  in  the  Pilgrimage  of  Grace  (1536),  and 
during  the  Great  Rebellion  sustained  four  sieges, 
being  finally  dismantled  in  1649,  after  its  capture 
by  Lambert.  There  are  two  old  churches,  a 
town-hall  (rebuilt  1796),  a  market-hall  (1860),  a 
grammar-school  of  Edward  VI.  (1549),  and  large 
market-gardens  and  nurseries,  the  growing  of 
liquorice  for  the  lozenges  called  '  Pomfret  cakes' 
being  a  specialty  as  old  as  about  1562.  At  Ack- 
wort^i,  3  miles  south,  is  a  large  Quaker  school 
(1778).  Pontefract,  called  Taddenesscylf  in  pre- 
Conquest  times,  seems  to  have  received  its 
present  name  between  1086  and  1135  ;  why  Ponte- 
fract ('  broken  bridge ')  is  uncertain,  see  Notes  and 
Queries  for  1886-87.  The  borough,  chartered  by 
Richard  III.,  lost  one  of  its  two  members  in 
1885.  Pop.  of  pari,  borough  (1851)  11,515  ;  (1901) 
20,745,  of  whom  13,427  were  within  the  municipal 
boundary.  See  works  by  Paulden  (1702),  Tetlow 
(1769),  and  Boothroyd  (1807). 

Pontevedra  (Pontehvay'dra),  a  cathedral  town 
of  Spain  and  capital  of  a  Galician  province,  30 
miles  S.  of  Santiago.    Pop.  22,550. 

Pontiac,  capital  of  Oakland  county,  Michigan, 
on  Clinton  River,  surrounded  by  lakelets,  26 
miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Detroit.  It  has  a  state 
reform  school,  a  lunatic  asylum,  flour  and  planing 
mills,  foundries,  and  brick-yards.    Pop.  9770. 


PONTIANAK 


564 


PORT  DARWIN 


Pontianak',  capital  of  the  western  division  of 
Dutch  Borneo,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Kapuas.    Pop.  5000. 

Pontigny  {Ponteen-yee'),  a  village  of  the  French 
dep.  of  Yonne,  18  miles  SE.  of  Auxerre,  with  a 
famous  Cistercian  monastery.  Three  English 
archbishops  retired  hither— Becket,  Laugton,  and 
St  Edmund,  the  last  being  buried  here.  The 
monastery  was  devastated  by  the  Huguenots  in 
1567,  and  destroyed  at  the  Revolution ;  but  the 
church  (1150-70)  is  the  most  perfect  Cistercian 
church  in  existence. 

Pontine  Marshes  (Lat.  Pometince  Paludes),  the 
S.  part  of  the  Roman  Campagna,  extending  26 
miles  SE.  to  the  sea,  and  17  broad.  Many 
attempts  have  been  made  to  drain  them. 

Pontreslna  (Pontrehzee'na),  a  tourist  centre  in 
the  Swiss  canton  of  Grisons,  in  the  Upper  Enga- 
dine,  on  the  road  to  the  Bernina  Pass.    Pop.  483. 

Pontypool,  a  market-town  of  Monmouthshire, 
on  the  Afon  Llwydd,  9  miles  N.  by  W.  of  New- 
port. Its  17th-century  japanned  wares  have  long 
been  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  iron  and  tinplate 
works,  brewing,  and  coal-mining  now  furnish  em- 
ployment.   Pop.  6200. 

Pontypridd,  a  town  of  Glamorgan,  12  miles 
NW.  of  Cardiff  by  rail,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Rhondda  and  the  Tarf.  It  has  a  famous  one- 
arched  bridge  (1750),  iron  and  coal  mines,  iron 
and  brass  foundries,  and  chemical  and  other 
manufactures— to  which  is  due  its  rapid  growth 
from  a  mere  village  at  the  beginning  of  the  19th 
century.    Pop.  (1881)  12,317  ;  (1901)  32,316. 

Poole,  a  Dorset  seaport,  5  miles  W.  of  Bourne- 
mouth and  30  E.  of  Dorchester.  It  stands  on  the 
north  side  of  Poole  Harbour  (7  by  4J  miles),  an 
irregular  inlet,  formed  by  the  projection  of  the 
'  isle '  of  Purbeck,  almost  dry  at  low- water,  and 
having  four  tides  a  day.  On  Brownsea  or  Brank- 
sea  Island,  just  within  the  narrow  entrance  to  the 
harbour,  is  a  castle  dating  from  the  time  of  Henry 
VIII.  Poole  itself  has  an  old  town-hall  (1572),  a 
guildhall  (1761),  a  town-house  (1822),  shipping, 
yacht-building,  and  trade  in  potter's  and  pipe 
clay.  The  men  of  Poole  were  great  fighters  in 
days  of  old  by  land  and  sea,  as  buccaneers, 
smugglers,  and  Cromwellian  soldiery.  There  was 
'Arripay,'  or  Harry  Page,  who  about  1400  kept 
the  seas  against  France  and  Spain ;  and  there 
was  William  Thompson,  who,  with  a  man  and  a 
boy,  captured  a  French  privateer  in  1695.  Till 
1867  the  borough  returned  two  members,  and 
then  till  1885  one.  Pop.  (1851)  9255  ;  (1901) 
19,463.  See  works  by  Hutchins  (1788),  Syden- 
ham (1839),  and  Brannon  (3d  ed.  1859). 

Poena,  or  Puna,  a  town  of  India,  119  miles  by 
rail  SE.  of  Bombay,  is  the  military  capital  of  the 
Deccan  and  seat  of  the  government  of  the  presi- 
dency during  half  the  year.  The  city  is  em- 
bosomed in  gardens,  but  its  streets  are  mostly 
narrow  or  crooked,  and  the  houses  poor.  Under 
the  peshwas  the  city  was  the  capital  of  the 
Mahratta  princes ;  it  was  occupied  and  annexed 
by  the  British  in  1818.  Here  have  been  built 
the  Deccan  College  and  the  College  of  Science, 
the  latter  for  training  civil  engineers,  a  normal 
school  and  normal  college,  a  high  school,  &c. 
The  Europeans  live  chiefly  at  the  cantonjnents, 
north-west  of  the  city.  The  natives  manufacture 
cottons  and  silks,  gold  and  silver  jewellery,  ivory 
and  grass  ornaments,  and  clay  figures.  Pop. 
(1851)  73,209  ;  (1881)  129,751 ;  (1901)  153,320. 

Popayan  (Popl'an),  capital  of  the  dep.  of  Cauca 
in  Colombia,  stands  in  a  fertile  plain,  5700  feet 


above  sea-level,  near  the  river  Cauca.  It  has  a 
ruined  cathedral  and  a  university.    Pop.  10,000. 

Poperinghe  (Fr.  pron.  Poperan"),  a  town  of 
Belgium,  4  miles  from  the  French  frontier  and  8 
W.  of  Ypres  by  rail.  It  manufactures  lace,  linens, 
and  woollen  cloths.    Pop.  11,565. 

Poplar,  a  parish  of  E.  London. 

Popocatepetl  ('smoking  mountain'),  a  conical 
volcano  (17,784  feet)  40  miles  SB.  of  the  city  of 
Mexico.  No  eruption  has  been  recorded  since 
1540;  it  still  smokes,  however.  In  and  around 
its  crater  (5165  feet  in  diameter,  and  nearly  1000 
deep)  much  sulphur  is  obtained. 

Port  Adelaide.    See  Adelaide. 

Portadown,  a  market-town  of  Armagh,  Ire- 
land, on  the  Bann,  6  miles  S.  of  Lough  Neagh 
and  25  by  rail  SW.  of  Belfast.  It  trades  in 
farm-produce,  and  manufactures  linen,  cambric, 
and  sheeting.     Pop.  (1871)  6735 ;  (1901)  10,046. 

Portage  City,  capital  of  Columbia  county, 
Wisconsin,  at  the  head  of  navigation  on  the 
Wisconsin  River,  and  on  the  ship-canal  to  the 
Fox  River,  177  miles  NW.  of  Chicago.  It  has 
grain-elevators  and  ironworks,  and  manufactures 
leather,  boots,  clothing,  &c.     Pop.  5430. 

Portage  la  Prairie,  the  market-town  of  a  rich 
agricultural  district  in  Manitoba,  on  the  Assini- 
boine  River,  56  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Winnipeg. 
It  has  flour-mills  and  grain-elevators,  a  brewery, 
a  biscuit-factory,  a  paper-mill,  &c.     Pop.  3900. 

Portarlington,  a  market-town,  partly  in  King's 
County,  but  chiefly  in  Queen's  County,  on  the 
Barrow,  44  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Dublin.  It  was 
named  from  the  Earl  of  Arlington,  to  whom 
Charles  II.  granted  it.  William  III.  planted  in 
it  a  colony  of  French  and  Flemish  Protestants. 
Until  1885  it  returned  an  M.P.    Pop.  1950. 

Port  Arthur,  the  terminus  of  the  eastern 
division  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  on 
Thunder  Bay,  an  arm  of  Lake  Superior,  993  miles 
by  rail  WNW.  of  Montreal.     Pop.  5500. 

Port  Arthur,  or  Lushunko,  a  naval  station 
and  arsenal  on  the  extremity  of  the  rocky  Man- 
churian  peninsula  of  Liao-tung,  which  stretches 
southward  between  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li  and  the 
Yellow  Sea.  Tlie  port,  which  had  been  fortified 
by  German  engineers,  was  taken  by  the  Japanese 
from  China  in  1894,  but  in  1898  it,  with  Ta-lien- 
wan  (Dalny),  was  '  leased '  to  Russia,  enormously 
.strengthened,  and  made  the  main  terminus  of  the 
Siberian  railway  system.  In  the  Russo-Japanese 
war  (1904-5)  it  was  again  taken  by  the  Japanese 
(2d  Jan.  1905),  after  a  memorable  siege  of  eight 
months,  the  most  severely  contested  on  record. 
Its  English  name  is  derived  from  a  surveying 
officer  who  was  here  in  1860. 

Port-au-Prince  (Por-to-PranPss'),  the  capital  of 
Hayti  (q.v.),  is  situated  on  the  west  coast,  at  the 
head  of  a  bay  of  the  same  name.    Pop.  70,000. 

Port  Bannatyne,  or  Kamesburgh,  a  village 
of  Bute  on  Karnes  Bay,  2 J  miles  NNW.  of  Rothe- 
say by  tram.     Pop.  1170. 

Port  Breton,  the  SE.  part  of  New  Ireland  (now 
German),  the  scene  in  1879  of  a  disastrous  ex- 
periment in  colonising  by  French  Legitimists. 

Port  Clarence,  a  Durham  seaport,  at  the  N. 
side  of  the  mouth  of  the  Tees,  9  miles  S.  of 
Hartlepool. 

Port  Darwin,  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in 
Australia,  on  the  NW.  coast  of  the  Northern 
Territory  of  South  Australia.  Its  entrance  is  2 
miles  wide.    Palmerston,  on  the  E.  shore,  1973 


!»ORT  D'URBAU 


665 


PORTLAND 


miles  from  Adelaide,  is  the  land  terminus  of  the 
overland  telegrapli,  and  of  the  cable  to  Java, 
and  the  starting-point  of  a  railway  (1891)  to  the 
gold-fields  150  miles  inland.  Pop.  2600. 

Port  D'Urhan.    See  Durban. 

Port  Durnford,  a  harbour  in  British  East 
Africa,  on  an  indentation  of  the  coast  a  little 
more  tlian  1°  S.  of  the  equator. 

Port  Elizabeth,  a  seaport  of  Cape  Colony,  on 
the  western  shore  of  Algoa  Bay,  85  miles  by  rail 
SW.  of  Graham's  ToAvn  and  350  S.  of  Kimberley. 
Founded  in  1820,  it  is  the  principal  seaport  of  the 
east  part  of  Cape  Colony,  and  also  of  the  Orange 
River  Free  State.  Its  public  buildings  are  the 
town-house,  the  provincial  hospital,  churches, 
the  Grey  Institute,  a  college,  a  library  (20,000 
volumes),  a  museum,  &c.  Two  piers  were  con- 
structed in  1881 ;  and  an  aqueduct,  28  miles  long 
(1878),  brings  good  water.  The  exports  include 
wool,  ostrich-feathers.  Angora  goats'  hair,  and 
diamonds.    Pop.  (1875)  13,649  ;  (1904)  32,921. 

Port  Erin,  a  village  in  the  Isle  of  Man,  5^  miles 
W.  of  Castletown,  with  a  breakwater,  steamboat 
pier,  and  marine  biological  station  (1892). 

Portessie,  a  Banffshire  fishing-village,  1\  mile 
ENE.  of  Buckie.     Pop.  931. 

Port  Essington,  an  inlet  in  the  Coburg  Penin- 
sula in  N.  Australia,  forming  a  fine  harbour, 
where  in  1831-50  there  was  a  penal  settlement. 

Port  Famine,  the  name  given  by  Cavendish  in 
1587  to  a  spot  on  the  north  coast  of  the  Straits  of 
Magellan,  a  Cliilian  penal  colony  in  1843-53. 

Port-Glasgow,  a  town  of  Renfrewshire,  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  3  miles 
ESE.  of  Greenock  and  20  WNW.  of  Glasgow.  It 
was  founded  in  1668  by  the  magistrates  of  Glas- 
gow as  a  harbour  for  their  city,  the  deepening  of 
the  Clyde  (q.v.)  not  having  yet  been  thought  of. 
In  1710  it  was  constituted  the  head  custom-house 
on  the  Clyde,  and  for  a  while  took  the  lead  of 
Greenock  ;  in  1775  it  was  incorporated  as  a  muni- 
cipality ;  and  by  the  Reform  Bill  of  1832  it  unites 
with  Kilmarnock,  &c.  to  return  one  member. 
Built  on  low  alluvial  ground,  and  backed  by  hills 
700  feet  high,  it  has  a  Doric  town-house  (1815),  a 
public  hall  (1873),  ruined  Newark  Castle  (1597),  a 
wet-dock  of  12  acres  (formed  since  1834),  a  large 
graving-dock  (1874),  extensive  timber-ponds,  ship- 
building-yards, iron  and  brass  foundries,  &c. 
Pop.  (1841)  6938  ;  (1881)  10,802  ;  (1901)  16,840.  • 

Portglenone,  a  Londonderry  village,  on  the 
Bann,  9  miles  W.  of  Ballymena. 

Port  Gordon,  a  Banffshire  fishing-village,  2k 
miles  SW,  of  Buckie.     Pop,  1204. 

Port  Hamilton,  a  spacious,  well-sheltered  har- 
bour, formed  by  three  islands  of  the  Nan-how 
group,  30  miles  S,  of  Corea,  and  45  NE.  of  Quel- 
part.  It  was  discovered  and  named  by  Belcher 
in  1845,  and  held  by  Britain  in  1885-86. 

Porthcawl,  a  Glamorganshire  seaport  and 
watering-place,  6j  miles  SW.  of  Bridgend. 

Porthcwrnow  (Porthcur'no),  a  Cornish  cove,  8 
miles  SW,  of  tenzance. 

Porthleven,  a  Cornish  seaport,  2^  miles  WSW. 
of  Hilston. 

Port  Hope,  a  port  cf  entry  of  Ontario,  on  the 
north  shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  63  miles  by  rail  E. 
of  Toronto.     Pop.  4200. 

Port  Huron,  capital  of  St  Clair  county,  Michi- 
gan, is  on  the  St  Clair  River,  where  it  issues  from 
Lake  Huron,  and  at  the  moutli  of  the  Black  River, 
59  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Detroit.    The  rivers  are 


crossed  by  foltr  iron  bridges.  The  city  has  a  fine 
custom-house  (1877),  shipyards  and  dry-docks, 
sawmills,  grain-elevators,  and  inachine  and  rail- 
road shops.  A  railway  tunnel  here  passes  under 
the  St  Clair  (q.v.)  River  ;  there  is  also  a  steam- 
ferry  to  Sarnia.     Pop.  21,000. 

Portici  (Por'tichee),  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the 
slope  of  Vesuvius,  5  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Naples. 
The  royal  palace  (1738)  is  now  an  agricultural 
college.    Pop,  14,272, 

Port  Isaac,  a  Cornish  seaport,  6J  miles  NE.  of 
Padstow. 

Portisham,  a  Dorset  parish,  6  miles  SW.  of 
Dorchester.  Here  is  a  tower  to  Nelson's  Hardy, 
who  was  a  native. 

Portishead,  a  Somerset  watering-place,  on  the 
Severn  estuary,  10  miles  W.  of  Bristol.  Pop.  of 
urban  district,  2550. 

Port  Jackson.    See  Sydney. 

Port  Jervis,  a  town  of  New  York,  on  the 
Delaware  River,  88  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  New 
York  City.    Pop,  9387. 

Portland,  (l)  the  largest  city  and  chief  seaport 
of  Maine,  and  capital  of  Cumberland  county,  on 
Casco  Bay,  108  miles  by  rail  NE,  of  Boston,  It 
is  situated  on  a  narrow  peninsula,  2^  sq,  m.  in 
area,  with  broad  shaded  streets,  a  court  and 
custom-house,  post-ofllce,  city  hall,  observatory, 
and  Baxter  and  Mechanics'  Halls.  There  are 
rolling-mills ;  and  locomotives,  machinery,  boilers, 
stoves,  carriages,  and  shoes  are  manufactured, 
and  sugar  and  petroleum  refined.  The  harbour, 
defended  by  three  forts,  is  large,  deep,  and  well 
sheltered  ;  there  are  wharves,  elevators,  and  dry- 
docks,  and  steamers  ply  direct  to  Liverpool  in 
winter.  The  place  was  settled  by  an  English 
colony  in  1632,  In  1866  a  fire  destroyed 
$10,000,000  worth  of  property.  Portland  is  the 
seat  of  Episcopal  and  Roman  Catholic  bishops, 
and  was  the  birthplace  of  Longfellow.  Pop. 
(1870)  31,413 -,(1900)  50,145, -(2)  Portland,  the 
metropolis  of  Oregon,  and  capital  of  Multnomah 
county,  is  on  the  Willamette  River,  12  miles  from 
where  it  joins  the  Columbia,  and  772  by  rail  N. 
of  San  Francisco.  Large  ocean-going  ships  come 
up  to  this  point,  A  handsome  city,  well  built, 
with  fine,  shaded  streets,  it  has  a  court-house, 
a  U.S.  government  building,  and  an  asylum. 
There  are  iron-foundries,  machine-shops,  saw- 
mills, canneries,  breweries,  and  manufactures  of 
furniture,  flour,  shoes,  &c,  Portland  was 
founded  in  1844,  and  became  a  city  in  1851.  Pop. 
(1870)  8293  ;  (1880)  17,577  ;  (1900)  90,426, 

Portland,  Isle  of,  a  rocky  peninsula  of  Dor- 
setshire, connected  with  the  mainland  by  the 
Chesil  Bank  (q.v),  and  4  miles  S,  of  Weymouth 
by  a  branch-line  (1865).  It  is  4^  miles  iong,  IJ 
wide,  9  in  circumference,  and  2890  acres  in  area. 
From  its  highest  point,  the  Verne  (495  feet),  it 
shelves  with  a  gradual  and  almost  unbroken  slope 
to  Portland  Bill  (20  feet),  the  southern  extremity, 
where  stand  two  lighthouses  (1716-89),  showing 
fixed  lights  210  and  136  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
between  which  and  the  Shambles,  a  dangerous 
reef,  3  miles  SE.,  a  surf,  called  the  Portland 
Race,  is  raised  by  the  rushing  of  the  impetuous 
tides.  The  cliff's  have  in  places  been  worn  into 
fantastic  caverns ;  and  ancient  raised  beaches  are 
well  )narked  near  the  Bill.  Portland  is  one  solid 
mass  of  oolitic  limestone,  which  has  been  largely 
quarried  for  building  purposes  since  the  17th 
century,  when  Inigo  Jones  employed  it  for  Wliite- 
hall  and  Sir  Christopher  Wren  for  St  Paul's, 
Goldsmiths'  Hall,  the  Reform  Club,  and  Pall  Mall 


PORTLAW 


666 


PORTSEA  ISLAND 


generally  are  also  built  of  it ;  and  the  yearly  ex- 
port ranges  between  50,000  and  70,000  tons.  A 
magnirtcent  harbour  of  refuge  has  been  formed 
by  the  construction  of  a  breakwater  (1849-72), 
stretching  nearly  due  north  for  more  than  2  miles 
from  the  NE.  point  of  the  '  Isle  ; '  most  formidable 
fortifications  have  moreover  been  constructed, 
the  Verne  in  especial  being  crowned  by  Fort 
Victoria.  New  defence  works  were  constructed 
in  1894-1904,  as  well  as  a  new  breakwater,  Port- 
land Roads  being  thus  almost  entirely  surrounded. 
Other  features  of  the  '  Isle '  are  its  great  convict- 
prison,  dating  from  1848,  and  holding  upwards  of 
1500  convicts  ;  Portland  Castle  (1520),  built  by 
Henry  VIII.,  and  held  for  Charles  I.  till  1646; 
Bow  and  Arrow  Castle,  ascribed  to  Rufns  ;  and 
Pennsylvania  Castle  (1800),  built  by  Governor 
Penn,  the  great  Quaker's  grandson.  The  inhabit- 
ants of  the  '  Isle '  long  remained  a  peculiar  people. 
The  '  Isle  '  itself  is  remarkable  for  its  copious  and 
excellent  spring-water  and  for  the  mutton  of  its 
small  breed  of  black-faced  sheep.  Pop.  (1851) 
5195  ;  (1881)  10,061 ;  (1901)  15,200.  See  Damon's 
Geology  of  Weymouth  and  Portland  (1860),  and  an 
article  in  the  Cornhill  (1882). 

Portlaw,  a  market-town  on  the  Clodiagh,  11 
miles  W.  of  Waterford.    Pop.  1100. 

Port  Louis,  the  capital  and  principal  port  of 
Mauritius,  is  situated  on  an  excellent  harbour  on 
the  north-west  coast,  and  is  enclosed  by  a  ring  of 
lofty  hills.  It  has  graving-docks,  is  defended  by 
forts  (1887-91),  is  a  coaling  station  of  the  British 
navy,  and  has  barracks  and  military  storehouses. 
The  city  contains  the  government  house,  a  Pro- 
testant and  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a  royal 
college,  &c.  It  suffered  terribly  from  the  great 
hurricane  of  May  1892.    Pop.  53,200. 

Portmad'oc,  a  Carnarvonshire  seaport,  on 
Tremadoc  Bay,  11  miles  E.  of  Pwllheli.  It  ships 
slate  and  copper. 

Port  Malion  (Ma-hoan' ;  anc.  Partus  Magonis), 
capital  of  Minorca  (q.v.),  is  beautifully  situated 
on  a  deep,  narrow  inlet  in  the  SE.  of  the  island, 
its  excellent  harbour  being  protected  by  fortifica- 
tions. Stone,  shoes,  cottons,  cattle,  and  honey 
are  exported.  Pop.  17,397.  The  town  was  held 
by  the  English  in  1708-56  and  1762-82. 

Portmoak',  a  Kinross-shire  parish,  on  Loch- 
leven.     The  poet  Michael  Bruce  was  a  native. 

Port  Moody.    See  Vancouver. 

Port  Natal.    See  Durban. 

Porto  Alegre  (Porto  Alay'greTi),  capital  of  the 
Brazilian  state  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul,  stands  at 
the  NW.  end  of  the  Lagoa  dos  Patos.  Founded 
in  1742,  it  has  a  cathedral,  an  arsenal,  and  manu- 
factures of  pianos,  furniture,  brandy,  and  beer. 
Pop.  85,000  (3000  Germans). 

Portobello,  a  Scottish  watering-place,  on  the 
southern  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  3  miles  E. 
of  Edinburgh.  Its  first  house  (1742)  was  built  by 
one  of  Admiral  Vernon's  seamen  in  the  expedi- 
tion against  Portobelo  (whence  the  name) ;  but 
it  dates,  like  its  eastern  extension  Joppa,  almost 
wholly  from  a  time  later  than  1804.  An  espla- 
nade, 1  mile  long,  skirts  tlie  sands ;  there  are 
a  promenade  pier  of  1250  feet  (1871),  municipal 
buildings  (1878),  and  manufactures  of  pottery, 
bricks,  bottles,  &c.  Incorporated  municipally 
with  Edinburgh  in  1896  (pop.  8800),  it  unites 
with  Leith  and  Musselburgh  to  return  an  M.P. 

Portobelo,  a  decayed  seaport  of  Colombia,  on 
the  northern  shore  of  the  Isthmus  of  Panama, 
almost  due  north  of  the  town  of  Panama.  It  has 
an  excellent  harbour,  discovered  by  Columbus  in 


1502,  but  is  very  unhealthy,  and  has  fallen  into 
decay  since  1739,  when  it  was  stormed  by  Admiral 
Vernon.     Drake  died  off  here.    Pop.  1300. 

Porto  Ferrajo.    See  Elba. 

Port  of  Spain.    See  Trinidad. 

Porto-Maurizio  (Mow-reetz'i-o),  a  town  of  north 
Italy,  stands  embowered  in  olive-groves  on  the 
Gulf  of  Genoa,  69  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Genoa,  and 
41  E.  by  N.  of  Nice.    Pop.  7150. 

Porto  Novo,  (1)  a  small  port  on  the  Coroman- 
del  coast  of  India,  145  miles  S.  of  Madras  by  rail. 
Here,  on  1st  July  1781,  Sir  Eyre  Coote,  with 
8000  men,  defeated  Hyder  Ali  and  60,000.  Pop. 
14,000.— (2)  A  trading  station  in  French  Guinea. 

Porto  Rioo  (Ree'ko),  or  Puerto  Rico,  a  fertile 
West  India  island,  75  miles  E.  of  Hayti  or  St 
Domingo  ;  with  an  area  of  3530  sq.  m.,  it  measures 
110  miles  E.  to  W.  by  40.  It  is  traversed  from 
E.  to  W.  by  ranges  of  mountains  (El  Yunque, 
3670  feet).  From  the  base  of  the  mountains  rich 
alluvial  well- watered  tracts  extend  to  the  sea ; 
the  higher  parts  are  covered  with  forests.  The 
principal  crops  are  sugar,  coflee,  and  rice  (the 
food  of  the  people) ;  tobacco,  maize,  yams, 
bananas,  plantains,  and  tropical  fruits  are  also 
grown.  Cattle  and  horses  are  fed  on  the  low- 
land pastures.  The  exports  are  sugar,  coff"ee, 
molasses,  tobacco,  and  cattle.  Pop.  (1800) 
155,400;  (1864)  615,844;  (1900)  953,500.  The 
towns  are  St  John's  (q.v.),  the  capital,  and  Ponce 
(28,000).  Columbus  discovered  Porto  Rico  in 
1493,  and  Ponce  de  Leon  founded  a  settlement 
in  1510.  The  island  was  ceded  by  Spain  to  the 
United  States  after  the  war  of  1898,  and  in  1900 
civil  government  was  conferred. 

Portpatrick,  a  decayed  fishing-village  in 
"Wigtownshire,  7|  miles  SW.  of  Stranraer  by  rail, 
and  21J  NE.  of  Donaghadee  in  Ireland.  It  was 
long  the  Gretna  Green  for  Ireland,  and  a  mail- 
packet  station  from  1662  till  1849.  A  pier  was 
built  in  1774,  and  a  great  artificial  harbour  was 
commenced  in  1821,  but  ultimately  abandoned, 
the  Orion  steamship  having  been  lost  within  the 
port  in  1850,  when  seventy  souls  perished.  The 
lighthouse  was  removed  in  1869,  and  the  harbour- 
works  fell  quickly  into  ruin,  after  having  cost 
£500,000.     Pop.  (1861)  1206  ;  (1901)  451. 

Port  Phillip,  the  gate  of  Melbourne,  discovered 
in  1802  by  Murray,  and  named  after  Captain 
Phillip,  first  governor  of  New  South  Wales. 

Portreath,  a  Cornish  seaport,  4  miles  NW.  of 
Redruth. 

Portree,  a  seaport  village  of  Skye,  on  Portree 
Bay,  32  miles  WSW.  of  Strome  Ferry,  and  120 
NNW.  of  Oban.  It  got  its  name  Port-an-righ 
('king's  harbour')  from  a  visit  of  James  V.  in 
1540.     Pop.  870. 

Port  Royal.    See  Jamaica. 

Portrush',  a  watering-place  with  excellent  golf- 
ing links  in  County  Antrim,  6|-  miles  by  rail  N. 
of  Coleraine,  and  7'W.  byS.  of  the  Giants'  Cause- 
way, with  which  it  is  connected  by  an  electric 
tramway  (1883).     Pop.  1955. 

Port  Said  (Sah-eed'),  a  town  of  Egypt,  on  the 
west  side  of  the  Suez  Canal,  on  a  desolate  strip 
of  land  between  Lake  Menzaleh  and  the  Mediter- 
ranean. The  place,  which  owes  its  origin  to  the 
Suez  Canal  (q.v.),  is  named  after  Said  Pasha,  and 
is  mainly  a  coaling  station.     Pop.  46,560. 

Portsea  Island,  a  small  island  of  Hampshire, 
4  miles  long,  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
a  narrow  channel  crossed  by  bridges,  and  con- 
taining the  towns  of  Portsea  and  Portsmouth. 


PORT  SIMPSON 


567 


PORTUGAL 


Port  Simpson,  a  British  Columbian  port  on 
the  Portland  Channel  which  separates  Canada 
and  Alaska,  selected  as  terminus  for  the  Northern 
Canadian  Transoceanic  Railway.     Pop.  1000. 

Portsmouth  (Ports'muth),  the  cliief  naval 
arsenal  of  Great  Britain,  and  an  important  sea- 
port, market-town,  and  municipal,  parliamentary, 
and  county  borough,  in  the  south  of  Hampshire, 
stands  on  the  south-west  shore  of  Portsea  Island 
(q.v.),  at  the  entrance  to  Portsmouth  Harbour, 
and  opposite  the  town  of  Gosport  (q.v.),  with 
which  it  communicates  by  means  of  a  steam- 
bridge.  It  is  74  miles  SW.  of  London,  44  W.  of 
Brighton,  and  23  SB.  of  Southampton.  Besides 
the  parish  of  Portsmouth,  the  limits  of  the 
municipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  which  are 
co-extensive,  include  also  the  parish  and  town 
of  Portsea,  and  the  out-wards  Landport  and 
Southsea,  and  comprise  the  whole  of  Portsea 
Island,  with  the  exception  of  a  small  portion  in 
the  north-east  corner.  Pop.  of  the  borough 
(1821)69,479;  (1851)72,096;  (1881)127,989;  (1901) 
188,133.  Portsmouth  is  for  the  most  part  a  mean- 
looking,  dirty  town,  but  has  the  most  complete 
fortifications  in  Britain.  These  comprise,  on  the 
landward  side,  the  outer  line  of  the  Portsdown 
forts  and  the  Hilsea  lines  ;  to  seaward,  the  Spit- 
head  (q.v.)  forts.  A  portion  of  the  imposing 
bastioned  ramparts,  which  encircled  both  Ports- 
mouth and  Gosport,  have  since  1872  been  removed 
as  useless.  Southsea,  which  is  situated  outside 
the  Avails  skirting  Southsea  Common,  is  now  a 
fashionable  watering-place.  Many  improvements 
have  been  carried  out  in  Portsmouth,  including 
improved  drainage,  and  the  opening  of  the 
Victoria  Park  in  1878  ;  a  new  town-hall,  built  at 
a  cost  of  £140,000,  was  opened  by  the  Prince  of 
Wales  in  1890.  The  church  of  St  Thomas,  whose 
chancel  and  transept  date  from  the  close  of  the 
12th  century,  the  nave  and  tower  from  1698, 
contains  a  ghastly  cenotaph  in  memory  of  the 
murdered  Duke  of  Buckingham.  The  Garrison 
Chapel,  Early  English  in  style,  and  finely  restored 
by  Street  in  1867,  is  a  fragment  of  the  hospital 
of  St  Nicholas,  founded  in  1212.     In  it  Charles 

II.  married  Catharine  of  Braganza ;  and  in  front 
of  it  is  buried  the  brave  Sir  Charles  James 
Napier.  The  dockyard,  in  the  district  of  Portsea, 
was  till  1872  only  116  acres  in  extent ;  but  vast 
works,  carried  out  at  a  cost  of  £2,500,000,  have  in- 
creased the  area  to  293  acres.  Noteworthy  features 
are  the  mast  and  rope  houses,  hemp-stores,  rigging- 
stores,  sail-loft,  the  twelve  dry-docks,  the  building- 
slips,  the  wood-mills,  with  the  block-making 
machines,  the  smithy,  with  its  Nasmyth's  hainmer, 
&c.  Portsmouth  Harbour,  about  400  yards  wide  at 
its  entrance,  expands  into  a  spacious  basin,  extend- 
ing 4  miles  inland,  and  having  a  breadth  of  3 
miles  along  its  northern  shore.  Large  war- 
vessels  can  enter  and  lie  at  anchor  at  all  times 
of  the  tide,  there  being  4  fathoms  of  water  in  the 
channel  at  low-water.  The  outward  entrance  is 
defended  by  Forts  Monckton  and  Gilkicker,  and 
Southsea  Castle.  The  harbour  is  situated  in  the 
middle  of  the  channel,  close  to  the  magnificent 
anchorage  of  Spithead,  where  1000  ships  of  the 
line  may  ride  without  inconvenience,  and  is  under 
shelter  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  and  opposite  the 
French  arsenal  of  Cherbourg.  The  importance 
of  this  port  dates  only  from  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  Its  defences  were  commenced  by  Edward 
IV.,  and  strengthened  by  Elizabeth  and  William 

III.  Here,  in  a  house  that  still  remains,  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham  was  assassinated  by  Felton. 
In  1782  the  Royal  George  went  down  at  Spithead, 
and  nearly  1000  lives  were  lost.    Charles  Dickens 


was  bom  at  387  Mile  End  Terrace,  Commercial 
Road,  Land[)ort,  Portsea;  and  other  worthies 
have  been  Walter  Besant,  the  younger  Brunei, 
Jonas  Hanway,  Sir  Frederick  Madden,  George 
Meredith,  and  John  Pounds.  See  works  by  L. 
Allen  (1817),  H.  Slight  (1828),  H.  P.  Wright  (1873), 
W.  H.  Saunders  (1880),  and  Mnrrell  and  East  (1884). 

Portsmouth,  (l)  the  metropolis  and  only  sea- 
port of  New  Hampshire,  on  the  Piscataqua's 
south  bank,  8  miles  from  the  Atlantic,  and  57 
by  rail  NNE.  of  Boston.  Built  on  a  beautiful 
peninsula,  overlooking  a  capacious  and  deep  har- 
bour, it  is  a  handsome  old  town,  many  of  .its 
streets  lined  with  shade-trees,  and  is  a  favourite 
summer-resort.  It  has  a  custom-house ;  the 
manufactures  include  cotton,  hosiery,  shoes,  iron- 
casting,  and  shipbuilding.  At  Kittery,  on  an 
island  opposite,  is  a  U.S.  navy-yard.  Here  in 
1905  peace  was  concluded  between  Russia  and 
Japan.  Pop.  10,640.— (2)  Capital  of  Scioto  county, 
Ohio,  stands  among  hills  in  an  iron  region,  on 
the  Ohio  River,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Scioto,  and 
at  the  south  terminus  of  the  Ohio  Canal,  106 
miles  by  rail  ESE.  of  Cincinnati.  Pop.  17,870.— 
(3)  A  city  and  port  of  Virginia,  on  the  Elizabeth 
River,  opposite  Norfolk  (q.v.).  Gosport,  with  its 
navy-yard,  &c.,  is  a  suburb.  Portsmouth  contains 
a  dry-dock  and  a  naval  hospital.     Pop.  17,450. 

Portsoy',  a  Banffshire  seaport,  8^  miles  W.  of 
Banff,  a  burgh  of  barony  since  1550.     Pop.  1878. 

Port  St  Mary,  a  coast-village  in  the  Isle  of 
Man,  4J  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Castletown. 

Port  Sunlight,  a  beautiful  model  village  of 
Cheshire,  3  miles  SE.  from  Birkenhead,  founded 
in  1888  by  the  proprietors  of  a  neighbouring 
work  for  their  Avorkpeople.  It  has  spacious 
streets,  with  houses  in  Old  English  style,  with 
a  complete  system  of  religious,  educational,  and 
social  institutions.    Pop.  (1905)  3500. 

Port  Talbot.    See  Aberavon. 

Port  Townsend,  capital  of  Jefferson  county, 
Washington,  is  on  Puget  Sound,  near  Juan  de 
Fuca  Strait,  47  miles  N.  of  Seattle.  It  has  a 
good  harbour.    Pop.  4000. 

Por'tugal  (named  from  Porhis  Cale,  the  Roman 
name  of  Oporto,  q.v.),  a  kingdom  of  Europe,  lying 
between  Spain  and  the  Atlantic,  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Iberian  Peninsula,  stretches  350  miles  be- 
tween 36"  59'  and  42°  8'  N.  lat.,  and  varies  in  width 
from  70  to  140  miles  between  6°  10'  and  9°  31'  W. 
long.  The  area  is  36,038  sq.  m.— a  little  larger 
than  Ireland.  In  1851  the  population  numbered 
3,487,000;  in  1874,  4,160,315;  and  in  1900  it  was 
5,423,132.  Some  20,000  persons  emigrate  every 
year,  chiefly  to  Brazil.  Lisbon  and  Oporto 
(356,000  and  167,955  respectively)  are  the  only 
towns  with  above  25,000  inhabitants.  The  six 
home  provinces  are  Miiiho,  Traz  os  Montes,  Beira, 
Estremadura,  Alemtejo,  and  Algarve ;  to  which 
are  to  be  added  the  Azores  and  Madeira,  always 
reckoned  not  as  colonies  but  as  parts  of  the 
mother-country. 

The  coast  is  mostly  low  and  flat,  except  immedi- 
ately north  and  south  of  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus, 
and  at  Cape  St  Vincent.  The  two  northern  prov- 
inces are  diversified  by  spurs  (5000  feet)  of  the 
mountains  of  Spanish  Galicia.  The  Sierra  da 
Estrella  (6540  feet)  is  a  westward  continuation  of 
the  Spanish  Sierra  Guadarrama  system.  The 
Sierra  Morena  is  continued  westwards  in  southern 
Portugal.  So  the  principal  rivers  of  the  country 
— the  Guadiana  in  the  south,  the  Tagus  in  the 
centre,  and  the  Douro  and  Minho  in  the  north 
—are  simply  the  lower  courses  of  Spanish  rivers ; 


PORTUGAL 


568 


POSEN 


but  the  Moudego  has  its  sources  in  the  country. 
Minerals  are  little  worked  from  want  of  fuel 
and  cheap  means  of  transit.  Salt  is  prepared; 
copper,  iron,  lead,  manganese,  antimony,  gyp- 
sum, lime,  and  marble  are  exported.  The  vicinity 
to  the  ocean  tempers  the  climate,  and  exempts 
it  from  the  dry  heat  of  Spain.  The  inequalities 
of  the  surface  produce,  however,  diversities 
of  climate ;  for,  while  snow  falls  abundantly  on 
the  mountains  in  the  northern  provinces,  it  is 
never  seen  in  the  southern  lowlands.  Rain  falls 
abundantly  throughout  the  year.  Malaria  and 
fever  prevail  in  the  low  flat  lands  and  near  the 
salt-marshes.  The  soil  is  generally  rich,  except 
in  the  mountainous  parts  ;  but  agriculture  is 
everywhere  in  a  backward  state,  little  more  than 
half  the  area  of  the  country  being  put  to  profit- 
able use.  Maize,  wheat,  rye,  barley,  and  rice 
are  grown,  but  not  in  sufficient  quantity  for 
the  wants  of  the  people ;  also  potatoes,  vege- 
tables (especially  onions),  flax,  fruits  (oranges, 
lemons,  chestnuts,  almonds,  &c.).  But  the  vine 
and  the  olive  maintain  the  most  prosperous 
industries ;  the  wine  annually  produced  (especi- 
ally port,  named  from  Oporto)  amounts  to 
88,000,000  gallons.  Silkworms  and  bees  are  kept, 
and  fish  (tunnies  and  sardines)  are  abundant. 
Some  50,000  persons  weave  wool,  and  the  others 
cut  cork,  manufacture  cotton,  linen,  silk,  leather, 
glass  and  porcelain,  paper,  and  gold  and  silver 
filigree,  &c.  The  mercantile  marine  comprises 
only  280  ships  of  little  over  86,000  tons  ;  most  of 
the  commerce  is  carried  in  British  bottoms.  The 
exports,  principally  wine  (more  than  half  of  the 
whole,  and  sent  mainly  to  Britain,  also  to  Brazil 
and  France),  copper,  salt,  cork,  fish,  oxen,  fruits, 
vegetables,  and  wool,  average  G  millions  sterling 
in  value  annually.  The  value  of  all  the  exports 
sent  to  Great  Britain  every  year  ranges  from 
2^  to  4  millions  sterling.  From  Great  Britain 
Portugal  imports  chiefly  cottons  (^  to  |  million 
sterling),  woollens,  coal,  metals,  machinery,  and 
butter,  to  the  annual  value  of  J  to  f  million 
sterling.  Her  total  imports,  which  also  em- 
brace bullion,  flour  and  wlieat,  glass,  live-stock, 
silk,  timber,  linen,  &c.,  have  reached  the  value 
of  12  millions.  The  revenue,  from  £12,000  to 
£13,000,  is  usually  exceeded  by  the  expendi- 
ture. The  debt  has  reached  near  £170,000,000, 
and  the  finances  are  in  an  utterly  deranged  con- 
dition. There  are  over  1490  miles  of  railway. 
The  army  is  about  35,000  men — on  a  war  footing, 
150,000.  The  navy  has  five  armoured  cruisers 
and  over  twenty  third-class  cruisers,  besides 
torpedo-boats,  &c. 
The  colonies  of  Portugal  are  as  follows  : 

Africa—  Area  in  sq.  in.      Pop. 

Cape  Verde  Islands 

Guinea 

St  Tliomas  and  Prince's  Island 

Angola,  Ambriz,  Benguela,  Mossa-1     ,„!  onn 
medes,  and  Congo )    «''*'°"" 

East  Africa 

Asia— 

6oa  (in  India) 

Diu,  Daman,  &c 

Timor,  &c 

Macao  (in  China) 4 

Total 817,350 

The  state  religion  is  that  of  the  Church  of 
Rome.  There  are  three  ecclesiastical  provinces 
presided  over  by  the  Cardinal  Patriarch  of  IJsbon 
and  two  other  archbishops,  and  fourteen  bishops. 
The  monasteries  were  dissolved  in  1884.  Com- 
pulsory education  was  enacted  in  1844,  but  is 
very  feebly  enforced,  and  Portugal  is  far  behind 
in  public  instruction.      The  one  university  at 


310,000 


Coimbra  (1300),  one  of  the  oldest  in  Europe,  has 
five  faculties,  75  professors,  and  about  1060  stu- 
dents. Portugal  is  a  constitutional  monarchy, 
the  crown  being  hereditary  alike  in  the  female 
and  the  male  line.  The  Cortes  consists  of  the 
House  of  Peers  and  the  House  of  Deputies. 

The  Portuguese  are  a  mixed  race— originally 
Iberian  or  Basque,  with  later  Celtic  admixture. 
Jewish  and  Arabic  blood  are  strongly  present  in 
the  centre,  and  African  in  the  south.  The  Portu- 
guese differ  widely  from  their  Spanish  brethren, 
whom  they  regard  with  inveterate  hatred  and 
jealousy,  mainly  on  account  of  their  attempts  to 
subvert  the  independence  of  Portugal.  Like  the 
rest  of  Iberia,  Portugal  (the  southern  part  of 
which  was  known  to  the  Romans  as  Lusitania, 
often  taken  as  a  poetical  name  for  the  whole 
country)  was  thoroughly  Romanised  after  the 
conquest  of  the  Carthaginians  by  the  Romans  in 
138  B.C.  Then  the  peninsula  was  overrun  by  the 
Visigoths,  and  next  by  the  Saracens  (see  Spain). 
Northern  Portugal  fell  under  the  influence  of 
Castile ;  but  under  Alfonso  I.  (1143)  Portugal 
became  an  independent  kingdom,  though  the 
Saracens  were  not  conquered  in  the  south  till 
1250.  Wars  with  Castile  were  fre(iuent.  Under 
John  (1385-1433)  began  a  close  alliance  between 
Portugal  and  England,  and  the  Portuguese  king 
John  married  John  of  Gaunt's  daughter.  With 
their  son.  Prince  Henry  the  Navigator  (died  1460), 
began  the  most  brilliant  era  of  over-sea  enter- 
prise and  conquest,  including  the  acquisition  of 
Madeira,  the  Azores,  and  the  doubling  of  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  (1486),  the  reaching  of  India 
by  sea  and  settlements  there  (1497),  and  the 
discovery  and  occupation  of  Bi'azil  (1500).  In 
the  16th  century  Portugal  was  one  of  the  most 
powerful  monarchies  of  Europe,  and  most  pros- 
perous of  commercial  peoples ;  but  its  decline 
was  swift,  and  Philip  II.  annexed  Portugal  to 
Spain  for  sixty  years.  English  assistance  secured 
the  independence  of  the  kingdom  in  1640  (recog- 
nised by  Spain  in  1668) ;  but  the  glory  had 
departed.  Portugal  shared  in  the  troubles  of  the 
French  occupation  and  the  Peninsular  war  ;  after 
Napoleon's  defeat,  the  old  family,  which  had 
taken  refuge  in  Brazil,  was  restored ;  but  the 
country  was  rent  by  intrigue,  dissension,  and 
civil  war.  The  rush  of  the  European  powers  to 
occupy  central  and  southern  Africa  stirred  Por- 
tugal to  tenaciously  cling  to  her  once  great 
colonial  empire  in  Africa;  but  the  march  of 
events  has  given  to  Britain,  Germany,  France, 
and  the  Congo  Free  State,  much  that  Portugal 
once  claimed  as  hers. 

See  Crawfurd,  Portugal,  Old  and  New  (1880); 
Salisbury,  Portugal  and  its  People  (1S9S) ;  Murray's 
Handbook;  and  the  histories  by  M'Murdo  (1888) 
and  Morse  Stephens  (1890). 

Portugalete  (Por-too-ga-Iay'tay),  a  Spanish  sea- 
port  in  the  province  of  Vizcaya,  8  miles  NW.  of  Bil- 
bao, with  a  remarkable  swing-ferry.    Pop.  3500. 

Portum'na,  a  Galway  market-town,  on  the 
Shannon,  12  miles  W.  of  Parsonstown.    Pop.  960. 

Poscharevatz.    See  Passarowitz. 

Posen  (Polish  Poznan),  a  Prussian  province, 
bounded  N.  by  West  Prussia,  E.  by  Poland,  S.  by 
Silesia,  and  W.  by  Brandenburg.  Area,  11,178 
sq.  m.  The  navigable  Warthe  traverses  it  from 
E.  to  W.  ;  the  Vistula  touches  it  on  the  NE. 
The  province  belongs  to  the  great  plain  of  north 
Germany.  Pop.  (1900)  1,887,275,  of  whom 
1,280,000  were  Catholics,  and  35,000  Jews. 
The  great  majority  are  of  Polish  stock,  and 
speak    Polish    and    its    dialects.     The     chief 


fOSIDOlJiA 


56d 


^OUGHKB£PSl£ 


towns  are  Posen  (the  capital),  Gnesen,  Brom- 
berg,  Lissa,  and  Rawitsch.  Posen  forniecl  part 
of  Poland  till  1772,  when,  at  the  tirst  partition, 
the  districts  north  of  the  Netze  were  given  to 
Prussia ;  the  rest  was  added  in  1793.  In  1807 
Posen  was  included  in  the  duchy  of  Warsaw ; 
but  in  1815  it  was  re-assigned  to  Prussia. 

Posen,  the  capital,  and  a  fortress  of  the  first 
rank  (1827-53),  is  situated  on  the  Warthe,  158 
miles  by  rail  E.  of  Berlin.  It  became  the  seat  of 
a  Christian  bishop  in  968,  and  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  early  Polish  dukes.  In  the  16th  century 
it  was  an  important  trading  mart,  but  by  1600 
had  begun  to  decline.  The  fortifications  have 
been  strengthened  by  detached  forts  built  in 
1876-84.  The  cathedral,  a  Gothic  pile  dating 
from  1775,  has  attached  to  it  the  'Golden 
Chapel '  of  Count  Raczynski.  Other  buildings 
are  the  town-house  (1508),  the  Raczynski  Palace, 
the  Dzialynski  Palace,  the  archiepiscopal  palace, 
and  a  provincial  museum  of  antiquities.  The 
manufactures  are  artificial  manures,  agricultural 
implements,  furniture,  carriages,  &c.  ;  and  there 
are  breweries,  distilleries,  and  flour-mills.  Pop. 
(1875)  60,998  ;  (1900)  117,033. 

Posidonia.    See  P^stum. 

Posillp'o  (from  a  villa  here  called  Pausilypon, 
'Sans-souci,'  of  the  Emperor  Augustus),  a  moun- 
tain on  the  north-west  of  Naples,  close  by  the 
city.  It  is  remarkable  for  the  tunnel  known  as 
the  Grotto  of  Posilipo,  through  which  the  road 
from  Naples  to  Pozzuoli  (anc.  Puteoli)  passes. 
The  grotto  is  20  to  80  feet  high,  20  to  30  feet 
wide,  and  755  yards  long.  It  is  traditionally 
ascribed  to  the  reign  of  Augustus,  but  Avas  long 
believed  by  the  vulgar  to  have  been  made  by  the 
poet  Virgil,  whom  they  regarded  as  a  great 
magician.  Above  the  eastern  outlet  of  the  grotto 
is  the  so-called  '  Tomb  of  Virgil ; '  at  the  base  of 
the  hill  anciently  stood  the  poet's  villa.  Two 
other  tunnels  penetrate  the  hill,  one  north  of  the 
grotto,  made  for  the  tramway,  and  another  con- 
structed at  the  command  of  Agrippa  in  37  B.C. 

Fossil  Park,  a  northern  suburb  of  Glasgow, 

Potchefstroom  (Pdt'chefstroam),  a  town  of  the 
Transvaal,  105  miles  SW.  of  Pretoria.    Pop.  4000. 

Potenza  (Potent'za ;  anc.  Potentia),  a  cathedral 
city  of  South  Italy,  in  a  valley  of  the  Apennines, 
103  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Naples.    Pop.  17,978, 

Poti  (Po'tee),  a  seaport  of  Russian  Caucasus, 
at  the  Rion's  mouth,  on  the  east  shore  of  the 
Black  Sea,  200  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Tiflis.  It  ships 
maize,  manganese,  &c,  Poti  was  seized  by 
Russia  in  1828.    Pop.  7112. 

Potidae'a,  a  Corinthian  colony  founded  on  the 
westernmost  isthmus  of  the  Chalcidice  peninsula 
in  ancient  Macedonia. 

Poto'mac,  a  river  of  the  United  States,  formed 
by  two  branches  which  rise  in  the  Alleghany 
Mountains  in  West  Virginia,  and  unite  15  miles 
SE.  of  Cumberland,  Maryland.  Thence  the 
river  flows  400  miles  SE.,  and  falls  into  Chesa- 
peake Bay,  after  forming  an  estuary  nearly  100 
miles  long,  and  from  2J  to  7  wide.  The  largest 
ships  can  ascend  to  Washington,  and  the  tide 
reaches  Georgetown.  A  few  miles  above  Washing- 
ton the  river  forms  a  cataract  35  feet  high  ;  and 
between  there  and  Westport  it  falls  more  than 
1000  feet.  The  scenery  here  is  wild  and  beauti- 
ful, especially  where  it  breaks  through  the  Blue 
Ridge  at  Harper's  Ferry.  The  principal  affluents 
are  the  Shenandoah,  Cacapon,  and  Monacacy. 

Potosi  (Pot-o-zee' ;  usually  Poto'zee),  capital  of  a 
Bolivian  dep.,  and  a  famous,  though  decayed, 


mining-town,  stands  in  a  dreary,  cold,  and  barren 
district,  nearly  50  miles  SW.  of  Chuquisaca.  It 
is  built  on  the  side  of  the  Cerro  de  Potosi  (15,381 
feet),  at  an  elevation  of  13,000  feet  above  the  sea, 
and  is  thus  one  of  the  loftiest  inhabited  places  on 
the  globe.  The  public  buildings  include  a  hand- 
some cathedral  and  a  mint  which  employs  200 
hands.  The  industry  is  limited  to  silver-mining. 
The  Cerro  is  still  rich  in  this  ore,  although  the 
production  has  greatly  fallen  off.  Potosi  was 
founded  in  1545,  and  in  1611  had  160,000  inhabit- 
ants.    Its  population  does  not  now  exceed  16,000. 

Potsdam,  chief  town  of  the  Prussian  province 
of  Brandenburg,  and  second  residence  town  of 
the  monarch,  is  situated  on  an  island  fonned  by 
the  lake-like  river  Havel,  a  canal,  and  other 
waterways,  18  miles  by  rail  SW,  of  Berlin.  It 
is  a  handsome  city,  with  broad  streets,  public 
gardens,  and  fine  squares.  The  royal  palace 
(1667-1701),  in  the  park  of  which  are  statues 
of  Frederick-William  I.,  Alexander  I.  of  Russia, 
and  Generals  Bliicher,  Gneisenau,  Kleist,  and 
Tauenzien;  the  town-house,  a  copy  of  that  at 
Amsterdam;  and  the  military  orphanage  are 
the  principal  public  buildings.  The  Garrison 
Church,  with  a  steeple  290  feet  high,  contains  the 
tombs  of  Frederick-William  I.  and  Frederick  II. ; 
and  the  Friedenskirche  the  tombs  of  Frederick- 
William  IV.  and  the  Emperor  Frederick  III. 
The  Brandenburg  Gate  is  a  copy  of  Trajan's  Arch 
at  Rome.  Near  the  town  are  more  than  half-a- 
dozen  royal  palaces,  as  Sans-Souci  (1747),  the 
favourite  residence  of  Frederick  the  Great,  sur- 
rounded by  a  splendid  park  and  gardens,  con- 
taining Ranch's  monument  to  Queen  Louisa ;  the 
palace  of  Fried  richskron,  formerly  the  New 
Palace  (1763-70) ;  Charlottenhof  (1826);  the  Marble 
Palace  ;  and  Babelsberg.  Potsdam  has  an  obser- 
vatory, and  a  cadet  and  other  military  schools. 
Its  manufactories  produce  sugar,  chemicals, 
harness,  silk,  waxcloth,  beer,  &c.  Flower- 
gardening,  especially  of  violets,  is  a  busy  in- 
dustry. Alexander  von  Humboldt  was  a  native. 
Pop.  (1880)  48,447  ;  (1905)  61,500. 

Potteries,  The,  a  district  in  North  Stafford- 
shire, 9  miles  long  by  3  broad,  the  centre  of  the 
earthenware  manufacture  in  England,  includes 
Hanley,  Burslem,  Stoke-upon-Trent,  Newcastle- 
under-Lyme,  Tunstall,  &c. 

Potton,  a  market-town  of  Bedfordshire,  11 
miles  E.  of  Bedford.    Pop.  of  parish,  1907, 

Pottstown,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Schuylkill  River,  at  the  mouth  of  Manatawny 
Creek,  40  miles  NW.  of  Philadeli)hia,  It  contains 
iron-foundries,  blast-furnaces,  rolling-mills,  car- 
works,  &c.     Pop.  15,000. 

Pottsville,  capital  of  Schuylkill  county,  Penn- 
sylvania, is  built  on  the  side  of  steep  hills,  on  the 
Schuylkill  River,  at  the  entrance  of  Norwegian 
Creek,  93  miles  NW,  of  Philadelphia.  In  the 
midst  of  a  rich  coal  and  iron  region  it  has  iron- 
furnaces,  foundries,  rolling-mills,  machine-shops, 
sawmills,  &c.    Pop,  16,500, 

Poughkeepsie  {Po-Uj)'si),  capital  of  Dutchess 
county.  New  York,  on  the  east  bank  of  the 
Hudson  River,  73  miles  N,  of  New  York  City, 
is  finely  situated  on  a  tableland,  200  feet  above 
the  river.  The  Hudson  is  here  crossed  by  a 
steam-ferry,  and  spanned  by  a  railroad  bridge 
(1888)  of  masonry,  steel,  and  iron,  3094  feet  long, 
or,  including  the  approaching  viaducts,  nearly 
7100  feet.  Poughkeepsie  is  the  largest  town 
between  New  York  and  Albany ;  its  manufactures 
include  machinery,  iron-ware,  silk,  boots  and 
shoes,  clothing,  beer,  &c.    Two  miles  N,  is  the 


t>OULTON  LE  FYLDB 


570 


FRESfEIGNg 


state  hospital  for  the  insane,  which  cost  $750,000. 
Vassar  College  (1865),  for  the  higher  education  of 
women,  is  just  beyond  the  eastern  city  limit. 
Poughkeepsie  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  about 
1680  ;  in  1778  it  was  the  state  capital.  Pop.  (1870) 
20,080 ;  (1900)  24,029. 

Poulton  le  Fylde,  a  Lancashire  town,  near  the 
Wyre,  5  miles  S.  of  Fleetwood.     Pop.  2230. 

Povei'ty  Bay.    See  Gisborne. 

Powerscourt,  a  Wicklow  parish,  4^  miles  SW. 
of  Bray,  on  the  Dargle,  in  whose  glen  is  a  water- 
fall of  300  feet. 

Powis  Castle.    See  Welshpool. 

Pozsony.    See  Presburg. 

Pozzuoli  (Potz-oo-ol'ee),  a  city  of  Italy,  on  the 
Bay  of  Naples,  7  miles  W.  of  Nax)les  by  tramway, 
is  interesting  from  its  classic  memorials — the 
cathedral  (once  the  Temple  of  Augustus),  the 
Serapeum,  and  the  amphitheatre  in  which  Nero 
fought  as  a  gladiator,  which  could  seat  30,000 
spectators.  There  are  also  remains  of  temples 
to  Diana  and  Neptune,  and  of  the  ancient 
harbour.  Behind  the  town  is  the  Solfatara,  a 
half-extinct  volcano,  from  which  issue  currents 
of  hot  sulphureous  gases,  and  springs  of  saline 
water.  In  the  neighbourhood  are  Avernus  (q.v.) ; 
the  royal  hunting-lodge  Astoni ;  the  Lucrine  lake, 
celebrated  for  its  oysters  ;  the  ruins  of  Baise  and 
Cunife  ;  and  the  Lake  of  Agnano,  with  the  famous 
Grotta  del  Cane.  A  little  west  is  a  branch  of  the 
famous  Armstrong  works  at  Elswick,  near  New- 
castle, established  here  (1888-90)  with  the  support 
of  the  Italian  government.  Pop.  21,967.  The 
ancient  Puteoli  was  made  a  Roman  colony  in  194 
B.C.,  and  subsequently  became  virtually  the  port 
of  Rome,  and  the  first  emporium  of  commerce  in 
Italy.  It  was  destroyed  by  Alaric,  Genseric,  and 
Totila,  and,  though  rebuilt  by  Byzantine  Greeks, 
it  was  sacked  by  Saracens  (10th  century)  and 
Turks  (1550),  and  ruined  by  earthquakes  (1198 
and  1538).     St  Paul  landed  there. 

Praeneste.    See  Palestrina. 

Prague  (Ger.  Prag;  Czech  Praha),  the  capital 
of  Bohemia,  is  situated  at  the  base  and  on  the 
slope  of  the  hills  which  skirt  both  sides  of  the 
isleted  Moldau,  217  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Vienna 
and  118  SSB.  of  Dresden.  It  offers  a  highly 
picturesque  appearance  from  the  beauty  of  its 
site,  and  the  numerous  lofty  towers  (more  than 
seventy  in  number)  which  rise  above  the  palaces, 
public  buildings,  and  bridges  of  the  city.  The 
fortifications  have  been  demolished  since  1866. 
The  royal  Burg,  on  the  Hradschin  (240  feet),  the 
ancient  residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Bohemia,  dates 
mainly  now  fronr  the  16th  and  17th  centuries, 
and  has  440  rooms.  The  neighbouring  cathedral 
of  St  Vitus  (1344)  is  still  unfinished,  though 
building  was  resumed  in  1867.  Here  are  the 
splendid  royal  mausoleum  (1589)  and  the  shrine 
(1736)  of  St  John  of  Nepomuk,  containing  1^  ton 
of  silver.  Of  forty-seven  other  Catholic  churches 
the  chief  are  the  domed  Jesuit  church  of  St 
Nicolas,  and  the  Teyn  church  (1407 ;  the  old 
Hussite  church),  with  Tycho  Brahe's  grave,  and 
its  marble  statues  of  the  Slavonic  martyrs,  Cyril 
and  Methodius.  Of  five  bridges  and  two  railway 
viaducts  the  most  striking  is  the  Karlsbrilcke 
(1357-1503,  temporarily  damaged  by  flood  in 
1890),  543  yards  long,  with  gate-towers  at  either 
end,  and  statues  of  John  of  Nepomuk  and  other 
saints.  Other  noteworthy  objects  are  the  town- 
hall  (1381-1884),  the  Pulvertunn  (1475),  the  new 
Czech  Theatre  (1883),  the  old  Jewish  graveyard, 
the   Theresa   Institution   for   Ladies,  the  vast 


Czerni  Palace  (now  used  as  barracks),  the  Picture- 
gallery,  and  tlie  Premonstratensiau  monastery  of 
Strahow.  Prague  has  numerous  public  gardens 
and  walks,  with  several  noble  parks  close  by. 
The  suburb  of  Karolinenthal,  which  is  traversed 
by  the  great  viaduct  of  the  railway,  and  is  of 
modern  growth,  has  barracks,  and  manufactur- 
ing establishments ;  farther  north  is  the  great 
botanical  garden.  The  university,  founded  in 
1348,  had  10,000  students  at  the  beginning  of  the 
15th  century ;  but  subsequently  it  had  a  long 
period  of  decay.  It  received  a  new  constitution 
in  1881,  having  now  two  co-ordinate  sides  or 
sections,  one  German  and  one  Czecli,  v/ith  respec- 
tively 150  and  210  teachers,  and  1350  and  8200 
students.  It  possesses  a  library  of  195,000  volumes 
and  3800  manuscripts,  a  fine  observatory,  a 
botanical  garden,  &c.  The  manufactures  include 
machinery,  chemicals,  leather,  cotton,  linen, 
gloves,  beer,  spirits,  &c.  Pop.  with  suburbs 
(1880)  293,822  ;  (1900)  385,240  ;  of  the  town  proper 
(1900)  201,589,  of  whom  87  per  cent,  were  Czechs, 
2  per  cent.  Protestants,  and  7  per  cent.  Jews. 

Prah,  a  river  running  between  Ashanti  and 
the  Gold  Coast,  and  then  through  the  latter  to 
the  sea,  30  miles  W.  of  Cape  Coast  Castle. 

Praia  Grande.    See  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

PratO  (Prah'to),  a  walled  town  of  Italy,  11 
miles  NW.  of  Florence.  It  has  a  cathedral  with 
frescoes  by  Filippo  Lippi.     Pop.  15,510. 

Prawle  Point,  the  S.  extremity  of  Devon. 

Prenzlau  (Prentz'low),  an  agricultural  town  of 
Prussia,  at  the  N.  end  of  Lake  Ucker,  67  miles 
by  rail  NNE.  of  Berlin.    Pop.  20,230. 

Presburg  (Ger,  Pressbxirg ;  Hung.  Pozsony),  a 
town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Danube's  left  bank, 
40  miles  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Vienna.  It  is  backed 
by  the  spurs  of  the  Little  Carpathians,  and  is 
a  pleasant  town.  Its  principal  buildings  are  the 
Gothic  cathedral  (13th  c),  in  which  the  kings  of 
Hungary  used  to  be  crowned  ;  the  church  of  the 
Franciscans  (1290-97);  the  town-house  (1288); 
and  the  parliament  house,  in  which  the  Hun- 
garian representatives  met  until  1848.  The  royal 
castle  (1645)  was  reduced  to  ruin  by  fire  in  1811. 
The  manufactures  are  beer,  dynamite,  wire,  starch, 
spirits,  confectionery,  biscuits,  &c.  Pop.  (1881) 
48,326  ;  (1900)  61,537.  Presburg  grew  to  import- 
ance during  the  11th  and  12th  centuries.  From 
1541  (when  the  Turks  seized  Buda)  down  to  1784 
it  was  the  capital  of  Hungary.  It  was  taken 
by  Bethlen  Gabor  in  1619,  by  the  Austrians  in 
1621,  and  was  bombarded  by  Davofit  in  1809. 
Here  in  1805  Napoleon  concluded  a  treaty  with 
the  emperor  after  Austerlitz. 

Prescot,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Lancashire, 
8  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Liverpool.  It  has  manufac- 
tures (introduced  from  Yorkshire  in  1730 ;  and 
revived  since  1892)  of  watch-movements,  watch- 
tools,  small  files,  &c.,  and  there  are  potteries 
near  it.  Prescot  was  the  birthplace  of  John 
Kemble.     Pop.  8100. 

Prescott,  a  town  of  Arizona,  lies  6000  feet 
above  sea-level,  74  miles  by  a  branch-line  S.  of 
Prescott  Junction,  which  is  on  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  Railroad,  595  miles  SW.  of  Denver.  Gold 
and  silver  are  found  in  the  neighbourhood.  It 
was  superseded  by  Phoenix  as  the  state  capital 
in  1891.     Pop.  3759. 

Presshurg.    See  Presburg. 

Prestatyn,  a  Flintshire  market-town,  4  miles 
E.  of  Rhyl.     Pop.  1300. 

Presteigne  {Pres-teen'),  a  Radnorshire  (q.v.) 


tRESTON 


671 


PRINCE  EDWARD  ISLAND 


market-town,  on  the,  Lngg,  6^  miles  ENE.  of 
New  Radnor.     Pop.  1260. 

Preston,  an  important  manufacturing  town  of 
Lancashire,  a  municipal,  parliaTnentary,  and 
county  borough,  at  the  head  of  the  estuary  of 
the  Ribble,  14  miles  from  the  Irish  Sea,  28  NNE. 
of  Liverpool,  31  NW.  of  Manchester,  and  209 
NNW.  of  London.  Occupying  an  eminence  120 
feet  above  the  river,  and  built  mostly  of  brick, 
it  is  on  the  whole  well  laid  out,  and  is  surrounded 
with  pleasing  scenery.  The  town-hall,  built  in 
18(32-67  from  designs  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  at  a  cost 
of  £80,000,  is  a  French  Gothic  pile,  with  a  clock- 
tower  and  spire  195  feet  high.  In  1882  were  laid 
the  foundation-stones  of  the  Lancashire  county 
hall  and  of  the  Harris  free  library  and  museum, 
to  the  latter  of  which  in  1883  Mr  R.  Newsham 
bequeathed  pictures  and  art-treasures  worth 
£70,000.  The  places  of  worship  are  all  modern, 
for  even  the  parish  church  has  been  rebuilt. 
St  Walburge's  (Roman  Catholic,  1850-66),  by 
Hansom  of  cab  celebrity,  has  a  spire  306  feet 
high,  the  loftiest  built  in  England  since  the 
Reformation,  which  amply  redeems  '  proud 
Preston'  from  its  old  'no-steeple'  reproach. 
Other  edifices  are  the  grammar-school  (1550 ; 
rebuilt  1841),  the  corn  exchange  and  market- 
house  (1824),  public  baths  (1851),  a  covered  market 
(1870),  militia  barracks  (1856),  the  infirmary 
(1869),  &c.  Three  large  public  parks  were  laid 
out  in  1867 — the  Miller  and  Avenham  parks,  and 
the  former  unsightly  '  Moor '  of  100  acres  to  the 
north  of  the  town.  In  the  first  a  statue  was 
erected  in  1873  of  the  fourteenth  Earl  of  Derby  ; 
in  Winckley  Square  is  a  monument  to  Sir  Robert 
Peel.  Preston  was  constituted  an  independent 
port  in  1843  ;  and  great  improvements  liave  been 
effected  at  a  cost  of  over  a  million  under  the  Act 
of  1883,  these  including  the  deepening  of  the 
channel  so  as  to  admit  vessels  of  1000  tons,  the 
construction  of  a  dock  of  40  acres  (opened  by 
the  Duke  of  Edinburgh,  25th  June  1892),  the 
erection  of  warehouses,  &c.  Arkwright,  who 
was  born  here  in  1732,  in  1768  set  up  here  his 
famous  spinning-frame ;  and  Preston  now  is  one 
of  the  principal  seats  of  the  cotton  industry, 
which  gradually  superseded  the  linen  manufac- 
ture. There  are  also  iron  and  brass  foundries, 
iron  shipbuilding  yards,  engineering  and  machine 
shops,  steam-boiler  works,  rope-walks,  &c.  A 
guild-merchant  festival,  first  clearly  heard  of  in 
1397,  has  been  held  every  twenty  years  since  1562 
—the  last  on  1st  September  1902.  Preston,  the 
first  of  whose  I'oyal  charters  was  granted  by 
Henry  VI.,  returns  two  members  to  parliament. 
The  borough  boundary  was  extended  in  1885. 
Pop.  (1811)  17,115  ;  (1841)  50,073  ;  (1881)  100,262  ; 
(1901)  118,227  —  112,989  within  the  municipal 
borough. 

Preston  arose  whilst  ancient  Coccium  or  Rib- 
chester,  higher  up  the  Ribble,  decayed.  In  Athel- 
stan's  reign  Amounderness,  the  hundred  in  wliich 
it  is  situated,  was  gi-anted  to  the  cathedral  church 
of  York  ;  hence  its  chief  town  came  to  be  known 
as  Preston  or  'priests' town.'  Near  Preston,  in 
1648,  Cromwell  routed  the  royalists  ;  and  Preston 
figures  in  both  the  Jacobite  rebellions  of  1715 
and  1745.  For  Forster's  little  army  surrendered 
here ;  and  Prince  Charles  Edward  occupied  the 
town  on  both  his  march  to  and  his  retreat  from 
Derby.  In  1832  Joseph  Livesey  of  Preston  and 
six  others  here  signed  a  pledge  of  total  absti- 
nence—the first  ever  taken  in  England.  See 
works  by  Whittle  (2  vols.  1821-37),  Dobson  (four, 
1856-62),  Hardwick  (1857),  Abram  (1882),  and  T. 
C.  Smith  (1891). 


Prestonpans,  a  coast-town  of  Haddington- 
shire, 8  miles  E.  of  Edinburgh.  Its  salt-pans 
flourished  from  the  12th  century  till  1825  ;  now 
brewing  and  fishing  are  the  principal  industries. 
Pop.  2624.  To  the  SE.,  on  21st  September  1745, 
was  fought  the  battle  of  Prestonpans,  Preston, 
or  Gladsmuir,  when  in  a  five  minutes'  rush  Prince 
Charles  Edward's  2500  Highlanders  routed  2300 
disciplined  soldiers  under  Cope  and  Gardiner. 

Prestwlch,  a  cotton  manufacturing  town  of 
Lancashire,  4  miles  NNW.  of  Manchester.  It 
has  a  Gothic  church  (13th  century ;  restored  in 
1861),  also  many  fine  villas  and  a  large  lunatic 
asylum.    Pop.  13,500. 

Prestwick,  a  watering-place  with  famous  golf- 
links,  2|  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Ayr.    Pop.  2800. 

Pretoria,  capital  of  the  Transvaal  Colony, 
stands  4000  feeb  above  the  sea,  in  a  plain  sheltered 
by  encircling  mountains,  35  miles  NE.  of  Johan- 
nesburg by  rail,  and  is  terminus  of  the  line  to 
Delagoa  Bay.  Founded  in  1855,  it  was  named 
after  the  Boer  leader  Andries  Pretorius ;  and  it 
was  occupied  by  Roberts  in  1900.    Pop.  22,000. 

Prev'eza,  or  Previsa,  a  fortified  seaport  in  the 
extreme  SW.  of  Turkey,  stands  on  the  north  side 
of  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Arta.  The 
Venetians  held  it  from  1683  to  1797.     Pop.  7000. 

Pribram,  a  mining-town  of  Bohemia,  48  miles 
by  rail  SSW.  of  Prague,  employs  6000  men  in  the 
royal  lead  and  silver  mines,  and  various  manu- 
factures.    Pop.  14,020. 

Pribylof  Islands.    See  Alaska. 

Priego  (Pree-ay'go),  a  town  of  Spain,  46  miles 
SE.  of  Cordova.    Pop.  17,800. 

Priene  (Pri-ee'nee),  anciently  one  of  the 
'  twelve  '  cities  of  Ionia,  stood  a  little  NW.  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Mseander  in  Caria. 

Prilu'ki,  a  town  of  Russia,  87  miles  B.  by  N. 
of  Kieff.     Pop.  19,100. 

Primrose  Hill,  in  the  north-west  of  London, 
beside  Regent's  Park. 

Prince  Edward  Island,  since  1873  a  province 
of  Canada,  is  situated  in  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence, 
and  is  separated  from  New  Brunswick  and  Nova 
Scotia  by  Northumberland  Strait.  Its  greatest 
length  is  130  miles  ;  its  breadth  varies  from  4  to 
34  miles,  and  it  has  an  area  of  2133  sq.  m.,  or 
1,365,400  acres,  nearly  all  of  which  are  occupied. 
Pop.  (1871)  94,021  ;  (1901)  103,259,  or  48  to  the 
sq.  m.  It  was  discoveretl  by  the  Cabots,  but 
annexed  by  France  ;  still,  little  was  done  towards 
its  settlement  until  1715,  when  its  fertility  at- 
tracted some  Acadians  from  Cape  Breton.  It 
was  finally  ceded  to  Britain  in  1763.  At  first  a 
part  of  Nova  Scotia,  in  1768  it  was  made  a  separate 
province.  The  pop.  in  1763  was  4000 ;  but  emi- 
gration set  in,  and  the  Acadians  were  expelled, 
so  that  in  1768  it  had  sunk  to  1300.  Until  1799 
called  St  John's  Island,  it  was  then  renamed 
Prince  Edward  Island,  in  compliment  to  the 
Duke  of  Kent,  who  paid  it  a  visit.  The  local 
government  passed  a  measure  in  1875  giving 
them  powers  to  buy  out  the  landlords,  most 
of  them  absentees,  and  to  sell  the  land  thus 
acquired  (843,981  acres)  to  the  tenants  or  others 
on  easy  terms.  The  surface  is  undulating,  but 
never  exceeds  500  feet ;  the  soil  is  very  fertile. 
All  kinds  of  cereals,  roots,  and  vegetables  are 
raised.  Oats  and  potatoes  from  the  island  enjoy 
a  special  reputation,  as  do  also  its  sheep  and 
horses.  A  natural  manure,  called  mussel  mud, 
and  made  of  decayed  oyster,  clam,  and  mussel 
shells,  is  found  on  the  coasts.    Coal  is  known  to 


PRINCE  OF  WALfiS  ISLAND 


572 


1>RUSS1A 


exist,  but  not  worked.  The  climate  is  milder 
than  that  of  the  mainland,  and  freer  from  fogs. 
Prince  Edward  Island  is  the  best  fishing-station 
in  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  but  the  habits  of  the 
inhabitants  are  so  decidedly  agricultural  that  the 
fisheries  have  been  neglected.  Mackerel,  lobsters, 
herring,  cod,  hake,  and  oysters  are  taken,  besides 
salmon,  bass,  shad,  halibut,  and  trout.  The  coast- 
line is  a  succession  of  bays  and  headlands ;  the 
largest  bays  are  Egmont,  Hillsborough,  and  Cardi- 
gan, which  by  penetrating  into  the  land  from 
opposite  directions  divide  the  island  into  three 
distinct  peninsulas.  The  rivers  are  short,  but  the 
province  is  well  watered.  Charlottetown  is  the 
capital,  and  has  a  pop.  of  12,000.  Other  towns  are 
Summerside,  Georgetown,  and  Souris.  A  railway 
traverses  the  island,  which  is  connected  by  tele- 
graph with  the  mainland.  The  settlers  are  largely 
of  English,  Irish,  and  Scotch  descent,  besides 
French,  Germans,  and  Scandinavians.  Free  educa- 
tion has  prevailed  since  1853. 

Prince  of  Wales  Island.    See  Penano. 

Princes  Islands  (anc.  Demonnesoi),  a  beautiful 
group  of  nine  islets  near  the  eastern  end  of  the 
Sea  of  Marmora,  10  miles  SE.  of  CoTistantinople, 
the  largest  being  called  Prinkipo.  See  a  mono- 
graph by  S.  S.  Cox  (New  York,  1888). 

Princes  Rlsborough,  a  town  of  Bucks,  \inder 
the  Chilterns,  7^  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Aylesbury. 
It  had  a  moated  palace  of  the  Black  Prince. 
Pop.  of  parish,  2318. 

Princeton,  (l)  capital  of  Gibson  county, 
Indiana,  161  miles  by  rail  E.  of  St  Louis.  It  has 
woollen  manufactures.  Pop.  6050.— (2)  A  pleas- 
ant borough  of  New  Jersey,  50  miles  SW.  of 
New  York.  Pop.  3900.  On  January  3,  1777,  the 
British  were  defeated  here  by  Washington  ;  here, 
too,  the  Continental  Congress  sat  in  1783 ;  and 
from  Princeton  Washington  dated  his  farewell 
address  to  the  anny.  Princeton,  however,  is 
chiefly  celebrated  as  the  seat  of  the  College  of 
New  Jersey,  better  known  as  Princeton  College, 
and  since  1896  as  Princeton  University,  Founded 
at  Newark  in  1746,  it  was  in  1756  transferred  to 
Princeton,  on  the  erection  of  a  hall  named 
Nassau  Hall  in  honour  of  William  III.  The 
university  now  has  over  100  instructors  and 
about  1400  students,  with  fine  museums  and 
laboratories,  two  observatories,  and  libraries 
with  250,000  volumes.  Its  endowment  is 
$3,000,000.  Among  its  presidents  have  been 
Jonathan  Edwards  and  Dr  James  M'Cosh. 

Prince  Town.    See  Dartmoor. 

Prior  Park.    See  Bath. 

Prisrend,  a  town  of  Albania,  72  miles  E.  by  N. 
of  Scutari.    Pop.  39,000. 

Pris'tina,  a  town  of  European  Turkey,  59  miles 
by  rail  N.  of  Uskiib.     Pop.  18,000. 

Procida  (Protch'ida),  an  islet  of  Italy,  between 
the  island  of  Ischia  and  the  mainland  (Cape 
Miseno),  50  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Naples.  Area,  1^ 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  13,930.  On  its  shores  is  the  city  of 
the  same  name,  with  a  harbour,  a  royal  palace, 
a  state-prison,  and  a  marine  school. 

Progres'o,  a  seaport  of  Yucatan,  25  miles  N.  of 
Merida.     It  stands  on  an  open  bay. 

Prome,  a  town  of  Burma,  on  the  Irawadi,  65 
miles  NW.  of  Rangoon  by  rail.    Pop.  30,022. 

Prossnitz,  a  town  of  Moravia,  13  miles  by  rail 
SW.  ofOlmutz.     Pop.  24,500. 

Provence  (Provon^ss),  formerly  a  maritime 
province  of  France,  was  bounded  on  the  S.  by 
the  Mediterranean,  and  comprised  the  modern 


deps.  of  Bouches  du  Rhone,  Var,  Basses-Alpes, 
and  parts  of  Alpes  Maritimes  and  Vaucluse.  It 
included  a  portion  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Gaul  generally  called  simply  Provincia  ('the 
Province '),  whence  it  derived  its  name ;  and  it 
was  united  to  France  in  1486.  The  Provencal 
tongue  was  spoken  over  a  much  larger  area.  See 
Baring-Gould's  In  Troubadour  Land  (1891). 

Providence,  seaport  and,  since  1900,  sole  capi- 
tal  of  the  state  of  Rhode  Island,  is  situated  at  the 
head  of  navigation,  on  an  arm  of  NarragansettBay 
known  as  Providence  River,  35  miles  from  the 
ocean  and  44  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Boston.  It 
covers  a  wide  area  on  both  sides  of  the  river, 
which,  above  its  two  bridges,  expands  into  a 
cove,  a  mile  in  circuit,  on  the  borders  of  which  is 
a  handsome  park,  shaded  with  noble  elms.  It  is 
a  city  of  large  commerce,  manufactures,  and 
Avealth,  abounding  with  beautiful  villas  and 
gardens.  Founded  before  the  conventional  type 
of  American  cities  had  been  discovered,  its  streets 
are  pleasantly  irregular,  and  the  site  singularly 
uneven,  rising  in  one  place  to  204  feet  above  high- 
water,  and  in  one  ward,  much  of  which  is  still  in 
farms,  there  are  numerous  hills  and  valleys. 
Among  the  many  notable  public  buildings  and 
institutions  of  Providence  are  a  city  hall,  of 
granite,  which  cost  upwards  of  $1,000,000,  and 
has  facing  it  the  state's  soldiers'  monument; 
the  State-house ;  the  custom-house  and  post-office ; 
the  Athenteum,  and  the  buildings  of  the  Rhode 
Island  Historical  Society ;  the  arcade  and  the 
Butler  Exchange  ;  a  great  number  of  churches, 
schools,  and  libraries,  hospitals  and  asylums,  in- 
cluding a  noble  charity  known  as  the  Dexter 
Asylum  for  the  Poor ;  the  Friends'  Boarding- 
school  (popularly,  '  the  Quaker  College ') ;  and  the 
Brown  Baptist  University  (1764),  with  900  stu- 
dents. Two  small  rivers  afford  abundant  water- 
power;  and  the  chief  manufactures  are  silver- 
ware, jewellery,  tools,  stoves,  engines,  loco- 
motives, cottons  and  woollens,  laces,  wicks,  &c. 
Providence  was  settled  in  1636,  and  till  1900  was 
only  joint  capital  with  Newport.  Pop.  (1870) 
68,904  ;  (1880)  104,857  ;  (1900)  175,597. 

Provins  (Provan^'),  a  town  of  France,  59  miles 
by  rail  SB.  of  Paris.    Pop.  7975. 

Prove  City,  capital  of  Utah  county,  Utah,  on 
the  Prove  River,  between  Utah  Lake  and  the 
Wahsatch  Mountains,  46  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of 
Salt  Lake  City.    Pop.  6159. 

Prussia  (Ger.  Pre^issen),  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant state  in  the  German  empire,  is  a  kingdom 
embracing  nearly  the  whole  of  northern  Ger- 
many, and  owning  also  Hohenzollern  (q.v.)  and 
thirteen  other  detached  territories  lying  within 
the  bounds  of  other  German  states.  'The  area 
is  136,000  sq.  m.  (one-tenth  larger  than  the 
United  Kingdom,  or  half  the  size  of  Texas),  with 
(1900)  34,472,509  inhabitants— nearly  two-thirds 
of  the  entire  German  empire,  with  three-fifths 
of  the  population.  There  are  fourteen  provinces — 
East  and  West  Prussia,  Berlin  (city),  Branden- 
burg, Pomerania,  Posen,  Silesia,  Saxony,  Sleswick- 
Holstein,  Hanover,  Westphalia,  Hesse-Nassau, 
Rhenish  Prussia,  and  Hohenzollern.  About  one- 
fifth  of  the  present  area  has  been  acquired  since 
1853,  the  largest  gains  after  the  victorious  war  of 
1866.  The  Prussia  of  Frederick  the  Great  em- 
braced only  47,800  sq.  m.  when  he  ascended  the 
throne,  and  75,000  when  he  died.  Pop.  (1819) 
10,981,934  ;  (1864)  19,254,649  ;  (1871)  24,689,252. 

More  than  two-thirds  of  Prussia  belongs  to 
the  north  European  plain,  already  described  at 
Germany,  while  less  than  a  third,  chiefly  in  the 


PRUSSIA 


673 


PRUSSIA 


south-west,  is  hilly  or  mountainous.  The  Schnee- 
koppe  (5250  feet)  in  the  lleisengebirge  is  the 
loftiest  summit.  The  western  and  south-western 
parts  of  the  country,  comprising  Rhenish  Prussia, 
Westphalia,  and  Hesse-Nassau,  cut  off  by  the 
Teutoburgerwald,  the  Weser  Hills,  the  Harz,  &c., 
from  the  sandy  and  heathy  wastes  of  the  north, 
are  quite  distinct  in  their  physical  character  from 
the  rest  of  Prussia.  They  are  divided  by  the 
Rhine  into  two  portions.  The  soil  is  generally 
poor  in  these  districts  also,  though  they  possess 
special  sources  of  wealth  in  their  iron  and  coal 
mines.  The  level  country  between  the  Rhone 
and  the  Maas,  bordering  the  Eifel,  is  extremely 
fertile ;  and  Hesse-Cassel  is  particularly  so. 
Nassau  is  specially  famous  for  its  Rhine  wines. 
The  northern  plain  is  watered  by  five  large  rivers 
—the  Niemen,  Vistula,  Oder,  Elbe,  and  Weser— 
all  of  which  rise  beyond  the  borders  of  the 
kingdom,  and  the  Pregel,  Eider,  and  Ems,  which 
are  exclusively  Prussian.  In  the  west  the  chief 
river  is  the  Rhine.  About  12,000,000  persons  are 
engaged  in  agriculture.     Of  the  total  area,   50 

Eer  cent,  is  occupied  by  arable  land,  9^  per  cent, 
y  meadows,  and  11  per  cent,  by  pasturage. 
The  forest-lands,  chiefly  in  East  Prussia,  Posen, 
Upper  Silesia,  Westphalia,  Southern  Hanover,  and 
Hesse-Nassau,  occupy  10,000,000  acres.  The 
mineral  products  include,  coal,  iron,  lead,  zinc, 
copper,  cobalt,  antimony,  manganese,  arsenic, 
sulphur,  alum,  nickel,  black  lead,  baryta,  gypsum, 
slate,  lime,  freestone,  salt,  amber,  agate,  jasper, 
onyx,  &c.  Prussia  yields  about  one-half  of  the 
annual  zinc  production  of  the  world  ;  and  of  the 
total  output  of  coal  in  Germany,  Prussia  produces 
93  per  cent.  The  chief  coalfields  are  in  Silesia, 
Westphalia,  and  Rhenish  Prussia,  which  are  at 
the  same  time  the  chief  industrial  provinces  of 
the  kingdom.  The  region  of  the  Harz  in  Hanover 
is  also  famous  for  its  mining  industries.  All 
metals,  salt,  precious  stones,  and  amber  found 
along  the  Prussian  coast  from  Danzig  to  Memel 
belong  to  the  crown.  Prussia  has  upwards  of 
100  mineral  springs,  of  which  the  most  noted  are 
those  of  Aix-la-Chapelle,  Ems,  Schwalbach, 
Wiesbaden,  Schlangenbad,  and  Selters.  The 
principal  manufactures  are  linens  and  cottons, 
also  silk,  wool,  mixed  cotton  and  linen  fabrics. 
Other  great  industries  are  the  preparation  and 
manufacture  of  iron,  steel  (the  steel  and  gun 
works  of  Krupp,  at  Essen,  being  world-famous), 
and  other  metallic  wares,  paper,  leather,  soap, 
oil,  cigars,  tobacco,  beer,  chicory,  starch,  beet- 
root, gunpowder,  and  glass.  Berlin  and  Elber- 
feld  rank  as  the  two  most  important  centres  of 
manufacture  on  the  Continent.  The  commerce 
of  Prussia  is  materially  facilitated  by  her  central 
European  position,  and  the  network  of  river  and 
canal  navigation,  Avhich  makes  her  territories  the 
connecting  medium  between  several  of  the  great 
European  states,  and  which,  with  21,120  miles  of 
railway,  50,500  miles  of  public  roads,  and  a  coast- 
line of  1000  miles,  gives  her  a  free  outlet  to  the 
rest  of  the  world.  About  seven-eighths  of  the 
population  of  Prussia  are  Germans.  Of  the  Sla- 
vonic tribes  the  most  numerous  are  Poles,  num- 
bering 2^  millions.  In  Brandenburg  and  Silesia 
there  are  about  85,000  Wends ;  in  East  Prussia 
upwards  of  150,000  Lithuanians ;  the  western 
part  of  the  kingdom  has  10,000  Walloons,  using 
the  French  language  ;  intermixed  in  its  generally 
German  population  Silesia  has  55,000  Czechs  or 
Bohemians  ;  Sleswick-Holstein,  140,000  Danes — 
making  in  all  about  3  millions  who  do  not  use 
the  German  language,  or  who  employ  it  only  as 
secondary  to  their  native  tongues.    The  dominant 


religion  is  Protestantism,  and  since  1817  the 
Lutheran  and  Reformed  Churches  have  been 
united  under  the  head  of  one  common  Evangelical 
Church.  The  Protestants  are  over  64  per  cent, 
of  the  population,  Roman  Catholics  about  34, 
and  Jews  over  1.  Education  is  widely  diff"used, 
thorough,  and  compulsory,  between  the  ages  of  six 
and  fourteen.  Prussia  has  ten  universities — viz. 
Konigsberg,  Berlin,  Greifswald,  Breslau,  Halle, 
Gottingen,  Miinster,  Bonn,  Kiel,  and  Marburg, 
which  number  above  1600  professors  and  teachers 
and  18,200  students  ;  see  Germany.  In  addition 
to  the  libraries  of  the  several  universities  there  is 
the  Royal  Library  at  Berlin,  with  800,000  volumes 
and  about  15,000  MSS.  Since  1848  Prussia  has 
a  Herrenhaus,  or  House  of  Lords,  comprising 
princes,  the  heads  of  the  nobility,  some  life 
peers,  and  a  few  representatives  of  provinces, 
large  towns,  universities,  &c. ;  and  a  Chamber  of 
Deputies  of  433  elected  members.  The  monarchy 
is  hereditary  in  the  male  line,  and  is  now  con- 
joined with  the  dignity  of  German  emperor.  The 
sovereign  and  royal  family  must  profess  the 
evangelical  confession  of  faith.  In  the  year 
1905  the  budget-estimate  of  the  receipts  was 
2,803,805,050  marks  (£140,190,252),  just  balanced 
by  the  expenditure.  The  total  national  debt  is 
over  £351,752,322.  The  Prussian  contingent  is 
the  most  important  part  of  the  German  anny, 
which  is  all  under  the  command  of  the  emperor- 
king.     For  the  army,  navy,  &c.,  see  Germany. 

The  Baltic  lands  now  forming  an  important 
part  of  Prussia,  were  originally  inhabited  by  the 
Slavonic  Prussians,  akin  to  the  Lithuanians,  who 
resolutely  resisted  all  attempts  of  the  dukes  of 
Poland  to  christianise  them,  and  were  only  con- 
verted by  the  warlike  measures  of  the  Teutonic 
Knights,  who  in  1230-83  became  masters  of  the 
region,  and  gradually  peopled  it  with  German 
colonists.  The  knights,  often  at  war  with  Poland 
and  Lithuania,  declined  in  power  in  the  14th  and 
15th  centuries,  and  in  1466  had  to  cede  West 
Prussia  to  Poland,  holding  the  rest  as  fiefs  of  the 
Polish  crown.  In  1511  the  knights  elected  a 
Hohenzollern  prince  as  their  head,  who  ulti- 
mately became  Duke  of  Prussia.  In  1618  the 
inheritance  fell  to  another  branch  of  the  Hohen- 
zollern house,  which  had  since  1319  been  mar- 
graves and  ultimately  electors  of  Brandenburg. 
Pomerania  and  parts  of  Franconia  and  other 
districts  had  already  made  the  electorate  a  power- 
ful state,  which,  however,  suff"ered  terribly  in 
the  Thirty  Years'  War.  The  'Great  Elector," 
Frederick  William,  succeeded  after  1640  in  restor- 
ing prosperity,  and  made  the  electorate  a  Euro- 
pean state,  which  in  1703  was  recognised  as  a 
kingdom.  Frederick  the  Great  (1740-86)  greatly 
aggrandised  the  state  by  his  wars  and  administra- 
tion, obtaining  all  West  Prussia  at  the  first  parti- 
tion of  Poland.  The  second  and  third  partitions 
were  carried  out  under  Frederick  William  II, 
(1786-97).  Frederick  William  III.  (1790-1840)  had 
the  difficult  task  of  re-organising  Prussia  after 
the  misery  and  ruin  of  the  French  occupation ; 
after  Waterloo  Prussia  regained  almost  all  she  had 
lost  by  the  humiliating  peace  of  Tilsit  in  1807. 
The  troubles  of  1848  did  not  aff'ect  the  area, 
which  was  added  to  under  William  I.  and  Bis- 
marck by  the  incorporation  of  Hanover,  Hesse- 
Cassel,  Nassau,  Frankfort,  part  of  Hesse-Darm- 
stadt, and  Sleswick-Holstein,  after  the  Austro- 
Prussian  war  of  1866,  another  result  of  which  was 
that  Austria  ceased  to  be  any  part  of  Germany, 
and  Prussia  became  the  predominant  German 
state.  The  Franco-German  war  of  1870-71  gave 
Prussia  still  greater  predominance  and  the  im- 


PRUTH 


574 


PUNJAB 


pexial  crown.  See  books  quoted  at  Germany, 
and  the  history  by  Tuttle  (Boston,  1888). 

Pnitll  (Proot),  a  left-hand  affluent  of  the 
Danube,  rises  in  Galicia,  on  the  NE.  side  of  the 
Carpathian  Mountains,  and  flows  520  miles  east- 
ward past  Kolomea  and  Czernowitz  ;  from  wliere 
it  leaves  Austrian  territory  to  its  mouth  in  the 
Danube  at  Reni,  13  miles  below  Galatz,  it  forms 
the  boundary  between  Russian  Bessarabia  and 
Roumania.     It  is  navigable  from  near  Jassy. 

Przemysl,  a  town  of  Austrian  Galicia,  on  an 
affluent  of  the  Vistula,  61  miles  W.  of  Leniberg 
by  rail.  It  manufactures  machinery,  spirits, 
wooden  wares,  &c.  Since  1874  it  has  been  strongly 
fortified.     Pop.  46,300,  about  one-third  Jews. 

Pskov,  a  decayed  town  of  Russia,  9  miles  SE. 
of  Lake  Pskov  (50  miles  long  by  13  broad),  160 
miles  SSW.  of  St  Petersburg.  During  the  14th 
and  15th  centuries  it  was  a  Hanse  town,  with 
60,000  inhabitants  ;  in  1510  it  was  annexed  to 
Moscow.  Pop.  30,400.— Tlie  government  has  an 
area  of  17,064  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  (1897)  of  1,123,820. 

Pudsey,  a  municipal  borough  (1900)  of  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  3  miles  E.  of  Brad- 
ford, with  great  manufactures.     Pop.  15,000. 

Puebla  (Piveh'la),  the  third  city  of  Mexico, 
capital  of  a  state  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  a 
fruitful  plain,  7120  feet  above  sea-level,  and  68 
miles  (by  rail  116)  SE.  of  the  city  of  Mexico.  In 
the  vicinity  are  Orizaba,  Popocatepetl,  and  other 
lofty  mountains.  It  was  founded  in  1531,  and  is 
one  of  the  handsomest  towns  in  the  republic, 
with  theological,  medical,  art,  and  normal  schools, 
a  museum  of  antiquities  (1728),  two  large  libraries, 
hospitals,  &c.  On  the  great  square  stands  the 
cathedral,  a  Doric  building  with  two  towers.  The 
chief  manufactures  are  cottons,  paper,  iron,  glass, 
porcelain,  leather.  Pop.  93,550.  Puebla  was 
besieged  for  two  months  by  the  French,  and 
then  taken  by  storm,  17th  May  1863. 

Pueblo  (Pweb'lo),  capital  of  Pueblo  county, 
Colorado,  on  the  Arkansas  River,  at  the  mouth 
of  Fountain  Creek,  117  miles  by  rail  S.  by  E.  of 
Denver.  Through  its  iron  and  steel  industry  it 
rapidly  became  the  second  city  of  the  state  and 
an  important  railway  centre  ;  immense  quantities 
of  raw  materials  and  fuel  abound  in  the  vicinity. 
In  1890  a  Mineral  Palace  was  erected  to  hold  a 
pennanent  exhibit  of  Colorado's  mineral  produc- 
tions—from stone  and  coal  to  pure  gold.  Pop., 
in  1880  only  3250,  is  now  30,000. 

Puente  Nacional  (Pwentey  NasionaV),  a  town 
of  Colombia,  in  Santander  dep.,  on  the  Rio 
Suarez.    Coal  and  iron  are  mined.    Pop.  12,000. 

Puerto  Bello.    See  Portobelo. 

Puerto  Cabello  (Pwerto  Cavel'yo),  a  seaport  of 
Venezuela,  78  miles  W.  from  Caracas.  It  stands  on 
a  long,  low,  narrow  peninsula  on  the  Caribbean 
Sea,  and  has  a  safe,  roomy,  and  fortified  harbour. 
It  is  the  port  of  Valencia,  34  miles  distant  by 
rail.    Pop.  15,145. 

Puerto  Oortez,  a  port  of  Honduras  (q.v.). 

Puerto  de  Santa  Maria,  a  seaport  of  Spain, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Guadalete,  on  the  Bay  of 
Cadiz,  22  miles  by  rail  (all  round  the  bay)  NE. 
of  Cadiz  and  8  SW.  of  Xeres.  It  is  a  great 
export  harbour  for  sherry,  and  manufactures 
silk,  soap,  hats,  leather,  spirits,  beer,  &c.  Pop, 
19,006. 

Puerto  Plata  (Pwerto  Plah'ta),  the  chief  port 
of  the  Dominican  Republic,  on  the  north  coast  of 
Hayti.     It  has  an  open  roadstead.     Pop.  6000. 

Puerto  Principe  {Pwerto  Preen'seepay),  an  in- 


land town  in  the  east  of  Cuba,  40  miles  SW.  of 
its  port,  Nuevitas,  by  rail.    Pop.  26,641. 

Puerto  Rico.    See  Porto  Rico. 

Puget  Sound,  a  large  inland  sea  in  the  north- 
west of  Washington,  U.S.,  connnunicating  with 
the  Pacific  by  the  Admiralty  Inlet  and  Juan  de 
Fuca  Strait.  It  is  divided  into  several  branches, 
penetrates  far  into  the  interior,  and  is  every- 
where navigable  for  tlie  largest  vessels.  Great 
quantities  of  i^ine  and  fir  are  shipped. 

Pulborough,  a  Sussex  market-town,  on  the 
Aran,  9  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Arundel.    Pop.  1727. 

Pulicat,  a  town  of  India,  20  miles  N.  of  Madras, 
the  first  settlement  of  the  Dutch  in  India  ;  pop. 
4967.  It  stands  on  an  island  in  a  large  sea-inlet 
called  the  Lake  of  Pulicat. 

Pulkowa  (Pooll-o'va),  a  village  of  Russia,  10 
miles  S.  of  the  site  of  a  magnificent  observatory 
(59°  46'  18"  N.  lat.  and  30°  19'  40"  E.  long.),  the 
'St  Petersburg  observatory,'  built  by  the  Czar 
Nicholas  in  1838-39.  In  1882  one  of  the  largest 
telescopes  in  the  world  was  erected  here. 

Pulo-Penang.    See  Penang. 

Pulteneytown.    See  Wick. 

Pultowa  {Poolto'va),  or  Polta'va,  a  town  of 
Russia,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Dnieper,  88  miles  by 
rail  SW.  of  Kharkoff,  and  449  NE.  of  Odessa.  A 
bishop's  seat,  it  manufactures  tobacco  and  leather, 
and  has  four  great  annual  fairs.  Here  Charles 
XII.  was  defeated  bv  Peter  the  Great  on  27th 
June  1709.     Pop.  53,214. 

Pultusk  (Pool-toosk'X  a  town  of  Poland,  32  miles 
N.  of  Warsaw.  Here  Charles  XII.  of  Sweden 
defeated  the  Saxons  in  1703,  and  here  in  1806 
the  French  defeated  the  Russians.  The  town 
was  destroyed  by  fire  in  1875.    Pop.  15,946. 

Punchestown,  a  racecourse  close  to  Naas,  20 
miles  SW.  of  Dublin  by  rail. 

Pungwe,  a  river  of  Portuguese  East  Africa, 
forming  the  i)rincipal  waterway  to  Manicaland 
and  Mashonaland  ;  its  mouth  is  situated  some  25 
miles  NE.  of  Sofala  and  130  SW.  of  the  Zambesi 
delta.  After  some  diplomatic  difficulties  between 
Britain  and  Portugal,  it  was  agreed  (1891)  by 
Portugal  that  British  commerce  should  have 
unimijeded  access  by  this  route  to  the  British 
sphere  in  the  interior,  the  Pungwe  being  made 
freely  navigable  for  British  vessels.  The  Pungwe 
Massi  Kesse  Railway  to  the  Mashonaland  frontier 
was  partially  opened  in  October  1893. 

Punjab,  or  Panj ab (pdnj-a6,  'five  rivers;'  the 
Pentapotamia  of  the  Greeks),  a  province  in  the 
NW.  of  India,  bordering  on  Cashmere,  is  watered 
by  the  Indus  and  its  five  great  affluents— the 
Jhelum,  Chenab,  Ravi,  Beas,  and  Sutlej.  Till 
the  formation  in  1901  of  the  North-west  Frontier 
Province  (incorporating  almost  all  the  Punjab 
territory  lying  beyond  the  Indus),  the  total  area 
had  been  148,966  sq.  miles,  with  a  population 
(1891)  of  25,130,127;  but  since  then  the  area  is 
133,741  sq.  miles,  and  the  population  (1901) 
23,235,917  —  2,905,000  being  in  the  numerous 
native  states.  The  capital  is  Lahore,  but  Delhi 
is  more  populous.  Amritsar,  third  in  size,  is 
the  religious  capital  of  the  Sikhs.  The  northern 
parts  are  traversed  by  spurs  from  the  Himalayas. 
In  the  south  is  the  Salt  Range,  2000  to  5000  feet 
high,  between  the  Indus  and  the  Jhelum.  The 
climate  in  the  plains  is  most  oppressively  hot 
and  dry  in  summer,  reaching  in  May  87*4°  to 
116"6°  F.  in  the  shade  ;  but  is  cool,  and  sometimes 
frosty,  in  winter.  Little  rain  falls  except  in  the 
districts  along  the  base  of  the  Himalayas.  Trees 
are  few  in  number  and  small,  and  fuel  is  so  scarce 


PUNTA  ARENAS 


575 


PYRENEES 


that  cow-dung  is  much  used  in  its  stead.  Wheat 
of  excellent  quality  is  produced,  and  indigo, 
sugar,  cotton,  tobacco,  opium,  tea,  rice,  barley, 
millet,  maize,  and  numerous  vegetables  and 
fruits  are  grown.  The  manufacturing  industry- 
cottons,  wood-work,  iron,  leather,  gold  and  silver 
lace,  silk,  and  shawls — is  carried  on  for  the  most 
part  in  the  great  towns.  Punjab  exports  indigo, 
grain,  salt,  metals,  spices,  tea,  tobacco,  manu- 
factured cottons,  hides,  and  leather  to  Kabul, 
Cashmere,  Turkestan,  and  Tibet;  and  imiwrts 
dyes,  goats'  wool,  raw  silk,  fruits,  ghee,  horses, 
furs,  timber,  and  shawl  cloth.  The  inhabitants 
are  chiefly  Jats,  Sikhs,  Rajputs,  and  Pathans. 
Of  the  whole  ])opnlatioM,  5(>  per  cent,  were  Moham- 
medans, 38  Hindus,  and  6  Sikhs. 

Punta  Arenas  (Poonta  Aray'iias),  (l)  the  chief 
port  of  Costa  Rica  on  the  Pacific,  stands  on  a 
'sandy  point' jutting  into  the  Gulf  of  Nicoya, 
14  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Esparza.  Pop.  7000.— 
(2)  A  town  in  Patagonia  (q.v.). 

Purbeck,  Isle  of,  a  peninsular  district  of 
Dorsetshire,  12  miles  long  and  5  to  9  broad,  is 
bounded  N.  by  the  river  Frome  and  Poole  Har- 
bour, E.  and  S.  by  the  English  Channel,  and  W. 
by  the  little  stream  of  Luckford  Lake,  which 
runs  from  Lulworth  Park  to  the  Frome.  The 
coast  is  bold  and  precipitous,  with  St  Albans 
Head,  360  feet  high  ;  inland  a  range  of  chalk 
downs  curves  east  and  west,  attaining  a  maxi- 
mum height  of  655  feet.  The  Purbeck  Marble 
is  a  fresh-water  limestone,  composed  almost 
wholly  of  shells.  Nearly  a  hundred  quarries 
are  worked ;  the  quarrymen  still  form  a  curious 
kind  of  trade's  guild.  Of  old  the  '  isle '  was  a 
royal  deer-forest.  Swanage  and  Corfe  Castle  are 
the  chief  places.  See  works  by  Robinson  (1882), 
and  J.  Braye  (1890). 

Purfleet,  a  village  of  Essex,  on  the  north  bank 
of  the  Thames,  15  miles  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  London 
and  8  miles  E.  of  Woolwicli,  contains  government 
powder-magazines,  built  in  1781. 

Purl.    See  Juggernaut. 

Purley  House,  Surrey,  2J  miles  S.  of  Croydon, 
the  property  of  the  regicide  Bradshaw,  and  the 
residence  afterwards  of  Horne-Tooke,  who  hence 
named  his  Diversions  of  Purley. 

Purmerend,  a  town  of  Holland,  10  miles  N. 
of  Amsterdam.     Pop.  4960. 

Purnlah  (Poor'ne-ah),  a  town  of  Bengal,  230 
miles  NNW.  of  Calcutta.     Pop.  15,016. 

Pusey,  a  Berks  parish,  5  miles  E.  by  N.  of 
Faringdon.     Dr  Pusey  was  born  here. 

Puteaux  (Pii-to'),  a  town  2  miles  from  the  west- 
ern boundary  of  Paris,  on  the  Seine's  left  bank, 
opposite  the  Bois  de  Boulogne.    Pop.  24,300. 

Pute'oU.    See  Pozzuoli. 

Putnam,  a  town  of  Connecticut,  on  the  Quinne- 
bang  River,  56  miles  ENE.  of  Hartford.  Pop.  6712, 

Putney,  a  suburb  of  London,  in  Surrey,  6  miles 
WSW.  of  Waterloo,  on  the  south  side  of  the  tidal 
Thames,  which,  here  nearly  300  yards  broad,  is 
crossed  by  a  new  granite  bridge  (1884-86),  leading 
to  Fulham.  It  is  a  great  rowing  place,  tlie  start- 
ing-point of  the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  boat-race ; 
and  from  its  ready  access  to  town,  the  river. 
Putney  Heath,  and  Wimbledon  Common,  has 
grown  rapidly  of  recent  years.  The  parish 
church,  with  a  15th-century  tower,  was  mainly 
rebuilt  in  1836 ;  in  the  churchyard  is  Toland's 
grave.  Putney  is  the  birthplace  of  Thomas  Crom- 
well and  Gibbon,  and  the  deathplace  of  Pitt, 
Fuseli,  and  Leigh  Hunt.  From  Putney's  old 
bridge  Mary  Wollstonecraft  tried  to  drown  her- 


self;  and  on  Putney  Heath  Pitt  fought  his  duel 
with  Tierney  (1798),  Castlereagh  his  with  Canning 
(1809).     Pop.  (1851)  5280  ;  (1901)  24,140. 

Putrid  Sea.    See  Azov. 

Putumayo  (Poo-too-mi'o),  or  Iqa,  rises  in 
Colombia  on  the  eastern  side  of  the  Andes,  and 
flows  SE.  950  miles  to  the  Amazon. 

Puy  (Pwee),  Le,  or  Le  Puv-en-Velay,  a  French 
town  (dep.  Haute-Loire),  70  miles  SW.  of  Lyons 
by  rail,  stands  at  the  base  and  on  the  steep 
slopes  of  Mount  Anis  (2050  feet),  from  whose 
sunnnit  starts  up  precipitously  the  basaltic  mass 
called  Mont  Corneille,  crowned  by  a  colossal 
figure  (53  feet)  of  the  Virgin,  made  of  Russian 
cannon  brought  from  Sebastopol.  The  most 
notable  building  is  the  Romanesque  cathedral 
(6th-12th  century),  in  the  highest  part  of  the 
town.  Lace  and  thread  work  are  manufactured. 
Pop.  17,000. 

Puy-de-D6me  (Pwee-de-Dome),  a  central  dep.  of 
France.  Area,  3070  sq.  m.  ;  population,  550,000. 
The  western  side  is  an  elevated  volcanic  region, 
studded  with  numerous  extinct  cones ;  the  highest 
Puy-de-Sancy  (6188  feet).  The  principal  rivers 
are  the  AUier,  a  tributary  of  the  Loire,  and  the 
Dordogne.  The  dep.  is  subdivided  into  the 
arrondissements  of  Ambert,  Clermont-Ferrand 
(the  capital),  Issoire,  Riom,  and  Thiers. 

Pwllheli  (Pool-hay'lee),  a  Welsh  seaport  and 
watering-place,  22  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Car- 
narvon, Avith  lobster  and  oyster  fisheries.  It  is 
a  municipal  borough,  uniting  with  Carnarvon, 
&c.  to  return  one  member.    Pop.  3631. 

Pynes,  the  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Iddesleigh,  2 
miles  N.  of  Exeter. 

Pyj^s-Diids,  monumental  structures  of  stone  or 
brick  over  the  sepulchral  chambers  of  Egyptian 
kings,  built  in  the  well-known  pyramidal  shape. 
The  most  famous  are  those  of  Gizeh,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  Nile  facing  old  Cairo  and  near  the 
ancient  Memphis.  The  largest,  that  of  Chufu  or 
Cheops,  second  king  of  the  4th  dynasty  (3750 
B.C.?),  was  originally  481  feet  high  on  a  squaro 
base  of  774  feet — higher  than  St  Paul's  on  an 
area  as  large  as  Lincoln's  Inn  Fields — but  many 
of  its  exterior  blocks  have  been  removed  for 
buildings  in  Cairo.  The  second,  that  of  Chephren, 
the  successor  of  Cheops,  was  450  feet  high  on  a 
base  of  700  feet  square.  The  third  is  much 
smaller,  and  there  are  six  others  smaller  still  at 
Gizeh  ;  eleven  at  Sakkara,  a  few  miles  S. ;  others 
at  Abou  Roash,  Abusir,  at  Dahshur,  at  Meyddm, 
in  the  Fayyfim,  and  in  Nubia- 

Pyr'enees,  the  mountain-chain  that  divides 
France  from  Spain,  stretches  from  the  Mediter- 
ranean to  the  south-east  corner  of  the  Bay  of 
Biscay,  a  distance  of  270  miles,  its  breadth  vary- 
ing between  15  and  70  miles.  They  form  a  regular 
and  continuous  chain,  divisible  into  the  Western, 
Central,  and  Eastern  Pyrenees.  The  Central 
Pyrenees,  extending  from  the  Port  de  Canfranc 
to  the  Col  de  la  Perche,  contain  the  highest  peaks 
and  the  most  imposing  mountain-masses,  as  Pic 
de  Nethou  (in  Maladetta),  11,170  feet;  Mont 
Perdu,  10,998;  Vignemale,  10,794;  Marbore, 
10,673 ;  and  Pic  du  Midi,  9466.  On  both  north 
and  south  the  mountains  sink  down  to  the  plains 
in  a  series  of  terraces,  with  precipitous  faces,  the 
slope  on  the  Spanish  side  being  steeper  than  on 
the  French  side.  The  valleys  or  ravines  cutting 
into  the  mountain-mass  on  both  sides  terminate 
in  caldron-shaped  basins,  called  cirques  or  oules 
(=  pots),  the  sides  of  which  are  precipitous  and 
seamed  with  waterfalls :  the  most  celebrated  is 


PYRENEES 


576 


QUEBEC 


the  Cirque  of  Gavarnie,  at  the  head  of  Gave  de 
Pau,  with  a  waterfall  1380  feet  high.  The  streams 
on  the  Spanish  side  are  mostly  feeders  of  the 
Ebro,  whilst  the  French  streams  feed  the  Adour, 
the  Garonne,  and  some  little  Mediterranean 
rivers.  The  lower  Pyrenean  valleys  throiigh 
which  these  streams  flow  are  in  many  cases 
covered  with  grass  or  forest,  or  even  vineyards 
and  olive-groves.  Snow  lies  on  the  highest  i)in- 
nacles,  the  snow-line  being  9200  feet  on  the  south 
side  and  at  8300  on  the  north,  A  narrow  belt 
of  glaciers  runs  from  east  to  west  just  below  the 
Central  peaks,  but  almost  wholly  on  the  French 
side.  Minerals  are  not  generally  abundant, 
though  iron  is  worked  in  Basses-Pyrenees  and 
Pyrenees-Orientales ;  coal  exists  on  the  Spanish 
side  and  lignite  on  the  French.  There  are 
numerous  mineral  springs  (several  being  hot), 
those  of  Eaux-Bonnes,  Cauterets,  Eaux-Chaudes, 
Bagn^res  de  Bigorre  and  de  Luchon,  and  Bareges 
being  the  best  known.  See  Count  Henry  Russell, 
Pau,  Biarritz,  and  the  Pyrenees  (new  ed.  1891). 


Pyrenees  (Pee-ray-nay'),  Basses,  a  dep.  of  SW. 
France,  having  the  Bay  of  Biscay  on  the  west. 
Area,  2946  sq,  in.  ;  population,  427,000.  It  is 
divided  into  the  arrondissements  of  Pau  (the 
capital),  Oloron,  Orthez,  Bayonne,  and  Mauleon. 

Pyrenees,  Hautes,  a  dep.  of  France,  lying 
east  of  Basses-Pyrenees,  is  part  of  the  old  prov- 
ince of  Gascony.  Area,  1749  sq.  m.  ;  population, 
215,000,  Its  arrondissements  are  Tarbes  (the 
capital),  Argeles,  and  Bagneres  de  Bigorre. 

Pyrenees-Orientales  (Pee-ray-nayz'-O-ri-on^- 
tahl'),  a  southern  dep.  of  France,  bounded  E.  by 
the  Mediterranean.  Area,  1591  sq.  m.  ;  popula- 
tion, 213,000.  Its  arrondissements  are  Perpignan 
(the  capital),  Prades,  and  Ceret. 

Pyritz  (Peereetz'),  a  manufacturing  town  of 
Pomerania,  25  miles  SE.  of  Stettin.    Pop.  8062. 

Pyrmont  (Peer-monf).    See  Waldeck. 

Pytchley,  a  village  of  Northants,  3  miles  SW. 
of  Kettering,  whence  the  Pytchley  Hunt  takes 
name.    See  a  work  by  Nethercote  (1888). 


UANGTUNG.    See  Canton. 
,  Quantocks,  a  Somerset  range  of  hills, 

^^^'    extending  8  miles  NNW.  to  the  coast 
near  Watchet,  and  culminating  in  Wills 
Neck  (1262  feet).    They  have  memories 
of  Coleridge  and  Wordsworth. 

Quamdon,  a  village,  with  sulphur  baths,  3 
miles  NNW.  of  Derby. 

Qvia,tre-Bra.s  (Kdhtr-Brdh),  a  village  of  Belgium, 
10  miles  SSE.  of  Waterloo,  situated  at  the  inter- 
section of  the  great  roads  from  Brussels  to  Char- 
leroi,  and  from  Nivelles  to  Namur,  whence  its 
name  ('four  arms').  Here,  on  16th  June  1815, 
two  days  before  Waterloo,  the  English  under 
Wellington  defeated  the  French  under  Ney.  A 
monument  to  the  Duke  of  Brunswick,  a  bronze 
lion  lOi  feet  high,  was  erected  in  1890. 

Quebec  (Kwe-helif  ;  Fr.  Quebec,  pron.  Kay-heli/), 
a  province  of  Canada,  between  Ontario  and  New 
Brunswick.  Area  (with  additions  up  to  1900), 
347,350  sq.  miles.  The  surface  comprises  great 
rivers  and  lakes,  large  stretches  of  agricultural 
land,  and  immense  forests.  S.  of  the  St  Lawrence 
are  the  Notre  Dame  or  Green  Mountains,  while 
on  the  N.  is  the  Laurentian  Range.  The  St 
Lawrence  (q.v.)  has  many  tributaries  of  great 
length,  the  Ottawa,  St  Maurice,  Saguenay,  &c. 
Of  numerous  lakes,  the  best  known  are  Temisca- 
raingue,  Metapedia,Temiscouata,  Memphremagog, 
and  St  John.  The  province  has  a  coast-line  of 
825  miles  on  the  Atlantic.  The  winter  is  slightly 
colder  than  in  the  other  parts  of  eastern  Canada. 
The  soil  is  rich  and  loamy,  well  adapted  for 
cereals,  hay,  and  root-crops.  Indian  corn, 
hemp,  flax,  and  tobacco  are  also  raised.  Fruit 
is  grown,  especially  apples  and  plums,  which 
are  exported ;  grapes  ripen  in  the  open  air. 
Tomatoes  are  also  a  field-crop.  Cattle-breeding 
is  carried  on,  and  large  numbers  of  animals 
are  exported  to  Britain.  The  fisheries  in  the 
River  and  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence  are  very  pro- 
lific, and  all  the  smaller  rivers  teem  with  fish. 
Alluvial  gold  is  found  in  various  places,  and 
copper  in  the  eastern  townships,  while  iron  is 
very  generally  distributed.  Other  minerals  are 
lead,  silver,  platinum,  zinc,  asbestos,  and  apatite, 
or  phosphate  of  lime.  Agriculture  and  dairy- 
farming  form  the  chief  occupations  of  the  people  ; 
but  lumbering,  mining,  shipbuilding,  manufac- 
tures, fisheries,  and  commerce  employ  many.    The 


affairs  of  the  province,  which  is  divided  into 
63  counties,  are  administered  by  a  lieutenant- 
governor,  an  executive  council  of  24  life-members, 
and  a  legislative  assembly  of  73  persons  elected 
every  four  years.  The  province  is  represented  in 
the  Dominion  Senate  by  24  members,  and  in  the 
House  of  Commons  by  65.  Pop.  (1871)  1,191,516  ; 
(1881)  1,359,027  ;  (1901)  1,648,898,  of  whom  about 
80  per  cent,  were  French-Canadians,  descendants 
of  the  French  settlers  living  in  the  country  when 
it  was  transferred  to  Great  Britain  in  1763.  The 
French  population  then  did  not  exceed  70,000, 
so  that  the  progress  in  130  years  is  in  strange 
contrast  to  the  state  of  things  in  old  France. 
Families  of  twelve  and  fourteen  are  quite  com- 
mon amongst  French-Canadians.  The  English 
population  does  not  increase  in  the  same  way. 
Farms  are  subdivided  amongst  all  the  children  as 
in  France.  In  religion  the  Roman  Catholics 
naturally  prevail,  but  the  rights  of  the  Protestant 
minority  are  protected  by  statute.  The  two 
Protestant  universities  are  M'Gill  at  Montreal 
and  Bishop's  College  at  Lennoxville  ;  Laval,  the 
Catholic  university,  is  at  Quebec.  The  principal 
city  in  the  province  is  Montreal  (pop.  270,000), 
the  commercial  metropolis  of  the  Dominion. 
Quebec,  the  most  historic  city  in  Canada,  is  the 
seat  of  the  provincial  government. 

Quebec,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  a  steep 
promontory,  on  the  north-west  bank  of  the  St 
Lawrence,  300  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence 
and  180  below  Montreal  (172  by  rail).  The  high- 
est part  of  the  headland  is  Cape  Diamond,  333 
feet  above  the  river.  Quebec  is  the  most  import- 
ant military  position  in  Canada ;  its  citadel 
occupies  an  area  of  40  acres,  and  commands  a 
magnificent  view.  The  harbour  is  spacious,  and 
the  docks  and  tidal  basin  are  perfect  specimens  of 
engineering  skill ;  on  the  Levis  side  of  the  river  ifj 
the  extensive  graving-dock.  The  city  is  divided 
into  an  Upper  and  Lower  Town,  whilst  westward 
are  the  thriving  suburbs  of  St  John,  St  Louis,  and 
St  Roch's — the  latter  having  immense  warehouses 
and  stores.  To  the  south-west  of  St  John 
are  the  Plains  of  Abraham,  the  historic  battle- 
field, with  a  column  40  feet  high  to  the  memory 
of  General  Wolfe.  Another  monument,  65  feet 
high,  dedicated  to  Wolfe  and  Montcalm,  is  situ- 
ated in  the  Governor's  Garden,  and  immediately 
overlooks  the  St  Lawrence.  On  the  Ste  Foye 
Road  is  an  iron  pillar  crowned  by  a  bronze  statue. 


i 


QUEDAH 


677 


QUEENSLAND 


r 


eommemoratins  the  deeds  of  the  British  and 
French  under  Murray  and  Levis  in  1760.  There 
is  a  shaft  also  to  the  memory  of  Jacques  Cartier 
and  the  Jesuit  Brebeuf.  Four  jnartello  towers 
occupy  elevated  positions.  In  the  Upper  Town 
is  Dutt'erin  Terrace,  1400  feet  long  and  200  feet 
above  the  water  level,  commanding  a  noble  view. 
The  Grand  Battery  is  also  picturesquely  situated. 
Three  handsome  modern  gates  have  replaced  the 
old  ones.  The  principal  edifices  are  the  parlia- 
mentary and  departmental  buildings,  court-house, 
post-office^  custom-house,  city  hall,  masonic  hall, 
basilica,  the  archiepiscopal  palace,  the  Anglican 
Cathedral,  Church  Hall,  and  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association  building.  Laval  Uni- 
versity, named  after  the  first  Roman  Catholic 
bishop  of  Quebec,  who  in  1663  founded  the  semin- 
ary, has  a  library  of  150,000  volumes,  a  museum 
and  art  gallery,  laboratory,  &c.  Morrin  College 
(Presbyterian)  is  affiliated  with  M'Gill  Uni- 
versity. The  water-supply  is  from  Lake  St 
Charles.  The  city  is  lighted  with  gas  and  elec- 
tricity, the  power  for  the  latter  being  aff'orded  by 
the  Falls  of  Montmorency,  9  miles  distant. 
Quebec  is  connected  with  all  parts  of  America  by 
rail,  and  is  at  the  head  of  ocean  steamship  navi- 
gation. Shipbuilding  has  fallen  off.  The  manu- 
factures are  worsted  goods,  iron-castings,  machin- 
ery, cartridges,  cutlery,  nails,  leather,  musical 
instruments,  boots  and  shoes,  paper,  tobacco, 
steel,  &c.  The  chief  exports  are  timber  and 
lumber.  Quebec  is  the  seat  of  a  R.  C.  archbishop 
and  an  Anglican  bishop.  Cartier  visited  the  site, 
Stadacone,  in  1535 ;  and  in  1608  Champlain 
founded  and  named  the  town,  which  was  the 
centre  of  French  trade,  civilisation,  and  missions 
till  1759,  when  it  was  captured  by  Wolfe,  In 
1763  it  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain.  Pop.  (1852) 
42,052  ;  (1881)  62,446  ;  (1901)  68,844.  See  works 
by  Lemoine  (1876),  Mercier  (1890),  and  Sir  Gilbert 
Parker  (1903) ;  and  for  the  siege,  Doughty  and 
Parnell  (6  vols.  1903). 

Quedah,  or  Kedah,  a  state  on  the  west  side  of 
the  Malay  Peninsula,  with  an  area  of  3600  sq.  m. 
and  a  pop.  of  30,000,  nominally  subject  to  Siam. 
The  capital,  Quedah,  has  8000  inhabitants. 

Qued'linburg  (u  as  oo),  a  town  of  Prussia,  at 
the  N.  base  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  56  miles  SB. 
of  Brunswick,  founded  by  Henry  the  Fowler  in 
924.  On  an  eminence  stands  the  old  castle  of  its 
abbesses,  in  whose  chapel  rest  Henry  I.,  his  wife 
Matilda,  and  the  Countess  of  Konigsmark.  Here 
Klopstock  and  Karl  Ritter  were  born.  Tlie  town 
manufactures  sugar,  wire  goods,  and  farinaceous 
foods.     Pop,  24, 761 ; 

Queen'borough,  a  municipal  borough  on  the 
Isle  of  Sheppey,  2  miles  S.  of  Sheerness,  was 
founded  by  Edward  III.  (1369),  and  named  after 
Queen  Philippa.  Steamers  ply  to  Flushing. 
Pop.  1550. 

Queen  Charlotte's  Islands,  a  group  N.  of 
Vancouver  Island,  off  British  Columbia,  Area, 
5100  sq.  m.  The  two  chief  islands,  Graham  and 
Moresby,  are  160  miles  long  and  nearly  70  broad. 
Anthracite,  coal,  copper  and  iron  ore,  and  gold- 
bearing  quartz  are  found.  Pop,  2000  Indians.— 
Queen  Charlotte's  Sound  is  a  strait  separating  Van- 
couver Island,  on  the  N.,  from  the  mainland. 

Queensberry,  a  Dumfriesshire  mountain  (2285 
feet),  7  miles  WSW.  of  Moffat. 

Queensbury,  a  town  in  the  "West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  3^  miles  NNE.  of  Halifax.     Pop.  6440. 

Queen's  County,  an  inland  county  of  Leinster, 
Is  bounded  by  King's  County,    Kilkenny,  and 

2k 


Tipperary,  and  measures  33  miles  by  37.  Area, 
424,854  acres.  Pop.  (1841)  153,988  ;  (1861)  90,650 ; 
(1901)  57,225,  of  whom  50,000  were  Catholics, 
Nearly  14^  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  is  barren. 
Queen's  County  is,  for  the  most  part,  within  the 
basin  of  the  Barrow,  and  is  flat  and,  except  where 
bogs  prevail,  fertile.  It  is  also  drained  by  the 
Nore  and  crossed  by  the  Grand  Canal.  On  the 
north-western  border  lie  the  Slieve  Bloom  Moun- 
tains  (1734  feet).  Coal  occurs  in  the  south-east. 
Agriculture  is  the  principal  occupation  ;  there  is 
much  dairy-farming.  This  district  was  made  a 
shire  in  honour  of  Queen  Mary,  from  whom  also^ 
the  chief  town,  Maryborough  (pop.  2960),  was' 
called.    The  county  returns  two  members. 

Queensferry,  a  town  of  Linlithgowshire,  9 
miles  WNW.  of  Edinburgh,  on  the  south  shore  of 
the  Firth  of  Forth,  which  here  is  crossed  by  the 
great  Forth  Bridge  (q.v,).  Named  after  St 
Margaret;  it  has  been  a  burgh  of  royalty  since 
1363,  a  royal  burgh  since  about  1639,  and  a  police- 
burgh  since  1882  ;  with  Stirling,  &c.  it  returns 
one  member.  It  has  remains  of  a  Carmelite 
friary,  converted  in  1890  into  an  Episcopal 
church,  and  a  new  town-hall  (1894) ;  and  one  of  its 
hotels  is  the  Hawes  Inn  of  Scott's  Antiquary. 
Pop.  1831.— North  Queensferry  is  in  Fife,  at 
the  other  end  of  the  bridge.     Pop.  510. 

Queensland,  youngest  and  second  largest  of  the 
colonies  included,  after  1901,  in  the  Australian 
Commonwealth,  comprises  an  area  of  668,497 
sq.  m.  It  was  little  known  until  1823,  when 
Oxley  discovered  the  river  which  he  named  the 
Brisbane,  in  honour  of  the  governor  of  New  South 
Wales ;  and  it  was  first  proclaimed  a  separate 
colony  in  1859.  The  island-studded  coast-line 
is  2250  miles  in  extent.  The  southern  boundary 
generally  follows  the  twenty-ninth  parallel  of 
S.  lat.  The  northernmost  point  of  the  main- 
land is  Cape  York.  Queensland  is  1300  miles 
in  length  from  N.  to  S.,  and  800  miles  at 
the  greatest  breadth  in  the  S.  Its  western 
boundary  for  the  most  part  is  138'  E.  long. 
Running  more  or  less  parallel  with  the  eastern 
coast,  about  50  miles  inland,  is  a  backbone  of 
mountains,  the  Main  Dividing  Range,  a  continua- 
tion of  the  Blue  Mountains ;  the  highest  peaks 
are  Bellenden-Ker  (5500  feet)  and  Mount 
Dalrymple  (4250).  The  east  side  is  ridgy  and 
thickly  timbered  with  eucalypti ;  the  country 
west  of  the  mountains  is  to  a  large  extent  open 
downs  and  plains,  often  of  the  richest  black  soil, 
covered  with  the  finest  fattening  herbage  in  the 
world.  The  largest  rivers  on  the  east  coast  are 
the  Brisbane,  Mary,  Burnett,  Fitzroy,  Burdekin, 
and  Johnston.  On  the  western  watershed  are 
the  Mulligan,  Herbert,  and  Diamantina.  The 
headwaters  of  the  Thomson  and  Barcoo  flow 
southward  thi'ough  the  boundless  prairie-country. 
The  Flinders,  Leichhardt,  Gilbert,  Mitchell,  and 
Gregory  flow  northward  to  the  Gulf  of  Carpen- 
taria, Rockhampton  is  on  the  Fitzroy,  Mary- 
borough on  the  Mary,  and  Mackay  on  the  Pioneer. 
The  principal  harbour  in  Queensland  is  Moreton 
Bay.  The  alluvial  coast-lands  are  devoted  to 
ordinary  and  semi-tropical  agricijture  and  timber 
produce.  The  basaltic  plains  and  tablelands  be- 
yond the  Main  Range,  extending  to  the  '  Never 
Never  country,' are  occupied  by  pioneer  pastoral- 
ists  with  their  herds  of  sheep  and  cattle.  In 
such  a  colony,  two-thirds  of  which  lies  within 
the  tropics,  there  is  a  wide  variety  of  climate  and 
natural  capabilities.  The  summer  heat  is  un- 
doubtedly great  ;  but  there  is  immunity  from  hot 
winds,  and   the   heat   being   dry    is  bearable, 


QUEENSLAND 


578 


QUILON 


though  the  maximum  register  is  108°,  For  seven 
months  of  the  year  the  climate  is  most  enjoyable. 
The  colony  enjoys  a  high  repute  for  health,  gives 
a  low  death  and  a  high  birth  rate,  and  is  free  from 
pulmonary  and  contagious  diseases.  Pop.  (1871) 
125,146;  (1881)  213,525;  (1001)503,266,  including 
9313  Chinese  and  9327  Polynesian  labourers,  and 
excluding  some  7000  aborigines.  A  table  of  the 
population,  revenue,  comparative  crops,  exports, 
&c.  of  Queensland  and  the  other  Australian 
colonies  will  be  found  in  the  article  Australia. 

Much  of  the  marked  prosperity  of  Queensland 
is  due  to  the  development  of  ocean  and  inter- 
colonial steam  communication.  The  navigable 
streams  have  been  dredged  at  enormous  cost. 
The  railway  system  of  Queensland  (2997  miles) 
connects  with  that  of  New  South  Wales,  and 
there  are  over  10,100  miles  of  telegraph  lines. 
From  1868  to  the  end  of  1903  its  mines  have  pro- 
duced 17,454,418  ounces  of  gold,  value  £58,312,127. 
In  central  Queensland  is  the  remarkable  Mount 
Morgan  (q.v.)  mine.  Copper,  tin,  silver  and 
lead,  quicksilver,  manganese,  and  iron  are 
found ;  and  there  are  valuable  coal-mines. 
Agates  and  fine  opals  are  found,  and  specimens 
of  the  diamond,  ruby,  sapphire,  and  topaz. 
The  annual  exports  of  wool,  hides,  skins,  and 
tallow  represent  a  value  of  4^  millions.  The 
manufactories  comprise  metal-foundries,  sugar- 
mills,  tanneries,  flour-mills,  distilleries,  saw- 
mills. Tweed-factories  are  worked  near  Ipswich. 
Of  late  years  the  beche-de-mer  and  pearl-fisheries 
of  Torres  Straits  have  been  highly  productive ; 
and  meat-preserving  has  also  become  an  estab- 
lished industry.  The  seat  of  government  is 
Brisbane,  and  the  next  largest  towns  are  Rock- 
hampton,  Townsville,  Maryborough,  Gymi)ie, 
Ipswich,  Toowoomba,  and  Charters  Towers.  The 
governor  is  appointed  by  the  crown,  and  there 
are  an  executive  council  and  two  houses  of  parlia- 
ment. The  state  sends  9  members  to  the  Com- 
monwealth House  of  Representatives.  Education 
is  free,  secular,  and  compulsory.  A  small  perma- 
nent force,  a  defence  contingent,  and  volunteers 
make  up  an  enrolment  nearly  5000  strong ;  but 
every  male  between  eighteen  and  sixty  years  old  is 
liable  for  military  service  in  an  emergency.  The 
entrance  to  the  Brisbane  River  is  defended  by  a 
battery  and  torpedo  works,  and  there  are  gun- 
boats, torpedo  and  packet  boats,  and  a  naval 
reserve.  About  410  million  acres  of  land  still 
belong  to  the  crown,  leased  mostly  to  squatters 
as  sheep  and  cattle  runs.  Market-gardening  in 
Queensland,  even  in  the  large  towns,  is  princi- 
pally done  by  Chinamen.  On  the  Darling  Downs, 
which  is  the  garden  of  Queensland,  wheat  may 
be  grown  ;  and  oats,  barley,  rye,  maize,  lucerne, 
and  European  vegetables  and  fruits  are  raised ; 
elsewhere  sweet  potatoes,  yams  and  pumpkins. 
Sugar-growing  is  a  great  industry,  and  arrow- 
root and  tobacco  are  grown.  Cotton,  rice,  coffee, 
and  even  tea  have  been  proved  to  be  suitable. 
An  immense  variety  of  fruits,  of  both  temperate 
and  tropical  climes,  grow  well ;  ginger,  pepper, 
and  nutmeg  are  indigenous.  Amongst  the  hard- 
woods are  the  ironbarks,  stringy- barks,  gums, 
and  blood  woods,  and  there  are  many  easily-worked 
and  beautiful  softwoods.  Snakes  (some  of  them 
very  poisonous)and  alligators  are  the  most  danger- 
ous wild  animals.  The  fauna  includes  the  usual 
Australian  marsupials— the  platypus,  dingo,  fly- 
ing-fox, &c.  Kangaroos  used  to  be  a  pest.  Many 
of  the  birds  are  of  gorgeous  plumage.  The  emu 
roams  the  plains,  and  the  cassowary  is  a  rare  ap- 
pearance in  the  north.  The  rabbit  has  been  fenced 
out  from  the  southern  borders  with  tolerable 


success.  The  sea-fishing  is  unsurpassed,  and  tho 
Moreton  Bay  oysters  are  exported.  From  the 
dugong,  besides  the  oil,  is  obtained  a  hide  invalu- 
able for  thick  machinery  belting.  Queensland 
suffers  occasionally  from  floods  and  from 
droughts  ;  the  necessity  for  artificial  irrigation 
is  of  paramount  importance.  By  1903  over  900 
artesian  bores  had  been  sunk,  giving  a  daily  flow 
of  nearly  10,500,000  gallons. 

See  books  by  Bon  wick  (1880),  Grant  (1881), 
Russell  (1888),  Lundioltz  (1889),  Weedon  (1898), 
the  annual  Year-book,  and  Rutlidge's  semi-official 
Guide  to  Queensland  (1899). 

Queenstown,  an  Irish  seaport,  on  the  south 
side  of  Great  Island,  in  Cork  harbour,  12  miles 
by  rail  SE.  of  Cork  and  177  SW.  of  Dublin.  Its 
original  name  was  Cove  of  Cork ;  the  present 
name  commemorates  the  visit  of  Queen  Victoria 
in  1849.  The  town  is  built  in  parallel  streets  on 
the  slopes  of  a  hill  shaped  like  an  amphitheatre. 
Its  climate  enjoys  a  high  reputation.  The 
splendid  Catholic  cathedral  for  Cloyne  diocese 
is  the  principal  building.  Queenstown  is  an 
important  port  of  call,  the  mails  from  the 
United  States  being  landed  here  and  sent  over- 
land by  rail  to  Dublin ;  while  the  British  mails 
are  in  part  taken  on  board  here.  Pop.  (1871) 
10,334  ;  (1891)  9082  ;  (1901)  7909. 

Queen's  Town  stands  on  an  arm  of  the  Klaas 
Smits  River  in  the  east  of  Cape  Colony,  154  niiles 
by  rail  N.  by  W.  of  East  London.    Pop.  9850. 

Quelpart,  a  rock-bound,  wooded  island  60  miles 
off  the  S.  coast  of  Corea,  40  miles  long  by  17 
broad,  attains  in  the  volcanic  Mount  Auckland 
0500  feet.     It  is  fertile  and  populous. 

Queretaro  (Kay-ray' ta-ro),  the  capital  of  a 
Mexican  state,  on  a  hilly  plateau,  6273  feet  above 
sea-level,  153  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Mexico  city. 
It  contains  a  government  palace,  a  cathedral,  an 
aqueduct  with  arches  90  feet  high,  and  two  cotton- 
mills,  employing  2300  hands.  Here  the  Emperor 
Maximilian  was  shot  in  1867.     Pop.  36,000. 

Quetta,  or  Shalkot,  a  fortified  town  near  the 
north  frontier  of  Beluchistan,  strategically  im- 
portant as  commanding  the  Bolan  Pass  (q.v.)  and 
the  Pishin  Valley.  Since  1887  it  has  been  con- 
nected with  the  Indian  railways,  and  since  1877 
has  been  under  British  officers.  Coal  and  petro- 
leum were  found  in  1890.     Pop.  25,000. 

Quetzaltenango,  the  capital  of  a  dep.  of  Guate- 
mala, on  the  Siguila,  95  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Guate- 
mala city.     Pop.  30,000,  mostly  Indians. 

Quiberon  {Kee'heronP),  a  small  fishing-town  of 
France  (dep.  Morbihan),  at  the  extremity  of  a 
long  narrow  peninsula,  21  miles  SW.  of  Vannes. 
Pop.  3300.  Here  a  body  of  French  royalists 
landed  from  an  English  fleet  in  1795,  and  en- 
deavoured to  rouse  the  people  of  Brittany  and 
La  Vend6e.  On  20th  November  1759  Hawke 
defeated  a  French  fleet  in  Quiberon  Bay. 

Quillmane  (Kee-le-mdh'nay),  a  seaport  of  East 
Africa,  in  Portuguese  territory,  stands  15  miles 
from  the  mouth  of  the  N.  arm  of  the  Zambesi.  Pop. 
8000,  including  116  Europeans  and  327  Asiatics. 

Quillo'ta,  a  town  of  Chili,  in  the  fertile  valley 
of  the  Aconcagua,  13  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
25  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Valparaiso.     Pop.  9000. 

Quiloa,  or  KiLWA,  a  seaport  of  German  East 
Africa,  190  miles  S.  of  Zanzibar.     Pop.  6000. 

Quilon  (Qwee-lon'),  a  town  of  Southern  India, 
in  the  state  Travancore,  on  the  west  coast,  85 
miles  NW.  of  Cape  Coniorin.  A  settlement  of 
the  ancient  Syrian  Church,  it  became  Portuguese 
in  1503,  and  Dutch  iu  1653.    Pop.  15,588. 


QUIMPER 


679 


RADOM 


Qulmper  {KanP-pair),  a  town  of  France  (dep. 
Finistere),  on  the  Odet,  11  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  63  by  rail  SE.  of  Brest.  It  has  a  stately 
cathedral  (1239-1515),  potteries,  tanyards,  sail- 
works,  &c.     Population,  19,500. 

Quimperle,  a  pretty  Breton  town  of  5417  in- 
habitants, amidst  hills,  35  miles  ESE.  of  Quimper 
by  rail,  with  an  old  Romanesque  church. 

Quinag,  a  Sutherland  mountain  (2653  feet),  on 
the  N.  side  of  Loch  Assynt. 

Quincy,  (1)  the  third  city  of  Illinois,  and 
capital  of  Adams  county,  is  on  the  Mississippi 
River  (here  crossed  by  an  important  railway 
bridge),  160  miles  above  St  Louis  and  262  by 
rail  SW.  of  Chicago.  It  has  a  fine  court-house, 
a  medical  college,  an  Episcopal  cathedral,  large 
flour-mills,  machine-shops,  foundries,  saw-  and 
planing-mills,  breweries,  and  factories  of  stoves, 
furniture,  carriages,  tobacco,  &c.  Pop.  (ISSO) 
27,268;  (1900)  36,252.— (2)  A  town  of  Massa- 
chusetts, near  the  sea,  and  8  miles  S.  of  Boston 
by  rail.  The  township  produces  the  famous 
Quincy  granite,  and  was  the  birthplace  of  John 
Hancock,  John  Adams,  and  his  son,  John  Quincy 
Adams.     Pop.  25,000. 

Quiraing  (Kivee-rang'),  a  fantastic  rock  mass 
(1779  feet)  in  the  N.  of  Skye. 


Quito  (Kee'to),  tlie  capital  of  Ecuador,  and  of 
the  province  of  Pichincha,  lies  in  0°  14'  S.  lat.,  on 
the  east  side  of  tlie  great  plateau  of  Quito,  at  the 
foot  of  the  volcano  of  Pichincha  (q.v.),  9351  feet 
above  the  sea.  Its  site  is  cut  up  by  numerous 
ravines ;  but  the  streets  are  laid  out  regularly 
at  right  angles,  plunging  into  and  scaling  the 
sides  of  the  valleys.  In  the  square  stand  the 
cathedral,  with  its  green-tiled  dome,  the  arch- 
bishop's palace,  the  municipal  building,  and  the 
capitol.  Other  public  buildings  are  the  uni- 
versity, a  seminary,  an  institute  of  science,  an 
observatory,  a  nuiseum,  a  library  of  20,000  vol- 
umes, a  penitentiary,  a  hospital,  many  monas-' 
teries,  &c.  The  manufactures  include  cottons 
and  woollens  and  beer ;  the  drying  of  bird-skins 
(humming-birds')  and  the  production  of  sacred 
images  rank  as  important  industries.  Founded 
in  1534,  Quito  has  suffered  frequently  from  earth- 
quakes (especially  in  1797  and  1854)  and  from 
revolutions  (as  in  1877  and  1883).  Pop.  80,000, 
mainly  Indians  and  mestizoes. 

Quorn,  or  Quorndon,  a  village  of  Leicester- 
shire, 2^  miles  SE.  of  Loughborough,  gives  name 
to  a  celebrated  pack  of  foxhounds.    Pop.  2180. 

Quorra,  one  of  the  several  names  borne  by  the 
Niger  (q.v.)  in  its  upper  course. 


AAB  (Mhb;  Hung.  Gyor),  a  town  of 
Hungary,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Raab  and  the  Little  Danube,  67  miles 
WNW.  of  Buda-Pesth.  It  has  a  beauti- 
ful cathedral,  and  manufactures  tobacco 
and  cutlery.    Pop.  27,795. 

Raalte  (Mhl-teh),  a  Dutch  town,  11  miles 
NNE.  of  Deventer.    Pop.  5795. 

Raasay  (Rdh'zay),  an  Inverness-shire  island, 
between  Skye  and  the  Scottish  mainland.  It  is 
13  miles  long  from  N.  to  S.,  3^  miles  in  greatest 
breadth,  and  24  sq.  m.  in  area.  Pop.  (1841)  647 ; 
(1901)  419.  Dun  Caan  (1456  feet)  is  the  highest 
point,  and  ruined  Brochel  Castle  on  the  east 
shore  the  chief  object  of  interest. 

Rabat,  or  New  Sallee,  a  port  of  Morocco,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Ragreb,  opposite  Sallee  (q.v.). 
It  stands  on  cliff's  amidst  gardens,  and  has  a  fort 
and  the  ruins  of  the  Sultan's  palace.  It  was  once 
the  chief  port  for  European  commerce,  but  its 
harbour  is  silted  up.     Pop.  21,000. 

Raby  Castle,  Durham,  6  miles  NE.  of  Barnard 
Castle,  the  seat  (1379)  of  the  Nevilles,  and  now  of 
the  Duke  of  Cleveland. 

Racalmu'to  (^o  as  oo),  a  town  of  south  Sicily, 
13  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Girgenti.     Pop.  16,133. 

Racconigi  (Racconee'jee),  a  town  of  North  Italy, 
23  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Turin.     Pop,  9875. 

Race,  Cape.    See  Newfoundland. 

Racine  {Ra-seen'),  capital  of  Racine  county, 
Wisconsin,  on  Lake  Michigan,  and  on  both  sides 
of  Root  River,  which  is  crossed  by  five  swing 
bridges,  and  forms  a  good  harbour.  By  rail  it  is 
62  miles  N.  of  Chicago  and  23  S.  of  Milwaukee. 
Racine  has  a  handsome  post-office  and  city  hall, 
a  hospital,  the  Taylor  Orphan  Asylum,  an  Epis- 
copal University  (1852),  a  trade  in  lumber,  flax, 
flour,  and  woollen  mills,  and  manufactories  of 
ploughs,  boilers,  ijumps,  wagons,  linseed-oil, 
hardware,  wire-work,  cordage,  furniture,  refriger- 
ators, boots,  rubber,  &c.    Pop.  29,014. 

Racow  (Ra-kof),  a  village  in  the  south  of  the 
Polish  government  of  Radoin,  was  in  the  16th 
century  a  Socinian  centre.    Pop.  2109. 


Radcliflfe,  a  town  of  SB.  Lancashire,  on  the 
Irwell,  2i  miles  SSW.  of  Bury  and  7  NNW.  of 
Manchester.  It  has  an  ancient  parish  church 
(restored  1873),  a  ruined  tower,  a  market-hall 
(1852),  a  co-operative  hall  (1878),  cotton  and 
calico  works,  bleachfields,  and  neighbouring 
coal-mines.    Pop.  (1851)  5002  ;  (1901)  25,368. 

Radhanpur,  chief  town  of  a  protected  state 
(1150  ,sq.  m.  ;  pop.  98,129)  in  Bombay  Presidency, 
150  miles  NW.  of  Baroda.    Pop.  14,722. 

Radley,  a  Berkshire  parish,  near  the  right 
bank  of  the  Thames,  5  miles  S.  of  Oxford.  The 
Bowyers'  seat  here  was  in  1847  converted  into  a 
High  Church  public  school — St  Peter's  College — 
for  130  boarders.    It  has  a  fine  chapel.    Pop.  738. 

Radnor,  New,  a  Radnorshire  village,  on  the 
Somergill,  7  miles  WSW.  of  Presteigne.  Pop. 
497.— Old  Radnor  (pop.  340)  is  3  miles  ESE. 

Radnorshire,  a  border  county  of  South  Wales, 
bounded  by  the  counties  of  Montgomery,  Salop, 
Hereford,  Brecon,  and  Cardigan.  Measuring  36 
miles  by  30,  and  432  sq.  m.  in  area,  it  is  the 
tenth  in  size  and  twelfth  in  population  of  all  the 
twelve  Welsh  counties.  The  beautiful  Wye  traces 
all  the  south-western  and  southern  boundary,  the 
Teme  the  north-eastern  ;  and  the  surface  gener- 
ally is  hilly  or  mountainous,  in  the  Forest  of 
Radnor  attaining  2163  feet.  Of  half-a-dozen 
mineral  springs,  those  of  Llandrindod  are  in 
most  repute.  The  soil  is  poor,  less  than  half  of 
the  total  area  being  in  tillage,  Avhilst  woods  and 
plantations  cover  nearly  8000  acres.  The  rearing 
of  stock  is  the  principal  industry.  Radnorshire 
returns  one  member  to  parliament ;  and  till  1885 
another  was  returned  by  the  Radnor  district  of 
boroughs,  which  comprises  Cefnllys,  Knighton, 
Knucklas,  New  Radnor,  Presteigne,  and  Rhaya- 
der. Pop.  (1801)  19,135  ;  (1841)  25,458  ;  (1901) 
23,281.  See  Williams'  History  of  Radnor sMre 
(Tenby,  1858). 

Rad'om,  a  town  of  Poland,  on  a  sub-tributary 
of  the  Vistula,  60  miles  S.  of  Warsaw.  Pop. 
28,750.— Area  of  government  of  Radoni,  4768  sq. 
ni.  ;  pop.  825,000, 


RADSTOCK 


580 


RAMSGATE 


Radstock,  a  town  of  Somerset,  T  miles  NW.  of 
Frome.    Pop.  3400. 

Ragatz,  a  spa  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  St  Gall, 
68  miles  by  rail  SB.  of  Zurich  and  13  N.  by  W.  of 
Chur  (Coire) ;  it  stands  at  the  mouth  of  the  ravine 
leading  to  Pfaffers  (q.v.),  whence  it  gets  its  heal- 
ing waters  by  a  pipe  (1838-40)  2|  miles  long. 
Schelling  is  buried  here.    Pop.  1896. 

Raglan  Castle,  a  noble  ruin,  7  miles  WSW.  of 
Monmouth,  was  the  seat  of  the  Herberts,  Earls 
and  Marquises  of  Worcester,  and  belongs  now  to 
the  Duke  of  Beaufort. 

Ragley  Hall,  Warwickshire,  1^  mile  SW.  of 
Alcester,  the  Marquis  of  Hertford's  seat  (1750). 

Ragu'sa  (u  as  oo ;  Slav.  Duhrovnik),  a  decayed 
city  of  Dalraatia,  stands  on  the  east  shore  of  the 
Adriatic,  100  miles  SE.  of  Spalato.  Greek  first 
and  then  Roman,  Ragusa  afterwards  became  an 
independent  republic,  and  so  maintained  itself 
until  1808  under  the  protection  successively  of 
Byzantium,  Venice,  Hungary,  and  the  Porte. 
Napoleon  in  1809  incorporated  Ragusa  in  Illyria ; 
and  since  1814,  like  the  rest  of  Dalmatia,  it  has 
belonged  to  Austria.  Ragusa  had  long  before 
this  declined  from  her  former  greatness,  having 
suffered  repeatedly  from  fires,  plagues,  and  earth- 
quakes. Chief  amongst  its  buildings  are  the 
palace  (1435-64)  of  the  rectors  (chief-magistrates), 
the  custom-house  and  mint  (c.  1312-1520),  the 
Dominican  church  (1306)  and  monastery  (1348), 
the  Franciscan  church  and  monastery  (1317), 
and  the  church  of  St  Biagio  (Blaise),  the  patron 
saint  of  the  town,  built  in  1348-52,  but  rebuilt 
in  1715.  The  old  cathedral  was  destroyed  by 
the  disastrous  earthquake  of  1667  ;  its  successor 
(1671-1713)  has  some  valuable  silver  ornaments. 
The  harbour  is  now  sanded  up.  Merchandise  is 
landed  and  shipped  at  the  harbour  of  Gravosa, 
to  the  N.  Pop.  13,170.  See  T.  G.  Jackson's 
Dalmatia  (vol.  ii.  1887). 

Ragusa  (anc.  Hybla  Hercea),  a  town  of  Sicily, 
31  miles  WSW.  of  Syracuse,  stands  on  the  Ragusa, 
14  miles  from  the  sea.    Pop.  31,943. 

Rahway  (Raw-way),  a  city  of  New  Jersey,  on 
the  Rahway  River,  4  miles  from  its  mouth,  and 
20  by  rail  W.  of  New  York.  It  manufactures 
carriages,  printing-presses,  &c.    Pop.  7995. 

Rai  BarelUy  (Rl  Baray'lee),  a  town  of  Oudh, 
stands  48  miles  SE.  of  Lucknow,  and  has  a  fort 
(15th  century),  a  magnificent  palace,  and  some 
fine  mosques.    Pop.  18,781. 

Ralchur,  a  town  of  Hyderabad  ;  pop.  22,174. 

Rainford,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  4  miles  NW. 
of  St  Helens.  It  manufactures  tobacco,  pipes, 
and  crucibles.     Pop.  3372. 

Rainham  Hall,  Norfolk,  the  seat  (1632)  of  the 
Marquis  of  Townshend,  3^  miles  SW.  of  Faken- 
ham. 

Rainier,  Mount.    See  Cascade  Range. 

Rainy  Lake,  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Ontario  and  the  United  States,  10  miles  W.  of 
Lake  Superior.  It  is  50  miles  long,  and  dis- 
charges by  Rainy  River  into  Lake  of  the  Woods. 

Raipur  (Rl-pore),  a  town  in  the  Central  Pro- 
vinces of  India,  stands  on  a  plateau  (950  feet), 
180  miles  E.  of  Nagpur.     Pop.  32,120. 

Rajamahendri  (nearly  as  RajaJimundry),  a 
Madras  town,  on  the  Godavari,  30  miles  from  its 
mouth.  From  1753  to  1758  it  was  held  by  the 
French.    Pop.  36,400. 

Rajkot,  chief  town  of  a  native  state  in  Kathi- 
8war,  Bombay  ;  pop.  36,150, 


Rajmahal,  a  decayed  town  of  India,  on  a  steep 
eminence  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ganges,  170 
miles  NNW.  of  Calcutta,  with  the  remains  of 
many  palaces.  In  800  it  had  25,000  inhabitants, 
but  now  less  than  4000. 

Rajputana  (Radjpootdh'na),  a  territory  of  India, 
embracing  twenty  native  states  and  the  British 
district  (2711  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  542,358)  of  Ajmere- 
Merwara.  It  lies  between  Sind  (on  the  W.)  and 
the  Punjab  (on  the  N.).  Its  total  area  is  132,979 
sq.  m.,  and  its  total  pop.  is  about  10,000,000. 
The  most  important  native  states  are  Jaipur, 
Jodlipur,  and  Udaipur;  next  follow  Alwar, 
Bhartpur,  Kotah,  and  Bikaner.  This  region  is 
crossed  by  the  Aravalli  Mountains,  and  consists 
in  great  part  of  sandy,  barren  plains.  It  gets  its 
name  froin  the  ruling  Aryan  race,  the  Rajputs,  a 
proud  aristocracy,  who  have  furnished  ruling 
dynasties  to  many  of  the  native  states. 

Rajshahi.    See  Rampur  Beauleah. 

Raleigh,  the  capital  of  North  Carolina,  is  near 
the  Neuse  River,  186  miles  (by  rail  271)  SSW.  of 
Richmond.  It  is  regularly  built  on  an  elevated 
site,  with  a  central  square,  from  which  four 
principal  streets  radiate,  each  99  feet  wide,  and 
in  which  stands  the  domed  granite  capitol,  which 
cost  over  $500,000.  The  city  manufactures  iron, 
clothing,  carriages,  &c.    Pop.  13,650. 

Ralik.    See  Marshall  Islands. 

Ramillies  (Fr.  pron.  Ra-viee-yee'),  a  village  of 
Brabant,  Belgium,  14  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Namur. 
Here,  on  May  23, 1706,  Marlborough  defeated  the 
French  under  Villeroy. 

Ramnag'ar,  (1)  an  Indian  town  of  the  North- 
west Provinces,  on  the  Ganges,  2  miles  above 
Benares  ;  pop.  11,859. — (2)  A  decayed  town  of  the 
Punjab,  on  the  Chenab  River ;  pop.  6830. 

Rampur',  the  capital  of  a  native  state  (945  sq. 
m.  ;  pop.  551,249)  in  the  North-west  Provinces, 
on  the  river  Kosila,  110  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Delhi. 
It  manufactures  damask,  pottery,  sword-blades, 
and  jewellery.    Pop.  80,000. 

Rampur  Bauleah,  chief  town  of  the  Rajshahi 
district  (area,  2361  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,338,638)  of 
Eastern  Bengal,  stands  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Ganges.     Pop.  21,407. 

Ramsbottom,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  on  the 
Irwell,  4  miles  N.  of  Bury.  The  first  Sir  Robert 
Peel  established  calico-printing  here,  and  it  now 
has  manufactures  of  cottons,  calicoes,  ropes, 
machines,  &c.  Here  lived  the  Grants,  the 
'  Cheeryble  brothers '  of  Nicholas  Nickleby.  Pop. 
16,000. 

Ramsey,  (l)  a  seaport  and  watering-place  in 
the  north  of  the  Isle  of  Man,  14  miles  NNB.  of 
Douglas,  and  by  rail  (1879)  18  NE.  of  Peel.  It 
stands  on  a  spacious  bay,  with  a  good  sandy  beach 
and  a  background  of  wooded  hills  (1842  feet),  and 
from  its  beauty  and  salubrity  has  risen  into  a 
favourite  resort.  It  has  two  promenades,  a  park, 
salt-water  lake,  a  pier  730  yards  long,  and  steam- 
boat communication  with  Liverpool,  Fleetwood, 
Glasgow,  Greenock,  Whitehaven,  and  Douglas. 
Population,  5000.— (2)  A  market-town  of  Hunt- 
ingdonshire, 12  miles  NNE.  of  Huntingdon.  It 
has  a  branch-line  (1863)  and  remains  of  a  mitred 
Benedictine  abbey  (969).  Pop.  5000.  Ramsey  Mere 
is  long  since  drained,  and  bears  rich  wheat  crops. 

Ramsgate,  a  watei-ing-place  of  Kent,  in  the 
south-east  of  the  Isle  of  Thanet,  72  miles  E.  by 
S.  of  London,  4  SSE.  of  Margate,  and  15  ENE. 
of  Canterbury.  From  a  small  fishing-village  it 
began  to  increase  in  importance  during  the  18th 
century  through  successful  trade  with  Russia, 


RANCHI 


981 


RATHO 


and  through  the  formation  here  (1750-95)  of  a 
harbour  of  refuge  for  the  Downs.  That  harbour, 
51  acres  in  extent,  with  a  sea-entrance  250  feet 
Wide,  is  enclosed  on  the  east  and  west  by  two 
piers  670  and  520  yards  long.  The  aspect  of  the 
place,  which  George  Eliot  calls  '  a  strip  of  London 
come  out  for  an  airing,'  is  familiar  through  Frith's 
'  Ramsgate  Sands '  (1854) ;  among  its  special 
features  are  an  obelisk  marking  the  spot  where 
George  IV.  in  1821  embarked  for  Hanover,  an 
iron  promenatle  pier  (1881),  the  fine  Granville 
Hotel,  a  beautiful  Roman  Catholic  church  by  the 
Pugins,  a  Benedictine  monastery,  college,  and 
convent,  and  a  Jewish  synagogue  and  college, 
erected  by  Sir  Moses  Montetiore,  who,  like  the 
elder  Pugin,  was  a  resident.  To  the  north  is 
Broadstairs  (q.v.),  beloved  of  Dickens;  and  to 
the  west  Pegwell  Bay,  with  Bbbsfleet,  the  land- 
ing-place of  St  Augustine,  and  also,  traditionally, 
of  Hengist  and  Horsa.  Here,  too,  is  Osengall 
Hill,  with  an  early  Saxon  cemetery.  Ramsgate 
was  incorporated  in  1884.  Pop.  (1851)  11,838; 
(1881)  22,683  ;  (1901)  27,733.  See  James  Simson's 
Historic  Thanet  (1891). 

Ranclil  (Rantcliee),  a  town  of  Lohardaga  district, 
Bengal.     Pop.  26,000. 

Rand,  or  Witwatersrandt.  See  Johannes- 
burg. 

Randazzo  (Randat'zo),  a  town  of  Sicily,  at  the 
northern  foot  of  Mount  Etna.    Pop.  9908. 

Randers,  a  town  in  Jutland,  on  the  Randers- 
Fiord,  20  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Cattegat. 
Pop.  21,000. 

Ranelagh  (Ran'e-la),  North  and  South,  two 
suburbs  of  Dublin,  lying  south  of  the  city. 

Rangoon',  the  capital  of  Burma,  stands  on  the 
Hlaing  or  Rangoon  River,  20  miles  from  its 
entrance  into  the  Gulf  of  Martaban.  The  existing 
city  is  almost  entirely  modern,  built  since  the 
British  took  possession  in  1852.  It  extends  along 
the  left  bank  of  the  Hlaing,  the  docks  being 
opposite  to  it  at  the  suburb  of  Da-la,  on  the 
other  side  of  the  river.  Behind  is  the  large 
military  cantonment,  grouped  round  the  fortified 
hill  (166  feet)  on  which  stands  the  Shway-Dagon 
pagoda,  '  the  most  venerated  object  of  worship 
in  all  the  Indo-Chinese  countries.*  It  is  built 
of  brick,  is  lavishly  gilded,  and  tapers  up  to  a 
cone  321  feet  high  ;  it  is  said  to  have  been  erected 
in  the  6th  century  B.C.  The  streets  are  laid  out 
regularly  ;  the  river  is  carefully  embanked  ;  there 
are  five  markets  and  an  excellent  water-supply ; 
the  thoroughfares  are  well  lighted  and  traversed 
by  tramway  cars  ;  and  there  has  been  an  elective 
municipality  since  1883.  Forts  and  batteries 
protect  the  town.  The  principal  buildings  are 
the  public  and  governmental  offices,  the  Anglican 
cathedral  (whose  foundation-stone  was  laid  by 
Lord  Dufferin  in  1886),  the  native  pagodas,  the 
chief  jail  of  Lower  Burma,  the  Phayre  Museum 
in  the  horticultural  gardens,  St  John's  College, 
the  high  school,  a  hospital,  &c.  Along  the  river- 
side are  numerous  rice-husking-mills  and  saw- 
mills. Pop.  (1852)  25,000 ;  (1872)  89,897  ;  (1881) 
134,176  ;  (1901)  234,885.  Rangoon  is  the  chief  port 
of  Burma  (q.v.),  about  86  per  cent,  of  the  total 
trade  of  that  country  passing  in  and  out  here. 
Under  British  sway,  its  trade  has  grown  wonder- 
fully. A  town  has  existed  here  since  the  6th 
century  B.C.,  which  was  called  Dagon  till  its 
capture  by  the  Burmese  sovereign  Alompra  in 
1760,  when  it  was  renamed  and  rebuilt.  It  was 
first  held  by  the  British  in  1825-27. 
Rangpur'  (u  aa  oo),  a  town  of  Bengal,  on  the 


Ghaghat.  an  arm  of  the  Brahmaputra,  110  miles 
SE.  of  Darjiling.    Pop.  14,500. 

Rannoch,  a  bleak,  desolate  moorland  of  north- 
west Perthshire,  with  a  mean  elevation  of  1000 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  measuring  28  miles  by 
15.  It  is  crossed  by  the  West  Highland  Railway 
(1894).  In  its  western  part  is  Loch  Lydoch  (5J 
miles  X  i  mile ;  924  feet  above  sea-level),  which 
winds  amid  flat  and  dismal  scenery.  Stretching 
eastward  from  the  moor  is  Loch  Rannoch  (9| 
miles  X  1^  mile ;  668  feet),  which  is  overhung 
by  Schiehallion,  contains  a  crannog  with  a  later 
fortress,  and  sends  off  the  Tummel  29  miles  E., 
and  SSE,  to  the  Tay.  Loch  Tummel  (2|  miles  x* 
i  mile  ;  480  feet)  is  an  expansion  of  this  river,  on 
which  are  also  the  Falls  of  Tummel,  20  feet  high. 
Rapallo,  a  winter  health-resort  of  Northern 
Italy,  17  miles  by  rail  ESE.  of  Genoa,  with  a 
castle  and  the  pilgrimage  church  of  the  Madonna 
(1557)  on  the  Monte  Allegro.     Pop.  5625. 

Raph'oe,  a  market-town  of  Donegal,  15  miles 
SSW.  of  Londonderry.    Its  former  see  was  united 
to  Derry  in  1835.     Pop.  803. 
Rapidan.    See  Rappahannock. 
Rappahannock,  a  river  of  Virginia,  rises  in 
the  Blue  Ridge  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains,  re- 
ceives the  Rapidan,  and  flows  125  miles  south- 
east to  Chesapeake  Bay.    It  is  tidal  and  navigable 
to  Fredericksburg. 
Raratong'a.    See  Cook  Islands. 
Ras'tatt,  or  Rastadt,  a  fortified  town  of  Baden, 
on  the  Murg,  3  miles  from  the  Rhine,  and  15  SW. 
of  Carlsruhe.    Steel  wares,  beer,  and  tobacco  are 
manufactured.     Pop.  14,000. 

Ras'trick,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Calder, 

with    cotton    and    woollen    manufactures   and 

quarries,  now  incorporated  with  Brighouse  (q.v.). 

Ratak.     See  Marshall  Islands. 

Rathang'an,   a   market-town    on   the   Little 

Barrow,  6  miles  NW.  of  Kildare.     Pop.  615. 

Rathdowney,  a  town  in  Queen's  County,  3J 
miles  S.  of  Ballybrophy  station.    Pop.  1046. 

Rathdrum',  a  market-town  on  the  Avonmore, 
9  miles  SW.  of  Wicklow.     Pop.  644. 

Rathenow  (Rdh'te-yiow),  a  town  of  Prussia,  on 
the  Havel's  right  bank,  43  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Berlin.     Pop.  22,500. 

Rathfry'land,  a  Down  market-town,  9  miles 
SE.  of  Newry.    Pop.  1290. 

Rathkeale',  a  town  of  Ireland,  on  the  river 
Deel,  19  miles  SW.  of  Limerick  by  rail.  Pop.  1750. 
Rath'lin,  a  crescent-shaped  island  off  the  coast 
of  Antrim,  6^  miles  N.  of  Ballycastle.  Measur- 
ing 6j  by  1^^  miles,  and  3398  acres  in  area,  it  has 
fine  cliffs,  and  attains  a  maximum  altitude  of  449 
feet.  The  valleys  are  fertile,  but  fishing  is  the 
leading  industry.  Rathlin  is  identified  with  the 
Ricinia  of  Ptolemy,  and  Raghlin  or  Ragherin 
('  fortress  of  Ireland ')  of  later  writers.  St 
Columba  established  a  church  here  in  the  6th 
century ;  and  Bruce  in  1306  took  refuge  in  a 
castle,  now  a  ruin.     Pop.  300. 

Rathmel'ton,  or  Ramelton,  a  Donegal  market- 
town,  on  Lough  Swilly,  7  miles  NE.  of  Letter- 
kenny.    Pop.  1165. 
Rath'mines,  a  S.  suburb  of  Dublin. 
Rathmullen,   a  Donegal  village,   on  Lough 
Swilly,  7  miles  NE.  of  Rathmelton.     Pop.  511. 
Rathnew',  a  village,  2  miles  W.  of  Wicklow. 
Rath'o,  a  Midlothian  village,  8  miles  WSW.  of 
Edinburgh.    Pop.  755. 


ftATlBOft 


682 


READINa 


ftatibor',  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the 
Ofler,  44  miles  SSE.  of  Oppeln,  chief  town  of  the 
principality  of  Ratibor,  from  1288  to  1532,  since 
1742  subject  to  Prussia.  It  manufactures  iron, 
tobacco,  shoes,  paper,  glass,  sugar,  &c.  Pop. 
30,750. 

Rat'isbon  (Ger.  Regensburo),  a  town  of 
Bavaria,  on  the  Danube's  right  bank,  82  miles  by 
rail  NNE.  of  Munich.  Formerly  a  free  city  of 
the  empire  and  seat  of  the  Diet,  Ratisbon  pre- 
sents a  mediaeval  character,  with  narrow,  crooked 
streets,  and  high  gabled  houses.  The  noble 
Gothic  cathedral,  begun  in  1275,  was  not  com- 
pleted till  1534.  The  church  of  the  Irish  (Scoti) 
Benedictines  dates  from  the  12th  century,  and  is 
built  in  the  pure  Byzantine  style.  The  old  town- 
hall  was  (1645-1806)  the  place  of  meeting  for  the 
Imperial  diet.  There  are  also  the  Thurn  and 
Taxis  Palace,  the  royal  villa,  &c.  A  stone  bridge 
(1135-46),  1024  feet  long,  connects  Ratisbon  with 
the  busy  trading  suburb  of  Stadt  am  Hof.  The 
manufactures  include  porcelain  and  stoneware, 
brass  and  steel  wares,  leather,  tobacco,  lead- 
pencils,  chemicals,  &c.,  and  there  is  an  active 
trade,  especially  in  corn  and  salt.  Pop.  (1875) 
81,487;  (1900)46,215.  Originally  a  Celtic  town, 
Radasbona  was  made  by  the  Romans  a  frontier 
fortress  ;  later  it  was  the  capital  of  the  Dukes  of 
Bavaria,  and  one  of  the  inost  populous  cities  of 
southern  Germany.  Here  were  signed  the  Rat- 
isbon Interim  in  1541  and  the  armistice  between 
France  and  Austria  in  1684.  The  city  was 
stormed  by  Bernhard  of  Weimar  in  1633,  and  by 
both  Austrians  and  French  in  1809.  It  was 
ceded  to  Bavaria  in  1810. 

Ratlam.    See  Rutlam. 

Ratnaglri  (nearly  as  Rutrmgher'ry),  a  coast- 
town  of  India,  136  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Bombay. 
Pop  14,500. 

Rattray,  a  police-burgh  of  Perthshire,  on  the 
Ericht,  opposite  Blairgowrie,    Pop.  2025. 

Ratzeburg,  a  town  of  Lauenburg,  35  miles 
ENE.  of  Hamburg.  Here  Coleridge  learned  Ger- 
man.    Pop.  4315. 

Ravelston,  a  seat  of  the  Keiths,  2^  miles  W.  of 
Edinburgh. 

Ravenglass,  a  Cumberland  seaport,  4^  miles 
N.  by  W.  of  Bootle. 

Ravenna,  a  walled  city  of  Italy,  43  miles  E.  of 
Bologna,  once  close  to,  but  now  some  5  miles  from 
the  Adriatic,  with  which  it  is  connected  by  the 
Corsini  Canal.  It  has  been  the  seat  of  an  arch- 
bishop since  438,  and  possesses  a  museum,  a  public 
library,  a  picture-gallery,  municipal  buildings 
(with  a  leaning  tower),  a  theatre,  &c.  It  manufac- 
tures silk,  linen,  paper,  and  glass.  The  streets  are 
wide,  and  the  squares  are  adorned  with  statues 
of  the  popes.  Pop.  64,000.  Deserted  by  the  sea, 
and  strongly  entrenched  by  canals  and  marshes, 
Ravenna  became  the  refuge  of  the  Emperor 
Honorius  (402),  and  the  capital  of  Italy  for  the 
next  350  years.  It  attained  its  greatest  glory 
under  Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth  (493-526),  whose 
mausoleum  (La  Rotonda)— now  empty— is  with- 
out the  walls.  Conquered  by  the  generals  of 
Justinian,  Ravenna  was  the  seat  of  exarchs  from 
Constantinople  until  752,  when  it  was  taken  by 
the  Lombards,  and  afterwards  by  the  Franks,  by 
whom  it  was  gifted  to  the  pope.  A  republic  in 
the  early  part  of  the  13th  century,  governed  by 
its  own  dukes  in  the  14th,  subject  to  Venice  after 
1440,  it  was  won  by  Pope  Julius  II.  in  1509,  and 
continued  papal  until  1860.  There  are  at  least 
six  churches  of  the  time  of  Galla  Placidia  (390- 


450),  the  sister  of  Honorius  and  mother  of  Valert- 
tinian  III.  The  round  campaniles,  perhaps  of  the 
10th  century,  form  an  architectural  feature 
peculiar  to  Ravenna.  Dante  died  at  Ravenna 
in  1321,  and  is  buried  there.  A  column,  2  miles 
from  the  walls,  commemorates  the  fall  of  Gaston 
de  Foix  at  the  head  of  the  French  army  of 
Louis  XII.,  after  a  bloody  and  useless  victory 
over  the  papal  and  Spanish  troops  in  1512. 
Byron  resided  at  Ravenna,  1819-21. 

Ravensburg  (Rdh-fens-boorg),  a  town  of  Wiir- 
temberg,  11  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Friedrichsha- 
fen  on  Lake  Constance.     Pop.  13,467. 

Ravenspur.    See  H umber. 

Ravi.    See  Punjab. 

Rawal  Pindi,  a  town  and  military  station  of 
the  Punjab,  lies  between  the  rivers  Indus  and 
Jhelum,  160  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Lahore.  It 
has  an  arsenal  (1883),  a  fort,  a  public  park,  and 
an  active  transit-trade  with  Cashmere  and  Af- 
ghanistan. Here  the  Sikhs  surrendered  in  1849. 
Pop.  (1868)  28,586  ;  (1881)  52,980  ;  (1901)  87,688. 

Rawdon,  a  York.shire  town,  6  miles  NE.  of 
Bradford,  with  cloth  manufactures.     Pop.  3177. 

Rawitsch  {Rdh'vitch),  a  town  of  Prussia,  64 
miles  by  rail  S.  of  Posen.     Pop.  11,919. 

Rawmarsh,  a  Yorksliire  town,  2\  miles  N.  by 
E.  of  Rotherham,  witli  china  and  iron  works  and 
collieries.     Pop.  (1851)  2533  ;  (1901)  14,587. 

Rawtenstall,  a  town  of  Lancasliire,  4  miles 
W.  of  Bacup.  A  municipal  borough  (1891),  it 
manufactures  cottons  and  woollens.     Pop,  31,050. 

R6,  tLE  DE  (Raij ;  Rex  insula),  is  a  small,  low- 
lying  island  off  the  French  dep.  of  Charente- 
Inferieure,  opposite  La  Rochelle.  It  is  18  miles 
long  and  3  broad,  measures  28  sq.  m.,  and  has 
about  14,000  inhabitants,  who  make  salt.  The 
west  coast  is  rocky ;  on  the  east  are  good  har- 
bour.s.  Oyster-farming  is  an  industry,  and  wine 
is  exported.  The  chief  town,  St  Martin  (pop. 
2523),  was  fortified  by  Vauban.  Ars  and  La 
Flotte  have  1547  and  2-593  inhabitants. 

Reading  (Red'ding),  a  municipal,  parliament- 
ary, and  county  borough,  capital  of  Berkshire, 
on  the  Kennet,  near  its  influx  to  the  Thames, 
36  miles  by  rail  W.  of  London  (by  road 
39,  by  river  74).  Its  castle  was  wholly  de- 
molished by  Henry  II.  ;  but  the  splendid  Bene- 
dictine abbey,  founded  in  1121  by  Henry  I.,  who 
was  buried  here,  is  represented  by  considerable 
ruins  and  a  fine  gateway,  restored  in  1861,  and 
surrounded  by  public  gardens.  Nine  parlia- 
ments were  held  within  its  hall ;  the  last  of  its 
mitred  abbots  was  hanged  by  Henry  VIII. ,  with 
two  of  the  brethren.  There  are  handsome  muni- 
cipal buildings  arid  two  excellent  town-halls, 
a  lofty  clock-toAver,  a  free  library,  concert  room, 
museum,  &c.  Other  buildings  are  the  Italian 
assize  courts  (1861) ;  a  large  grammar-school 
(1486;  rebuilt  1870-71),  of  which  Dr  Valpy 
was  long  head-master;  St  Lawrence's  Church 
(1434 ;  restored  1868),  with  a  large  flint  tower  189 
feet  high ;  and  the  Royal  Berkshire  Hospital. 
Drainage-works  were  completed  in  1874,  water- 
works in  1878  ;  and  the  largest  (59  acres)  of  three 
public  parks  was  gifted  in  1891  by  Mr  G.  Palmer. 
Reading  is  an  important  mart  for  corn  and  other 
agricultural  produce,  and  has  manufactures  of 
iron,  paper,  sauce,  &c.,  whilst  two  of  its  in- 
dustrial establishments  are  world-famous— 
Huntley  and  Palmer's  huge  biscuit  factory  and 
Sutton's  seed-emporium.  Reading,  which  is  in 
the  diocese  of  Oxford,  gives  title  to  a  suffragan 
bishop.     Its  representation  was  reduced  from 


&£ADiN(i 


583 


reginA 


two  to  one  in  18S5,  when,  however,  the  parlia- 
mentary borough  was  extended.  The  first  charter 
was  granted  by  Edward  III.  Pop.  (1851)  21,456  ; 
(1891)  55,666;  county  borough  (1901)  72,217. 
Reading  suffered  much  from  the  Danes  between 
868  and  1006,  and  in  1643  surrendere<l  to  Essex 
after  a  ten  days'  siege.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Archbishop  Laud,  Justice  Talfourd,  and  Goldwin 
Smith.  It  has  memories  also  of  Chaucer  and 
Bunyan.  See  works  by  Coates  (1802-9),  Man 
(1816),  Doran  (1835),  and  J.  B.  Jones  (1870). 

Reading,  (1)  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  capital  of 
Berks  county,  on  the  Schuylkill  River,  58  miles 
by  rail  NW.  of  Philadelpliia.  It  draws  from  the 
neighbouring  hills  its  water-supply  and  abun- 
dant iron  ore,  the  principal  manufactories  being 
iron  and  steel  works.  It  also  makes  shoes,  hats, 
beer,  cigars,  leather,  paper,  bricks,  &,c.  Settled 
in  1748,  it  became  a  city  in  1847.  Pop.  (1880) 
43,278  ;  (1900)  78,961,  many  of  German  descent.— 
(2)  A  town  of  Massachusetts,  12  miles  NW.  of 
Boston.     Pop.  5000. 

Recanati,  a  town  of  Italy,  15  miles  S.  of 
Aucona,  has  a  Gothic  cathedral.  Here  Leopardi 
was  born.  Pop.  15,590.  Porto  Recanati,  on  the 
Adriatic,  6  miles  NE.,  has  a  pop.  of  5000. 

Recife  (Uay-see'fey).    See  Pernambuco. 

Recklinghausen,  a  town  of  Westphalia,  22 
miles  NW.  of  Dortmund.     Pop.  35,000. 

Reculver,  a  village  of  Kent,  1  mile  from  the 
sea,  and  9  miles  W.  of  Margate,  with  remains  of 
the  Roman  station  Regulbium.    Pop.  294, 

Red'car,  a  popular  bathing-resort  in  the  North 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  10  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Middlesborough,  Its  smooth,  firm  sands  stretch 
10  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  Tees  to  Saltburn. 
Pop.  (1851)  1032  ;  (1901)  7695. 

Redditch,  a  busy  town  on  the  borders  of 
Worcester  and  Warwick  shires,  stands  on  an 
acclivity  13  miles  SSW.  of  Birmingham  by  rail. 
Needles,  pins,  fish-hooks,  and  fishing-tackle  are 
made  extensively.  Pop.  (1851)  4802  ;  (1901)13,493. 

Redesdale,  the  valley  of  the  river  Reed  in 
Northumberland,  extending  21  miles  SE.  and 
SW.  from  the  Scottish  border,  until  it  opens  into 
the  valley  of  the  North  Tyne  at  Reedsmouth. 
Watling  Street  traverses  its  middle  and  xipper 
part.  Near  the  southern  end  of  Redesdale  is  the 
famous  field  of  Otterburn  (q.v.) ;  and  near  its 
source  was  fought  the  'Raid  of  the  Redeswire,' 
7th  July  1575.  The  men  of  Redesdale  of  old 
were  brave  and  turbulent,  and  bore  more  than 
their  share  in  Border  feuds  and  forays. 

Redout  Kale  (Redoot'  Kah-lay'),  a  fortified  post 
on  the  Black  Sea  coast  of  Caucasia,  10  miles  N. 
of  Poti,  captured  by  the  British  fleet  in  1854. 

Red  River,  the  lowest  western  tributary  of  the 
Mississippi,  rises  near  the  eastern  border  of  New 
Mexico,  and  flows  1600  miles  E.  and  SE.  through 
or  along  the  borders  of  Texas,  Indian  Territory, 
Arkansas,  and  Louisiana,  till  it  enters  the  Missis- 
sippi below  31°  N.  lat.  Of  its  feeders  the  Washita 
(Ouachita)  is  the  most  important. 

Red  River  of  the  North,  a  navigable  river  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada,  rises  in  Elbow 
Lake,  Minnesota,  near  the  sources  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, forms  the  boundary  between  Minnesota 
and  North  Dakota,  and  flows  into  Manitoba  and 
through  a  flat  country  to  Lake  Winnipeg.  Its 
course  is  665  miles  (525  in  the  United  States). 
The  Red  River  rebellion  of  the  Canadian  half- 
breeds  (1869-70)  was  headed  by  Louis  Riel,  and 
suppressed  by  Colonel  (Lord)  Wolseley. 

Red  River  Settlement.    See  Manitoba. 


Redruth  (Red'rooth),  a  town  of  Cornwall,  on 
a  hillside  (414  feet)  in  the  centre  of  a  great 
mining-district,  9  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Truro. 
It  has  a  town-hall  (1850),  public  rooms  (1861),  a 
miners'  hospital  (1863),  &c.  William  Murdock 
here  in  1792  first  used  gas  for  lighting  purposes. 
Pop.  10,450. 

Red  Sea,  an  arm  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  running 
NNW.  from  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  with  which  it 
communicates  by  the  Strait  of  Bab-el-Mandeb, 
13^  miles  across.  Its  length  is  about  1200  miles, 
and  its  greatest  breadth  205  milas ;  it  narrows 
towards  the  southern  entrance,  while  in  the 
north  it  is  divided  by  the  peninsula  of  Sinai 
into  two  gulfs,  the  Gulf  of  Suez,  170  miles  long 
by  30  miles  wide,  and  the  Gulf  of  Akaba,  100 
miles  in  length.  The  Arabian  coasts  of  the  Red 
Sea  are  usually  narrow  sandy  plains  backed  by 
ranges  of  barren  mountains ;  the  African  coasts 
towards  the  north  are  flat  and  sandy,  but  south- 
wards high  tablelands  rise  inland,  culminating 
farther  south  in  the  lofty  mountains  of  Abyssinia. 
A  marked  feature  of  the  Red  Sea  is  found  in  the 
partly  upraised  coral-reefs  running  parallel  to 
both  eastern  and  western  shores ;  the  Farisan 
Archipelago  is  in  the  eastern  and  larger  reef,  and 
the  island  of  Dahlak,  off  Annesley  Bay,  in  the 
western  reef.  There  is  also  a  volcanic  group 
lying  in  14°  N.  lat.,  the  largest  of  which  rises 
2074  feet.  The  principal  harbours  are  Mocha, 
Hodeida,  Lokeyyah,  Jiddah,  and  Yenbo'  on  the 
Arabian  coast,  and  Massowah,  Khor  Nowarat, 
and  Suakim  on  the  African  coast.  A  great  trade 
route  till  the  rounding  of  the  Cape  of  Good 
Hope,  the  Red  Sea  has  become  a  vastly  more 
important  route  since  the  construction  of  the 
Suez  Canal.  The  tides  are  very  variable,  depend- 
ing largely  on  the  direction  and  force  of  the  winds. 
The  mean  temperature  of  the  air  generally  ranges 
between  70°  and  94°  F.  during  the  day,  though 
readings  of  over  100°  are  often  registered  in  the 
shade ;  but  during  the  night  the  temperature 
may  fall  to  the  freezing-point,  owing  to  radiation 
in  the  clear  and  cloudless  atmosphere.  The 
mean  temperature  of  the  surface  water  varies 
at  the  northern  end  between  about  65°  and  79° 
F.,  in  the  central  regions  between  75°  and  86°, 
and  at  the  southern  end  between  78°  and  89°. 
The  salinity  of  the  water  is  almost  constant 
at  about  1"030  (ordinary  ocean  water  is  about 
1-026).  No  rivers  flow  into  it,  little  rain  falls, 
and  evaporation  is  excessive.  The  greatest  depth, 
near  the  centre,  is  about  1200  fathoms,  and  the 
mean  depth  about  375  fathoms.  The  marine 
fauna  and  flora  are  extensive.  The  origin  of  the 
name — Lat.  Mare  Ruhrum  and  Gr.  Erythra 
Thalassa— is  much  disputed. 

Ree,  Lough,  a  lake  between  Connaught  and 
Leinster,  is  an  expansion  of  the  Shannon  (q.v.). 

Reed.    See  Redesdale. 

Regalbu'to  (u  as  oo),  a  town  of  Sicily,  25  miles 
WNW.  of  Catania.     Pop.  12,250. 

Regensburg  (Ray' gens-boorg').    See  Ratisbon. 

Reggie  {Red' jo ;  anc.  Rhegium  Julii),  (1)  a  sea- 
port of  South  Italy,  stands  on  the  Strait  of 
Messina,  9  miles  SE.  of  the  city  of  Messina  in 
Sicily.  It  has  a  fine  archiepiscopal  cathedral, 
and  manufactures  silks,  scented  waters,  gloves, 
stockings,  and  caps.  Pop.  44,500.  — (2)  A  walled 
city  of  Central  Italy,  Ariosto's  birthplace,  on  the 
ancient  Via  Emilia,  17  miles  by  rail  SE.  of 
Parma.  It  has  a  15th-century  cathedral,  a  fine 
theatre,  and  a  model  lunatic  asylum.   Pop.  60,000. 

Regina  {Rejl'na),  capital  of  the  Canadian  proV' 


fiEICHENBACd 


584 


fl£MON 


Ince  of  Saskatchewan  as  constituted  in  1905,  and 
including  Assiniboia  (of  which  it  was  capital), 
357  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Winnipeg.     Pop.  2650. 

Relchenbach  (Rl'hhen-bahh),  (1)  a  manufactur- 
ing town  of  Saxony,  11  miles  SW.  of  Zwickau,  pro- 
duces woollen  fabrics — merinoes,  flannel,  shawls, 
quilts,  cashmere — and  has  wool-spinning,  dyeing, 
and  calico-printing  works.  Pop.  25,500. — (2)  A 
town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  46  miles  by  rail  SE.  of 
Liegnitz.     Pop.  15,250. 

Reichenberg  (Rl'hhen-herg),  the  chief  seat  of 
the  cloth  manufacture  in  North  Bohemia,  stands 
on  the  Neisse,  86  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Prague. 
Apart  from  the  principal  industry,  which  dated 
from  the  16th  century,  and  in  which,  in  the  town 
and  neighbourhood,  some  10,000  workmen  are 
employed,  cotton  and  woollen  fabrics,  machinery, 
and  leather  are  manufactured.     Pop.  35,000. 

Reichenhall  (Rl'hMn-hdl),  an  Alpine  spa  in 
the  extreme  south-east  of  Bavaria,  10  miles  SW, 
of  Salzburg.  It  was  handsomely  rebuilt  after 
the  great  tire  in  1834.  It  is  the  chief  centre  of 
the  Bavarian  salt-works,  and  in  the  manufacture 
of  salt  its  inhabitants  are  mostly  employed, 
though  the  delightful  air  of  the  valley  in  which 
it  stands,  and  its  fifteen  saline  springs,  attract 
about  6000  visitors  every  summer.     Pop.  4200. 

Reigate  (Rl'gayt),  a  thriving  market-town  of 
Surrey,  at  the  southern  base  of  the  North  Downs, 
21  miles  S.  of  London.  Of  the  castle  of  the  Earls 
of  Warrenne  little  remains  save  a  grassy  mound, 
with  large  vaults  or  caverns  beneath  it.  The 
church,  with  Transition  Norman  piers,  but  mainly 
Perpendicular,  contains  the  grave  of  Lord  Howard 
of  Effingham,  and  a  library  (1701)  with  some 
curious  MSS.  and  many  of  Evelyn's  books.  Other 
buildings  are  the  public  hall  (1861)  and  the 
grammar-school  (1675).  Foxe  the  martyrologist 
is  claimed  for  a  resident ;  and  Archbishop  Usher 
died  here.  Till  1832  Reigate  returned  two  mem- 
bers, then  one  till  1867.  It  became  a  municipal 
borough  in  1863.    Pop.  (1851)  4927',  (1901)  25,993. 

Reiklavik  (RWya-vik).    See  Iceland. 

Reims.    See  Rheims. 

Rembang,  a  town  on  the  north  coast  of  Java, 
capital  of  a  residency  that  has  an  area  of  2896 
sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  1,500,000. 

Remiremont  (Re-meer-mon'"),  a  town  of  France 
(dep,.  Vosges),  on  the  Moselle,  17  miles  by  rail  SE. 
of  Epinal,  with  sawmills  and  muslin,  cotton,  and 
leather  factories.  It  was  the  seat  of  a  famous 
Benedictine  nunnery,  founded  in  620.    Pop.  8870. 

Remschieid  (Rem-shidc),  a  town  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  6  niiles  S.  of  Elberfeld-Barmen,  manu- 
factures iron  wares,  cutlery,  &c.  Pop.  (1871) 
22,017  ;  (1890)  40,371  ;  (1900)  58,100. 

Renaix  (Re-nay'),  a  Belgian  town,  25  miles  by 
rail  S.  by  W.  of  Ghent.    Pop.  20,100. 

Rendsburg  (u  as  oo),  a  town  of  Sleswick- 
Holstein,  on  the  North  Sea  and  Baltic  Canal,  19 
miles  W.  of  Kiel.     Pop.  14,730. 

Ren'frew,  an  ancient  royal  and  parliamentary 
burgh,  the  county  town  of  Renfrewshire,  stands 
on  the  south  bank  of  the  Clyde,  6  miles  below 
Glasgow.  A  knoll  called  Castlehill  marks  the 
site  of  the  original  seat  of  the  royal  house  of 
Stewart.  Anciently  the  chief  port  on  the  Clyde, 
Renfrew  has  still  a  small  wharf ;  and  there  is  some 
shipbuilding  and  weaving.  It  forms  one  of  the 
Kilmarnock  (q.v.)  group  of  burghs.  There  is  a 
town-hall  (1873).     Pop.  (1841)  2013  ;  (1901)  9296. 

RenfrewsMre,  a  Scottish  county,  bounded  N. 
by  the  river  and  firth  of  Clyde,  and  elsewhere  by 


Lanarkshire  and  Ayrshire.  It  is  31  miles  long 
by  13  broad,  and  contains  254  sq.  m.  or  162,428 
acres,  of  which  5642  are  water  and  foreshore. 
Pop.  (1801)  78,056  ;  (1881)  263,374  ;  (1901)  268,980. 
Till  1889  part  of  the  southern  suburbs  of 
Glasgow  was  reckoned  within  the  -'county. 
The  surface  is  irregular :  besides  the  low  lands 
fringing  the  Clyde,  there  are  three  principal 
valleys,  those  of  the  Gryfe,  Black  Cart,  and  White 
Cart,  with  upland  pastures  and  ranges  of  hills, 
the  highest  point  being  the  Hill  of  Stake  (1711 
feet)  on  the  Ayrshire  border.  Agriculture  and 
the  breeding  of  horses  and  cattle  are  carried  on 
with  success  ;  dairy-farming  is  largely  practised, 
owing  to  the  proximity  of  large  towns.  Rather 
less  than  two-thirds  of  the  whole  extent  is 
arable,  mainly  in  pasture  or  grass  crops.  The 
minerals  are  coal,  iron-stone,  copper,  barytes, 
shale,  and  lime.  Besides  mining  and  agriculture, 
the  chief  industries  are  the  manufacture  of  thread, 
cotton,  and  chemicals,  print  and  bleach  works, 
shipbuilding,  engineering,  and  sugar-refining. 
Renfrewshire  is  divided  into  two  wards,  Upper 
and  Lower,  and  two  parliamentary  divisions, 
eastern  and  western,  each  returning  one  member. 
The  chief  towns  are  Renfrew,  Paisley,  Greenock, 
Gourock,  Port-Glasgow,  Pollokshaws,  Johnstone, 
and  Barrhead.  Renfrewshire,  or  at  least  the 
western  portion,  was  anciently  called  Strathgryfe, 
and  it  was  the  chief  patrimony  of  the  house  of 
Stewart.  In  1404  the  title  of  Baron  of  Renfrew 
(still  borne  by  the  Prince  of  Wales)  was  conferred 
by  Robert  III.  on  his  son  James;  and  about  the 
same  time  Renfrew  was  disjoined  from  Lanark- 
shire and  made  a  separate  county.  See  Crawford's 
History  (1716),  and  Archceological  and  Historical 
Collections  (Paisley,  1885  et  seq.). 

Renl  (Rciy'nee),  a  Russian  town  of  Bessarabia, 
at  the  Pruth's  influx  to  the  Danube,  10  miles  E. 
of  Galatz.     Pop.  6000. 

Rennes  (Renn;  the  Condate  of  the  Redones), 
the  capital  formerly  of  the  province  of  Brittany, 
and  now  of  the  dep.  of  Ille-et-Vilaine,  is  situated 
at  the  confluence  of  those  two  rivers,  234  miles 
WSW.  of  Paris  and  51  SSE.  of  St  Malo.  A  seven 
days'  fire  in  1720  destroyed  nearly  4000  houses. 
The  most  noteworthy  of  the  public  buildings  are 
the  cathedral,  finished  in  1844,  and  Italian  in 
style ;  Notre  Dame,  with  its  dome  surmounted 
by  a  lauge  image  of  the  Virgin  ;  the  archbishop's 
palace  (1672) ;  the  stately  Palais  de  Justice  (1618- 
54) ;  the  university  buildings  (1855) ;  the  theatre 
(1835) ;  the  Hotel  de  Ville,  with  a  public  library  ; 
and  the  Lycee.  As  the  focus  of  railways  between 
Paris  and  the  north-west  of  France,  and  com- 
manding good  river  and  canal  navigation,  Rennes 
is  favourably  situated  for  coinmerce.  The  manu- 
factures include  sail-cloth,  table-linen,  &c.  Pop. 
(1872)  48,658  ;  (1901)  64,395. 

Renton,  a  town  of  Dumbartonshire,  on  the 
Leven's  right  bank,  2  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Dum- 
barton. Founded  in  1782,  it  has  a  Tuscan  column 
(1774)  to  the  novelist  Smollett,  who  was  born 
close  by,  and  it  carries  on  calico-printing,  dyeing, 
and  bleaching.     Pop.  5100. 

Repton,  a  Derbyshire  village,  6^  miles  SSW.  of 
Derby  and  4^  NE.  of  Burton-upo'n-Trent,  Here 
was  founded  the  first  Christian  church  in  Mercia. 
of  which  Repton  for  a  while  was  the  royal  ana 
episcopal  capital.  It  was  the  seat  from  before 
660  till  its  destruction  by  the  Danes  in  874  of  a 
celebrated  nunnery,  as  afterwards  of  an  Austin 
priory  from  1172  till  the  Dissolution.  Remains 
of  this  priory  are  incorporated  in  the  buildings 
of  the  free  grammar-school,  which,  founded  in 


i 


REQUENA 


586 


RHAYADER 


1556  by  Sir  John  Porte,  has  risen  to  be  one  of 
the  great  English  public  schools,  with  some  20 
masters  and  275  boarders.  The  ijarisli  church  has 
a  graceful  spire  and  a  very  interesting  Saxon 
crypt,  17  feet  square.  Pop.  of  parish,  1700.  See 
Bigsby's  History  ofRepton  (1854). 

Requena  (liay-kayn'ya),  a  town  of  Spain,  37 
miles  W.  of  Valencia.    Pop.  14,409. 

Reshd,  a  town  of  Persia,  capital  of  the  province 
of  Ghilan,  stands  near  the  south-west  shore  of 
the  Caspian  Sea,  150  miles  NW.  of  Teheran.  The 
port  is  Enzeli,  on  the  other  side  of  the  bay,  and 
16  miles  distant.    Pop.  35,000. 

Resina  (Rez'eena),  a  town  of  Italy,  4  miles  SE. 
of  Naples,  at  the  foot  of  Vesuvius,  and  facing  the 
sea.  It  is  built  on  the  site  of  ancient  Ilercu- 
laneum.    Pop.  16,626. 

Restalrig,  a  village  close  to  Jock's  Lodge  (q.v.). 

Restigouche  (Restigoosh'),  a  river  of  Canada, 
flowing  200  miles  SE.,  E.,  and  NE.  through  or 
along  the  borders  of  Quebec  and  New  Brunswick, 
into  the  Bay  of  Chaleurs. 

Retford,  East,  a  Nottinghamshire  market- 
town,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Idle,  an  affluent  of 
the  Trent,  24  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Sheffield  and  138 
NNW.  of  London.  It  has  a  handsome  town-hall 
(1867),  a  grammar-school  (1552 ;  rebuilt  1858), 
paper-mills,  iron-foundries,  &c.  It  was  incor- 
porated by  James  I.,  the  municipal  boundary 
being  extended  in  1878.  The  parliamentary 
borough  was  extended  in  1829  to  take  in  all 
Bassetlaw  wapentake— since  1885  one  of  the  four 
county  divisions.  Pop.  of  mun.  borough  (1851) 
2943 ;  (1901)  12,340.  See  a  History  by  Piercy  (1828). 

Rethel  (Re-teV),  a  French  town  (dep.  Ardennes), 
24  miles  NE.  of  Rheims.    Pop.  6019. 

Retime  (Retee'mo),  a  seaport  of  Crete,  on  its 
north  coast,  40  miles  W.  of  Candia.     Pop.  10,000. 

Reunion  (Fr.  pron.  nearly  Ray-een-yon^'),  a 
French  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  115  miles  SW. 
of  Mauritius  and  350  E.  of  Madagascar.  An  ellipse 
in  shape,  it  has  an  area  of  970  sq.  m.,  being  38 
miles  long  and  28  broad.  Population,  175,000, 
mostly  Creoles,  with  15,000  negroes  and  nearly 
30,000  natives  of  India.  The  backbone  of  the 
island  is  a  volcanic  range,  culminating  in  the 
Piton  de  Neiges  (10,069  feet),  and  in  Piton  de 
Fournaise(8612  feet),  an  active  volcano.  Streams, 
although  not  large,  are  very  numerous,  and  fall 
in  cascades  to  the  sea.  The  climate  is  hot,  but 
on  the  whole  not  unhealthy.  Cyclones  some- 
times do  serious  damage.  One-third  of  the 
island  is  cultivated,  one-third  under  timber,  and 
one-sixth  is  grass-land.  Tropical  fruits,  sugar 
(the  staple  crop),  coffee,  vanilla,  cinchona,  maize, 
vegetables  (potatoes,  &c.),  spices,  tobacco,  &c. 
are  grown.  By  far  the  chief  export  is  sugar ; 
coffee,  vanilla,  rum,  potatoes,  and  tapioca  are  the 
other  exports.  The  capital  is  St  Denis,  on  the 
north  coast,  with  33,000  inhabitants,  a  college, 
a  botanic  garden,  &c.  ;  it  is  a  bishop's  seat.  St 
Paul,  on  the  north-west,  has  29,000  inhabitants  ; 
St  Pierre,  on  the  south-west  coast,  25,000.  The 
coast  towns  are  connected  by  a  railway  78  miles 
long.  Reunion  and  Mauritius,  the  '  Mascarene 
Islands,'  were  discovered  by  the  Portuguese, 
Mascarenhas.  The  French  took  this  island  in 
1649,  calling  it  successively  tie  de  Bourbon, 
Reunion  (1798),  Isle  Bonaparte  (1809),  and  Re- 
union again  since  1848.  The  island  was  held  by 
Britain  from  1810  to  1815. 

Reus  (Ray'oos),  a  town  of  Spain,  58  miles  by 
rail  SW.  of  Barcelona  and  4  N.  of  its  seaport, 
Balou.    Its  prosperity  dates   from   1750,  when 


English  merchants  settled  here.  It  manufactures 
cotton,  silk,  ribbons,  wine,  soap,  brandy,  and 
leather.     Pop.  27,500. 

Reuss  (Rolss),  a  tributary,  190  miles  long,  of 
the  Aar  (q.v.),  in  Switzerland. 

Reuss  (Roiss),  two  sovereign  principalities  of 
Germany,  lying  between  Saxony,  Prussian 
Saxony,  and  Bavaria.  Since  1666  the  possessions 
of  the  House  of  Reuss  have  been  divided  between 
the  Elder  and  the  Younger  lines.  The  princi- 
pality of  Reuss-Greiz  (the  Elder  Line)  is  122  sq.  m. 
in  extent,  and  has  some  70,000  inhabitants  ;  the 
chief  town  is  Greiz  (q.v.).  Tlie  i)rincipality  9f 
the  Younger  Line  is  Reuss-Schleiz-Gera ;  area, 
319  sq.  m.  ;  population,  142,000;  capital,  Schleiz 
(q.v.).  Of  both  principalities  the  surface  is  hilly, 
being  traversed  by  the  Frankenwald  (Thiiringer 
Wald),  Avhose  sununits  exceed  2000  feet.  The 
chief  rivers  are  the  Saale  and  White  Elster. 

Reutlingen  (Roit'ling-en),  a  pleasant  town  of 
Wiirtemberg,  on  a  feeder  of  the  Neckar,  8  miles 
E.  by  S.  of  Tiibingen,  manufacturing  woollen  and 
cotton  yarns,  cloth,  leather,  cutlery,  hosiery, 
paper,  &c.  The  noble  church  of  St  Mary  (1247- 
1343),  has  a  tower  243  feet  high.    Pop.  21,500. 

Rev'al,  or  Revel,  a  Russian  seaport,  capital  of 
Esthonia,  stands  on  a  .small  bay  on  the  south  side 
of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  opposite  Helsingfors  (52 
iniles  distant),  and  232  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  St 
Petersburg.  The  (old)  upper  town  contains  the 
cathedral,  the  castle,  governor's  residence,  and 
the  houses  of  the  (German)  nobility.  There  are 
several  mediaeval  guild-houses,  and  an  important 
museum  of  antiquities.  Reval  exports  cereals 
(chiefly  oats),  spirits,  flax,  &c. ;  and  imports 
cotton,  coal,  &c.  Brandy,  vinegar,  and  wool  are 
manufactured.  Pop.  64,600,  one-half  being  Es- 
thonians,  and  one-fourth  of  German  descent. 
Founded  by  Waldemar  II.  of  Denmark  in  1219, 
Reval  became  a  flourishing  Hanse  town.  It  was 
long  held  (from  1346)  by  the  Livonian  Knights, 
was  made  over  to  Sweden  in  1561,  and  was  an- 
nexed to  Russia  in  1710. 

Revere,  a  town  and  bathing-place  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 5  miles  N.  of  Boston,  named  after  the 
patriot  Paul  Revere.    Pop.  11,000. 

Revilla-Gigedo  (Span.  pron.  Re-veel'ya-Hee- 
hay'do),  a  rocky  and  uninhabited  island-group 
in  the  Pacific,  400  miles  W.  of  the  coast  of 
Mexico,  to  which  it  belongs.  Socorro,  a  moun- 
tain-island 24  miles  long,  is  the  largest. 

Rewa  (Ray-wa),  the  principal  native  state  of 
Baghelkhand  (q.v.),  named  from  a  tributary  of 
the  Son,  which  flows  NE.  to  the  Ganges  near 
Dinapur ;  its  chief  town,  also  called  Rewa  (pop. 
24,626),  is  130  miles  SW.  of  Allahabad.— RewA 
Kantha  ('Banks  of  the  Rewa')  is  a  political 
agency  under  the  government  of  Bombay,  con- 
taining sixty-one  small  states,  mostly  tributary 
to  Baroda.  Covering  4980  miles,  with  a  pop.  of 
500,000,  it  lies  inainly  along  the  south  bank  of  the 
lower  Nerbudda,  and  on  the  west  borders  on 
Broach,  Baroda,  and  Ahmadabad. 

Rewari  {Ray-wah'ree),  a  town  of  Gurgaon  dis- 
trict, 50  miles  SW.  of  Delhi  by  rail.    Pop.  27,934. 

Reyk'javik.    See  Iceland. 

Rhastia  (Reeshia),  an  ancient  Roman  province 
embracing  a  large  part  of  the  Alpine  tract  be- 
tween the  basins  of  the  Po  and  the  Danube,  now 
included  in  the  Grisons  and  the  Austrian  Tyrol. 

Rhayader  (Welsh,  '  waterfall '),  a  Radnorshire 
(q.v.)  market-town,  on  the  Wye,  14  miles  S.  ol 
Llanidloes.    Pop.  of  parish,  788. 


586 


RHINE 


Rh6  (Bay),  Ile  de.    See  R^. 

Rhegium.     See  Reggio. 

Rheidol,  a  Cardiganshire  river,  flowing  22  miles 
to  the  sea  at  Aberystwith. 

Biheims  (Reems ;  Fr.  pron.  Ran^ss),  or  Reims, 
a  city  in  the  French  dep.  of  Marne,  situated  on 
the  Vesle  (a  tributary  of  the  Aisne),  100  miles 
ENE.  of  Paris  by  rail.  Strongly  fortilied  with 
detached  forts  since  the  Franco-German  war, 
when  it  was  for  a  time  the  German  headquarters, 
it  is  well  built,  and  has  a  picturesque  appearance. 
It  is  built  on  the  site  of  Durocortorum,  which 
Caesar  mentions  as  the  capital  of  the  Remi,  from 
whom  it  subsequently  took  its  present  name. 
Under  the  Frank  rule  it  was  a  place  of  much  im- 
portance, and  in  496  it  was  W^e  scene  of  the 
baptism  of  Clovis  and  his  chief  officers  by  the 
bishop,  St  Remy,  About  360  it  became  a 
bishopric,  and  in  the  8th  century  an  arch- 
bishopric. From  1179,  when  Philip  Augustus 
was  crowned  here,  it  was  the  coronation  place  of 
the  kings  of  France,  who  were  anointed  from  a 
vessel  of  sacred  oil,  the  Sainte  Ampoule,  said  to 
have  been  carried  to  St  Remy  from  heaven  by 
a  dove.  Joan  of  Arc  brought  the  dauphin 
hither,  and  the  only  sovereigns  down  to  1825 
not  crowned  at  Rheiins  were  Henry  IV.,  Napo- 
leon I.,  and  Louis  XVIII.  In  1793  the  cathe- 
dral was  attacked  by  the  populace,  and  the 
sainte  ampoule  smashed  by  a  sansculotte.  The 
cathedral  (1212-1430),  although  the  towers  of 
the  original  design  are  still  unfinished,  is  one 
of  the  finest  extant  specimens  of  Gothic  archi- 
tecture. Its  nave  is  466  feet  long  by  99  in 
breadth,  with  a  transept  of  160  feet,  and  the 
height  is  144  feet.  Its  grandest  features  are  the 
west  faQade,  which  is  almost  unrivalled,  with  its 
magnificent  doorway,  and  the  so-called  Angel 
Tower,  which  rises  59  feet  above  the  lofty  roof. 
The  Romanesque  church  of  St  Remy  (mainly 
1160-80),  with  the  saint's  shrine,  is  nearly  of 
equal  size.  Also  noteworthy  are  the  hotel-de- 
ville  (1627-1880);  the  ancient  'Maison  des 
Musiciens '  and  archiepiscopal  palace  ;  the  Porta 
Martis,  a  Roman  triumphal  arch  ;  the  Lycee,  re- 
presenting a  former  university  (1547-1793);  and 
statues  of  Louis  XV.  and  two  natives,  Colbert 
and  Marshal  Drouet.  Rheims  is  one  of  the 
principal  entrepots  for  the  wines  of  Champagne, 
and  the  hills  round  the  town  are  planted  with 
vineyards.  It  is  one  of  the  great  centres  of  the 
woollen  manufacture  in  France,  and  its  manu- 
factures, embracing  woollen  goods  (especially 
merinoes),  mixed  fabrics  in  silk  and  wool,  &c.,  are 
known  in  commerce  as  Articles  de  Reims.  Pop. 
(1872)71,397;  (1901)108,385. 

Rheingau  (Rine'gow),  a  wine-growing  district, 
14  miles  long,  stretching  along  the  right  bank  of 
the  Rhine,  from  opposite  Mainz  to  the  village  of 
Lorch,  8  miles  below  Bingen. 

Rhenisli  Prussia  (Ger.  Rheinland,  or  Rheiti- 
p-eussen),  the  most  western  and  most  thickly 
peopled  of  the  provinces  of  Prussia,  lies  on  the 
Rhine  and  Lower  Moselle,  and  is  bounded  W.  by 
Luxemburg,  Belgium,  and  the  Netherlands.  Long 
and  narrow,  it  extends  from  Cleves  in  the  north 
to  Saargemiind  in  the  south,  and  contains  Cologne, 
Aix-la-Chapelle  (Aachen),  Treves,  Coblenz  (the 
capital),  Elberfeld-Barmeu,  Essen,  Bonn,  Diissel- 
dorf,  and  Crefeld.  Area,  10,419  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
(1885)4,344,527;  (1900)  5,759,798,  of  whom  4,400,000 
were  Roman  Catholics  and  15,000  Walloons.  The 
surface  is  everywhere  more  or  less  mountainous, 
except  in  the  extreme  north,  reaching  2500  feet 
on  the  west  of  the  Rhine,  but  only  1800  on  the 


east  side.  The  valleys  of  the  Rhine,  Moselle,  and 
Nahe  are  very  fruitful,  and  so  are  the  flat  districts 
in  the  north.  Of  the  total  area,  64  i)er  cent,  is 
cultivated,  including  meadows  and  vineyards, 
and  nearly  31  per  cent,  under  forest.  More  than 
sixteen  million  tons  of  coal  are  mined  in  the  year, 
also  large  quantities  of  iron,  zinc,  and  lead  ore. 
The  sulphur-springs  of  Aix-la-Chapelle  and  Burt- 
scheid  have  a  European  reputation.  Industry  and 
manufactures  are  prosecuted  with  the  greatest 
energy  and  success,  this  province  ranking  first 
in  all  Prussia  in  this  respect.  It  was  formed  in 
1815  out  of  the  duchies  of  Cleves,  Jiilich  (Juliers), 
Guelders,  Berg,  &c. 

Rheydt  (Rife),  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  19 
miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  from  Dllsseldorf.  It  manu- 
factures silks,  velvets,  cottons,  machinery,  hard- 
ware, paper,  dyeworks,  and  breweries.  Pop. 
35,000. 

Rhin  (Ran^),  Bas  and  Haut,  until  1871  frontier 
deps.  of  France,  corresponded  nearly  to  what  are 
now  the  two  districts  of  Lower  and  Upper  Alsace, 
in  German  Alsace-Lorraine  (q.v.).     See  Belfort. 

Rhine  (Ger.  Rhein,  Fr.  Rhin,  Dutch  Rhijn, 
Lat.  Rhemis),  one  of  the  most  important  rivers 
of  Europe.  A  large  number  of  rivulets,  issuing 
from  Swiss  glaciers,  unite  to  form  the  young 
Rhine ;  but  two  are  recognised  as  the  principal 
sources— the  Nearer  and  the  Farther  Rhine.  The 
former  emerges  on  the  north-east  slope  of  the  St 
Gotthard  mass  (7690  feet  above  sea-level),  the 
other  side  of  which  is  the  cradle  of  the  Rhone ;  the 
Farther  Rhine  has  its  origin  on  the  flank  of  the 
Rheinwaldhorn  (7270  feet),  not  far  from  the  Pass 
of  Bernardino.  The  two  mountain-torrents  meet 
at  Reichenau,  6  miles  SW.  of  Coire  (Chur)  in  the 
Grisons  canton,  after  they  have  descended,  the 
Nearer  Rhine  5767  feet  in  28  miles,  the  Farther 
Rhine  5347  feet  in  27  miles.  After  ploughing  its 
way  N.  for  45  miles  between  Switzerland  and 
Austrian  Vorarlberg,  the  river  enters  the  Lake  of 
Constance,  soon  after  leaving  which,  its  water  a 
deep  transparent  green,  it  plunges  down  the  falls 
of  Schaft'hausen,  nearly  70  feet  in  three  leaps,  and 
flows  westwards  to  Basel,  separating  Baden  from 
Switzerland.  In  this  stretch  the  river  (490  feet 
wide),  receives  from  the  left  the  waters  of  the 
Aar.  At  Basel  (742  feet),  now  225  yards  wide,  it 
wheels  round  to  the  north,  and  traversing  an 
open  shallow  valley  that  separates  Alsace  and 
the  Bavarian  Palatinate  from  Baden,  reaches 
Mainz,  split  into  many  side  arms  and  studded 
with  green  islands.  Navigation  begins  at  Basel. 
Of  the  numerous  affluents  here  the  largest  are 
the  navigable  Neckar  and  the  Main  from  the 
right,  and  the  navigable  111  from  the  left.  A 
little  below  Mainz  the  Rhine  (685  yards  wide)  is 
turned  west  by  the  Taunus  range  ;  but  at  Bingen 
it  forces  a  passage  through,  and  pursues  a  north- 
westerly direction  across  Rhenish  Prussia,  past 
Coblenz,  Bonn,  Cologne,  Diisseldorf,  Ruhrort, 
and  Wesel  as  far  as  the  Dutch  frontier ;  here  it 
is  1085  yards  wide  and  36  feet  above  sea-level. 
The  first  half  of  this  portion  of  the  river  from 
Bingen  to  Bonn  is  the  Rhine  of  song  and  legend, 
the  Rhine  of  romance,  the  Rhine  of  German 
patriotism.  Its  banks  are  clothed  with  vine- 
yards tliat  yield  wine  esteemed  the  world  over  ; 
the  rugged  and  fantastic  crags  that  hem  in  its 
channel  are  crowned  by  ruined  castles ;  the 
treasure  of  the  Nibelungs  rests  at  the  bottom  of 
the  river  (higher  up,  at  Worms) ;  the  Binger- 
loch  (see  Bingen)  and  the  Mouse  Tower  of  Bishop 
Hatto,  the  fortress  of  Ehrenbreitstein,  the  rock 
of  the  siren  Lorelei,  the  commanding  statue  of 


RHINN3 


58*7 


RHODESIA 


Oermania  (the  trophy  of  German  victory  in  1870), 
and  innumerable  other  features  lend  interest  to 
this  the  middle  course  of  'Father  Rhine.'  Be- 
tween Bingen  and  Bonn  the  steep  rocky  walls 
that  fence  in  the  river  approach  so  close  that 
road  and  railway  have  to  find  their  way  through 
tunnels.  The  Nahe  enters  the  Rhine  at  Bingen, 
the  Moselle  at  Coblenz ;  from  the  right  side  the 
Lahn  enters  above  Coblenz.  Gigantic  rafts  are 
floated  down  from  the  BIacl<  Forest  to  Dordrecht 
in  Holland.  Below  Bonn  the  Rhine  is  joined  by 
the  Sieg,  Wupper,  Ruhr,  and  Lippe  from  the  riglit. 
At  Bonn  the  river  enters  the  plains,  and  almost 
immediately  after  passing  the  Netherlands  fron- 
tier its  delta  begins.  The  principal  arm,  carrying 
two-thirds  of  the  volume,  flows  under  the  name 
of  the  Waal,  and  later  the  Mermede,  to  Dordrecht, 
picking  up  the  Maas  (Meuse)  from  the  left.  At 
Dordrecht  the  river  again  divides  for  a  bit,  one 
branch,  the  old  Maas,  running  out  to  sea ;  the 
other,  the  Noord,  forming  a  loop  by  way  of 
Rotterdam.  The  northern  arm  sends  one  branch, 
the  Yssel,  due  north  to  the  Zuider  Zee  ;  the  other 
branch  is  the  Lek,  which  runs  into  the  Waal- 
Maas  arm  above  Rotterdam.  A  thin  stream, 
called  the  'Winding  Rhine,' leaves  the  Lek  and 
splits  at  Utrecht  into  two  channels,  of  whicli  the 
Old  Rhine,  a  mere  ditch,  manages  with  the  help 
of  a  canal  and  locks  to  struggle  into  the  North 
Sea  at  Katwyk,  NW.  of  Leyclen,  while  the  Vecht 
flows  due  north  from  Utrecht  to  the  Zuider  Zee 
near  Amsterdam.  In  the  delta  the  streams  liave 
to  be  bordered  by  dykes.  The  area  drained  by 
the  Rhine  is  estimated  to  be  75,773  sq.  m.,  and 
its  total  length  to  be  760  miles,  of  which  550  in 
all  are  navigable.  By  canals  it  is  connected  with 
the  Danube,  Rhone,  and  Marne.  Salmon,  carp, 
pike,  sturgeon,  and  lampreys  are  fished.  Tiie 
Rhine  was  the  Romans'  bulwark  against  the 
Teutonic  invaders.  Under  Charlemagne  the 
Rhine  valley  became  the  focus  of  civilisation. 
Except  V^etween  1697  and  1871  the  Rhine  was 
always  a  purely  German  river ;  at  the  peace  of 
Ryswick,  Alsace-Lorraine  was  appropriated  by 
France,  and  the  Rhine  became  part  of  the  divid- 
ing line  between  France  and  Germany.  In  1801 
Napoleon  incorporated  the  whole  of  the  left 
bank  with  France  ;  in  1815  the  arrangement  in 
force  before  1801  was  restored ;  and  after  1871 
the  Rhine  became  once  more  wholly  Gennan. 
Down  to  the  19th  century  navigation  was  ham- 
pered by  the  riparian  sovereigns  or  petty 
princelings,  who  levied  vexatious  dues.  From 
1803  all  the  powers  concerned,  except  Holland, 
abolished  most  of  the  shipping  dues  on  their 
own  vessels  navigating  the  Rhine,  and  Holland 
followed  suit  in  1881 ;  but  it  was  not  until  1st 
July  1869  that  the  river  was  declared  an 
absolutely  free  waterway  to  the  ships  of  all 
nations.  The  first  steamboat  churned  up  its 
waters  in  1817 ;  now  scores  ply  between  Rotter- 
dam and  Mainz,  and  others  along  other  stretches. 
More  than  18,000  vessels  of  about  2,000,000  tons 
burden  pass  the  frontier  town  of  Emmerich  going 
up  stream  every  year.  See  Murray  and  Baedeker, 
and  books  by  Stieler  (trans.  1878),  Simrock  (1865- 
83),  and  Mehlis  (1876-79). 

Rhinns.    See  Wigtownshire. 

Rhode  Island,  the  smallest  of  the  United 
States,  and  one  of  the  original  thirteen  states  of 
the  Union,  is  not  itself  an  island,  but  takes  its 
name  from  the  island  of  Rhode  Island  (perhaps 
a  corruption  of  the  Dutch  Roodt  Eylandt,  '  Red 
Island')  in  Narragansett  Bay,  which  is  but  15 
miles  long  by  3^  broad.    The  length  of  the  state 


from  north  to  south  is  not  quite  50  mile.s,  its  width 
about  40  nnles,  and  its  area  1085  sq.  m.  The  north- 
ern and  eastern  sections  are  hilly,  and  the  land 
slopes  toward  a  level  region  in  tlie  south.  The 
coast  along  the  Atlantic  Ocean  measures  about  45 
miles,  but  Narragansett  Bay  penetrates  iidand 
some  30.  The  southern  coast  west  of  Point 
Judith  is  low  and  sandy.  To  the  west  the  shores 
are  formed  by  high  rocky  cliffs  interspersed  with 
beaches  of  sand.  Newport  (q.v.),  Narragansett 
Pier,  and  Watch  Hill,  on  the  ocean  coast,  are  fam- 
ous seaside  resorts.  Coal  of  inferior  quality 
has  been  mined ;  and  there  are  deposits  of 
iron  ore,  and  excellent  limestones  and  granite 
Market-gardening  is  a  leading  occupation. 
Cotton  manufacturing,  with  dyeing,  bleaching, 
and  calico-printing,  are  the  great  industries. 
The  principal  towns  are  Providence  (since  1900 
sole  capital),  Pawtucket,  Woonsocket,  Newnort 
(till  1900  .joint  capital  with  Providence),  and 
Central  Falls.  The  Northmen  are  supposed  to 
have  visited  Rhode  Island  in  the  10th  century. 
Tlie  first  permanent  settlement  was  made  at 
Providence  by  Roger  Williams  in  1636.  Pop. 
(1730)  17,935  ;  (1830)  97,199  ;  (1900)  428,556. 

Rhodes,  once  a  wealthy  state  of  ancient  Greece, 
now  Turkisli,  lies  12  iniies  oft"  the  SW.  coast  of 
Asia  Minor.  It  is  49  miles  long  by  21  broad, 
and  563  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  is  traversed  by  a  chain 
of  mountains,  which  in  Mount  Artemira  (anc. 
Atcd)yris) Attain  4070  feet.  Thesoil  produces  wine, 
oranges,  figs,  olives,  and  other  fruits  ;  but  much 
land  lies  waste,  and  the  population  is  decreasing 
—  34,000  ill  1S43,  now  barely  30,000,  all  Greeks 
except  7000  Turks  and  2500  Jews.  Sponges  are 
an  article  of  export.  The  Rhodians  submitted  to 
the  Persians  in  490  B.C.,  and  to  Alexander  of 
Macedon  in  332  B.C.,  beating  off'  Mithridates  in 
88  B.C.,  and  sided  with  Caesar.  In  1309,  after  a 
three  years'  siege,  the  city  fell  into  the  hands 
of  the  Knights  Hospitallers  of  St  John.  The 
Turks  besieged  them  there  in  1480,  and  again  in 
1522-23,  when  they  compelled  them  to  capitulate. 
—The  city  stood  at  the  northern  extremity  of  the 
island,  on  the  slopes  of  a  natural  amphitheatre  ; 
at  the  entrance  of  one  of  its  two  harbours  stood 
the  bronze  colossus  of  Helios,  the  Sun-god  (280 
B.C.),  90  to  120  feet  high,  one  of  the  seven  wonders 
of  the  ancient  world.  The  city  has  often  suffered 
from  eartliquake ;  the  existing  buildings  date 
mostly  from  the  period  of  the  Knights'  occupa- 
tion—the principal  the  church  of  St  John  (now 
a  mosque),  the  Knights'  hospital,  and  the  grand- 
master's palace.  Pop.  10,000.  See  a  work  on 
Rhodes  by  Torr  (1885-87). 

Rhodesia,  named  from  Cecil  Rhodes,  founder 
of  the  British  South  Africa  Company,  is  a  vast 
region  extending  from  the  frontiers  of  tlio  Trans- 
vaal and  -the  22d  degree  of  south  latitude  to 
the  southern  limits  of  the  Congo  Free  State,  and 
from  Portuguese  West  Africa  on  the  west  to 
Portuguese  East  Africa  and  the  British  Central 
Africa  Protectorate  on  the  east,  and  German  ]<:ast 
Africa  on  the  north-east.  The  region,  sometimes 
called  Zambesia,  is  divided  by  the  Zambesi  into 
(unequal)  southern  and  northern  divisions.  In 
1889  a  charter  was  given  to  the  British  South 
Africa  Company,  with  large  administrative 
powers,  for  the  development  of  the  region  now 
known  as  Rhodesia.  Subsequent  orders-in« 
council  in  1891,  1894,  1898,  1899,  1900,  and  1903 
further  prescribed  the  company's  powers,  and 
appointed  a  Resident  Commissioner  to  be  nomi- 
nated by  the  Secretary  of  State.  Southern 
Rhodesia,  which  is  much  more  fidly  developed 


RHODOPE 


588 


KIC^MOND 


fchan  the  northern  portion,  consists  of  the  two 
provinces  of  Mashonalaud  and  Matabeleland, 
and  has  an  area  of  about  144,000  sq.  m.  and  a 
native  pop.  of  565,000,  besides  about  12,600 
Europeans  and  2000  colonial  natives  and  Asiatics. 
Tlie  seat  of  government  is  Salisbury  (pop.  1726), 
the  cajjital  of  Mashonaland.  There  are  executive 
and  legislative  councils,  a  high  court  with  civil 
and  criniinal  jurisdiction,  and  magistrates'  courts 
in  the  various  districts,  municipalities  at  Salis- 
bury and  Bulawayo  (chief  town  of  Matabeleland), 
with  churches,  banks,  schools,  hotels,  public 
libraries,  and  telephones.  There  were  in  1905 
about  1900  miles  of  railway  open,  and  the  'Cape 
to  Cairo'  line  reached  the  Victoria  Falls  in  1904, 
and  is  being  continued  across  Northern  Rhodesia 
to  Lake  Tanganyika.  There  are  about  300  regis- 
tered companies  interested  in  mining  and  de- 
velopment work  in  the  territory.  The  outj)ut  of 
gold  in  1904  was  267,737  oz.  Otlier  minerals  are 
silver,  copper,  blende,  antimony,  arsenic,  lead, 
and  coal.  The  imports  into  Southern  Rhodesia 
in  1904  were  valued  at  £1,576,619,  and  the  exports, 
excluding  goods  to  Customs  Union  Territories 
(which  it  joined  in  1903),  to  £334,717.  Northern 
Rhodesia  (subdivided  into  North-eastern  and 
North-western  Rhodesia)  is  still  practically  held 
by  the  natives.  Barotseland  (North  -  western 
Rhodesia)  is  ruled  by  King  Lewanika.  North- 
eastern Rhodesia  is  divided  into  nine  districts, 
Fort  Jameson  on  the  Tanganyika  plateau  being 
the  administrative  headquarters.  Ivory  and 
rubber  are  exported,  and  cotton  is  being  grown 
with  success.  The  area  of  North-eastern  Rho- 
desia is  about  120,000  sq.  ni.,  and  the  native 
pop.  is  estimated  at  about  350,000,  with  250 
Europeans,  mostly  British.  Postal  and  tele- 
graph services  have  been  organised.  The  capi- 
tal of  the  British  South  Africa  Company  is 
£6,000,000,  and  the  administrative  revenue  for 
the  whole  region,  from  mining,  trading,  and 
professional  licenses,  liut  tax,  customs,  and 
postal  and  telegraph  services,  amounted  in  1908 
to  £633,038,  and  the  expenditure  to  £1,051,400. 

Rhodope  (Rod'o-pee),  the  ancient  name  of  a 
mountain-chain  (7474  feet)  on  the  borders  of 
Macedonia  and  Thrace  (between  Turkish  and 
Bulgarian  territory).  The  Bulgarians  call  it 
Despoto  Dagh.  Of  its  many  monasteries  the  chief 
is  the  Bulgarian  fortress-n)onastery  of  Rilo. 

Rhondda  (Ron'tha)  is,  since  1894,  the  official 
name  of  an  urban  district  (pop.  115,000)  in 
Glamorgan,  South  Wales,  formerly  known  as 
the  township  of  Ystradyfodwg.  The  Rhondda 
Valley  is  a  great  centre  of  coal-mining. 

Rhone  (Lat.  Rhodanvs),  the  only  important 
French  river  which  falls  into  the  Mediterranean, 
takes  its  rise  in  the  Swiss  Alps,  on  the  western 
side  of  Mount  St  Gothard,  at  an  altitude  of  5752 
feet,  and  not  far  from  the  sources  of  the  Rhine. 
Its  entire  length,  from  its  source  to  its  mouth 
in  the  Gulf  of  Lyons,  is  504  miles.  It  first  runs 
SW.  through  Valais  to  the  Lake  of  Geneva  (q.v.) ; 
thence  it  forces  a  passage  westward  through  the 
Jura.  At  Lyons  it  is  joined  by  its  largest  tribu- 
tary, the  Saone  (q.v.),  from  the  north,  and  flows 
southward  by  Avignon  and  Aries,  where  begins 
its  delta.  Affluents  are,  on  the  right,  the  Ain, 
Saone,  Ardeche,  and  Gard  ;  on  the  left,  the  Arve, 
Isere,  Drdme,  and  Durance.  From  Lyons  south- 
ward the  Rhone  is  navigable,  but  by  reason  of  the 
Bwirt  current,  sandbanks,  and  other  obstructions, 
comiiumication  with  tlie  Mediterranean  is  mainly 
by  canals.  Canals  likewise  connect  the  Rhone 
With  the  Rhine  by  the  SaSne,  with  the  Seine,  the 


Loire,  and  the  Garonne.  See  a  French  work  by 
Lentheric  (2  vols.  1892). 

Rhone  (Roan),  a  dep.  of  France,  part  of  the 
former  Lyonnais.  Area,  1077  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1881) 
741,470  ;  (1901)  843,179,  Its  arrondissements  are 
Lyons  (the  capital)  and  Villefranche. 

Rhuddlan  (Hrith'lan),  a  decayed  town  of 
Flintshire,  North  Wales,  on  the  Clwyd,  8  miles 
SSE.  of  Rhyl.  Its  ruined  castle,  dating  from 
1015,  and  dismantled  after  its  capture  by  the 
Roundheads  in  1646,  was  the  scene  of  the  be- 
trayal of  Richard  II.  (1399);  at  the  marsh  of 
Morfa  Rhuddlan,  across  the  river,  Offa  defeated 
Caradoc  (795).  With  Flint,  &c.,  Rhuddlan  re- 
turns one  member.     Pop.  1357. 

Rhyl  (Hril),  a  watering-place  of  Flintshire, 
North  Wales,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Clwyd,  30 
miles  NW,  of  Chester,  A  mere  fishing- village  so 
late  as  1830,  it  has  fine  sands,  a  promenade  pier 
705  yards  long,  built  in  1867  at  a  cost  of  £17,000, 
an  esplanade,  an  aquarium  and  winter  garden,  a 
dozen  hotels,  baths,  &c. ;  afiid,  though  the  country 
around  is  flat,  it  commands  fine  views  of  the  Snow- 
donian  mountains.    Pop.  8500. 

Rhymer's  Glen,  a  traditional  haunt  of  Thomas 
of  Ercildoune,  on  Huntly  Bum,  near  Abbotsford. 

Rhymney,  a  town  of  Monmouthshire,  on  the 
river  Rhymney  (running  to  the  Bristol  Channel 
near  Cardift),  2^  miles  W.  of  Tredegar.  It  is  the 
seat  of  ironworks.    Pop.  (1861)  7630  ;  (1901)  7914. 

Riad,  capital  of  Nejd,  a  town  in  the  highlands 
of  central  Arabia.    Pop.  30,000. 

Rlazan  (Ree-a-zan'),  a  town  of  Russia,  near  the 
Oka's  right  bank,  115  miles  by  rail  SB.  of  Moscow. 
Pop.  46,150.— The  government  has  an  area  of  16,250 
sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  1,802,200. 

Ribble.    See  Preston. 

Rlb'chester,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  on  the 
Ribble,  5^  miles  NNW.  of  Blackburn.  It  occu- 
pies the  site  of  a  Roman  station.    Pop.  1235. 

Ribeauville  (Ri-bo-veeV ;  Ger.  Rappoltsweiler), 
a  town  of  Upper  Alsace,  pleasantly  situated  amid 
vineyards  at  the  west  foot  of  the  Vosges,  33  miles 
SSW.  of  Strasburg.    Pop.  6902. 

Ribstone  Hall,  a  seat  in  the  East  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  on  the  Nidd,  3^  miles  SE.  of  Knares- 
borough.  Here  was  grown  the  first  'Ribstone 
pippin '  in  England. 

Rlchborough.    See  Sandwich. 

Richmond,  an  ancient  municipal  borough  in 
the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  deep-channelled  Swale,  49  miles  by  a  branch- 
line  NW.  of  York.  Its  Norman  castle  (1072-1146), 
now  utilised  for  barracks,  stores,  &c.,  has  a  very 
fine  banqueting-hall  and  a  keep  100  feet  high. 
Other  buildings  are  the  parish  church,  with 
good  wood-carvings ;  Queen  Elizabeth's  grammar- 
school  (1567 ;  rebuilt,  1849-68) ;  the  market-house 
(1854) ;  and  the  Perpendicular  tower  of  a  Fran- 
ciscan friary  (1258).  The  racecourse  (847  feet 
above  sea-level)  commands  a  magnificent  view. 
Till  1867  Richmond  returned  two  members,  and 
then  till  1885  one.  Pop.  3830.  See  works  by  R. 
Gale  (Latin,  1722),  Clarkson  (1821),  Whitaker  (2 
vols.  1823),  Robinson  (1833),  and  Longstaff"e(1852). 

Richmond,  a  town  of  Surrey,  8^  miles  WSW. 
of  London  (by  rail  9J,  by  river  16),  stands  partly 
on  the  summit  and  declivity  of  Richmond  Hill, 
and  partly  on  the  level  right  bank  of  the  Thames. 
The  Terrace,  stretching  along  the  brow  of  the  hill, 
commands  an  unrivalled  prospect  of  hill  and  dale, 
woodland  and  winding  stream  ;  and  one  of  the 
fairest  river-views  in  England   may  be  gained 


RICHMOND 


589 


RIGI 


from  Richmond  Bridge,  which,  100  yards  long, 
was  built  in  1774-77  at  a  cost  of  £26,000.  Only  a 
gateway  remains  of  the  ancient  royal  palace  of 
Sheen,  where  died  Edward  III.,  Anne  of  Bohemia, 
Henry  VII.,  and  Elizabeth,  and  which  was  re- 
built by  Henry  V.  and  Henry  VII.  (1409),  who 
renamed  the  place  Richmond  after  his  own 
former  Yorkshire  earldom.  That  palace,  which 
has  memories  also  of  Wolsey,  Charles  V.,  and 
many  others,  was  dismantled  in  1(348 ;  but  the 
splendid  deer-park,  formed  by  Charles  I.  in  1634, 
remains.  It  covers  2253  acres ;  and  its  brick 
wall  is  nearly  8  miles  in  circumference.  Scott 
here  makes  Jeanie  Deans  have  her  audience 
with  Queen  Caroline.  The  well-known  '  Star  and 
Garter,'  Avhich  dates  from  1738,  was  largely  de- 
stroyed by  lire  in  1870,  but  rebuilt  in  1872-74  at 
a  cost  of  £24,000  ;  its  banqueting-house  escaped, 
built  by  Barry  in  1865.  At  the  parish  church  are 
buried  the  poet  Thomson,  Kean,  Lady  Di  Beau- 
clerk,  and  Dr  John  Moore  ;  and  here,  too,  Swift's 
Stella  was  baptised.  St  Mathias'  (1858)  is  a 
striking  building  by  Scott,  with  a  spire  195  feet 
high  ;  the  municipal  buildings,  opened  by  the 
Duke  of  York  in  1893,  cost  £24,000 ;  and  there 
are  also  a  Wesleyan  theological  college  (1834),  a 
free  library  (1881),  &c.  ;  whilst  Richmond 
worthies,  other  than  those  above  mentioned, 
have  been  Reynolds,  Gainsborough,  Collins, 
and  Earl  Russell.  Market  and  nursery  garden- 
hig  is  a  chief  industry.  Richmond  was  incor- 
porated as  a  municipal  borough  in  1890.  Pop. 
(1861)  7423 ;  (1901)  31,672.  See  works  by  Crisp 
(1866)  and  Chancellor  (1885  and  1894). 

Richmond,  (1)  capital  of  Wayne  county, 
Indiana,  on  the  East  Fork  of  Whitewater  River, 
69  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Cincinnati.  It  was 
foimded  by  the  Society  of  Friends,  who  in  1859 
established  Earlham  College  here,  for  both  sexes. 
There  are  manufactures  of  agricultural  imple- 
ments, machinery,  boilers,  flour,  &c.  Pop.  (1880) 
12,743;  (1900)  18,226.— (2)  Capital  of  Madison 
county,  Kentucky,  120  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Cin- 
cinnati. It  is  the  seat  of  tlie  Central  Uni- 
versity (Presbyterian;  1874).  Pop.  4700.— (3) 
The  capital  of  Virginia,  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
James  River,  at  the  head  of  tide  water,  150  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  116  by  rail  S.  of  Washing- 
ton. It  is  a  port  of  entry,  and  vessels  drawing 
14  feet  of  water  can  come  up  to  the  lower  end  of 
the  city,  where  there  are  large  docks.  Richmond 
is  picturesquely  situated  on  a  group  of  hills,  the 
summit  of  one— Shockoe  Hill— being  occupied 
by  the  capitol  (1796),  which  possesses  a  marble 
statue  of  Washington,  and  in  whose  grounds  are 
statues  of  Henry  Clay  and  '  Stonewall '  Jackson, 
and  the  Washington  monument,  a  noble  bronze 
group  by  Thomas  Crawford.  Patrick  Henry  is 
buried  in  St  John's  churchyard,  and  President 
Monroe  and  Jefferson  Davis  in  Hollywood  Ceme- 
tery, where  is  a  Confederate  monument  90  feet 
high.  In  the  city  are  Richmond  College  (Bap- 
tist ;  1832)  and  the  Virginia  Medical  College. 
The  James  River  Falls  here  supply  immense 
water-power  for  tobacco-factories,  rolling-mills, 
iron-foundries,  nail-works,  machine  and  loco- 
motive-works, flour,  meal-flour,  and  paper  mills, 
and  fertiliser-works.  The  chief  exports  are 
cotton,  flour,  and  tobacco.  Richmond  was 
founded  in  1737,  ana  became  the  capital  in  1779. 
On  26th  December  181 1  the  burning  of  a  theatre 
cost  sixty  lives.  In  1861  Richmond  was  selected 
as  the  Confederate  capital,  but  on  2d  April  1865 
it  had  to  surrender,  after  almost  a  year's  siege 
and  a  series  of  sanguinary  battles.  A  consider- 
able portion  of  the  city  was  burned  by  the  re- 


treating Confederates.  Pop.  (1860)  37,910  ;  (1870) 
51,038  ;  (1900)  85,050. 

Ricliinond,  a  SE.  suburb  of  Melbourne  (q.v.). 

Rickmansworth,  a  town  of  Hertfordshire,  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Colne,  Gade,  and  Chess,  4 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Watford.  It  has  a  church 
(rebuilt  in  1890)  with  interesting  moimments  ; 
and  near  it  is  Moor  Park,  the  seat  of  the  ill-fated 
Duke  of  Monmouth.  Population,  5800.  See 
R.  Bayne's  Historical  Sketch  (1870). 

Riddings,  a  Derbyshire  market-town,  3  miles 
SE.  of  Alfreton,  with  neighbouring  coal-pits  and 
ironworks.    Pop.  6000; 

Riddon,  Loch,  an  Argyllshire  sea-loch,  strik- 
ing 4  miles  N.  from  the  Kyles  of  Bute. 

Riesengebirge  (Ree'zen-ge-heer'geh,  g's  hard ; 
'  Giant  Mountains '),  a  mountain-range,  23  miles 
long  by  16  broad,  separating  Bohemia  from  Prus- 
sian Silesia.  The  highest  peak  is  the  Schnee- 
koppe  (5260  feet). 

Riesi  (Re-ay'zee),  a  town  of  south  Sicily,  10 
miles  NW.  of  Terranova.     Pop.  14,914. 

Rieti  (Re-ay'tee;  anc.  Eeate),  a  walled  city  of 
Italy,  40  miles  NE.  of  Rome ;  the  flne  cathedral 
has  a  monument  by  Thorwaldsen.     Pop.  18,000. 

Rievaulx  Abbey  (Ree'voas),  26  miles  N.  of 
York  and  10  E.  by  N.  of  Thirsk,  a  ruined  Cis- 
tercian monastery  (1131),  Norman  and  Early 
English  in  style,  occupying  a  beautiful  site  in 
the  valley  of  the  river  Rye.  The  meaning  of 
Rievaulx  is  '  Rye  vale.' 

RiflF,  the  coast  districts  of  northern  Morocco, 
extending  from  Ceuta  to  the  western  frontier  of 
Algiers,  and  forming  a  line  of  steep  cliff's  with 
few  harbours.  Its  Berber  inhabitants,  once 
savage  pirates,  are  still  turbulent. 

Riga  {Ree'ga),  capital  of  Livonia,  and  next  after 
St  Petersburg  and  Odessa  the  third  seaport  of 
Russia,  lies  on  the  Dwina,  7  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  350  by  rail  SW.  of  St  Petersburg. 
The  old  town  has  narrow  streets  and  mediaeval 
houses ;  but  the  suburbs  are  laid  out  in  broad 
streets  with  handsome  buildings.  The  chief 
edifices  are  the  archiepiscopal  cathedral,  built  in 
1204,  burned  down  in  1547,  but  rebuilt ;  St 
Peter's  Church  (1406),  with  a  steeple  460  feet 
high  ;  the  castle  of  the  old  Knights  of  the  Sword, 
built  1494-1515  ;  and  several  old  guild  houses  and 
Hanseatic  halls.  Its  industries  include  the  manu- 
facture of  cottons,  machines,  tobacco,  corks, 
spirits,  oil,  metal  wares,  glass,  paper,  flax,  jute, 
and  oilcloth.  Pop.  (1867)  102,590  ;  (1881)  169",329 ; 
(1897)  282,950.  Nearly  one-half  are  Germans  (with 
German-speaking  Jews),  one-fourth  Russians,  and 
one-foui'th  Letts.  Riga  was  founded  in  1201,  and 
soon  became  a  first-rate  commercial  place  and  a 
Hanse  town.  It  belonged  to  Poland  from  1561, 
in  1621  was  taken  by  Gustavus  Adolphus,  and 
in  1710  was  annexed  to  Russia. 

The  Gulf  of  Riga  is  an  inlet  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Baltic  Sea,  which  washes  the  shores  of 
Courland,  Livonia,  and  Esthonia.  It  is  105  miles 
long  from  north  to  south,  and  60  broad.  The 
islands  of  Oesel,  Dago,  Mohn,  and  Worms  lie 
athwart  the  entrance,  and  there  are  many  sand- 
banks.    The  Dwina  falls  into  the  gulf. 

Rigi  (Ree'gee,  g  hard),  or  Righi,  an  isolated 
Swiss  mountain  (5906  feet),  standing  between 
the  Lakes  of  Lucerne,  Zug,  and  Lowerz, 
commands  views  of  some  of  the  finest  Swiss 
scenery.  Verdant  pastures  clothe  the  summit, 
and  the  slopes  are  belted  with  forests.  About 
100,000  tourists  ascend  it  every  season,  principally 
by  rae^ns  of  two  toothed  railways— one  from 


RILO 


590 


RIOM 


Vitznau  (1871)  on  the  Lake  of  Lucerne,  the  other 
from  Arth  (1875)  on  the  Lake  of  Zug,  4J  and  7 
miles  long  respectively.  There  are  half-a-dozen 
hotels  near  or  at  the  summit,  as  well  as  a  Capu- 
chin monastery  (1689),  whose  church  contains  a 
wonder-working  image  of  the  Madonna. 

Rilo.    See  Rhodope. 

Rimini  (Rim'i-nee),  a  walled  city  of  Italy, 
stands  on  the  Adriatic,  69  miles  by  rail  SE.  of 
Bologna.  The  cathedral,  a  beautiful  Renaissance 
structure,  dates  from  1446-50  ;  the  church  of  St 
Giuliano  is  adorned  with  pictures  by  Veronese. 
The  ancient  castle  of  the  Malatestas  is  now  a 
prison.  The  little  river  on  which  the  city  stands 
is  spanned  by  a  five-arch  white  marble  Roman 
bridge,  236  feet  long.  Beside  one  of  the  gates 
stands  the  triumphal  arch,  46  feet  high,  erected 
in  honour  of  Augustus.  The  spot  where  Caesar 
stood  to  address  his  soldiers  after  crossing  the 
Rubicon  (q.v.)  is  marked  in  one  of  the  squares  by 
a  monumental  pillar.  The  city  manufactures 
silks  and  sail-cloth.  Pop.  20,000  ;  with  suburbs, 
43,200.  One  of  these  suburbs  is  mucli  visited  for 
sea-bathing.  Originally  an  Umbrian,  and  then 
for  several  centuries  an  Etruscan  city,  Rimini 
(Ariminum)  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  Romans  in 
286  B.C.  After  being  battled  for  by  Goths  and 
Byzantines,  and  held  by  the  latter,  the  Lombards, 
and  the  Franks,  it  became  a  shuttlecock  between 
the  emperor  and  the  pope.  At  last  Rimini  put 
herself  under  the  protection  of  the  House  of  Mala- 
testa  (1237),  in  whose  family-history  befell  the 
killing  of  Francesca  da  Rimini  and  her  lover  by 
his  brother  (1285),  and  the  story  of  Parisina,  the 
subject  of  Byron's  poem. 

Rlmouski  {Ri-moos'kee),  a  Canadian  town,  on 
the  south  shore  of  the  St  Lawrence,  at  the  influx 
of  the  Rimouski  River,  182  miles  by  rail  NE.  of 
Quebec.  It  is  a  bishop's  seat,  a  watering-place, 
and  a  telegraphing  station  for  ships.    Pop.  2417. 

Ringwood,  a  town  on  the  Hampshire  Avon,  25 
miles  WSW.  of  Southampton.     Pop.  of  par.  4700. 

Riobamba.    See  Cajabamba. 

Rio  Bravo.     See  Rio  Grande. 

Rio  Cuarto  {Ree'o  KwaWto),  a  city  in  the 
Argentine  province  of  Cordoba,  on  the  river  of 
the  same  name,  500  miles  NW.  of  Buenos  Ayres 
and  170  by  rail  S.  of  Cordoba.     Pop.  14,000. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  {Ree'o  deli  Zha-nay'e-ro),  the 
capital  of  Brazil,  stands  on  the  west  side  of  one 
of  the  most  magnificent  natural  harbours  in 
the  world.  ,  An  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  the  bay 
of  Rio  de  Janeiro  runs  15  miles  northwards, 
varying  in  width  from  2  miles  to  7 ;  it  is  girdled 
on  all  sides  by  "picturesque  mountains  (1500  to 
3000  feet),  covered  witli  tropical  vegetation. 
The  entrance,  less  than  a  mile  wide,  passes  be- 
tween two  bold  headlands,  one  of  them  called  the 
Sugar-loaf  (1270  feet).  The  city  and  its  suburbs 
stretch  nearly  10  miles  along  the  shore.  About  3 
miles  SW.  of  the  city  stands  the  precipitous  cone 
of  Corcovado  (2336  feet),  with  a  cog-railway  up 
to  the  top.  Public  institutions  are  the  vast 
hospital  of  La  Misericordia  (1200  patients),  the 
national  library  (1807),  with  250,000  volumes,  the 
national  museum,  the  large  lunatic  asylum  (1841), 
the  botanical  gardens,  with  a  celebrated  avenue 
of  palms,  the  observatory,  the  Geographical  and 
Historical  institute  (1838),  the  former  royal  palace 
at  Sao  Christovao,  the  arsenal,  the  naval  dock- 
yards, the  academy  of  fine  arts,  a  cadet-school,  a 
school  of  medicine,  a  conservatory  of  music,  a 
polytechnic  school,  &c.  In  spite  of  a  good  water- 
supply,  chiefly  by  an  aqueduct  (1750)  12  miles 


long,  and  a  new  system  of  sewage-draining,  the 
city  is  not  really  healthy  ;  the  surrounding  hills 
shut  out  the  breezes,  and  the  heat  grows  intense 
in  summer.  Yellow  fever  prevails  during  the 
hot  season  ;  and  tlie  Negro  population  suffer 
from  smallpox.  Pop.  (1872)  274,972;  (1902) 
750,000,  including  many  foreigners— Portuguese, 
British,  French,  and  Germans.  Rio  is  the  com- 
mercial capital,  sending  out  51  per  cent,  of 
the  total  exports  of  Brazil,  and  bringing  in  45 
per  cent,  of  the  imports.  The  chief  export  is 
coff'ee ;  the  imports  include  cotton,  gold  and 
silver,  metals,  wool,  provisions,  and  machinery. 
The  whole  sea-frontage  of  the  city  is  lined  with 
quays,  and  in  1889  extensive  new  harbour-works 
were  begun,  embracing  a  dock  of  75  acres,  a 
breakwater  3200  yards  long,  an  elevated  railway, 
hydraulic  cranes,  warehouses,  &c.  The  city 
possesses  cotton,  jute,  and  silk  mills,  tobacco 
and  hat  factories,  machine-shops,  tanneries,  &c. 

On  1st  January  1531  a  Portuguese  captain,  De 
Souza,  entered  the  bay,  and  thinking  it  was  the 
mouth  of  a  large  river  he  called  it  Rio  de  Janeiro 
— '  January  River.'  The  French  held  one  of  the 
islands  in  1555-67.  Rio  was  founded  in  1566 ; 
Avas  i)lundered  by  Duguay-Trouin  in  1711 ;  sup- 
planted Bahia  as  the  capital  of  the  viceroy  in 
1763 ;  and  in  1822  was  made  the  capital  of  the 
empire  of  Brazil.  The  revolution  of  1889  centred 
in  Rio  ;  and  after  the  reconstitution  of  the  united 
states  of  Brazil  Rio  remained  the  capital,  the 
federal  district  in  which  the  city  stands  (area 
538  sq.  m.)  being  administered  directly  by  the 
federal  authorities.  Rio  suff'ered  much  from 
bombardment  during  the  rebellion  of  the  fleet 
(1893-94).— The  maritime  state  of  Rio  de  Janeiro 
has  an  area  of  26,627  sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.,  exclusive 
of  the  city,  of  1,230,000. 

Rio  de  la  Plata.    See  La  Plata. 

Rio  Grande  (Ree'o  Grandeh),  also  Rio  Grande 
del  Norte,  and  Rio  Bravo  del  Norte,  a  large  river 
of  North  America,  rises  in  the  San  Juan  Moun- 
tains in  SW.  Colorado,  and  flows  generally  SE.  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  forming  the  boundary  be- 
tween Texas  and  Mexico.  Its  length  is  1800  miles ; 
small  steamboats  ascend  nearly  500  miles.  Its 
chief  aflluent  is  the  Rio  Pecos.— See  also  Parana 
and  Senegambia. 

Rio  Grande  do  Norte  (Re^o  Gran'deh  do  Nor'teJi), 
a  maritime  state  of  Brazil,  occujnes  the  north- 
east angle  of  the  country.  Area,  22,195  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  325,000,  one-half  Indians.  It  is  named 
from  the  river  Rio  Grande,  flowing  into  the  At- 
lantic at  the  capital,  Rio  Grande  do  Norte  or  Natal 
(q.v.) ;  but  the  principal  river  is  the  Piranhas. 

Rio  Grande  do  Sul  (Ree'o  Gran'deh  do  Sool ; 
'  Great  River  of  the  South '),  sometimes  called 
San  Pedro,  the  southernmost  province  of  Brazil, 
is  bounded  N.  and  W.  by  the  river  Uruguay,  S. 
by  the  republic  of  Uruguay,  and  E.  by  the 
Atlantic.  Area,  91,310  sq.  m.  ;  population, 
970,000,  of  whom  100,000  are  Germans  and  52,000 
Italians.  The  principal  towns  are  Porto  Alegre 
(q.v.),  the  capital,  Rio  Grande,  and  Pelotas.— 
The  town  of  Rio  Grande  stands  on  the  south  side 
of  the  strait  leading  into  the  southern  end  of  the 
Lagoa  dos  Patos  ;  pop.  18,000. 

Rioja  (Ree-o'ha),  a  western  province  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  with  an  area  of  34,365  sq.  m. 
and  a  pop.  of  86,000.— Rioja,  the  capital,  founded 
in  1591,  lies  at  the  foot  of  the  Sierra  Velasco,  350 
miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Cordoba.    Pop.  6000. 

Riom  (Ree-onF),  a  town  of  France  (dep.  Puy-de- 
Dome),  on  a  hill,  8  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Clermont' 
Ferrand.    Pop.  9700. 


RION 


591 


ROANOKE 


Rlon.    See  Phasis. 

Rio  Negro  (Ree'o  Nay'gro),  a  principal  affluent 
of  the  Amazon,  rises  as  the  Guainia  in  SB. 
Colombia,  and  flows  1350  miles  E.,  S.,  E.,  and  SE. 
through  Venezuela  and  Brazil,  to  the  Maranon. — 
(2)  A  river  of  Argentina,  which  rises  in  the  Andean 
lake  of  Nahuel-Huapi,  and  flows  over  500  miles 
NE.,  E.,  and  SE.  to  the  Atlantic.  It  bounds  and 
gives  name  to  a  national  territory,  formerly  part 
of  Patagonia,  with  an  area  of  81,895  sq.  m.  of 
mostly  level  but  barren  soil. 

Rionegro,  a  town  of  Colombia,  in  Antioquia, 
15  miles  SE.  of  Medellin.    Pop.  9000. 

Rionero  (Eee'o-nay'ro),  a  town  of  southern 
Italy,  12  miles  N.  of  Potenza.     Pop.  11,383. 

Rio  Tinto  (Ree'o),  a  river  in  southern  Spain,  in 
the  province  of  Huelva,  near  whose  sources  are 
very  rich  copper-mines,  worlted  by  tlie  Romans, 
and  bought  in  1872  by  the  llio  Tinto  (London- 
Bremen)  Syndicate  for  £4,000,000. 

Riouw  {Ree-ow'),  capital  of  Bintang  (q.v.). 

Ripley,  (1)  a  town  of  Derbyshire,  10  miles 
NNE.  of  Derby,  with  silk-lace  manufactures  and 
large  neighbouring  collieries  and  ironworks.  Pop. 
(1851)  3071  ;  (1901)  10,111.— (2)  A  pretty  village 
in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Nidd,  3^ 
miles  NNW.  of  Harrogate.  Rebuilt  in  1829-30, 
it  has  an  hotel-de-ville  (1854),  an  interesting 
church,  and  Ripley  Castle  (1555),  where  Cromwell 
slept  the  night  before  Marston  Moor.    Pop.  291. 

Rip' on,  a  city  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
on  the  Ure,  23  miles  NW.  of  York,  28  N.  of  Leeds, 
and  11  N.  of  Harrogate.  A  monastery,  founded 
here  in  660  by  St  Cuthbert  and  other  monks  of 
Melrose,  was  granted  about  664  to  St  Wilfrid,  who 
rebuilt  the  church  with  stone,  and  dedicated  it  to 
St  Peter.  Willibrord,  the  apostle  of  the  Frisians, 
was  trained  in  this  monastery,  which  in  678  was 
made  the  seat  of  a  short-lived  bishopric,  re- 
erected  in  1836  after  a  lapse  of  more  than  eleven 
centuries.  The  beautiful  minster,  which  from 
the  Conquest  to  the  Dissolution  was  the  church 
of  Augustinian  canons,  was  built  between  1154 
and  1520,  so  exhibits  every  variety  of  style  from 
Transition-Norman  to  Perpendicular.  A  cruci- 
form pile,  266  feet  long,  with  three  towers  120 
feet  high,  which  lost  their  spires  in  1660,  and 
with  a  Saxon  crypt,  where  a  hole  called  *  St 
Wilfrid's  Needle '  was  anciently  used  as  an  ordeal 
of  chastity,  it  suff"ered  much  through  the  Scots 
(1319),  decay,  and  vandalism,  but  in  1861-76  was 
restored  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  at  a  cost  of  £40,000. 
An  obelisk,  90  feet  high,  in  the  market-place  was 
erected  in  1781  by  W.  Aislabie,  for  sixty  years 
one  of  the  two  members  for  Ripon,  Avhose  repre- 
sentation was  reduced  to  one  in  1867,  and  merged 
in  tlie  county  in  1885.  At  the  free  grammar- 
school  (1546)  Bishop  Stubbs  was  educated. 
Studley  Royal,  the  fine  seat  of  the  Marquis  of 
Ripon,  is  2  miles  south-west ;  and  near  it  is 
Fountains  Abbey  (q.v.).  Ripon  spurs,  once  fam- 
ous, belong  to  the  past,  but  saddle-trees  are  manu- 
factured, besides  varnish,  leather,  machinery,  &c. 
The  municipal  borough  was  chartered  by  James 
I.  Pop.  5150.  See  works  by  Gent  (1733),  Waddi- 
love  (1810),  Walbran,  Fowler  (1888),  and  on  the 
catliedral  by  Archdeacon  Danks  (1899). 

Risca,  a  town  of  Monmouthshire,  on  the  Ebbw, 
bh  miles  WNW.  of  Newport.     Pop.  9670. 

Ri'singham,  a  Roman  camp  in  Northumber- 
land, on  the  Reed,  4i  miles  NE.  of  Bellingham. 

Ristigouche.    See  Restigouche. 

Rivas  (Ree-vas),  a  decayed  town  of  Nicaragua, 
p  miles  from  Lake  Nicaragua.    Pop.  8000. 


Rivaulx  Abbey.    See  Rievaulx. 

Rive-de-Gier  (Reev-deh-Zhe-ay'),  a  town  of 
France  (dep.  Loire),  on  the  Gier,  in  the  middle  of 
the  best  coalfield  in  France,  13  miles  NE.  of  St 
Etienne  by  rail.  In  1815  it  had  less  than  4000 
inhabitants  ;  now  it  has  about  16,000. 

Rivera  (Reevay'ra),  a  dep.  in  the  north-east  of 
Uruguay,  separated  by  a  mountain-chain  from 
Brazil.    Area,  3790  sq.  m. ;  pop.  27,100. 

Riverina  (Riveree'na),  a  name  given  to  the 
extensive  grazing  districts  in  the  western  part  of 
New  South  Wales. 

Riviera  (Ree-vee-ay'ra ;  '  sea.shore '),  a  term 
applied  to  the  narrow  strip  of  coast-land  border- 
ing the  Gulf  of  Genoa,  strictly  from  Nice  to 
Spezzia,  but  generally  understood  to  include  the 
whole  coast  of  the  dep.  of  the  Alpes  Maritimes, 
and  the  Italian  coast  as  far  as  Leghorn.  West  of 
Genoa  it  is  called  the  Riviera  di  Ponente,  or 
western  coast,  and  beyond  Genoa  the  Riviera  di 
Levante,  or  eastern  coast.  From  Hyeres  to  Genoa 
is  203  miles ;  from  Genoa  to  Leghorn,  112. 
Sheltered  on  the  north  by  mountains,  the  dis- 
trict enjoys  an  exceptionally  favoured  climate, 
no  other  region  north  of  Palermo  and  Valencia 
being  so  mild  in  winter.  The  western  section  is 
the  mildest  and  most  frequented.  It  abounds  in 
the  most  striking  and  beautiful  scenery,  and  is 
planted  with  numerous  health  and  fashion  resorts 
— Nice,  Monaco,  Mentone,  Ventimiglia,  San  Remo, 
Bordighera,  &c.  ;  and  west  of  Nice  are  Hyeres, 
Frejus,  Cannes,  Grasse,  Antibes.  The  famous 
Corniche  (Ital.  Cornice)  road,  widened  by  Napoleon 
I.,  leads  along  the  coast  from  Nice  to  Genoa,  and 
commands  magnificent  views.  See  guidebooks 
by  Baedeker,  Murray  (1890),  Black  (1890),  and 
Macmillan  (new  ed.  1892) ;  Augustus  Hare's  South- 
eastern France  (1890),  and  Miss  Dempster's  Mari- 
time Alps  and  their  Seaboard  (1884). 

Rivieres  du  Sud  (Ree-vee-ehr'  dil  Siid ;  '  South- 
ern Rivers')  was,  up  till  1893,  the  name  of  the 
coast  region  of  French  Guinea,  on  the  west  coast 
of  Africa,  wliich  lies  between  Portuguese  Guinea 
and  the  British  colony  of  Sierra  Leone.  The 
district  has  an  area  of  about  95,000  sq.  m.,  and 
a  population  estimate<l  at  about  2,200,000.  The 
capital  is  Konakry.    See  Guinea,  Senegambia. 

Rivoli  (Ree'vo-lee),  a  town  of  northern  Italy,  S 
miles  \f.  of  Turin.  Pop.  5314.  It  was  not  here, 
but  at  another  Rivoli,  12  miles  NW.  of  Verona, 
that  Napoleon  on  14th  and  15th  January  1797 
defeated  the  Austrians. 

Rizeh  (Ree'zeh),  a  town  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
Black  Sea,  40  miles  E.  of  Trebizond.    Pop.  3000. 

Roag,  a  sea-loch  10  miles  long  and  8  wide  across 
the  entrance,  on  the  W.  side  of  Lewis. 

Roanne  (Ro-ann'),  a  town  of  France  (dep. 
Loire),  52  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Lyons,  stands  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Loire,  which  here  becomes 
navigable,  and  is  crossed  by  a  stone  bridge  (1820). 
It  has  an  old  castle,  a  new  hotel-de-ville  with  a 
museum,  some  manufactures,  &c.  Pop.  (1872) 
18,615 ;  (1901)  33,775. 

Roanoke  (Ro-an-oak'),  a  river  of  Virginia  and 
North  Carolina,  formed  by  the  union,  a  mile  above 
Clarksville,  Virginia,  of  the  Dan  and  Staunton 
rivers,  which  rise  in  the  Alleghanies.  It  flows 
230  SB.  through  the  north-eastern  portion  of 
North  Carolina  to  Albemarle  Sound. 

Roanoke,  a  city  of  Virginia,  on  the  Roanoke 
River,  258  nules  by  rail  W".  of  Norfolk.  In  1880 
it  was  a  secluded  hamlet ;  by  1890  it  was  grown 
to  a  bustling  city,  with  a  court-house,  opera- 
house,  hotels,  churches,  jail,  gas  and  electric 


ROARING  FORTIES 


592 


ROCHESTER 


lights,  large  machine-shops,  steel  and  iron  works, 
a  rolling-mill,  tobacco,  spoke,  and  canning 
factories,  mills,  bottle-works,  &c.  Pop.  (1880) 
669  ;  (1890)  16,159  ;  (1900)  21,495. 

Roaring  Forties,  a  sailor's  term  for  a  region 
of  the  great  Southern  Ocean  lying  south  of  40°  S. 
lat.  (especially  south  of  45°),  where  the  prevailing 
strong  WNW.  and  NW.  winds  are  often  stormy. 

Robben  Island  (Dutch,  '  seal  island '),  an  islet 
of  Table  Bay,  10  miles  NW.  of  Capetown,  with 
a  lunatic  asylum  and  a  leper  colony. 

Robin  Hood's  Bay,  a  fishing-village  in  the 
North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  6|  miles  SE.  of  Whitby 
by  the  coast  railway  (1885)  to  Scarborough.  The 
bay  is  picturesquely  fringed  by  lofty  cliffs,  the 
Old  Peak,  its  southern  horn,  attaining  585  feet. 
It  owes  its  name  to  traditions  of  Robin  Hood, 
whose  arrows  shot  from  the  tower  of  Whitby 
Priory  reached  Hawkser,  3  miles  distant. 

Rocha,  a  SE.  dep.  of  Uruguay,  on  the  Atlantic. 
Area,  4280  sq.  m. ;  pop,  30,500. 

Rochdale  (Rotch-dale),  a  manufacturing  town 
of  Lancashire,  a  municipal,  parliamentary,  and 
county  borough,  on  the  Roche,  11  miles  N.  by 
B.  of  Manchester  and  202  NNW.  of  Loudon.  St 
Chad's  parish  church,  on  an  eminence  approached 
by  a  flight  of  122  steps,  dates  from  the  12th 
century,  but  is  mainly  Perpendicular  in  style. 
It  is  a  handsome  edifice,  on  which  £10,000  was 
expended  in  1884-85.  The  town-hall  (1866-71)  is 
a  very  fine  Domestic  Gothic  building.  The  town 
besides  has  an  infirmary  (1883),  a  free  grammar- 
school,  founded  in  1565  by  Archbishop  Parker, 
and  rebuilt  in  1846,  a  free  library  (1884),  a  post- 
office  (1875),  public  baths  (1868),  a  bronze  statue 
of  John  Bright  (1891),  and  a  public  park  of  12 
acres.  The  trade  in  woollen  goods  dates  from 
the  days  of  Elizabeth,  when  cotton  goods  also 
were  sold  here,  and  coal-pits  worked.  It  was 
not  till  1795  that  the  first  cotton-mill  was  built, 
in  which  in  1802  the  father  of  John  Bright  began 
his  career  as  a  weaver.  Flannels  and  calicoes 
are  now  the  staple  manufactures,  but  there  are 
also  cotton-mills,  foundries,  ironworks,  machine- 
shops,  &c.  Rochdale  is  the  birthplace  of  Co- 
operation, and  the  membership  of  its  Equitable 
Pioneers'  Society  (1844)  has  increased  from  28  to 
over  11,000,  Avith  an  annual  business  representing 
more  than  a  quarter  million.  Since  1832  Roch- 
dale has  returned  one  member  to  parliament, 
and  in  1856  it  became  a  municipal  borough.  The 
latter  in  1872  was  made  coterminous  with  the 
parliamentary  borough,  whose  boundary  had 
been  extended  in  1867.  The  manor  of  Rochdale 
(Recedam  in  Domesday)  was  originally  held  by 
the  Lacys  of  Pontefract,  and  through  their 
descendants,  the  Dukes  of  Lancaster,  passed  to 
the  crown.  In  1628  it  was  sold  to  Sir  John 
Byron,  whose  ancestors  had  been  connected  with 
it  since  1462,  and  whose  descendant,  the  poet 
Lord  Byron,  in  1823  sold  it  to  Mr  Dearden.  Pop. 
of  county  borough  (1901)  as  extended  in  1900, 
83,114 ;  of  parliamentary  borough,  76,124.  See 
Fishwick's  History  of  the  Pa.rish  of  Rochdale  (1889). 

Roche  Abbey,  a  ruined  Yorkshire  Cistercian 
monastery  (c.  1147),  8  miles  E.  of  Rotherham. 

Rochefort-sur-Mer  (Rosh-forr'-sur-Mayr),  a 
French  seaport,  naval  arsenal,  and  fortress  of 
the  first  class,  in  the  dep.  of  Charente-Inferieure, 
stands  on  the  Charente's  light  bank,  9  miles  from 
its  mouth,  and  18  miles  SSB.  of  Rochelle,  89  SW. 
of  Poitiers.  It  was  founded  in  1665  as  a  naval 
station  by  Colbert,  and  fortified  by  Vauban,  being 
covered  now  on  the  sea  side  by  strong  forts ;  and 


it  is  a  modern,  clean,  well-built  place.  The  naval 
hospital  (1783-88)  has  nearly  1300  beds  and  an 
artesian  well  2758  feet  deep.  There  are  both  a 
naval  harbour  and,  higher  up  the  river,  a  com- 
mercial harbour  with  three  basins  ;  and  Rochefort 
besides  possesses  rope-walks,  cannon-foundries, 
&c.  From  1777  till  1852  it  was  the  seat  of  a  great 
convict  prison.  Napoleon  meant  to  take  ship 
for  America  at  Rochefort,  but  instead  had  to 
surrender  to  Captain  Maitland  of  the  Bellerophon, 
15th  July  1815.     Pop.  (1872)  26,619  ;  (1901)  31,613. 

Roclielle,  La  (Ro-sheW),  a  French  fortified  sea- 
port, capital  of  the  dep.  of  Charente-Inferieure, 
on  an  inlet  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  formed  by  the 
islands  Re  and  Oleron,  91  miles  WSW.  of  Poitiers 
and  297  SW.  of  Paris.  Its  harbour,  still  showing 
the  remains  of  Richelieu's  famous  dyke,  is  sur- 
rounded by  fine  quays,  close  to  which  lie  the 
principal  streets  and  squares.  The  most  note- 
worthy public  buildings  are  the  hotel-de-ville 
(1486-1607),  the  palais-de-justice  (1614),  and  the 
heavy  Grecian  cathedral  (1742-1862).  Besides  the 
fine  promenade  of  the  Place  du  Chateau,  there  are, 
outside  the  city.  La  Promenade  du  Mail  and  the 
Champs  de  Mars.  Shipbuilding  is  actively  carried 
on,  specially  for  the  Newfoundland  fishing  trade  ; 
and  besides  the  manufacture  of  briquettes  and 
cotton  yarns,  Rochelle  has  numerous  glass-works, 
sugar-refineries,  and  brandy  distilleries.  Pop. 
(1872)  19,070 ;  (1901)  28,578.  Known  till  the  12th 
century  under  its  Latin  name  of  Rupella,  '  Little 
Rock,'  of  which  its  present  name  is  a  translation, 
Rochelle  originated  in  a  colony  of  runaway  serfs 
of  Lower  Poitou.  On  the  marriage  of  Eleanor  of 
Aquitaine  with  Henry  II. ,  it  came,  as  part  of  her 
dowry,  to  the  English  kings,  who  retained  it  till 
1224 ;  and,  though  it  was  restored  to  England  in 
1360,  it  has  been  French  since  1372.  A  Hugue- 
not stronghold,  it  was  unsuccessfully  besieged  in 
1573,  and  in  1627-28  it  for  fourteen  months  again 
offered  a  heroic  though  unavailing  resistance 
to  Cardinal  Richelieu.  Buckingham's  expedi- 
tion to  relieve  it  failed,  and  at  last  the  defenders, 
reduced  from  27,000  to  5000,  had  to  surrender. 
With  the  exception  of  three  towers  (1384-1476) 
its  old  fortifications  were  destroyed,  and  new 
lines  of  defences  subsequently  erected  by  the 
great  Vauban.  Reaumur,  Bonpland,  Billaud- 
Varenne,  Fromentin,  Bouguereau,  and  Admiral 
Duperre  were  natives.  Of  the  last  a  statue  was 
erected  in  1869. 

Rochester  (Rotch'es-ter),  a  city  of  Kent,  29  miles 
ESB.  of  London,  lies  chiefly  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  tidal  Medway,  continuous  with  Chatham, 
and  joined  to  Strood  by  an  iron  swing  bridge, 
constructed  in  1850-56  at  a  cost  of  £170,000.  The 
castle  or  keep  (1126),  Avhich  crowns  a  steep 
eminence  near  the  bridge,  is  104  feet  high  and 
70  feet  square,  with  walls  12  feet  thick,  and  is 
a  very  fine  specimen  of  Norman  architecture ; 
it  was  taken  by  John  (1215),  vainly  attacked  by 
De  Montfort  (1264),  and  taken  again  by  Tyler 
(1381).  Both  castle  and  grounds  were  purchased 
in  1883  by  the  corporation  from  the  Earl  of  Jersey. 
The  episcopal  see  was  founded  in  604  by  St 
Augustine,  and  the  foundations  remain  still  of 
his  cathedral.  Bishop  Gundulf  (1077-1107)  built 
a  new  cathedral,  part  of  whose  crypt  survives. 
This  cathedral  was  rebuilt  by  Ernulf  and  John 
of  Canterbury  (1115-37),  the  existing  nave  and 
the  choir  was  again  rebuilt  and  enlarged  in  the 
13th  century  in  part  out  of  offerings  of  pilgrims 
at  the  shrine  of  St  William  of  Perth,  a  Scotch 
baker,  who,  on  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land, 
was  murdered  near  Chatham  by  his  corapanioij 


ROCHESTER 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


and  adopted  son.  The  tower  was  rebuilt  by 
Cottingham  (1825-26),  the  choir  and  transepts 
restored  by  Scott  (1871-77),  and  the  west  front 
restored  by  Pearson  in  1891.  The  whole  pile 
measures  306  feet  in  length,  and  has  double 
transepts ;  and  special  features  of  interest  are 
the  Norman  west  doorway  and  nave,  the  Early 
English  choir,  the  spacious  crypt,  and  a  tine 
Decorated  doorway  leading  to  the  modern  library. 
Of  Rochester's  bishops  since  604,  some  eighty  in 
number,  may  be  mentioned  Paulinus  (previously 
first  bishop  of  York),  Gundulf,  Walter  de  Merton, 
Fisher,  Ridley,  Atterbury,  and  Horsley.  St 
Bartholomew's  Hospital,  founded  in  1078  for 
lepers,  was  refounded  in  1863  ;  the  Norman  chai>el 
remains.  Watts'  Charity  House,  founded  in  1579 
to  lodge  'six  poor  travellers,  not  being  rogues 
or  proctors,'  has  been  immortalised  by  Dickens, 
whose  home,  Gadshill  (q.v.),  is  8  miles  distant, 
and  who  introduces  Rochester  into  Pickwick, 
Edwin  Drood,  and  other  novels.  Three  schools 
are  the  cathedral  grammar-school  (Henry  VIII.), 
Williamson's  mathematical  school  (1701 ;  reopened 
under  a  new  scheme,  1880),  and  a  grammar-school 
for  girls  (1888) ;  other  buildings  are  Satis  House, 
Restoration  House  (Charles  II.  slept  here  in 
1660),  the  guild-hall  (1687),  and  the  corn  exchange 
(1871).  Rochester— the  Roman  Durobrivce  and 
Anglo-Saxon  Hrofe-ceastre— was  made  a  munici- 
pal borough  by  Henry  II.  It  lost  one  of  its  two 
members  in  1885.  James  II.  embarked  here  in 
his  flight  (1688).  Pop.  (1851)  16,508 ;  (1901)  30,590. 
See  works  by  Wharton  (1691),  Thorpe  (1769-88), 
Rawlinson  (1717),  Fisher  (1772),  Rye  (1861-65), 
Walcott  (1866),  and  Langton  (1880). 

Rochester,  (l)  capital  of  Monroe  county,  New 
York,  is  on  the  Genesee  River,  7  miles  above  its 
entrance  into  Lake  Ontario,  67  miles  ENE.  of 
Buffalo  and  360  NW.  of  New  York.  The  river 
has  here  three  perpendicular  falls  of  96,  26,  and 
83  feet,  and  affords  innnense  water-power.  Among 
the  principal  buildings  are  the  city  hall,  of  blue 
limestone,  and  the  court-house  ;  a  state  industrial 
school  for  500  boys  and  200  girls ;  a  Roman 
Catholic  cathedral ;  the  Free  Academy ;  the 
Baptist  university  (1850),  and  a  Baptist  theo- 
logical seminary  (whose  library  of  21,000  vols, 
includes  that  of  Neander).  Tliere  is  a  handsome 
stone  aqueduct  of  seven  arches  (850  feet  long)  by 
which  the  Erie  Canal  crosses  the  river.  The 
principal  industries  are  flour-milling,  and  the 
manufacture  of  ready-made  clothing  and  boots 
and  shoes,  rubber  goods,  photographic  apparatus, 
furniture,  agricultural  implements  and  machinery, 
steam-engines,  glass,  tobacco,  perfumery,  &c.  ; 
and  there  are  besides  numerous  foundries,  iron- 
bridge  works,  cotton-mills,  breweries,  seed-pack- 
ing and  fruit-canning  establishments.  Rochester, 
a  port  of  entry,  was  settled  in  1810  by  Colonel 
Rochester,  and  incorporated  in  1834.  Pop.  (1840) 
20,191 ;  (1880)  89,366  ;  (1900)  162,608 — (2)  Capital 
of  Olmsted  county,  Minnesota,  on  the  Zumbro 
River,  347  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Chicago.  It  has 
flour-mills,  foundries,  and  manufactories  of  furni- 
ture, farming  implements,  &c.  Pop.  6850. — (3)  A 
town  of  New  Hampshire,  22  miles  by  rail  NW. 
of  Portsmouth,  with  manufactures  of  flannel, 
blankets,  shoes,  &c.  Pop.  8470. — (4)  A  borough 
of  Pennsylvania,  on  the  Ohio's  north  bank,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Beaver  River,  25  miles  NW.  of 
Pittsburgh.    Pop.  4690. 

Roche-sur-Yon  (Rosh-siir-Yon^),  capital  of  the 

French  dep.  of  Vendee,  on  the  Yon,  60  miles 

SSE.  of  Nantes  by  rail,  has  a  prefecture,  lyceum, 

library   of   12,000    volumes,   a    museum,  and  a 

2l 


theatre.  In  1805  Napoleon  selected  it— then  a 
mere  village — to  be  the  departmental  capital. 
From  1815  to  1848  it  was  called  Bourhon-Vendie, 
from  1848  to  1870  Napoleon-Vendee.     Pop.   11,190. 

Rochford,  an  Essex  town,  on  the  Roche,  16i 
miles  SE.  of  Clielmsford.  Anne  Boleyn  was  bora 
at  Rochford  Hall.     Pop.  of  parish,  1812. 

Rockall,  on  a  sandbank  in  the  Atlantic  50 
miles  long  and  25  broad,  in  57°  36'  N.  lat.,  13°  41' 
W.  long.,  184  miles  W.  of  St  Kilda,  290  from  the 
nearest  point  of  the  Scottish  mainland,  and  260 
from  the  north  of  Ireland.  It  is  a  granite  rock 
of  a  rounded  form,  rising  70  feet  above  the  sear, 
and  about  100  yards  in  circumference ;  and  is 
situated  at  a  greater  distance  from  the  main- 
land than  any  otlier  rock  or  islet  of  the  same 
diminutive  size  in  any  part  of  the  world. 

Rockford,  capital  of  Winnebago  county,  Illinois, 
on  the  Rock  River,  86  miles  WNW.  of  Chicago. 
It  has  foundries,  flour,  paper,  cotton,  and  woollen 
mills,  and  manufactures  of  carriages,  pumps, 
churns,  furniture,  cutlery,  &c.  Pop.  (1880) 
13,129 ;  (1900)  31,050. 

Rockhampton,  a  town  of  Queensland,  Aus- 
tralia, on  the  Fitzroy,  35  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  420  NW.  of  Brisbane.  It  has  wide  tree-lined 
streets,  and  owes  its  beginning  (1858)  to  extensive 
gold-fields,  the  annual  yield  of  which  is  valued 
at  £1,000,000  to  £1,250,000  ;  copper  and  silver 
are  also  worked.  The  industries  include  tanning, 
soap  and  boot  making,  and  meat-preserving  ;  and 
it  is  the  chief  port  for  central  Queensland.  A 
bridge  across  the  Fitzroy,  with  five  spans  of  232 
feet  each,  connects  Rockhampton  with  its  suburb 
North  Rockhampton.     Pop.  (1901)  18,470. 

Rockingham  Castle,  Northamptonshire,  on 
the  Welland,  10  miles  ENE.  of  Market  Har- 
borough,  is  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Watsons.  See 
a  work  by  C.  Wise  (1892). 

Rock  Island,  capital  of  a  county  in  Illinois,  on 
the  Mississippi,  opposite  Davenjjort,  Iowa  (the 
two  are  connected  by  a  Avrought-iron  bridge 
which  cost  $1,300,000),  181  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of 
Chicago.  Tlie  island  from  which  the  town  is 
named  is  used  as  a  public  park  ;  on  it  are  also  an 
arsenal  and  armoury.  The  channel  to  the  east 
of  the  island  has  been  dammed  so  as  to  furnish 
immense  water-power,  and  the  city  has  flour  and 
saw  mills,  foundries,  machine-shops,  glass-works, 
&c.    Pop.  (1880)  11,659  ;  (1900)  19,500. 

Rockland,  (l)  capital  of  Knox  county,  Maine, 
on  the  west  side  of  Penobscot  Bay,  88  miles  by 
rail  ENE.  of  Portland,  with  granite  quarries, 
lime-kilns,  iron  and  brass  foundries,  shipbuilding, 
&c.  Pop.  8174.— (2)  Rockland,  Massachusetts,  19 
miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Boston,  has  large  boot  and 
shoe  factories.     Pop.  5400. 

Rockland  Lake,  near  the  Hudson,  30  miles  N. 
of  New  York  City,  is  3  miles  in  circumference, 
and  furnishes  200,000  tons  of  ice  annually. 

Rock  River  rises  in  SE.  of  Wisconsin,  and 
flows  (with  many  falls)  375  miles  S.  and  SW. 
through  Illinois  to  the  Mississippi,  3  miles  below 
Rock  Island. 

Rock  Springs,  a  town  of  Wyoming,  258  miles 
W.  of  Laramie.     Pop.  4370. 

Rocky  Mountains,  the  eastern  ranges  of  the 
great  Cordilleran  system  in  North  America, 
which  attains  its  greatest  breadth  within  the 
United  States  (over  1000  miles  between  38°  and 
42°  N.).  The  mountain-chains  forming  the  western 
boundary  of  the  plateaus  of  this  highland  region 
are  the  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascade  Ranges 
(q.v.),  and  the  eastern  chains  stretching  con- 


ROCKY  MOUNTAINS 


594 


ROME 


tinuously  from  the  southern  borders  of  the 
United  States  through  Canada  to  the  Arctic 
Ocean  constitute  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
name  'Rocky  Mountains'  is  peculiarly  appro- 
priate, as  there  probably  exists  nowhere  else  such 
an  extensive  region  of  naked  rock  almost  entirely 
devoid  of  vegetation.  The  geological  structure 
is  complex,  but  the  greater  part  of  the  rocks 
exposed  are  Mesozoic  intermingled  with  Tertiary 
and  Quaternary  deposits.  In  comparatively  recent 
ages  this  whole  region  has  been  the  scene  of 
vast  volcanic  eruptions,  and  the  lava  overflows 
which  have  covered  the  stratified  rocks  in  many 
places  to  a  depth  of  thousands  of  feet  have 
augmented  the  expanse  of  sterile  surface.  The 
high  mountain  barrier  at  the  western  boundary 
of  the  highland  robs  the  winds  which  sweep 
across  the  Pacific  of  much  of  their  moisture,  and 
the  great  aridity  of  this  region  thus  prevents  the 
growth  of  vegetation.  The  surface  is  exposed  to 
continued  erosive  action,  and  the  region  displays 
a  labyrinth  of  naked  crags  and  peaks  rising  from 
plateaus  crossed  by  towering  cliffs  or  deep  canons, 
with  here  and  there  an  isolated  butte.  The 
wonderful  mesa  or  plateau  region  extends  from 
southern  Wyoming  through  western  Colorado, 
eastern  Utah,  and  south  into  New  Mexico  and 
Arizona.  The  country  is  divided  by  faults, 
flexures,  and  deep  canons  into  numerous  blocks 
or  separate  plateaus,  and  the  carving  of  the  rocks 
and  the  brilliant  colouring  of  the  exposed  strata 
almost  surpass  belief. 

A  high  plateau  region  in  Wyoming,  over  which 
passes  the  Union  Pacific  Railroad,  marks  a  separ- 
ation of  the  Rocky  Mountains  into  a  northern  and 
a  southern  group,  each  of  which  has  its  character- 
istic features  ;  and  in  the  continental  divide  here 
are  found  the  head-waters  of  the  three  great  river- 
systems  of  the  United  States— the  Mississippi, 
the  Columbia,  and  the  Colorado.  The  ranges  of 
the  southern  group  are  higher,  and  as  there  are 
several  elevated  valleys  known  as  '  Parks '  en- 
closed between  the  parallel  ranges,  are  known  as 
the  Park  System.  Its  greatest  development  is 
in  Colorado,  where  there  are  nearly  forty  peaks 
over  14,000  feet  in  height.  The  Medicine  Bow 
Range  and  the  Colorado  or  Front  Range  form  the 
eastern  edge  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  System,  and 
rise  abruptly  from  the  gentler  slope  of  the  Plains. 
In  this  range  are  the  well-known  landmarks, 
Long's  Peak  (14,271  feet)  and  Pike's  Peak  (14,134 
feet),  as  well  as  Gray's  Peak  (14,341  feet),  its 
highest  point,  which  is  too  far  west  to  be  visible 
from  the  Plains.  In  the  Sawatch  Range  to  the 
west  are  the  Mount  of  the  Holy  Cross  (14,176 
feet)  and  Mount  Harvard  (14,375  feet).  In  the 
Sangre  de  Cristo  Range,  almost  a  continuation  of 
the  Sawatch,  is  Blanca  Peak  (14,463  feet),  the 
highest  point  of  the  'Rockies.'  In  the  Parks 
rise  the  head-waters  of  the  North  and  the  South 
Platte,  the  Arkansas,  the  Grand,  and  the  Rio 
Grande.  The  Uintah  Mountains  connect  the 
eastern  and  western  ranges  of  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tain System.  The  most  important  of  the  western 
ranges  are  the  Wahsatch  Mountains,  which  form 
a  part  of  the  eastern  rim  of  the  Great  Basin,  and 
which  serve  as  the  connecting  link  between  the 
northern  and  southern  groups  of  this  system. 
The  Wind  River  Mountains  in  Wyoming  are  the 
highest  of  the  ranges  in  the  northern  group,  with 
Fremont's  Peak  (13,790  feet).  The  mountains  of 
the  northern  group  are  wilder  and  less  accessible 
than  those  of  the  southern  chains,  but  not  so 
high.  Yellowstone  Park  (q.v.),  in  Wyoming,  is 
famous  for  its  wonderful  scenery.  Mount  Hooker 
and  Mount  Brown  are  the  most  noted  peaks  be- 


yond the  Canadian  line.  The  highland  gradually 
descends  northward  to  an  elevation  of  about  800 
feet  near  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Rocrol  (Rokr-wa'),  a  fortress  of  France,  dep. 
Ardennes,  24  miles  NW.  of  Sedan,  and  2  from 
the  Belgian  frontier.  Here  Conde  defeated  the 
Spaniards  in  1643.    Pop.  2100. 

Rodez  (Ro-day'),  a  town  of  southern  France 
(dep.  Aveyron),  stands  on  a  bold  bluff"  encircled 
by  the  Aveyron,  148  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Mont- 
pellier.  The  Gothic  cathedral  (1277-1535)  has  a 
tower  260  feet  high,  crowned  by  a  colossal  image 
of  the  Virgin.  There  are  several  mediaeval 
houses,  remains  of  a  Roman  amphitheatre,  and  a 
restored  Roman  aqueduct.  Coal-mining,  cloth- 
making,  tanning,  and  cattle-dealing  are  carried 
on.     Pop.  12,000. 

Roding,  an  Essex  river  flowing  30  miles  to  the 
Thames,  near  East  Ham. 

Rodos'to  (anc.  Rhcedestos),  a  town  of  Turkey, 
on  the  north  shore  of  the  Sea  of  Marmora,  60 
miles  W.  of  Constantinople.     Pop.  18,600. 

Rodriguez  (Ro-dree'ghez),  or  Rodrigues,  a 
hilly  volcanic  island  (1760  feet),  18  miles  long  by 
7  broad,  lies  380  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Mauritius, 
of  which  it  is  a  dependency.  Hurricanes  often 
cause  great  damage  to  the  island,  which  is  en- 
circled by  a  coral-reef.  It  was  discovered  by 
the  Portuguese  in  1645,  and  has  been  a  British 
colony  since  1814.  The  chief  port  is  Port 
Mathurin.    Pop.  3200. 

Roermond  (Roor-mond),  an  old  Dutch  town,  at 
the  junction  of  the  Roer  and  the  Maas  (Meuse), 
29  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Maestricht.  The  fine  cathe- 
dral (1218)  is  Romanesque.     Pop.  12,350. 

Roeskilde  (Rus-keel'deh),  a  city  on  the  Danish 
island  of  Zealand,  at  the  southern  end  of  the 
Roeskilder  Fjord,  20  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of 
Copenhagen.  Founded  in  980,  it  was  the  capital 
of  the  Danish  kings  and  the  seat  of  the  bishops. 
The  13th-c.  cathedral  contains  the  tombs  of  most 
of  the  kings.  Here  peace  was  signed  between 
Sweden  and  Denmark  in  1658.    Pop.  8370. 

Rohilkhand,  a  division  of  the  United  Prov- 
inces of  Agra  and  Oudh,  has  an  area  of  10,908 
sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  5,500,000. 

RoMak,  a  town  of  British  India,  in  the 
Punjab,  42  miles  NW.  of  Delhi.     Pop.  16,700. 

Rokeby,  a  parish  in  the  North  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 2i  miles  SE.  of  Barnard  Castle.  Rokeby 
Hall  (1724),  after  which  Scott's  poem  is  named,  is 
the  seat  now  of  the  Morritts. 

Rokitno,  a  vast  swampy  region,  now  being 
gradually  drained,  between  the  rivers  Pripet, 
Dnieper,  and  Beresina  in  West  Russia. 

Romagna  (Ro-7nan'ya),  a  region  of  Italy, 
formerly  the  northern  portion  of  the  States  of 
the  Church,  and  comprising  the  delegations  of 
Bologna,  Ravenna,  Ferrara,  and  Forli. 

Romania,  an  old  name  for  the  eastern  part  of 
the  Morea,  and  for  Roumelia  (q.v.). 

Romans  {Romon%  a  town  of  France  (dep. 
Drome),  on  the  Isere's  right  bank,  12  miles  by 
rail  NE.  of  Valence.  A  9th-century  bridge  con- 
nects it  with  Peage  on  the  left  bank.  Romans 
owes  its  oripn  to  an  abbey  founded  in  837. 
Pop.  15,000. 

Roman's  Horn,  a  Swiss  village  on  Lake  Con- 
stance, 12  miles  SE.  of  Constance.    Pop.  3200. 

Roman  Wall.    See  Hadrian's  Wall. 

Rome,  the  capital  of  the  modern  kingdom  of 
Italy,  stands  on  the  Tiber,  about  15  miles  from 


ROME 


596 


ROME 


its  mouth  (from  85  to  44  hours'  journey  from 
Paris  by  rail).  Roman  legend  ascribed  its  founda- 
tion to  Romulus  in  753  B.C.  ;  but  recent  explora- 
tions have  proved  that  the  site  was  inhabited  in 
the  neolithic  and  early  bronze  period.  In  the  time 
of  the  kings  (753-510  b.c.)  the  city  occupied 
seven  hills  (Palatine,  Capitoline,  Aventine, 
Cselian,  Esquiline,  Quirinal,  and  Viniinal),  whose 
summits  rise  from  80  to  120  feet  above  the  river 
and  the  intervening  valleys.  The  settlement  on 
the  Palatine  attributed  to  Romulus  was  certainly 
fortified  at  a  very  early  period.  In  the  time  of 
the  later  or  Etruscan  kings  at  least  five  of  the 
settlements  on  the  seven  hills  had  been  sur- 
rounded by  separate  defences.  These  fortified 
hills,  with  the  marshy  hollows  between  them, 
were  enclosed  under  Servius  by  a  huge  rampart 
or  agger  of  earth,  faced  with  an  exterior  wall  of 
unmortared  masonry.  For  800  years,  till  the 
reign  of  the  Emperor  Aurelian,  the  Servian  agger 
formed  the  only  defence  of  the  city.  The  wall 
which  bears  the  name  of  Aurelian  is  to  a  great 
extent  identical  with  the  present  walls ;  it  en- 
closed the  suburbs  which  had  grown  up  beyond 
the  Cselian,  the  Esquiline,  and  the  Quirinal,  and 
included  two  additional  hills,  the  Pincian,  and 
part  of  the  Janiculum,  as  well  as  the  low-lying 
ground  near  the  Tiber  called  the  Campus  Martius. 
The  Aurelian  Wall,  begun  by  Aurelian  in  271  a.d., 
completed  by  Probus  in  280,  restored  by  Honorius, 
and  repaired  by  Belisarius,  is  12  miles  in  circuit. 
The  Leonine  Wall,  enclosing  the  Vatican  Hill  and 
the  remainder  of  the  Janiculum,  was  built  by  Leo 
IV.  in  848.  At  the  present  time  populous  sub- 
urbs have  arisen  to  the  east  and  north  beyond 
the  walls,  while  to  the  south  extensive  spaces 
within  the  wall  are  uninhabited.  Some  1500 
acres,  chiefly  on  the  Cselian  and  the  Aventine,  are 
occupied  by  vineyards,  fields,  and  gardens,  while 
public  gardens  and  squares  occupy  over  100 
acres.  To  the  period  of  the  kings  belongs  the 
Cloaca  Maxima,  a  huge  arched  sewer  of  Etruscan 
masonry.  The  so-called  Mamertine  prison  at  the 
foot  of  the  Capitol  was  a  deep  vaulted  well,  and 
is  perhaps  the  most  ancient  structure  in  Rome  ; 
in  it,  afterwards  made  into  a  prison,  Jugurtha 
and  the  Catiline  conspirators  (and  according  to 
tradition  St  Peter)  were  confined.  Of  the  four- 
teen aqueducts,  with  an  aggregate  length  of  351 
miles,  several  date  from  tlie  republican  period, 
some  from  the  imperial  age ;  these  vast  struc- 
tures, striding  on  their  huge  arches  across  the 
Campagna,  and  still  bringing  water  from  the 
Apennines  and  the  Alban  hills,  are  among  the 
most  striking  features  of  modern  Rome. 

In  the  time  of  the  Republic  the  centre  of  tlie 
public  life  of  the  city  was  the  Forum  Romanuvi, 
an  oblong  space,  containing  about  2^  acres,  and 
traversed  by  the  Via  Sacra.  Here  are  still  to  be 
seen  the  remains  of  the  temples  of  Saturn  (491 
B.C.),  of  Concord,  of  Castor  and  Pollux  (496  b.c), 
of  Vesta,  of  Julius  Csesar,  of  Vespasian,  and  of 
Faustina.  We  see  also  the  foundations  of  the 
Triumplial  Arch  of  Augustus,  the  vast  ruins  of 
the  Basilica  Julia,  and  the  milestone  from  which 
all  Roman  rocvds  were  measured.  To  the  north 
of  the  Forum  stands  the  Triumphal  Arch  of 
Septimius  Severus,  to  the  south  the  Arch  of  Titus. 
In  the  time  of  the  emperors  additional  fora  were 
laid  out  to  the  east,  and  remains  still  mark  the 
Forum  Julium,  the  Forum  of  Augustus,  the 
Forum  of  Nerva,  the  Forum  Pacis  (built  by  Ves- 
pasian), and,  most  magnificent,  the  Forum  of 
Trajan.  Beyond  it  stands  the  great  Column  of 
Trajan,  124  feet  in  height,  with  spiral  bas-reliefs 
representing   scenes   from    Trajan's    campaigns 


against  the  Dacians.  Of  inferior  art  is  the 
Column  of  Marcus  Aurelius  (the  Antonine  Column) 
in  the  Piazza  Colonna  on  the  Corso.  On  the 
western  side  of  the  Forum  Romanum  rises  the 
Palatine  Hill,  its  summit  covered  with  the  sub- 
structures of  the  Palaces  of  the  Emperors  and 
the  Houses  of  Augustus,  Tiberius,  Li  via,  Caligula, 
Domitian,  Hadrian,  and  Septimius  Severus.  Of 
the  300  temples  in  ancient  Rome,  the  names,  and 
in  many  cases  the  sites,  of  153  are  known- 
several  of  them  having  been  converted  into 
churches.  S.  Maria  del  Sole  is  a  round  temple 
formerly  called  the  Temple  of  Vesta,  but  now 
believed  to  be  the  Temple  of  Hercules  Victor. 
Another  temple,  supposed  to  be  the  Temple  of 
Fortuna  Virilis,  is  now  the  church  of  S.  Mary 
of  Egypt.  The  church  of  SS.  Cosmo  e  Damiano 
is  the  Temple  of  Sacra  Urbs,  erected  by  the 
Emperor  Maxentius.  The  church  of  Santa 
Maria  sopra  Minerva  stands  on  the  ruins  of 
a  Temple  of  Minerva.  In  27  b.c.  Agrippa 
built  a  vast  dome  in  front  of  the  Thermae 
which  he  erected  in  the  Campus  Martius  ;  it  is 
called  by  Pliny  and  other  writers  the  Pan- 
theon, and  may  have  served  as  a  sort  of  entrance- 
hall  to  the  ThermaB.  It  is  now  known  to  have 
been  rebuilt  by  Hadrian  ;  in  608  it  was  conse- 
crated as  the  church  of  S.  Maria  ad  Martyres, 
and  now,  perfectly  preserved,  goes  by  the  name 
of  S.  Maria  Rotonda.  The  diameter  (142  feet)  of 
the  dome,  which  is  lighted  only  by  a  central 
aperture  in  the  roof,  is  larger  than  the  dome  of  St 
Peter's  ;  the  walls  are  19  feet  in  thickness.  The 
Thermae  of  Agrippa  were  the  earliest  of  the  eleven 
great  public  baths— those  of  Trajan,  of  Con- 
stantine,  &c.  The  Thermae  Antoninianae,  usually 
called  the  Baths  of  Caracalla,  by  whom  they  were 
begun  in  212  a.d.,  and  completed  by  Alexander 
Severus,  were  built  to  accommodate  1600  bathers ; 
and,  after  serving  for  centuries  as  a  quarry,  they 
are  still  the  vastest  of  all  the  ruins  in  Rome. 
A  large  marshy  plain,  which  now  forms  the  most 
densely  populated  part  of  Rome,  lay  outside  the 
Servian  Walls,  extending  from  the  foot  of  the 
Capitoline  and  Quirinal  hills  to  the  Tiber.  This, 
being  used  for  military  exercises,  was  called  the 
Campus  Martius.  On  these  fields  were  built  the 
Baths  of  Agrippa  and  the  Baths  of  Nero ;  and 
here  were  erected  the  Theatre  of  Balbus  and  the 
vast  Theatre  of  Pompey,  said  to  have  contained 
seats  for  40,000  spectators.  Somewhat  nearer  to 
the  Capitol  was  the  Theatre  of  Marcellus,  of  which 
a  considerable  portion  still  stands.  This  theatre 
was  begun  by  Julius  Csesar,  and  finished  in  the 
year  11  B.C.  by  Augustus,  who  named  it  after  his 
nephew  Marcellus.  The  great  Flavian  Amphi- 
theatre, built  for  gladiatorial  exhibitions  and  for 
the  combats  of  wild  beasts,  goes  by  the  name  of 
the  Colosseum  ;  commenced  by  Ves})asian,  it  was 
dedicated  by  Titus  80  a.d.,  and  finished  by  Domi- 
tian. It  is  built  in  the  form  of  an  ellipse,  the 
longer  diameter  measuring  613  feet  and  the  shorter 
510  feet.  It  rises  to  a  height  of  160  feet,  covering 
5  acres  of  ground.  In  the  middle  ages  it  was 
used  as  a  fortress  and  afterwards  as  a  quarry ; 
but,  though  so  large  a  portion  has  been  demol- 
ished, it  constitutes  perhaps  the  most  imposing 
monument  of  Roman  magnificence  which  is  left. 
The  roads  leading  out  of  Rome  beyond  the 
Servian  Walls  were  bordered  by  tombs,  many  of 
which,  on  the  erection  of  the  Aurelian  W^all,  were 
included  within  the  city.  On  the  Appian  Way 
are  the  tombs  of  the  Scipios.  Outside  the 
Aurelian  Wall  is  the  Tomb  of  Caecilia  Metella, 
wife  of  the  triumvir  Crassus,  which  in  the  13th 
century  was  converted  into  a  fortress ;  it  is  a 


ROME 


596 


ROME 


Cylindrical  block  of  masonry,  65  feet  in  diameter, 
resembling  the  keep  of  a  feudal  castle.  The  most 
magnificent  of  Roman  tombs  was  the  Mausoleum 
of  Hadrian,  now  the  castle  of  S.  Angelo.  It  was 
a  cylindrical  tower  of  masonry,  240  feet  in  dia- 
meter and  165  feet  in  height,  surmounted  by  a 
colossal  statue  of  the  emperor.  When  the  Goths 
besieged  Rome  the  tomb  was  converted  into  a 
fortress  by  Belisarius.  It  afterwards  became 
the  castle  of  the  popes,  and  citadel  of  Rome,  and 
in  1527  was  defended  against  the  French  by  Ben- 
venuto  Cellini.  The  Mausoleum  of  Augustus 
formed,  in  the  middle  ages,  the  castle  of  the 
Colonna  family,  and  is  now  occupied  as  the 
Teatro  Corea.  Eleven  Egyptian  obelisks  still 
ornament  the  gardens  and  piazzas  of  Rome, 
brought  by  Augustus  and  others.  That  in  the 
Piazza  of  S.  John  Lateran,  104  feet  in  height,  is 
the  largest  in  existence.  It  was  erected  at 
Thebes  by  Thothmes  III.,  and  removed  by  Con- 
stantine  to  the  Circus  Maximus.  The  triumphal 
arches  of  Septimius  Severus,  of  Titus,  and  of 
Constantine  are  still  conspicuous.  Of  the  bridges 
over  the  Tiber,  three  are  ancient. 

Of  modern  Rome,  the  pop.  was  226,022  in  1870 ; 
300,467  in  1881 ;  and  462,783  in  1901.  The  walls 
are  14  miles  in  circuit.  In  the  last  thirty  years 
of  the  19th  century  many  thousands  of  houses 
were  built,  miles  of  street  constructed,  aiid 
millions  of  money  laid  out.  Under  the  strict 
building  regulations  adopted  in  1887,  the  streets 
are  much  more  spacious,  and  even  the  tene- 
ment-houses of  better  character;  meanwhile  the 
government  has  carefully  guarded  against  the 
destruction  of  buildings  of  historic  or  anti- 
quarian interest.  During  recent  excavations  in- 
teresting sites  have  been  laid  bare  (especially  near 
the  Forum),  and  many  statues,  busts,  inscrip- 
tions, and  coins  recovered.  Old  Rome  stands 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tiber  ;  on  the  right  bank, 
occupying  the  Vatican  and  Janiculum  hills  and 
the  low  ground  between  these  hills  and  the  river, 
are  St  Peter's,  the  Vatican  Palace,  the  Borgo, 
and  the  Trastevere  ('  trans  Tiberim,'  the  section 
beyond  the  Tiber).  The  business  part  of  the 
city  occupies  the  plain  on  the  left  bank  between 
the  hills  and  the  river,  traversed  by  the  Corso, 
the  principal  thoroughfare  of  Rome,  about  a  mile 
in  length,  leading  from  the  Porta  del  Popolo  to 
the  foot  of  the  Capitoline  Hill,  where  is  the  great 
national  monument  to  Victor  Emmanuel  (1890-94). 
From  the  Piazza  del  Popolo  two  great  streets 
diverge  on  either  side  of  the  Corso,  the  Via  di 
Ripetta  to  the  right,  skirting  the  Tiber,  and  to 
the  left  the  Via  del  Babuino,  leading  to  the 
Piazza  di  Spagna,  whence  the  Scala  di  Spagna,  the 
resort  of  artists'  models,  ascends  to  the  Pincian 
Gardens,  on  the  site  of  the  gardens  of  Lucullus, 
which  command  a  splendid  view  of  the  city,  and 
form  the  fashionable  drive  and  promenade. 

Before  Rome  became  in  1870  the  capital  of 
Italy,  the  greater  part  of  the  Pincian,  Quirinal, 
and  Esquiline  hills  was  occupied  by  villas  of  the 
Roman  nobles,  with  extensive  gardens  planted 
with  ilexes  and  vines.  With  two  exceptions  these 
have  been  destroyed,  and  their  sites  have  been 
covered  with  modern  houses,  and  too  often  by 
blocks  of  ugly  barrack-like  buildings,  many 
stories  in  height,  let  out  in  tenements.  The 
dirty  but  picturesque  mediaeval  city  is  assuming 
the  aspect  of  a  modern  capital,  broad,  straight 
thoroughfares  having  been  driven  through 
quarters  formerly  occupied  by  narrow  streets 
and  mean,  crowded  houses.  Of  the  new  streets 
the  most  important  are  the  Via  Venti  Settembre, 
the  Via  Cavour,   and  the  Via   Nazionale.    The 


older  foreign  quarter  lay  at  the  foot  of  the 
Pincian,  around  the  Piazza  di  Spagna,  but  the 
healthier  sites  on  the  slopes  and  summits  of  the 
Quirinal  and  Esquiline  are  now  more  frequented. 

Of  the  palaces  the  largest  are  the  Vatican,  the 
residence  of  the  pope,  and  the  Quirinal,  now  the 
residence  of  the  king,  but  formerly  a  papal  palace, 
in  which  the  conclaves  were  held  for  the  election 
of  the  popes.  Many  of  the  palaces  of  the  Roman 
nobles  contain  collections  of  pictures  and  statu- 
ary. Chief  among  them  are  the  Palazzo  Bor- 
ghese,  containing,  next  to  the  Vatican,  the  best 
collection  of  pictures  in  Rome,  the  Palazzi  Col- 
onna, Doria,  Barberini,  Rospigliosi,  Chigi,  Tor- 
Ionia,  Farnese,  Corsini,  and  di  Venezia,  now  the 
Austrian  embassy.  Among  the  notable  villas 
are  the  Villa  Borghese,  standing  in  a  great  park 
below  the  Pincian ;  the  Villa  Ludovisi,  on  the 
Pincian ;  the  Villa  Albani,  outside  the  Porta 
Salara ;  and  the  Villa  Medici,  on  the  Pincian, 
now  the  Academie  Franqaise,  with  a  splendid 
collection  of  casts.  The  CoUegio  Romano, 
formerly  a  great  Jesuit  college,  is  now  occupied 
by  a  public  library  of  modern  books,  by  the 
Kircherian  Museum  of  Antiquities,  and  by  a  well- 
arranged  prehistoric  and  ethnological  museum. 
The  Palazzo  dei  Conservatori,  on  the  Capitol, 
contains  many  of  the  best  ancient  statues.  In 
the  cloisters  of  the  Carthusian  convent  in  the 
Thermae  of  Diocletian  are  stored  the  antiquities 
brought  to  light  during  the  recent  excavations. 
The  Villa  Medici  contains  a  good  collection  of 
casts  from  ancient  statues.  The  Lateran  Palace 
contains  an  unrivalled  collection  of  inscriptions 
and  sculptures  from  the  Catacombs,  and  a  few 
good  statues  and  mosaics.  The  chief  papal  col- 
lections are  contained  in  the  galleries  attached 
to  the  Vatican,  probably  the  largest  palace  in 
the  world.  In  addition  to  the  private  gardens 
and  apartments  of  the  pope,  the  Vatican  Palace 
comprises  immense  reception-halls  with  a  .series 
of  chapels,  librai'ies,  picture-galleries,  and  vast 
museums  of  sculptures,  antiquities,  and  inscrip- 
tions. The  Sistine  Chapel,  built  in  1473  by 
Sixtus  IV.,  is  covered  with  magnificent  frescoes 
by  Michael  Angelo  and  the  great  Florentine 
masters.  The  Capella  Nicolina,  built  by  Nicolas 
v.,  and  the  Pauline  Chapel,  built  by  Paul  III.  in 
1590,  are  also  painted  in  fresco  ;  the  first  by  Fra 
Angelico,  and  the  second  by  Michael  Angelo. 
Raphael's  Stanze  and  Loggie  are  halls  and  solars 
covered  with  inimitable  frescoes  executed  by 
Raphael,  Perugino,  Giulio  Romano,  and  other 
masters  of  their  school.  Beyond  the  Loggie  is 
the  great  picture-gallery.  The  Vatican  Library, 
with  its  priceless  MSS.,  its  collections  of  early 
printed  books,  of  Christian  antiquities,  ancient 
maps  and  jewellery,  is  contained  in  two  immense 
halls.  The  vast  sculpture-galleries,  with  their  un- 
rivalled collections,  comprise  the  Museo  Chiara- 
monte,  the  Braccio  Nuovo,  and  the  Museo  Pio- 
Clemente,  which  includes  the  Cortile  di  Belve- 
dere, containing  the  Laocoon,  the  Apollo  Belve- 
dere, and  the  so-called  Antinous. 

Of  the  churches,  over  300  in  number,  many  are 
rather  mortuary  or  memorial  churches,  opened 
only  once  a  year  on  the  festival  of  their  patron 
saint.  The  most  noteworthy  are  the  five  patriar- 
chal churches,  the  seven  pilgrimage  churches, 
and  the  eight  basilican  churches.  Others  are 
interesting  either  from  their  early  date,  their 
historical  associations,  the  archaeological  or 
artistic  treasures  they  contain,  or  the  fragments 
of  earlier  structures  which  they  enclose.  St 
John  Lateran  (S.  Giovanni  in  Laterano),  between 
the  Caelian  and  Esquiline  hills,  ranks  as  the  first 


ROME 


597 


ROME 


church  in  Christendom.  It  dates  from  the  time 
of  Constantino,  and  was,  till  the  rebuilding  of  S. 
Peter's,  the  metropolitan  cathedral  of  Rome.  It 
retains  its  5th-century  baptistery  and  the  beauti- 
ful 13th-century  cloisters.  The  Santa  Scala,  said 
to  have  been  brought  by  the  Empress  Helena 
from  Jerusalem,  is  still  venerated  by  pilgrims. 
The  church  itself  was  burned  down  and  rebuilt 
in  the  ]4th  century  ;  the  adjoining  palace  of  the 
popes  is  now  a  museum,  chiefly  of  Christian 
antiquities.  The  Basilica  of  St  Peter  (S.  Pietro 
in  Vaticano),  the  largest  church  in  the  world,  was 
rebuilt  in  the  16th  century  from  the  designs  of 
Bramante,  Michael  Angelo,  and  Bernini.  Begun 
in  1500,  and  consecrated  in  1626,  it  is  in  the  form 
of  a  Latin  cross,  with  a  vast  central  dome.  The 
interior  length  is  615  feet,  the  height  of  the  nave 
150  feet,  and  of  the  cross  which  surmounts  the 
dome  435  feet.  S.  Paul  beyond  the  Walls,  till  the 
fire  of  1S23  a  vast  4th-century  church,  has  been 
rebuilt  in  a  style  of  great  magnificence.  S. 
Lorenzo  beyond  the  Walls  was  rebuilt  in  578,  and 
remodelled  in  the  13th  century.  The  Basilica 
Liberiana,  commonly  called  S.  Maria  Maggiore 
(as  being  the  largest  of  the  eighty  churches  in 
Rome  dedicated  to  the  Virgin  Mary),  is  one  of  the 
oldest  churches  in  Rome,  the  nave  dating  from 
the  5th  century.  These  five  patriarchal  churches, 
together  with  S.  Croce  and  S.  Sebastiano,  con- 
stitute the  seven  ancient  pilgrimage  churches. 
The  five  patriarchal  churches,  together  with  S. 
Agnese,  S.  Croce,  and  S.  Clemente,  are  the  eight 
basilican  churches.  S.  Agnes  beyond  the  Walls 
was  founded  by  Constantine,  and  rebuilt  in  the  7th 
century.  S.  Croce  is  a  5th-century  basilica.  S. 
Clemente  is  the  most  archaic  church  in  Rome. 
In  addition  to  the  eight  basilican  churches,  others 
conserve  the  remains  of  earlier  buildings.  S. 
Pietro  in  Vincoli,  a  5th-ceutury  basilica,  with 
twenty  ancient  Doric  columns,  contains  Michael 
Angelo's  statue  of  Moses,  and  the  supposed  chains 
of  St  Peter.  S.  Maria  sopra  Minerva,  near  the 
Pantheon,  the  chief  Dominican  church,  is  the 
only  Gothic  church  in  Rome.  Among  the  vast 
modern  churches  are  the  Gesu,  the  gorgeous 
chiirch  of  the  Jesuits,  containing  the  tomb  of  S. 
Ignatius  Loyola;  S.  Carlo  al  Corso,  now  the 
fashionable  church  of  Rome ;  S.  Andrea  della 
Valle  ;  SS.  Apostoli ;  S.  Maria  Vallicella,  com- 
monly called  Chiesa  Nuova  ;  and  the  Cappuccini. 
Other  objects  of  interest  are  the  vast  Catacombs, 
extending  underground  for  many  miles,  the 
Ghetto  (now  almost  wholly  reconstructed),  the 
Sapienza,  the  Propaganda,  and  the  Protestant 
cemetery  with  the  tombs  of  Keats  and  Shelley. 

Rome  is  now  a  fairly  healthy  city,  except  in 
the  late  summer  months ;  the  water-supply  is 
unrivalled  both  for  quality  and  quantity,  and  the 
streets  are  well  cleansed.  No  city  excels  Rome 
in  its  public  fountains.  One  of  the  greatest 
improvements  which  has  been  effected  is  the 
embankment  of  the  Tiber,  and  the  straightening 
and  deepening  of  its  channel.  This  has  put  a 
stop  to  the  disastrous  floods  by  which  the  lower 
parts  of  the  city  were  formerly  inundated.  The 
opening  of  now  streets  and  tlie  widening  of  old 
ones  have  also  bad  a  favourable  result  on  the 
public  health.  The  streets  are  in  great  part  lighted 
by  electricity,  and  electric  street  tramways  are 
in  operation.  There  are  practically  no  manufac- 
tures in  Rome.  Hats,  gloves,  neckties,  ftvlse 
pearls,  and  trinkets  are  made,  and  there  are 
cabinet-makers,  and  a  few  foundries  on  a  small 
scale ;  but  compared  with  other  great  cities  the 
absence  of  factory  chimneys  is  very  notable. 
There  are  printing-offices,  but  the  Italian  book- 


trade  is  centred  at  Milan.  The  chief  Industry  is 
the  manufacture  of  small  mosaics,  small  bronzes, 
of  statuary,  casts,  and  pictures,  either  original  or 
copies  of  the  works  of  the  great  masters.  All  the 
necessaries  of  life  have  to  be  imported  from  a 
distance,  the  Campagna  which  extends  for  many 
miles  around  Rome  being  uninhabitable  on 
account  of  the  malaria.  It  is  an  unenclosed  and 
untilled  waste,  roamed  over  by  herds  of  half- 
wild  cattle.  Corn  and  wine  are  brought  from 
Tuscany,  and  from  the  fertile  Terra  di  Lavoro 
near  Naples.  The  prosperity  of  the  city  depends 
on  the  expenditure  of  the  courts  of  the  Quirin&l 
and  the  Vatican,  of  the  army  of  functionaries  in 
the  public  offices,  of  the  garrison,  and  of  the 
foreign  visitors  who  crowd  the  hotels  during  the 
Avinter  months.  The  railways  from  all  parts  of 
Italy  converge  outside  the  city,  which  they  enter 
near  the  Porta  Maggiore  on  the  Esquiline,  and 
have  a  common  terminus  on  the  summit  of  the 
Quirinal  close  to  the  Baths  of  Diocletian.  The 
onniibus  service  is  good,  and  well-managed  tram- 
ways traverse  several  of  the  broad  new  streets. 

The  history  of  Rome  was  for  centuries  the 
history  of  the  civilised  world  ;  and  even  after  it 
ceased  to  be  the  capital  of  the  empire  it  was  the 
centre  of  Christendom  and  the  most  interesting 
and  influential  city  on  the  planet.  Rome  was 
the  capital  of  a  kingdom  which  gradually  grew 
till  the  foundation  of  the  republic  in  509  b.c. 
The  republic  steadily  extended,  and  after  wars 
with  iEquians,  Volscians,  Latins,  Samnites, 
Sabines,  Tarentines,  &c.,  Rome  was  mistress  of 
Italy  by  the  middle  of  the  3d  century  b.c.  Then 
came  the  wars  with  Carthaginians  and  Mace- 
donians, with  Jugurtha  and  Mithridates,  and 
Rome  becomes  the  mistress  of  southern  Europe, 
northern  Africa,  and  western  Asia.  Gaul  was  con- 
quered by  Julius  Csesar  (51  b.c),  and  next  south 
Britain.  The  republic  was  overthrown,  and 
Augustus,  the  first  emperor,  was  at  peace  with 
all  the  world  soon  after  the  birth  of  Christ. 
The  empire  was  extended  to  Germany  and  Dacia, 
in  Parthia  and  Asia  ;  but  in  the  3d  century  a.d. 
the  northern  nations — especially  the  Goths  and 
kindred  nations — began  to  do  more  than  hold 
their  own,  and  the  empire  contracted  on  the  north. 
The  seat  of  the  empire  was  removed  from  Rome 
to  Byzantium  or  Constantinople  by  Constantine 
in  330  A.D.,  and  in  364  the  empire  was  divided 
into  an  eastern  and  a  western  empire,  Rome  re- 
maining capital  of  the  western  half.  Erelong 
Rome  was  taken  and  retaken  by  the  barbarians 
(410,  476),  and,  retaken  again  by  Belisarius,  was 
made  dependent  on  Constantinople  in  553,  her 
glory  being  departed.  But  as  capital  of  the 
popes,  new  glories  were  in  store  for  her ;  Charle- 
magne and  Otho  of  Germany  were  crowned  em- 
perors of  the  west  at  Rome,  and  the  city  became 
the  independent  capital  of  the  increasing  papal 
dominions  or  States  of  the  Church,  the  Romagna, 
Bologna,  and  Perugia  being  conquered  by  Pope 
Julius  II.  in  1503.  Rome  remained  the  mother 
city  of  Christendom,  and  continued  to  flourish  in 
spite  of  the  temporary  sojourn  of  the  popes  at 
Avignon  and  the  short-lived  republic  of  Rienzi 
(1347).  Again  in  1798  the  French  proclaimed 
Rome  a  republic,  and  in  1S08  the  city  became 
part  of  the  French  kingdom  of  Italy ;  it  was 
restored  to  the  popes  in  1814,  who,  save  during 
the  troubles  of  1848-49,  retained  it  as  capital  of 
the  States  of  the  Church,  under  French  protec- 
tion. But  in  1860  the  papal  states  revolted  to 
Sardinia,  and  in  1870  Rome  became  part  of  the 
Italian  kingdom  and  national  capital. 

See  R.  Burn,  Rome  mid  the  Campagna  (1870),* 


ROME 


598 


ROSETTA 


J.  H.  Parker,  Archceology  of  Rome  (1872-80) ;  T.  H. 
Dyer,  The  City  of  Rome,  its  Vicissitudes  and  Monu- 
ments (2d  ed.  1883) ;  F.  Wey,  Rome  (trans,  from 
Fr.,  new  ed.  1886) ;  R.  Lanciani,  Ancient  Rome  in 
the  Light  of  Recent  Discoveries  (1888) ;  with  other 
works  by  Gell,  Nibby,  Hare,  Professor  Middleton, 
&c.;  and  the  histories  of  the  Roman  state,  or 
parts  of  it,  by  Mommsen,  Duruy,  Ihne,  Merivale, 
Gibbon,  Bury  (1889),  Hodgkin  (1880-85),  Gregor- 
ovius,  Ranke,  &c.,  besides  the  Church  histories. 

Rome,  (1)  capital  of  Floyd  county,  Georgia,  on 
the  Coosa  River,  72  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Atlanta. 
Pop.  7300.— (2)  A  city  of  New  York,  on  the  Mo- 
hawk River,  109  miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  Albany, 
and  at  the  junction  of  the  Erie  and  Black  River 
canals.  It  has  mills  and  manufactories  of  iron, 
brass,  copper,  and  other  goods  ;  and  here  is  Fort 
Stanwix.     Pop.  15,550. 

Romford,  a  market-town  of  Essex,  on  the 
Bourne  or  Rom,  12  miles  ENE.  of  London.  It 
has  large  cattle  and  corn  markets,  iron-foundries, 
extensive  market-gardens,  and  a  very  large 
brewery  of  'Romford  ale.'  The  church  of  St 
Edward  the  Confessor  was  rebuilt  in  1850. 
Romford  is  the  capital  of  the  Liberty  of  Havering- 
atte-Bower,  once  part  of  the  lands  of  the  Saxon 
kings.  Pop.  (1851)  3861 ;  (1901)  13,656  See  George 
Terry's  Memories  of  Old  Romford  (1880). 

Romney,  New,  a  municipal  borough  and  Cinque 
Port  in  the  south  of  Kent,  8  miles  SW.  of  Hythe. 
It  ceased  to  be  a  port  in  the  days  of  Edward, 
and  is  not  now  either  on  the  seashore  or  on  a 
navigable  river.  Pop.  1326.  Old  Romney,  a 
small  village,  is  IJ  mile  further  inland. 

Romorantin,  a  town  of  France  (dep.  Loir-et- 
Cher),  45  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Tours.     Pop.  6720. 

Romsdal,  the  valley  in  central  Norway  of  the 
impetuous  Rauma,  which  reaches  the  sea  half- 
way between  Bergen  and  Trondhjem.  Its  scenery 
is  magnificent,  the  mountains  culminating  in  the 
Trolltinder  or  Witch  Needles  (5880  feet). 

Romsey,  a  municipal  borough  of  Hampshire, 
on  the  Test,  8  miles  NW.  of  Southampton.  The 
fine  cruciform  abbey  church,  mainly  Norman, 
was  the  church  once  of  a  Benedictine  nunnery, 
founded  about  910  by  Edward  the  Elder.  Sir 
William  Petty  was  the  son  of  a  Romsey  clothier ; 
and  Lord  Palmerston,  of  whom  there  is  a  bronze 
statue  (1868)  in  the  market-place,  lived  close  by 
at  Broadlands.  A  corn  exchange  was  built  in 
1865,  a  town-hall  in  1866.  Pop.  (1851)  2080 ;  (1901) 
4365.     See  Littlehales'  Romsey  Abbey  (1886). 

Rona,  an  Inverness-shire  island,  between  Skye 
and  the  mainland,  4  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  404  feet 
high.     Pop.  161. 

Ronaldshay,  North  and  South,  the  most 
northerly  and  the  most  southerly  of  the  Orkney 
Islands,  2|  and  20^  sq.  m.  in  area.  South 
Ronaldshay  attains  889  feet.     Pop.  442  and  1560. 

Roncesvalles  (Ron'se-val'les ;  orig.  Rencesvals,  a 
Basque  word),  a  hamlet  on  a  small  oval  plain  25 
miles  NE.  of  Pampeluna,  surrounded  by  Pyrenean 
ridges,  where  Roland  and  the  rear  of  Charle- 
magne's army  were  cut  off  by  the  Basques. 

Ronclglione  (Ron-cheel-yo'nay),  a  town  of 
Italy,  30  miles  NNW.  of  Rome.     Pop.  5434. 

Ronda,  a  Moorish  town  of  Spain,  43  miles  W. 
of  Malaga,  on  the  gorge  of  the  Guadiaro.  One  of 
two  bridges  is  255  feet  from  the  water.  Pop.  20,850. 

Rondout',  till  1872  a  post-village  of  New  York, 
on  the  Hudson  River,  now  a  part  of  Kingston. 

Roquefort  {Rok-forr'),  a  French  village,  dep. 


Aveyron,  44  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Beziers,  cele- 
brated for  its  ewe-milk  cheeses.    Pop.  943. 

Roraima  {Ro-rl'ma),  an  isolated,  table-topped 
sandstone  mountain,  near  the  west  border  of 
British  Guiana.  First  sloping  gradually  upwards 
5000  feet  above  sea-level  (2500  above  the  plain), 
it  next  shoots  up;2000  feet  more  in  a  perpendicular 
cliff,  furrowed  with  waterfalls.  It  was  scaled  by 
Mr  im  Tliurn  in  1884. 

Rorke's  Drift,  a  station  on  the  Tugela  River, 
Zululand,  South  Africa,  memorable  for  the  heroic 
defence  of  Lieutenants  Chard  and  Bromhead, 
with  eighty  men  of  the  24th  Regiment  against 
4000  Zulu  warriors  the  night  after  Isandula  (q.v.). 

Rosa,  Monte.    See  Monte  Rosa. 

Rosario  (Rozdh'rio),  the  third  city  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  with  an  excellent  harbour 
and  large  commerce,  is  on  the  west  bank  of  the 
Parana,  190  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Buenos  Ayres, 
210  miles  by  river.     Pop.  112,470. 

RosooflF,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of  the 
French  dep.  of  Finistere,  on  the  English  Channel, 
33  miles  NE.  of  Brest,  with  a  marine  zoological 
station.  Pop.  4900.  Here  Mary  Queen  of  Scots 
landed  in  1548,  and  Prince  Charles  Edward  in 
1746.  It  was  long  an  emporium  for  smuggling 
into  the  south  of  England. 

Roscommon,  an  inland  county  of  Connaught, 
Ireland,  bounded  E.  by  the  Shannon,  is  62  miles 
long  from  N.  to  S.,  by  35  from  E.  to  W.  Area, 
607,691  acres,  of  which  barely  one-fifth  is  under 
crops ;  more  than  one-half  is  permanent  grass ; 
one-sixth  is  waste.  It  belongs  to  the  central 
plain  of  Ireland,  but  rises  in  the  north  into  the 
Curlew  (800  feet)  and  Braulieve  (1377  feet)  Moun- 
tains. Several  lakes  occur,  as  Allen,  Boderg,  and 
Ree,  expansions  of  the  Shannon,  and  Key,  Gara, 
and  Glinn  in  the  north-west.  The  chief  industry 
is  the  feeding,  in  the  '  Plain  of  Boyle '  and  else- 
where, of  sheej)  and  cattle.  The  chief  towns 
are  Roscommon,  Boyle,  Castlerea,  Elphin,  and 
Stroke.stown.  Pop.  (1841)  254,551 ;  (1861)  157,272 ; 
(1881)  132,490;  (1901)  101,791—99,085  Roman 
Catholics.  Roscommon  returns  two  members. 
It  possesses  Celtic  raths,  remains  of  strong  castles, 
and  fine  ecclesiastical  ruins. 

Roscommon,  the  county  town,  96  miles  W.  by 
N.  of  Dublin,  arose  around  a  Dominican  abbey, 
founded  in  1257,  and  a  castle  built  ten  years  later ; 
the  remains  of  both  still  exist.     Pop.  1894. 

Roscrea  (Ros-krmf),  a  market-town  of  Tipper- 
ary,  Ireland,  77  miles  SW.  of  Dublin,  is  a  very 
ancient  town;  here  St  Cronan  built  a  church, 
and  it  had  a  celebrated  school  in  the  7th  century. 
Remains  of  a  castle,  a  round  tower  (80  feet  high), 
and  ruins  of  two  abbeys  exist.     Pop.  2325. 

Rosehearty,  an  Aberdeenshire  fishing-village, 
4^  miles  W.  of  Fraserburgh.     Pop.  1189. 

Rosemarkle.    See  Fortrose. 

Rosendale,  a  village  of  New  York,  by  rail  8 
miles  SSW.  of  Kingston,  or  53  S.  of  Albany,  has  a 
greatmanufactureof hydrauliccement.  Pop.  1850. 

Rosetta  (Arab.  Raschid,  after  Harouu  el  Ras- 
chid;  anc.  BolbitUie),  a  town  of  Egypt,  on  the 
old  Bolbitic  arm  of  the  Nile  delta,  9  miles  from 
the  sea  and  44  by  rail  NE.  of  Alexandria.  During 
the  Crusades  it  was  a  place  of  great  strength  ;  St 
Louis  in  1249  made  it  the  basis  of  his  operations. 
Sultan  Beybers  two  years  later  founded  the  pre- 
sent city  'farther  inland.  Pop.  16,666.  A  few 
miles  to  the  north  of  the  town  was  discovered 
the  Rosetta  Stone,  which  gave  the  first  clue  to 
the  interpretation  of  the  Hieroglyphics.  At 
Rosetta  too  is  an  irrigation  barrage  in  the  Nile, 


ttOSHEftVILLE 


599 


ROTHEllHAM 


508  yards  long,  originally  constructed  in  1843-61, 
and  rebuilt  by  Scott  Moncrieff  in  1886-90. 

Rosherville,  gardens  near  Gravesend  (q.v.)- 

Roslin,  a  Midlothian  village,  near  the  wooded 
glen  of  the  North  Esk,  6^  miles  S.  of  Edinburgh. 
Its  castle,  dating  from  the  14th  century,  was  the 
seat  of  the  St  Clairs,  Earls  of  Orkney  from  1379  to 
1471,  and  afterwards  of  Caithness,  and  hereditary 
grand-master  masons  of  Scotland  from  1455  to 
1736.  The  exquisite  '  chapel,'  built  about  1450,  is 
really  the  choir  of  an  intended  collegiate  church, 
and  is  only  70  feet  long,  35  broad,  and  42  high. 
Its  beauty  lies  not  in  the  outline,  but  in  the  pro- 
fusion of  stone-carving  lavished  on  pinnacles, 
niches,  vaulted  roof,  and  clustered  columns,  and 
especially  on  the  famous  'Prentice  pillar.'  The 
building,  essentially  Scottish,  has  often  been 
wrongly  ascribed  to  Spanish,  at  any  rate  to 
foreign,  masons.  Much  damaged  by  an  Edinburgh 
mob  in  1688,  it  was  restored  by  the  tliird  Earl 
of  Rosslyn  at  a  cost  of  £5000,  and  has  served 
since  1862  as  an  Episcopal  church.  On  Roslin 
Moor  the  Scots  twice  defeated  the  English  on 
the  24th  February  1303.     Pop.  1180. 

Rosneath.    See  Dumbartonshire. 

Ross,  a  market-town  in  Herefordshire,  on  the 
Wye's  left  bank,  14  miles  SSE.  of  Hereford.  In 
the  church  (1316),  whose  'heaven-directed  spire' 
is  208  feet  high,  is  buried  John  Kyrle,  celebrated 
by  Pope  as  the  '  Man  of  Ross."    Pop.  3300. 

Rossall  College,  a  large  public  school  on  the 
Lancashire  coast,  2^  miles  SSW.  of  Fleetwood, 
was  founded  in  1844  for  the  sons  of  clergymen 
and  others.     See  the  Jubilee  Sketch  (1894). 

Ross  and  Cromarty,  a  Highland  county,  the 
third  largest  in  Scotland,  extends  from  the 
German  Ocean  to  the  Atlantic,  and  is  bounded 
N.  by  Sutherland,  S.  by  Inverness-shire.  In 
1890-91  it  was  finally  formed  into  a  single  county 
by  the  boundary  commissioners,  who  also  added 
to  it  the  small  Ferintosh  (detached)  district  of 
Nairnshire,  and  a  much  smaller  fragment  from 
Inverness-shire.  Its  mainland  portion  measures 
75  by  67  miles,  and  the  total  area  is  2,084,900 
acres,  or  3260  sq.  m.,  of  which  103  are  water  and 
736  belong  to  a  dozen  islands — the  Lewis,  "Tanera, 
Ewe,  &c.  The  east  coast  is  indented  by  the 
Dornoch,  Cromarty,  and  Moray  Firths  ;  the  west 
coast  by  eight  sea-lochs  (Broom,  Gruinard,  Tor- 
ridon,  Carron,  &c.).  The  chief  of  the  innumer- 
able streams  are  the  Oykell,  Alness,  and  Conon  ; 
the  Falls  of  Glomach,  on  a  head-water  of  the 
Blchaig,  in  the  SW.  are  370  feet  high  ;  and  beauti- 
ful Loch  Maree  is  the  largest  of  nearly  a  hundred 
good-sized  fresh-water  lakes.  Mam  Sodhail  (3862 
feet),  on  the  Inverness-shire  border,  is  the  high- 
est of  more  than  thirty  summits  exceeding 
3200  feet  above  sea-level,  others  being  Ben 
Dearg  (3547),  Ben  more  (3505),  Ben  Wyvis  (3429), 
and  Ben  Attow  (3383).  The  high  grounds  afford 
good  pasture,  and  systematic  sheep-farming 
dates  from  about  1764.  It  reached  its  zenith 
during  1860-70,  when  400,000  sheep  were  grazed 
in  the  county.  Less  than  7  per  cent,  of  the 
entire  area  is  arable,  and  less  than  70  sq.  m.  is 
occupied  by  woods  and  plantations.  Whisky  is 
distilled,  and  the  salmon  and  sea  fisheries  are 
very  valuable.  Montrose  was  defeated  at  Inver- 
charron  (1650),  and  a  small  Jacobite  force  in  Glen- 
shiel  (1718).  Sir  Thomas  Urquhart,  Lord  Lovat, 
and  Hugh  Miller  were  natives.  The  chief  places 
are  Dingwall,  Tain,  Stornoway,  Fortrose,  Cro- 
marty, Strathpeffer,  and  Invergordon ;  and  the 
county  returns  one  member.  Pop.  (1801)  66,318  : 
(1851)  82,707 ;  (1901)  76,135. 


Rossbach,  a  village  in  Prussian  Saxony,  22 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Leipzig  and  9  SW.  of  Merse- 
burg.  Here  Frederick  the  Great  defeated  the 
French  and  Austrians  on  5th  November  1757. 

Rosscar'bery,  a  Cork  village,  12  miles  E.  of 
Skibbereon.    Pop.  530. 

Rossendale,  a  parliamentary  division  of  NE. 
Lancashire. 

Rossland,  a  centre  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper 
mining  in  the  very  south  of  British  Columbia, 
6  miles  from  the  U.S.  frontier.    Pop.  6500. 

Rostock,  in  Mecklenburg-Schwerin,  a  busy  Bal- 
tic port,  stands  on  the  Warnow,  7  miles  from  its 
mouth  and  60  by  rail  NE.  of  Schwerin.  It  has 
busy  fairs  for  wool,  horses,  and  cattle  ;  imports 
coal,  wine,  herrings,  petroleum,  groceries,  timber, 
&c.  ;  exports  grain,  wool,  flax,  and  cattle;  and 
has  many  industries.  Tlie  university  (1418 ;  re- 
built 1867)  has  over  400  students.  St  Mary's 
(1398-1472)  is  a  noble  Gothic  church  ;  St  Peter's 
has  a  steeple  414  feet  high.  Tlie  ducal  palace 
(1702)  and  the  14th-century  Gotliic  town-house 
deserve  mention.  Bliicher  was  a  native.  Pop. 
(1875)  34,172  ;  (1900)  54,735. 

RostoflF,  (1)  an  important  manufacturing  town 
of  south  Russia,  at  the  head  of  the  delta  of  the 
Don  and  on  the  railway  from  Moscow  to  the 
Caucasus.     Pop.  (1881)  44,500 ;  (1897)  119,889.— 

(2)  One  of  the  oldest  towns  of  Russia,  129  miles 
by  rail  NNE.  of  Moscow.    Pop.  13,020. 

Rostre'vor,  a  Down  seaport  and  watering- 
place,  8|  miles  SE.  of  Newry.    Pop.  806. 

Rosyth,  a  tract  of  land  extending  over  3  miles 
on  the  north  shore  of  the  Firth  of  Forth,  at  St 
Margaret's  Hope,  opposite  Queensferry  and  just 
inside  the  Fortli  Bridge,  acquired  by  the  govern- 
ment in  1903  for  the  purpose  of  forming  an 
extensive  naval  base.  The  ruined  16th-century 
castle  of  Rosyth,  a  rock-island  connected  with 
the  shore  by  a  causeway,  was  said  by  tradition 
(baseless)  to  have  been  the  birthplace  of  Oliver 
Cromwell's  mother  (named  Steward). 

Rothamsted  Park,  4  miles  NW.  of  St  Albans, 
seat  of  Sir  J.  Bennet  Lawes  (1814-1900),  and  scene 
of  his  and  Sir  J.  Gilbert's  agricultural  experi- 
ments. 

Rothay.    See  Grasmerb. 

Rothbury,  a  town  of  Northumberland,  on  the 
Coquet,  11  miles  SW.  of  Alnwick.     Pop.  1300. 

Rothenburg  {Ro'ten-loorg),  a  mediaeval-looking 
town  of  Bavaria,  on  the  Tauber,  36  miles  W.  by 
S.  of  Nuremberg.  A  historical  play  commemor- 
ates periodically  an  episode  in  the  Thirty  Years' 
War.     Pop.  7930. 

Rother,  a  river  (1)  of  Derbyshire  and  York- 
shire, flowing  21  miles  to  the  Don  ;  (2)  of  Hants 
and  Sussex,  flowing  24  miles  to  the  Arun ;  and 

(3)  of  Sussex  and  Kent,  flowing  31  miles  to  the 
English  Channel  near  Winchelsea. 

Rotherham(Eo«7i'er-am;  th&s  in  this),  a  busy 
manufacturing  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Don,  here  joined 
by  the  Rother,  5  miles  ENE.  of  Sheffield  by  a 
railway  opened  in  1838.  Its  chief  glory  is  the 
magnificent  14th-century  cruciform  church.  Per- 
pendicular in  style,  with  crocketted  spire  and 
fine  west  front ;  in  1875  it  was  restored  by  Sir 
G.  G.  Scott  at  a  cost  of  £9000.  A  handsome 
Gothic  edifice,  built  for  an  Independent  College 
in  1875  at  a  cost  of  £26,000,  was  bought  at  £8000 
for  the  old  grammar-school  (1483)  at  which  Bishop 
Sanderson  was  educated.  There  are  also  a 
mechanics'  institute  (1853) ;  a  free  library  (1881); 


ROTHERHITHE 


600 


ROUEN 


an  infirmary  (1870) ;  a  covered  market  (1879); 
public  baths  (1887)  ;  a  park  (1876)  of  20  acres,  300 
feet  above  tlie  town  ;  and  the  Clifton  Park  of  67 
acres,  opened  by  the  Prince  of  Wales  in  1891. 
The  manufactures  include  stoves,  grates,  chemi- 
cals, pottery,  glass,  railway  carriages,  &c.  Eben- 
ezer  Elliott  was  a  native  of  Masborough,  incor- 
porated with  the  municipality  in  1871.  It  was 
constituted  a  county  borough  in  1902.  Pop. 
(1851)  6325  ;  (1901)  54,349.  See  John  Guest's  huge 
Historical  Notices  of  llotherham  (1879). 

Rotherhithe  (th  as  in  this ;  but  usually  called 
Redriff),  a  London  parish  in  South wark  (q.v.), 
on  the  Thames. 

Rothes  (Roth'ez),  an  Elginshire  police-burgh 
(since  1884),  near  the  Spey,  11  miles  SSE.  of 
Elgin.    Near  it  are  distilleries.    Pop.  1625. 

Rothesay  (Roth' say;  th  as  in  thick),  a  favourite 
Scottish  watering-place,  the  capital  of  Buteshire, 
is  beautifully  situated  on  the  north-east  shore  of 
the  island  of  Bute,  40  miles  by  water  W.  of  Glas- 
gow and  19  SSW.  of  Greenock.  '  Sweet  Rothesay 
Bay,'  rimmed  by  hills  400  to  530  feet  high,  offers 
safe  anchorage  in  any  wind,  and  is  spacious 
enough  to  contain  the  largest  fleet.  Its  charm- 
ing scenery,  its  bathing  facilities,  its  sheltered 
position,  and  the  extreme  mildness  of  its  climate 
have  rendered  Rothesay  a  resort  alike  of  holiday- 
makers  and  of  invalids.  A  score  of  the  Clyde 
steamers  touch  regularly  at  Rothesay,  whose 
commodious  harbour  was  constructed  (1822-84) 
at  a  cost  of  over  £30,000.  An  esplanade  was 
formed  in  1870  ;  and  among  the  chief  edifices  are 
the  county  buildings  (1832-67).  public  hall  (1879), 
aquarium  (1876),  academy  (1869),  and  Glonburn 
hydropathic  (1843).  The  ruins  of  Rothesay  Castle, 
founded  about  1098,  taken  by  Ilaco  of  Norway 
(1263),  the  death-place  of  Robert  III.  (1406),  were 
repaired  in  1871-77.  Rothesay  since  1398  has 
given  the  title  of  duke  to  the  eldest  son  of  the 
Scottish  sovereign.  Created  a  royal  burgh  in 
1400,  it  returned  a  member  from  the  Union  till 
1832.  Pop.  (1821)  4107  ;  (1901)  9378.  See  books 
by  J.  Wilson  (1848)  and  Thorns  (1870). 

Roth  well,  (1)  a  Yorkshire  town,  4  miles  SE.  of 
Leeds.  Pop.  11 ,702.— (2)  A  town  of  Northampton- 
shire, 4  miles  N  \V.  of  Kettering.     Pop.  4193. 

Rotomahana.     See  New  Zealand. 

Rotorua,  a  small  lal;e  of  volcanic  origin  in  the 
North  Island  of  New  Zealand,  20  miles  NW.  of 
Mount  Tarawera  and  in  the  region  of  thermal 
springs,  the  Wonderland  of  New  Zealand,  where 
the  government  has  established  a  sanatorium. 

Rottenburg  (u  as  oo),  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg, 
on  the  Neckar,  6  miles  SW.  of  Tiibingen,  with  a 
Catholic  cathedral.    Pop.  8000. 

Rotterdam,  the  busiest  port  of  Holland,  stands 
on  both  sides  of  the  Maas,  19  miles  from  its 
mouth,  16  by  rail  SE.  of  the  Hague,  and  45  SW. 
of  Amsterdam.  Its  trade  grew  at  an  extraordi- 
narily rapid  rate  after  the  separation  of  Holland 
from  Belgium,  and  in  the  second  half  of  the 
19th  century;  the  quays  measure  15  miles, 
and  there  are  spacious  docks.  Since  1872  sea- 
going vessels  have  ceased  to  approach  Rotterdam 
by  the  old  channel  of  Brill  (Brielle) ;  they  have 
■used  instead  the  New  Waterway— i.e.  the  Maas 
and  the  Scheur,  the  latter  of  which  lias  been  con- 
nected with  the  sea  by  a  canal  cut  through  the 
Point  (Hoek)  of  Holland,  Avhich  now  has  a  depth 
never  less  than  22  feet  at  low  tide,  and  big  ships  are 
able  to  reach  the  sea  in  two  hours  from  Rotterdam. 
The  imports  consist  principally  of  mineral  ores 
and  metals,  grain  (wheat,  rye,  oats,  maize),  coal,   I 


oil  (petroleum  chiefly),  seeds,  tallow  and  similar 
greasy  substances,  sugar,  rice,  tobacco,  hides, 
indigo,  &c.  ;  whilst  the  more  important  exports 
are  linen,  flax,  butter,  cheese,  cattle,  and  spirits 
(gin,  &c.).  There  are  iron  and  other  inetal  works, 
shipbuilding,  distilling,  sugar-refining,  and  the 
manufacture  of  tobacco,  chemicals,  &c.  The  town 
is  intersected  by  canals.  On  the  south  side  of 
the  river,  opposite  the  city  proper,  are  the  iron- 
works, shipbuilding  yards,  and  docks  of  the 
island  of  Fijenoord,  connected  with  the  other 
bank  by  two  lofty  bridges  (one  a  railway  bridge). 
In  the  city  the  more  important  buildings  are 
the  Gothic  church  of  St  Lawrence  (15th  cen- 
tury), with  a  very  large  organ,  the  tombs  of 
Witt  and  other  Dutch  admirals,  and  a  lofty  tower 
(295  feet  high) ;  the  Boymans  Museum  (1847),  with 
a  fine  collection  of  paintings  by  Dutch  masters  ; 
the  yacht  club-house,  containing  an  ethnological 
collection  ;  the  town-house,  exchange,  and  simi- 
lar public  buildings.  The  public  institutions  in- 
clude an  academy  of  art  and  science  (nearly  1100 
pupils),  schools  of  music,  navigation,  and  the 
technical  arts,  and  an  excellent  zoological 
garden.  Pop.  (1830)  72,300;  (1S58)  104,724; 
(1903)  357,474.  Rotterdam  counts  as  her  most 
illustrious  sons  Erasmus  and  the  poet  Tollens ; 
James,  Duke  of  Monmouth,  Grinling  Gibbons, 
and  Mrs  Molesworth  were  also  born  here.  The 
place  was  captured  by  Francis  of  Brederode  in 
1488,  lost  to  the  Austrians  in  the  following  year, 
and  occupied  by  the  Spaniards  in  1572. 

Rotti  (Rottee),  a  fertile  Dutch  island  in  the 
Indian  Archipelago,  SW.  of  Timor.  It  is  36  miles 
in  length  (655  sq.  m.) ;  pop.  80,000.  The  surface, 
though  hilly,  nowhere  exceeds  800  feet  in  height. 

Rottwell,  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  on  the 
Neckar,  68  miles  SW.  of  Stuttgart.     Pop.  6052. 

Rotu'mah  (rt  as  od),  an  island  in  the  south 
Pacific,  300  miles  NNW.  of  Fiji,  to  which  it  was 
annexed  in  1880.  Area,  14  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  2207,  all 
Christians. 

Roubaix  (Roo-bai/),  a  town  of  N.  France  (dep. 
Nord),  6  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Lille.  Here  cloth, 
shawls,  velvet,  &c.  are  manufactured  to  the 
annual  value  of  £16,000,000,  thread,  sugar,  beer, 
spirits,  machinery,  &c.  being  also  produced. 
Pop.  (1810)  9000  ;  (1876)  74,946  ;  (1901)  123,195. 

Rouen  (Roo-on^' ;  Lat.  Rotomagns),  formerly 
capital  of  Normandy,  and  now  chief  town  of 
Seine-Inferieure,  and  a  great  manufacturing  city, 
is  situated  on  the  Seine's  right  bank,  87  miles 
NW.  of  Paris.  The  ramparts  have  been  converted 
into  boulevards,  and  the  modern  streets  are  well 
and  regularly  built ;  but  old  Rouen  still  largely 
consists  of  ill-built  picturesque  streets  and  squares, 
with  tall,  narrow,  quaintly  carved,  wood-framed 
and  gabled  houses.  The  Seine,  over  300  yards 
broad,  makes  Rouen,  although  80  miles  from  the 
sea,  the  fourth  shipping  port  of  France  ;  and 
operations,  in  the  way  of  deepening  the  river 
and  building  quays,  are  yearly  adding  to  its 
capacity  and  importance,  £750,000  having  been 
expended  on  the  port  since  1831.  A  stone  bridge 
and  a  suspension  bridge  lead  to  the  Faubourg 
St  Sever  on  the  left  bank.  Rouen  possesses 
several  remarkably  beautiful  Gothic  churches 
—in  particular  the  cathedral  (13th  century 
onwards),  St  Ouen  (14th-15th  century ;  per- 
haps the  best  specimen  of  Gothic  in  exist- 
ence), and  St  Maclou  (florid  style  of  the  end  of 
the  15th  century).  The  archiepiscoiml  cathedral, 
begun  by  Philippe  Auguste,  has  a  very  rich  west 
facade,  and  two  fine  though  unfinished  Avest  towers 
— the  south  one  called  the  Tour  de  Beurre  (1485- 


ROUERGUfi 


«f01 


ROVIGNO 


150*7),  but  is  disfigured  by  a  lofty  cast-iron  spire 
(487^  feet)  erected  upon  the  central  tower  in  1876. 
It  contains  in  its  twenty-five  highly  ornamented 
chapels  numerous  monuments  of  great  interest, 
especially  those  of  RoUo  and  of  his  sou  William 
Longsword.  The  heart  of  Richard  Cceur  de  Lion, 
once  buried  there,  is  now  preserved  in  the 
Museum  of  Antiquities.  Among  other  note- 
worthy buildings  in  Rouen  are  the  palais  de 
justice  (15th  century) ;  the  hotel-de-ville,  with  its 
public  library  of  150,000  volumes,  and  its  i)icture- 
gallery ;  and  the  H6tel  Dieu.  The  principal 
branches  of  industry  are  manufactures  of  cotton, 
nankeens,  dimity,  lace,  cotton-velvets,  shawls, 
hosiery,  mixed  silk  and  wool  fabrics,  blankets, 
flannels,  hats,  cordage,  cotton  and  linen  yarns, 
shot,  steel,  lead,  chemicals,  paper,  confectionery, 
&c.  There  are  also  shipbuilding  yards  and  en- 
gineering works.  Pop.  (1872)  102,470;  (1901) 
110,717.  The  first  home  of  tlie  Norman  dukes, 
Rouen  was  captured  by  Philippe  Auguste  (1204), 
was  regained  by  England  (1419-49),  and  in  1431 
witnessed  the  burning  of  Joan  of  Arc,  a  statue  of 
whom  adorns  La  Place  de  la  Pucelle.  Rouen 
was  the  birthplace  of  Corneille,  Fontenelle, 
Boieldieu,  and  Armand  Carrel,  and  the  death- 
place  of  Clarendon.  It  was  occupied  by  the 
Germans  in  the  war  of  1870-71. 

Rouergue  (Roo-erg'),  an  old  province  of  south- 
ern France,  between  Languedoc,  Auvergne,  and 
Guienne. 

Rougemont  Castle,    See  Exeter. 

Roulers  (Roo-lay' ;  Flem.  Rousselaere),  a  town 
of  Belgium,  19  miles  SSW.  of  Bruges,  manufac- 
turing cottons,  lace,  and  chicory.  Here  the  French 
defeated  the  Austrians  in  1794.    Pop.  23,250. 

Rouma'nia,  a  kingdom  in  SB.  Europe,  lying 
mainly  between  the  Carpathians,  the  Pruth,  and 
the  Danube  (the  Dobrudja  being  south  of  the 
Danube),  and  bordering  on  Hungary,  Russia, 
Bulgaria,  and  Servia.  It  is  crescent-shaped,  its 
average  length  being  358  and  its  breadth  190  miles ; 
area,  49,250  sq.  m.,  and  pop.  (1900)  5,956,690, 
including  5^  millions  of  Orthodox  Greek  Chris- 
tians, 266,650  Jews,  and  many  gypsies.  There  are 
besides  some  4,000,000  Roumanians  outside  the 
Roumanian  kingdom  —  in  Hungary  (especially 
Transylvania),  Bukowina,  Bessarabia,  and  adjoin- 
ing Russian  provinces,  Servia,  and  Bulgaria,  llou- 
mania  is  an  irregular  inclined  plane,  sloping 
down  from  the  Carpathian  Mountains  (3000  to 
9000  feet)  to  the  northern  bank  of  tlie  Danube, 
and  it  is  traversed  by  numerous  watercourses 
(many  of  which  are  dry  in  summer).  Roumania 
is  divided  into  the  two  provinces  of  Wallachia 
and  Moldavia,  the  first  bordering  on  the  Danube, 
the  second  on  the  Pruth,  and  formerly  distinct 
principalities.  The  capital  of  Roumania  is 
Bucharest  in  Wallachia,  about  30  miles  from  the 
Danube ;  and  the  chief  town  of  Moldavia  is 
Jassy,  near  the  Pruth.  Other  towns  are  the  sea- 
ports of  Galatz  and  Ibrail  (or  Braila)  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Danube,  Craiova  (Krajova),  Botoshani, 
Ploiesti  (Plojeschti),  Pitesti,  and  the  ancient 
capital  Curtta  d'Ardges.  The  principal  indus- 
tries of  Roumania  are  agriculture,  salt-mining, 
and  petroleum -making.  Maize  and  cereals  are 
largely  exported,  and  amongst  the  fruits  are 
gourds,  plums,  peaches,  walnuts,  apples,  pears, 
and  grapes.  The  manufacturing  industries,  whicli 
are  greatly  handicapped  by  the  cheap  produc- 
tions of  Germany  and  Austria,  include  flour  and 
saw  milling,  match-making,  and  petroleum-dis- 
tillation, tanning,  boot  and  shoe  making,  and 
cenieut  manufacture.    The  peasantry  are  mainly 


clothed  in  garments  made  by  themselves  of  home- 
spun, woven,  and  dyed  fabrics,  and  they  possess 
much  skill  in  the  ornamentation  of  cloth,  gauze, 
and  muslin.  Before  1864  the  whole  of  the 
land  was  practically  held  by  the  boyards  or 
inferior  nobles,  who  were  frequently  absentees, 
or  by  the  state.  But  when  the  government 
became  democratic  it  was  determined  to  restore 
one-third  of  it  to  its  original  owners  at  moderate 
prices  fixed  by  the  state.  The  result  was  that 
there  exist  over  406,000  holdings,  averaging  about 
10  acres  each.  The  government  is  a  hereditary 
limited  monarchy,  and  the  constitution  provides 
for  a  council  of  ministers,  a  senate,  and  a  chamber 
of  deputies.  The  revenue  is  over  £9,000,000,  and 
more  than  balances  the  expenditure ;  the  debt, 
£54,350,000.  Tiie  value  of  imports  varies  from 
£10,000,000  to  £13,000,000,  and  of  exports  from 
£10,000,000  to  £14,000,000.  Nearly  half  of  the 
exports  (chiefly  cereals  and  seed)  goes  to  Britain  ; 
a  third  of  the  imports  is  from  Germany. 

The  Roumanians  are  descended  from  tlie 
ancient  inhabitants— probably  Thracians  or 
Dacians — of  the  country,  modified  by  elements 
derived  from  the  Roman,  Gothic,  Bulgarian,  and 
Slavonic  invaders.  Dacia  was  a  Roman  colony 
from  101  A.D.  till  274,  when  it  became  the  prey 
of  successive  swarms  of  wandering  tribes.  Out 
of  numerous  small  states,  two,  Wallachia  and 
Moldavia,  had  become  dominant,  when  they  had 
to  bow  to  the  Turkish  yoke,  and  became  tributary 
to  the  Porte.  They  were  governed  by  voivodes 
and  hospodars  nominated  by  the  Porte,  who 
were  generally  extortionate  Fanariots,  Greeks  of 
Constantinople.  Russian  intervention  during  the 
18th  century  somewhat  improved  the  condition 
of  the  down-trodden  principalities,  which  at 
times  were  wholly  under  Russian  influence.  In 
1859  they  elected  the  same  prince  Couza.  He 
ruled  till  he  was  deposed  for  misgovernment  in 
1866,  and  was  succeeded  by  Prince  Charles  of 
Hohenzollern.  The  Roumanians  fought  bravely 
on  the  Russian  side  in  the  Turkish  war  of  1877- 
78,  and  at  the  end  obtained  complete  independ- 
ence, though  they  had  to  give  Russia  Bessarabia 
in  exchange  for  the  Dobrudja.  In  1881  the 
prince  was  recognised  as  a  king.  The  Roumanian 
language  is  derived  mainly  from  Latin,  with 
Slavonic,  Hungarian,  and  other  elements.  See 
Sanuxelson,  Roumania,  Past  and  Present  (1882). 

Roumelia,  or  Ru'mili  ('  Land  of  the  Romans ' — 
i.e.  Byzantine  Greeks),  after  the  Turkish  Conquest 
a  name  for  Thrace  and  Macedonia,  of  which 
Eastern  Roumelia  is  a  portion  ;  see  Bulgaria. 

Roundhay  Park.    See  Leeds. 

Roundway  Down,  a  hill  U  mile  N.  of  Devizes, 
in  Wiltshire,  the  scene  of  Waller's  defeat  by  the 
royalists  under  Lord  Wilinot  in  July  1643. 

Rousay,  an  Orkney  island,  10  miles  N.  of 
Kirkwall.     Area,  18^  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  627. 

Roussillon  (Roos-sec-yons'),  a  former  French 
province,  surrounded  by  Languedoc,  the  Mediter- 
ranean, the  Pyrenees,  and  the  county  of  Foix, 
and  now  forming  the  dep.  of  Pyrenees-Orientales. 

Roveredo  (iJo-ver-ay'fZo),  a  town  of  the  Austrian 
Tyrol,  close  to  the  Adige's  left  bank,  14  miles  S. 
of  Trent  by  rail.  It  has  been  since  the  15th 
century  the  centre  of  the  Tyrolese  silk  industry; 
it  has  also  leather  and  tobacco  factories.  Pop. 
10,200.  Here  the  French  defeated  the  Austrians, 
September  3-4,  1796.     Rosmini  was  a  native. 

Rovigno  (Roveen'yo),  an  Austrian  seaport,  on 
the  west  side  of  the  peninsula  of  Istria,  40  miles 
S.  by  W.  of  Trieste.    Pop.  10,500. 


ROVIGO 


602 


RUGBY 


Rovlgo  (Eovee'go),  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy,  27 
miles  by  rail  S.  of  Padua.    Pop.  11,200. 

Rovuma,  a  river  of  Africa,  rises  E.  of  Lake 
Nyassa,  and  flows  450  miles  E.  to  the  Indian 
Ocean  N.  of  Cape  Delgado,  forming  the  boundary 
between  German  and  Portuguese  East  Africa.  It 
was  ascended  by  Livingstone  and  Kirk  in  1862. 

Row  (Roo),  a  village  of  Dumbartonshire,  on 
the  east  shore  of  the  Gare  Loch,  2  miles  NW.  of 
Helensburgh  by  rail  (1894).  The  saintly  John 
M'Leod  Campbell  was  minister  from  1825  till  his 
deposition  for  heresy  in  1831.    Pop.  954. 

Rowardennan,  a  steamboat-pier  on  Loch 
Lomond,  at  the  base  of  Ben  Lomond. 

Rowley  Regis,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  3 
miles  SE.  of  Dudley,  within  whose  parliamentary 
limits  it  partly  lies.  There  are  collieries,  iron- 
works, quarries,  potteries,  implement-works,  and 
breweries.     Pop.  (1851)  14,249  ;  (1901)  34,670. 

Rowton  Heath,  a  royalist  defeat  in  the  Great 
Rebellion,  fought  under  the  walls  of  Chester, 
September  24,  1645. 

Roxburghshiro,  a  Scottish  Border  county, 
bounded  by  Berwickshire,  Northumberland  and 
Cumberland,  Dumfriesshire,  Selkirkshire,  and 
Midlothian.  Its  greatest  length  is  42  miles  ;  its 
greatest  breadth  30  miles  ;  and  its  area  670  sq.  m., 
or  428,494  acres.  In  the  north  the  Tweed  winds 
25  miles  eastward,  receiving  in  this  course  Gala 
and  Leader  Waters  and  the  Teviot,  which  last 
runs  37  miles  north-eastward  from  above  Hawick 
to  Kelso,  and  itself  receives  the  Ale,  Slitrig, 
Rule,  Jed,  &c.  Thus  the  whole  county,  often 
called  Teviotdale,  drains  to  the  German  Ocean, 
with  the  exception  only  of  Liddesdale,  or  Castle- 
ton  parish,  in  the  extreme  south,  whose  106  sq. 
m.  belong  to  the  western  basin  of  the  Solway 
Firth.  The  Cheviots  (q.v.)  extend  along  the 
south-eastern  boundary,  their  highest  point  here 
Auchopecairn  (2382  feet);  in  the  interior  rise 
Ruberslaw  (1392)  and  the  triple  Eildons  (1385). 
Rather  less  than  two-thirds  of  the  entire  area  is 
in  cultivation,  and  the  raising  of  crops  is  of  much 
less  importance  than  the  grazing  of  half  a  million 
sheep.  The  extinct  burgh  of  Roxburgh,  with  a 
vanished  castle,  gave  the  county  its  name,  but 
has  been  quite  superseded  by  Kelso ;  and  Jed- 
burgh, the  county  town,  is  very  much  smaller 
than  Hawick ;  other  places  are  Melrose,  Den- 
holm,  St  Boswells,  Yetholm,  &c.  Chief  seats  are 
Floors  Castle,  Mount  Teviot,  Minto  House,  and 
Abbotsford.  The  antiquities  include  hill-forts ; 
long  stretches  of  the  Catrail  and  Watling  Street ; 
the  castles  or  peel-towers  of  Hermitage,  Branx- 
holm,  Harden,  Ferniehirst,  Smailholm,  &c.  ;  and 
the  noble  monastic  ruins  of  Melrose,  Jedburgh, 
and  Kelso.  Besides  many  more  worthies,  four 
poets— James  Thomson,  Jean  Elliot,  Leyden,  and 
Aird— were  natives  ;  but,  although  not  his  birth- 
place, Roxburghshire  is  pre-eminently  the  land 
of  Scott.  It  witnessed  many  a  fray,  but  no  battle 
greater  than  Ancrum  Moor  (q.v.).  The  county 
returns  one  member.  Pop.  (1801)  33,721 ;  (1861) 
54,119;  (1901)  48,904.  See  Jeffrey's  History  of 
Roxburghshire  (4  vols.  1857-64). 

Roxbury,  formerly  a  separate  city  of  Massa- 
chusetts, annexed  in  1867  to  Boston  (q.v.). 

Royal  Canal,  Leinster,  from  Liffey  at  Dublin 
to  Shannon  at  Richmond  Harbour,  96  miles  long, 
was  made  (1789-1802)  at  a  cost  of  £1,500,000, 

Royal  Leamington  Spa.    See  Leamington. 

Royan  (Rwah-yon^),  a  French  seaport  and 
watering-place  (dep.  Charente-Iuferieure),  on  the 


north  side  of  the  Gironde's  estuary,  60  miles  NW. 
of  Bordeaux.    Pop.  8300. 

Royat  (Rwah-yah'),  a  watering-place  in  the 
dep.  of  Piiy  de  Dome,  3  miles  SW.  of  Clermont- 
Ferrand,  lias  mineral  springs.    Pop.  1580. 

Roy  BarelUy.    See  Rai  Bareli. 

Royston,  a  market-town  of  Herts  and  Cam- 
bridge, 12i  miles  ENE.  of  Hitchin.    Pop.  3520. 

Royston,  a  town  of  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 3  miles  from  Barnsley.     Pop.  4500. 

Royton,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  2  miles  NNW. 
of  Oldham,  with  cotton-factories.    Pop.  15,000. 

Rsheff,  or  Rjev,  a  river-port  of  Russia,  on  the 
Volga,  135  miles  NW.  of  Moscow.    Pop.  31,520. 

Ruabon  (Roo-ah'bon),  a  mining  town  of  Den- 
bigh, 4J  miles  SSW.  of  Wrexham.    Pop.  3500. 

RuapehU,  the  highest  mountain  (9068  feet)  in 
the  North  Island  of  New  Zealand  (q.v.),  a  volcano 
which  was  in  eruption  in  1895 ;  with  Mount 
Tongariro  it  is  now  a  National  Park. 

Ruatan',  or  Rattan,  an  island  in  the  Bay  of 
Honduras  ;  area,  106  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  2000. 

Ru'blcon,  a  stream  of  Central  Italy,  falling 
into  the  Adriatic  a  little  north  of  Ariminum, 
which  formed  the  southern  boundary  of  Caesar's 
province,  so  that  by  crossing  it  in  49  b.c.  he 
virtually  declared  war  against  the  Republic.  It 
was  probably  the  modern  Fiamicino  or  Rujone. 

Riidesheim  (nearly  Ree'des-hime),  a  town  of 
Prussia,  on  the  Rhine's  right  bank,  opposite 
Bingen,  at  the  foot  of  the  Niederwald  (q.v.),  and 
16  miles  W.  of  Mainz.  Here  is  grown  the 
famous  Riidesheiraer  Rhine-wine.    Pop.  4840. 

Rudolf,  Lake,  an  equatorial  sea  in  British 
East  Africa,  near  the  edge  of  the  Kaffa  or  South 
Ethiopian  highlands,  is  long  and  narrow,  stretch- 
ing 160  miles  NB.  and  SW.  by  20  broad,  with  an 
area  of  3000  sq.  m.,  at  a  height  of  1300  feet  above 
the  sea.  It  is  crossed  by  4°  N.  lat.  and  35°  E. 
long.  It  has  no  visible  outlet,  and  its  waters  are 
very  brackish.  It  was  discovered  by  Count 
Teleki  in  1888.  See  his  Discovery  of  Lakes  Rtidolf 
anil  Stephanie  (Eng.  trans.  1894). 

Rudolstadt,  capital  of  Schwarzburg-Rudol- 
stadt  in  Germany,  lies  in  a  hill-girt  valley  on  the 
Saale,  18  miles  S.  of  Weimar.  There  are  two 
royal  castles,  and  factories  of  porcelain,  chemi- 
cals, and  wool.    Pop.  12,570, 

Rufijl  (Roo-fee-jee),  or  Lufiji,  the  chief  river 
of  German  East  Africa,  which  rising  far  in  the 
interior  enters  the  sea  through  a  delta  with 
shoals  and  bars  opposite  the  island  of  Mafia. 

Rugby,  a  town  of  Warwickshire,  at  the  Swift's 
influx  to  the  Avon,  83  miles  NW.  of  London  and 
30  ESE.  of  Birmingham.  It  is  an  important  rail- 
way junction,  a  great  hunting  centre,  and  the 
seat  of  a  public  school.  Pop.  (1851)  6317  ;  (1901) 
16,830.  The  grocer,  Lawrence  Sheriff,  founded 
the  school  in  1567 ;  but  it  first  became  of  national 
reputation  under  Dr  Arnold  (1828-42),  whose 
successors  have  included  Archbishop  Tait,  Dean 
Goulburn,  Bishop  Temple,  and  Dr  Jex-Blake. 
When  the  last-named  resigned  in  1887  he  left 
behind  him  a  school  unrivalled  in  its  appoint- 
ments, including  a  new  chapel  (1872).  Of  illus- 
trious Rugbeians  may  be  named  the  poets  Landor, 
Clough,  and  Matthew  Arnold ;  Dean  Stanley, 
Judge  Hughes  (the  author  of  Tom  Brown's  School- 
days) ;  Dean  Vaughan,  Lord  Derby,  Lord  Cross, 
Mr  Goschen,  Sir  R.  Temple,  Franck  Bright  and 
York  Powell  the  historians,  and  Professor  Sidg- 
wick.    See  the  Rugby  School  Registers  (3  vols.  1881- 


RUGELEY 


tK)3 


RUSSU 


91);  works  by  Dean  Goulburn  (1856),  Bloxamand 
Payne  Smith  (1889),  and  Riniraer  (1892), 

Rugeley  (Roofley),  a  market-town  of  Stafford- 
shire, on  the  Trent,  10  miles  ESB.  of  Stafford. 
It  has  good  public  buildings  (1879),  a  grammar- 
school,  ironworks,  and  neighbouring  collieries. 
Pop. (1851)  3054  ;  (1901)  4450. 

Riigen  (fir  hard),  a  Prussian  island  in  the  Baltic, 
a  mile  from  the  coast  of  Pomerania.  Greatest 
length,  33  miles ;  greatest  breadth,  25  miles ;  area, 
874  sq.  m. ;  pop.  .50,000.  Chief  town,  Bergen 
(pop.  3761),  in  the  middle  of  the  island. 

Ruhr  (Roor),  a  right-hand  affluent  of  the  Rhine 
at  Ruhrort,  flowing  144  miles  westward. 

Ruhrort  (Roor-ort),  a  toAvn  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
26  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Dtisseldorf,  is  one  of  the 
busiest  river-ports  on  the  Rhine.  In  the  vicinity 
are  ironworks  and  coal-mines.    Pop.  12,500. 

RuUion  Green.     See  Pentland  Hills. 

Rum,  a  mountainous  island  of  Inverness-shire, 15 
miles  N.  by  W.  of  Ardnamurchan  Point.  It  is  8J 
miles  long,  8  miles  broad,  and  42  sq.  m.  in  area, 
only  800  acres  being  arable,  and  the  rest  deer- 
forest  and  moorland.  The  surface  presents  a 
mass  of  high  sharp-peaked  mountains,  rising  in 
Halival  and  Haiskeval  to  2368  and  2659  feet.  In 
1826  the  crofters,  numbering  fully  400,  were,  all 
but  one  family,  cleared  off  to  Ainerica,  and  Rum 
was  converted  into  a  single  sheep-farm ;  but  in 
1845  it  was  sold  (as  again  in  1888)  for  a  deer- 
forest.     Pop.  (1851)  162  ;  (1891)  53  ;  (1901)  149. 

Riimania.    See  Roumanta. 

Runcorn,  a  thriving  market  and  manufacturing 
town  and  river-port  of  Cheshire,  on  the  left  bank 
of  the  tidal  Mersey,  12  miles  ESE.  of  Liverpool 
and  28  WSW.  of  Manchester.  The  river  is  crossed 
here  by  a  railway  viaduct,  which,  erected  in 
1864-69  at  a  cost  of  over  £300,000,  is  1500  feet 
long  and  95  feet  above  liigh-water  mark.  An 
ancient  place,  where  a  castle  was  founded  by  the 
Princess  Bthelfreda  in  916,  and  a  priory  in  1133,  it 
yet  dates  all  its  prosperity  from  the  construction 
of  the  Bridgewater  Canal  (1762-72),  which  at 
Runcorn  descends  to  the  Mersey  by  a  succession 
of  locks.  More  canal-boats  plied  to  and  from 
Runcorn  than  from  anywhere  else  in  the  kingdom 
even  before  the  opening  of  the  Manchester  Ship- 
canal  (1887-94);  there  are  spacious  docks,  Run- 
corn having  been  made  a  head-port  in  1847.  The 
industries  include  shipbuilding,  iron-founding, 
rope-making,  the  manufacture  of  chemicals, 
quarrying,  &c.  Hall  Caine  was  born  here.  Pop. 
(1851)  8049  ;  (1871)  12,443  ;  (1901)  16,491. 

Runnimede,  a  long  stretch  of  green  meadow, 
lying  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Thames,  1  mile 
above  Staines  and  36  miles  by  river  WSW.  of 
London.  Here,  or  on  Charta  Island,  a  little  way 
off  the  shore.  Magna  Charta  was  signed  by  King 
John,  June  15,  1215. 

Runn  of  Cutch.    See  Cutch. 

Rupert's  Land,  the  name  given,  on  the  forma- 
tion of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company  (1670)  by  Prince 
Rupert  and  others,  to  a  territory  comprising  all 
lands  draining  into  Hudson  Bay  or  Hudson  Strait. 

Ruppin,  Neu  (Noy  Roop-peen),  a  town  of 
Prussia,  on  a  lake  connnunicating  with  the  Elbe, 
48  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Berlin.     Pop.  17,000. 

Rurki  (Roor-kec),  a  town  in  the  United  Prov.  ot 
India,  22  miles  E.  of  Saharanpur.     Pop.  15,953. 

Rush,  a  seaport  of  Ireland,  16  miles  by  rail  NB. 
of  Dublin.     Pop.  1075. 

Rushden,  a  town  in  Nortlianiptonshire,  15 
miles  NE.  of  Northampton.    Pop.  13,000. 


Rusholme,  a  southern  suburb  of  Manchester. 

Russe.    See  Rustchuk. 

Russell,  a  New  Zealand  port,  on  the  Bay  of 
Islands,  147  miles  NNW.  of  Auckland.    Pop.  228. 

Russia,  an  empire  extending  over  eastern 
Europe,  the  whole  of  northern  Asia,  and  a  part 
of  central  Asia.  Its  limits  are  88°  30'  and  78° 
N.  lat.  and  17°  19'  and  190°  E.  long.  This  area, 
which  is  more  than  twice  as  large  as  Europe,  and 
embraces  one-sixth  of  the  land-surface  of  the 
globe,  has  a  pop.  estimated  at  near  130,000,000. 
(at  the  census  of  1859  the  total  was  only 
74,000,000).  The  Russian  empire  consists  of  Euro-» 
pean  Russia,  less  tlian  one-fourth  of  the  whole, 
but  including  nearly  three-fourths  of  its  popu- 
lation ;  Finland  ;  Poland  ;  Caucasia ;  Siberia ; 
Turkestan  ;  and  the  Transcaspian  region.  Khiva 
and  Bokhara  are  vassal  states.  The  Russian 
dominions  in  America  (Alaska)  were  sold  to  the 
United  States  in  1867.  The  table  shows  the  areas 
and  populations  of  the  various  sections  of  the 
empire  m  1897. 

Area  „„_ 

in  sq.  m.  ^°P- 

The  50  governments  of 
European  Russia 1,902,092  94,215,416 

Tlie  10  Polish  governments..     49,157  9,4^5,943 

Finland 144,255  2,592,778 

European  Russia 2.095,504  106,264,13« 

Caucasus 182,467  9,248.695 

Central  Asia 1,638,825  7,721.654 

Siberia 4,833.496  6.727,090 

Asiatic  Russia 6,564,778  22,697,439 

Russian  Empire 8,660.282  128,961,575 

The  density  of  the  population,  53  per  sq.  m.  in 
the  50  governments,  on  the  average  varies  from 
189  in  Moscow  to  1  in  Archangelsk.  In  the  Polish 
governments  it  is  193  overhead  ;  in  Finland,  20 ;  in 
Caucasus,  54  ;  in  central  Asia,  6 ;  in  Siberia,  only  1. 
Tlie  average  for  the  empire  is  15  per  sq.  m.  The 
Baltic  Sea,  with  the  Gulfs  of  Bothnia,  Finland, 
and  Riga,  is  the  chief  sea  of  Russia;  but  it 
nowhere  touches  purely  Russian  territory,  its 
coasts  being  peopled  by  Finns,  Letts,  Esthonians, 
and  Germans.  Nevertheless,  four  out  of  the  five 
chief  portsof  Russia— StPetersburg,  Reval,  Libau, 
and  Riga — are  situated  on  the  Baltic  Sea,  and  ex- 
cept Libau,  are  frozen  for  from  four  to  five  months 
in  the  year.  The  Black  Sea  acquires  more  im- 
poitance  every  year.  Odessa  is  its  great  port; 
Nikolaieff  is  tlie  naval  arsenal ;  Sebastopol  is  a 
naval  station  ;  Batoum  exports  petroleum. — The 
Caspian  Sea  receives  the  chief  Russian  river — 
the  Volga— connects  Russia  with  its  central  Asian 
dominions  and  the  Caucasus.  Finland,  Poland, 
Caucasus,  Siberia,  and  Turkestan  being  dealt  with 
under  those  respective  headings,  what  follows 
relates  only  to  European  Russia.  The  leading 
feature  in  its  physical  structure  is  a  broad, 
flat  swelling  about  700  miles  wide,  with  an 
average  height  of  800  feet  (highest  points  1100), 
which  crosses  it  from  south-Avest  to  north-ea.st 
and  connects  the  elevated  plains  of  middle 
Europe  with  the  Urals.  A  belt  of  lowlands 
stretching  from  east  Prussia  to  the  White  Sea 
fringes  this  central  plateau  on  the  north-west, 
separating  it  from  the  hilly  tracts  of  Finland ; 
while  the  plains  of  Bessarabia,  Kherson,  the  Sea 
of  Azov,  and  the  lower  Volga  limit  it  on  the 
south-east.  The  central  plateau  is  diversified 
by  three  or  four  depressions.  The  Urals,  which 
separate  the  lowlands  of  European  Russia  from 
those  of  Siberia,  consist  of  a  series  of  parallel 


RUSSIA 


604 


RUSSIA 


ridges  running  south-west  to  north-east,  their 
chief  summits  reaching  4950-5100  feet  high.  The 
chief  rivers  of  Russia  take  tlieir  origin  along  the 
north-western  border  of  the  i)lateau,  and  some  of 
them  flow  NW.,  while  the  others,  though  describ- 
ing great  curves,  trend  SE.  The  Niemen,  the 
Dwina,  the  Lovat  (continued  by  the  Volkhoff 
and  the  Neva),  and  the  two  chief  streanis  that 
reach  the  White  Sea,  the  Onega  and  the  North 
Dwina,  are  in  the  first  group  ;  wliile  the  Dnieper, 
the  Don,  and  the  Volga  belong  to  the  second. 
The  Dniester  and  the  Pruth  rise  on  foreign  teri'i- 
tory  ;  the  Vistula  has  its  mouth  in  Prussia.  By 
means  of  three  lines  of  canals  and  canalised  rivers, 
which  connect  the  upper  tributaries  of  the  Volga 
with  the  streams  that  flow  into  lakes  Onega  and 
Ladoga,  the  outlet  of  the  chief  artery  of  Russia, 
the  Volga,  has  been  transferred  from  the  Caspian 
to  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  St  Petersburg  is  the 
chief  port  for  the  Volga  basin.  The  upper  Volga 
and  the  upper  Kama  are  also  connected  by  canals 
with  the  North  Dwina,  and  the  Dnieper  witli  the 
Dlina,  the  Niemen,  and  the  Vistula.  The  rainfall 
all  over  Russia  is  small,  and  as  part  of  it  falls  in 
snow,  which  is  rapidly  thawed  in  the  spring,  the 
rivers  are  flooded  then  and  in  early  summer,  and 
they  grow  shallow  by  the  autumn.  In  winter 
navigation  ceases. 

All  over  European  Russia,  except  in  the  Baltic 
Provinces,  the  south  of  the  Crimea,  and  a  narrow 
strip  of  land  on  the  Black  Sea,  the  climate  is  con- 
tinental. A  very  cold  winter,  followed  by  a 
spring  which  sets'in  rapidly  ;  a  hot  summer  ;  an 
autumn  cooler  than  spring  ;  early  frosts  ;  and  a 
small  rainfall,  chiefly  during  the  summer  and 
the  autumn,  are  the  main  features.  The  winter 
is  cold  everywhere.  All  over  Russia  the  average 
temperature  of  January  is  below  the  freezing- 
point,  and  it  only  varies  between  22°  F.  in  the 
west  and  5°  to  7°  in  the  east.  All  the  rivers  are 
frozen  over  early  in  December,  and  they  remain 
under  ice  for  from  100  days  in  the  south  to  160 
in  the  north.  In  summer  the  temperature 
is  high  all  over  Russia,  and  reaches  78°  at 
Astrakhan.  The  flora  of  Russia  marks  four 
regions  :  (a)  the  Arctic  tundras  are  chiefly  covered 
with  mosses,  lichens,  and  shrubs,  (b)  The  forest- 
region,  which  covers  the  whole  of  northern  and 
middle  Russia,  is  either  forest-region  proper  or 
prairies  dotted  with  forests.  The  forest-region 
again  is  either  of  coniferous  (in  the  north)  or 
deciduous  trees,  (c)  The  Steppes  are  immense 
plains  covered  with  grass,  and  devoid  of  forests. 
(d)  The  flora  of  the  Mediterranean  region  occupies 
a  narrow  strip  along  the  southern  coast  of  the 
Crimea.  The  fauna  of  European  Russia  is  very 
much  like  that  of  Tniddle  Europe.  Wolves  and 
bears  are  common  in  the  north.  The  reindeer  is 
still  met  with  in  the  north ;  the  wild  boar  and 
the  bison  are  each  limited  to  one  district ;  the 
elk,  the  lynx,  the  glutton,  the  beaver  are  now 
very  scarce. 

The  various  sections  of  the  country  differ 
much  from  one  another.  The  Baltic  provinces 
form  one  section,  another  is  the  low-lying  Lake 
Region  from  the  Gulf  of  Riga  to  the  White  Sea. 
The  central  plateau  contains  the  most  populous 
agricultural  and  industrial  parts  of  European 
Russia.  Its  physical  aspects  vary,  however,  a 
good  deal  in  the  different  parts.  The  Lithuanian 
provinces  of  Kovno,  Vilna,  and  part  of  Grodno 
and  Vitebsk,  drained  by  the  Niemen  and  the 
upper  Dwina,  are,  on  the  whole,  a  very  poor 
region.  White  Russia,  watered  by  the  upper 
Dnieper  and  its  right-hand  tributaries,  comprises 
the  governments  of  Moghilelf,  Minsk,  and  south- 


em  Vitebsk,  as  well  as  parts  of  Grodno,  Vilna,  and 
Smolensk,  and  is  one  of  the  poorest  regions  of 
Russia ;  about  one-tenth  of  the  total  area  is 
covered  with  marshes.  Little  Russia,  or  the 
Ukraine,  comprising  the  governments  of  Tcherni- 
goff,  Kieff,  Poltava,  and  part  of  Kharkofl",  as  well 
as  Volhynia  and  Podolia  on  the  spurs  of  the 
Carpathians,  belongs  to  the  richest  and  most 
populous  parts  of  Russia.  The  soil  is  mostly  a 
rich  black  earth,  and  assumes  farther  south  the 
aspect  of  fine  grassy  steppes,  or  prairies,  yielding 
rich  crops  of  wheat.  Kieff  is  one  of  the  chief 
industrial  centres  of  Russia,  and  woollen  cloth 
mills  are  rapidly  spreading  in  Podolia.  Middle 
Russia  comprises  the  provinces  of  Tver,  Moscow, 
Vladimir,  Smolensk,  Orel,  Tula,  Kaluga,  Kursk, 
Ryazan,  Tamboff,  Penza,  part  of  Voronezh, 
southern  Yaroslav,  and  Simbirsk,  peopled  by 
more  than  25,000,000  Great  Russians,  the  average 
density  being  over  100  inhabitants  per  sq.  m. 
Except  on  its  outskirts,  this  region  presents 
everywhere  the  same  aspects,  wide  undulating 
plains  covered  with  cornfields  and  dotted  with 
S7nall  deciduous  forests.  The  soil  is  of  very 
moderate  fertility  in  the  north,  but  very  fertile 
in  the  black  earth  belt  of  the  south.  Farther 
north-east  the  country  is  more  elevated,  but  less 
effectively  drained  ;  and  vast  forests  stretch  from 
the  upper  Volga  to  the  Urals.  The  governments 
of  Kostroma,  Vologda,  and  Vyatka,  together 
with  those  parts  of  Nijni-Novgorod  and  Kazan 
which  lie  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Volga,  belong  to 
this  domain  ;  and  Perm  (which  includes  the  min- 
ing districts  on  the  Asiatic  slope  of  the  Urals) 
and  North  Ufa  are  the  chief  centres  for  the  iron 
industry.  The  Middle  Volga  governments  of  Sim- 
birsk, Saratoff,  and  Samara,  and  the  South  Ural 
governments  of  South  Ufa  and  Orenburg,  belong 
to  a  great  extent  to  the  steppe-region  of  south 
Russia.  The  Steppe-region  occupies  a  belt  more 
than  200  miles  wide  along  the  littoral  of  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Sea  of  Azov,  and  extends  eastwards 
through  the  region  of  the  lower  Volga  and  Ural 
till  it  meets  the  steppes  of  central  Asia.  As  far 
as  the  eye  can  reach  there  are  gently  undulating 
plains,  clothed  with  rich  grass,  and  destitute  of 
trees  ;  yet  in  the  deep  ravines  grow  willows,  wild 
cherries,  wild  apricots,  and  so  forth.  The  whole 
is  coated  with  a  thick  layer  of  fertile  '  black  earth.' 
In  the  Crimea  the  soil  is  a  clay  impregnated 
with  salt.  The  Caspian  Steppes  form  a  link 
between  Europe  and  Asia. 

The  population  of  the  empire  embraces  a  great 
variety  of  nationalities ;  but  the  Russians,  com- 
prising the  Velikorusses  or  Great  Russians,  the 
Malorusses  or  Little  Russians,  and  the  Byelorusses 
or  AVhite  Russians,  are  the  predominant  race. 
They  number  77,000,000—70,000,000  in  Euro- 
pean Russia.  None  of  the  three  is  a  pure  race. 
The  Great  Russians,  who  invaded  a  territory 
occupied  by  Finnish  tribes,  ended  by  Russian- 
ising  them.  The  Little  Russians  assimilated 
Turkish  tribes,  as  the  White  Russians  did  Lithu- 
anians. The  Great  Russians  inhabit  middle 
Russia  in  a  compact  mass  of  over  35,000,000,  and 
even  in  east  and  north  Russia  they  constitute 
from  two-thirds  to  three-fourths  of  the  popula- 
tion. The  Little  Russians,  nearly  15,000,000  in 
all,  are  settled  in  Little  Russia,  which  contains 
also  in  the  borderlands  some  12  per  cent,  of 
Jews,  and  6  per  cent,  of  Poles.  The  White 
Russians,  who  number  about  5,000,000,  dwell  in 
the  west,  but  they  are  more  mixed  with  Poles, 
Jews,  and  Little  Russians.  The  Poles  number 
5,000,000  in  Poland  (q.v.),  and  1,000,000  in  the 
western  governments  of  Russia.    Some  120,000 


RUSSIA 


605 


RUSSIA 


I 


other  Slavs— Servians,  Bulgarians,  and  Bohem- 
ians—exist in  small  colonies  in  Bessarabia  and 
Kherson.  The  Letts  and  the  Lithuanians  number 
2,600,000  in  Russia  and  400,000  in  Poland.  Ar- 
menians, Kurds,  and  Persians  number  1,300,000, 
chiefly  in  Caucasia.  The  Caucasus  (q.v.),  in- 
habited by  a  great  variety  of  races,  has  a  pop.  of 
7,500,000.  Jews  are  very  numerous  in  the  towns 
of  west  Russia  (about  3,500,000)  and  Poland 
(1,300,000).  Nearly  three-fourths  of  the  Russian 
Jews  are  artisans  or  factory-workers,  while  the 
30,000  Jews  in  Bessarabia  and  Kherson  are  good 
agriculturists.  The  Finnish  race  includes  the 
Finns  and  the  Karelians  (1,850,000  in  Finland 
and  350,000  in  European  Russia) ;  the  Bsthonians, 
the  people  of  Livonia,  and  other  Western  Finns 
in  the  Baltic  Provinces  (about  1,000,000);  the 
Lapps  and  the  Samoyedes  in  the  far  north  ;  and 
the  Volga  Finns  and  the  Ugrians  (1,750,000  in 
European  Russia  and  50,000  in  Siberia).  The 
Eastern  Finns  are  being  rapidly  absorbed  by  the 
Russians ;  but  the  Western  Finns  warmly  cherish 
their  nationality.  The  Turko-Tartars— i.e.  Tar- 
tars, Bashkirs,  Kirghizes,  &c.— are  mere  feeble 
remnants  of  the  tribes  who  once  conquered 
Russia.  They  are  3,500,000  in  European  Russia, 
4,500,000  in  central  Asia,  1,500,000  in  the  Cau- 
casus, and  350,000  (Tartars  and  Yakuts)  in 
Siberia.  The  Mongol  race  is  represented  by 
480,000  Kalmucks  in  Russia  and  central  Asia, 
as  well  as  by  250,000  Buriats  in  Siberia ;  while 
the  Manchurian  tribes  (Tunguses,  &c.)  number 
50,000  in  Siberia  (q.v.).  Of  west  Europeans  the 
Germans  (about  1,000,000,  of  wliom  500,000  are 
in  Poland)  are  the  most  numerous.  They  have 
prosperous  colonies  in  south  Russia ;  and  in  the 
chief  towns  there  are  numbers  of  German 
artisans  and  merchants.  The  Swedes  are  300,000 
in  Finland.  There  are,  besides,  nearly  900,000 
Roumanians  in  south-west  Russia,  and  about 
1,000,000  Europeans  of  various  nationalities 
scattered  throughout  the  empire.  The  popula- 
tion is  rapidly  increasing.  Great  numbers  *of 
European  Russians  emigrate  every  year  to  the 
Asiatic  dominions. 

The  great  bulk  of  the  Russians— excepting  a 
few  White  Russians  professing  the  Union — belong 
to  the  Grseco-Russian  Church,  officially  styled 
the  Orthodox-Catholic  Church,  or  to  one  of  its 
numberless  sects  of  dissenters  (raskol).  The  Poles 
and  most  of  the  Lithuanians  are  Roman  Catholics 
(11,500,000) ;  while  the  Finns,  the  Esthonians,  and 
other  Western  Finns,  the  Swedes,  and  the  Ger- 
mans are  Protestants  (about  6,200,000).  Islam 
claims  all  the  Turco-Tartars,  Bashkirs,  and  Kir- 
ghizes. Buddhism  has  the  Kalmucks  and  the 
Buriats.  Shamanism  is  the  religion  of  most  of 
the  natives  of  Siberia,  as  well  as  of  the  nominally 
Christian  Mordvins,  Votyaks,  Tchuvashes,  and 
some  Kirghizes.  The  Voguls,  the  Samoyedes, 
and  other  inhabitants  of  the  far  north  are 
fetich  worshippers.  The  Grseco-Russian,  Roman 
Catholic,  Lutheran,  Moslem,  Jewish,  and  Bud- 
dhist clergy  are  maintained  or  protected  by 
the  state.  The  making  of  proselytes  from  the 
Greek  Chi;rch  is  severely  punished.  To  the 
numerous  sects  of  dissenters,  or  raskolniks,  one- 
third  of  the  so-called  Orthodox  Russians  belong. 
The  Russian  dissenters  may  be  classed  under 
three  divisions,  all  equally  numerous :  the  *  Po- 
povtsy'  (who  have  priests),  the  '  Bezpopovtsy ' 
(who  have  none),  and  the  '  Dukhovnyie  Khristi- 
ane'  (spiritualist  Christians).  The  'Stundist' 
evangelical  movement  has  spread  rapidly  in 
Little  Russia. 

The  political  organisation  of  Russia  is  a  very 


heterogeneous  structure.  It  has  at  bottom  a  great 
deal  of  self-government.  Till  1905  the  empire  was 
an  absolute  and  hereditary  monarchy,  the  tinal 
decision  in  all  legislative,  executive,  and  judicial 
questions  resting  with  the  emperor ;  though  a 
state  council  discussed  measures  elaborated  by 
the  separate  ministries.  The  imperial  authority 
has  been  wont  to  be  represented  by  an  army  of 
officials,  whose  powers  are  very  extensive.  la 
1905  a  constitution  and  some  measure  of  respon- 
sible government  was  promised.  The  Duma,  a 
democratic  parliament  of  rather  vague  powers, 
met  for  the  first  time  in  1906,  and  was  soon  at 
feud  with  the  bureaucracy.  The  several  states 
and  territories  are  ruled  each  by  a  governor  or 
governor-general.  Finland  (q.v.)  is  substantially 
a  separate  state.  Four-fifths  of  the  population 
are  '  peasants.'  Next  come  the  burghers  and  the 
'merchants'  (9  per  cent,  in  European  Russia), 
the  clergy  (less  than  1  per  cent.),  the  nobility 
(1*3  percent.),  the  military  (6-1),  and  foreigners 
(0'3).  The  peasants,  including  the  liberated 
serfs,  are  grouped  in  village  communes  (107,943 
in  European  Russia  and  Poland) ;  and  the 
assembly  of  all  the  householders  of  the  com- 
mune, the  mir,  enjoys  a  certain  degree  of  self- 
government.  The  land  being  held  in  common 
throughout  Great  Russia  and  Siberia,  it  is  the 
mir  that  periodically  distributes  the  land  into 
allotments.  The  administration  of  the  economic 
affairs  of  the  district  and  the  province  was  in 
1866  committed  to  the  district  and  provincial 
assemblies  or  zemstvos.  Since  1874  military  service 
has  been  rendered  obligatory  upon  all  able 
citizens  between  twenty-one  and  forty-three. 
But  of  the  actual  total  (860,000)  liable  for  con- 
scription every  year  little  more  than  one-third 
(260,000)  are  selected  for  four  years'  service  with 
the  colours ;  the  remainder  are  inscribed  either 
in  the  reserve  or  the  militia.  In  peace  the  army 
numbers  nearly  1,000,000  men,  scattered  all  over 
the  empire ;  the  war  footing  is  reckoned  at 
4,500,000,  with  580,000  horses  and  5100  guns. 
The  navy  was  almost  totally  destroyed  in  the 
Japanese  war  of  1904-5.  There  are  in  the  empire 
about  84,500  elementary  schools,  with  4^  million 
pupils  (1,231,256  were;girls);  nearly  1500  middle 
schools  (classical  gynniasiums,  Realsclmlen,  &c.), 
with  350,000  pupils  ;  and  31  higher  institutions, 
of  which  nine  are  universities,  with  20,000  male 
and  600  female  students.  The  language  is  pure 
Slavonic,  and  the  rich  and  varied  literature  has 
of  late  become  known  in  western  Europe,  from 
Gogol  and  Pushkin  to  Turgenief  and  Tolstoi.  The 
finances  of  Russia  are  in  a  precarious  state,  though 
the  state  revenue  increased  from  £58,700,000  in 
1877  to  £200,000,000  in  1904 ;  the  debt  in  1904 
was  £750;000,000. 

Of  European  Russia,  nearly  one-fifth  is  unpro- 
ductive and  two-fifths  are  under  forests.  The 
remainder  is  partly  meadow  or  pasture-ground 
and  partly  arable  land.  Two-fifths  of  the  regis- 
tered area  belongs  to  the  crown,  one-third  is 
held  by  the  peasants'  communes  (representing 
25,000,000  men),  and  one-fourth  is  held  by 
481,400  private  proprietors  (most  of  it  by  the 
nobility).  Agriculture  is 'the  chief  occupation  of 
the  people  of  Russia ;  only  in  central  Russia 
(Moscow,  Vladimir,  Nijni)  does  industry  take  the 
lead.  The  conditions  of  agriculture  are  very 
different  in  different  parts  of  the  country.  A 
line  drawn  from  Kieff  to  Nijni-Novgorod  and 
Vyatka,  will  divide  the  country  into  two  parts, 
of  which  the  south-eastern  has  a  surplus  of  wheat 
and  rye  and  exports  them,  while  the  other  has 
to  import  both.    Bad  years  recur,  as  in  India,  at 


RUSSIA 


606 


RUTHVEN  CASTLE 


intervals  of  from  ten  to  twelve  years,  sometimes 
foUowed  by  severe  famine  (as  in  1891)  in  many 
provinces.  Flax  and  hemp  are  extensively  cul- 
tivated in  the  west,  the  sugar-beet  is  grown  in 
the  south  and  south-west,  and  tobacco  is  pro- 
duced in  the  south.  The  vine  is  widely  culti- 
vated on  the  Black  Sea  littoral  and  in  Caucasia. 
Cotton  is  widely  planted  in  Turkestan.  The 
empire  is  very  rich  in  all  kinds  of  minerals.  Gold 
is  obtained  in  Siberia  and  the  Ural  Mountains. 
Silver  and  lead  are  obtained  in  Siberia,  the 
Kirghiz  Steppes,  the  Caucasus,  and  Finland; 
platinum  in  the  Urals.  Iron  ores  are  found  in 
profusion  both  in  the  Asiatic  dominions  and  in 
European  Russia.  Zinc  is  mined  in  Poland,  tin 
in  Finland,  and  cobalt  and  manganese  ore  in 
Caucasia.  Salt  is  obtained  from  salt-lakes. 
Russia  has  excellent  coal-basins,  especially  in 
the  Don  region.  The  rich  oil-wells  of  Baku  supply 
Russia  with  petroleum  and  steam-fuel.  In  1903 
the  annual  production  of  the  17,000  manu- 
factories of  the  empire,  which  employ  1,711.750 
workmen,  was  valued  at  £130,000,000,  without 
reckoning  the  mining  industry  and  the  industries 
which  pay  excise  duties  (tobacco,  sugar,  spirits, 
beer,  petroleum  and  matches).  The  chief  in- 
dustrial centres  are  Moscow  and  the  surround- 
ing governments,  St  Petersburg,  and  Poland. 
The  woollen  trade  is  taking  firm  root  in  the  south. 
The  production  of  alcohol  (chiefly  vodka,  the 
national  spirit)  averages  80  to  90  million  gallons 
of  alcohol  every  year.  There  are  over  280  sugar- 
mills  and  nearly  400  tallow-factories  in  Russia. 
The  domestic  industries,  which  are  carried  on  by 
the  peasants  of  central  Russia  along  with  agri- 
culture, are  of  much  greater  importance  in  Russia 
than  in  western  Europe.  Some  7,500,000  peas- 
ants are  engaged  in  these  domestic  trades,  whose 
yearly  produce  amounts  to  £180,000,000.  The 
exports  to  foreign  countries  consist  principally  of 
corn  and  flour  (55  per  cent,  of  the  total  ex- 
ports), various  articles  of  food  (butter,  eggs, 
&c.),  flax,  timber,  linseed,  raw  wool,  naphtha,  and 
illuminating  oils,  and  reach  an  annual  value  of 
£70,000,000  to  £94,000,000.  The  imports  (about 
£60,000,000)  consist  chiefly  of  raw  cotton 
(£7,000,000  to  £10,000,000),  tea,  raw  metals, 
machinery,  raw  wool,  colours,  iron  and  steel 
goods,  coal,  coff'ee,  wine  and  fruit ;  the  manu- 
factured goods  imported  may  amount  to 
£16,000,000.  The  exports  to  Great  Britain, 
which  were  £26,315,000  in  1888,  were  £22,000,000 
in  1903 ;  the  imports,  £4,810,000  in  the  former 
year,  were  £11,200,000  in  the  latter.  The  ports 
of  Russia  are  entered  every  year  by  about  12,000 
vessels  of  llj  million  tons,  of  which  only  1100 
to  1700  (chiefly  belonging  to  Finns  or  Greeks) 
sail  under  the  Russian  flag.  The  importance 
of  the  Russian  rivers  for  traffic  has  already 
been  mentioned.  About  1860  Russia  had  less 
than  1000  miles  of  railways  ;  but  in  1905  she  had 
a  network  measuring  36,500  miles,  out  of  wliich 
5000  miles  are  in  Siberia  and  2000  in  the  Trans- 
caspian  region.  Nine-tenths  of  the  cost  has  been 
defrayed  by  tlie  state  by  means  of  loans.  The 
Siberian  railway  to  Vladivostok  was  completed 
in  September  1904  by  the  opening  of  the  Baikal 
section  ;  and  the  Orenburg-Tashkend  line  was 
finished  in  1905. 

The  Russian  monarchy  is  traced  to  the 
Varangian  or  Northman  Rurik.  Vladimir  and 
his  people  were  baptised  at  Kieff  in  988.  In  the 
13th  century  befell  the  terrible  Mongol  invasion  ; 
from  1240  to  1480  the  Russian  princes  paid  tribute 
to  the  Mongol-Tartar  Khans.  Ivan  the  Great 
(1462-1505)   expelled   the   Mongols,    and   made 


Moscow  the  capital  of  an  important  state,  ex- 
tending to  the  White  Sea.  Ivan  the  Terrible 
(1533-84)  extended  his  dominions  to  the  Black 
Sea  and  well  into  Siberia.  Peter  the  Great  (1689- 
1725)  planted  Russia  firmly  on  the  Baltic.  Under 
Catharine  II.  (1762-96)  great  acquisitions  were 
made  at  the  expense  of  Poland,  Turkey,  Persia, 
and  Sweden ;  next  century  Russia,  besides 
annexing  the  Caucasus,  made  vast  extensions  of 
her  territory  in  central  Asia  and  eastern  Siberia; 
so  ^that  now  she  nearly  touches  British  India, 
marches  with  Cliina,  and  has  a  naval  station  at 
Vladivostok  on  the  Sea  of  Japan.  But  the  too 
great  energy  of  the  '  forward  party '  in  the  Far 
Bast  provoked  Japanese  suspicions  ;  the  practical 
annexation  of  Manchuria  and  intrigues  in  Corea 
led  to  the  Japanese  war  of  1904-5,  in  which  the 
fortress  of  Port  Arthur  fell,  and  Russian  armies 
were  repeatedly  defeated  in  great  battles  and 
forced  gradually  to  retreat.  Peace  was  made 
in  1905,  only  after  violent  agitation  had  begun 
at  home  for  a  constitution  and  greater  personal 
freedom,  attended  by  strikes,  riots,  mutinies, 
revolutionary  risings,  and  massacres  of  the  Jews. 

See  works  on  Russia  by  Sir  D.  M.  Wallace 
(1877  ;  new  ed.  1905),  Sutherland  Edwards  (1879), 
Geddie  (1881),  Morfill  (1882),  A.  J.  C.  Hare  (1888), 
Stepniak  (from  the  Nihilist  point  of  view,  1885- 
88),  Tikhomirov  (1887),  Norman  (1902),  Skrine 
(1903),  and  Kropotkine  (1905).  For  history,  see 
the  Russian  historians  Karamzin,  Soloviev, 
Kostomarov,  Bestuzhef-Riumin,  &c.  ;  Rainbaud, 
History  of  Russia  (1878  ;  Eng.  trans.  1879  ;  2d  ed. 
1887)  ;  the  shorter  history  by  Morfill  (1890) ;  and 
Nisbet  Bain,  The  First  Romanoffs  (1905). 

Rustchuk  (u  as  oo),  or  Russe  (the  old  form  re- 
vived in  1892),  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  on  the  Danube's 
south  bank,  opposite  Giurgevo,  14  miles  by  rail 
NW.  of  Varna  (on  the  Black  Sea)  and  40  S.  by  W. 
of  Bucharest.  It  was  captured  by  the  Russians 
in  1810  and  1877,  and  played  a  prominent  part 
in  the  Russo-Turkish  wars  of  1773-90  and  1853- 
54 ;  and,  until  its  fortifications  were  dismantled 
after  1877,  possessed  considerable  strategic  im- 
portance.    Pop.  (1900)  32,660. 

Rutherglen  (u  as  in  cut,  th  as  in  this;  popularly 
Ruglen),  a  town  in  Lanarkshire,  on  the  Clyde,  3 
miles  SE.  of  Glasgow,  with  whose  eastern  ex- 
tremity it  is  connected  by  a  bridge,  built  in 
1890-91  at  a  cost  of  £29,000.  Its  principal  build- 
ing is  a  handsome  town-hall  (1862).  Rutherglen 
was  the  seat  of  a  royal  castle,  which  was  captured 
by  Edward  Bruce  about  1313,  burned  by  Moray 
in  1568,  and  finally  demolished  in  the  18th  cen- 
tury. At  Rutherglen,  in  1679,  the  Covenanters 
published  a  '  Declaration  '—the  prelude  to  Drum- 
clog  and  Bothwell  Bridge.  A  royal  burgh  since 
1126,  it  unites  with  Kilmarnock,  &c.  to  return 
one  member  to  parliament.  Pop.  (1831)  4741 ; 
(1861)  8062 ;  (1901)  17,220.  See  Ure's  History  of 
Rutherglen  (1793). 

Ruthin  (Roothin),  a  town  of  Denbighshire,  on 
the  Clwyd,  8  miles  SSE.  of  Denbigh  by  rail.  The 
13th-century  castle  which  gave  it  name  (Cyra. 
rhyd-din,  '  red  fortress '),  surrendered  in  1646  to 
the  Roundheads,  and  was  afterwards  dismantled, 
part  of  its  site  being  now  occupied  by  a  castellated 
mansion.  A  grammar-school  (1594)  was  recon- 
stituted in  1881 ;  and  there  are  also  an  interesting 
collegiate  church,  a  county  hall,  a  corn  exchange, 
&c.  Chartered  by  Henry  VII.  in  1507,  Ruthin 
unites  with  Denbigh,  &c.  to  return  one  member. 
Pop.  (1851)  3373;  (1901)  2643.  See  Newcome's 
Castle  and  Town  of  Ruthin  (2d  ed.  1836). 

Rutlxven  Castle.    See  Huntingtower. 


RUTHWELL 


607 


SAARGEMtJND 


Ruth  well  (th  as  in  this ;  locally  RVwell),  a  Dum- 
friesshire coast  parish,  9  miles  ESE.  of  Dumfries. 
Its  famous  sandstone  cross,  17|  feet  high,  bears 
carvings  in  front  and  behind  of  the  Crucifixion, 
Annunciation,  &c.,  with  Latin  inscriptions,  and 
on  the  sides  of  scroll-work,  runic  verses  from 
'  The  Dream  of  the  Holy  Rood,'  Dating  possibly 
from  about  680  a.d.,  the  cross  was  cast  down  and 
broken  in  1642  as  a  monument  of  idolatry  ;  but 
in  1802  was  re-erected  in  the  manse  garden  by 
the  Rev.  Henry  Duncan,  minister  of  Ruthwell, 
and  founder  of  savings'  banks ;  and  in  1887  was 
removed  to  an  apse  adjoining  the  church. 

Rutlam,  a  native  state  in  the  Western  Malwa 
agency,  Central  India.  Area,  729  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
89,160.  The  capital,  Rutlam,  is  a  great  opium 
mart,  and  has  a  college  ;  pop.  31,000. 

Rutland,  the  smallest  county  in  England, 
bounded  by  Leicester,  Lincoln,  and  Northampton 
shires.  It  measures  18  by  15  miles,  and  has  an 
area  of  150  sq.  m.  or  95,805  acres.  The  Guash  or 
Wash,  flowing  to  the  Welland  (which  traces  the 
south-east  boundary),  divides  it  into  two  portions 
—the  northern  a  somewhat  elevated  tableland, 
while  the  southern  consists  of  a  number  of  valleys 
running  east  and  west,  and  separated  by  low 
hills.  Half  the  whole  area  is  permanent  pasture, 
and  woods  occupy  some  3000  acres.  Towns  are 
Oakham  and  Uppingham,  and  there  are  fifty-one 
parishes.  Rutland  gives  the  title  of  duke  to  the 
family  of  Manners.  Its  representation  was  re- 
duced to  one  in  1885.  Pop.  (1801)  16,380 ;  (1861) 
21,861;  (1901)19,709. 

Rutland,  capital  of  Rutland  county,  Vermont, 
on  Otter  Creek,  close  to  the  Green  Mountains, 
67  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Burlington.  The  chief 
industry  is  the  quarrying  and  working  of  marble ; 
the  place  has  also  foundries  and  railroad  shops. 
From  1784  to  1804  it  was  one  of  the  capitals  of 
Vermont.    Pop-  (1880)  7502  ;  (1900)  11,499. 

Rtitll,  or  Grutli,  a  meadow  on  the  west  side 
of  the  southern  arm  of  Lake  Lucerne  ;  here  the 
men  of  Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden  took  the 
oath  (1307)  to  drive  out  the  Austrians.  It  is 
national  property,  having  been  purchased  with  the 
pence  of  Swiss  school  children,  and  is  adorned 
with  a  monument  (1860)  to  Schiller,  and  with 
another  (1884)  in  commemoration  of  the  oath. 

Ruvo  in  Apulia  (anc.  RuM),  a  cathedral  city 
of  S.  Italy,  22  miles  W.  of  Bari.    Pop.  27,728. 

Ruwenzo'rl,  a  mountain  in  the  centre  of 
Africa,  just  north  of  the  Equator,  between  Lakes 
Albert  Nyanza  and  Albert  Edward  Nyanza.  It 
was  discovered  by  Baker  in  1871,  and  visited  by 
Stanley  in  1888  ;  and  its  summit  (19,000  feet)  is 
covered  with  perpetual  snow. 

Ruysselede  (Roissehlay'deh),  a  Belgian  town,  14 
miles  SE.  of  Bruges,  has  a  large  reformatory 
for  boys  (1849).    Pop.  6793. 

Ryan,  Loch,  a  Wigtownshire  arm  of  the 
sea,  extending  8  miles  SSE.  to  Stranraer  from  the 
Firth  of  Clyde,  with  a  breadth  of  from  1^  to 
almost  3  miles. 


Rybinsk  (Ree-UnsV),  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the 
Volga's  right  bank,  48  miles  NW.  of  Yaroslav. 
It  has  a  very  large  trade  in  forwarding  to  the 
capital  by  canal  the  goods  brought  hither  by 
large  vessels  up  the  Volga.  Boat-building,  rope- 
making,  brewing,  and  distilling  are  industries. 
Pop.  25,220,  increased  to  125,000  in  summer. 

Rydal  Mount,  Westmorland,  IJ  mile  NNW.  of 
Ambleside,  was  Wordsworth's  thirty-seven  years' 
residence,  and  his  death-place. 

Ryde,  a  flourishing  and  fashionable  watering- 
place  on  the  north-east  coast  of  the  Isle  of  Wight, 
4^  miles  SSW.  of  Portsmouth,  from  which  it  is 
separated  by  the  roadstead  of  Spithead.  It  con- 
sists of  Upper  and  Lower  Ryde,  the  fonner 
occupying  the  site  of  an  ancient  village.  La  Rye 
or  La  Riche,  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1377, 
and  the  latter  of  quite  modern  construction. 
Fielding  in  1753  described  Ryde  as  'a  pleasant 
village,  separated  at  low-water  from  the  sea  by 
an  impassable  gulf  of  mud ; '  but  now  there  are 
excellent  sands,  and  the  appearance  of  the  town 
with  its  streets  and  villas  interspersed  with  trees 
is  pleasing  and  picturesque.  The  longer  of  the 
two  piers  (768  feet)  was  constructed  in  1813-61 ; 
of  the  buildings  may  be  noticed  the  town-hall 
(1831) ;  All  Saints'  Church  (1870),  by  Scott,  with 
a  spire  173  feet  high  ;  St  Mary's  Roman  Catholic 
Church  (1846),  by  Hansom ;  and  the  Royal  Vic- 
toria Yacht  Club-house  (1847).  Ryde  was  made 
a  municipal  borough  in  1868.  Pop.  (1851)  7147  ; 
(1881)11,461;  (1901)11,043. 

Rye,  a  decayed  seaport  of  Sussex,  11  miles  NE. 
of  Hastings,  and  2  miles  inland  now  owing 
to  the  retirement  of  the  sea.  It  stands  on  an 
eminence  bounded  east  by  the  Rother,  south  and 
west  by  the  Tillingham,  and  presents  a  quaint, 
old-world  aspect.  On  a  rock  overlooking  the 
confluence  of  the  streams  is  the  12th-century 
Ypres  Tower  (now  a  police  station) ;  the  church, 
mainly  Norman  and  Early  English  in  style,  and 
one  of  the  largest  in  the  kingdom,  was  restored 
in  1883.  Then  there  are  the  old  Land  Gate,  a 
former  Carmelite  chapel,  and  a  grammar-school 
(1638).  The  Novus  Partus  of  Ptolemy,  Rye  was 
granted  by  the  Confessor  to  Fecamp  Abbey,  and 
by  Henry  III.  was  made  a  Cinque  Port.  It 
became  a  Huguenot  asylum  after  1562  and  1685 
(Thackeray's  Denis  Duval  is  laid  here);  and  it 
returned  two  members  till  1832,  and  then  one  till 
1885.  Fletcher  the  dramatist  was  a  native.  Pop. 
3900.     See  Holloway's  History  of  Rye  (1847). 

Rye  House,  an  old  Hertfordshire  mansion,  5J 
miles  SE.  of  Hertford,  where  it  was  proposed  by 
some  of  the  Whigs  to  waylay  and  assassinate 
Charles  II.  (1683). 

Ryswick,  a  village  2  miles  S.  of  the  Hague, 
where  in  1697  a  great  treaty  of  peace  was  signed 
between  France,  England,  the  Netherlands, 
Spain,  and  Germany. 

Ryton,  a  Durham  town,  on  the  Tyne,  6  miles 
W.  of  Newcastle.    Pop.  8460. 

Rzheff.    See  Rsheff. 


AALE    (Sdh-leh),   a   navigable   river    of 
Germany,  rises  in  the    Fichtelgebirge 
(Bavaria),  and  flows  226  miles  north- 
ward through  Thuringia  and  Prussian 
Saxony  to  the  Elbe  above  Magdeburg. 
Saalfeld  (Sdhl'felt),  a  town  of  Saxe-Meiningen, 
on  the  Saal^  31  miles  SSW.  of  Jena.    Pop.  11,700. 
Saarbriick  (Sdhr-briik),  or   Saarbrucken,  a 


town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Saar,  40  miles 
SE.  of  Treves,  is  the  centre  of  a  coalfield,  and 
manufactures  iron,  glass,  tobacco,  chemicals,  &c. 
Pop.  23,250.  Here,  on  2d  August  1870,  in  the 
first  engagement  of  the  Franco-German  war,  the 
Germans  retreated. 

Saardam.    See  Zaandam. 

Saargemtind    (Sahr-ge-munt ;    Fr.    Sarreguc- 


SAARLOUIS  6 

mines),  a  town  of  Lorraine,  41  miles  B.  of  Metz, 
making  pottery,  silk,  and  velvet.    Pop.  14,700. 

Saarlouis  (Sahr-loo-ee'),  a  fortified  town  of 
Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Saar,  31  miles  S.  of 
Treves.  Fortified  by  Vauban,  it  was  in  1815 
given  from  France  to  Prussia  by  the  Congress 
of  Vienna.     Here  Ney  was  born.     Pop.  7788. 

Saaz  (Sdhtz),  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the  Eger, 
66  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Prague.     Pop.  16,200. 

Saba  (-SYt/i'fta),  a  Dutch  West  Indian  island  (Lee- 
wards), 40  miles  NW.  of  St  Kitts  ;  a  volcanic  cone, 
1500  feet  high.     Area,  5  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  2420. 

Sabadeir,  a  town  of  Spain,  14  miles  by  railway 
NW.  of  Barcelona,  the  '  Manchester  of  Catalonia,' 
manufacturing  woollens  and  cottons.  Pop.  23,100. 

Sabine  (Sa-leen'),  a  river  of  Texas  and  Louisi- 
ana, flowing  500  miles  SE.  and  S.  until  through 
Sabine  Lake  (18  miles  long  by  9  wide)  it  empties 
into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Sable  Island,  a  low-lying  sandy  island  in  the 
Atlantic,  in  44°  N.  lat.  and  60°  W.  long.,  85  miles 
E.  of  Nova  Scotia  (and  not  near  Cape  Sable,  at 
the  SE.  corner  of  Nova  Scotia,  where  there  is 
also  a  Sable  Island).  On  this  dangerous  '  Ocean 
Graveyard,'  the  Canadian  government  has  estab- 
lished six  life-saving  stations,  with  life-boats, 
rockets,  &c.,  and  a  staff  of  men.  In  1802  Sable 
Island  was  40  miles  long  ;  in  1890  it  was  reduced 
to  20  miles  ;  in  1900  over  80,000  trees  were  planted 
to  check  the  shifting  of  the  sands. 

Sables  D'Olonne  (SdhU-d'0-lon'),  Les,  a  French 
seaport  and  watering-place  (dep.  Vendue),  on  the 
Atlantic,  50  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Nantes,  with  salt- 
making,  shipbuilding,  and  fishing.    Pop.  11,900. 

Sabri'na  Land,  a  stretch  of  coast-land  dis- 
covered in  the  Antarctic  Ocean  (1839)  by  Balleny  ; 
it  is  crossed  by  120°  E.  long,  and  the  Antarctic 
Ciicle.—Sabrina  is  the  Latin  form  of  Severn. 

Sachsen.    See  Saxony,  Saxon  States. 

Sacketts  Harbor,  a  summer-resort  (in  1812  an 
important  naval  station)  of  New  York,  on  a  bay 
of  Lake  Ontario,  at  the  mouth  of  Black  River, 
12  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Watertown.    Pop.  1260. 

Saco  (Saw'ko),  a  port  of  Maine,  16  miles  by  rail 
WSW.  of  Portland,  on  the  Saco  River,  here 
crossed  by  a  bridge  to  Biddeford,  with  falls  of  50 
feet  supplying  water-power  for  cotton  and  shoe 
factories,  sawmills,  machine-shops,  &c.  Pop. 
6175.— The  Saco  River  rises  in  the  White  Moun- 
tains of  New  Hampshire,  and  runs  170  miles  SE. 
through  Maine  to  the  Atlantic. 

Sacramento,  the  largest  river  of  California, 
rises  in  the  NE.  part  of  the  state,  its  head-stream, 
Pitt  River,  draining  Goose  Lake,  and  flows  500 
miles  SW.,  S.,  and  SSW.  to  Suisun  Bay,  through 
which  its  waters  pass  into  San  Pablo  Bay  and  so 
to  the  Pacific.  It  is  navigable  for  small  vessels 
to  Red  Bluff,  nearly  250  miles.  Near  its  mouth 
it  receives  the  San  Joaquin. 

Sacramento,  capital  of  California,  is  on  the 
east  bank  of  the  Sacramento  River,  at  the  mouth 
of  American  River,  90  miles  by  boat  and  rail  NE. 
of  San  Francisco.  The  principal  public  build- 
ings are  the  state  capitol  (cost  $2,000,000),  county 
court-house  (formerly  capitol)  and  hospital,  post- 
office,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  the  Crocker 
Art  Gallery,  and  Masonic  and  Oddfellows'  halls. 
Here  are  flour  and  planing  mills,  carriage,  box, 
and  broom  factories,  foundries,  potteries,  spice- 
mills,  canneries,  and  the  shops  of  the  Southern 
Pacific  Railroad.  Inundations  led  to  the  build- 
ing of  a  levee  in  1862.  Sacramento  was  settled 
in  1839 ;  but  it  was  not  laid  out  till  1848,  after 


8  SAGUENAY 

the  discovery  of  gold.  In  1854  it  became  state 
capital.     Pop.  (1880)  21,420  ;  (1900)  29,280. 

Saddleback,  or  Blencath'ara,  a  Cumberland 
mountain  (2847  feet),  4J  miles  NE.  of  Keswick. 

Sad'owa.    See  Koniggratz. 

Safed,  a  town  of  Palestine,  6  miles  NW.  of  the 
Lake  of  Tiberias,  famous  as  a  stronghold  of  the 
crusaders  and  of  the  Knights  Templars,  lost  after 
much  fighting  in  1266.  It  is  still  one  of  the  four 
holy  cities  of  the  Jews,  and  has  a  pop.  of  25,000, 
most  of  whom  are  Jews. 

Saffl,  or  AsFi,  a  seaport  of  Morocco,  stands  on 
a  little  bay  on  the  Mediterranean  coast,  120  miles 
WNW.  of  the  city  of  Morocco.    Pop.  9000. 

Safifron-Walden,  a  municipal  borough  of  Essex, 
15  miles  S.  of  Cambridge,  27  NNW.  of  Chelms- 
ford, and  45  by  a  branch-line  (1865)  NNE.  of 
London.  The  saffron  crocus  was  formerly  culti- 
vated here.  The  parish  church  (Perpendicular) 
has  a  spire  108  feet  high,  and  brasses  and  monu- 
ments—one to  Lord  Chancellor  Audley  (1488- 
1544).  There  are  also  remains  of  a  Norman  castle, 
a  corn  exchange  (1848),  a  town-hall  (1879),  a  cattle- 
market  (1834),  and  a  grammar-school,  founded  in 
1423.  Audley  End,  1^  mile  SW.,  the  seat  of  Lord 
Braybrooke,  was  built  in  1603  by  Thomas  Howard, 
Earl  of  Suff"olk,  and  is  still  a  magnificent  mansion, 
though  partly  demolished  since  1701.  Pop.  (1851) 
5911 ;  (1 901)  5896.  See  works  by  Lord  Braybrooke 
(1836)  and  John  Player  (1845). 

Sagalng,  a  decayed  town  of  Burma,  once  the 
capital,  lies  on  the  Irawadi,  opposite  Ava. 

Sagan,  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia,  on  the  Bober, 
33  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Glogau,  manufactur- 
ing cottons  and  woollens,  beer,  &c.    Pop.  15,010. 

Sagar,  or  Saugor,  a  well-built  town  in  the 
Central  Provinces  of  India,  in  a  hilly  tract,  on  a 
feeder  of  the  Jumna,  with  barracks,  magazine, 
jail  (1846),  and  park  (1862).    Pop.  44,674. 

Sagar,  a  low,  swampy,  sacred  island  (area,  225 
sq.  m.),  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hooghly,  with  a 
lighthouse  (1808)  and  telegraph  station. 

Saghalien,  or  Sakhalin  (Sa-7ia-^ee«';  but  usu. 
Sagay'lien),  is  a  long  (670  miles)  and  narrow  (20 
to  150  miles)  island,  running  N.  and  S.,  off  the 
east  coast  of  the  Maritime  Province  of  Siberia. 
Owing  to  the  vicinity  of  the  misty  chilly  Sea  of 
Okhotsk,  to  the  ice-floes  off  the  east  coast,  and 
to  the  dense  forests  on  the  mountains  (5000  feet), 
the  rainfall  is  heavy  and  the  climate  is  raw  and 
cold.  The  streams  and  the  adjoining  seas  teem 
with  fish.  Petroleum  and  naphtha  exist,  and 
coal  (over  2,000,000  tons  in  1890)  is  mined.  Area, 
29,550  sq.  m. ;  pop.  in  1905,  29,000— Russians 
(many  of  them  convicts),  Gilyaks,  and  Aiiios. 
In  1875  the  Japanese  were  compelled  to  cede  the 
southern  part  to  Russia  (in  exchange  for  some  of 
the  Kuriles),  and  the  whole  island  became  a  great 
Russian  convict  settlement.  But  in  1905,  after 
the  Russo-Japanese  war,  the  Japanese  resumed 
possession  of  the  southern  half. 

Saginaw',  the  third  city  of  Michigan,  and 
capital  of  Saginaw  county,  is  built  on  an  elevated 
plateau  on  the  Saginaw  River,  108  miles  by  rail 
NNW.  of  Detroit.  It  manufactures  flour,  salt, 
lumber,  barrels,  sashes,  doors,  and  blinds,  &c., 
and  exports  lumber  and  salt.  There  was  a  great 
fire  in  May  1893.  Pop.  (1880)  29,541 ;  (1900)  42,345. 
— Saginaw  Bay,  an  arm  of  Lake  Huron,  is  60 
miles  long  by  30  wide,  and  has  several  fine  har- 
bours.    The  river  Saginaw  (80  miles)  falls  into  it. 

Saguenay  (Sa-gay-nay'),  a  large  river  of  Canada, 
falling  into  the  St  Lawrence  estuary  on  the  north 


SAGUNTUM 


609 


ST  ABBS 


Ik 


side,  115  miles  below  Quebec.  It  drains  Lake 
St  John,  and  flows  almost  straight  100  miles  ESE. 
In  its  upper  part,  amid  a  wilderness  of  hills,  it 
has  numerous  cataracts  ;  but  in  the  lower  course, 
from  the  village  of  Chicoutimi  down,  it  flows 
between  precipitous  cliffs,  often  500  to  1500  feet 
high,  and  is  in  many  places  2  or  3  miles  broad, 
while  the  depth  varies  from  17  to  170,  and  even, 
near  the  mouth,  to  500  fathoms.  The  largest 
vessels  can  ascend  to  near  Chicoutimi ;  and  great 
numbers  of  tourists  visit  the  river. 

Saguntiun.    See  Murviedro. 

Sahara  (usually  Sa-hay'ra,  properly  Sah'a-ra; 
Arab.  Sdh'ra),  the  vast  desert  region  of  North 
Africa,  stretching  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Nile, 
and  from  the  southern  conHnes  of  Morocco, 
Algeria,  Tunis,  and  Tripoli  southwards  to  near 
the  Niger  and  Lake  Chad.  The  Libyan  Desert, 
lying  between  Egypt,  the  central  Soudan,  and 
Tripoli,  is  a  separate  tract.  The  surface,  instead 
of  being  uniform  and  depressed  below  sea-level, 
is  highly  diversified,  and  attains  in  one  place  an 
altitude  of  fully  8000  feet.  From  Cape  Blanco 
in  the  west,  the  Erg,  a  vast  semicircle  of  sand- 
dunes  (50  to  300  miles  wide  and  70  to  800  feet 
high),  stretches  right  round  the  northern  side  of 
the  Sahara  to  Fezzan.  In  the  centre  the  country 
rises  into  the  lofty  plateau  of  Ahaggar  (4000  feet), 
with  veritable  mountains  6500  feet  high,  and 
actually  covered  with  snow  for  three  months  in 
the  year.  There  are  mountain-ranges  in  the  east 
reaching  8000  feet.  The  mountainous  parts  em- 
brace many  deep  valleys,  most  of  them  seamed 
with  the  dry  beds  of  ancient  rivers,  which  yield 
abundance  of  water,  if  not  on  the  surface,  then  a 
short  distance  below  it,  and  are  inhabited,  and 
grazed  by  cattle,  sheep,  and  camels.  Another 
characteristic  type  of  Saharan  landscape  is  a  low 
plateau  strewn  with  rough  blocks  of  granite  and 
other  rocks,  and  perfectly  barren.  These  elevated 
stone-fields,  called  'hammada,'  alternate  with 
tracts  of  bare  flat  sand,  with  broad  marshes, 
where  water  has  stood  and  evaporated,  leaving 
salt  behind  it,  and  with  extensive  tracts  of 
small,  polished,  smoothly-rounded  stones.  In 
very  many  parts  of  the  Sahara,  especially  in 
the  valleys  of  the  mountainous  parts,  in  the 
recesses  or  bays  at  the  foot  of  the  hills,  along- 
side the  watercourses,  and  in  the  hollows  of  the 
sand-dunes,  there  are  oases— habitable,  cultivable, 
watered  spots.  Lines  of  oases  mark  the  great 
caravan-routes  between  the  Soudan  states  and 
the  Mediterranean. 

A  large  portion  of  the  Sahara,  though  not  the 
whole,  was  undoubtedly  under  water  at  one  time  ; 
and  a  process  of  desiccation  has  been  going  on 
throughout  the  whole  region  from  the  earliest 
historic  time ;  the  Romans  had  colonies  or 
military  posts  a  long  way  to  the  south.  The 
sand  is  simply  the  Saharan  rocks  (granite, 
gneiss,  mica-schists,  and  cretaceous  rocks) 
crumbled  to  dust  by  the  alternations  of  heat 
and  cold.  The  range  of  temperature  is  exceed- 
ingly great :  often  the  thermometer  falls  from 
more  than  100°  F.  during  the  day  to  just  below 
freezing-point  at  night.  Rain  does  fall  in 
certain  districts  at  intervals  of  two  to  five 
years.  After  a  fall  of  rain  it  is  not  unusual  to 
see  the  river-beds  in  the  mountainous  regions 
filled  with  foaming  torrents.  Owing  to  the  ex- 
treme dryness  of  the  air,  the  Sahara  is  very 
healthy.  The  plant-life  is  very  rich  in  the  oases, 
the  date-palm,  oranges,  lemons,  peaches,  figs, 
pomegranates,  &c.,  being  grown,  with  cereals, 
pice,  durrha,  and  millet.    In  the  desert  regions  are 

3M 


found  tamarisks,  prickly  acacias  and  similar 
thorny  shrubs  and  trees,  salsolaceae,  and  coarse 
grasses.  The  animals  include,  besides  the  camel, 
horse,  ox,  sheep,  and  goat,  the  giraffe,  antelopes, 
wild  cattle,  the  wild  ass,  desert  fox,  jackal,  hare, 
lion,  ostrich,  desert  lark,  crow,  viper,  python, 
locusts,  flies.  The  Inhabitants,  estimated  at 
between  1,400,000  and  2,500,000,  consist  of  Moors, 
Tuareg,  Tibbu,  Negroes,  Arabs,  and  Jews.  The 
chief  products  are  dates  and  salt,  also  horses,  soda, 
and  saltpetre.  A  very  active  trade  is  carried  on 
by  caravans,  between  the  central  Soudan  and  Niger 
countries  and  the  Mediterranean  states,  the 
ivory,  ostrich-feathers,  gums,  spices,  musk,  hides, 
gold-dust,  indigo,  cotton,  palm-oil,  shea-butter, 
kola-nuts,  ground-nuts,  silver,  dates,  salt,  and 
alum  of  the  interior  lands  being  exchanged  for 
the  manufactured  wares  (textiles,  weapons,  gun- 
powder, &c.)  of  European  countries.  The  French 
desire  to  get  this  trade  into  their  own  hands,  and 
have  proposed  to  construct  a  light  trans-Saharan 
railway  from  the  coast  to  the  shores  of  Lake 
Chad  and  the  Niger.  They  have  done  much  to 
realise  the  ambitious  idea  of  uniting  their  posses- 
sions on  the  Senegal  and  on  the  Niger  with 
Algeria  and  Tunis— a  union  theoretically  accom- 
plished by  the  agreement  of  1890  between  Great 
Britain  and  France,  by  which  the  whole  of  the 
Sahara,  except  the  west  coast  (which  is  claimed 
by  Morocco  and  Spain  and  Great  Britain)  and  the 
extreme  east  (beyond  a  line  drawn  from  Murzuk 
in  Fezzan  to  Lake  Chad),  was  acknowledged  to 
be  within  the  French  'sphere  of  influence.' 
There  have  been  schemes  for  flooding  the  low- 
lying  'shotts'  south  of  Tunis,  and  much  has 
been  done  towards  improving  certain  areas  by 
boring  artesian  wells  and  so  irrigating  the  country 
around.  By  a  series  of  conventions  between 
Britain  and  France  (1893-99),  one  of  which  re- 
cognised the  right  of  France  to  all  territory  west 
of  the  Nile  basin,  practically  the  whole  of  the 
Sahara  is  now  accounted  French ;  and  the  area 
of  the  French  Sahara  is  about  2,000,000  sq.  m. 
See  German  works  by  Barth  (1858),  Nachtigal 
(1879-89),  Rohlfs  (1874),  Zittel  (1884),  and  Lenz 
(1884);  French  works  by  Rolland,  Cat,  Bissuel, 
Vuillot,  Toutee,  Schirmer,  Bonnefon,  and  Foureau 
(1891-1902);  and  Somerville's  Sands  of  Sahara 
(Phila.  1901). 

Saharanpur',  a  town  of  the  United  Provinces 
of  India,  125  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Delhi,  is  the 
station  for  the  sanatorium  of  Masuri  (Mussoorie). 
It  has  an  old  Rohilla  fort,  a  new  mosque,  St 
Thomas'  Church  (1858),  and  botanical  gardens 
(1817).     Pop.  71,000. 

Salda.    See  Sidon. 

Saigon  (Sd-gon^'),  capital  of  French  Cochin- 
China,  stands  on  the  river  Saigon,  a  deltaic  mouth 
of  the  Mekong,  60  miles  from  the  sea.  The 
French  town  has  grown  up  since  1861,  with  its 
fine  streets,  squares,  and  boulevards.  It  has  a 
magnificent  governor's  palace,  a  cathedral  (1877), 
two  higher  colleges,  an  arsenal,  a  floating-dock 
and  a  dry-dock,  and  a  botanical  and  zoological 
garden.  Its  population,  consisting  principally  of 
Chinese,  Aiinamese,  and  French,  amounts  to 
close  on  50,000,  while  the  business  suburb  of 
Cholon,  4  miles  SW.,  has  125,000  inhabitants, 
more  than  a  third  of  them  Cliinese.  It  exports 
rice,  fish,  salt,  cotton,  wood,  beans,  and  hides. 

Saikio.    See  Kyoto. 

Salma,  Lake.    See  Finland. 

St  Abbs,  a  seaside  resort  and  fishing-village 
in  Berwickshire,  2^  miles  SE.  of  St  Abb's  Head 
(and  formerly  called  Coldingham  Shore). 


ST  ABB'S  HEAD 


610 


ST  ASAPH 


St  Abb's  Head,  a  rocky  promontory  (310  feet) 
of  Berwickshire,  4  miles  NNW.  of  Eyemouth. 
Here  is  a  lighthouse  (1861). 

St  Afifrique  (SanH  Affreek'),  a  town  of  the 
French  dep.  of  Aveyron,  56  miles  NW.  of  Mont- 
pellier.     Pop.  5163. 

St  Agnes,  a  town  of  Cornwall,  on  the  Bristol 
Channel,  9  miles  NW.  of  Truro.  Pop.  of  parish, 
4249.    See  also  Scilly  Islands. 

St  Albans,  a  city  of  Hertfordshire,  20  miles 
NNW.  of  London,  on  the  top  and  northern  slope 
of  an  eminence  washed  by  the  Ver,  one  of  the 
chief  feeders  of  the  Colne,  across  which  stood 
Verulamium.  That  important  Roman  station  is 
perhaps  identical  with  the  fortress  of  Cassivel- 
launus,  destroyed  in  54  B.C.  by  Caesar,  and  was 
taken  by  Boadicea  in  61  a.d.  In  honour  of  the 
protomartyr  Alban,  said  to  have  been  beheaded 
here  about  303,  Offa,  king  of  Mercia,  in  793 
founded  a  great  Benedictine  abbey,  which  from 
Pope  Adrian  IV.  (born,  Nicolas  Breakspear,  at 
Bedmond,  3  miles  SW.)  obtained  precedence  over 
all  other  abbeys  in  England.  Rebuilt  after  1077 
with  flat  Roman  tiles  from  Verulam,  and  dedi- 
cated in  1115  in  the  presence  of  Henry  I.,  the 
abbey  church,  in  spite  of  successive  alterations 
(Early  English,  Decorated,  Perpendicular),  is 
still  '  the  vastest  and  sternest '  of  early  Norman 
structures,  its  exterior  length  (548  feet)  being 
second  only  to  Winchester's,  whilst  the  transepts 
measure  189  feet  across,  and  the  massive  central 
tower  is  144  feet  high.  It  was  made  the  cathe- 
dral of  a  new  diocese  in  1877,  and  in  1871-85 
was  very  thoroughly  restored.  Special  features 
are  the  substructure  of  the  shrine  of  St 
Alban  (its  2000  shattered  fragments  pieced  to- 
gether), the  tombs  of  Duke  Humphrey  of  Glou- 
cester and  '  Sir  John  Mandeville,'  the  superb 
presbytery  reredos,  and  Abbot  Ramryge's 
chantry.  Of  the  forty  abbots  down  to  the  Dis- 
solution in  1539  the  greatest  was  Cardinal 
Wolsey  ;  and  among  the  monks  were  Matthew 
Paris,  Roger  Wendover,  Rishanger,  and  the  other 
compilers  of  the  Chronica  Moiiasterii  S.  Alhani, 
which,  like  the  Treatise  of  Dame  Juliana  Berners, 
was  printed  here  at  Abbot  Wallingford's  press. 
The  abbey  gatehouse  was  in  1869  converted  from 
a  jail  to  the  purposes  of  King  Edward  VI. 's 
grammar-school,  which  till  then  had  occupied 
the  Lady  Chapel.  In  St  Michael's  Church  is 
Lord  Bacon's  monument ;  the  15th-century 
clock-tower  was  restored  in  1864 ;  and  a  drink- 
ing-fountaiu  marks  the  site  of  an  Eleanor's  cross, 
demolished  in  1702.  There  are  almshouses 
founded  by  the  famous  Duchess  of  Marlborough, 
a  town-hall  (1832),  a  corn  exchange  (1857),  and  a 
free  library  (1880).  The  industries  include  straw- 
plaiting,  brewing,  boot  and  brush  making,  and 
silk-manufacture.  St  Albans,  disfranchised  for 
bribery  in  1852,  was  incorporated  by  Edward  VI. 
in  1553,  and  had  its  municipal  boundary  ex- 
tended in  1879.  It  was  the  scene  of  two  battles 
in  the  Wars  of  the  Roses— the  first,  on  22d  May 
1455,  a  victory  for  the  Yorkists  ;  the  second,  on 
17th  February  1461,  for  the  Lancastrians.  Pop. 
(1851)  7000;  (1901)  16,019.  See  works  by  New- 
come  (1793),  Williams  (1822),  Comyns  Carr  (1877), 
James  Neale  (1878),  and  Ashdown  (1894). 

St  Alban's  Head.    See  Dorsetshire. 

St  Amand  (Savft  Amon^d'),  a  town  of  France 
(dep.  Cher),  on  the  Cher,  25  miles  SSE.  of  Bourges, 
with  ironworks  and  potteries.     Pop.  7897. 

St  Amand-les-Eaux  (San'^t  Amon^d'-leh-Zo),  a 
town  of  France,  dep.  Nord,  8  miles  NW.  of  Val- 


enciennes, with  hot  sulphur-springs  and  a  ruined 
abbey.    Pop.  13,340. 

St  Andrews,  a  city  of  Fife,  stands  on  a  rocky 
plateau  at  the  edge  of  St  Andrews  Bay,  42  miles 
NNE.  of  Edinburgh.  The  monkish  legend,  long 
discredited,  assigned  its  ecclesiastical  origin  to 
St  Regulus  or  Rule,  who,  warned  in  a  dream, 
brought  certain  bones  of  St  Andrew  from  Patras 
in  the  4th  century,  and  was  wrecked  at  Muckros, 
afterwards  called  Kilrimont,  now  St  Andrews. 
There  is,  however,  reason  for  believing  not  only 
that  those  relics  were  brought  in  the  8th  century, 
but  that,  before  the  end  of  the  6th,  Cainnech 
or  Kenneth,  the  patron  saint  of  Kilkenny,  had 
founded  a  monastery  at  Rig-Monadh,  the  Royal 
Mount,  and  that  thus  arose  the  najne  of  Kilri- 
mont. Early  in  the  10th  century  it  seemingly 
became  the  seat  of  the  'Ardepscop  Albain,'  the 
high  bishop  of  the  Scots — archbishop  from  1471- 
72.  The  Augustinian  Priory,  founded  in  1144, 
was  the  richest  and  greatest  of  all  the  religious 
houses  of  Scotland.  The  Cathedral,  founded  in 
or  about  1160  in  presence  of  Malcolm  IV.,  and 
consecrated  in  1318  in  presence  of  Robert  the 
Bruce,  was  stripped  of  its  images  and  ornaments 
in  1559,  and  afterwards  fell  into  ruin.  The 
extreme  length  inside  is  355  feet.  The  Bishop's 
Palace  or  Castle,  first  built  in  1200,  was  fre- 
quently demolished  and  rebuilt,  and  is  now  a 
ruin.  George  Wishart  was  confined  in  its  '  bottle- 
dungeon,'  and  Cardinal  Beaton  slain  within  its 
massive  walls.  None  of  the  ruins  is  less  impos- 
ing or  more  interesting  than  the  foundations  on 
the  Kirkhill— the  site  of  the  Celtic  church.  St 
Rule's  Tower,  108  feet  high,  is  Romanesque, 
probably  of  the  10th  century.  The  schools  of  St 
Andrews  were  noted  in  1120;  but  the  University, 
the  first  in  Scotland,  dates  only  from  1411.  St 
Salvator's  College  was  founded  in  1455,  St  Leon- 
ard's in  1512,  and  St  Mary's  in  1537.  The  two 
first  were  united  in  1747.  The  average  attend- 
ance of  students  is  under  300.  The  library  con- 
tains over  100,000  volumes,  and  there  is  a  good 
museum.  The  parish  church  of  St  Leonard's  is 
roofless,  and  the  congregation  worships  in  the 
beautiful  chapel  of  St  Salvator's.  The  Madras 
College  (1832)  was  endowed  by  Dr  Andrew  Bell. 
There  is  also  a  large  girls'  school  (St  Leonard's). 
The  town  was  made  a  free  burgh  between  1144 
and  1153  ;  the  St  Andrews  Burghs,  returning  one 
member,  are  St  Andrews,  the  two  Anstruthers, 
Crail,  Cupar,  Kilrenny,  and  Pittenweem.  The 
manufacture  of  golf-clubs  and  balls  is  a  thriving 
industry,  St  Andrews,  with  its  fine  links,  being 
the  Mecca  of  golfers.  Pop.  (1801)  3263 ;  (1901) 
7621.  See  works  by  Martine  (1787-97),  Grierson 
(1807),  Lyon  (1843),  Rogers  (1849),  Anderson  (1878), 
Andrew  Lang  (1894),  and  Hay  Fleming  (1894). 

St  Annes  on  the  Sea,  a  watering-place  of  N. 
Lancashire,  4J  miles  S.  of  Blackpool.  Pop.  6840. 
St  Asaph,  a  little  cathedral  city  of  Flintshire, 
North  Wales,  on  an  eminence  between  the  rivers 
Elwy  and  Clwyd,  6  miles  SSE,  of  Rhyl.  The 
cathedral,  182  feet  long,  is  the  smallest  in  the 
kingdom,  and,  rebuilt  after  1284,  is  a  plain, 
cruciform,  red  sandstone  structure,  mainly  Dec- 
orated in  style,  with  a  massive  central  tower 
93  feet  high,  fine  oak  stalls,  and  a  tablet  to  Mrs 
Hemans,  who  lived  here  1809-28.  It  was  restored 
by  Scott  in  1867-75.  St  Kentigern  is  said  to  have 
founded  about  560  a  bishopric  at  Llanelwy,  re- 
named St  Asaph  after  his  favourite  disciple. 
Among  sixty-five  bishops  since  1143  have  been 
Reginald  Pecock ;  Isaac  Barrow  the  elder  ;  Lloyd, 
one  of  the  Seven  Bishops ;  and  Horsley.  St  AsapU 


ST  AUGUSTINE 


611 


ST  DAVIDS 


has  a  grammar-school,  founded  about  1600,  and 
rebuilt  in  18S2.  It  is  one  of  the  eight  Flint  par- 
liamentary boroughs.  Pop.  1858.  See  works  by 
BroAvne  Willis  (1719),  Freeman  (1850),  R.  J.  King 
(1873),  and  D.  R.  Thomas  (1888). 

St  Aug'ustine,  an  ancient  Spanish  town  on 
the  east  coast  of  Florida,  now  the  capital  of  St 
John's  county,  stands  on  Matanzas  Sound,  2 
miles  from  the  Atlantic  and  37  by  rail  SSB.  of 
Jacksonville.  It  was  founded  in  1565,  and  is  the 
oldest  town  in  the  United  States.  Its  mild  and 
equable  climate  renders  it  a  favourite  winter- 
resort  for  invalids.  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic 
cathedral  (rebuilt  after  the  fire  of  1887),  a  Pea- 
body  Institute,  and  huge  and  really  handsome 
hotels.     Pop.  4742,  increased  to  10,000  in  winter. 

St  Austell,  a  town  of  Cornwall,  14  miles  NB. 
of  Truro  and  1^  NW.  of  the  liead  of  St  Austell 
Bay.  Its  woollen  and  iron  manufactures  are  of 
less  importance  than  the  china-clay,  tin,  and 
copper  worked  in  the  vicinity.  The  interesting 
church  (13th  to  16th  century)  was  restored  in 
1870.     Pop.  3340. 

St  Bartholome'W,  or  St  BARTHifiLEMY,  a  French 
West  Indian  island,  190  miles  E.  of  Porto  Rico. 
Area,  8  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  3000.  The  treeless  surface 
rises  to  1003  feet ;  the  climate  is  very  dry. 
French  in  1648-1784,  and  Swedish  till  1877,  the 
island  was  bought  back  by  France  for  £16,000. 

St  Bees,  a  Cumberland  watering-place,  4^ 
miles  S.  of  Whitehaven  by  rail  and  3  SE.  of  St 
Bees  Head  (300  feet).  A  nunnery  founded  here 
about  650  a.d.  by  an  Irish  princess,  St  Begha, 
appears  to  have  been  destroyed  by  the  Danes, 
and  to  have  been  reconstituted  as  a  Benedictine 
priory  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  St  Bees  Theo- 
logical College,  established  in  1816  by  Dr  Law, 
Bishop  of  Cliester,  was  closed  in  1806 ;  a  gram- 
mar-school, founded  by  Archbishop  Grindall  in 
1587,  was  reconstituted  in  1881.  Pop.  of  parish, 
1041. 

St  Bernard,  two  mountain-passes  In  the  Alps. 
(1)  Great  St  Bernard  (8120  feet)  is  on  the  road 
between  Aosta  in  Piedmont  and  Martigny  in 
Valais.  Almost  on  its  crest  stands  the  Augustin- 
ian  hospice  founded  in  962  by  Bernard  de 
Menthon  for  tlie  benefit  of  pilgrims  journeying 
to  Rome.  It  has  sleeping-accommodation  for 
eighty  travellers,  and  can  shelter  300.— (2)  Little 
St  Bernard,  SW.  of  the  above  in  the  Graian  Alps, 
connects  the  valley  of  Aosta  with  that  of  Taran- 
taise  in  Savoy.  By  this  pass  Hannibal  is  believed 
to  have  led  his  forces  into  Italy.  It  too  has  a 
hospice,  7143  feet  above  the  sea. 

St  Blazey,  a  town  of  Cornwall,  4  miles  ENE. 
of  St  Austell.     Pop.  of  parish,  2705. 

St  Boswells,  or  Lessudden,  a  Roxburghshire 
village,  near  the  Tweed's  right  bank,  4  miles  SE. 
of  Melrose.     Pop.  424. 

St  Brieuc  (San"  Bree-xih'),  a  town  of  Brittany, 
capital  of  the  dep.  of  Cotes  du  Nord,  on  the 
Gouet,  2  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  English 
Channel,  and  93  E.  of  Brest.  It  has  a  port,  Le 
Legue,  at  the  river's  mouth  ;  a  cathedral,  dating 
from  the  13tli  century ;  the  ruined  Tour  de 
Cesson  (1395,  blown  up  1598);  and  a  lyceum, 
with  a  library  of  27,000  volumes.    Pop.  16,741. 

St  Catherine's,  a  city  of  Ontario,  on  the  Well- 
and  Canal,  5  miles  S.  of  Port  Dalhousie  on  Lake 
Ontario.  It  manufactures  machinery,  and  has 
mineral  springs.    Pop.  9970. 

St  Chamond.  {SavF  Sha-moinF),  a  town  of  France, 
^ep.  Loire,  7  miles  NE.  of  St  Jfitienne  by  rail, 


manufactures  ribbons,  silks,  and  iron,  and  has 
coal-pits.     Pop.  15,250. 

St  Charles,  capital  of  St  Charles  county, 
Missouri,  on  the  high  north  bank  of  the  Missouri 
River,  23  miles  by  rail  (44  by  river)  NW.  of  St 
Louis.  It  has  flour-mills,  a  railroad-car  factory, 
and  large  bridge-building  works.     Pop.  8000. 

St  Christopher,  popularly  St  Kitts,  one  of  the 
Leeward  group  of  the  West  India  Islands,  belong- 
ing to  Great  Britain,  lies  45  miles  NW.  of  Guade- 
loupe. It  is  long  (23  miles)  and  narrow  (5  miles), 
and  is  traversed  by  a  chain  of  rugged  mountains 
(Mount  Misery,  4100  feet) ;  area,  68  sq.  m.  Th^ 
capital  is  Basse-terre  (q.v.).  Principal  products 
are  sugar,  molasses,  rum,  salt,  coffee,  cocoa, 
tobacco,  and  cattle.  Administratively  St  Kitts 
is  united  with  Nevis  (q.v.)  and  the  little  island 
ofAnguilla.  Pop.  (1903)30,250.  This  island  was 
discovered  in  1493  by  Columbus,  and  named  from 
a  resemblance  of  its  outline  to  statues  of  his 
patron  saint.  Colonised  by  French  and  British 
in  1625,  it  became  English  in  1713. 

St  Clair,  a  navigable  river  of  North  America, 
in  the  line  of  the  Great  Lakes,  and  carrying  into 
LakeSt  Clairthe  waters  of  Lake  Huron.  It  is  over 
40  miles  long,  and  ^  mile  broad.  In  1891  a  rail- 
way tunnel  under  its  bed  was  completed  between 
Port  Huron,  Michigan,  and  Sarnia,  Ontario,  20 
feet  in  diameter,  and  6026  (including  excavated 
approaches,  11,553)  feet  long.  Lake  St  Clair  is 
26  miles  long  and  25  wide,  has  an  area  of  410 
sq.  m.,  and  from  its  south-west  end  discharges 
into  Lake  Erie  through  the  Detroit. 

St  Clair,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  5  miles 
N.  of  Pottsville,  with  anthracite  mines.  Pop. 
6950. 

St  Claude,  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of  Jura, 
80  miles  SE.  of  Lons-le-Saunier.  Tlie  monastery 
here  dates  from  430  a.d.     Pop.  8729. 

St  Clears,  a  river-port  of  Carmarthenshire,  at 
the  head  of  the  Taf  estuary,  8  miles  WSW.  of 
Carmarthen.     Pop.  of  parish,  937. 

St  Cloud  (San^  Kloo),  a  town  of  France,  dep. 
Seine-et-Oise,  on  an  eminence  near  the  Seine,  10 
miles  W.  of  Paris.  Henry  III.  was  assassinated 
here  in  1589  by  the  fanatical  monk  Jacques 
Clement.  St  Cloud  was  long  famous  for  its 
magnificent  chateau,  built  by  Louis  XIV.'s 
brother,  the  Duke  of  Orleans,  which  Napoleon 
made  his  favourite  residence.  It  was  destroyed, 
and  its  magnificent  park  (in  which  stands  the 
Sevres  porcelain-factory)  injured,  during  the 
siege  of  Paris,  in  1870.     Pop.  5660. 

St  Columb  Major,  a  Cornish  town,  on  the 
Trent,  14  miles  NNE.  of  Truro.     Pop.  2612. 

St  Croix  (Sent  Kroi),  an  American  river,  called 
also  the  Passamaquoddy  and  the  Schoodic,  which, 
flowing  out  of  Grand  Lake,  on  the  E.  border  of 
Maine,  runs  SE.  75  miles  to  Passamaquoddy  Bay, 
along  the  U.S.  boundary.     See  Santa  Cruz. 

St  Cyr  (San"  Seer),  a  French  village,  dep. 
Seine-et-Oise,  2  miles  W.  of  Versailles.  The 
institution  for  poor  girls  of  good  birth,  founded 
by  Louis  XIV.,  at  the  suggestion  of  Madame  de 
Maintenon,  who  died  and  was  buried  here,  was 
suppressed  at  the  Revolution  ;  and  in  1806  the 
buildings  were  converted  by  Napoleon  into  a 
great  military  school.     Pop.  3613, 

St  Davids,  a  '  city '  of  Pembrokeshire,  South 
W^ales,  in  the  westernmost  corner  of  the  princi- 
pality, on  the  rivulet  Alan,  within  1^  mile  of  St 
Brides  Bay  and  16  miles  WNW.  of  Haverford- 
west station.    The  ancient  Menevia,  it  is  now  a 


ST  DENIS 


612 


ST  GALL 


mere  village  ;  but  in  the  middle  ages  its  cathe- 
dral, with  the  shrine  of  its  founder,  St  David, 
the  patron  saint  of  Wales,  attracted  many  pil- 
grims, among  them  the  Conqueror,  Henry  II., 
and  Edward  I.  and  Queen  Eleanor.  Rebuilt  be- 
tween 1180  and  1522,  tliat  cathedral  still  is  mainly 
Transition  Norman  in  character,  a  cruciform  pile, 
measuring  298  feet  by  120  across  the  transepts, 
with  a  central  tower  116  feet  high.  Special 
features  are  the  reddish-hued  stone,  the  richly 
ornamented  nave  with  rich  oak  roof,  the  rood 
screen  (c.  1338),  the  base  of  St  David's  shrine, 
the  tomb  of  Edmund  Tudor,  Henry  VII. 's  fatlier, 
and  the  eastern  triplet.  The  west  front  was  re- 
built by  Nash  in  1793  ;  and  the  whole  was  restored 
by  Scott  in  1862-78.  North  of  the  cathedral  is 
the  ruined  college  of  St  Mary  (1377),  with  a 
slender  tower  70  feet  high  ;  and  across  the  Alan 
are  the  stately  remains  of  Bishop  Gower's  palace 
(1342),  'altogether  unsurpassed  by  any  existing 
editice  of  the  kind.'  A  restored  cross,  the  shat- 
tered Close  wall,  and  the  imposing  Tower  Gate 
deserve  notice,  and  also  St  Davids  Head,  rising 
100  feet  above  the  sea.  Pop.  of  parish,  1816. 
See  works  by  Browne  Willis  (1717),  Manby  (1801), 
Bishop  Jones  and  E.  A.  Freeman  (1856),  Sir  G. 
G.  Scott  (1869),  and  Rev.  W.  L.  Bevan  (1888). 

St  Denis  (San'  De-nee!),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Seine,  4  miles  N.  of  Paris,  within  the  line 
of  forts  forming  the  outer  defences  of  the  city. 
It  manufactures  calicoes,  flour,  chemicals, 
machinery,  white-lead,  &c.,  and  has  a  notable 
fair.  The  chapel  raised  above  the  tomb  of  St 
Denis,  the  patron  saint  of  France,  was  replaced 
In  the  7th  century  by  an  abbey,  built  by  Dago- 
bert  I.,  who  was  buried  in  its  church,  which  there- 
after became  the  mausoleum  of  the  kings  of 
France.  The  existing  abbey  church  was  begun 
in  1137,  and  skilfully  restored  by  Viollet-le-Duc 
from  1848  onwards,  though  it  suffered  again  in 
the  German  bombardment  of  1871.  The  most 
magnificent  of  the  royal  tombs  are  those  of 
Louis  XII.  and  his  queen,  Anne  of  Brittany, 
of  Francis  I.  and  Claude,  and  of  Henry  II. 
and  Catharine  de'  Medici.  During  the  Revolu- 
tion, in  1793,  the  royal  tombs  were  sacrilegiously 
rifled  and  demolished.  Napoleon  converted  the 
abbey  into  a  school  for  the  daughters  of  officers 
of  the  legion  of  honour.  Pop.  (1872)  31,850; 
(1901)  58,871.  ^ 

St  Denis,  the  capital  of  Reunion  (q.v.). 

St-Di6  {SavP -Dee-ay'),  a  French  town,  dep. 
Vosges,  stands  on  the  Meurthe,  50  miles  by  rail 
SB.  of  Nancy.  It  has  a  Romanesque-Gothic 
cathedral,  seminary,  and  museum,  and  manu- 
factures cotton,  hosiery,  paper,  machinery,  and 
iron  goods.    Pop.  19,500. 

St  Dizier  {San'  Deezeeay"),  a  French  town  (dep. 
Haute-Marne),  38  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Chalons,  is 
on  the  Marne,  which  is  navigable  hence.  It  has 
iron  forges  and  foundries,  boat-building  yards, 
and  cotton-factories.    Pop.  13,520. 

St  Domingo.    See  Hayti,  San  Domingo. 

Sainte  Anne,  the  name  of  two  rivers  in  Quebec 
Province,  tributaries  of  the  St  Lawrence,  of 
which  one  has  celebrated  falls  near  its  mouth,  22 
miles  below  Quebec,  where  stands  the  village  of 
Ste  Anne  de  Beanpre,  a  celebrated  place  of 
pilgrimage  for  healing. 

Sainte  Croix.    See  Santa  Cruz. 

St  Elias,  Mount,  a  great  volcanic  mountain  on 
the  Alaskan  side  of  the  Canadian  frontier,  18,020 
feet  high.  It  stands  in  a  wild,  inaccessible  region, 
and  is  clothed  almost  from  base  to  summit  with 


eternal  snow.  There  are  huge  glaciers  and  im- 
passatble  precipices  and  yawning  chasms ;  but  in 
1886  a  party  reached  a  height  of  7200  feet  on  the 
mount.  Long  reckoned  the  highest  mountain  in 
North  America,  it  is  exceeded  by  Mount  Logan, 
inside  the  Canadian  line  (19,539  feet),  and  by 
Mount  McKinley  in  Alaska  (20,464  feet). 

Ste  Marie.    See  Madagascar. 

Sainte  Marie-Aux-Mines.    See  Markirch. 

Saintes  (San't),  an  old  town  of  France,  dep. 
Charente-Inferieure,  on  the  Charente's  left  bank, 
28  miles  by  rail  SB.  of  Rochefort,  manufactures 
iron  and  copper  goods,  machinery  and  leather. 
Mediolanuvi  was  the  capital  of  the  Santones, 
whence  the  name.  Its  interesting  Roman 
remains  include  a  triumphal  arch  and  the  ruins 
of  an  amphitheatre.  It  was  a  bishop's  seat  down 
to  1790 ;  the  cathedral  still  stands.  Palissy 
lived  at  Saintes  for  fifty  years.  The  old  province 
was  called  Saintonge.     Pop.  15,595. 

St  Etienne  (SanH  Ay-te-enn'),  one  of  the  most 
important  industrial  towns  in  France,  stands 
(dep.  Loire)  on  a  tributary  of  the  Loire,  36  miles 
by  rail  SW.  of  Lyons  and  312  SSE.  of  Paris. 
Built  in  the  second  largest  coalfield  of  France,  it 
looks  thoroughly  grimy.  The  industries  are  in 
iron  and  steel  and  in  ribbons,  and  have  all 
steadily  increased.  Its  hardware  workshops 
turn  out  steel  and  iron  plates,  gun -armour, 
iron  masts,  large  castings  for  machinery,  firearms, 
locks,  cutlery,  files,  nails,  tools,  ribbons,  hats, 
pottery,  &c.  The  government  small-arms  factory 
(1764)  has  since  the  Revolution  supplied  nearly 
all  the  muskets  and  rifles  and  revolvers  for  the 
army.  Some  40,000  persons,  mostly  hand- workers 
in  their  own  homes,  are  engaged  in  the  town  and 
its  vicinity  in  making  ribbons,  laces,  fringes, 
&c.  Some  of  the  ribbon-looms  are  (since  1893) 
driven  by  electricity.  Pop.  (1800)  16,000  ;  (1851) 
53,741 ;  (1876)  126,019  ;  (1901)  139,350.  The  coal- 
mines began  to  be  worked  in  the  14th  century, 
but  only  on  an  extensive  scale  in  the  end  of  the 
18th.  The  town  was  twice  captured  by  the 
Huguenots,  in  1563  and  1570.  ^  The  first  railways 
in  France  were  built  from  St  Etienne  (1828-31). 

St  Eustatius,  a  Dutch  West  Indian  island,  10 
miles  NW.  of  St  Kitts.  Area,  8  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
1633. 

Saintfield,  a  Down  market-town,  11  miles 
SB.  of  Belfast.    Pop.  557. 

St  Fillans,  a  Perthshire  village,  on  the  Earn, 
13  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Crieff. 

St  Flour  (San^  Floor),  a  town  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Cantal,  on  a  steep  basaltic  plateau  (3000 
feet)  50  miles  S.  of  Clermont-Ferrand,  has  a 
Gothic  cathedral  (1375-1466),  and  manufactures 
pottery,  cloth,  &c.    Pop.  4775. 

St  Gall,  a  Swiss  canton,  with  the  Lake  of  Con- 
stance on  the  N.  It  is  for  the  most  part  moun- 
tainous, rising  to  10,660  feet  in  Ringelspitz,  and 
to  8216  in  Santis.  The  Rhine  flows  along  the 
eastern  border.  Area,  779  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1900) 
250,285,  mainly  Roman  Catholic  and  German- 
speaking. — St  Gall,  the  capital,  stands  on  the 
Steinach,  2196  feet  above  sea-level  (the  highest 
town  in  Europe),  53  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Zurich, 
and  9  from  Rorschach  on  the  Lake  of  Constance. 
The  buildings  of  its  famous  Benedictine  monastery 
are  now  used  as  government  offices  and  schools, 
and  for  housing  the  monastic  library,  founded  in 
830,  of  41,700  volumes  and  1800  MSS.  Other 
buildings  are  the  old  abbey  church,  made  a 
cathedral  in  1846 ;  the  Protestant  church  of  St 
Lawrence;  the  town  library,  founded  in  1536, 


ST  aEORGE'S 


613 


ST  IVES 


II 


and  containing  60,400  volumes  and  500  MSS.  ; 
and  the  museum.  The  city  carries  on  a  large 
trade  in  embroidered  textiles  (cotton,  muslin, 
&c.),  and  in  agricultural  products.  Pop.  about 
35,000.  Tlie  oric;inal  nucleus  of  the  place  was 
the  cell  of  St  Gall  (c,  550-645),  an  Irish  follower 
of  St  Columban,  who  settled  here  in  614.  Around 
this  soon  grew  up  a  Benedictine  monastery, 
made  by  Charles  Martel  an  abbey,  which  gradu- 
ally became  a  masterpiece  of  mediaeval  archi- 
tecture and  a  home  of  the  arts.  At  the  French 
Revolutioii  the  abbey  was  secularised  (1798),  and 
its  revenues  sequestrated  in  1805. 

St  George's.    See  Bermudas,  Grenada. 

St  George's  Channel.    See  Ireland. 

St-Germain-en-Laye  (San^-Zherman^-on/'-Lay), 
a  town  of  France,  dep.  Seine-et-Oise,  stands  on  an 
eminence  above  the  Seine,  with  a  royal  forest 
(10,000  acres)  behind  it,  13  miles  W.  of  Paris. 
Above  the  river  runs  the  famous  terrace  (2625 
yards  long  by  115  feet  wide),  made  in  1672.  The 
historic  associations  cluster  round  the  old  royal 
chateau  which,  until  Louis  XIV.  removed  the 
court  to  Versailles,  was  the  favourite  residence 
of  the  kings  of  France.  Here  were  born  Henry 
II.,  Charles  IX.,  Louis  XIII.,  and  Louis  XIV.  ; 
here  died  Louis  XIII.  ;  and  here  James  II.  of 
England  lived  from  1689  to  his  death  in  1701. 
Turned  into  barracks,  then  into  a  military  prison, 
it  was  made  by  Napoleon  III.  a  museum  of  Gallo- 
Roman  antiquities.  Pop.  14,076. — St  Germain- 
des-Pres,  named  like  the  other  from  St  Germanus, 
was  a  famous  Benedictine  monastery  ;  its  chiurch 
(1001-1163)  is  the  oldest  in  Paris. 

St  Germans,  formerly  the  seat  of  the  ancient 
diocese  of  Cornwall,  now  a  small  village  on  a 
branch  of  the  river  Lynher,  9^  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Plymouth.  Its  fine  parish  church  has  an  ex- 
cellent Norman  west  front.    Pop.  of  parish,  2384. 

St  Gervais-les-Bains  (San^-Zhervay-leh-Ban^), 
a  watering-place  in  the  French  dep.  of  Haute- 
Savoie,  42  miles  SB.  of  Geneva,  was  over- 
whelmed by  an  ice  and  water  avalanche  in  1892. 

St  GlUes  (San^  Zheel),  a  town  of  France,  dep. 
Gard,  12  miles  SSE.  of  Nimes.  The  west  front  of 
its  abbey  church  (1116)  is  a  masterpiece  of  Roman- 
esque. Pope  Clement  IV,  was  born  here.  Pop. 
5094. 

St  Gear  (Sankt  Go-dhr'),  a  village  on  the  Rhine, 
14  miles  SB.  of  Coblenz  by  rail ;  pop.  1453.  On 
the  other  side  of  the  Rhine  is  St  Goarshausen. 

St  Gothard  (Got'tard;  Ger.  Gotthard),  an  Alpine 
mountain-knot,  9850  feet  high,  in  the  Swiss 
cantons  of  Uri,  Grisons,  Ticino,  and  Valais.  It  is 
the  source  of  the  Rhine,  Rhone,  Ticino,  and  Reuss, 
thus  sending  the  water  from  its  melted  snows  to 
the  German  Ocean,  the  Mediterranean,  and  the 
Adriatic.  On  its  shoulder  it  bears  the  celebrated 
Alpine  pass  (6936  feet)  from  the  Lake  of  Lucerne 
in  Switzerland  to  the  Lago  Maggiore  in  Italy. 
In  1820-24  the  road  was  widened  to  18  feet  and 
smoothed  for  carriages.  Near  the  summit  of  the 
pass  stand  two  hotels  and  a  hospice,  the  latter 
for  poor  wayfarers,  of  whom  some  12,000  used  to 
travel  this  way  every  year.  Since  1882,  liowever, 
a  railway  has  climbed  up  the  lower  slopes  of  the 
St  Gothard,  and  then  burrowed  through  it  in  a 
tunnel  (1872-80),  which  extends  from  Goschenen 
(at  a  height  of  3639  feet)  in  Uri  to  Airolo  (3757 
feet)  in  Ticino,  measures  9J  miles  in  length,  is 
26  feet  wide  and  21  high,  and  cost  £2,270,000. 

St  Helena  (generally  called  St  Helena,  not  St 
Helena),  a  lonely  island  in  the  Atlantic,  1200 
miles  flrom  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  1695  from 


Capetown,  and  4477  from  Southampton,  measures 
10  miles  by  8,  and  has  an  area  of  47  sq.  m.  li  is 
part  of  an  old  volcano,  and  reaches  2823  feet  in 
High  Hill.  Its  shores  face  the  ocean  as  perpen- 
dicular cliffs  600  to  2000  feet  high.  Pop.  (1871) 
6444;  (1903)  3500,  exclusive  of  garrison.  Till 
the  cutting  of  the  Suez  Canal  St  Helena  was  a 
port  of  call  for  vessels  bound  to  and  from  India 
by  the  Cape,  and  the  inhabitants  did  a  large 
trade  in  provisioning  these  vessels.  Since  1890, 
too,  the  British  government  has  been  withdrawing 
the  garrison  ;  though,  on  the  other  hand,  James- 
town, the  capital  (pop.  2500),  on  the  north-wes€ 
coast,  has  been  made  a  second-class  imperial 
coaling  station,  and  carefully  fortilied.  St  Helena 
was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1502,  and 
taken  possession  of  by  the  British  East  India 
Company  in  1651.  It  has  a  governor  and  an  execu- 
tive council  of  five.  The  island  was  Napoleon 
Bonaparte's  prison  from  1815  to  his  death  in  1821. 
His  home  was  the  farmhouse  of  Longwood,  3 
miles  inland  from  Jamestown  ;  and  near  there  he 
was  first  buried.  There  is  an  Anglican  bishop 
of  St  Helena.  See  works  by  Brooke  (1808-24) 
and  Melliss  (1875). 

St  Helens,  (l)  a  town  of  Lancashire,  on  the 
Sankey  brook,  flowing  to  the  Mersey,  12  miles 
ENB.  of  Liverpool  and  21  W.  by  S.  of  Manchester. 
Thanks  to  its  railway  and  canal  facilities,  and  to 
the  immediate  neighbourhood  of  coal,  it  has  grown 
within  recent  years  froin  quite  a  small  village  to 
an  important  industrial  centre,  and  now  is  the 
great  seat  of  the  manufacture  of  crown,  plate, 
and  sheet  glass,  and  also  possesses  extensive 
alkali,  copper-smelting,  and  iron  works.  It  be- 
came a  municipal  borough  in  1868;  a  parlia- 
mentary borough,  returning  one  member,  in  1885  ; 
and  a  county  borough  in  1888.  The  town-hall, 
Vith  library,  was  opened  in  1876.  Pop.  (1851) 
14,866  ;  (1871)  45,134  ;  (1901)  84,410.— (2)  A  small 
town  in  the  Isle  of  Wight,  4  miles  SB.  of  Ryde. 
Pop.  (1851)  1948  ;  (1901)  4652. 

St  Holier  (Fr.  Sanft  Eleeay),  the  capital  of 
Jersey,  is  situated  on  the  south  shore  of  the 
island,  and  the  east  side  of  St  Aubin  Bay.  It 
is  defended  by  Elizabeth  Castle  (1551-86),  on  a 
rocky  island  off  the  shore,  approached  by  a 
causeway  at  low- water ;  and  by  Fort  Regent,  on 
the  south-east  side  of  the  tovni,  built  in  1806- 
15.  Victoria  College  dates  from  1852,  the  public 
library  from  1736.  The  harbour  lias  outer  and 
inner  basins.  Pop.  (1851)  29,153  ;  (1871)  30,756  ; 
(1901)  28,750. 

St  Henri,  a  town  of  Canada,  practically  a 
suburb  of  Montreal.    Pop.  (1901)  21,192. 

St  Hyacinthe,  capital  of  a  county  in  Quebec, 
at  the  intersection  of  four  railways,  35  miles  ENE. 
of  Montreal,,  with  manufactures,  a  Catholic  col- 
lege, and  monasteries.    Pop.  10,000. 

St  Ives,  (1)  a  fishing-town  of  Cornwall,  beauti- 
fully situated  on  the  west  shore  of  St  Ives  Bay,  8 
miles  NNE.  of  Penzance.  It  has  a  branch-line 
(1865) ;  a  harbour,  with  a  pier  by  Smeaton  (1770) 
and  a  breakwater  (1864) ;  a  15th-century  granite 
church,  with  an  ancient  cross ;  and  a  town-hall 
(1832);  whilst  on  a  hill,  545  feet  high,  is  a 
pyramid  (1782).  St  Ives  is  the  chief  seat  of  the 
pilchard-fishery,  and  from  its  mild  climate  and 
good  bathing  is  a  favourite  resort.  It  is  said  to 
take  name  from  St  la,  an  Irish  princess,  martyred 
here  in  450  a.d.  Incorporated  by  Charles  I.  in 
1639,  it  returned  two  members  till  1832,  and  then 
one  till  1885.  Pop.  (1861)  7027  ;  (1901)6699.  See 
works  by  Lach-Szyrma  (1878)  and  J.  H.  Matthews 
(1892).— (2)  A  picturesque  old  monastic  town  of 


ST-JEAN-D'ANGELY 


614 


ST  LAWRENCE 


Huntingdonshire,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ouse,  5 
miles  E.  of  Huntingdon,  Almost  destroyed  by 
fire  (1689),  and  inundated  by  the  river  (1823),  it 
bears  a  curious  likeness  to  Stratford-on- 
Avon,  and  has  a  15th-century  parish  church,  a 
corn  exchange  (1864),  and  a  six-arch  stone  bridge 
of  singular  beauty,  built  by  the  abbots  of  Ram- 
sey, with  an  old  chapel  or  lighthouse  in  the 
middle.  Cromwell  lived  at  Slepe  Hall,  now  built 
over,  in  1631-36,  and  Theodore  Watts  was  born 
here.  This  place  is  said  to  be  named  after  Ivo, 
a  Persian  bishop,  who  died  here  about  590,  and  it 
became  in  1017  the  seat  of  a  Benedictine  priory. 
A  large  weekly  cattle-market  was  chartered  in 
1290,  and  the  town  was  incorporated  in  1874. 
Pop. (1851) 3522  ;  (1901)  2910. 

St-Jean-D'Angely  (San^-ZhovF-D'On^zhaylee'), 
a  small  town  of  France,  dep.  of  Charente- 
Inferieure,  15  miles  NNE.  of  Saintes.     Pop.  6900. 

St  Jean  de  Luz  (San^-Zhong-deh-Luz),  a  French 
watering-place  (once  a  famous  port)  of  dep.  Basses 
Pyrenees,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Nivelle,  7  miles 
from  the  Spanish  frontier.     Pop.  4280. 

St  Jdrome,  a  river-port  of  Quebec,  on  the  North 
River,  33  miles  NW.  of  Montreal.     Pop.  4000. 

St  John,  the  largest  river  of  New  Brunswick, 
rises  in  Maine,  flows  450  miles  NE.  and  SE.  (the 
last  225  within  British  territory),  and  falls  into 
the  Bay  of  Fundy  by  an  estuary  5  miles  wide. 
Part  of  its  course  separates  Maine  from  Canada. 

St  John,  commercial  capital  and  largest  city 
of  New  Brunswick,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  estuary  of  the  St  John,  277  miles  by  rail 
NW.  of  Halifax  and  481  from  Montreal.  The 
harbour  is  good,  and  accessible  to  the  largest 
vessels  at  all  seasons.  Shipbuilding  and  the 
timber-trade  are  the  chief  industries,  together 
with  fishing  and  the  West  India  trade ;  the 
manufactures  include  engines  and  locomotives, 
machinery  and  farming  implements,  nails,  axes, 
leather,  boots  and  shoes,  paper,  cotton  and 
woollen  goods,  clothing,  furniture,  carriages, 
soap,  &c.  On  June  21,  1877,  a  fire  destroyed  the 
greater  part  of  the  town ;  but  a  new  St  John 
speedily  arose,  with  wide, "  clean  streets,  and 
handsome  buildings— custom-house,  post-office, 
city  building,  lunatic  asylum,  hospital,  and 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral.  Adjoining  St  John, 
and  practically  forming  with  it  one  city,  is  the 
town  of  Portland.  Pop.  (1881)26,127;  (1901)40,711. 

St  Jolin.    See  Antigua. 

St  John's,  (1)  the  capital  of  Newfoundland, 
stands  on  the  extreme  east  coast  of  the  island,  on 
Avalon  Peninsula,  1076  miles  ENE.  of  Montreal 
and  1730  W.  by  S.  of  Cork  in  Ireland.  It  is  thus 
the  nearest  port  in  America  to  Europe ;  and  it 
possesses  a  small  but  excellent  harbour,  which  is 
well  fortified.  Railways  run  to  Harbour  Grace 
(84  miles)  and  Placentia  (25  miles).  The  city  has 
a  number  of  oil-refineries  (fish  and  seal),  and  also 
tanneries,  shoe-factories,  cabinet-works,  &c.  It 
was  largely  destroyed  by  fire  in  July  1892.     Pop. 

(1901)  29,594 (2)  Chief  town  of  St  John  county, 

Quebec,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  river  Richelieu, 
opposite  the  town  of  St  Athanase,  and  27  miles 
by  rail  SE.  of  Montreal.  It  contains  a  lunatic 
asylum,  barracks,  potteries,  foundries,  sawmills, 
&c.  Pop.  4314.— (3)  St  John's,  or  San  Juan, 
capital  of  Porto  Rico,  stands  on  a  small  island 
connected  by  bridges  with  a  peninsula  on  the 
north  coast.     Pop.  34,000. 

St  Johnstoun.    See  Perth. 

St  Joseph,  a  city  of  Missouri,  capital  of 
Buchanan  county,  on  the  Missouri  River's  left 


bank,  110  miles  (by  rail  68)  above  Kansas  City. 
Eight  lines  of  railway  centre  here,  and  the  river  is 
crossed  by  an  iron  railway  and  foot  bridge  (1873) 
of  five  spans,  one  a  pivot-draw  span  of  365  feet. 
St  Joseph  has  large  pork-packing  establishments 
and  manufactures  of  stoves,  guns,  carriages, 
clothing,  furniture,  &c.  Laid  out  in  1843,  and 
incorporated  as  a  city  in  1851,  it  was  much  of  it 
destroyed  by  fire  on  25th  September  1893.  Pop. 
(1870)  29,565  ;  (1890)  52,324  ;  (1900)  102,979. 

St  Just  (Joost),  a  Cornish  town,  7  miles  W.  of 
Penzance,  with  tin  and  copper  mines.  Borlase 
was  a  native.     Pop.  of  parish,  6119. 

St  Keyne,  a  Cornish  parish,  2  miles  S.  of 
Liskeard,  with  a  well  that  gives  the  mastery  to 
the  bridegroom  or  bride  who  first  drinks  of  it 
after  their  marriage.     See  Southey's  poem. 

St  Kilda,  a  lonely  island  in  the  Atlantic,  be- 
longing to  Harris  in  Inverness-shire,  and  40  miles 
W.  of  North  Uist.  With  an  extreme  length  and 
breadth  of  3 J  and  IJ  miles,  it  is  only  1-9  sq.  m. 
in  area  ;  has  lofty  precipitous  cliff's  almost  every- 
where, except  at  the  south-eastern  landing-place  ; 
and  attains  a  maximum  altitude  of  1220  feet. 
The  climate  is  mild  ;  and  the  soil  is  black  loam, 
with  very  fine  pasture,  but  only  some  40  arable 
acres.  The  live-stock  includes  nearly  a  thousand 
sheep  (which  graze  also  on  four  neighbouring 
islets),  and  about  forty  Highland  cattle ;  but  a 
principal  source  of  wealth  is  the  sea-birds— 
fulinar  petrels,  solan  geese,  puffins,  &c.— which 
supply  feathers,  oil,  and  meat.  Its  native  name 
is  Hirta  (Gael.  h-Iar-tir,  '  the  western  land  ') ; 
and  the  name  St  Kilda  is  probably  of  Columban 
origin.  Events  in  its  'history'  have  been  the 
reduction  of  the  population  by  smallpox  to  four 
adults  and  twenty-six  children  (1724)  ;  the  im- 
prisonment of  Lady  Grange  here  by  her  husband 
(1734-42) ;  the  emigration  of  thirty-six  islanders 
to  Australia  (1856) ;  the  drowning  of  six  (1864) ; 
and  the  establishment  of  a  regular  school  (1884). 
Pop.  (1851,  the  maximum)  110  ;  (1901)  77.  See 
works  by  Dean  Munro  of  the  Isles  (1585),  Martin 
(1698-1703).  Kenneth  Macaulay  (1764),  L.  Mac- 
Lean  (1838),  J.  Sands  (1877),  G.  Seton  (1878), 
and  R.  Connell  (1887). 

St  Kilda,  a  coast  suburb  of  Melbourne  (q.v.), 
on  the  east  side  of  Hobson's  Bay. 

St  Kitts.     See  St  Christopher. 

St  Lawrence,  a  great  river  of  North  America, 
which,  issuing  from  Lake  Ontario,  flows  north- 
east 750  miles— part  of  the  way  forming  the 
boundary  between  Canada  and  the  United  States 
—and  falls  into  the  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence  by  a  broad 
estuary.  But  in  its  widest  acceptation  the  name 
includes  the  whole  system  of  the  Great  Lakes 
and  their  connecting  streams,  with  a  total  length 
from  source  to  mouth  of  2200  miles,  and  a  drain- 
age basin  of  300,000  sq.  m.  The  area  of  water- 
surface  in  the  five  lakes  alone  is  94,650  sq.  m., 
and  the  system  constitutes  by  far  the  largest 
body  of  fresh  water  in  the  world.  This  mighty 
artery  of  North-east  America  rises,  under  the 
name  of  the  St  Louis,  on  the  spacious  plateau 
which  sends  forth  also  the  Mississippi  towards 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  the  Red  River  of  the 
North  towards  Hudson  Bay.  Lake  Superior  (602 
feet  above  sea-level),  the  next  link  in  the  chain, 
finds  its  way  to  Lake  Huron  through  St  Mary's 
River,  whose  rapids  have  a  fall  of  20|  feet. 
Below  Lake  Huron,  which  receives  Lake  Michi- 
gan from  the  south,  St  Clair  River,  Lake  St  Clair, 
Detroit  River,  and  Lake  Erie  maintain  pretty 
nearly  the  same  level  (there  is  a  fall  of  some  8 
feet,  however,  in  Detroit  River)  till  the  river 


&T  LEONARDS-ON-SBA 


615 


ST  MALd 


Niagara  descends  326  feet  to  Lake  Ontario,  which 
is  itself  still  247  feet  above  the  sea-level.  The  St 
Lawrence  proper,  with  a  number  of  lake-like  ex- 
pansions (such  as  the  Lake  of  the  Thousand 
Isles,  of  St  Francis,  St  Peter,  &c.),  presents  the 
character  first  of  a  river,  and  then  of  an  estuary, 
down  to  the  gulf.  Prior  to  1858  only  vessels 
drawing  not  more  than  11  feet  of  water  could 
pass  up  above  Quebec  ;  but  since  then  a  channel 
has  been  made  in  the  shallow  i)arts  of  the  river, 
300  feet  wide,  and  so  deepened  tliat  practically 
the  largest  ocean-steamers  can  now  pass  up  to 
Montreal.  Between  Lake  Ontario  and  Montreal 
there  are  several  rapids,  which,  however,  may  be 
all  avoided  by  means  of  canals.  Immediately 
above  the  island  of  Montreal  the  St  Lawrence  is 
joined  by  its  principal  auxiliary,  the  Ottawa  (800 
miles),  from  the  north-west ;  and  a  little  more 
than  half-way  between  this  confluence  and  Three 
Rivers,  the  highest  point  of  tidal  influence,  the 
Richelieu  from  the  south  brings  in  the  tribute  of 
Lake  Champlain.  Other  principal  tributaries 
are  the  St  Maurice  (400  miles),  the  Saguenay 
(100),  and  the  Batiscan  (50).  Steamers  may  now 
by  help  of  the  canals  convey  their  cargo  from 
Liverpool  to  Duluth  at  the  far  end  of  Lake 
Superior  without  breaking  bulk.  The  width  of 
the  St  Lawrence  varies  from  less  than  1  to  4 
miles ;  the  estuary  at  its  mouth  is  above  100 
miles  across.  During  winter  the  river  is  frozen 
over  and  navigation  closed. 

The  Gulf  of  St  Lawrence,  an  inlet  of  the 
North  Atlantic,  washes  Newfoundland,  Quebec, 
New  Brunswick,  and  Nova  Scotia.  It  has  three 
communications  with  the  ocean — the  Strait  of 
Belleisle,  between  Newfoundland  and  Labrador  ; 
the  Gut  of  Canso,  between  the  island  of  Cape 
Breton  and  Nova  Scotia ;  and  a  far  wider  passage 
than  either,  with  the  island  of  St  Paul  in  the 
middle,  between  Cape  Breton  and  Newfoundland. 
It  narrows,  at  the  west  end  of  Anticosti, 
into  the  estuary  of  the  St  Lawrence  River. 
Besides  Anticosti,  St  Paul's,  and  Prince 
Edward's,  this  arm  of  the  sea  contains  many 
other  islands,  rendered  dangerous  to  shipping  by 
the  fogs  and  the  uncertain  currents.  Both  Gulf 
and  River  are  celebrated  for  their  fisheries. 

St  Leonards-on-Sea  (St  Len'nards).  See 
Hastings. 

St  L6,  a  town  of  Normandy,  dep.  Manche,  is 
built  on  a  rocky  elevation  on  the  right  bank  of 
the  Vire,  60  miles  by  rail  SB.  of  Cherbourg.  A 
St  L6,  Bishop  of  Coutances,  built  a  church  here 
in  the  6th  century.  Noteworthy  are  the  beauti- 
ful churches  of  Sainte-Croix,  founded  in  805, 
and  Notre  Dame  (15th  c).  Cloth,  ribbons,  wool, 
and  laces  are  manufactured.  The  astronomer 
Leverrier  was  born  here.    Pop.  9190. 

St  Louis,  fourth  city  of  the  United  States  in 
size,  commercial  metropolis  of  the  Mississippi 
valley,  and  principal  city  of  the  Missouri  state,  is 
on  the  west  bank  of  the  Mississippi  River,  21 
miles  S.  of  the  mouth  of  the  Missouri,  and  by 
rail  1108  WSW.  of  New  York,  2434  B.  of  San 
Francisco,  and  696  N.  of  New  Orleans.  In  1764, 
Laclede,  a  fur-trader,  established  a  trading-post 
here,  which  he  named  in  honour  of  Louis  IX.  of 
France ;  in  1803  it  passed  from  France  to  the 
United  States.  Poo.  (1840)  16,469 ;  (1850)  74,439 ; 
(1870)  310,864;  (1900)  575,238.  St  Louis  is  built 
upon  three  gently  sloping  terraces,  the  summit 
of  the  third  being  200  feet  above  and  4  miles  W. 
of  the  river.  Beyond  this  point  for  miles  the 
country  is  almost  perfectly  level.  The  city  has 
a  river  frontage  of  19  miles  ;  its  greatest  width  is 


7  miles.  The  streets  in  the  old  part  of  the  city 
are  narrow,  but  all  those  west  of  Third  Street, 
three  blocks  from  the  river,  are  broad  and 
straight.  Tlie  twenty-five  parks  of  St  Louis  con- 
tain 2270  acres— the  largest  Forest  Park.  The 
principal  public  buildings  are  the  Four  Courts, 
court-house,  city  hospital,  insane  asylum,  and 
women's  hospital,  the  custom-house  and  post- 
office,  which  cost  over  $5,000,000,  the  Merchants' 
Exchange,  Exposition  Building,  the  Crow  Museum 
of  Fine  Arts,  and  the  new  city  hall  at  Washington 
Park.  The  Mercantile  Library  Building  (150,000 
vols.)  is  a  handsome  structure,  and  so  too  is  the 
new  Public  School  Library  Building  (170,000). 
The  Washington  and  St  Louis  universities,  and 
the  Christian  Brothers  and  Concordia  colleges 
are  advanced  educational  institutions.  Eighteen 
railroads  enter  the  Union  Depot  (1874-92)  of  St 
Louis.  The  Mississippi  at  St  Louis  is  spanned 
by  two  bridges— the  Eads  (1874,  cost  $6,536,730) 
of  three  spans,  the  central  being  520  feet,  and 
the  two  side  spans  502  feet  each ;  and  the 
Merchants'  Railway  Bridge  (1890)  of  steel,  2420 
feet  long,  including  approaches.  Besides  a  vast 
trade  in  grain  and  cotton,  packed  meats,  live- 
stock, timber,  wool,  furs,  St  Louis  has  manu- 
factures of  tobacco,  beer,  boots  and  shoes,  hard- 
ware, stoves,  cars,  biscuits  ('crackers'),  &c.  See 
Billon,  Annals  of  St  Louis  in  its  Early  Days  (1887). 

St  Louis  (San^  Looee'),  capital  of  the  French 
colony  of  Senegal  in  West  Africa,  on  a  small  low 
island  near  the  mouth  of  the  Senegal  River. 
Bridges  connect  it  with  N'dar  Toute,  a  watering- 
place,  on  the  right  bank,  and  with  Bouetville  on 
the  left  bank.  The  river  is  blocked  by  a  bar ; 
and  ocean  steamers  land  goods  and  passengers  at 
Dakar,  on  Cape  Verde,  100  miles  SW.,  and  thence 
they  are  conveyed  by  rail  to  Bouetville.  The 
place  has  a  trade  (gums,  earthnuts,  &c.)  worth 
£1,000,000  a  year.  There  are  a  cathedral,  gover- 
nor's palace,  &c.  Pop.  20,000.  See  also  Mauritius. 

St  Lucia,  the  largest  of  the  Windward  Islands, 
in  the  West  Indies,  42  miles  long  and  15  to  20 
wide,  with  an  area  of  245  sq.  m.  Population, 
55,000,  of  whom  2000  are  whites.  The  exports 
include  sugar,  cocoa,  logwood,  &c.  Much  of  the 
island  is  high  and  rocky  land,  covered  with 
forest,  and  it  contains  deposits  of  sulphur.  The 
island,  discovered  in  1502,  was  colonised  by  the 
French  in  1563;  and  before  1803,  when  it  de- 
finitively became  English,  it  six  times  changed 
hands  between  France  and  England.  The  capital 
is  Castries  (pop.  8500). 

St  Lucia  Bay,  a  lagoon  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Umfulosi  River  in  Zululand.  Cape  St  Lucia  is  a 
promontory  to  the  S.  of  the  channel. 

St  Malo  (San^  Ma-lo'),  a  seaport  of  Brittany, 
dep.  Ille-et-Vilaine,  on  the  Ranee  estuary,  51 
miles  NNW.  of  Rennes.  The  old  town  clusters 
all  over  a  rocky  islet  that  is  surrounded  with 
walls  and  connected  with  the  mainland  by  a 
narrow  causeway.  Forts  and  batteries  crown 
several  rocks  lying  off  the  town,  and  the  defences 
are  completed  by  an  old  castle.  The  harbour  is 
safe,  but  difficult  of  approach ;  the  tides  some- 
times rise  50  feet,  and  storms  dash  over  the  top 
of  the  battlements.  About  the  end  of  the  17th 
century  the  people  of  this  town  reaped  large 
fortunes  by  privateering  in  the  English  Channel, 
and  the  port  was  the  headquarters  of  the  French 
East  India  Company.  St  Malo  exports  potatoes, 
buck-wheat,  barley,  butter,  eggs,  and  fruit,  and 
imports  coal,  timber,  pitch,  and  iron.  There  are 
a  quondam  cathedral  and  a  museum.  St  Malo  was 
the   birthplace   of  Chateaubriand,  Maupertuis, 


St  MARGARET'S  HOPE 


616 


ST  PAUL 


Lamennais,  Lamettrie,  and  the  sailors  Duguay- 
Trouin,  Cartier,  and  Labourdonnais.  Dinard 
(q.v.)  is  across  a  small  stream;  St  Servan  (q.v.) 
across  the  Ranee  estuary.     Pop.  9460. 

St  Margaret's  Hope.    See  Forth. 

St  Martin,  one  of  the  Lesser  Antilles,  West 
Indies,  divided  since  1648  between  France  and 
Holland,  exjjorts  salt,  sugar,  cotton,  tobacco, 
maize,  &c.     Area,  37  sq.  m. ;  pop.  2000. 

St  Martin's.    See  Scilly  Islands. 

St  Mary  Church,  a  suburb  of  Torquay,  and 
now  incorporated  with  it,  overlooking  Babbi- 
combe  Bay.     Pop.  (1891)  6849. 

St  Mary's.    See  Scilly  Islands. 

St  Mary's  Loch.    See  Yarrow. 

St  Mary's  River,  the  strait  between  Lakes 
Huron  and  Superior,  with  rapids  falling  20|  feet. 

St  Mawes,  a  village  of  Cornwall,  on  an  off- 
shoot of  Falmouth  Harbour,  3  miles  B.  of  Fal- 
mouth. From  1562  to  1832  it  returned  two 
members. 

St  Michael's,  or  Sao  Miguel,  the  largest  and 
most  important  of  the  Azores  (q.v.). 

St  Michael's  Mount,  a  conical  and  isolated 
granite  rock  in  Mount's  Bay,  Cornwall,  3  miles  E. 
of  Penzance.  It  communicates  with  the  shore  by 
a  causeway  560  yards  long,  which,  however,  is 
covered  with  water  eight  hours  out  of  the  twelve, 
and  sometimes  is  impassable  for  two  or  three  days 
together.  The  Mount  is  195  feet  high,  is  5  fur- 
longs in  circumference,  and  is  crowned  by  an  old 
and  picturesque  castle— now  used  as  a  manorial 
residence — surmounted  by  a  tower,  on  one  angle 
of  which  there  is  a  projecting  stone  lantern, 
popularly  called  'St  Michael's  Chair.'  At  the 
base  of  the  north  or  landward  side  of  the  Mount 
is  a  fishing-village.  The  '  guarded  mount '  is  said 
to  have  received  its  name  from  an  apparition  of 
St  Michael  to  some  hermits;  and  Edward  the 
Confessor  founded  upon  it  a  Benedictine  priory, 
•which  in  1088  was  annexed  to  the  abbey  of  Mont 
St  Michel  in  Normandy.  After  the  Dissolution  it 
became  the  residence  of  five  families  in  turn, 
until  it  was  sold  in  1660  to  its  present  proprietors, 
the  St  Aubyns.  For  a  demolition  of  the  notion 
that  the  mount  within  Cornish-speaking  times 
has  been  converted  from  a  wooded  promontory 
to  an  island,  see  Max-Miiller's  Chips,  vol.  iii. 

St  Michel  (Mon"  San^  Mee-sheW),  Mont,  an  ex- 
traordinary rocky  islet  of  the  Norman  dep.  of 
Manche,  in  the  Bay  of  St  Michel,  18  miles  WSW. 
of  Avranches.  It  is  a  solitary  cone  of  granite,  a 
thousand  yards  in  circumference  and  242  feet 
high.  It  rises  sheer  out  of  a  level  expanse  of 
sand,  and  is  a  most  striking  feature  in  the  land- 
scape. Till  1880-81  it  was  only  accessible  by  cross- 
ing the  sands  at  low-water,  there  being  a  firm 
track  across  them,  with  quicksands  to  right  and 
left ;  but  a  good  road  was  then  formed  along  a 
causeway  a  mile  in  length.  A  Druid  stronghold 
once,  the  islet,  as  the  scene  of  an  apparition  of  St 
Michael  in  708,  became  the  seat  of  a  great  Bene- 
dictine monastery,  which,  'half  church  of  God, 
half  fortress,'  has  memories  of  Henry  I.,  II.,  and 
V.  of  England,  resisting  the  last  successfully  in 
two  sieges.  The  Revolution  transformed  this 
celebrated  place  of  pilgrimage  into  a  prison,  and 
such  it  remained  until  1863 ;  in  1874  it  was 
declared  a  '  monument  historique,'  and  large  sums 
have  been  spent  on  its  restoration  by  Viollet-le- 
Duc  and  his  successor.  The  buildings  include 
the  church  (c.  1140-1521),  with  Norman  nave  and 
Flamboyant  choir ;  the  exquisite  cloisters  (1228) ; 
tihe  Halie  des  Chevaliers,  where  Louis  XI.  in  1469 


founded  the  order  of  St  Michael ;  and  '  La  Mer- 
veille,'  the  monastery  proper,  so  called  from  its 
huge  north  wall  of  the  13th  century,  246  feet 
long  and  108  high.  Beneath  is  a  village  (pop.  250). 
St  Monans,  a  fishing-village  of  Fife,  2|  miles 
WSW.  of  Anstruther,  with  an  antique  church. 
Pop.  1894. 

St  Moritz,  a  favourite  watering-place  in  the 
upper  Engadine  (q.v.),  with  chalybeate,  sulphur- 
ous and  other  mineral  waters,  and  a  pop.  of  1580. 

St  Nazaire  (San^  Na-zair'),  a  seaport  of  France, 
dep.  Loire-Inferieure,  is  situated  on  the  north 
side  of  the  estuary  of  the  Loire,  40  miles  by  rail 
W.  by  N.  of  Nantes.  Between  1831  and  1887 
£1,450,000  was  spent  on  harbour  improvements, 
extensive  docks  (82  acres)  having  been  built  for 
large  vessels  unable  to  get  up  the  Loire  to 
Nantes  (q.v.).    Pop.  (1851)  2400  ;  (1901)  34,695. 

St  Neots,  a  market-town  of  Hunts,  on  the 
Ouse,  8  miles  SSW.  of  Huntingdon.  It  takes 
name  from  Alfred  the  Great's  eldest  brother, 
whose  relics  were  translated  from  the  Cornish 
parish  of  St  Neot(nowLiskeard)to  a  Benedictine 
monastery  founded  at  Eynesbury,  close  by,  in 
974  ;  and  it  has  a  fine  parish  church,  with  a  tower 
156  feet  high,  a  corn  exchange  (1863),  and  manu- 
factures of  iron,  paper,  &c.  Pop.  (1851)  2949 ; 
(1901)  3880.  See  Gorham's  History  of  Eynesbury 
aiid  St  Neots  (2  vols.  1824). 

St  Nicolas,  a  town  of  Belgium,  12  miles  by  rail 
W.  by  S.  of  Antwerp.  It  has  a  large  flax-market, 
and  manufactures  cotton  and  woollen  stuffs,  lace, 
needles,  bricks,  and  pottery.    Pop.  32,000. 

St  Nlnians,  a  village  1  mile  S.  of  Stirling,  manu- 
facturing nails,  screw-bolts,  woollens,  and  leather. 

St  Omer  (San^t  Omayr^),  a  fortified  town  of 
France,  dep.  Pas-de-Calais,  stands  in  a  marshy 
site,  on  the  Aa,  26  miles  SE.  of  Calais  by  rail. 
It  has  a  Gothic  cathedral  (13th-15th  century),  an 
arsenal,  museum,  and  library.  A  college  for  the 
education  of  English  and  Irish  Catholics  was 
opened  at  St  Omer  in  1592.  It  was  closed  during 
the  Revolution,  but  still  exists  as  a  seminary. 
Alban  Butler  was  a  president,  and  O'Connell  a 
student.  The  manufactures  include  tobacco- 
pipes,  tulle,  cambric,  cloth,  and  muslin.  Pop. 
17,750.    I 

Saintonge  (SanHon^zh),  a  former  French  mari- 
time province  (capital,  Saintes),  now  forming 
mainly  the  dep.  of  Charente-Inferieure. 

St  Paul,  the  capital  of  the  state  of  Minnesota, 
on  the  Mississipi)i,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Min- 
nesota River.  It  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  hamlet 
of  voyageurs,  chiefly  Canadian,  employed  in  the 
fur  trade,  and  in  selling  whisky  to  the  soldiers  at 
Fort  Snelling.  The  first  log-huts  were  erected 
here  in  1840,  and  in  1841  a  small  Catholic  log- 
chapel  dedicated  to  St  Paul.  In  1849  the  city  was 
made  the  capital  of  Minnesota  territory.  Upon 
the  lower  plateau  of  limestone  rock  are  the  capi- 
tol,  post-office,  court-house,  and  large  stores  ;  the 
best  private  residences  are  on  the  upper  plateau, 
overlooking  the  Mississippi.  The  Summit 
Avenue  is  noted  for  its  width  and  the  costliness 
of  the  houses.  There  are  several  colleges,  not 
under  the  control  of  the  city  or  state  :  Macalester 
College  (1853),  Hamline  Methodist  University 
(1854),  and  St  Thomas  Roman  Catholic  College. 
The  water-works  furnish  a  daily  supply  of  eight 
million  gallons.  All  parts  of  the  city  are  reached 
by  electric  street-railways.  The  free  City 
Library  contains  70,000  volumes.  St  Paul  is  the 
centre  of  the  wholesale  grocery  and  dry-goods 


ST  PAUL 


617 


St  PETERSBURG 


business  in  Minnesota.  Pop.  (1860)  10,701 ; 
(1880)  41,473;  (1900)  163,065. 

St  Paul,  a  volcanic  islet,  2  miles  long  and  860 
feet  high,  in  tlie  Indian  Ocean,  midway  between 
Africa  and  Australia,  in  38°  42'  S.  lat.  and  77°  32' 
E»  long.  It  is  comparatively  bare,  in  contrast 
to  the  densely  vegetated  island  of  New  Amster- 
dam, 50  miles  to  the  north,  like  which  it  was  an- 
nexed by  France  in  1892.— St  Paul's  Rocks,  a 
group  of  small  islets  1°  N.  of  the  equator  and  540 
miles  from  the  South  American  coast. 

St  Paid  de  Loanda.    See  Loanda. 

St  Peter  Port,  the  town  of  Guernsey  (q.v.). 

St  Petersburg,  capital  of  the  Russian  empire, 
stands  at  the  head  of  tlie  Gulf  of  Finland,  and  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Neva,  in  59°  56'  N.  lat.  and  39' 
19'  E.  long.  Tlie  flat  and  low  marsliy  ground 
upon  which  the  city  is  built  only  recently  emerged 
from  the  sea ;  the  mighty  Neva,  wliich  flows 
36  miles  from  Lake  Ladoga,  subdivides  into 
many  branches,  thus  forming  some  100  islands. 
When  a  strong  wind  blows  from  tlie  sea  its 
level  rises,  and  the  poorer  streets  are  flooded ; 
when  the  overflow  exceeds  10  feet  (as  in  1891) 
nearly  the  wliole  city  is  inundated.  The  coinitry 
is  so  marshy  and  barren  that  the  government  of 
St  Petersburg  (area,  20,760  sq.  m.  ;  pop.,  without 
the  capital,  850,000)  lias  only  40  inhabitants 
per  sq.  m.  In  1702  Peter  the  Great  captured  the 
Swedish  forts  on  the  Neva,  laid  the  foundations  of 
his  capital  on  one  of  the  islands  of  the  delta,  and 
dreamed  to  make  of  it  a  new  Amsterdam.  Tlie 
Neva,  connected  by  canals  witli  the  upper  Volga, 
became  the  outlet  of  the  immense  basin  of  tlie 
chief  river  of  Russia  and  its  numberless  tribu- 
taries ;  and  assisted  by  four  main  lines  of  railway 
St  Petersburg  has  for  more  than  150  years  been 
the  chief  port  of  Russia  for  the  export  of  raw 
produce  and  the  import  of  manufactured  goods. 
Foreign  trade  and  the  centralisation  of  govern- 
ment have  made  St  Petersburg  a  populous 
city  with  more  than  a  million  inhabitants  and 
covering  42  sq.  m.,  on  the  banks  of  the  Neva  and 
the  islands  formed  by  its  branches.  The  Great 
Neva  (400  to  700  yards  wide  within  the  city)  is  a 
beautiful  river  of  deep  and  pure  water.  But  the 
channel  across  the  bar  at  its  mouth  is  narrow  and 
sinuous,  so  that  Cronstadt,  on  an  island  16  miles 
W.  of  St  Petersburg,  remains  both  the  fortress 
and  the  port  of  the  capital ;  tliough  since  1885  a 
ship-canal,  22  feet  deep,  admits  ships  to  St 
Petersburg,  and  two-thirds  of  the  foreign  vessels 
unload  within  the  city.  The  main  body  of  the 
city  stands  on  the  mainland,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Neva ;  and  a  beautiful  granite  quay,  with  a 
long  series  of  palaces  and  mansions,  stretches  for 
2^  miles.  Only  two  permanent  bridges  cross  the 
Neva  ;  two  bridges  of  boats  are  removed  in  autumn 
and  spring.  The  island  Vasilievsky,  between  the 
Great  and  Little  Nevas,  contains  the  Stock  Ex- 
change, the  Academy  of  Sciences,  the  University, 
the  Philological  Institute,  the  Academy  of  Arts, 
and  various  schools  and  colleges.  On  the  Peter- 
burgskiy  Island,  between  the  Little  Neva  and  the 
Great  Nevka.  stands  the  old  fortress  and  prison 
of  St  Peter  aiid  St  Paul,  facing  the  Winter  Palace, 
and  containing  the  Mint  and  the  cathedral  where- 
in the  members  of  the  imperial  family  are  buried, 
also  the  arsenal.  Numerous  islands,  separated 
from  each  other  by  tlie  small  branches  into  which 
both  Nevkas  subdivide,  and  connected  together 
by  a  great  number  of  wooden  bridges,  are  covered 
with  beautiful  parks  and  summer-houses.  The 
main  part  of  St  Petersburg  has  for  its  centre  the 
Old  Admiralty ;  its  lofty  gilded  spire  and  the 


gilded  dome  of  St  Isaac's  Cathedral  are  among 
the  first  sights  caught  on  approaching  St  Peters- 
burg by  sea.  Three  streets  radiate  from  it,  the 
first  of  them  the  famous  Nevskiy  Prospect.  The 
street  architecture,  with  its  huge  brick  houses 
covered  with  stucco  and  mostly  painted  gray,  is 
rigid  and  military  in  aspect.  A  spacious  square, 
planted  with  trees,  encloses  the  Old  Admiralty 
on  three  sides.  To  the  east  of  it  rise  the  magni- 
ficent mass  of  the  Winter  Palace,  the  Hermitage 
Gallery  of  Art,  and  the  semicircular  buildings  of 
the  general  stafl".  In  the  Petrovskiy  Square  is 
the  well-known  statue  of  Peter  I.  on  an  immense 
block  of  Finland  granite.  The  richly  decorated 
cathedral  of  St  Isaac  of  Dalmatia,  erected  by 
Nicholas  I.,  is  an  almost  cubic  building  (330 
feet  long,  290  broad,  and  310  high),  surmounted 
by  one  large  and  lofty  and  four  small  gilded 
domes.  In  Nevskiy  Prospect  are  the  Kazan 
cathedral,  the  public  library,  the  square  of 
Catharine  II.,  and  the  Anitchkoff  Palace. 

The  climate  is  less  severe  than  might  be  ex- 
pected, but  it  is  unhealthy  and  very  changeable. 
The  average  temperatures  are  15*4°  F.  in  January, 
64°  in  July,  and  38*6°  for  the  year ;  the  Neva 
is  frozen  for  an  average  of  147  days  in  the 
year.  A  short  but  hot  summer  is  followed 
by  a  damp  autumn  and  very  changeable  winter, 
severe  frosts  being  followed  by  rainy  days  in  the 
midst  of  winter,  and  returning  in  April  and  May 
after  the  first  warm  days  of  the  spring.  The 
I)opulation  has  rapidly  increased  during  the  19th 
century,  and  attained,  with  the  suburbs,  1,500,000 
in  1905,  as  against  918,016  in  1881.  But  it  de- 
creases very  much  during  the  summer,  because 
the  crowds  of  peasants  who  come  to  work  in  the 
factories  in  winter,  return  to  their  villages  in 
summer.  The  sanitary  arrangements  being  very 
imperfect,  typhoid  fever  and  European  cholera 
are  endemic.  The  mortality,  31  to  39  per  thou- 
sand before  1885,  is  now  24.  There  are  17,000 
Finnish  citizens,  45,000  of  German  race  (mostly 
from  tlie  Baltic  provinces),  and  22,500  Poles. 

The  total  production  of  its  factories  (cottons, 
various  textiles,  metals,  leather,  sugar,  guns, 
porcelain  goods,  &c.)  is  nearly  £29,000,000.  Yearly 
20,000  boats  and  rafts,  laden  with  corn,  hemp, 
flax,  linseed,  leather,  fuel-wood,  and  building 
materials  (3,000,000  tons),  reach  St  Petersburg  by 
the  Neva  ;  and  1,300,000  tons  of  goods,  including 
500,000  tons  of  corn,  come  in  by  rail,  chiefly  from 
the  upper  Volga.  The  export  of  corn  from  St 
Petersburg  alone  is  one-fifth  of  the  total  export 
from  Russia  ;  besides  hemp,  flax,  linseed,  leather, 
crude  petroleum,  &c.,  the  total  value  of  the  ex- 
ports being  from  £8,000,000  to  £10,000,000 ;  the 
imports,  chiefly  of  coal,  machinery,  groceries,  and 
manufactured  goods,  reach  about  the  same  value. 
The  port  is  visited  yearly  by  about  1800  ships. 

The  number  and  variety  of  scientific,  literary, 
educational,  artistic,  and  technical  institutions 
concentrated  in  the  capital,  render  life  at  St 
Petersburg  attractive.  The  St  Petersburg  Uni- 
versity, and  the  numerous  academies,  medical, 
technological,  engineering,  naval,  military,  &c., 
as  well  as  the  Ladies'  University,  number  thou- 
sands of  students,  both  male  and  female.  The 
Academy  of  Sciences  and  the  Academy  of  Ai'ts 
are  well  known ;  there  is  an  excellent  conserva- 
toire of  music.  The  public  libraries  are  num- 
erous. Besides  the  Imperial  Public  Library 
(1,200,000  volumes  and  40,000  MSS.),  there  are  the 
libraries  of  the  Academy  of  Sciences,  the  Univer- 
sity, the  Council  of  State,  as  well  as  those  of 
the  scientific  societies.  There  are  besides  rich 
museums   of  art   in   the   Hermitage  (Flemish, 


§t  PIERRE 


618 


SALAMiS 


Russian,  and  early  Italian  schools  well  repre- 
sented, and  priceless  collections  of  Greek  and 
Scythian  antiquities),  in  the  Academy  of  Arts ; 
and  there  are  important  nuiseunis.  The  Russian 
publishing  trade  is  concentrated  at  St  Petersburg. 

St  Pierre  was  the  largest  town,  though  not 
the  capital,  of  Martinique  (q.v.),  in  the  West 
Indies,  with  a  good  harbour,  cathedral,  college, 
and  botanical  garden.  It  was  the  birthplace  of 
Josephine,  consort  of  Napoleon  I.  It  was  utterly 
destroyed  on  8th  May  1902  by  an  ernption  of  Mont 
Pelee,  when  its  30,000  inhabitants  perished  in  '  a 
whirlwind  of  fire,'  followed  by  lava,  ashes,  and 
dense  sulphurous  fumes. 

St  Pierre.    See  Reunion,  and  Miquelon. 

St  Pol  d.e  Leon  {San^  Pol  deh  Lay-on^'),  a  de- 
cayed town  in  the  Breton  dep.  of  Finist^re,  near 
the  English  Channel,  13  miles  NNW.  of  Morlaix. 
It  has  a  13th-century  cathedral,  and  a  church 
with  a  beautiful  spire  263  feet  high.     Pop.  7260. 

St  Quentin  (San^  Ko-nFtan?),  a  town  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Aisne,  on  the  Somnie,  95  miles 
NE.  of  Paris  and  33  S.  of  Cambrai.  The  church 
of  St  Quentin  is  a  fine  Gothic  structure,  dating 
from  the  12th  to  the  15th  century.  The  town- 
hall  (15th-16th  c.)  is  also  a  fine  speciinen  of 
Gothic.  The  town  is  a  centre  of  cotton  industries 
which  give  employment  to  130,000  hands  in  the 
making  of  calicoes,  tulle,  cretonnes,  jaconets, 
muslin,  merino,  cambric,  and  gauze.  Embroidery 
is  largely  prepared,  and  machinery,  hats,  paper, 
sugar,  soap,  and  beer  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
(1856)  26,887 ;  (1901)  47,851.  The  Spaniards  and 
an  English  contingent  inflicted  a  crushing  defeat 
upon  the  French  in  1557.  Shortly  afterwards 
the  town,  after  a  brilliant  defence  by  Coligny, 
capitulated  to  the  Spanish  array.  In  1871  the 
Germans  routed  the  army  of  Faidherbe  here. 

St  Radlgunds  Abbey,  Kent,  a  ruin  (1191)  3 
miles  W.  of  Dover. 

St  Raphael,  a  winter-resort  on  the  French 
Riviera,  2^  miles  SE.  of  Frejus  by  rail.   Pop.  4740. 

St  Ronan's  Well.     See  Innerleithen. 

St  Servan  {Sav?  Ser-vov?),  a  seaport  and  water- 
ing-place of  France,  dep.  Ille-et-Vilaine,  stands 
on  the  east  side  of  the  estuary  of  the  Ranee,  just 
above  St  Malo,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a 
creek  a  mile  wide.  It  has  a  floating-dock,  and 
carries  on  shipbuilding.  Close  by  are  the  ruins 
of  the  cathedral  of  Aleth  (6th  to  12th  century). 
St  Servan  was  the  birthplace  of  the  order  of 
'  Little  Sisters  of  the  Poor.'    Pop.  10,179. 

St  Thomas,  a  volcanic  island  of  Africa  be- 
longing to  Portugal,  lies  in  the  Gulf  of  Guinea 
170  miles  W.  of  the  mouth  of  the  river  Gaboon. 
Its  southern  extremity  almost  touches  the  equator. 
Measuring  32  miles  by  21,  it  has  an  area  of  360 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  nearly  40,000,  including  4000  whites. 
Although  it  rises  to  6000  feet,  it  is  very  un- 
healthy. Coff"ee,  cocoa,  pepper,  cinnamon,  maize, 
indigo,  &c.  are  the  products.  Chief  town,  St 
Thomas  (pop.  3000),  on  the  NE.  coast,  the  seat 
of  a  bishop.  The  island  was  discovered  in  1470, 
and  colonised  in  1493  by  the  Portuguese,  to  whom 
it  reverted  after  a  Dutch  occupation  from  1641 
to  1844.     See  Crouch,  Glimpses  ofFeverland  (1889). 

St  Thomas,  one  of  the  Virgin  Islands  in  the 
West  Indies,  belongs  to  Denmark,  and  lies  36 
miles  E.  of  Puerto  Rico.  Area,  33  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
14,389  (nearly  600  Jews).  English  is  the  language 
of  the  educated  classes.  The  surface  is  hilly  (1555 
feet)  and  the  soil  poor.  The  port  is  Charlotte 
Anialie  or  St  Thomas  (pop.  12,000). 


St  Thomas,  a  town  of  Ontario,  9  miles  N.  of 
Port  Stanley  on  Lake  Erie.    Pop.  11,500. 

St  Trond,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Belgian 
Limburg,  12  miles  WNW.  of  Tongres. 

St  Uhes.    See  Setubal. 

St  Valery,  two  French  watering-places  on  the 
English  Channel,  one  (Valery-eu-Caux)  17  miles 
WSW.  of  Dieppe,  the  other  (Valery-sur-Somme) 
30  miles  NE.  of  Dieppe,  each  with  about  3600 
inhabitants. 

St  Vincent,  one  of  the  British  islands  in  the 
West  Indies,  Windward  Group,  105  miles  W.  of 
Barbadoes.  Area,  132  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1881)  40,548 ; 
(1903)  48,250,  of  whom  3000  were  whites.  The 
island  is  traversed  by  a  chain  of  volcanic  moun- 
tains, which  rise  in  the  volcano  called  the 
Souffriere  (destructive  eruptions  in  1812  and 
1902  ;  see  St  Pierre)  to  3000  feet.  Sugar,  rum, 
cocoa,  spices,  and  arrowroot  are  the  principal  pro- 
ducts.     The  chief  town  is  Kingstown  (pop.  5200). 

St  Vincent,  Cape,  a  promontory  forming  the 
SW.  corner  of  Portugal.  Off  here,  in  1693,  Rooke 
was  defeated  by  the  French ;  in  1780  Rodney 
destroyed  here  several  Spanish  ships ;  in  1797 
Jervis's  great  victory  of  Cape  St  Vincent  resulted 
in  the  total  defeat  of  the  Spaniards  °  and  in  1833 
the  fleet  of  Queen  Maria,  commanded  by  Sir 
Charles  Napier,  defeated  that  of  Dom  Miguel. 

Sais  (Say-iss  or  Sah-eess),  an  ancient  Egyptian 
city,  on  the  Canopic  branch  of  the  Nile. 

Sakai  (Sa-kl),  a  town  of  Japan,  in  the  SW.  of 
Honshu,  7  miles  S.  of  Osaka.     Pop.  49,990. 

Sakhalin.    See  Saghalien. 

Sakkar.    See  Sukkur. 

Sakkara  {Sak-kah'ra),  a  village  10  miles  S.  of 
Cairo,  near  the  ruins  of  Memphis,  and  famous  for 
its  eleven  Pyramids  (q.v.). 

Salamanca,  a  city  of  Spain,  stands  on  and 
between  four  low  hills  beside  the  river  Tonnes, 
110  miles  NW.  of  Madrid.  Its  university,  founded 
in  1243,  was  till  the  close  of  the  17th  c.  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  in  Europe.  In  the  16th  c. 
it  had  fronr  6000  to  8000  students  ;  now  there  are 
only  400.  The  university  buildings  date  chiefly 
from  the  15th  century,  and  are  Gothic  in  style. 
The  library,  founded  in  1254,  contains  70,500 
vols,  and  870  MSS.  The  city  is  still  surrounded 
with  walls,  pierced  by  ten  gates,  and  preserves 
very  much  of  its  mediaeval  appearance.  The 
river  is  crossed  by  a  bridge  of  twenty-seven 
arches,  in  part  of  Roman  construction.  The 
great  square  is  one  of  the  largest  in  Spain  ;  it  is 
surrounded  by  an  arcade,  and  has  on  one  side  the 
municipal  buildings.  The  city  possesses  two 
cathedrals ;  the  old  cathedral,  late  Romanesque 
in  style,  dating  from  the  12th  century ;  the 
new  cathedral  (1513-1734),  a  florid  Gothic  pile. 
Amongst  the  remaining  noteworthy  buildings  are 
the  Jesuit  College  (1614);  the  Old  College,  now 
the  governor's  palace ;  the  convents  of  the 
Dominicans  and  the  Augustinians.  In  the  middle 
ages  Salamanca  was  famous  for  its  leather-work  ; 
at  the  present  day  it  manufactures  a  little  cloth, 
linen,  leather,  and  pottery.  Pop.  (1900)  25,700. 
The  town  was  captured  by  Hannibal  in  222  b.c.  ; 
and  the  Moors  were  expelled  in  1055.  During 
the  Peninsular  war  it  was  taken  by  the  French 
(1812),  and  in  the  vicinity  Wellington  defeated 
Marmont,  22d  July  1812.— The  province  has  an 
area  of  4940  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  320,770. 

Sal'amis  (now  Koluri),  a  mountainous  Greek 
island,  off  the  coast  of  Attica,  and  forming  with  it 
the  Bay  of  Eleusis.    Area,  35  sq.  m. ;  pop.  6500. 


SALAKGO]^ 


m 


SALISBUft"^ 


•the  chief  town  is  the  port  of  Koluri,  on  the  west 
coast,  itself  with  ovei*  3500  inhabitants.  In 
ancient  times  the  towns  of  Old  and  New  Sala- 
mis  lay,  the  former  on  the  south,  the  latter 
on  the  north-east  coast.  Salamis  was  an  in- 
dependent state  till  about  620  B.C.,  when  it 
fell,  first  to  Megara,  next  to  Athens.  Its  name 
is  ever  memorable  from  the  great  naval  victory 
of  the  Greeks  over  Xerxes'  vast  Persian  fleet, 
fought  (480  B.C.)  a  few  days  after  the  battle  of 
Thermopylaa,  in  the  narrow  strait  between  the 
east  coast  of  Salamis  and  the  west  coast  of  Attica. 

Salangor.    See  Selangor. 

Salcombe,  a  South  Devon  town,  on  the  W. 
side  of  Salcombe  Haven,  4  miles  S.  of  Kings- 
bridge.  Its  climate  is  reputed  to  be  the  warmest 
in  England.     Froude  is  buried  here.     Pop.  1720. 

Saldanha  Bay.    See  Cape  Colony. 

Sale,  a  town  of  Cheshire,  5  miles  SSW.  of  Man- 
chester.   Pop.  12,100. 

Salem,  a  town  of  S.  India,  120  miles  by  rail 
SW.  of  Madras,  with  cotton  manufactures.  Pop. 
70,650. 

Salem,  (l)  a  city  and  port  of  entry  on  a  pen- 
insula in  Massachusetts  Bay,  16  miles  by  rail  N. 
by  E.  of  Boston.  It  has  a  good  harbour,  which 
formerly  carried  on  a  large  foreign  trade ;  now 
only  a  coast  trade  in  ice  and  coal  remains. 
The  East  India  Marine  Society's  collections  are 
now  united  with  those  of  the  Peabody  Academy 
of  Science,  the  Essex  Institute,  and  the  Salem 
Athenaeum,  the  last  two  housed  in  Plummer 
Hall.  The  manufactures  include  cottons,  jute, 
leather,  shoes,  iron  castings,  lead  pipes,  &c. 
Salem  was  settled  in  1626.  In  the  great  witchcraft 
delusion  of  1692  nineteen  persons  were  hanged  and 
one  pressed  to  death.  Hawthorne  and  Prescott 
were  born  here.  Pop.  (1880)  27,563  ;  (1900)  35,956. 
— (2)  Capital  of  Salem  county.  New  Jersey,  on 
Salem  Creek,  3^  miles  from  its  entrance  into  the 
Delaware  and  36  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Camden. 
It  has  manufactories  of  glass,  flour,  oil-cloth, 
carriages,  besides  a  foundry,  planing-mills,  and 
fruit-canneries.  Pop.  5812.— (3)  Capital  of  Oregon 
since  1860,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Willamette 
River,  52  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Portland  and 
720  N.  of  San  Francisco.  Here  are  the  state  capi- 
tol,  prison,  insane  asylum,  the  Willamette  Univer- 
sity (Methodist  Episcopal,  1851),  &c.    Pop.  4515. 

Salemi  (Salay'mee),  a  town  in  the  west  of  Sicily, 
39  miles  SW.  of  Palermo.    Pop.  11,512. 

Salerno  (anc.  Salernum),  a  city  of  Italy,  on  the 
Gulf  of  Salerno,  33  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Naples. 
A  hill  behind  the  town  is  crowned  by  an  old 
Norman  castle.  The  beautiful  cathedral  of  St 
Matthew  was.  erected  by  the  Normans  (1076-84). 
The  city  was  celebrated  for  its  university  (founded 
in  1150,  closed  in  1817),  and  for  its  school  of 
medicine,  long  the  first  in  Europe,  which  decayed 
in  the  14th  century.  In  the  neighbourhood  are 
the  ruins  of  Paestum  (q.v.).  Originally  a  Roman 
colony  (194  B.C.),  Salerno  was  made  his  capital 
by  Robert  Guiscard,  and  sacked  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  VI.     Pop.  22,328. 

Salette,  La,  an  Alpine  village  of  France,  dep. 
Isere,  28  miles  SSE.  of  Grenoble.  In  1846  the 
Virgin  was  alleged  to  have  appeared  to  two  peasant 
children  on  a  spot  where  in  1852-61  a  pilgrimage 
church  was  built  at  an  elevation  of  5920  feet. 
The  apparition  was  discredited  by  Pope  Leo 
XIII.  in  1879.     Pop.  607. 

Saleyer  (Sall'er),  a  group  of  islands  lying  off 
the  south-west  extremity  of  Celebes,  in  the  Bast 
Indies  (total  area,  404  sq.  ra. ;  pop.  80,000),  whose 


chiefs  pay  tribute  to  Holland.  Principal  exports, 
cotton,  trepang,  cocoa-nuts,  tortoiseshell,  salt,  and 
tobacco.    The  people,  Malays,  are  Mohammedans. 

Salford,  though  a  separate  municipal  and 
county  borougli,  with  a  pop.  in  1905  of  225,000, 
is  virtually  a  western  division  of  Manchester 
(q.v.),  from  wliich  it  is  separated  by  the  Irwell. 

Sali'na,  a  town  of  Kan.sas,  186  miles  W.  by  S. 
of  Kansas  City.     Pop.  6080. 

Salins  (anc.  Salince),  a  town  of  the  French  dep. 
of  Jura,  22  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Besan^on,  has  valu- 
able salt-springs.     Pop.  5392. 

Salisbury  is  a  cathedral  city,  the  capital  of 
Wiltshire,  and  a  parliamentary  and  municipal 
borough,  which  stands  in  a  valley  near  the  con- 
fluence of  the  rivers  Avon,  Bourne,  Wily,  and 
Nadder,  84  miles  WSW.  of  London.  Old  Sarum 
(Sorbiodurmm),  from  Roman  times  a  castle  and 
a  place  of  much  importance,  now  consists  of 
a  bare  conical  entrenched  hill  about  a  mile  N. 
of  the  present  city.  In  1075  Bishop  Herman 
removed  the  bishopric  of  the  united  sees  of 
Ramsbury  and  Sherborne  to  Old  Sarum,  and 
began  a  cathedral  (whose  foundations  are  still  to 
be  traced  in  very  dry  seasons),  which  was  finished 
by  his  successor,  St  Osmund,  who  compiled  the 
Use  of  Sarum.  It  was  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  270 
feet  long  by  70  feet  wide,  with  a  transept  of  150 
feet.  Old  Sarum  returned  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment until  the  passing  of  the  Reform  Bill, 
although  there  had  for  years  been  no  inhabitants. 
The  removal  from  Old  Sarum  to  New  Sarum  or 
Salisbury  took  place  in  1220,  when  the  foundations 
of  the  new  cathedral  were  laid.  The  Lady  Chapel 
was  consecrated  in  1225,  and  the  whole  building 
in  1260.  A  double  cross  in  plan,  it  is  a  perfect 
example  of  pure  Early  English  style.  The  spire 
(c.  13S0)  is  the  highest  in  England  (400  feet) ;  it 
leans  27|^  inches  towards  the  south.  The  cathe- 
dral suffered  from  a  disastrous  '  restoration '  at  the 
hands  of  James  Wyatt  (1782-91),  when  two  15th- 
century  chapels  and  two  porches  were  destroyed, 
much  painted  glass  removed,  the  tombs  re- 
arranged, and  a  lofty  isolated  campanile  pulled 
down.  Much  of  the  damage  then  done  has  been 
repaired  in  the  restoration  begun  in  1863.  The 
library  (e.  1450)  contains  about  5000  volumes  and 
many  valuable  MSS.  The  outside  measurements 
of  the  cathedral  are  :  length  473  feet,  width  111 
feet ;  the  height  of  the  nave  and  choir  inside  is 
81  feet.  The  cathedral  stands  apart  from  any 
other  building  in  the  midst  of  a  beautiful  Close 
of  about  half  a  square  mile  in  extent,  encircled 
by  a  wall,  within  which  stand  the  Bishop's 
Palace  (an  irregular  building  begun  by  Bishop 
Richard  Poore,  c.  1220),  the  deanery  and  canons' 
houses,  and  many  other  picturesque  buildings. 
Other  notable  buildings  are  the  council-house, 
where  the  assizes  are  held ;  the  county  hall ; 
the  infirmary ;  the  '  Hall  of  Jolxn  Hall'  and  Audley 
House,  now  the  church-house  of  the  diocese,  two 
fine  examples  of  15th-century  domestic  architec- 
ture ;  the  old  George  Inn  (now  a  shop),  where 
Pepys  stayed ;  St  Nicholas'  Hospital ;  the  market- 
house  ;  the  poultry-cross  ;  and  the  Blackmore 
Museum,  which  contains  one  of  the  finest  collec- 
tions of  prehistoric  antiquities  in  England.  The 
plan  of  the  city  is  very  regular.  Water  originally 
ran  through  most  of  the  streets,  but  the  streams 
were  covered  over  after  the  visitation  of  the 
cholera  in  1849.  The  spacious  market-fflace  is 
planted  with  trees,  and  contains  statues  of  Lord 
Herbert  of  Lea  (Sidney  Herbert)  and  Professor 
Fawcett,  who  was  a  native  of  the  city.  Here  the 
Duke  of  Buckingham  was  beheaded  in  1483  when 


gALlSBURV 


620 


SAW  LAKE  CITY 


Salisbury  was  the  headquarters  of  Richard  III. 
The  city  chiefly  depends  upon  its  agricultural 
trade,  the  former  manufactures  of  cutlery  and 
woollens  being  extinct.  Salisbury  returns  one 
member.  Pop.  (1851)  11,657  ;  (1881)  14,792 ;  (1901) 
17,117.  See  works  by  Hatcher,  Britton  (1814), 
Price  (1753),  Dodsworth  (1814),  and  Jones  (1879, 
&c.).— Salisbury  Plain,  an  undulating  tract  of 
chalky  down,  affords  splendid  pasture  for  sheep. 
There  are  many  ancient  mounds  and  barrows, 
and  in  the  midst  stands  Stonehenge  (q.v.). 

Salisbury,  capital  of  Southern  Rhodesia  (q.v.), 
about  225  miles  NE.  of  Bnlawayo,  with  which, 
as  with  Beira,  it  has  railway  connection.  It 
has  government  offices,  municipality,  churches, 
banks,  schools,  &c.    White  pop.  about  500. 

Salisbury,  (l)  in  North  Carolina,  44  miles  NNE. 
of  Charlotte,  has  a  coloured  college  and  normal 
school,  and  the  national  cemetery  with  over  12,000 
graves.  Pop.  6300.— (2)  In  Maryland,  32  miles 
ENE.  from  Chrislield,  has  canning  factories  and 
manufactures.    Pop.  4300. 

Sallee,  Sal^,  or  Sla,  a  seaport  of  Morocco,  on 
the  Atlantic,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Bu-Ragreb,  on 
the  north  side  of  the  river,  opposite  Rabat  (q.v.). 
It  was  for  centuries  notorious  as  a  haunt  of 
pirates,  the  '  Sallee  Rovers.'    Pop.  10,000. 

Salomon  Islands.    See  Solomon  Islands. 

Salona,  a  ruined  city  of  Dalmatia,  at  the  head 
of  a  gulf  of  the  Adriatic,  3  miles  NE.  of  Spalato. 

Saloni'ca,  or  Saloniki  (Turk.  Selanik),  the 
second  commercial  city  of  European  Turkey, 
stands  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Salonica,  820 
miles  SSE.  of  Vienna  by  rail  (1889),  via  Belgrade, 
Uskiib,  and  Nisch.  It  climbs  up  the  rocky 
heights  that  stretch  back  from  the  shore,  and  is 
overlooked  by  a  citadel ;  the  white  walls  are  5 
miles  in  circumference,  and  houses  and  mosques 
are  embowered  in  trees  of  dark  foliage.  The 
mosques  were,  most  of  them.  Christian  churches. 
St  Sophia,  modelled  after  its  namesake  at  Constan- 
tinople, built  in  Justinian's  reign,  and  a  mosque 
since  1589,  is  shaped  like  a  Greek  cross,  and  sur- 
mounted by  a  dome  covered  with  mosaics.  It 
was  injurecl  in  the  great  fire  of  September  3-4, 
1890,  which  did  £800,000  of  damage  to  the  town. 
St  George,  dating  from  Constantine,  is  circular  ; 
its  dome  too  is  covered  with  fine  mosaics.  St 
Demetrius  (7th  century)  is  decorated  internally 
with  slabs  of  different  coloured  marble.  The 
Old  Mosque  was  anciently  a  temple  of  Venus. 
Here  is  the  piopylseum  of  the  hippodrome  in 
which  Theodosius  in  390  ordered  the  massacre  of 
7000  citizens.  One  of  two  tine  handsome  Roman 
arches  was  taken  down  in  1867 ;  the  other  still 
stands,  but  in  a  ruinous  condition.  The  com- 
merce is  increasing,  especially  since  the  opening 
of  the  railway  to  Servia.  The  imports  consist 
chiefly  of  metal  wares,  textiles,  coffee,  petroleum, 
salt,  sugar,  rice,  and  soap ;  the  exports  of  corn, 
cotton,  opium,  wool,  tobacco,  skins,  silk,  cocoons, 
&c.  The  industries  include  the  manufacture  of 
cotton,  flour,  soap,  bricks,  leather,  silk,  and 
carpets.  Population,  100,000,  of  whom  nearly 
50,000  are  Jews  of  Spanish  descent,  35,000  Turks, 
and  15,000  Greeks.  Salonica  is  the  ancient 
Thessalonica,  to  whose  Chi-istian  community  St 
Paul  addressed  two  epistles.  Here  Cicero  dwelt 
for  a  time.  Thessalonica  was  built  by  Cassan- 
der  about  315  b.c.  on  the  site  of  the  older  Therme, 
and  was  called  after  his  wife,  sister  of  Alexander 
the  Great.  It  soon  became  the  principal  harbour 
of  Macedonia.  Under  the  Byzantine  emperors  it 
successfully  withstood  the  Goths  and  the  Slavs, 
but  was  captured  by  Moslems  from  Africa  iu  904, 


and  by  the  Normans  of  south  Italy  in  1185. 
From  the  Venetians  the  Turks  took  it  in  1430. 

Salop.    See  Shropshire. 

Salsette  (Portu.  pron.  Sal-seftay),  an  island 
lying  N.  of  Bombay,  with  which  it  is  connected 
by  a  bridge  and  a  causeway.  It  is  diversified  by 
mountain  and  hill,  studded  with  the  ruins  of 
Portuguese  churches,  convents,  and  villas,  and 
rich  in  rice-fields  and  cocoa-nut  groves.  Area, 
241sq.m.;  pop.  118,000;  chief  town,  Thana  (q.v.). 
Nearly  100  caves  and  cave-temples  excavated  in 
the  face  of  a  single  hill  at  Kanhari  or  Keneri,  5 
miles  W.  of  Thana ;  they  contain  colossal  carvings. 
There  are  other  caves  at  Montpezir,  Kanduti, 
Amboli,  &c.  Salsette  was  occupied  by  the  Portu- 
guese early  in  the  16th  century,  and  was  cap- 
tured by  the  British  in  1774. 

Salta,  a  northern  province  of  Argentina,  touch- 
ing Chili  and  Bolivia ;  area,  49,510  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
200,000.— Salta,  tlie  capital,  on  the  Rio  Arias,  535 
miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  of  Cordoba,  was  founded  in 
1582,  is' the  seat  of  an  archbishop.     Pop.  20,000. 

Saltalre,  a  model  village  of  Yorkshire,  on  the 
Aire,  3  miles  NW.  of  Bradford,  founded  and  built 
by  Sir  Titus  Salt,  who  opened  his  worsted  and 
alpaca  factory  here  in  1853.  This  factory  covers 
12  acres,  and  is  six  stories  high.  The  place  pos- 
sesses a  church  of  Byzantine  architecture,  hospi- 
tal, school,  a  park  of  14  acres,  workmen's  club 
and  institute  which  cost  £30,000,  technical 
schools  (1887),  &c.    Pop.  about  5000. 

Saltash,  a  picturesque  municipal  borough  and 
seaport  of  Cornwall,  on  the  west  side  of  the 
Tamar  estuary,  and  4J  miles  NW.  of  Plymouth 
by  a  railway  that  crosses  the  Tamar  by  Brunei's 
iron  Royal  Albert  Viaduct  (1857-59),  2240  feet 
long  and  240  high  (the  roadway  102  feet  above 
high-water  mark),  constructed  at  a  cost  of 
£230,000.  The  church  of  St  Nicholas  dates  from 
1225.  The  town  was  disfranchised  in  1832.  Pop. 
3500. 

Saltbum,  a  picturesque  Yorkshire  watering- 
place,  built  on  lofty  cliffs  facing  the  sea,  4  miles 
SE.  of  Redcar,  dates  from  the  opening  of  the  rail- 
way in  1861.     Pop.  2580. 

Saltcoats,  a  watering-place  of  Ayrshire,  on  the 
Firth  of  Clyde,  1  mile  ESE.  of  Ardrossan  and  30 
miles  SW.  of  Glasgow.  It  was  a  seat  of  salt 
manufacture  from  1686  to  1827.    Pop.  8120. 

Saltfleet,  a  Lincolnshire  coast- village,  9^  miles 
ENE.  of  Louth. 

Saltillo  (Salteel'yo),  capital  of  the  Mexican 
state  of  Coahuila,  by  rail  237  miles  SW.  of  Laredo, 
in  Texas,  and  603  N.  by  W.  of  Mexico  city.  Pop. 
25,000.     Near  it  is  Buena  Vista  (q.v.). 

Salt  Lake  City,  the  chief  town  and  ecclesi- 
astical capital  of  the  state  of  Utah,  is  on  the 
river  Jordan,  11  miles  from  Great  Salt  Lake  (q.v.), 
and  4265  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  By  rail 
it  is  36  miles  S.  of  Ogden,  on  the  Union  Pacific 
Railroad  (833  miles  from  San  Francisco  and  1031 
from  Omaha).  It  was  settled  by  the  Mormons  in 
1847,  and  incorporated  in  1851 ;  has  an  area  of  12 
sq.  m.,  with  corporate  limits  embracing  50  sq.  in. ; 
and  its  shaded  streets,  137  feet  wide,  many  of 
them  freshened  by  streams  of  ruiming  water  from 
the  neighbouring  mountains,  are  traversed  by 
tram-cars  (1872),  and  lit  by  gas  (1873)  and  the 
eleatric  light  (1877).  The  public  buildings  in- 
clude the  Mormon  temple  (1853-93 ;  cost  over 
$2,500,000),  with  walls  built  of  blocks  of  dressed 
granite,  20  feet  thick  at  the  basenient,  and  taper- 
ing to  6  feet  thick  at  the  top  ;  the  Tabernacle,  an 
immense  elliptical  building,  with  a  dome-shaped 


SALTLEY 


621 


SALZBURQ 


('dish-cover')  roof  resting  on  sandstone  pillars, 
and  seated  for  9000 ;  the  new  assembly  hall,  of 
rough-hewn  granite  ;  the  endowment-house,  &c. 
Other  religious  bodies  also  are  represented,  and 
tliero  are  Roman  Catholic,  Episcopalian,  Presby- 
terian, Congregationalist,  and  Metliodist  churches: 
St  Mark's  Cathedral  is  a  handsome  building. 
Otlier  noteworthy  edifices  are  those  of  the 
museum,  tlie  Mining  Institute,  St  Mary's  Hospi- 
tal, the  university  of  Deseret  (1850 ;  buildings 
finished  1887),  and  the  theatres  and  opera-house. 
Manufactures  are  bricks,  paper,  timber,  blinds, 
window-glass,  &c.  Pop.  (1870)  12,854;  (1900) 
53,531.  See  works  by  Burton  (1861)  and  Bancroft 
(1889),  and  Stanford's  Central  America  (1902). 

Saltley,  a  NB.  suburb  of  Birmingham. 

Saltney,  a  Flintshire  village  on  the  Dee,  2 
miles  SW.  of  Chester,  with  docks  and  ironworks. 
Pop.  of  township,  2675. 

Salto  (SaliVto),  capital  of  a  NW.  dep.  of  Uruguay 
(area,  4863  sq.  ra. ;  pop.  43,567),  stands  near  the 
head  of  navigation  on  the  Uruguay  River,  86  miles 
by  rail  N.  of  Paysandil.     Pop.  15,000. 

Saltram,  on  the  Catwater,  4  miles  ENE.  of 
Plymouth,  seat  of  the  Earl  of  Morley. 

Salt  Range,  a  barren  mountain-system,  3200 
to  5000  feet  high,  in  the  Punjab,  India,  consists 
of  two  E.  and  W.  chains  enclosing  a  lofty  table- 
land rich  in  rock-salt. 

Saluzzo  iSalootzd),  an  Italian  city  near  the  Alps, 
42  miles  by  rail  S,  by  W.  of  Turin.  It  has  a  cathe- 
dral (1480),  with  the  tombs  of  the  marquises  of 
Saluzzo,  their  old  castle  (now  a  prison),  and  the 
ruined  abbey  of  Staffarda  (1131-1737).  Silvio 
Pellico  was  born  here.    Pop.  9716. 

Salvador',  the  smallest  but  by  far  the  most 
thickly  populated  of  the  Central  American  Re- 
publics, consists  of  a  strip  of  territory  stretching 
betAveen  Honduras  and  the  Pacific.  It  is  140 
miles  in  length  by  about  60  in  average  breadth, 
and  has  an  area  estimated  at  7225  sq.  m.,  with 
a  pop.  (1901)  of  1,006,848.  Except  for  a  narrow  sea- 
board of  low  alluvial  plains,  Salvador  consists  of 
a  plateau,  some  2000  feet  above  the  sea,  furrowed 
by  river  valleys  and  broken  by  numerous  volcanic 
cones,  and  bounded  on  the  N.  by  the  Central 
American  Cordillera.  Of  the  volcanoes  (4900  to 
6900  ft.),  many  are  extinct ;  earthquakes  are  fre- 
quent (see  San  Salvador).  The  Lempa  (140  miles) 
receives  the  surplus  waters  of  the  Laguna  de  Cuija, 
and  the  San  Miguel  drains  the  south-east  portion 
of  the  republic.  The  clnnate  is  equable,  very 
healthy  in  the  interior,  and  even  along  the  coast 
less  unwholesome  than  on  the  Atlantic  side  of 
Central  America.  The  land  is  well  watered,  and 
the  soil  exceedingly  fertile.  The  principal  pro- 
ducts are  coffee,  indigo,  and  balsam  (on  the  Balsam 
Coast);  also  tobacco,  sugar,  maize,  rice,  beans, 
india-rubber,  vanilla,  and  ornamental  woods.  Gold 
and  silver  are  mined,  and  coal  and  iron  worked. 
The  exports  (mainly  coffee  and  indigo)  range  in 
value  from  8  to  12  million  dollars  per  annum  ;  the 
imports  from  4  to  7  millions.  Of  the  imports 
(cotton  goods  the  principal  item)  35  per  cent, 
is  from  Great  Britain  and  25  per  cent,  from  the 
United  States.  The  population  consists  mostly  of 
(Aztec)  Indians  and  mixed  races  :  the  whites  num- 
ber 20,000.  The  Indians  almost  all  speak  Spanish 
and  profess  the  Roman  Catholic  religion.  The 
government  is  carried  on  by  a  president,  four 
ministers,  and  a  congress  of  seventy  deputies. 
The  revenue,  varying  from  5  to  8  million  dollars, 
shows  a  slight  excess  over  the  expenditure  ;  the 
internal  debt  is  returned  at  $10,000,000,  and  the 


external  debt  is  about  £750,000.  There  is  an  army 
of  4000  men  and  18,000  militia.  Railways  con- 
nect Acajutla  (the  chief  port)  with  Santa  Ana 
and  Ateos,  and  nearly  to  the  capital,  San  Salva- 
dor (q.v.).  Salvador,  originally  called  Cuscatlan, 
was  conquered  by  Alvarado  in  1525-26.  In  1821 
it  threw  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  from  1823  to 
1839  it  belonged  to  the  Central  American  con- 
federacy. Since  1853  it  has  been  an  independent 
republic  disturbed  by  frequent  pronundamientos. 
See  books  on  Central  America  by  Bates  (1879)  and 
Squier  (1868). 

Salvatierra,  a  town  of  Mexico,  197  miles  by 
rail  NW.  of  Mexico  city,  with  cotton-factorieS. 
Pop.  23,962. 

Salween,  a  river  of  Asia  that  flows  south 
through  the  Shan  country,  then  between  Siam 
and  British  Burma,  to  the  Gulf  of  Martaban  a 
little  below  Maulmain.  It  is  navigable  for  about 
80  miles.  The  course  of  the  Salween  (also  spelt 
Sahven,  Salwin,  and  Salouain)  is  known  only  as 
high  as  25°  N.  lat.  It  is  uncertain  whether  the 
Lukiaug  of  the  Chinese  (Tibetan  Giama  Nu-Chu), 
which  has  a  course  of  some  700  miles  through 
Tibet,  is  the  upper  part  of  the  Salween  or  the 
upper  part  of  the  Irawadi  (q.v.). 

Salzbninn  (Sahltz'hroon),  a  group  of  three 
villages  in  Prussian  Silesia,  40  miles  by  rail  SW. 
of  Breslau.  Their  eight  mineral  springs  attract 
nearly  4000  visitors  in  the  season.  The  alkalo- 
saline  water  is  largely  exported.    Pop.  6459. 

Salzburg  (Sahltz'boorg),  a  crown-land  of 
Austria,  bounded  W.  by  Bavaria  and  the  Tyrol, 
S.  by  Carinthia,  and  E.  by  Styria.  Area,  2762  sq. 
m. ;  pop.  (1880)  163,570 ;  (1900)  192,762.  It  lies 
on  the  northern  face  of  the  eastern  Alps,  and  is  a 
mountainous  region,  attaining  12,000  feet  in  the 
Hohe  Tauem.  The  river  Salzach  (190  miles),  a 
tributary  of  the  Inn,  floAvs  E.  and  then  N. 
through  one  of  the  most  picturesque  of  Alpine 
valleys.  Salt  is  obtained,  especially  at  Hallein 
(q.v.).    Salzburg  became  Austrian  in  1805. 

Salzburg,  the  capital,  occupies  a  channing 
situation  on  the  Salzach,  by  rail  195  miles  W.  by 
S.  of  Vienna  and  80  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Munich, 
where  the  river  passes  between  two  wooded 
rocks  (1716  and  2133  feet) ;  one  of  which,  the 
Monchsberg  (Monk's  Hill),  is  crowned  by  the  old 
citadel,  dating  partly  from  Roman  times.  The 
river  divides  the  city  into  two  parts  ;  on  the  west 
is  the  old  city,  with  many  dark,  winding  streets, 
getting  access  to  the  valley  and  plain  on  the  north 
through  a  gallery  (440  feet  long,  39  feet  high, 
and  23  feet  wide),  hewn  (1767)  in  the  solid  rock  of 
the  Monchsberg.  This  portion  of  the  city  con- 
tains the  fine  cathedral,  with  a  white  marble 
fagade,  and  built  (1614-34)  in  imitation  of  St 
Peter's  at  Rome  ;  the  Romanesque  abbey  church 
of  St  Peter  (1127);  the  palace  of  the  Grand-duke 
of  Tuscany,  in  the  Italian  style  (1592-1725) ;  the 
Benedictine  monastery,  with  a  valuable  library 
of  65,000  vols,  and  900  MSS.  ;  and  the  arch- 
bishop's palace.  On  the  opposite  bank  lies  the 
modern  town,  with  Italian-looking,  flat-roofed 
houses ;  here  the  most  prominent  buildings  are 
Castle  Mirabell  (1607) ;  the  Capuchin  monastery 
(1599),  and  St  Sebastian's  Church  (1512),  with  the 
monument  of  Paracelsus.  The  city  possesses 
also  a  theological  faculty,  all  that  remains  of  the 
former  university  (1623-1810) ;  a  public  library 
(1617)  of  82,000  vols,  and  1400  MSS.  ;  a  museum 
of  Celtic  and  Roman  antiquities,  &c.  ;  a  bronze 
monument  (1842)  to  Mozart,  a  native  ;  a  new 
park  on  the  east  bank ;  the  government  build- 
ings (1588) ;  the  town-house  (1407),  &c.    Industry 


SALZKAMMERGUT 


622 


SAMOA 


Is  confined  chiefly  to  the  manufacture  of  musical 
instruments,  marble  ornaments,  &c.  Pop.  33,100. 
On  the  site  of  the  Roman  Juvavxim,  which  was 
ruined  by  the  Goths  and  Huns,  Salzburg  in  the 
6th  c.  was  made  the  seat  of  a  monastery.  Its 
archbishops,  who  dated  from  798,  were  princes  of 
the  empire,  generally  noted  for  severity  ;  and  in 
1732,  after  five  years'  bitter  persecution,  30,000 
Protestants  left  their  homes  (as  illustrated  in 
Goethe's  Hermann  und  Dorotliea)  and  on  the  invi- 
tation of  Frederick-William  I.  settled  in  Prussia. 

Salzkammergut  (Sahltzkammergoot'),  called 
the  Austrian  Switzerland,  one  of  the  most  pictur- 
esque districts  of  Europe,  lies  wedged  between 
Salzburg  on  the  W.  and  Styria  on  the  B.  Area, 
about  230  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  17,500.  The  scenery  com- 
bines in  rare  beauty  the  features  of  valley,  moun- 
tain, and  lake.  The  highest  peak  is  the  Dachstein 
(9830  feet)  ;  of  its  lakes  the  most  famous  are  Hall- 
statt,  Traun  or  Gmunden,  Atter,  St  Wolfgang, 
Aber,  Mond,  and  Zell.  It  derives  its  name  of 
'Salt-exchequer  Property'  from  its  salt  springs 
and  mines,  which  yield  some  33,000  tons  of  salt 
annually.  The  chief  seats  of  the  salt-works  are 
Ischl,  Hallstatt,  and  Ebensee. 

Salzwedel  (Sahltzvay'del),  a  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  72  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Magdeburg. 
Pop.  9888. 

Samara  (Sama¥ra),  a  town  of  European  Russia, 
on  the  Volga's  left  bank,  at  the  infiux  of  the 
Samara,  656  miles  ESB.  of  Moscow  by  rail.  It 
carries  on  a  large  river-trade,  and  has  also 
tanneries,  tobacco-factories,  soap-boiling-works, 
and  tile-works.  Consumptive  patients  resort 
to  the  Koumiss  (fermented  mares'  milk)  estab- 
lishments here.  The  population  increased  from 
35,000  (1870)  to  93,000  (1905).— The  government 
has  an  area  of  58,300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  2,765,000 
(100,000  Germans  in  agricultural  colonies). 

Samarang  (Samah'rang),  a  seaport  on  the  north 
of  Java,  255  miles  E.  of  Batavia,  is  the  principal 
port  of  Middle  Java,  and  is  connected  with 
Jokjokarta  and  Surabaya  by  railway.    Pop.  84,250. 

Samarcand',  a  city  of  western  Turkestan,  on 
the  Transcaspian  railway,  4  miles  S.  of  the  Zeraf- 
shan  river,  and  amongst  the  western  spurs  of  the 
Tian-Shan  Mountains,  130  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Bok- 
hara and  150  N.  by  E.  of  Balkh.  It  is  the  ancient 
Marcanda,  the  capital  of  Sogdiana,  which  was 
destroyed  by  Alexander  the  Great.  It  was  cap- 
tured in  712  A.D.  by  the  Arabs,  and  has  ever  since 
been  a  sacred  city  in  the  eyes  of  the  Moslems, 
especially  after  Timur  made  it  his  capital  in  the 
14th  century.  It  had,  however,  suffered  terribly 
from  Genghis  Khan,  who  took  it  (1219)  and  de- 
stroyed three-fourths  of  its  500,000  inhabitants. 
In  Timur's  time  it  had  a  pop.  of  150,000.  The 
Ulug-beg  College,  the  tombs  of  Timur  and  his 
wives,  and  two  other  colleges,  the  Tilla-Kari  and 
Shir-dar,  both  dating  from  the  beginning  of  the 
17th  century,  are  magnificent  structures.  In  the 
15th  century  Samarcand  was  renowned  as  a  school 
of  astronomy  and  mathematics.  In  1868  it  was 
taken  from  Bokhara  by  the  Russians,  wlio  have 
built  a  citadel  on  a  steep  hill  4  miles  in  circuit, 
and  have  laid  out  a  handsome  new  town  to  the 
west  of  it.  On  the  other  side  of  the  citadel  is 
the  old  city,  walled,  with  dark  _and  narrow 
streets,  and  dirty  houses.     Pop.  55,000. 

Samaria,  the  capital  of  the  northern  kingdom 
of  Israel,  after  Israel  (the  Ten  Tribes)  and  Judah 
became  two  independent  states.  It  was  founded 
by  Omri,  on  the  long  flat  summit  of  an  isolated 
hill  (1450  feet),  about  5  miles  NW.  of  Shechera, 
^nd  near  the  middle  of  Palestine.     About  721 


B.C.  it  fell  before  the  three  years'  persistency  of 
the  Assyrian  monarchs,  Shalmaneser  and  Sargon, 
who  carried  away  nearly  all  the  Hebrew  inhab- 
itants of  Samaria  and  Israel  captive  into  Baby- 
lonia, sending  in  their  place  Assyrian  colonists. 
The  new  settlers  adopted  many  of  the  religious 
practices  and  beliefs  of  the  remnant  of  the 
Israelites  amongst  whom  they  dwelt.  When  the 
Jews  returned  from  the  Captivity  and  set  about 
the  rebuilding  of  the  temple,  the  Samaritans 
desired  to  share  in  the  work  ;  but  the  Jews 
rejected  their  assistance,  and  the  Samaritans  built 
(409  B.C.)  on  Mount  Gerizim  beyond  Shechem  a 
sanctuary  to  Jehovah  as  a  rival  to  the  temple 
at  Jerusalem.  This  converted  them  into  bitter 
enemies,  so  that  henceforward  the  'Jews  had  no 
dealings  with  the  Samaritans.'  The  Samaritans 
adhered  to  the  revised  Pentateuch  of  Ezra  as 
their  sole  religious  code-book.  At  the  present 
day  there  still  survive  150  of  them,  collected  at 
Nablus,  the  ancient  Shechem.  The  Samaritan 
language  is  an  archaic  Hebrew- Aramaic  dialect ; 
and  in  it  are  written  a  very  ancient  version  of 
the  Pentateuch,  certain  chronicles,  hymns,  and 
books  of  religious  devotion.  Samaria  was  taken 
by  Alexander  the  Great,  and  colonised  by  Mace- 
donians and  Hellenised.  Twice  it  was  besieged 
and  taken — by  Ptolemy  I.  (312  B.C.),  and  by 
Demetrius  Poliorcetes  (c.  296).  The  Jewish  cap- 
tain John  Hyrcanus  laid  siege  to  it  (c.  110  B.C.), 
and  at  the  end  of  a  year  destroyed  it  utterly. 
Nevertheless  the  Samaritans  joined  the  Jews  in 
offering  fierce  resistance  to  the  Romans,  who 
again  destroyed  the  city.  Herod  refounded  it 
under  the  name  of  Sebaste  ;  and  on  its  site,  now 
called  Sebastiya,  there  still  exist  parts  of  a 
colonnade  of  the  age  of  Herod,  remains  of  a 
temple  to  Augustus,  and  an  old  crusading  church 
(now  a  mosque)  built  over  the  tomb  of  John  the 
Baptist.  The  tombs  of  six  or  eight  (Omri,  Ahab, 
Jehu,  &c.)  of  the  kings  of  Israel  and  those  of  the 
prophets  Obadiah  and  Elisha  were  also  at  Samaria. 

Sambhal,  a  town  in  tlie  United  Provinces  of 
India,  23  miles  SW.  of  Moradabad.     Pop.  40,000. 

Sambor,  a  town  in  Austrian  Galicia,  on  the 
Dniester,  41  miles  SW.  of  Lemberg.    Pop.  17,050. 

Sambro  (Son^br),  a  river  rising  in  the  French 
dep.  of  Aisne,  and  flowing  112  miles  NE.,  until  at 
Namur  in  Belgium  it  joins  the  Meuse  or  Maas 
from  the  left.  Many  prehistoric  remains  have 
been  discovered  in  caves  in  the  Sambre  valley. 

Samland,  a  district  of  East  Prussia,  between 
the  Frisch  and  Kurisch  Haft's.  Its  western  coast 
is  known  as  the  Amber  (Bernstein)  coast. 

Samo'a.  The  Samoa  or  Navigators'  Islands 
are  a  group  of  islands  in  the  Western  Pacific, 
crossed  by  170°  W.  and  14"  S.,  between  400  and 
500  miles  NE.  of  Fiji.  The  group  consists  of  nine 
islands,  besides  rocks  and  islets.  All,  except 
Rose  Island,  are  volcanic,  and  are  for  the  most 
part  surrounded  with  coral-reefs.  They  are  very 
mountainous,  well  wooded,  and  of  very  fertile 
soil.  Four  i.slands  alone  are  of  any  size,  Savaii, 
Upolu,  Tutuila,  and  Manna  (the  latter  really 
consisting  of  three  small  islands).  Savaii,  the 
westernmost  and  largest,  is  about  40  miles  in 
length  by  20  in  breadth,  and  has  an  estimated 
area  of  700  sq.  m.,  and  one  peak  which  rises  to 
near  5000  feet.  Upolu,  about  8  miles  SE.  of 
Savaii,  has  an  area  of  between  550  and  600  sq.  m. ; 
on  its  northern  side  is  the  bay  and  harbour  of 
Apia,  the  centre  of  all  political  and  commercial 
life  in  the  Samoan  group.  Thirty-six  miles  SE. 
of  Upolu  is  Tutuila,  possessing  a  well-sheltered 
harbour  in  Pango  Pango.    The  climate  of  Samoa 


8AM0GITIA 


623 


SANDGATB 


Is  very  moist  and  variable  ;  the  pleasantest  time 
of  the  year  is  from  May  to  November  ;  during  the 
rest  of  tlie  year  lieavy  gales  and  rains  are  frequent, 
and  occasionally  disastrous  hurricanes  occur- 
like  that  in  which  H.M.S.  Calliope  was  safely 
guided  out  to  sea,  all  the  other  ships  being 
stranded.  Copra,  the  dried  kernel  of  the  cocoa- 
nut,  is  the  chief  article  of  export ;  cotton,  coffee, 
tobacco,  and  cane-sugar  being  also  grown.  Fruit 
is  plentiful,  and  bananas  and  citrons  are  exported 
to  New  Zealand  and  Australia.  There  are  rich 
pastures,  upon  which  imported  live-stock  thrive. 
The  islands  were  visited  by  Bougainville  in  1768, 
and  from  him  they  received  tlie  name  of  lies  des 
Navigateurs,  as  a  tribute  to  the  skill  of  the  native 
boatmen.  After  1889  Great  Britain,  Germany, 
and  the  United  States  recognised  the  independ- 
ence of  the  Samoan  government,  making  provi- 
sion for  a  supreme  court  and  the  regulation  of 
taxation  and  land-claims.  By  a  further  agree- 
ment between  Britain,  Germany,  and  the  United 
States  (1899-1900),  Upolu  and  Savaii  were  assigned 
absolutely  to  Germany,  and  the  other  islands  to 
the  United  States.  The  Samoans  belong  to  the 
brown  Polynesian  race,  and  are  a  well-formed  and 
prepossessing  race,  decreasing  in  numbers,  tlie 
population  being  about  39,000,  of  whom  82,C0O 
are  in  the  German  islands.  The  exports  from 
the  German  islands  of  the  group  were  in  1903, 
£69,250,  and  the  imports  £134,050.  From  the 
United  States  islands  the  exports  were  £8819, 
and  the  imports  £32,426.  The  trade  is  mostly  in 
theliands  of  German,  British,  and  American  firms. 
See  works  by  Turner  (1884),  Clmrchward  (1887), 
Phillips  (1890),  and  R  L.  Stevenson  (1892),  who 
from  1889  made  Upolu  his  home,  and  is  buried 
on  the  summit  of  Vailima  Mountain  there. 
Sam'oa  is  the  native  pronunciation. 

Samogitla,  a  district  in  the  Russian  govern- 
ment  of  Kovno,  inhabited  by  pure  Lithuanians. 

Samos,  an  island  in  the  iEgean,  close  to  the 
coast  of  Asia  Minor,  45  miles  SSW.  of  Smyrna  ; 
length  is  30  miles,  mean  breadth  8,  area  180  sq. 
m.  The  highest  peak.  Mount  Kerki  (anc.  Cerceteus), 
reaches  4725  feet.  Between  Samos  and  the  main- 
land is  the  narrow  channel  of  Mycale,  where  in 
479  B.C.  the  Persians  were  totally  defeated  by  the 
Greeks.  Between  Samos  and  Nicaria  (anc.  Icaria) 
on  the  west  is  the  Great  Boghaz,  3  to  8  miles  broad. 
Samos  is  well  watered  and  very  fertile  ;  its  prin- 
cipal product  is  wine,  with  olive-oil,  carob  beans, 
raisins,  and  hides.  The  chief  industry  is  tann- 
ing. The  capital  of  the  island  is  Vathy  (pop. 
6000),  on  the  north  coast.  The  site  of  the  ancient 
city  of  Samos  is  occupied  by  Tigani.  The  island 
was  in  Greek  times  celebrated  for  its  red  glossy 
pottery.  Pop.  of  island  (1900)  54,850,  all  Greeks. 
A  portion  (from  84  B.C.)  of  the  Roman  province  of 
Asia,  and  then  a  Byzantine  possession,  Samos  was 
conquered  by  the  Turks.  When  the  war  of  inde- 
pendence broke  out  in  1821  no  Greeks  were  more 
ardent  patriots  than  the  Samians  ;  and  deep  was 
their  disappointment  when,  at  the  close  of  the 
struggle,  European  policy  assigned  them  to  their 
former  masters.  They  are,  however,  governed 
(since  1833)  by  a  Greek,  the  Prince  of  Samos,  and 
by  a  native  council,  paying  tribute  to  the  Porte. 

Samos'ata  (mod.  Samisat),  the  capital  till  73 
A.D.  of  the  Syrian  kingdom  of  Commagene,  on 
tlie  Euphrates,  130  miles  NNE.  of  Aleppo.  It  was 
the  birthplace  of  Lucian. 

Samothrace  (Samothray'see),  or  Samothraki, 
an  island  of  the  iEgean  Sea,  40  miles  NW.  of  the 
Dardanelles.  It  rises  to  5248  feet  in  Mount  Saoce 
(Phengari),  which  occupies  nearly  the  whole  of  its 


surface  (68  sq.  m.).  Bare  and  repellent,  the  island 
possesses  no  harbour  and  only  one  village,  Chora, 
of  2000  inhabitants.  Anciently  it  was  celebrated 
for  the  worship  of  the  Cabeiri,  mysterious 
divinities  whose  temples  were  excavated  in  1873- 
75  by  Professor  Couze.  Parts  of  the  cyclopean 
walls  of  the  ancient  city  still  remain.  In  1457 
it  was  conquered  by  the  Turks,  who  then,  and 
again  in  1821,  nearly  exterminated  the  population. 

Samso,  a  Danish  island  in  the  entrance  to  the 
Great  Belt,  between  Zealand  and  Jutland.  Area, 
42  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  6600. 

Samsun,  a  seaport,  with  growing  trade,  on  the 
Black  Sea  coast  of  Asiatic  Turkey,  90  miles  SEi 
of  Sinope.     Pop.  15,000. 

Sanaa',  the  former  capital  of  the  Imams  of 
Yemen,  200  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Aden,  stands  in  a 
valley  4000  feet  above  the  sea.     Pop.  50,000. 

San  Antonio,  capital  of  Bexar  county,  Texas, 
on  the  San  Antonio  River,  210  miles  by  rail  W. 
of  Houston.  It  has  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral 
and  seminary,  an  arsenal  and  government  build- 
ing, court-house,  flour-mills,  breweries,  tanneries, 
&c.  In  Fort  Alamo,  across  the  river,  Mexicans 
slaughtered  the  U.S.  garrison  of  188  men  in  1836. 
Pop.  (1880)  20,550 ;   (1900)53,331. 

San  Carlos,  a  town  of  Venezuela,  125  miles 
SW.  of  Caracas.    Pop.  10,741. 

San  Cataldo,  a  town  of  Sicily,  10  miles  W.  of 
Caltanisetta.     Pop.  18,000. 

Sanchi  (San'tchee),  a  village  in  Bhopal  state,  on 
a  rocky  hill  5^  miles  SW.  of  Bhilsa,  is  remark- 
able for  its  great  Buddhist  tope,  dating  from  250 
B.C.,  with  remains  of  ten  smaller  topes. 

San  Cristobal,  (l)  a  town  of  Chiapas  state, 
Mexico.  Pop.  16,000.— (2)  A  town  of  Venezuela, 
ill  the  states  of  Los  Andes.    Pop.  5000. 

Sancti  Splritus.    See  Santo  Espiiutu. 

Sanda,  an  Argyllshire  islot,  10  miles  S.  by  E. 
of  Campbeltown,  381  acres  in  area,  and  405  feet 
high,  with  a  lighthouse  (1850).     Pop.  19. 

Sandakan,  the  capital,  founded  about  1880,  of 
the  territory  of  the  British  North  Borneo  Com- 
pany.    Pop.  over  7000. 

Sandal  Magna,  a  small  town  in  the  West 
Riding  of  Yorkshire,  2  miles  SE.  of  Wakefield. 
Near  it  are  the  remains  of  the  old  castle  of  the 
Earls  of  Warren,  ruined  during  the  great  Civil 
War.    Pop.  6900. 

Sandalwood  Island,  or  Sumba,  one  of  the 
Sunda  group  in  the  Dutch  East  Indies.  Area, 
4385  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  200,000. 

Sanday,  an  Orkney  island,  2J  miles  N.  of 
Stronsay.  Area,  26  sq.  m,  ;  height,  173  feet ; 
pop.  1729. 

Sandbach,  a  market-town  of  Cheshire,  near 
the  right  bank  of  the  Wheelock,  5  miles  NE.  of 
Crewe.  It  has  a  good  parish  church,  public 
rooms  (1859),  a  grammar-school  (1594),  and  manu- 
factures of  boots  and  shoes,  fustian,  iron,  &c. 
Pop.  5750. 

Sandbank  and  Ardnadam,  an  Argyllshire 
watering-place,  on  the  S.  .shore  of  tlio  Holy  Loch, 
2|  miles  NNW.  of  Dunoon.     Pop.  1018. 

Sandec,  a  town  of  Galicia,  45  miles  SE.  of 
Cracow,  mostly  burnt  down  in  1890.    Pop.  15,750. 

Sandefjord  (j  as  y),  a  watering-place,  86  miles 
by  rail  SSW.  of  Christiania.     Pop.  5307. 

Sandgate,  a  small  watering-place  on  the  south 
coast  of  Kent,  within  the  parliamentary  limits  of 
Hythe,  from  which  it  is,  however,  nearly  3  miles 
E.  by  rail.    Sandgate  Castle  dates  from  1539  \ 


SANDHURST 


624 


SAN  FRANCISCO 


near  by  is  Shorncliffe  Camp.  Two  hundred  houses 
were  wrecked  here  by  a  land  subsidence  on  4th 
March  1893.     Pop.  2050.. 

Sandhurst.    See  Bendigo. 

Sandhurst  Military  College,  Berkshire,  5 
miles  SSB.  of  Wokingham  and  33  WSW.  of  Lon- 
don, dates  from  1799,  was  transferred  from  Great 
Marlow  in  1812,  and  remodelled  in  1858  ;  it  gives 
military  training  to  some  200  cadets. 

San  Diego  (De-ay'go),  the  principal  port  of 
southern  California,  and  capital  of  San  Diego 
county,  124  miles  by  rail  SSB.  of  Los  Angles. 
The  beautiful  bay,  6  miles  long,  forms  an  excellent 
harbour,  and  the  port  is  a  very  busy  one.  Pop. 
17,700. 

San  (or  Santo)  Domingo,  capital  of  the 
Dominican  Republic,  stands  on  the  south  coast 
of  Hayti.  It  was  founded  by  Columbus  in  1494. 
The  principal  buildings  are  the  Gothic  cathedral 
(1514-40),  where  the  ashes  of  Columbus  rested 
from  1536  till  1796,  a  college,  hospital,  arsenal, 
and  government  buildings.     Pop.  25,000. 

San'doway,  a  district  in  the  south  of  Arakan 
in  Burma,  named  after  its  chief  town  (pop.  2000), 
15  miles  from  the  mouth  of  a  small  river  of  the 
same  name,  and  150  miles  NW.  of  Rangoon. 

Sandown,  a  watering-place  on  the  south-east 
coast  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  6  miles  by  rail  S.  of 
Ryde.     Pop.  5000. 

Sandown  Castle.    See  Deal, 

Sandown  Park,  a  race-course  (130  acres)  in 
Surrey,  near  Esher,  15  miles  SW.  of  London. 

San'dringham,  a  Norfolk  estate,  3  juiles  from 
the  sea  and  7^  miles  NNE.  of  Lynn.  Compris- 
ing over  7000  acres,  it  was  purchased  in  18G2  by 
the  Prince  of  Wales  for  £220,000.  The  then 
existing  mansion  was  demolished,  and  the  present 
hall,  built  in  1869-71,  a  red-brick  Elizabethan 
country-house,  standing  in  a  pleasant  park  of  200 
acres  ;  special  features  are  the  iron  '  Norwich 
gates,'  the  dairy,  and  the  splendid  cottages.  A 
tire  on  1st  November  1891  did  damage  to  the 
amount  of  over  £10,000.  Sandringham  was  the 
scene  of  the  six-weeks'  illness  of  the  Prince  of 
Wales  (Nov. -Dec.  1871),  and  of  the  death  of  his 
eldest  son,  the  Duke  of  Clarence  (14th  January 
1892).  See  Mrs  Herbert  Jones,  Sandringham, 
Fast  and  Present  (2d  ed.  1888). 

Sandus'ky,  a  port  of  Ohio,  capital  of  Erie 
county,  on  the  south  shore  of  Sandusky  Bay,  an 
arm  of  Lake  Erie,  56  miles  by  water  (by  rail  65) 
W.  of  Cleveland.  The  bay,  15  miles  long  and  5 
wide,  forms  an  excellent  harbour.  The  city  has 
machine-shops,  railway-car  factories,  nmnu- 
factories  of  cutlery  and  edge-tools,  wheels,  and 
especially  of  carved  and  turyed  woodwork.  Pop. 
22,000. 

Sandwich  (Sand'witch  or  -ivij),  a  decayed  sea- 
port of  Kent,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Stour,  12 
miles  E.  of  Canterbury  and  68  (by  rail  84)  ESE. 
of  London.  It  now  stands  2  miles  from  the  sea, 
or  4  if  one  follows  the  windings  of  the  river  ;  but 
in  the  11th  century,  when  Edward  the  Confessor 
made  it  one  of  the  Cinque  Ports,  it  was  the  '  most 
famous  of  all  the  English  harbours.'  It  was  the 
place  of  landing  or  embarkation  of  St  Wilfrid, 
Canute,  Becket,  Coeur-de-Lion,  &c. ;  under  Edward 
IV.  had  95  ships  and  1500  mariners ;  but  has 
never  recovered  the  silting  up  of  its  harbour  in 
the  16th  century,  in  spite  of  the  settlement  at  it 
of  Protestant  refugees  (c.  1561),  and  of  some  har- 
bour improvements  since  1847.  To-day  its  chief 
fame  is  as  headquarters  of  golf.  The  old  walls  have 
\)eeu  converted  into  a  pleasant  promenade,  but 


it  retains  the  Fisher  Gate  and  Barbican,  and 
offers  a  good  deal  of  interest  in  its  two  churches 
and  hospitals,  guildhall  (1579),  grammar-school 
(1564),  a  house  that  lodged  Queen  Elizabeth,  and 
other  quaint  old  buildings.  Richborough,  IJ 
mile  N.,  was  the  Roman  Ridwpice,  the  pre- 
decessor of  Sandwich,  like  which  it  declined  as 
tlie  sea  receded  from  its  port.  A  great  fortress, 
460  feet  square,  it  still  has  a  wealth  of  Roman 
remains— walls,  towers,  the  base  of  a  pharos,  and 
an  amphitheatre.  Sandwich  was  made  a  borough 
by  Edward  III.,  and  with  Deal  and  Walmer  re- 
turned two  members,  but  was  finally  dis- 
franchised in  1885.  Pop.  (1851)  2966  ;  (1901)  3170. 
See  works  by  Boys  (1792),  Smith  (1830),  Bell 
(1831),  and  Montagu  Burrows  (1888). 

Sandwich  Islands.    See  Hawaii. 

Sandy  Hook,  a  narrow  sandy  peninsula  of 
New  Jersey,  between  the  Atlantic  and  Sandy 
Hook  Bay,  16  miles  S.  of  New  York.  It  is  6 
miles  long,  and  extends  northward  towards  New 
York  Lower  Bay.  On  it  are  a  lighthouse,  with  a 
new  and  most  powerful  electric  light  (1893-94),  a 
fort,  and  a  life-saving  station. 

Sandyknowe.    See  Smailholm. 

Sandy  Point.    See  Patagonia, 

San  Felipe  (Faylee'pay),  (1)  capital  of  the 
Chilian  province  of  Aconcagua,  60  miles  ENE.  of 
Valparaiso.  Pop.  12,000.— (2)  A  town  of  Lara 
state  in  Venezuela,  140  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Caracas. 
Pop.  7000.     See  also  Jativa. 

San  Fernando,  a  Spanish  town,  near  the  head 
of  a  bay,  9  miles  SSE.  of  Cadiz,    Pop.  29,920. 

San  Francisco,  the  largest  city  of  the  Pacific 
coast,  and  commercial  emporium  of  California,  is 
situated  in  37°  47'  22"  N.  lat.  and  122°  25'  40-76"  W. 
long.,  2434  miles  W,  of  St  Louis  by  rail,  and  3542 
of  New  York.  The  city  occupies  the  end  of  a  pen- 
insula or  tongue  of  land,  having  the  ocean  on  one 
side  and  the  Bay  of  San  Francisco  on  the  other. 
The  site  is  uneven  ;  from  two  heights  (294  and 
360  feet)  the  land  inclines  gently  towards  the 
bay.  The  entrance  to  this  landlocked  bay  is 
through  the  Golden  Gate,  5  miles  long  and  1 
mile  wide,  with  a  depth  of  100  feet,  but  only  30 
feet  on  the  bar  at  the  entrance.  The  Bay  of  San 
Francisco  extends  to  the  S.  about  40  miles,  vary- 
ing in  width  from  6  to  12  miles.  Northwards, 
this  bay  connects  by  a  strait  with  San  Pablo  Bay 
(10  miles  long),  which  again  is  connected  with 
Suisun  Bay  (8  miles  long).  The  Sacramento  and 
San  Joaquin  rivers  debouch  near  the  head  of 
Suisun  Bay.  Nearly  in  front  of  the  city  are  three 
important  islands— Alcatraz  (fortified).  Angel 
Island  (fortified),  and  Yerba  Buena  or  Goat 
Island.  Most  of  the  pioneer  wooden  business 
structures  have  disappeared ;  many  large  and 
costly  buildings  have  been  erected  ;  and  marble, 
granite,  and  terra-cotta  are  coming  into  exten- 
sive use,  with  interior  frames  of  iron  and  steel. 
There  are  several  theatres  and  opera-houses,  a 
sub-treasury,  mint,  custom-house,  stock  exchange, 
city  hall  (cost  over  $4,000,000),  and  other  struc- 
tures of  less  note.  The  Palace  Hotel  cost  upwards 
of  three  million  dollars,  and  accommodates  1200 
guests.  There  are  about  a  dozen  public  squares  ; 
the  Golden  Gate  Park  covers  an  area  of  1050  acres. 
The  new  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  the  Unitarian 
church,  Grace  Church,  and  the  First  Congrega- 
tional Church  are  notable  religious  edifices.  The 
state  university  is  at  Berkeley,  and  the  Leland 
Stanford  University  at  Palo  Alto  (33  miles  SE.  by 
rail).  The  higher  institutions  of  the  city  include 
the  law,  medical,  and  dental  departnients  gf  the 


SAN  FRATELLO 


695 


SAN  MARINO 


university,  the  Cooper  Medical  College,  the 
Hahnemann  Medical  College,  the  School  of 
Mechanic  Arts  (founded  by  a  bequest  from  James 
Lick  of  $540,000),  and  the  Academy  of  Sciences. 
The  city  has  also  a  free  library  with  near  150,000 
vols. ;  other  large  collections  are  the  Mercan- 
tile Library  and  the  Mechanics'  Library,  the 
Oddfellows'  Library,  and  the  Law  Library. 
The  most  conspicuous  building  is  the  City  Hall 
(begun  1875  ;  finislied  1900),  with  a  dome  332  feet 
high,  and  costing  over  $0,000,000.  Most  of  the 
streets  are  laid  out  in  rectangular  form,  and  with 
little  reference  to  the  conformation  of  the  sur- 
face. The  cable  tramway  was  invented  in  San 
Francisco,  and  there  are  still  some  80  miles  of 
cable-roads,  besides  about  180  miles  of  electric 
tramways.  Tlie  water-supply  is  brouglit  from 
points  about  20  miles  distant  from  the  city. 

San  Francisco  is  the  western  terminus  of  the 
great  continental  railroads  and  of  many  short 
lines,  and  has  steamer  communication  with  the 
ports  of  the  world.  A  stone  dry-dock  admits 
vessels  of  6000  tons,  and  there  are  smaller  docks  for 
coasting  craft.  San  Francisco  is  one  of  the  most 
important  grain  ports  in  the  United  States  ;  and 
gold  and  silver,  wine,  fruit,  and  wool  are  exported 
(largely  in  Britisl^,  bottoms).  There  are  large 
sugar-iMfineries,  foundries,  shipyards,  cordage- 
works.^vood-factories,  woollen-mills,  and  many 
others.  The  mission  of  San  Francisco  was 
founded  by  the  Mexicans  in  1776,  but  the  present 
city  spi'ang  from  the  village  of  Yerba  Buena, 
3  miles  E.,  founded  in  1835,  which  became 
American  in  1846.  In  1848,  the  year  of  the  Cali- 
fornian  gold  discovery,  the  pop.  was  500;  (1850) 
25,000  ;  (1870)  149,473  ;  (1900)  342,782,  including 
about  14,000  Chinese  (mainly  in  the  curious 
'Chinese  quarter,'  with  its  own  joss-houses, 
theatres,  and  opium-dens).  A  terrible  earth- 
quake (April  18,  1906),  and  the  resultant  fires, 
destroyed  the  greater  part  of  San  Francisco 
and  many  neighbouring  towns,  and  a  large  part 
of  the  state  suffered  at  the  same  time.  See 
California,  and  works  there  cited. 

San  Francisco  del  Rincon,  a  town  of  Mexico, 
40  miles  W.  of  Guanajuato.     Pop.  12,000. 

San  Fratello,  a  town  of  Sicily,  53  miles  WSW, 
of  Messina.     Pop.  9554. 

Sangerhausen  (Sang-er-hov/zen),  an  old  town 
of  Prussian  Saxony,  on  the  SE.  of  the  Harz 
Mountains,  22  miles  E.  of  Nordhausen,  with 
manufactures  of  machinery,  iron,  copper,  and 
beet-root  sugar.    Pop.  12,188. 

San  Germano  (Jermdh'no),  or  Cassino,  a  town 
of  Italy,  3  miles  E.  of  the  celebrated  monastery 
of  Monte  Cassino  (q.v.)  and  69  miles  NW.  of 
Naples.  It  is  built  from  the  ruins  of  the  ancient 
Volscian  Casinum.    Pop.  6380. 

San  Gimlgnano  (Jiminydh'no),  a  town  of  Italy, 
25  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Florence.     Pop.  3591. 

San  Giovanni  a  Teduccio  (Jovan'nee  ah  Tay- 
doot'sio),  a  SE.  suburb  of  Naples.    Pop.  14,397. 

San  Giovanni  in  Fiore  (Fyo'ray),  a  town  of 
South  Italy,  25  miles  E.  of  Cosenza.    Pop.  10,500. 

San  Giovanni  Rotondo,  a  town  of  South  Italy, 
27  miles  NE.  of  Foggia.    Pop.  8312. 

Sanglr  Islands  (Sangeer' ;  g  hard),  a  group  of 
fifty  mountainous  volcanic  islands,  lying  between 
the  Philippines  and  Celebes.  Area,  323  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  115,000.  The  largest.  Great  Sangir,  is  28 
miles  long  by  9  broad  ;  the  eruption  of  the  vol- 
cano Abu  here  in  1856  cost  6000  lives.  The 
people  are  Malays,  ruled  by  chiefs  under  Dutch 
suzerainty. 

2n 


Sang-kol.    See  Tonquin. 

San  Joaquin'  (San  Wah-keen'),  a  river  of  Cali- 
fornia, rises  in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  runs  400 
miles  SW.  and  NNW.  to  Suisun  Bay,  near  the 
mouth  of  the  Sacramento  River. 

San  Jose,  capital  of  Santa  Clara  county, 
California,  on  the  Guadalupe  River,  8  miles  from 
the  Bay  and  50  by  rail  SE.  of  the  city  of  San 
Francisco.  Besides  a  fine  court-house  and  a  city 
hall,  it  contains  the  state  normal  school  and  a 
Roman  Catholic  college  for  girls ;  and  the  Uni- 
versity of  the  Pacific  (Methodist  Episcopal ;  1852) 
and  the  Roman  Catholic  Santa  Clara  College  are 
both  at  Santa  Clara,  close  by.  Lick  Avenue 
extends  from  San  Jose  to  the  Lick  Observatory. 
The  city  has  wide  streets  and  three  parks,  is  noted 
for  its  gardens  and  fruit,  and  has  foundries,  fruit- 
canneries,  woollen  and  flour  mills,  a  furniture- 
factory,  &c.  Much  wine  is  made  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood.    Pop.  (1880)  12,567  ;  (1900)  21,500. 

San  Jos6  (San  Ho-zay'),  the  capital  since  1823 
of  Costa  Rica,  on  a  fertile  plain,  3711  feet  above  the 
sea,  25  miles  from  Carillo,  the  terminus  of  the  rail- 
way (70  miles)  from  Limon,  the  Atlantic  port.  The 
principal  manufactories  are  the  government  dis- 
tillery, steam  flour-mills,  and  two  foundries.  Pop. 
25,000.— (2)  A  thriving  inland  town  of  Uruguay, 
capital  of  the  southern  department  of  the  same 
name,  60  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Montevideo. 
Pop.  9000.— (3)  Three  towns  in  the  Philippine 
Islands,  with  from  7000  to  10,000  inhabitants.— 
(4)  A  town  in  Cuba,  20  miles  SB.  of  Havana. 
Pop.  3100.     See  also  Ct5cuta. 

San  Juan  (San  Hoo-ahn'),  a  frontier  province  of 
the  Argentine  Republic,  bordering  on  Chili,  with 
an  area  of  37,697  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  100,000.  The 
capital,  San  Juan,  on  the  river  San  Juan,  is  by 
rail  735  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Buenos  Ayres  and  98 
N.  of  Mendoza.  Pop.  12,000. -(2)  Of  several  San 
Juans  in  Mexico  the  chief  is  on  the  river  Tabasco, 
70  miles  from  its  moutli.  Pop.  10,600.  See  also 
St  John's  (Porto  Rico),  Greytown,  and  Fuca. 

Sankuru,  an  aOluent  of  the  Kassai,  itself  a 
tributai-y  of  the  Congo  (q.v.). 

Sanliicar  de  Barrameda  (Barramay'da),  a  sea- 
port of  Spain,  15  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Cadiz,  at  the 
month  of  the  Guadalquivir.    Pop.  23,746. 

San  Luis  (Loo-eess'),  a  province  of  the  Argentine 
Republic,  with  an  area  of  29,304  sq.  m.  and  a 
pop.  of  100,000.— The  capital,  San  Luis,  is  on  the 
trans-continental  railway,  480  miles  W.  by  N.  of 
Buenos  Ayres.    Pop.  11,000. 

San  Luis  Potosi  (Potozee'),  capital  of  the  Mexi- 
can state  of  the  same  name,  stands  on  the  edge 
of  a  plateau,  7400  feet  above  the  sea,  302  miles  by 
rail  NNW.  of  Mexico  city.  It  contains  a  hand- 
some cathedral,  railway  workshops,  a  cotton- 
factory,  and  great  smelting-works.  There  are 
silver-mines  near  by.  Pop.  70,000.— The  state  has 
an  area  of  27,503  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  582,500. 

San  Marco  in  Lamis,  a  town  of  South  Italy, 
IS  miles  N.  of  Foggia.     Pop.  15,345. 

San  Marino  (Marc^no),  an  Italian  republic, 
the  smallest  independent  state  of  Europe,  lies 
among  the  eastern  spurs  of  the  Apennines,  9  miles 
SW.  of  Rimini  on  the  Adriatic.  Area,  33  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  11,100,  including  a  town  of  the  same  name 
(pop.  1600)  and  some  villages.  The  town  is  built 
on  a  mountain  crag,  and  is  accessible  only  by  one 
road ;  the  streets  are  steep  and  narrow.  In  the 
13th  century  San  Marino  cast  in  its  lot  with  the 
house  of  Urbino  ;  but  on  the  annexation  of  this 
duchy  to  the  Papal  States  in  1631  the  independ- 
ence  of  San  Marino   was  recognised,  and  has 


SAN  MIGUEL 


SANTANDER 


since  been  maintained,  though  it  acknowledges 
the  king  of  Italy  as  its  protector.  From  the 
Grand  Council  of  sixty  life-members,  self-elected, 
are  selected  the  Council  of  Twelve.  The  execu- 
tive is  committed  to  two  captains-regent. 

San  Miguel'  (MeegayV),  a  town  of  Salvador,  at 
the  foot  of  a  volcano  (7775  feet).     Pop.  25,000. 

San  Miguel  Alende,  a  town  of  Mexico,  on  the 
side  of  a  high  hill  overlooking  the  Rio  de  la  Lara, 
253  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Mexico.    Pop.  15,000. 

San  Miniato  (Min-i-ah'td),  a  cathedral  city  of 
Italy,  22  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Florence.  It  was  the 
original  seat  of  the  Bonapartes.    Pop.  2147. 

San  Nicandro,  a  town  of  Italy,  26  miles  N.  of 
Foggia.     Pop.  8257. 

San  Nicolas,  an  Argentine  city,  on  the  ParanA, 
150  miles  NW.  of  Buenos  Ayres.    Pop.  15,000. 

San  Paulo.    See  Sao  Paulo. 

Sanpo.    See  Brahmaputra. 

Sanquhar  (Sang'har  or  Sang'kar),  a  town  of 
Dumfriesshire,  on  tlie  Nith,  26  miles  NNW.  of 
Dumfries.  It  has  a  ruined  castle,  was  the  birth- 
place of  the  'Admirable '  Crichton,  and  has  many 
Covenanting  memories.  The  Corda  of  Ptolemy, 
it  was  made  a  royal  burgh  in  1598,  and  with 
Dumfries,  &c.  returns  one  member.  Pop.  1375. 
See  James  Brown's  History  of  Sanquhar  (1891). 

San  Remo  (Ray'mo),  a  city  of  Northern  Italy, 
stands  on  rising  ground  on  a  bay  of  the  Gulf  of 
Genoa,  26  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  Nice  and  84  SW. 
of  Genoa.  The  shelter  of  the  hills  behind  and 
its  delightful  climate  make  it  one  of  the  favourite 
winter-resorts  of  the  Riviera,  especially  for 
Englishmen  and  Germans.  There  are  two  quarters, 
an  old  town  of  steep,  narrow  streets,  and  a  new 
town  of  handsome  streets  and  picturesque  villas, 
hotels,  and  palaces.     Pop.  19,285. 

San  Roque,  a  town  of  Spain,  8  miles  N.  by  W. 
of  Gibraltar.     Pop.  8497. 

San  Salvador',  or  Banza  Congo,  a  decayed 
town  of  Africa,  in  Portuguese  Angola,  170  miles 
E.  by  S.  of  the  Congo's  mouth.    Pop.  "TOO. 

San  Salvador',  the  capital  of  the  republic  of 
Salvador  (q.v.),  stands  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile 
plateau,  among  green  hills,  and  at  the  foot  of  the 
extinct  volcano  of  San  Salvador  (8360  feet).  The 
government  buildings  are  handsome ;  the  cathe- 
dral is  unfinished.  San  Salvador  was  founded  in 
1528,  and  in  1854,  when  it  had  a  pop.  of  25,000, 
was  destroyed  by  an  earthquake.  A  town  of 
Nueva  San  Salvador  was  built  12  miles  SW.,  the 
capital  until  1858.  Violent  shocks  of  earthquake 
have  since  visited  the  old  capital  in  1873,  1879, 
and  1891.  Pop.  60,000.— San  Salvador  is  also  a 
name  for  Bahia  (q.v.),  and  for  Cat  Island  in  the 
Bahamas  (q.v.). 

Sansanding,  or  Sansandig,  a  town  of  Africa, 
on  the  Niger's  left  bank,  370  miles  SW.  of  Tira- 
buctoo.    Pop.  20,000. 

San  Sebastidn,  a  fortress  and  seaport  in  the 
north  of  Spain,  402  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Madrid, 
and  11  from  the  French  frontier.  It  is  built  on 
a  peninsula,  stretching  from  the  base  of  a  conical 
hill,  OrguUo  (400  feet),  which  is  crowned  with  a 
strong  castle.  Since  its  storming  by  Wellington 
(1813),  the  town  has  been  rebuilt  on  a  regular 
plan.  On  the  west  is  a  magnificent  roadstead, 
but  difficult  of  access.  It  is  bordered  by  a  beauti- 
ful shore,  which  attracts  many  summer  visitors. 
Most  of  the  loading  and  unloading  is  done  at 
Pasages,  2^  miles  E.  The  imports  include  coal, 
metals,  fish,  spirits,  and  yarn  ;  the  exports  wine, 
minerals,  textiles,  and  matches.    Pop.  37,800. 


San  Severe  (Sevay'ro),  a  cathedral  city  of  Italy, 
18  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Foggia.     Pop.  25,000. 

San  Stefano,  a  village  6  miles  W.  of  Con- 
stantinople. 

Santa  Ana,  a  town  of  Salvador,  40  miles  NNE. 
of  Sonsonate.     Pop.  45,000. 

Santa  Barbara,  '  the  Newport  of  the  Pacific,' 
is  on  the  coast  of  S.  California.    Pop.  7000. 

Santa  Catharina  (Kutaree'na),  a  southern  coast 
state  of  Brazil,  with  an  area  of  27,436  sq.  m.  and 
a  pop.  of  295,000,  largely  Germans.  The  capital 
is  Desteno  (30,000),  on  a  small  island. 

Santa  Clara,  capital  of  a  province  in  the  centre 
of  Cuba.     Pop.  13,800. 

Santa  Cruz  {Krooz),  also  called  Sainte  Croix, 
one  of  the  Virgin  Islands,  with  an  area  of  74  sq. 
m.  and  a  pop.  (1890)  of  21,000.  Sugar,  rum,  and 
cotton  are  produced;  the  capital  is  Christianstadt 
(pop.  5500).  Discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  first 
voyage,  the  island  was  held  by  Dutch,  English, 
Spanish,  French,  and  the  Knights  of  Malta,  and 
was  bought  by  Denmark  in  1733. — (2)  Or  Nitendi, 
the  largest  (area,  216  sq.  m.)  of  a  group  of  Mela- 
nesian  islands,  sometimes  called  Queen  Cliarlotte 
Islands,  east  of  the  Solomon  archipelago  and  100 
miles  N.  of  the  New  Hebrides.  Bishop  Patteson 
was  murdered  on  Nukapu,  one  of  the  smaller  isles. 
— (3)  Or  Tenerife,  the  capital  and  chief  seaport  of 
the  Canary  Islands  (q.v.),  on  the  NE.  side  of 
the  island  of  Tenerife.  It  is  the  seat  of  a  bishop. 
Santa  Cruz  is  much  resorted  to  by  steamers  for 
re-coaling. — (4)  Santa  Cruz  de  la  Palina  is  the 
capital  of  Palma,  another  of  the  Canary  Islands 
(q.v.).  Pop.  7617.— (5)  Santa  Cruz,  a  southern 
territory  of  the  Argentine  Republic,  stretching 
from  the  Atlantic  to  the  watershed  of  the  Andes ; 
area,  106,890  sq.  m. 

Santa  Fe  (,Fay),  a  wealthy  province  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  N.  of  Buenos  Ayres ;  area, 
54,790  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  575,000.  The  largest  town 
is  Rosario.  The  capital  is  Santa  Fe,  on  the  Rio 
Salado,  by  rail  7  miles  from  its  port,  Colastin6, 
on  the  Parana.    Pop.  25,099.    See  also  Bogota. 

Santa  F^,  till  1906  capital  of  the  territory  of 
New  Mexico,  in  that  year  incorporated  with  the 
state  of  Arizona,  is  6840  feet  above  the  sea.  It 
is  an  old  Spanish- American  town,  and  its  adobe 
archiepiscopal  cathedral  is  the  oldest  existing 
Christian  edifice  in  the  States.    Pop.  5713. 

Santa  Lucia.  See  St  Lucia.— Santa  Lucia  la 
also  the  name  of  a  town  of  Uruguay,  30  miles 
NW.  of  Montevideo.     Pop.  5000. 

Santa  Marta,  a  port  of  Colombia,  on  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  was  founded  in  1525,  the  second 
Spanish  town  planted  on  the  mainland.  In  1834 
an  earthquake  almost  utterly  destroyed  the  place, 
which  is  a  bishop's  see.     Pop.  9000. 

Santa  Maura.    See  Leukas. 

Santander  (Span.  pron.  San-tan-dair'),  a  sea- 
port of  Spain,  on  an  inlet  of  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
316  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Madrid,  with  cigar- 
factories,  breweries,  cotton,  paper,  and  flour 
mills,  iron-foundries,  and  shipbuilding  yards. 
The  exports  include  flour,  wine,  food-stufts,  and 
metals ;  the  imports,  tobacco,  food-stuff's,  cod- 
fi.sh,  iron  and  steel  goods,  textiles,  coal,  petro- 
leum, chemicals,  timber,  &c.  Santander  is  a 
favourite  seaside-resort  in  summer.  Pop.  54,800. 
It  was  here  Charles  I.  embarked  for  England 
after  his  trip  to  the  Spanish  court.  The  town 
was  sacked  by  Soult  in  180S,  and  in  November 
1893  was  wrecked,  with  great  loss  of  life,  by  the 
explosion  of  a  dynamite-freighted  ship  in  the 


SANTAREM 


627 


SAO  PAULO 


harbour.— Area  of  province  of  Santander,  2113 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  276,000. 

Santarem  (San-ta-ren^),  capital  of  the  Portu- 
guese province  of  Estreinadura,  on  the  Tagus' 
right  bank,  4(5  miles  NE.  of  Lisbon  by  rail.  An 
old  Moorish  castle,  crowning  a  hill  was  the 
ancient  residence  of  the  kings  of  Portugal ;  and 
there  is  also  a  cathedral  with  interesting  tombs. 
Pop.  8500.— (2)  A  town  of  Brazil,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Tapajos  with  the  Amazon  ;  pop.  5000. 

Santa  Rosa,  capital  of  Sonoma  county,  Cali- 
fornia, on  Santa  Rosa  Creek,  51  miles  by  rail  N. 
by  W.  of  San  Francisco.    Pop.  6700. 

Santa  Rosa,  (l)  a  town  of  Chili,  82  miles  by 
rail  E.  by  N.  of  Valparaiso ;  pop.  6000.— (2)  A 
mining-town  of  Colombia,  in  Antioquia,  8335  feet 
above  the  sea  ;  pop.  11,000.— (3)  A  town  of  Boyaca 
in  Colombia,  9055  feet  above  the  sea  ;  pop.  9000. 

Santee,  a  river  of  South  Carolina,  flowing  150 
miles  SE.  to  the  Atlantic. 

Santiago.    See  Cape  Verd  Islands. 

Santiago  (San-tee-dh'go),  the  capital  of  Chili, 
stands  near  the  western  base  of  the  Andes,  1700 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  115  miles  by  rail  ESE. 
of  Valparaiso.  The  snow-capped  cordilleras  seem 
to  enclose  it  on  the  north  and  east ;  while  in  the 
east  of  the  city  rises  the  picturesque  Cerro  de 
Santa  Lucia  (800  feet  above  the  plain),  dotted 
with  grottoes,  statues,  kiosks,  restaurants,  a  his- 
torical museum,  and  an  observatory.  The  small 
but  turbulent  stream,  the  Mapocho,  is  crossed 
by  five  bridges.  The  city  is  regularly  laid  out, 
lit  with  gas  and  the  electric  light,  and  has  tram- 
ways in  all  directions  ;  most  of  the  houses  are 
of  one  story  only,  owing  to  the  earthquakes  (the 
most  serious  occurred  in  1575,  1647,  1730,  1822, 
1835,  1900).  On  the  great  Plaza  Iiulependeiicia 
are  the  government  palaces,  the  Grand  English 
Hotel,  the  cathedral,  and  the  archbishop's  palace. 
On  the  site  of  the  Jesuit  church,  burned  down 
in  1863,  a  monument  was  erected  (1872)  in  memory 
of  the  2000  worshippers  who  perished  in  the  fire. 
Santiago  boasts  a  noble  Alameda,  adorned  with 
four  rows  of  poplars  and  statues.  Facing  it  are 
the  university  (1842),  and  the  National  Institute. 
The  city  has  also  a  military  school,  schools  of  arts 
and  agriculture,  a  conservatoire,  a  national 
library  (1813),  with  102,000  volumes ;  botanical 
and  zoological  gardens,  &c.  The  manufactures 
include  cloth,  ship's  biscuits,  beer,  brandy,  &c., 
and  it  has  also  an  ice-factory,  a  fruit-conserving 
establishment,  and  copper-smelting  works. 
Santiago  was  founded  by  Pedro  de  Valdivia  in 
1541.  Pop.  (1865)  168,553  ;  (1902)  330,000.— Area 
of  the  province,  5223  sq.  m. ;  pop.  485,000. 

Santiago  de  Compostella,  a  city  of  Spain, 
the  former  capital  of  Galicia,  stands  surrounded 
by  hills,  33  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Corunna  and  26  by 
rail  NE.  of  its  port,  Carril.  Here  in  835  the 
bishop  of  Iria  discovered,  according  to  the 
legend,  the  bones  of  St  James  (San  lago),  being 
guided  to  the  spot  by  a  star,  whence  Compostella 
{campiis  stelke  =  '  field  of  the  star ') ;  the  relics  were 
in  1884  solemnly  affirmed  by  the  pope  to  be  still 
beneath  the  cathedral.  This  building,  Roman- 
esque in  style,  was  built  1078-1188,  and  contains 
some  fine  sculptures  and  metal-work.  It  was  the 
shrine  that  attracted  every  25th  July  so  many 
thousands  of  pilgrims,  especially  Englishmen,  in 
the  middle  ages,  but  is  now  out  of  repute.  Ruined 
monasteries  give  the  town  a  deserted  appearance  ; 
but  it  is  still  an  archbishop's  see,  and  has  a  uni- 
versity (1504)  with  700  students.  Ornaments  are 
made  and  linen  is  woven.    Pop.  (1900)  24,920. 


Santiago  de  Cuba,  the  former  capital  of  Cuba, 
and  now  the  chief  town  of  the  eastern  depart- 
ment of  the  island,  stands  on  a  bay  on  the  south 
coast,  and  has  a  fortified  harbour.  It  contains 
a  cathedral  and  seminary,  foundries,  cigar- 
factories,  sawmills,  &c.    Pop.  43,100. 

Santiago  del  Estero  (Santeedh'go  del  Es'tero), 
a  north  central  province  of  the  Argentina 
Republic.  Area,  39,510  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  180,700.— 
The  capital,  Santiago,  on  the  Rio  Dulce,  750 
miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Buenos  Ayres,  was 
founded  in  1553.    Pop.  10,000. 

Santlpur',  a  town  of  Bengal  on  the  Hooghly,' 
43  miles  N.  of  Calcutta.     Pop.  26,900. 

Santis,  or  Sentis,  a  mountain  (8216  feet)  on 
the  borders  of  the  Swiss  cantons  of  St  Gall  and 
Appe]izell.  There  are  on  it  an  observatory  (since 
1887)  and  a  hotel. 

Santo  Domingo.    See  San  Domingo. 

Santo  Espiritu(Sanc«i  Spiritus),  atown  of  Cuba, 
40  miles  by  rail  ENE.  of  Trinidad.    Pop.  12,700. 

Santorin',  or  Theea,  an  island  of  the  iEgean, 
the  southernmost  of  the  Cyclades,  70  miles  N.  of 
Crete.  It  is  shaped  like  a  crescent,  the  horns 
pointing  west ;  between  them  lies  the  island  of 
Therasia.  In  the  SE.  of  Santorin  Mount  St 
Elias  rises  to  1887  feet.  The  chief  town,  Thera 
or  Phera,  on  the  west  coast  of  Santorin,  is 
perched  some  900  feet  above  the  water.  Pop.  of 
island,  about  12,000.  Eruptions  took  place  in 
196  B.C.,  726  A.D.,  1573,  1650,  1707,  and  1866. 

Santos,  a  port  of  the  state  of  Sao  Paulo  in 
Brazil,  founded  in  1546,  on  the  island  of  Sao 
Vicente.  It  has  fine  wharves,  tramways,  and 
a  good  water-supply ;  but  it  is  hot  and  un- 
healthy. A  railway  (40  miles,  5  of  them  by  cable 
up  the  Serra  do  Mar— 2500  feet)  connects  \t  with 
Sao  Paulo,  whose  port  it  is.    Pop.  40,000. 

San  Vicente,  a  pretty  town  of  Salvador,  40 
miles  NE.  of  San  Salvador.    Pop.  17,800. 

Sao  Francisco  {Sown?  Fransees'ko),  a  large 
river  of  Brazil,  rises  in  Minas  Geraes,  and  flows 
1800  miles  to  the  Atlantic. 

Sao-Leopoldo,  a  town  of  Rio  Grande  do  Sul, 
Brazil,  20  miles  N.  of  Porto  Alegre.  Pop.  10,000, 
mainly  Germans. 

Saone  (Sone),  a  river  of  France,  an  affluent  of 
the  Rhone  (q.v.),  rises  in  the  dep.  of  Vosges,  in 
the  Faucelles  Mountains,  and  flows  282  miles  (170 
navigable)  SW.  and  S.  to  the  Rhone  at  Lyons. 
It  receives  the  Doubs  from  the  left.  See  Hanier- 
ton's  illustrated  description  of  the  river  (1887). 

Saone,  Haute  (Ote  Sone),  a  dep.  in  the  east  of 
France.  Area,  2061  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1861)  317,183  ; 
(1901)  266,605.  The  arrondissements  are  Gray, 
Lure,  and  Vesoul  (the  capital). 

Sa6ne-et-Loire  (Sone-ay-Lwar),  one  of  the 
largest  deps.  of  France,  part  of  Burgundy.  Area, 
3300  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872)  598,344  ;  (1901)  620,360. 
There  are  arrondissements  of  Autun,  Chalon, 
Charolles,  Loulian,  and  Macon  (the  capital). 

Sao  Paulo  (Sown^  Pow'lo),  capital  of  a  Brazilian 
state,  stands  on  a  wide  plain  bounded  by  low 
hills,  4  miles  from  the  Rio  Tiete  and  310  by  rail 
W.  by  S.  of  Rio  de  Janeiro.  The  principal  build- 
ings are  the  old  Jesuit  college,  now  the  govern- 
ment palace,  the  bishop's  palace,  and  a  celebrated 
law-scliool.  Sao  Paulo  is  the  headquarters  of  the 
coffee  trade,  and  has  cotton-works,  with  manu- 
factories of  tobacco,  cigars,  spirits,  matches, 
gloves  and  hats.  Pop.  100,000,  including  12,000 
Italians  and  1500  Germans. — The  state  has  au  area 
of  112,330  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  1,750,000. 


SARAGOSSA 


SARDINIA 


(Span.  Saragoza),  a  city  of  Spain, 
formerly  the  capital  of  Aragon,  by  rail  212  miles 
NE.  of  Madrid  and  227  W.  by  N.  of  Barcelona, 
stands  on  the  Ebro,  which  is  crossed  by  a  noble 
stone  bridge  of  seven  arches,  built  in  1437.  From 
afar  it  has  an  imposing  appearance  with  its  many 
towers  and  spires.  Saragossa  was  the  Celtiberian 
Salduba,  changed  to  Ccesarea  Augusta  in  25  b.c., 
of  which  the  present  name  is  a  corruption.  One 
of  the  first  cities  of  Spain  to  adopt  Christianity 
(3d  century),  it  was  taken  by  the  Goths  in  the 
5th  and  by  the  Moors  in  the  8th  century,  and  was 
recovered  from  them  in  lllSafter  a  five  years'  siege, 
during  which  great  part  of  the  inhabitants  died  of 
hunger.  The  most  momentous  event  in  its  recent 
history  was  the  siege  by  the  French  (June  to 
August  1808  and  December  1808  to  February 
1809),  in  which  the  inhabitants  offered  a  most 
determined  resistance,  some  60,000  in  all  perish- 
ing. The  services  of  the  'Maid  of  Saragossa' 
seem  to  have  been  greatly  exaggerated  by 
Southey,  Byron,  and  Sir  David  Wilkie.  Sara- 
gossa has  two  cathedrals,  the  older  a  Gothic 
edifice  (1316) ;  the  more  modern  (17th  century) 
boasts  of  a  pillar  on  which  the  Virgin  descended 
from  heaven.  The  citadel"  was  anciently  the 
palace  of  the  kings  of  Aragon  and  later  the 
headquarters  of  the  Inquisition.  There  are  also  a 
university  (1474)  with  800  students,  and  a  large 
archiepiscopal  palace.  The  leaning  Torre  Nueva, 
dating  from  1504,  was  in  1890  voted  unsafe  and 
doomed  to  demolition.  The  industries  comprise 
cloth,  silks,  leather, 'soap,  and  chocolate.  Pop. 
(1900)  99,500t— The  province  has  an  area  of  6727 
sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  422,000. 

Sarajevo  {Sarl-yay'vo;  Turkish  Bosna-Serai), 
capital  of  Bosnia,  stands  on  the  hill-slopes  that 
overlook  the  Bosna  River  (3  miles  distant),  166 
miles  SW.  by  rail  of  Bosna-Brod,  on  the  Danube, 
and  100  E.  by  rail  (1891)  of  Metkovich,  a  port 
near  the  mouth  of  the  Narenta  in  the  Adriatic, 
The  citadel  and  the  minarets  of  100  mosques,  the 
crowded  charsia  or  bazaar,  and  the  steep  and 
narrow  streets  climbing  the  hillsides  amidst 
gardens,  represent  the  ancient  moslem  town  ;  the 
wide  streets  on  the  plain  near  the  railway  station, 
traversed  by  tramways  and  lit  with  the  electric 
light,  the  Roman  Catholic  Cathedral,  and  the 
Bosnian  museum  reflect  the  swift  progress  that 
has  taken  place  since  the  Austrian  occupation  in 
1878.  The  Bogova-Jamia  mosque  dates  from  1506 ; 
the  Greek  Cathedral  is  a  large  building  ;  and  the 
Moslem  College  (1890)  is  a  fine  building  in  Ori- 
ental style.  The  town  has  considerable  trade,  and 
manufactures  tobacco,  cigars,  and  cigarettes  ;  the 
Hungarian  government  have  revived,  in  a  large 
factory,  the  ancient  Bosnian  art  of  inlaying  gold 
and  silver  in  copper  and  wood.  Pop.  41,200, 
mostly  all  Bosniaks  by  race,  and  more  than  half 
Mohammedans,  with  5000  Greek  Catholics,  and 
nearly  as  many  Roman  Catholics,  and  3000  Jews. 

Sarakhs,  a  town  of  NE.  Persia,  mainly  a  col- 
lection of  Turkoman  huts,  with  a  strong  fort, 
stands  on  the  Heri-Rud.  The  Russians  in  1885 
occupied  the  opposite  bank. 

Saransk,  a  town  of  Russia,  65  miles  N.  of 
Penza.     Pop.  13,921. 

Saraswati.    See  Allahabad. 

Saratoff  (Sar-dh'toff),  a  city  of  Russia,  on  the 
Volga's  right  bank,  exactly  500  miles  by  rail  SB.  of 
Moscow.  It  is  a  city  of  broad  streets  and  fine 
squares,  and  stands  on  terraces  rising  from  the 
river.  There  are  a  handsome  new  cathedral  (1825), 
an  old  cathedral  (1697),  and  the  museum  with  its 
art   gallery   and   a   library.      Manufactures   of 


brandy,  liqueurs,  flour,  oil,  and  tobacco  are 
carried  on.  Fishing  is  prosecuted  in  the  river, 
and  market-gardening  (especially  fruit  and  the 
sun-flower)  in  the  vicinity.  Pop.  (1830)  50,000 ; 
(1870)  85,220  ;  (1897)  137,109.— The  government,  the 
east  side  of  which  is  washed  by  the  Volga,  has  an 
area  of  82,624  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  (1891)  of  2,433,445, 
including  several  flourishing  German  colonies 
(pop.  120,000)  which  settled  here  in  1763-65. 

Saratoga  Springs,  one  of  the  chief  watering- 
places  in  the  United  States,  is  on  a  monotonous 
plateau  in  New  York,  38  miles  by  rail  N.  of 
Albany.  It  contains  about  30  mineral  springs, 
whose  saline  waters  (some  chalybeate,  some  sul- 
phureous, and  all  impregnated  with  carbonic  acid), 
prescribed  in  diseases  of  the  liver,  chronic 
dyspepsia,  rheumatism,  &c.,  are  bottled  in  large 
quantities  for  exportation.  The  hotels  provide 
for  20,000  visitors,  and  life  in  Saratoga  is  notorious 
for  luxury.  There  is  a  race-track,  and  regattas 
are  held  on  Saratoga  Lake,  4  miles  distant. 
Twelve  miles  to  the  east  a  handsome  obelisk 
(1877),  155  feet  high,  on  a  bluff"  350  feet  above  the 
Hudson  River  and  overlooking  the  scene,  com- 
memorates the  surrender  of  Bargoyne  to  Gates, 
on  October  17,  1777.     Pop.  13,500. 

Sarawak  (Sar-dh'wak),  a  state  in  the  north- 
west of  Borneo,  since  1888  a  British  protectorate. 
The  Chinese  Sea  washes  its  north-west  side  ;  on 
the  north-east  is  the  protected  state  of  Brunei ; 
and  on  every  other  side  it  is  surrounded  by  Dutch 
Borneo.  Area  41,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  600,000.  The 
coast-belt  is  in  many  parts  low,  the  interior  hilly, 
rising  to  close  upon  8000  feet  near  the  frontiers. 
The  longest  river,  the  Rajang,  has  a  sinuous 
course  of  350  miles,  and  is  navigable  for  150  miles. 
Antimony,  quicksilver,  gold,  and  coal  are  mined, 
and  copper,  diamonds,  and  manganese  exist. 
Sago,  pepper,  gambler,  gutta-percha,  india-rubber, 
birds*  nests,  rattans,  tea,  coffee,  and  timber,  are 
exported.  The  people  consist  principally  of 
Malays,  Chinese,  and  Dyaks.  The  chief  town, 
Kuching  (pop.  25,000),  stands  20  miles  up  the 
Sarawak  River.  Sir  James  Brooke  (1803-68),  who 
became  Rajah  of  Sarawak  in  1841,  was  succeeded 
by  his  nephew,  Sir  C.  J.  Brooke,  who,  after 
greatly  extending  his  territory,  put  it  in  1888 
under  the  protection  of  Britain.  See  Spencer  St 
John,  Life  in  the  Forests  of  the  Far  East  (1862) ; 
his  Life  of  Sir  James  Brooke  (1879) ;  and  Charles 
Brooke,  Ten  Years  in  Sarawak  (1866). 

Sardes.    See  Sardis. 

Sardinia,  an  island  of  Italy,  after  Sicily  the 
largest  in  the  Mediterranean,  lies  135  miles  W.  of 
the  Tiber  mouth,  and  immediately  south  of 
Corsica,  being  separated  from  it  by  the  Strait  of 
Bonifacio,  7^  miles  wide.  It  is  170  miles  long 
from  N.  to  S.,  and  75  miles  broad  ;  area,  9206 
sq,  m.  The  surface  is  generally  mountainous, 
the  highest  point  (6233  feet)  is  Gennargentu. 
The  south-west  corner  is  separated  from  the  rest 
by  the  low  alluvial  plain  of  Campidano,  at  both 
extremities  of  which  are  extensive  salt  lagoons. 
Malaria  prevails  in  the  low-lying  tracts ;  the 
higher  parts  are  healthy.  Sardinia  has  a  fertile 
soil,  valuable  mines,  and  forests,  and  fisheries  ; 
but  owing  to  conservatism,  apathy,  lack  of 
enterprise,  and  imperfect  means  of  communica- 
tion, its  resources  are  undeveloped.  Of  the 
total  area  about  one-third  is  arable  land,  one- 
third  pasture,  and  nearly  one-third  forest.  The 
principal  produce  is  wheat,  barley,  beans,  pota- 
toes, wine,  olive-oil,  oranges,  lemons,  tobacco, 
flax  and  hemp,  cheese,  butter,  and  wool.  The 
growing  of  fruits  and  the  breeding  of  the  domestic 


SAUDIS 


629 


SAUTERNES 


animals  are  important  industries.  Besides  being 
in  ancient  times  the  granary  of  Rome,  Sardinia 
was  renowned  for  Its  mineral  wealth.  At  the 
present  time  some  12,000  persons  are  employed 
in  extracting  lead  (with  silver)  and  zinc,  lignite, 
antimony,  and  manganese.  Iron  and  copper  also 
exist.  Granite,  marble,  and  clay  for  pottery  are 
quarried.  Salt  is  manufactured  from  sea- water. 
The  centre  and  north  of  the  island  are  chiefly 
covered  with  forests— oak,  ilex,  cork,  and  wild- 
olive— which  yield  timber,  cork,  bark  for  tan- 
ning, acorns,  and  charcoal.  The  seas  (to  Italian, 
not  Sardinian,  fishermen)  yield  large  quantities 
of  tunny,  sardines,  anchovy,  and  coral.  There  is 
some  tanning  and  making  of  cigars,  aerated 
waters,  macaroni,  flour,  and  spirits.  Until  the 
year  1828  Sardinia  had  no  roads  for  wheeled 
vehicles,  the  Roman  roads  having  gone  to  ruin 
centuries  ago.  Now  there  are  good  roads 
throughout  the  island ;  and  they  are  supple- 
mented by  350  miles  of  railway.  The  island  has 
good  ports — Cagliari  (the  capital)  being  the  chief. 
The  inhabitants  are  of  mixed  race,  Spanish  and 
Italian  elements  predominating.  Pop.  (1815) 
352,867;  (1881)682,000;  (1904)811,036— 87-15  to  the 
sq.  in.  Education  is  in  a  very  backward  state. 
The  two  universities  at  Cagliari  and  Sassari  are 
frequented  by  260  students  ;  -83  per  cent,  of  the 
population  are  unable  to  read  and  write.  The 
vendetta  and  bi'igandage  were  extremely  preval- 
ent, but  have  now  almost  ceased.  The  language 
is  a  mixture  of  Latin,  Spanish,  and  Italian,  but 
the  dialects  diff'er  considerably ;  classical  Italian 
is  the  official  language.  The  moufflon  or  wild 
sheep,  deer,  and  wild  boar,  are  hunted.  There 
are  two  provinces  of  Cagliari  and  Sassari.  Some 
3000  nuraghe  or  round  towers,  and  many  'giant's 
graves,'  are  prehistoric  or  very  ancient  curiosities. 
See  works  by  Tennant  (1885),  Tyndale  (3  vols. 
1849),  and  Edwardes  (1889). 

Sardis,  the  capital  of  ancient  Lydia  in  Asia 
Minor,  stood,  on  the  golden-sanded  Pactolus,  at 
the  northern  foot  of  Mount  Tmolus  (5906  feet) 
and  2^  miles  S.  of  the  Hermus.  On  its  site  is 
Sart,  a  small  village,  with  ruin  mounds. 

Sargasso  Sea.    See  Atlantic  Ocean. 

Sari  (Sdh'ree),  the  decayed  capital  of  the 
province  of  Mazanderan,  Persia,  18  miles  S.  of 
the  Caspian  Sea.    Pop.  8000. 

Sar-i-kol,  or  Sariq-qol,  a  great  valley  or  de- 
pression in  Eastern  or  Chinese  Turkestan,  on  the 
eastern  side  of  the  Painir  plateau. 

Sark  (Fr.  Gers),  the  smallest  of  the  four  Channel 
Islands  (q.v.),  6  miles  E.  of  Guernsey  and  12 
NNW.  of  Jersey.  Almost  entirely  rockbound, 
and  only  2  sq.  m.  in  area,  it  consists  of  two  por- 
tions. Great  and  Little  Sark,  connected  by  an 
istlunus.  Fishing  and  agriculture  are  the  occu- 
pations.    Pop.  500. 

Sark,  a  Dumfriesshire  stream,  winding  llj 
miles  SSW.  (mainly  along  the  Border)  to  the  head 
of  the  Solway  Firth. 

Sarnen,  capital  of  one  of  the  divisions  of  the 
Swiss  canton  of  Unterwalden,  lies  on  its  own 
lake,  15  miles  S.  of  Lucerne  by  rail.    Pop.  4200. 

Sarnia,  a  town  and  port  of  Canada,  just  below 
the  issue  from  Lake  Huron  of  the  St  Clair  River, 
170  miles  WSW.  of  Toronto  by  rail.  Pop.  8847. 
See  St  Clair. 

Same,  a  city  of  Italy,  30  miles  by  rail  E.  of 
Naples,  on  the  farther  side  of  Vesuvius,  has  an 
old  castle,  a  cathedral  (1625),  paper,  cotton,  linen, 
silk,  and  ribbon  manufactories.    Pop.  18,464. 

Sarrakhs.    See  Sarakhs. 


Sarreguemines.    See  Saaroemund. 

Sarthe  (Sdhrt),  a  dep.  of  France,  north  of  the 
Loire,  formed  out  of  Anjou  and  Maine.  Area, 
2396  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1866)  465,615  ;  (1901)  422,700. 

Sarum.    See  Salisbury. 

Sarzana  {Sartzdh'na),  a  cathedral  city  of  N. 
Italy,  8  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Spezia.     Pop.  8016. 

Sasebo,  a  great  naval  port  of  Japan,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Kiushiu,  30  miles  N.  of  Nagasaki. 
Pop.  70,000. 

Saskatch'ewan,  a  large  river  of  Canada,  whose 
North  Branch  rises  among  the  glaciers  near  Mount 
Hooker,  its  South  Branch  in  the  jiorth  of  Mon- 
tana, flowing  respectively  770  and  810  miles  before 
they  meet.  The  river  then  flows  east  282  miles 
to  Lake  Winnipeg,  from  which  its  waters  are 
carried  to  Hudson  Bay  by  the  Nelson  River 
(q.v.),  rendered  unnavigable  by  rapids.  With 
the  Nelson,  the  total  length  is  1514  miles.  The 
river  gives  name  to  a  province  of  the  Dominion, 
constituted  in  1905  out  of  the  former  territory  of 
Saskatchewan,  together  with  half  of  Athabasca, 
and  the  greater  part  of  Assiniboia  ;  the  extended 
Alberta  absorbing  the  rest  of  these  two  terri- 
tories, which  have  now  disappeared.  Area  of  the 
province  of  Saskatchewan,  275,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
250,000.     Regina  (pop.  3000)  is  the  capital. 

Sassari  (Sass'aree),  a  city  of  NW.  Sardinia,  12 
miles  by  rail  from  its  port,  Porto  Torres  (pop. 
4500),  on  the  Gulf  of  Asinara,  and  162  miles  N.  by 
W.  of  Cagliari.  It  has  a  cathedral  (1531),  castle 
(1331),  university  (1677),  &c.    Pop.  38,500. 

Sasun,  or  Sassoon,  a  small  town  of  Armenia, 
50  miles  W.  of  Bitlis.  In  1893-94  the  Kurds  and 
Turks  committed  great  atrocities  here. 

S4tAr4  (Satdh'ra),  a  town  of  Bombay,  near  the 
Kistna,  56  miles  S.  of  Poona.     Pop.  29,601. 

Satoralja-Ujhely,  a  town  of  Hungary,  30  miles 
SE.  of  Kaschau,  near  a  spur  of  the  Carpathians. 
Pop.  17,000. 

Sauchie  (Sait'hee),  or  Sauchieburn,  a  battle- 
field 3  miles  SSW.  of  Stirling,  where  in  1488 
James  III.  was  defeated  and  slain. 

Saugor.    See  Sagar. 

Sault  Ste  Marie,  a  town  of  Ontario,  Canada 
(pop.  7500),  and  one  in  Michigan  (pop.  12,000), 
separated  by  the  St  Mary's  River  and  the  St 
Mary's  Falls  ship-canal,  which  connect  Lake 
Huron  with  Lake  Superior.  A  vast  system  of 
locks  simplifies  the  navigation ;  the  falls  or  rapids 
(Saiilt,  pron.  soo)  generate  electrical  energy,  whicli 
is  largely  utilised  for  various  industries.  A  great 
bridge  links  the  (American)  North  Pacific  and 
the  Canadian  Pacific  railways. 

Saumur  (Somiir',  nearly  So-meei-'),  a  town  of 
France,  dep.  Maine-et-Loire,  on  the  left  bank  and 
on  an  islet  of  the  Loire,  38  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S. 
of  Tours.  It  has  an  old  castle  (now  arsenal  and 
powder  magazine),  a  16th-century  town-house, 
a  museum,  and  a  cavalry  school  with  some  400 
pupils.  Rosaries  and  articles  in  enamel  are  manu- 
factured. Pop.  14,400.  Saumur  was  a  Huguenot 
stronghold  with  25,000  inhabitants,  and  from  1598 
till  the  revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685) 
had  a  famous  school  of  Protestant  theology. 
Saumur  was  captured  by  the  Vendeans  in  1793. 
Tlie  largest  dolmen  in  France  is  1^  mile  S. ;  and 
prehistoric  caves  line  the  river. 

Saundersfoot,  a  Pembrokeshire  seaport  village 
on  Carmarthen  Bay,  3^  miles  NE.  of  Tenby. 

Sauternes,  a  village  of  the  dep.  of  Gironde,  18 
miles  SE.  of  Bordeaux,  noted  for  its  white  wines. 


SAVAGE  ISLAND 


630 


SAXONY 


Savage  Island,  or  Niue,  a  coral  islet  E.  of  the 
Friendly  Islands.    Pop.  5000. 

Savaii.     See  Samoa. 

Savanllla,  a  port  of  Colombia,  on  a  bay  of  the 
Caribbean  Sea,  17  miles  WNW.  of  Barranquilla 
by  the  railway  to  Puerto  Colombia. 

Savan'nali,  a  river  which  forms  the  boundary 
between  Georgia  and  South  Carolina,  rises  near 
the  North  Carolina  frontier,  and  flows  450  miles 
SSE.  to  the  Atlantic.  It  is  navigable  from 
November  to  June  for  large  vessels  to  Savannah, 
for  steamboats  of  150  tons  to  Augusta. 

Savannali,  a  city  and  port  of  Georgia,  capital 
of  Chatham  county,  stretches  along  the  south 
bank  of  the  Savannah  River,  18  miles  from  its 
mouth,  and  115  by  rail  SW.  of  Charleston.  It  is 
built  on  a  sandy  plain,  40  feet  above  the  river, 
with  broad  streets  shaded  by  beautiful  trees.  Tlie 
dozens  of  parks  are  a  delightful  feature  of  the 
place ;  and  almost  in  the  centre  of  the  city  is 
Forsyth  Place  (30  acres),  thickly  planted  with 
forest  pines.  Here  is  a  monument  to  the  Con- 
federate dead  ;  and  others  in  the  city  commemo- 
rate General  Nathaniel  Greene  and  Count  Pulaski, 
who  fell  here.  The  chief  edifices  are  the  custom- 
house, city  exchange,  cotton  exchange,  court- 
house, Hodgson  Hall,  the  Telfair  Academy  of 
Arts  and  Sciences,  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral, 
the  Independent  Presbyterian  Church,  Christ 
Church,  on  the  site  of  the  chapel  where  John 
Wesley  first  ministered  to  the  colonists,  and  the 
hospitals  and  asylums.  Savannah  has  long  been 
the  first  naval  stores  station  and  the  second  port 
of  the  United  States  in  respect  of  the  quantity  of 
cotton  exported.  Other  articles  of  export  are 
spirits  of  turpentine,  resin,  lumber,  rice,  and 
cotton-seed.  The  imports  include  fertilisers, 
brimstone,  fruit,  cotton  ties,  and  salt.  The  in- 
dustrial works  comprise  rice-mills,  foundries, 
planing-mills,  flour,  cotton,  and  paper  mills, 
cotton-presses,  packing-houses,  ice  and  furni- 
ture factories,  &c.  The  city  was  founded  in 
1733,  and  incorporated  in  1789.  It  was  taken 
by  the  British  in  1778,  and  by  General  Sherman 
in  December  1864,  the  harbour  having  been 
closed  to  commerce  by  the  Federal  fleet  from 
1861.     Pop.  (1880)  80,709  ;  (1900)  54,244. 

Save  (Ger.  Sau;  Hung.  Szdva),  a  river  in  S. 
Austria,  rises  in  Carniola,  and  flows  556  miles 
(366  navigable)  SE.  and  E.,  separating  Carniola 
from  Styria,  and  Bosnia  and  Servia  from  Slavonia, 
till  it  falls  into  the  Danube  at  Belgrade. 

Savemake,  a  beautiful  woodland  region  in 
Wiltshire,  to  the  south  of  the  town  of  Marl- 
borough. Its  40,000  acres  of  farm  and  forest 
and  hill  were  sold  in  1891  to  Lord  Iveagh  for 
£750,000  by  the  Marquis  of  Ailesbury,  whose 
ancestor  acquired  it  by  marriage  in  1676— a  sale, 
however,  cancelled  two  years  later. 

Savigliano  (Saveelyah'no),  a  town  of  Italy,  by 
rail  32  miles  S.  of  Turin.     Pop.  9932. 

Savo'na,  a  seaport  of  Italy,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Genoa,  26  miles  by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Genoa  and  91 
SSE.  of  Turin.  A  handsome  modern  town  em- 
bowered in  orange-groves,  it  has  a  Renaissance 
cathedral  (1589-1604),  with  the  tomb  of  Pope 
Sixtus  IV. ;  a  castle  (1542),  now  a  prison,  in  which 
Mazzini  was  confined  in  1830-31  ;  the  Delia 
Rovere  Palace,  a  picture-gallery,  a  marine  insti- 
tute, ironworks,  potteries,  glass-works,  tanneries, 
and  brick-yards.    Pop.  24,481. 

Savoy',  formerly  a  province  of  the  kingdom  of 
Sardinia,  was  transferred  to  France  in  1860,  and 
divided  into  the  two  deps.  of  Savoie  and  Haute- 


Savoie.  It  is  an  alpine  region,  havmg  the  Graian 
Alps  on  the  eastern  frontier,  as  the  boundary 
next  Piedmont.  On  that  side  it  runs  up  to 
15,782  feet  in  Mont  Blanc,  and  to  11,792  in  Mont 
Cenis ;  thence  it  falls  away  gradually  to  the 
Rhone  (950  feet),  which  separates  it  on  the  west 
from  the  French  dep.  of  Ain.  The  area  is  3889 
sq.  m.  (2223  in  Savoie  and  1666  in  Haute-Savoie)  ; 
the  total  pop.  (1881)  540,525;  (1901)  518,584, 
of  whom  254,781  were  in  Savoie  and  263,803  in 
Haute-Savoie.  The  dep.  of  Savoie  has  the  four 
arrondissements  of  Albertville,  Chambery  (the 
capital),  Mofl.tiers,  St  Jean-de-Maurienne  ;  Haute- 
Savoie  has  the  four  arrondissements  of  Annecy 
(the  capital),  Bonneville,  St-Julien,  Thonon. 

Savu',  an  island  of  the  East  Indies,  lies  W.  of 
Timor,  and  is  ruled  by  five  Malay  rajahs  who  pay 
tribute  to  the  Dutch.    Pop.  16,000. 

Sawbridgeworth,  a  town  of  Herts,  on  the 
Stort,  4  miles  S.  of  Bishop  Stortford.  Pop.  of 
parish,  2085. 

Sawley,  a  Derbyshire  village,  on  the  Trent,  SJ 
miles  ESE.  of  Derby.    Pop.  of  parish,  1751. 

Saxe-Coburg,  &c.    See  Saxon  Duchies. 

Saxmundham,  a  Suffolk  market-town,  22J 
miles  NE.  of  Ipswich.     Pop.  of  urban  dist.,  1452. 

Saxon  Duchies,  a  group  of  Central  German 
states  lying  between  Prussian  Saxony,  the  king- 
dom of  Saxony,  Bavaria,  and  Hesse-Nassau. 

state.  "U^  m!^  ^^P-  in  190". 

Saxe-Altenburg 511  194,114 

Saxe-Coburg-Gotha 755  229,550 

Saxe-Meiniugeu 953  250,731 

Saxe-Weimar- Eisenach 1387  362,873 

Altenburg  and  Coburg-Gotha  each  consists  of 
two  principal  portions,  with  smaller  fragments ; 
Weimar-Eisenach  embraces  three  large  divisions ; 
and  Meiningen  has  detached  parcels.  Except 
the  easternmost  part  of  Altenburg,  they  are  all 
generally  hilly,  embracing  the  Thuringian  high- 
lands, and  are  watered  by  the  Elbe's  tributaries 
—the  Saale,  Unstrut,  Ilm,  and  Elster— and  by 
the  Werra.  The  four  duchies  maintain  the  uni- 
versity of  Jena.  At  the  head  of  each  is  a  duke 
(in  Weimar  a  grand-duke),  controlled  or  assisted 
by  an  assembly.  To  the  house  of  Saxe-Coburg, 
an  independent  duchy  since  1680,  belonged  both 
the  mother  of  Queen  Victoria  and  the  Prince 
Consort ;  the  dukedom  passed  in  1893  to  the 
Duke  of  Edinburgh,  and  in  1900  to  the  son  of 
the  Duke  of  Albany. 

Sax'ony,  a  kingdom  of  Germany,  fifth  in  area, 
but  third  in  population,  amongst  the  states  of 
the  empire  ;  it  is  surrounded  by  Bohemia,  Silesia, 
Prussian  Saxony,  and  the  minor  Saxon  states. 
It  measures  130  miles  E.  and  W.  by  90  miles,  and 
has  a  total  area  of  5787  sq.  m.  (a  little  smaller 
than  Yorkshire).  The  greater  part  of  the  surface 
is  diversified  by  the  spurs  of  the  Erzgebirge 
(highest  point  3343  feet),  with  to  the  west  the 
outliers  (2900  feet)  of  the  Fichtelgebirge  and  to 
the  east  the  northern  extensions  (2600  feet)  of 
the  Riesengebirge.  The  northern  districts  pass 
over  into  the  great  North  German  plain.  In  many 
parts  the  surface  is  studded  with  isolated  peaks 
of  basalt  and  sandstone  (e.g.  the  Saxon  Switzer- 
land above  Dresden).  It  lies  almost  wholly  within 
the  basin  of  the  Elbe.  The  population  grows 
fast:  (1815)  1,178,802;  (1840)  1,706,276;  (1880) 
2,972,805  ;  (1900)  4,202,216.  By  race  the  majority 
of  the  people  are  Germanised  Slavs,  close  upon 
50,000  being  Wends,  living  in  Lusatia  ;  more  than 
90  per  cent,  are   Lutherans,  though  the  royal 


Saxony 


631 


gCAftPANTO 


dynasty  are  Catholic.  The  capital  is  Dresden ; 
the  largest  towns  are  Dresden,  Leipzig,  and  Chem- 
nitz, having  respectively  about  480,700,  456,200, 
and  214,100  inhabitants.  Saxony  is  essentially  a 
mining  and  manufacturing  country.  The  manu- 
factures are  the  textile  industries  (linen,  damask, 
muslin,  hosiery,  ribbons,  cloth  and  buckskin, 
flaimel,  woollen  goods,  and  waxcloth),  the  making 
of  machinery,  pottery,  porcelain  and  glass,  chemi- 
cals, beer,  spirits,  lace,  paper,  straw-plait,  tobacco, 
artiticial  flowers,  pianofortes,  hats,  toys,  watches, 
books,  musical  instruments,  ornamental  wooden 
articles,  &c.  Coal,  argentiferous  lead,  zinc,  iron, 
and  cobalt  are  produced  ;  and  Freiberg  is  one  of 
the  chief  mineral  centres  in  Germany.  Amongst 
the  recruits  of  1887  there  was  only  1  in  5000  who 
could  not  read  and  write.  Amongst  the  educa- 
tional institutions  are  the  university  of  Leipzig, 
two  famous  schools  at  Meissen  and  Grimma,  a 
polytechnic  at  Dresden,  an  industrial  academy 
at  Chemnitz,  a  mining  academy  at  Freiberg,  a 
forestry  school  at  Tliarandt.  Tlie  annual  national 
income  and  expenditure  balance  at  about 
£5,750,000  ;  the  public  debt,  principally  incurred 
for  railways,  amounted  in  1892  to  £41,500,000. 
The  king  exercises  the  supreme  executive,  and 
there  are  two  legislative  chambers.  Saxony  sends 
23  members  to  the  Reichstag  of  the  empire,  and 
4  to  the  Reichsrath. 

The  old  Saxons,  a  low-German  people,  once 
occupied  all  North  Germany  from  the  Rhine  to 
the  Elbe,  from  the  Harz  Mountains  to  the 
North  Sea,  and  sent  out  warlike  emigrants  to 
found  the  Bnglisli  state.  At  home  they  had  long 
wars  with  their  kinsmen  the  Franks,  and  were 
not  conquered  and  christianised  (by  Charlemagne) 
till  804.  Duke  Henry  extended  the  Saxon 
dominion  far  east  of  the  Elbe  and  over  the  present 
kingdom,  subduing  the  Slavic  tribes  there.  The 
Emperor  Frederick  I.  (1180)  confined  the  Saxon 
duchy  to  the  country  east  of  the  Elbe ;  about 
1360  the  duke  became  an  elector.  In  1485  the 
reigning  family  split  into  two  main  branches,  the 
electoral  branch  in  the  west,  and  the  Albertine 
line  beyond  the  Elbe.  The  Emperor  Charles  V. 
crushed  the  elector,  conspicuous  on  the  Prot- 
estant side,  in  1547,  and  gave  lands  and  title  to 
the  eastern  branch.  In  the  Thirty  Years'  War, 
the  electors  of  Saxony  (now  the  part  containing 
the  present  kingdom)  were  driven  to  take  the 
Protestant  side,  but  becoming  for  a  time  kings  of 
Poland,  early  in  the  ISth  century  returned  (and 
have  ever  since  remained  attached)  to  Catholicism. 
Saxony  sided  with  Austria  in  the  Seven  Years' 
"War,  and  was  severely  handled  by  Frederick  the 
Great.  In  1806  the  elector  took  the  title  of  king 
and  went  over  to  the  side  of  Napoleon,  in  con- 
sequence of  which  the  Congress  of  Vienna  took 
away  from  Saxony  a  large  part  of  its  dominions, 
and  handed  them  over  to  Prussia  (see  Saxony, 
Prussian).  In  the  Franco-German  war,  the 
Saxons  fought  bravely  by  the  side  of  the  Prussians. 

Saxony,  Prussian,  a  province  of  Prussia, 
formed  in  1815  out  of  districts  taken  from  the 
kingdom  of  Saxony,  part  of  the  duchy  of  Magde- 
burg, the  Altmark,  the  principalities  of  Halber- 
stadt  and  Erfurt,  &c.  Auhalt  (q.v.)  almost 
divides  it  in  two.  Area,  9746  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1900) 
2,832,616.  The  capital  is  Magdeburg;  other 
towns  are  Halle,  Erfurt,  Halberstadt,  Aschersle- 
ben,  Mlihlhausen,  and  Nordhausen. 

Say.    See  Niger. 

Scafell  (Skaw-feW),  a  double-peaked  mountain, 
the  loftiest  summit  in  England,  on  the  Westmor- 
land border  of  Cumberland,  14^  miles  SSW.  of 


Keswick.    Of  its  two  peaks,  the  higher,  Scafell 
Pike,  attains  3210  feet,  the  other  3161. 

Scala  Nova  (Skdh'la  Nova;  Turkish  Kuscha- 
dassi),  a  port  of  Asia  Minor,  at  the  head  of  a  gulf, 
40  miles  S.  of  Smyrna,  opposite  Samos,  and  near 
the  ruins  of  Ephesus  (q.v.).     Pop.  9000. 

Scalloway,  a  seaport  village  of  Shetland,  6 
miles  WSW.  of  Lerwick.     Pop.  860. 

Scalpa,  an  island  of  Harris,  Inverness-shire,  in 
East  Loch  Tarbert.     Area,  3  sq.  m. ;  pop.  587. 

Scalpay,  an  island  off  the  E.  coast  of  Skye, 
attains  994  feet.    Area,  10  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  35. 

Scanderoon',  or  Alexandretta  (Iskanderun, 
'  Alexander's  town  '),  the  port  of  Aleppo  (77  miles 
SE.)  on  the  Gulf  of  Scanderoon,  in  the  NB. 
angle  of  the  Levant.  It  is  a  poor  and  unhealthy 
place  of  1500  inhabitants,  with  a  neglected  har- 
bour ;  yet  it  has  a  transit  trade  of  over  £2,000,000 
a  year.  It  was  founded  by  Alexander  the  Great 
to  commemorate  his  victory  of  Issus  (333  b.c). 
Off  here  Sir  Kenelm  Digby  defeated  a  Franco- 
Venetian  squadron  (1628) ;  and  close  by  Mehemet 
All  defeated  the  Turks  in  1832. 

Scandina'via,  the  peninsula  comprising  Sweden 
and  Norway.  Historically  Scandinavia  includes 
also  Denmark  and  Iceland. 

Scarba,  an  Argyllshire  island,  1^  mile  N.  of 
Jura,  attains  1500  feet.     Area,  5|  sq.  m. ;  pop.  13. 

Scar'borough,  the  'Queen  of  Watering-places,' 
in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  54  miles  N.  of 
Hull,  21  SSE.  of  Whitby,  43  NE.  of  York,  and 
233  N.  of  London.  Backed  by  Oliver's  Mount 
(500  feet),  it  rises  like  an  amphitheatre  round  a 
beautiful  sandy  bay,  protected  on  the  north  by  a 
castle-crowned  headland  (300  feet),  beyond  which 
is  the  quieter  North  Cliff.  The  South  Cliff  and 
the  old  town  (below  the  Castle)  are  separated  by 
a  picturesque  gully,  which  is  spanned  by  the 
Cliff  Bridge  (1827 ;  414  feet  long,  75  high),  and, 
farther  up,  by  the  Ramsdale  Valley  Bridge  (1865). 
Scarborough  (A.S.  Skardehurge,  '  fortified  rock ') 
is  an  old  place,  for  Harold  Hardrada  ravaged  it 
in  1066,  and  in  1181  it  received  a  renewal  of  an 
earlier  charter ;  it  returned  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment from  Edward  I.'s  time  till  1885,  when  the 
representation  was  reduced  to  one.  The  castle, 
now  a  shattered  Norman  keep,  dates  from  1136, 
but  was  rebuilt  as  a  royal  fortress  by  Henry  II. 
Near  it  is  St  Mary's,  the  church  originally  of  a 
Cistercian  priory  (1320),  Transition  Norman  and 
Early  English  in  style,  with  later  additions.  St 
Martin's  (1862)  is  a  good  Early  English  structure, 
with  windows  by  Morris.  Other  buildings  are 
the  splendid  aquarium  (1877),  the  museum  (1828), 
the  market-hall  (1853),  the  huge  Grand  Hotel 
(1867),  and  the  Spa  (1880),  the  third  on  the  site, 
whose  two  saline  and  chalybeate  springs  were 
discovered  about  1620,  and  which  has  charming 
grounds.  The  tidal  harbour,  with  a  lighthouse  and 
a  floating-dock,  was  formed  between  1732  and 
1850,  and  is  enclosed  by  three  piers,  the  longest 
and  outermost  curving  1380  feet ;  on  the  North 
Sands  is  a  promenade  pier  1000  feet  long ;  and 
here,  too,  a  promenade,  nearly  4000  feet  long 
and  24  wide,  was  constructed  in  1887-90  at  a  cost 
of  £50,000.  The  jet  manufacture  is  a  specialty. 
The  season  lasts  from  June  till  the  middle  of 
October,  when  visitors  pour  in  by  thousands. 
Sir  F.  Leigh  ton  was  a  native.  Resident  pop. 
(1851)  12,915;  (1881)  30,504;  (1901)  38,160.  See 
works  by  Gent  (1735),  Hinderwell  (2d  ed,  1811), 
J.  Brogden  Baker  (1882),  and  Haviland  (1883). 

Scarpan'to  (anc.  Carpatho),  a  long  narrow 
mountainous   island,    attaining   4000   feet,  and 


SCATTERY  ISLAND 


632 


SCHWARZBURG-RUDOLSTADf 


belonging  to  Turkey,  midway  between  Rhodes 
and  Crete,     Area,  85  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  5000  Greeks. 

Scattery  Island,  an  islet  in  the  Shannon's 
estuary,  3  miles  SW.  of  Kilrush,  with  a  lighthouse, 
a  jfort,  fraginents  of  several  small  churches,  and 
an  ancient  round  tower  87  feet  high. 

Scawfell.    See  Scafell. 

Schafifhausen  (Shaff-how'zen),  the  most  north- 
ern canton  of  Switzerland,  is  bounded  on  all  sides 
but  the  south  by  Baden.  Area,  114  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
(1870)  37,721;  (1900)  41,514,  German-speaking 
and  Protestant.  Tlie  Rhine  forms  the  southern 
boundary ;  and  the  surface  is  hilly.— Schaff- 
HAUSEN,  the  capital,  is  beautifully  situated  on 
the  Rhine's  right  bank,  31  miles  by  rail  WNW. 
of  Constance.  Overlooking  the  town,  remark- 
able for  its  antique  architecture,  stands  the 
castle  of  Munoth  (1564-90),  and  there  are  also  the 
cathedral  (12th  century),  a  concert  hall,  a  lib- 
rary, a  museum,  and  a  statue  to  the  historian 
Johannes  von  Miiller,  a  native.  Pop.  10,648. 
The  grand  falls  of  Schaffhausen,  about  3  miles 
below  the  town,  are  utilised  for  factories,  which 
turn  out  iron,  arms,  oil,  flour,  beer,  spirits,  soap, 
candles,  wool,  cotton,  and  agricultural  machines. 

Schassburg.    See  Segesvar. 

Schauinburg-Llppe  (Shoimn'boorg-Lippeh),  a 
sovereign  German  principality,  lying  between 
Westphalia  and  Hanover.  Area,  131  sq.  m. ; 
pop.  (1900)  43,132,  mostly  Lutherans.  Some  coal 
is  extracted.    Capital,  Blickeburg  (pop.  5186). 

Scheldt  (Skelt ;  Fr.  Escmit),  a  river  that  rises 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Aisne,  flows  north  past 
Cambrai  and  Valenciennes,  and,  entering  Belgium, 
passes  Tournai,  Oudenarde,  Ghent,  Dendermonde, 
and  Antwerp,  receiving  the  Lys.  Dender,  and 
Rupel.  Before  it  reaches  the  North  Sea  it  is 
divided  by  the  islands  of  Beveland  (N.  and  S.) 
and  Walcheren  into  two  great  arms,  the  Wester 
(on  which  is  Flushing)  and  the  Ooster  Scheldt. 
The  river  is  navigable  to  Cambrai,  211  miles  from 
its  mouth  and  56  from  its  source. 

Schellenberg  (Shellenberg),  a  village  9  miles  S. 
of  Salzburg,  where  Marlborough  defeated  the 
Austrians  in  1704. 

Schemnltz  (Shem'neetz ;  Magyar  SelmeczMnya), 
the  most  famous  mining-town  of  Hungary,  in 
a  mountain  gorge,  65  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Pesth. 
The  mines  have  since  Roman  times  produced  gold 
and  silver,  copper  and  lead.    Pop.  18,265. 

Schenectady  {Sheriek'tady),  a  city  of  New  York, 
on  the  Ei'ie  Canal  and  the  south  bank  of  the 
Mohawk  River,  17  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Albany. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Union  University  (1795),  and  con- 
tains locomotive  works,  stove-foundries,  woollen 
and  flour  mills,  &c.  Schenectady  was  settled  by 
the  Dutch  in  1661.     Pop.  31,700. 

Scheveningen  (Skay'ven-ing-en),  a  Dutch  sea- 
side-resort on  the  North  Sea,  now  practically 
part  of  the  Hague,  2  miles  NW.  Pop.  21,000. 
Off"  Scheveningen  the  Dutch  fleet  was  defeated, 
and  its  admiral  Tromp  killed,  by  the  English 
under  Monk  on  8th-10th  August  1653. 

Schiedam  (Sfcee-damm'),  a  Dutch  town,  2^  miles 
W.  of  Rotterdam,  and  close  to  the  Maas  ;  here 
Hollands  gin  is  made,  in  some  300  distilleries. 
There  is  a  large  shipping  trade,  cooperages,  malt- 
kilns,  &c.     Pop.  27,500. 

Schiehalllon  {Shee-hal'yon ;  Gael,  'maiden's 
pap'),  an  isolated  Perthshire  mountain  (3547 
feet),  11  miles  WNW.  of  Aberfeldy.  Here,  in 
1774,  Maskelyne  fixed  the  earth's  mean  density. 

Schipka.    See  Shipka. 


Schlangenbad  (Shlang' en-hat),  a  German  spa. 
The  Rheingau  stands  in  a  wooded  valley  of  the 
Taunus  Mountains,  5  miles  W.  of  Wiesbaden. 
The  water  of  the  baths  (82°-90°  F.)  is  used,  for  the 
most  part  externally,  in  baths,  and  is  helpful  in 
nervous  diseases,  for  women's  complaints,  and  for 
purifying  the  skin.  Pop.  508.  Visitors  in  the 
season,  2000.  The  place  gets  its  name  ('  snakes' 
bath ')  from  a  harmless  snake  found  there. 

ScMeswig.     See  Sleswick. 

ScMettstadt  (Shlett'stat),  a  town  of  Lower 
Alsace,  on  the  Ill's  left  bank,  27  miles  by  rail 
SSW.  of  Strasburg,  manufacturing  wire-gauze. 
In  the  15th  century,  a  free  imperial  city,  it  was 
the  seat  of  a  great  humanist  school.  In  1634  the 
town  became  French  ;  it  was  fortified  by  Vauban 
in  1676.  The  Germans,  after  capturing  the  town 
in  1870,  razed  the  fortifications.  Here  Bucer 
the  Reformer  was  born.    Pop.  9500. 

ScMiisselbnrg  (Schleess'elboorg),  a  town  (pop. 
5542)  and  prison-fortress  of  Russia,  the  fortress 
being  on  a  rocky  islet  in  the  Neva  where  it  issues 
from  Lake  Ladoga.  Here  Ivan  VI.  was  murdered, 
after  twenty-three  years'  imprisonment. 

Schmalkalden  (Shmahlkahl'den),  an  old  town 
of  Hes.se-Nassau,  Prussia,  19  miles  SW.  of  Gotha. 
The  Protestant '  League  of  Schmalkald '  was  con- 
cluded here  on  4th  April  1531.    Pop.  8729. 

Schneeberg  (Shrmy'berg),  a  mining-town  of 
west  Saxony,  20  miles  SW.  of  Chemnitz,  produc- 
ing silver  (though  not  in  its  former  great  abund- 
ance), cobalt,  tin,  and  iron.    Pop.  8949. 

Schneekoppe  (Shnay'kop-peh),  the  highest 
point  (5260  feet)  of  the  Riesengebirge  (q.v.). 

Schneidemiihl,  a  Prussian  town  half-way  be- 
tween Berlin  and  Danzig,  in  a  flat  and  dreary 
region  in  the  north  of  Posen,  with  19,700  inhabit- 
ants and  some  manufactures  of  iron,  machines, 
starch,  bone-dust,  felt,  and  carpentry.  An 
artesian  Avell  sunk  here  in  1893-94  poured  forth 
such  floods  of  water  and  mud  as  to  inundate  part 
of  the  town,  and  cause  serious  subsidences. 

Schonebeck  (nearly  Shay'neh-bek),  a  town  of 
Prussia,  9  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Magdeburg,  on  the 
Elbe's  left  bank.  Here  65,000  tons  for  salt  are 
made  annually,  also  machinery,  chemicals,  starch, 
varnish,  «&c.    Pop.  16,319. 

Schonhausen  (nearly  Shay nlioiv' sen),  a  village 
of  Prussian  Saxony,  60  miles  WNW.  of  Berlin  by 
rail  (pop.  1700),  with  the  old  seat  of  the  Bismarck 
family,  and  the  institute  or  hospital  for  secondary 
teachers  and  their  widows  and  orphans,  founded 
in  1885  by  Prince  Bismarck  with  the  fund  raised 
to  celebrate  his  70th  birthday. 

Schoodic.    See  Maine. 

Schouwen  (Skow'wen),  an  island  of  the  Dutch 
province  of  Zealand,  with  an  area  of  62  sq.  m. 
and  a  pop.  of  24,000.     Chief  town,  Zierikzee. 

Schreckhom,  one  of  the  mountains  of  the 
Bernese  Oberland,  SE.  of  Grindelwald ;  the 
highest  peak  (13,386  feet)  was  first  ascended  by 
Mr  Leslie  Stephen  in  1861. 

Schuylkill  (Skoolkill),  a  river  of  Pennsylvania, 
rising  in  the  coal  region,  and  flowing  130  miles 
SE.  to  the  Deleware  at  Philadelphia. 

Schwalbach  (Shval'bahh),  or  Langenschwal- 
BACH,  a  German  spa,  8  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Wies- 
baden, has  eight  springs  impregnated  with  iron 
and  carbonic  acid  gas,  efficacious  in  feinale  com- 
plaints, poor  blood,  and  muscular  weakness. 
Pop.  2678,  increased  to  7000  in  the  season. 

Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt,  a  German  prin- 
cipality, consists  of  the  upper  lordship  (283  sq. 


SCHWARZBUftG-SONDERSHAUSEir      633 


SCOTLAKO 


m.)  in  Thuringia,  surrounded  by  the  Saxon 
duchies  of  Weimar,  Altenburg,  and  Meiningen ; 
and  the  lower  lordship  (80  sq.  ni.),  lying  40  miles 
to  the  N.  in  Prussian  Saxony.  Pop.  94,000. 
Both  divisions  are  mountainous ;  in  the  lower 
lordship  stands  the  Kyflfhauser  (1545  feet),  under 
which,  according  to  legend,  Frederick  Barbarossa 
sleeps.    Capital,  Rudolstadt. 

Scliwarzburg-Sondershausen,  a  German  prin- 
cipality, consists  of  the  lower  lordship  (200  sq. 
m.)  in  "Prussian  Saxony  and  two  separate  portions 
constituting  the  upper  lordship  (132  sq.  m.)  in 
the  Thuringia,  surrounded  by  the  Saxon  duchies 
of  Gotha,  Weimar,  and  Meiningen.  Pop.  81,000. 
Capital,  Sondershausen. 

Schwarzwald     (Shvartzvalt).       See     Black 

FORIiST. 

Schwedt  (Shvayt),  a  town  in  the  Prussian  prov- 
ince of  Brandenburg,  on  the  Oder,  28  miles  SSW. 
of  Stettin,  the  residence  of  the  margraves  of 
Brandenburg  from  1689  to  1788.     Pop.  9756. 

SchweldnitZ  (Shvide'neetz),  a  town  of  Prussian 
Silesia,  36  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Breslau.  Woollens 
and  linens,  implements,  gloves,  needles,  pottery, 
beer,  &c.  are  manufactured.     Pop.  28,440. 

Schweinfurt  (Shvine'foort),  long  an  imperial 
free  city  of  NW.  Bavaria,  on  the  Main,  28  miles 
NE.  of  Wlirzburg  by  rail.  Riickert  the  poet  was 
born  here  (monument  1890).     Pop.  15,500. 

Schwerin  (Shvay-reen'),  capital  of  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin,  lies  on  the  Lake  of  Schwerin  (14 
miles  in  length  and  8  broad).  It  contains  the 
grand-duke's  castle  (1845-58),  a  Renaissance 
structure  ;  the  cathedral  (1365-1430) ;  an  arsenal ; 
a  museum  and  picture-gallery ;  and  manufactures 
of  lacquered  wares,  machinery,  cloth,  &c.  Pop. 
40,000. 

Schwyz  (Shveets),  a  Swiss  canton,  touches  in 
the  north  the  Lake  of  Zurich,  and  in  the  west  the 
Lakes  of  Zug  and  Lucerne.  Area,  350  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  56,000,  German -speaking  and  Catholics. 
The  surface  is  mountainous,  rising  on  the  border 
to  9052  feet.  The  monastery  of  Einsiedeln 
attracts  pilgrims,  and  the  Rigi  vast  numbers  of 
tourists  in  the  summer.  Schwyz,  the  capital,  is 
picturesquely  situated  26  miles  by  rail  E.  of 
Lucerne.  Here,  on  1st  August  1891,  was  held  the 
sixth  centenary  of  the  League  of  Brunnen  and  the 
seventh  of  the  founding  of  Bern.    Pop.  7624. 

Sciacca  {Shakka;  anc.  Thernue  Selinuntince), 
a  seaport  of  S.  Sicily,  on  a  bold  cliff  30  miles  NW. 
of  Girgenti,  has  a  fine  11th-century  cathedral, 
two  ruined  castles,  and  hot  sulphurous  and  saline 
springs.  Off  the  coast  coral  banks  were  dis- 
covered in  1875-80.     Pop.  20,709. 

Sclcli  (Shee'klee),  a  town  in  the  SE.  of  Sicily,  36 
miles  SW.  of  Syracuse.  Near  by  are  the  remains 
of  the  ancient  Casmence.    Pop.  13,842. 

Scilly  Islands  (Silly),  a  Cornish  group,  lie 
about  27  miles  WSW.  of  Land's  End.  They 
occupy,  as  a  group,  about  30  sq.  m.  of  sea-room, 
and  consist  of  six  large  islands— St  Mary's  (1528 
acres  ;  pop.  1290),  Tresco  (697  acres ;  pop.  328), 
St  Martin's  (515  acres ;  pop.  175),  St  Agnes  (313 
acres ;  pop.  148),  Bryher  (269  acres  ;  pop.  103),  and 
Samson  (78  acres,  uninhabited) — and  some  thirty 
small  ones,  besides  innumerable  rocks  and  ledges. 
None  reaches  more  than  160  feet  above  the 
sea.  They  are  wrongly  identified  with  the  Cassite- 
rides  or  '  Tin  Islands  '  of  the  ancients.  The  idea 
of  a  land  of  Lyonesse  between  the  islands  and  the 
mainland  submerged  within  historic  times  is  now 
abandoned.  The  present  name  '  Scilly '  belongs 
Btrictly  to  a  small,  very  inaccessible,  rocky  island 


in  the  north-west,  and  is  probably  derived  from 
Cornish  silya,  'a  conger  eel.'  Athelstan  con- 
quered the  islands  in  938,  and  established  monks 
upon  Tresco.  The  islands  were  handed  over  to 
Tavistock  Abbey  by  Henry  I.,  and  in  1568  leased 
by  Queen  Elizabeth  to  Sir  Francis  Godolphin. 
In  1834  they  were  leased  to  Mr  Augustus  John 
Smith,  who  made  Tresco  his  home  for  thirty-eight 
years,  built  churches  and  schools,  suppressed 
smuggling,  encouraged  agriculture,  and  forbade 
overcrowded  holdings.  He  was  succeeded  in  1872 
by  his  nephew. 

The  climate  is  mild,  but  necessarily  damp,  and 
the  weather  is  changeable  and  frequently  stormy ; 
but  the  temperature  is  extremely  equable, 
averaging  58°  F.  in  summer  and  45°  F.  in  winter. 
The  leading  natural  features  of  the  scenery  are 
the  fantastically  weathered  rocks  and  rock-basins 
and  the  bold  coast-lines.  There  are  remains  of 
cromlechs  and  stone  circles.  There  has  been  a 
lighthouse  on  St  Agnes  since  1680,  on  Bishop  Rock 
since  1858,  and  on  Round  Island  since  1887  ;  there 
are  also  lights  on  the  Wolf,  the  Seven  Stones 
(floating),  and  the  Longships  of  Land's  End. 
Hugh  Town,  on  St  Mary's,  is  the  only  town  on 
the  islands  ;  there  is  good  anchorage  in  the  road- 
stead. Wrecks  used  to  be  a  fruitful  source  of 
wealth.  One  of  the  most  famous  was  that  of 
three  ships  of  Sir  Cloudesley  Shovel's  fleet  in 
1707,  when  2000  men,  including  the  admiral,  were 
drowned.  Smuggling  was  formerly  largely  in- 
dulged in.  Kelp-making,  introduced  in  1684,  has 
been  given  up ;  so,  too,  has  shipbuilding.  Nowa- 
days most  of  the  young  men  emigrate.  Farming 
is  practised,  and  early  potatoes  and  broccoli  are 
exported ;  but  the  chief  industry  now  is  the 
cultivation  of  narcissus  and  other  lilies— 100  tons 
of  flowers  being  shipped  in  a  single  spring.  See 
works  by  Borlase  (1756),  Wliite  (1850),  Tonkin 
(Penzance,  1887),  and  Besant  (1890). 

Scinde.    See  Sind. 

Scindia's  Domliiions.    See  Gwalior. 

Scio  (Shee'o).    See  Chios. 

Scioto  (Si-o'to),  a  beautiful  river  of  Ohio,  flow- 
ing nearly  300  miles  E.  and  S.,  to  its  junction  at 
Portsmouth  with  the  river  Ohio. 

Sclavonia.    See  Slavonia. 

Scone  (Scoon),  in  Perthshire,  on  the  Tay's  left 
bank,  2  miles  N.  of  Perth,  was  the  capital  of 
Pictavia  as  early  as  710,  and  the  coronation  place 
of  the  Scottish  kings  from  1153  till  1488,  as  after- 
wards in  1651  of  Charles  II.  The  'Stone  of 
Destiny' was  carried  off"  in  1296  by  Edward  I. 
An  Augustinian  abbey,  founded  by  Alexander  I. 
in  1115,  was  demolished  by  a  rabble  in  1559  ;  and 
the  subsequent  Palace  of  the  Viscounts  Stormont, 
occupied  by  the  Old  Pretender  for  three  weeks  in 
1716,  and  visited  by  Prince  Charles  Edward,  gave 
place  to  a  modern  mansion,  the  seat  of  their 
descendant,  the  Earl  of  Mansfield.  See  Urquhart's 
History  of  Scone  (1884). 

Scotland,  the  northern  part  of  Great  Britain, 
is  washed  on  the  W.  and  N.  by  the  Atlantic,  on 
the  E.  by  the  North  Sea,  and  on  the  S.  is  parted 
from  England  by  the  Solway  Firth  and  the 
(largely  artificial)  line  described  in  the  article 
Borders.  Its  length,  from  Cape  Wrath  to  the 
Mull  of  Galloway,  is  274  miles  ;  its  breadth  varies 
between  24  and  146  miles  ;  and  its  total  area  is 
19,777,490  acres  or  30,902  sq.  m.,  of  which  631  sq.  m. 
are  water.  The  geology,  physical  geography, 
meteorology,  &c.  have  lieen  sketched  at  Great 
Britain.  Of  787  islands,  belonging  mostly  to 
the  ,  Hebrides,  Orkneys,  or  Shetland,  sixty -two 


SCOTLAND 


634 


SCOTLAND 


exceed  3  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  of  these  the  larg- 
est are  Long  Island  (Lewis  and  Harris,  859 
sq.  in.),  Skye  (643),  the  Mainland  of  Shetland 
(378),  Mull  (347),  Islay  (246),  Pomona  (207),  Arran 
(168),  Jura  (143),  and  North  Uist  (136).  Of 
twenty-six  rivers  flowing  direct  to  the  sea  the 
chief  are  the  Tweed  (97  miles  long),  Forth  (75), 
Tay  (93),  Dee  (87),  Don  (82),  Deveron  (62),  Spey 
(96),  Clyde  (106),  and  Nith  (71) ;  and  of  these  the 
Forth,  Tay,  and  Clyde  expand  into  important 
estuaries.  There  is  also  the  Moray  Firth  ;  and 
indeed  the  whole  coast  is  so  intersected  by  arms 
of  the  sea  that  few  places  are  more  than  40  miles 
inland.  Fresh-water  lakes  are  numerous— Lochs 
Lomond  (27  sq.  m.),  Ness  (19),  Awe  (16),  Shin, 
Maree,  Tay,  Earn,  Leven,  Katrine,  &c.  The 
division  into  Highlands  and  Lowlands  is  ex- 
plained at  Highlands.  In  the  Lowlands  the  high- 
est points  are  Merrick  (2764  feet)  in  Kirkcudbright- 
shire, and  Broad  Law  (2723)  in  Peeblesshire ;  in  the 
Highlands  184  summits  exceed  3000  feet  above 
sea-level— among  them  Ben  Nevis  (4406),  Ben 
Macdhui  (4296),  Ben  Lawers  (4004),  Ben  Cruachan 
(3689),  Ben  Wyvis  (3429),  and  Ben  Lomond  (3192). 
See  Cheviots,  Ochils,  Grampians,  &c.  In  the 
whole  of  Scotland  the  percentage  of  cultivated 
area  is  only  24'2— in  Fife  as  higli  as  77*8,  in  Suther- 
land as  low  as  2'4,  Woods  cover  less  than  1400 
sq.  m.  ;  and  there  are  2420  acres  of  orchards, 
nearly  5300  of  market-gardens,  and  1400  of  nur- 
sery grounds.  Between  1857  and  1903  horses 
increased  from  185,406  to  200,530,  cattle  from 
381,053  to  1,247,246,  sheep  from  5,683,168  to 
7,227,395  ;  pigs  decreased  from  140,354  to  136,771. 
In  1903  the  quantities  of  the  principal  minerals 
raised  were,  in  tons  :  coal,  34,992,240  (7,448,000 
in  1854) ;  ironstone,  846,094  ;  oil-shale,  2,009,265  ; 
fireclay,  892,942  ;  igneous  rocks  and  sandstone 
from  quarries,  2,848,275.  In  1905  there  were  in 
all  Scotland  about  750  textile  factories,  with 
some  2,500,000  spindles,  75,000  power-looms,  and 
170,000  hands.  In  shipbuilding  there  lias  been 
of  late  a  minimum  output  of  about  200  vessels  of 
115,000  tons  yearly,  a  maximum  of  380  of  300,000 
tons ;  whilst  at  the  same  time  foreign  and 
colonial  imports  ranged  between  £27,000,000 
and  £40,000,000,  the  exports  between  £18,000,000 
and  £30,000,000.  In  1902,  at  the  twenty- 
eight  principal  ports,  there  entered  (including 
coastwise  shipping)  63,395  sailing  and  steam 
vessels  of  15,643,745  tons,  and  cleared  62,600  of 
16,126,435  tons.  The  railways  grew  from  1243 
miles  in  1857  to  3664  in  1903.  Pop.  (1801) 
1,608,420 ;  (1821)  2,091,521  ;  (1841)  2,620,184 ;  (1861) 
3,062,294 ;  (1881)  3,735,573  ;  (1901)  4,472,103,  of 
whom  2,173,755  were  males  and  2,298,348  females, 
and  230,800  were  Gaelic-speaking.  3,120,241  (69-77 
per  cent.)  lived  in  the  towns.  In  1901  tlie  twelve 
principal  towns  were  Glasgow  (pop.  761,709 ; 
with  suburbs,  1,010,000),  Edinburgh  (316,837), 
Dundee  (161,173),  Aberdeen  (153,503),  Paisley 
(79,363),  Leith  (77,439),  Greenock  (68,142),  Coat- 
bridge (36,991),  Kilmarnock  (34,165),  Kirkcaldy 
(34,079),  Perth  (32,873),  Hamilton  (32,775);  the 
other  towns  with  over  20,000  inhabitants  are 
Motherwell,  Falkirk,  Ayr,  Dunfermline,  Ar- 
broath, Airdrie,  Inverness,  Wishaw ;  and  with 
over  10,000,  Dumbarton,  Stirling,  Hawick,  Port- 
Glasgow,  Rutherglen,  Galashiels,  Dumfries, 
Montrose,  Peterhead,  Musselburgh,  Alloa,  For- 
far, Pollokshaws,  Johnstone,  Kirkintilloch,  and 
Broughty-Ferry.  Most  Scotsmen  adhere  to  the 
Presbyterian  churches,  but  there  are  also  Episco- 
palians, Independents,  Baptists,  Methodists,  and 
some  400,000  Roman  Catholics  (most  of  them 
Of  Irish  descent).    The  officers  of  state  for  Scot- 


land are  the  Secretary  for  Scotland,  the  Lord 
Keeper  of  the  Privy  Seal,  the  Lord  Clerk  Register, 
the  Lord  Advocate,  and  the  Lord  Justice-clerk. 
The  duties  of  the  first,  appointed  under  an  Act 
of  1885  (amended  1887),  were  transferred  to  him 
from  the  Home  Secretary,  and  relate  to  education, 
sanitation,  manufactures,  prisons,  &c.  Under 
the  Local  Government  (Scotland)  Act,  1889,  many 
changes  were  made  in  the  county  boundaries, 
detached  portions  of  Nairn,  Perth,  Selkirk,  &c. 
being  annexed  to  the  counties  surrounding 
them ;  whilst  Orkney  and  Shetland,  united  for 
parliamentary  purposes,  were  dissevered.  There 
thus  are  thirty- three  counties,  whose  area  and 
population  are  shown  in  this  table  : 

Population. 

Counties.        Area  in  statute  acres.    1801.  1901. 

Aberdeen 1,262,097  121,065  304,439 

ArgyU 2,134,274  81,277  73,642 

Ayr 735,262  84,297  254,408 

Banff 413,791  37,216  61,488 

Berwick 297,161  30,206  30,824 

Bute 143,997  11,791  18,787 

Caithness 448,867  22,609  33,870 

Clackmannan 31,876  10,858  32,029 

Dumbarton 172,677  20,710  113,865 

Dumfries 705,946  54,597  72,571 

Edinburgh 234,926  122,-597  488,796 

Elgin 312,346  27,760  44,800 

Fife 328,427  93,743  218,840 

Forfar 569,a51  99,053  284,082 

Haddington 179,142  29,986  38,665 

Inverness 2,767,078  72,672  90,104 

Kincardine 248,195  26,349  40,923 

Kinross 49,812  6,725  6,981 

Kirkcudbright 610,343  29,211  .39,383 

Lanark 568,868  147,692  1,339,327 

Linlithgow 81,113  17,844  65,708 

Nairn 127,906  8,322  9,291 

Orkney 240,640  24,445  28,699 

Peebles 227,869  8,735  15,066 

Perth 1,664,690  12,^,583  123,283 

Renfrew 162,428  78,501  268,980 

Ross  and  Cromarty  ..1,861,572  56,318  76,450 

Roxburgh 428,464  33,721  48,804 

Selkirk 166,524  5,388  23,356 

Shetland 352,876  22,379  28,166 

Stirling 298,579  50,825  142,291 

Sutherland 1,359,846  23,117  21,440 

Wigtown 327,906  22,918  32,685 

When  the  Romans  extended  their  conquests  (84 
A.D.)  to  the  Forth  and  Clyde,  the  country  beyond, 
known  to  them  as  Caledonia,  was  occupied  by  the 
Picts,  a  Celtic  people  (perhaps  partly  by  Celtic- 
ised  Iberians)  speaking  Gaelic,  who  called  their 
country  Alban  or  Albyn ;  while  the  south  of  what 
is  now  Scotland  was  possessed,  like  south  Britain, 
by  Cymric  Celts,  speaking  a  kind  of  Welsh.  In 
the  5th  century  the  Scots  came  from  their  home 
in  Ireland  into  Argyllshire,  and  after  centuries 
of  war  with  the  Picts,  put  the  crown  of  Scots  and 
Picts  on  the  head  of  their  king,  Kenneth,  in  843. 
The  Scots,  partially  Christianised  when  they 
came,  had  Columba  as  their  great  missionary, 
and  by  means  of  him  and  his  followers  converted 
the  Picts,  the  Cymri,  and  the  northern  tribes  of 
the  English,  who  since  the  5th  century  had  estab- 
lished themselves  in  the  eastern  parts  of  Britain  as 
far  north  as  the  Forth.  In  the  10th  century  the 
country  of  the  Picts  and  Scots  caiue  to  be  known 
by  the  name  of  5co«ia  (till  then  the  name  of  Ireland), 
Nova  Scotia,  or  Scotland ;  and  it  soon  came  to  in- 
clude all  of  what  is  now  called  Scotland,  and  for 
a  time  even  Cumberland  and  Westmorland ; 
Cymric  Strathclyde  became  permanently  Scot- 
tish in  the  10th  century,  and  in  the  same  cen- 
tury and  the  beginning  of  the  next,  Lothian,  the 
Merse,  and  Teviotdale,  all  heretofore  part  of 
Northumbria,  all  as  English  as  any  part  of  Eng- 
land, and  more  Anglian  perhaps  than  any  part  of 
the  south,  were  bestowed  on  the  Scottish  kin^s. 


SCOTtAND 


635 


SEATTtfi 


The  reign  of  Malcolm  Canmore  (1057-93)  was  a 
period  of  social,  political,  and  religious  revolu- 
tion. Malcolm,  long  an  exile  in  England,  mar- 
ried Margaret,  the  sister  of  Edgar  Atheling. 
Malcolm  and  his  saintly  queen  (afterwards  canon- 
ised) encouraged  the  introduction  of  English 
customs  and  civilisation,  the  English  language, 
and  English  settlers ;  and  began  the  process 
which  led  to  the  conforming  of  the  stubborn 
Celtic  Church  to  Roman  usages.  English  (Anglo- 
Saxon)  settlers  established  themselves  in  large 
numbers  outside  of  the  already  purely  English 
region  in  the  south-east,  which  more  and  more 
became  the  headquarters  of  the  kingdom  ;  and 
the  Anglo-Saxons  were  soon  followed  by  many 
Normans,  bringing  with  them  a  measure  of 
French  culture.  David  (1242-53)  greatly  pro- 
moted the  well-being  of  church  and  state  ;  and 
Scotland  was  a  prosperous  country  till  the  death 
of  Alexander  III.  (1286).  Then  the  attempts  of 
Edward  I.  of  England  to  get  Scotland  incorpor- 
ated by  hook  or  crook  with  the  rest  of  south 
Britain,  led  to  the  long,  bloody,  and  destruc- 
tive wars  of  independence,  wars  disastrous  to  all 
save  national  spirit  and  energy,  and  for  400  years 
Scotland,  though  free,  was  poor,  barbarous,  and 
torn  by  dissension.  The  Celtic  element  ven- 
tured, under  the  Lord  of  the  Isles,  to  try  con- 
clusions with  the  Saxon  lowlanders  at  Harlaw  in 
1411,  but  were  signally  worsted.  Bannockburn 
(1314)  encouraged  the  nation  to  resist  to  the 
uttermost  the  superior  might  of  England ;  and 
not  till  after  the  Reformation  (when  Scotland 
adopted  heartily  the  Presbyterian  polity)  were 
the  crowns  of  England  and  Scotland  united  in 
the  person  of  James  VI.  of  Scotland,  heir  also  to 
the  English  crown  (1603).  The  Scots,  enraged  by 
the  attempts  of  Cliarles  I.  to  impose  the  Anglican 
ritual,  fought  stoutly  with  the  English  Parlia- 
ment against  the  king,  but  enthusiastically  sup- 
ported the  Restoration.  Under  Charles  II.  and 
James  II.  the  National  Church  was  depressed, 
and  the  Covenanters  persecuted  ;  and  the  Re- 
volution was  welcomed  (1688)  by  the  great  bulk 
of  the  nation.  The  crowns  had  been  conjoined 
by  the  personal  tie  of  the  sovereign  in  1603  ;  the 
kingdoms  were  united  by  legislative  union  in 
1707  (the  Scottish  Church  and  Scots  law  being 
maintained  intact),  in  spite  of  a  good  deal  of  Scot- 
tish discontent ;  and  it  was  mainly  the  High- 
landers who,  in  1715  and  1745,  rose  in  defence  of 
the  claims  of  the  family  of  the  exiled  James  II., 
under  the  old  and  the  young  Pretenders.  From 
this  time  the  history  of  Scotland  may  be  regarded 
as  merging  in  that  of  Britain,  though  Scotland 
and  England,  Scotsmen  and  Englishmen,  are  still 
in  many  respects  very  distinguishable.  Scots- 
men have  taken  a  prominent  part  in  the  political 
and  intellectual  life  of  the  United  Kingdom,  and 
done  more  than  their  share  in  building  up  the 
colonial  empire  of  Great  Britain. 

See  P.  Hume  Brown's  Early  Travellers  in  Scot- 
land, 1295-1689  (1891) ;  F.  Grose's  Antiquities  of 
Scotland  (2  vols.  1789-91);  Sir  John  Sinclair's 
Statistical  Account  of  Scotland  (21  vols.  1791-99)  ; 
Dorothy  Wordsworth's  Tour  in  Scotland  (ed.  by 
Shairp,  1874);  G.  Chalmers'  Caledonia  (3  vols. 
1807-24 ;  new  ed.  Paisley,  7  vols.  1888  et  seq.) ; 
R.  Chambers's  Picture  of  Scotland  (2  vols.  1827) ; 
the  New  Statistical  Account  (15  vols.  1845);  Sir 
Thomas  Dick  Lauder's  Scottish  Rivers  (ed.  by  Dr 
John  Brown,  1874) ;  Billings'  Baronial  and 
Ecclesiastical  Antiquities  of  Scotland  (4  vols.  1848- 
62);  Cosmo  Innes'  Origines  Parochiales  Scotice 
(3  vols.  1850-55);  Hugh  Miller's  Cruise  of  the 
Betsey  (1858) ;  Sir  A.  Geikie's  Scenery  of  Scotland 


viewed  in  connection  with  its  Physical  Geology 
(1865  ;  2d  ed.  1887) ;  Dean  Ramsay's  Reminiscences 
of  Scottish  Life  and  Character  (22d  ed.  1874) ;  Dr 
Joseph  Anderson's  Scotland  in  Early  Christian 
and  Pagan  Times  (i  vols.  1881-86) ;  F.  H.  Groome's 
Ordnance  Gazetteer  of  Scotland  (2d  ed.  3  vols.  1893- 
95);  C.  Rogers'  Social  Life  in  Scotland  (3  vols. 
1884-86) ;  MacGibbon  and  Ross's  Castellated  and 
Domestic  Architecture  of  Scotland  (4  vols.  1886-92). 

Scotsbrig,  a  Dumfriesshire  farm,  3  miles  NE. 
of  Ecclefechan,  the  home  (1826)  of  the  Carlyles. 

Scrabster.    See  Thurso. 

Scranton,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  the  capital 
of  Lackawanna  county,  on  the  Lackawanna  River, 
144  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  New  York.  It  lias  a 
great  trade  in  coal  and  mining  supplies  ;  and  it 
has  car  and  carriage  factories,  and  large  iron  and 
steel  manufactories,  turning  out  locomotives, 
boilers,  machinery,  stoves,  and  edge-tools. 
Founded  in  1840,  it  became  a  city  in  1856.  Pop. 
(I860)  9223  ;  (1890)  75,215;  (1900)  102,026. 

Scrivelsby.  See  Horncastle,  and  a  work  by 
the  Rev.  S.  Lodge  (1893). 

Scutari  (Italian  or  Levantine  form  of  the 
Turkish  Zskildar),  a  town  of  Asiatic  Turkey, 
on  the  eastern  shore  of  the  Bosporus,  opposite 
Constantinople,  with  mosques,  bazaars,  and  baths, 
and  a  college  of  howling  dervishes.  It  manu- 
factures silks  and  cotton  fabrics  and  leather  goods, 
and  has  long  been  famed  for  its  extensive  ceme- 
teries, adorned  with  magnificent  cypresses.  The 
pop.  is  variously  estimated  at  from  40,000  to 
60,000.  During  the  Crimean  war  the  barracks 
on  the  southern  outskirts  were  occupied  as 
barracks  and  hospital  by  the  English  troops,  and 
formed  the  scene  of  Miss  Nightingale's  labours. 
Scutari  occupies  the  site  of  the  ancient  Chryso- 
iwlis  ;  and  2  miles  S.  lies  the  village  of  Kadikoi, 
the  ancient  Chalcedon.—{2)  A  town  of  European 
Turkey,  at  the  S.  end  of  the  Lake  of  Scutari,  in 
northern  Albania,  16  miles  from  the  Adriatic. 
It  is  overlooked  by  an  old  Venetian  citadel, 
manufactures  arms  and  cotton  goods,  and  trades 
in  wool  and  skins.     Pop.  25,000. 

Seacombe,  a  NW.  suburb  of  Birkenhead. 

Seaford,  a  Avatering-place  of  Sussex,  3  miles 
E.  of  Newhaven,  with  golf-links.  It  was  a 
dependency  of  the  Cinque  Port  of  Hastings  in  the 
15th  century,  and  was  disfranchised  in  1832.  Of 
late  it  has  grown  in  size  and  prosperity.  Pop. 
3500. 

Seaforth,  Loch,  an  arm  of  the  sea,  14  miles  long, 
in  the  east  of  the  island  of  Lewis-with-Harris. 

Seaham  Harbour  (Se^am),  a  seaport  of 
Durham,  6  miles  S.  of  Sunderland.  Founded  in 
1828  by  the  Marquis  of  Londonderry,  it  com- 
municates by  rail  with  neighbouring  collieries, 
and  has  docks  and  quays  for  the  shipment  of 
coal.  There  are  also  bottle-works,  blast-furnaces, 
an  iron-foundry,  chemical  works,  and  a  seamen's 
infirmary  (1849).    Pop.  (1851)  3538  ;  (1901)  10,163. 

Sea  Islands,  a  group  of  low  sandy  or  marshy 
islands  on  the  coast  of  South  Carolina  (q.v.), 
famed  for  their  rice  and  fine  cotton. 

Sealkote.    See  Sialkot. 

Seathwaite.    See  Borrowdale. 

Seaton,  a  Devon  watering-place,  on  a  bay  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Axe,  6^  miles  SW.  of  Ax- 
minster.    Pop.  1330. 

Seaton  Carew,  a  Durham  watering-place,  2 
miles  S.  of  West  Hartlepool.    Pop.  1400. 

Seattle  (Se-at'tel),  capital  of  King  county, 
Washington,  on  Elliott  Bay,  an  arm  of  Puget 


SEBASTOfOL 


636 


SEINE 


Sound,  18  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Tacoma.  It  owes 
its  phenomenal  growth  to  the  lumber  trade. 
Over  1000  vessels  of  about  1,000,000  tons  enter 
and  clear  the  port  annually,  carrying  away  coal 
and  timber.  Shipbuilding  and  a  busy  lishery  are 
also  carried  on.  There  are  cable  and  electric 
tramways,  and  the  town  possesses  a  university. 
In  1889  a  terrible  fire  destroyed  the  whole  busi- 
ness portion,  and  did  damage  estimated  at  nearly 
$10,000,000  ;  but  within  a  year  265  new  buildings, 
mostly  of  iron  and  stone,  besides  sixty  wharves, 
with  a  frontage  of  2  miles,  were  erected.  Pop. 
(1880)  3533  ;  (1890)  42,837 ;  (1900)  80,671. 

Sebas'topol  (Russian  pron.  Se-vas-top'ol),  a 
Russian  seaport  and  fortress,  is  situated  on  the 
site  of  an  old  Tartar  village  near  the  south-west 
extremity  of  the  Crimea,  on  the  southern  side  of 
one  of  the  finest  natural  harbours  in  the  world, 
4^  miles  long  from  east  to  west,  and  ^  mile 
across.  The  place  is  celebrated  for  its  eleven 
months'  siege  by  the  allies  during  the  Crimean 
war  of  1854-55.  It  sustained  repeated  bombard- 
ments until  the  capture  of  the  Malakoff  and 
Redan  works  forced  the  Russians  to  evacuate  the 
lines  and  retire  to  the  north  side.  The  town 
was  completely  ruined  ;  the  docks  and  forts  still 
standing  were  blown  up  by  French  and  English 
engineers,  and  by  the  treaty  of  Paris  (1856)  were 
not  to  be  restored ;  but  the  restrictions  were 
removed  by  the  Conference  of  London  (1871). 
Since  1885  the  Russian  government  have  restored 
fortifications  and  reconstructed  the  docks,  inainly 
for  the  imperial  navy.  The  sole  export  is  grain, 
the  chief  imports  cotton  and  coal.    Pop.  50,720. 

Sebenico  (Seb-en-ee'ko ;  Slav.  Sibenik),  a  pictur- 
esque town  of  Austrian  Dalmatia,  stands  on  a 
landlocked  bay  of  the  Adriatic,  43  miles  by  rail 
NW.  of  Spalato.  The  chief  ornament  of  the  place 
is  its  cathedral  (1430-1555).    Pop.  11,000. 

Secunderabad.    See  Hyderabad. 

Sedalia,  capital  of  Pettis  county,  Missouri,  188 
miles  by  rail  \V.  of  St  Louis.  It  has  large  railway- 
shops,  flour-mills,  and  manufactories  of  woollens, 
machinery  and  agricultural  implements,  wagons, 
furniture,  and  soap.     Pop.  15,250. 

Sedan  (Fr.  pron.  Se-don^'),  a  frontier  town  of 
France,  dep.  Ardennes,  stands  on  the  Meuse,  64 
miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Rheims.  Colbert  founded 
here  cloth- factories  which  are  still  busy ;  metal- 
working  is  carried  on,  and  there  is  an  active 
trade  in  wool.  Pop.  (1872)  13,807  ;  (1901)  16,120. 
The  citadel  capitulated  to  the  Germans  in  1815  ; 
but  Sedan  is  chiefly  noted  for  the  surrender 
(September  2,  1870)  of  Napoleon  III.  and  86,000 
men  to  the  Germans.  The  fortress  was  dismantled 
after  1875.  Marshals  Turenne  and  Macdonald  were 
born  here.  Previous  to  its  incorporation  with 
France  (1642)  Sedan  was  the  capital  of  an  inde- 
pendent principality  and  a  Protestant  strong- 
hold. Its  industrial  prosperity  was  largely  due 
to  the  influx  of  Huguenots  ;  and  at  its  theological 
seminary,  famous  until  the  revocation  of  the 
Edict  of  Nantes,  notable  Scotsmen  such  as 
Andrew  Melville  taught. 

Sedbergh,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, on  the  Rawthey,  32  miles  NW.  of  Skipton. 
It  has  a  Norman  church  and  a  granimar-school 
(1551)  of  high  repute,  where  Sedgwick  was 
educated  and  Hartley  Coleridge  was  a  master. 
Pop.  of  parish,  2474.  See  the  Rev.  W.  Thompson, 
Sedbergh,  Garsdale,  and  Dent  (Leeds,  1892). 

Sedgefield,  a  town  of  Durham,  9  miles  NW.  of 
Stockton,  with  a  cruciform  Early  English  church 
and  a  grammar-school.    Pop.  of  parish,  3170. 


Sedgemoor,  a  marshy  district  of  Somerset,  5 
miles  SE.  of  Bridgwater.  Here,  on  6th  July 
1685,  James  II. 's  4000  disciplined  soldiers  routed 
the  8000  followers  of  the  Duke  of  Monmouth. 

Sedgley,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  3  miles  S.  of 
Wolverhampton.    Pop.  16,500. 

Seein,  a  village  of  Tyrone,  3  miles  S.  of 
Strabane.     Pop.  1175. 

Seeland  (Dan.  Sjdlland).    See  Zealand. 

Sefton,  a  Lancashire  parish,  6  miles  N.  of 
Liverpool,  with  the  Liverpool  race-course. 

Seges'ta,  an  ancient  city  of  NW.  Sicily. 

Segesvar  (g  hard  ;  Ger.  Schdssburg),  a  town  of 
Transylvania,  on  the  Great  Kokel,  60  miles  by 
rail  NE.  of  Hermannstadt.    Pop.  11,000. 

SegMU,  a  Northumberland  town,  6;^  miles  NNE. 
of  Newcastle.    Pop.  2269. 

Sego'vla,  an  old  city  of  Spain,  at  the  northern 
foot  of  the  Sierra  de  Guadarrama,  32  miles  NNW. 
of  Madrid.  It  occupies  a  rocky  eminence  3300 
feet  above  sea-level,  is  surrounded  by  ruinous 
walls  with  round  towers,  and  consists  of  narrow 
uneven  streets,  with  quaint  old  stately  houses. 
The  Moorish  castle  on  the  rocky  height  has  been 
restored  since  its  destruction  by  fire  in  1862 ;  it 
lodged  our  Charles  I.  in  September  1623.  The 
cathedral  (1521-77)  is  one  of  the  finest  specimens 
of  Late  Gothic  in  Spain.  The  grand  Roman 
aqueduct,  built  in  Trajan's  time,  consists  of  two 
rows  of  arches,  the  one  resting  upon  the  other, 
some  2600  feet  long  and  102  feet  high.  Pop, 
14,328.  Segovia  was  a  place  of  importance  under 
the  Romans,  and  was  a  frequent  residence  of 
the  kings  of  Castile  and  Leon.  The  unresisting 
town  was  sacked  in  1808  by  the  French.— Area  of 
province  of  Segovia,  2714  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  154,443. 

Segu,  or  Segu-Sikoro,  an  important  trading 
town  of  western  Africa,  stands  on  the  Niger  (here 
called  the  Joliba),  400  miles  SW.  of  Timbuctoo ; 
once  the  capital  of  a  large  native  state,  now 
practically  French  (1890).  Pop.  36,000.  See 
Gravier,  Voyage  a  Segu  (1887). 

Sell,  an  Argyllshire  island,  4  miles  SE.  of  Mull, 
attains  over  800  feet.    Area,  6  sq.  m. ;  pop.  448. 

Seine  (Sayn  or  Sehn),  one  of  the  four  chief 
rivers  of  France,  rises  on  the  slope  of  the  plateau 
of  Langres,  north-west  of  Dijon,  and  winds  482 
miles  NW.,  past  Troyes,  Fontainebleau,  Melun, 
Paris,  St  Denis,  St  Germain,  Mantes,  Elbeuf,  and 
Rouen,  till  it  falls  into  the  English  Channel  by 
a  wide  estuary,  on  which  stand  the  ports  of  Har- 
fleur,  Havre,  and  Honfleur.  It  is  navigable  for 
boats  from  Marcilly,  350  miles  from  its  mouth, 
and  since  1890  the  canalisation  of  the  Seine  has 
been  one  of  two  projects  (the  other  a  ship-canal) 
for  connecting  Paris  with  the  Atlantic.  The 
Seine  receives  the  Aube,  Marne,  and  Oise  from 
the  right,  and  the  Yonne,  Loing,  Essonne,  and 
Eure  from  the  left ;  and  is  connected  by  canals 
with  the  Somme,  Scheldt,  Meuse,  Rhine,  Saone, 
and  Loire.  Works  for  keeping  open  a  navigable 
channel  through  the  estuary,  which  is  liable  to 
silt  up,  were  carried  out  in  1848-70 ;  by  these 
28,000  acres  of  land  have  been  reclaimed,  and 
vessels  of  2000  tons,  drawing  20  feet  of  water, 
can  get  up  to  Rouen.  A  canal  connects  Havre 
with  the  Seine  at  Tancarville. 

Seine,  the  metropolitan  dep.  of  France,  com- 
pletely enclosed  by  the  dep.  of  Seine-et-Oise,  is  a 
portion  of  the  former  province  of  lle-de-France. 
One-sixth  of  its  area  is  covered  by  the  city  of 
Paris  (q.v.),  and  the  rest  is  thickly  studded  with 
the  suburban  villages  of  the  capital— Boulogne, 


SEINE-ET-MARNE 


637 


SELSE7 


Puteaux,  Clichy,  Montreiiil,  &c.  It  is  at  once 
the  smallest  and  the  most  populous  dep.  in  the 
republic  :  its  area  is  185  sq.  in. ;  its  pop.  in  1876 
was  2,410,849,  and  in  1901,  3,669,930.  The  arron- 
dissenients  are  Paris,  St  Denis,  and  Sceaux. 

Seine-et-Marne  (Sehn-ay-Mam),  a  dep.  in  the 
north  of  France,  is  bounded  on  the  W.  by  the 
dep.  of  Seine-et-Oise,  and  forms  a  portion  of  that 
wide  basin  in  the  middle  of  which  stands  Paris. 
Area,  2214  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1901)  355,638.  The 
arrondissements  are  Melun  (the  capital),  Coulom- 
niiers,  Fontainebleau,  Meaux,  and  Provins. 

Seine-et-Oise  (Sehn-ay-Wdhz),  a  dep.  in  the 
north  of  France,  encloses  the  dep.  of  Seine.  Area, 
2163  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1901)  700,405.  Arrondisse- 
ments ;  Versailles  (the  capital),  Corbeil,  Etampes, 
Mantes,  Pontoise,  and  Rambouillet. 

Seine-Inferieure  (Sehn-An^fayi-iehr'),  a  mari- 
time dep.  of  northern  France,  part  of  Normandy, 
and  bounded  N.  and  W.  by  the  English  Channel. 
Area,  2330  sq.  m.  ;  pop,  (1901)  843,928.  The 
arrondissements  are  Dieppe,  Havre,  Rouen  (the 
capital),  Neufchatel,  and  Yvetot. 

Seir,  Mount.    See  Edom. 

Seistan,  Sistan,  or  Hamoon,  Lake,  a  large 
shallow  lake  or  swamp  in  the  west  of  Afglianistan, 
close  to  the  Persian  frontier,  a  division  of  whose 
province  of  Khorassan  (mainly  steppe)  is  named 
Seistan  after  it.  The  lake  is  not  a  single  expanse 
of  water,  but  is  divided  into  three  depressions. 
Much  of  the  area  is  generally  dry. 

Selan'gor,  a  state  of  the  Malay  Peninsula,  which 
since  1874  has  been  under  British  protection.  It 
lies  between  Malacca  and  Perak,  has  an  area  of 
5000  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of  170,000,  including 
many  Chinese.  It  contains  rich  deposits  of  tin. 
The  capital  is  Kwala  Lampur,  which  is  connected 
by  rail  (22  miles)  with  the  port  of  Klang. 

Selbome,  a  pleasant  Hampshire  parish  of  12 
sq.  m.  and  1320  inhabitants,  5  miles  SSE.  of  Alton 
station  and  20  E.  of  Winchester.  Gilbert  White 
(1720-93)  has  made  it  for  ever  famous  by  his 
Natural  History  of  Selbome  (1789).  'The  Wakes,' 
the  ivied  house  where  he  was  born  and  died,  still 
stands,  though  added  to ;  the  church,  where  he 
lies,  was  restored  in  1877.  Nothing  remains  of 
an  Augustinian  priory  (1232). 

Selby,  a  market-town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Ouse,  15  miles 
S.  of  York  and  20  B.  of  Leeds.  The  great  cruci- 
fonn  parish  church,  measuring  283  by  59  feet, 
was  the  church  of  a  mitred  Benedictine  abbey, 
founded  in  the  12th  century.  It  exhibits  every 
style  from  Norman  to  Perpendicular ;  lost  its 
south  transept  by  the  fall  in  1690  of  the  central 
tower  (meanly  rebuilt  twelve  years  later)  ;  and 
has  undergone  much  restoration  since  1873. 
Other  edifices  are  a  Roman  Catholic  church 
(1859),  St  James's  Church  (1868),  and  a  modern 
market-cross.  The  river  is  navigable  for  vessels 
of  200  tons  ;  and  there  is  a  carrying  trade  by 
railway  and  canal.  Selby  has  manufactures  of 
flax,  ropes,  leather,  beer,  &c.,  besides  boat-build- 
ing and  brick-making.  It  is  the  traditional  birth- 
place of  Henry  I.  (1068),  and  in  the  Great  Rebel- 
lion was  recaptured  from  the  rovalists  by  Fairfax 
(1644).  Pop.  (1851)  5109  ;  (1901)  7786.  See  W.  W. 
Morrell's  History  of  Selby  (1867). 

Selenga,  a  river  (740  miles)  of  Mongolia  and 
Siberia,  flowing  by  three  arms  into  Lake  Baikal. 
It  is  navigable  in  summer  for  200  miles  from  the 
Chinese  frontier,  and  steamers  ply  on  it. 

Seleu'cia,  the  name  of  several  ancient  cities  in 


Syria,  Pisidia,  Pamphylia,  Cilicia,  Caria,  and 
Mesopotamia,  founded  under  the  Seleucid  kings. 

Seli'nus,  an  ancient  Greek  colony  of  Sicily, 
now  represented  by  ruins  close  to  the  modern 
Castelvetrano  (q.v.). 

Selkirk,  a  Scottish  royal  burgh,  the  county 
town  of  Selkirkshire,  on  an  eminence  400  to  619 
feet  above  sea-level,  that  flanks  the  right  bank 
of  Ettrick  Water,  Oi  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Galashiels 
bv  a  branch-line  (1856)  and  40  SSE.  of  Edinburgh, 
The  county  buildings  (1870),  the  town-hall  (1803), 
with  a  spire  110  feet  high,  and  the  statues  of 
Scott  (1839)  and  Mungo  Park  (1859)  are  the  chief 
features  of  the  place,  with  the  beautiful  grounds 
of  the  Haining  House.  The  '  souters  of  Selkirk ' 
were  long  famous  for  their  'single-soled  shoon  ;' 
but  to-day  the  staple  manufacture  is  that  of 
tweeds,  which  dates  from  1835.  With  Hawick 
and  Galashiels,  Selkirk  returns  one  member  since 
1868.  Pop.  (1831)  1880  ;  (1861)  3695  ;  (1901)  6292. 
About  1113  Earl  David  founded  at  Schelechyrch 
('kirk  of  the  shiels  ')  a  Tironensian  abbey,  which 
as  David  I.  he  removed  about  1126  to  Kelso  (q.v.). 
Mr  Andrew  Lang  is  a  native. 

Selkirk  Mountains,  an  outlying  range  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  in  British  Columbia,  extending 
southwards  from  about  52°  N.  lat.  to  near  the 
United  States  frontier.  The  Canadian  Pacific 
Railway  climbs  over  the  mountains  at  a  point 
4300  feet  above  the  sea.  See  W.  S.  Green,  Among 
the  Selkirk  Glaciers  (1890). 

Selkirkshire,  an  inland  county  in  the  south  of 
Scotland,  bounded  by  Peebles,  Edinburgh,  Rox- 
burgh, and  Dumfries  shires.  Measuring  28  miles 
by  17,  it  has  an  area  of  260  sq.  m.  or  166,524  acres, 
of  which  barely  one-seventh  is  under  crops.  Silu- 
rian in  formation,  and  drained  by  Ettrick  and 
Yarrow  Waters  to  the  Tweed,  it  is  a  pastoral 
region  of  grassy  rounded  hills— Minchmoor  (1856 
feet),  Dun  Rig  (2433,  the  highest),  Ettrick  Pen 
(2269),  and  eight  others  exceeding  2000  feet  above 
sea-level.  Sheep-farming  (over  160,000  head)  is 
an  important  industry  ;  and  the  manufactures  are 
confined  to  the  two  towns  of  Selkirk  and  Gala- 
shiels. The  Duke  of  Buccleuch  owns  about  three- 
fifths  of  the  whole  county.  Since  1867  Selkirk- 
shire has  united  with  Peeblesshire  to  return  one 
member.  Pop.  (1801)  5388  ;  (1851)  9809 ;  (1871) 
14,005  ;  (1901)  23,356.  Smaller  than  Middlesex, 
and  than  all  but  six  of  the  thirty-three  Scotch 
counties,  Selkirkshire  yet  contains  within  its 
narrow  bounds  almost  all  the  old  Forest  of  Ett- 
rick ;  St  Mary's  Loch  ;  the  whole  course  of  the 
Yarrow ;  the  vale  of  Ettrick,  vhere  the  '  Shep- 
herd '  was  born  and  lies  buried  ;  the  birthplaces, 
too,  of  Laidlaw  and  Mungo  Park,  of  the  '  Flower 
of  Yarrow '  and  Alison  Cockburn ;  Ashiesteel, 
where  Scott  wrote  Marmion ;  the  scenes  of  the 
ballads  of  'The  Douglas  Tragedy,'  'The  Dowie 
Dens,'  'The  Outlaw  Murray,' and  '  Young  Tam- 
lane ; '  the  battlefield  of  Philiphaugh  ;  and  the 
ruins  or  sites  of  the  castles  and  peel-towers  of 
Newark,  Dryhope,  Tushielaw,  Oakwood,  and 
Buccleuch.  See  works  by  Craig-Brown  (2  vols. 
1886)  and  Angus  (1894). 

Selma,  capital  of  Dallas  county,  Alabama,  on 
the  Alabama  River,  165  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of 
Mobile.  It  has  ironworks,  cotton-factories, 
steam  planing-mills,  car-works,  &c.     Pop.  8720. 

Selsey,  or  Selsea,  a  village  on  a  flat  and 
fertile  peninsula  on  the  Sussex  coast,  7  miles  S. 
of  Chichester.  Here  ift  the  7th  century  the 
cathedral  church  of  the  South  Saxons  was 
founded  by  Wilfrid  of  York ;  and  twenty-two 
bishops  held  the  see,  ere  in  1079  the  bishopric 


SELTERS 


638 


SENNAAR 


was  transferred  to  Chichester.  The  sea  has  greatly 
encroaclied  on  the  peninsula,  which  ends  in 
Selsey  Bill ;  the  site  of  the  cathedral  is  now  sub- 
merged.    Pop.  of  parish,  12G0. 

Selters,  a  village,  8  miles  SE.  by  rail  of  Lim- 
burg  in  Nassau.  Its  springs  supply  the  mineral 
waters  called  in  England  seltzer  water. 

Semendria,  a  fortress  of  Servia,  on  the  Danube's 
right  bank,  26  miles  SE.  of  Belgrade.  Pop.  6578. 
Semipalatinsk',  a  province  of  Asiatic  Russia, 
stretching  northwards  from  Lake  Balkash.  It 
embraces  outliers  of  the  great  Altai,  rising  to 
10,000  feet,  and  enclosing  wide  stretches  of 
steppe-land.  Area,  183,145  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  685,197, 
mostly  Kirghiz.  The  chief  town,  Semipalatinsk, 
is  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Irtish  ;  pop.  27,820. 

Semlretchlnsk',  a  province  of  Asiatic  Russia, 
having  East  Turkestan  on  the  SE.,  and  Lake 
Balkash  on  the  N.,  is  a  mountainous  region, 
being  crossed  from  east  to  west  by  the  Ala-tau 
and  Thian-Shan  Mountains,  whose  peaks  run  up 
to  16,000  feet.  Between  them  lies  the  mountain- 
lake  of  Issyk-kul.  Area,  147,298  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
990,200.  Vyernyi  (pop.  22,980)  is  the  cliief  town. 
Semliki  {Sem-lee'kee),  a  river  of  equatorial 
Africa,  flowing  NE.  to  Albert  Nyanza. 

Semlin  (Hung.  Zimony),  a  frontier  town  of 
Hungary,  stands  on  a  tongue  of  land  at  the 
junction  of  the  Save  and  the  Danube,  above 
Belgrade.  It  contains  the  ruined  castle  of  John 
Hunyady,  who  died  here.    Pop.  14,836. 

Sem'mering,  a  mountain  (4577  feet)  on  the 
borders  of  Styria  and  Austria,  60  miles  SW.  of 
Vienna,  over  which  the  Trieste  Railway  was  con- 
structed in  1850-53  at  a  cost  of  £2,000,000. 

Sempacli  (Zevi'pahh),  a  small  Swiss  town  (pop. 
1183),  9  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Lucerne,  on  the  east 
shore  of  the  lake  of  Sempach.  Under  its  walls 
Leopold  of  Austria,  with  4000  men,  was  routed 
on  9th  July  1386  by  1500  Swiss. 

Sempringham,  a  Lincolnshire  parish,  13  miles 
E.  by  S.  of  Grantham.    St  Gilbert  (1083-1189)  was 
probably  a  native. 
Semple.    See  Lochwinnoch. 
Senaar.    See  Sennaar. 

Sendai,  a  coast-town  of  Japan,  220  miles  NNE. 
of  Tokyo  by  rail.    Pop.  83,500. 

Sen'eca  Falls,  a  post-village  of  New  York,  on 
the  Seneca  River  (which  falls  50  feet  here),  10 
miles  from  the  lake  and  41  by  rail  WSW.  of 
Syracuse,  with  manufactories  of  steam  fire- 
engines,  pumps,  &c.    Pop.  6880. 

Sen'eca  Lake,  one  of  a  range  of  narrow  lakes 
in  the  west  of  New  York  State,  36  miles  N.  and 
S.,  two  miles  in  average  width,  and  530  feet  deep. 
Seneflfe',  or  Senef,  a  Belgian  town  (pop.  3438), 
27  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Brussels.  Here  William  of 
Orange  (III.  of  England)  was  defeated  by  Conde 
in  1674,  and  in  1794  the  Austrians  by  the  French. 
Senegal  (Sen-e-gawV),  a  river  of  West  Africa, 
has  two  main  sources,  the  Bafing  from  Futa- 
Jallon,  and  the  Bakhoy  from  the  SE.,  which 
meet  at  Bafulabe,  700  miles  from  the  coast; 
thence  the  united  Senegal  flows  to  the  Atlantic 
10  miles  below  St  Louis.  In  July-October,  boats 
can  get  up  to  Kayes,  40  miles  below  Bafulabe. 
The  channel  is  in  the  higher  reaches  obstructed 
by  falls  and  narrows,  its  lower  course  is  studded 
with  low,  flat  islands,  and  its  mouth  blocked  by 
a  formidable  bar.  There  is  a  railway  along  the 
left  bank  between  Kayes  and  Dioubeba  (25  miles 


beyond  Bafulabe),  to  be  continued  to  Bara- 
mako  on  the  Niger  (320  miles  from  Kayes).  For 
the  colony  of  Senegal,  see  next  article. 

Senegambia,  a  territory  subject  to  France, 
on  the  west  coast  of  Africa  and  embracing  the 
colony  of  Senegal  proper,  a  territory  on  both 
banks  of  the  river  Senegal  (pop.  135,500),  and 
various  protected  states,  between  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  and  the  Senegal  and  Gambia  rivers  ;  the 
word  '  Senegambia '  (not  used  by  the  French)  is 
compounded  of  the  names  of  these  two  rivers. 
Until  1890  Senegambia  included  the  region  known 
as  the  '  Rivieres  du  Sud '  (q.v.)and  districts  on  the 
Gold  Coast  and  Bight  of  Benin.  To  the  north 
the  French  claim  the  Atlantic  coast  southwards 
from  Cape  Blanco  to  tlie  mouth  of  the  Senegal ; 
whilst  inland  they  have  extended  their  authority 
over  Futa-Jallon,  Beledugu,  and  Macina  as  far  as 
the  Joliba  (Niger).  These  protected  states  of  the 
interior  are  called  the  French  Soudan,  and  adminis- 
tered by  an  officer  under  the  governor  of  Senegal. 
Moreover,  in  virtue  of  recent  treaties— e.g.  with 
Great  Britain  in  1890— the  vast  expanse  of  the 
Sahara  south  of  Algiers  and  Tunis,  right  up  to  the 
Niger,  and  to  a  line  drawn  eastwards  from  Say  on 
that  river  to  Barrawa  on  Lake  Chad,  is  recogn'ised 
as  being  within  the  French  '  sphere  of  influence  ; ' 
and  in  1894  the  French,  not  without  mishaps, 
established  themselves  at  Timbuctoo.  South  of 
the  Niger  too  they  have,  since  1889,  established  a 
protectorate  over  the  Kong  states,  an  immense 
area  stretching  almost  down  to  the  Gulf  of 
Guinea,  Thus  the  territory  claimed  by  France 
in  this  part  of  Africa  extends  from  Tunis  to 
Sokoto  and  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  and  from  the 
Atlantic  and  the  frontier  of  Morocco  to  Lake 
Chad.  The  only  interruptions  to  the  continuity 
of  this  vast  area  are  tlie  British  colonies  of 
Gambia  and  Sierra  Leone,  Liberia,  and  the 
numerous  small  colonies  belonging  to  different 
European  powers  on  the  Guinea  coast. 

Of  this  gigantic  territory  France  actually  occu- 
pies little  more  than  the  colonies  of  Senegal, 
'  Rivers  of  the  South,'  and  the  two  groups  on  the 
Gold  Coast.  These,  with  protected  states,  are 
estimated  to  have  a  total  area  of  165,000  sq.  m. 
and  a  total  pop.  of  over  2,000,000.  The  people 
are  mostly  Fulah  and  Mandingo  Negroes,  in 
part  Moslems,  in  part  fetich-worshippers.  The 
'  French  Soudan '  has  an  area  of  probably  54,000 
sq.  m.  and  an  estimated  pop.  of  nearly  300,000. 
The  French  Sahara  may  have  an  area  of  a  million 
miles,  mostly  desert.  The  principal  geographical 
feature  in  these  united  regions  is  the  plateau  (2000 
to  4000  feet)  of  Futa-Jallon  (q.  v.) ;  from  its  valleys 
issue  many  rivers  that  flow  (e.g.  the  Gambia) 
west  and  south-west  to  the  Atlantic,  north  to 
the  Senegal,  and  east  and  north-east  to  the  Joliba 
(Niger).  Ground-nuts,  gums,  india-rubber,  timber, 
&c.  constitute  the  bulk  of  the  exports— three- 
fourths  to  France.  The  imports  (textiles,  liquors, 
and  food-stuff's)  are  valued  at  £1,120,000— nearly 
half  from  France.  St  Louis  (q.v.)  is  the  principal 
town  in  these  colonies.  The  French  first  settled 
in  this  part  of  Africa  early  in  the  17th  century, 
became  active  after  1854,  and  greatly  extended 
their  influence  since  1880. 

Senlac.    See  Hastings. 

Senlis  (SonHeece'),  a  very  ancient  town  of 
France,  dep.  of  Oise,  33  miles  NNE.  of  Paris. 
It  has  walls  flanked  with  towers,  partly  Roman  ; 
the  ruins  of  a  royal  castle ;  and  a  small  but 
beautiful  cathedral  (begun  1155).  Senlis  ceased 
to  be  a  bishop's  seat  in  1801.    Pop.  6000. 

Sennaar,  Sennar,  or  Senaar,  a  city  of  the 


SENNEN 


639 


SERVIA 


Eastern  Soudan,  on  the  Blue  Nile,  160  miles 
SSE.  of  Khartoum.  Pop.  8000.  It  is  the  chief 
town  of  a  district  lying  between  the  Blue  and 
the  White  Nile,  which  was  made  an  Egyptian 
province  in  1820,  but  fell  to  the  Mahdi  in  1884. 

Sennen,  a  Cornish  village,  Land's  End. 

Sens  (Son'),  an  old  walled  town  of  France,  dep. 
Yonne,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Yonne, 
70  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Paris.  Its  principal  orna- 
ment is  the  Gothic  cathedral  of  St  Stephen  (1122- 
68),  with  splendid  portals,  liue  stained  glass,  and 
the  vestments  of  Thomas  a  Becket.    Pop.  13,642. 

Sentis.    See  Santis. 

Seoni  (Se-o'nee),  a  town  in  the  Central  Prov- 
inces of  India,  half-way  between  Nagpur  and 
Jabalpur.  Pop.  12,000.— There  is  another  Seoni 
(pop.  7100)  35  miles  SW.  of  Hoshangabad. 

Seoul,  or  Soul  (Sowl),  the  capital  of  Corea, 
stands  on  the  river  Han,  75  miles  from  its  entrance 
into  the  Yellow  Sea  and  57  miles  from  its  port 
Chemulpo.  It  was  the  objective  of  the  armies  of 
Japan  and  China  in  the  war  of  1894.  Pop.  190,000, 
or,  with  extensive  suburbs,  300,000.  See  Curzon's 
Problems  of  the  Far  East  (1894). 

Seraievo.    See  Sarajevo. 

Seraing  (Seran^'),  a  town  of  Belgium,  4  miles 
by  rail  SW.  of  Liege,  stands  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Meuse,  and  is  connected  by  a  suspen- 
sion bridge  with  the  village  of  Jemeppe.  It  is 
the  seat  of  a  colossal  manufactory  of  steam- 
machinery,  locomotives,  &c.,  established  by  an 
Englishman,  John  Cockerill  (1790-1840),  in  1817 
in  the  old  summer  palace  of  the  bishops  of  Liege. 
It  employs  some  12,000  work-people  in  hundreds 
of  machine-shops,  forges,  coal-mines,  &c.  Pop. 
(1827)  2000  ;  (1881)  28,385  ;  (1900)  39,623. 

Serajgunj.    See  Sirajganj. 

Serampur',  a  town  of  India,  built  in  European 
style,  along  the  right  bank  of  the  Hooghly,  13 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Calcutta.  A  Diiiiisli  settle- 
ment till  1845,  it  was  the  centre  of  the  Baptist 
mission.     Pop.  44,460. 

Serang.    See  Ceram. 

Seres,  in  Turkey,  43  miles  NB.  of  Saloniki, 
trades  in  wool,  skins,  and  tobacco.    Pop.  30,000. 

Sereth,  a  river  running  nearly  300  miles  S. 
through  Moldavia  to  the  Danube. 

Sergipe  (Ser-zhce'peh),  a  maritime  state  of 
Brazil,  NE.  of  Bahia.  Area,  7370  sq.  m.  ;  popu- 
lation, 380,000.— There  is  a  small  town,  Sergipe 
or  Sao  Christovao,  on  the  Sergipe  River ;  but 
the  capital  is  the  port  of  Aracajii  ;  pop.  20,000. 

Serinagar.    See  Srinagar. 

Seringapatam'  (properly  Sri  Ranga  Patanam 
=  '  City  of  Vishnu '),  the  capital  of  Mysore  state 
in  Southern  India  from  1610  to  1799,  is  built  on 
an  island  in  the  Kaveri,  10  miles  NE.  of  Mysore 
city.  The  island  is  3  miles  long  and  1  broad  ;  at 
its  western  end  stands  the  fort  enclosing  the 
palace  of  Tippoo  Saib  and  the  principal  mosque. 
Outside  it  are  the  garden  in  which  was  built  the 
mausoleum  of  Tippoo  and  his  father,  Hyder  Ali, 
and  Tippoo's  summer  palace.  Tlie  fort  was  be- 
sieged by  Lord  Cornwallis  in  1791,  and  again  in 
1792.  A  British  army  appeared  before  the  walls 
again  in  1799,  and  on  3d  May  the  fort  was  stormed 
and  Tippoo  slain.  Pop.  150,000  in  Tippoo's  day  ; 
now  only  10,000,  most  of  whom  live  in  the  suburb 
of  Ganjam,  the  ancient  city  being  ruinous. 

Seringham  (Srirangam),  a  town  in  the  Madras 
Presidency,  on  an  island  in  the  Kaveri,  11  miles 
W.  of  Trichinopoly,  with  a  great  temple  of  Vishnu, 
a  vast  complex  of  halls  and  colossal  gateways. 


Notable  is  one  'hall  of  a  1000  columns'  (960  reallyl 
450  feet  long  by  130  wide.     Pop.  23,060. 

Serpukoflf,  a  Russian  town,  57  miles  by  rail  a 
of  Moscow,  with  a  cathedral  (1380),  manufactur- 
ing cottons,  woollens,  leather,  &c.     Pop.  24,00a 

Servia,  a  kingdom  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
south  of  the  Danube,  and  bordering  on  Bosnia, 
Hungary,  Roumania,  Bulgaria,  and  Turkey,  with 
an  area  of  18,750  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  moun- 
tainous ;  the  highest  peaks  occur  in  the  frontier 
chains  (6382  feet  in  the  SW.) ;  and  there  are  many 
isolated  peaks  and  groups,  clothed  with  forests 
and  parted  by  fertile  valleys.  The  principal 
highway  of  the  country  is  through  the  central 
valley  of  the  Morava,  stretching  SSE.  from 
the  Danube.  Servia  is  essentially  an  agri- 
cultural country.  Of  the  total  area  58^  per 
cent,  is  cultivated,  the  principal  crops  being 
wheat,  maize,  and  other  cereals,  and  grapes  for 
wine.  Plums  are  dried  and  exported  to  a  value 
between  £250,000  and  £500,000  a  year,  and  from 
them  the  Servian  brandy  is  made.  Large  herds 
of  swine  are  fed  on  the  acorns  of  the  oak  forests, 
and  then  driven  into  Hungary  to  be  sold.  Cattle 
and  sheep  are  exported,  also  wheat  and  other 
cereals,  hides,  wine,  wool,  timber,  and  cordage. 
The  total  exports  for  the  five  years  ending  1905 
averaged  over  £2,630,000  annually.  The  imports 
consist  principally  of  cottons,  woollens,  salt, 
timber,  iron,  steel,  and  other  metals,  hides, 
sugar,  coflee,  glass,  paper,  tobacco,  machinery, 
&c.,  and  range  from  £1,500,000  to  over  £2,000,000. 
And  there  is  a  rapidly  growing  transit  trade. 
By  far  the  greater  portion  of  the  foreign  trade 
of  Servia  is  in  the  hands  of  Austria-Hungary, 
and  is  concentrated  at  Belgrade,  the  capital. 
But  a  little  is  done  by  Nisch,  the  chief  town  of 
southern  Servia,  by  rail  (since  1889)  through 
Salonica  (q.v.).  The  manufacturing  industry  is 
still  in  its  infancy,  but  clothing  and  carpets  are 
made  by  the  women  in  their  own  homes.  The 
country  is  naturally  rich  in  minerals,  and  a  little 
coal,  lignite,  quicksilver,  lead,  silver,  antimony, 
copper,  and  oil  shale  is  mined.  Belgrade  is  the 
capital.  Along  the  valley  of  the  Morava  passes 
the  railway  from  Vienna  to  Constantinople  ;  and 
Nisch  or  Nissa,  on  this  line,  is  connected  by  rail 
(1889)  with  Salonica. 

The  Servians  are  a  well-built,-stalwart  Slavonic 
(or  perhaps  in  part  Slavonised  Albanian)  race, 
proud  and  martial  by  temperament;  the  most 
striking  feature  of  their  social  life  is  the  family 
community  or  Zadruga.  Their  literature  is  rich 
in  poetry,  especially  lyrics.  Pop.  (1884)  1,901,736 : 
(1900)  2,493,770,  including  some  160,000  Ron- 
manians,  46,000  Gypsies,  and  20,000  of  other 
nationalities.  Besides  these  the  Montenegrins 
(250,000)  are  almost  all  pure  Servians  by  race, 
as  are  also  the  Bosnians  and  Herzegovinians 
(1,300,000),  not  to  speak  of  over  2,400,000  Servians 
in  other  parts  of  Austria-Hungary.  The  people 
of  Servia  belong  to  the  Greek  Catholic  Church. 
There  are  1100  elemeniary  schools,  some  technical 
and  theological  schools,  and  a  university  (300 
students)  at  Belgrade.  Servia  is  a  constitutional 
and  hereditary  monarchy,  the  legislative  power 
being  vested  in  the  king  and  the  National  Assembly 
or  Skupshtiim.  Besides  this  body  and  the  min- 
istry, there  is  a  senate  of  sixteen  members,  elected 
by  the  king  and  the  Skupshtina,  which  acts  as  a 
permanent  state  council.  The  national  income 
in  1904  was  £3,312,000,  and  nearly  balanced  the 
expenditure  ;  the  debt  is  over  £18,800,000.  There 
is  a  standing  army  (with  universal  military 
service)  of  27,000,  and  a  war  strength  of  300,000, 


640 


SfiVRES 


The  Servians  came  from  the  Carpathians  into 
these  regions  iu  the  7th  century,  and  were  Chris- 
tianised and  founded  a  great  state  which  about 
1350  embraced  not  merely  the  present  kingdom 
but  Albania  and  great  part  of  Bulgaria  and  Mace- 
donia ;  but  at  Kossovo  in  1389  the  Turks  crushed 
the  Servian  power  and  made  Servia  tirst  tributary 
and  then  a  pashalik  of  the  Ottoman  empire.  A 
national  rising  against  Tui'kish  tyranny  had  some 
success  under  Kara  George  in  1807-10,  and 
through  Russian  influence  it  was  arranged  that 
Servia  should  have  some  measure  of  internal 
autonomy.  Still  more  successful  was  a  rising  in 
1815  under  Obrenovich.  Under  his  successors 
there  was  considerable  progress ;  and  after  the 
Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877-78,  Servia  obtained 
complete  independence,  and  became  a  kingdom. 
King  Milan  abdicated  in  1889,  On  11th  July 
1903  a  party  of  officers,  representing  a  wide 
conspiracy,  assassinated  King  Alexander  and 
Queen  Draga.  A  few  weeks  afterwards  Prince 
Peter  Karageorgevitch  was  proclaimed  king. 

See  Denton,  Servia  and  the  Servians  (1862) ; 
and  books  on  the  Balkan  States  by  Laveleye 
(trans.  1887)  and  Miller  (1906). 

Sessa,  32  miles  NW.  of  Naples,  has  a  fine 
cathedral  and  ruins.    Pop.  8000. 

Sestos.    See  Abydos. 

Sestrl  Ponente,  a  suburb  of  Genoa. 

Setif,  capital  of  a  department  of  Algeria,  70 
miles  west  of  Constantine.     Pop.  16,000. 

Settle,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
on  the  Ribble,  and  at  the  base  of  the  Castlebergh 
cliff  (300  feet),  43  miles  NW.  of  Leeds.  Dr  Birk- 
beck  was  a  native.     Pop.  of  parish,  2300. 

Setu'bal  (called  by  English  sailors  St  Ubes), 
a  seaport  of  Portugal,  on  the  N.  side  of  the  Bay 
of  Setubal,  17  miles  by  rail  SE,  of  Lisbon.  Setubal 
is  the  old  Roman  Cetobriga.     Pop.  21,800. 

Sevastopol.    See  Sebastopol. 

Sevenoaks  (Sen'oaks),  a  pleasant  town  of  Kent, 
on  an  eminence  22  miles  SE.  of  London.  It  has 
a  Perpendicular  church  with  some  interesting 
monuments,  the  Walthamstow  Hall  (1882)  for  100 
daughters  of  missionaries,  and  a  grammar-school 
founded  in  1432  by  Lord  Mayor  Sir  W.  Sennocke, 
incorporated  by  Queen  Elizabeth,  and  recon- 
stituted as  a  first-grade  modern  school  in  1877,  at 
which  Grote  and  Bishops  Christopher  and  Charles 
Wordsworth  were  educated.  Knole,  the  magnifi- 
cent seat  of  Lord  Sackville,  is  close  by.  It  was 
mainly  built  between  1460  and  1608  by  Arch- 
bishop Bpurchier  and  Thomas  Sackville,  first 
Earl  of  Dorset,  and  has  a  park  of  1000  acres. 
Pop.  8250. 

Severn  (Lat.  Sabrina),  after  the  Thames,  the 
largest  of  the  rivers  of  England,  rises,  1500  feet 
above  sea-level,  from  a  chalybeate  spring  on  the 
eastern  side  of  Plinlimmon,  12  miles  west  of  Llan- 
idloes, in  Montgomeryshire,  North  Wales.  Flow- 
ing eastward  to  Llanidloes,  to  which  town  it 
retains  its  original  British  name  of  Hafren,  it 
afterwards  flows  north-east  past  Newtown  (465 
feet)  and  Welshpool  to  the  eastern  boundary  of 
Montgomeryshire,  then  east-south-east  past 
Shrewsbury  and  Bridgnorth  in  Salop,  and  finally 
southward  through  Worcester  and  Gloucester,  in 
which  last  it  begins  to  form  the  estuary  that 
merges  in  the  Bristol  Channel  (q.v.).  It  is  navi- 
gable for  barges  to  Welshpool  (180  miles).  Its 
entire  length  is  210  miles  (from  source  to  mouth 
as  the  crow  flies  only  80).  The  chief  affluents  are 
J.he  Terne  and  the  Upper  and  Lower  Avon  on  the 
east,  and  the  Teme  and  Wye  on  the  west.    A 


canal  18 J  miles  long,  and  navigable  for  vessels  of 
350  tons,  extends  from  Gloucester  to  the  upper 
portion  of  the  estuary  ;  and  in  1891  the  improve- 
ment of  the  navigation  to  Worcester  was  begun. 
The  Montgomery  Canal  extends  from  Welshpool 
to  Newtown,  and  other  canals  connect  with  the 
Thames,  Trent,  Mersey,  &c.  In  some  of  the 
reaches  below  Gloucester,  especially  near  Newn- 
ham,  the  tide,  which  flows  with  great  velocity, 
produces  a  bore  (locally  termed  hygre)  or  wave 
sometimes  5  or  6  feet  high.  The  railway  twice 
crosses  the  estuary — near  Berkeley  by  a  viaduct 
(1879),  1194  yards  long,  and  near  Chepstow  by  a 
tunnel  (1873-85),  ^  miles  long. 

Severe,  Cape.    See  Chelyuskin. 

Sev'ille'(Span.  Sevilla;  pron.  Seveel'ya),  one  of 
the  most  famous  of  Spanish  cities,  stands  on  the 
left  bank  of  the  navigable  Guadalquivir,  62  miles 
(95  by  rail)  N.  by  E,  of  Cadiz,  and  is  connected  with 
a  large  suburb  (Triana)  on  the  right  bank  by  an 
iron  bridge  (1848).  Until  quite  recently  it  had 
the  appearance  of  a  picturesque  Moorish  town  ; 
but  during  the  last  few  years  it  has  been  greatly 
modernised  by  the  clearing  away  of  the  narrower 
quarters  to  make  room  for  wide  straight  streets  and 
modern  houses  and  shops.  The  water-supply  was 
formerly  brought  from  Alcala  de  los  Panaderos 
by  an  old  Roman  aqueduct  of  410  arches,  but  this 
has  been  superseded  by  new  water- works  con- 
structed by  Englishmen  in  1883.  The  vast 
Gothic  cathedral,  built  in  1401-1519  on  the  site 
of  a  Moorish  mosque,  is  one  of  the  largest  in 
Europe,  and  contains  valuable  paintings  by 
Murillo  (a  native  of  Seville)  and  other  masters  ; 
magnificent  Flemish  stained  glass  of  the  16th 
century  ;  one  of  the  largest  organs  in  the  world ; 
the  tombs  of  King  Ferdinand  III.  and  Ferdinand 
the  son  of  Columbus  ;  and  much  most  excellent 
artistic  work  in  bronze,  wood-carving,  and 
sculptured  work.  Close  beside  it  stands  the 
beautiful  campanile  called  Giralda,  275  feet  high. 
Both  cathedral  and  tower  were  seriously  dam- 
aged by  an  earthquake  in  1884.  Another  of  the 
glories  of  Seville  is  the  Alcazar,  or  Moorish  royal 
palace,  begun  in  the  end  of  the  12th  century, 
enlarged  and  beautified  by  Peter  the  Cruel ;  its 
halls  and  gardens  are  surpassed  only  by  those  of 
the  Alhambra.  Amongst  other  places  must  be 
mentioned  the  so-called  House  of  Pilate ;  the 
museum,  with  masterpieces  by  Murillo,  Zurbaran, 
and  other  artists  of  the  Seville  school,  as  well  as 
by  Velasquez  (also  a  native  of  Seville) ;  the 
charity  hospital ;  the  exchange  (1585),  sheltering 
the  valuable  archives  of  the  Americas  ;  the  uni- 
versity (1254 ;  rebuilt  1567) ;  the  i^alace  (1697)  of 
the  archbishop  ;  the  Palace  of  San  Telmo,  founded 
as  a  naval  college  by  Columbus'  son,  but  now  a 
palace  of  the  Duke  of  Montpensier  ;  and  the  bull- 
ring for  18,000  spectators.  There  are  manufac- 
tures of  cigars  (a  royal  factory  employing  4000 
work-people),  iron,  machinery,  pottery,  cannon, 
silks,  cottons,  &c.  The  imports  consist  prin- 
cipally of  chemicals,  timber,  textiles,  petroleum, 
machinery,  coal,  metals,  spirits,  fish,  haber- 
dashery, tinplate,  and  furniture  ;  the  exports  of 
lead,  quicksilver,  wine,  copper,  oranges,  olives, 
and  olive-oil  and  corks.  Pop.  (1878)  133,938; 
(1900)  148,350.  The  Roman  Hispalis,  and  from 
712  to  1248  the  Ishbilia  of  the  Moors,  Seville  was 
then  captured  by  Ferdinand  III.  of  Castile,  and 
300,000  Moors  abandoned  the  place.— Area  of 
province,  5428  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1887)  544,815. 

S6vres  (Sehvr),  a  town  of  France,  dep.  Seine-et- 
Oise,  lOJ  miles  SW.  of  Paris,  has  since  1756  been 
celebrated  for  its  state  factory  of  artistic   por- 


SEVRES 


641 


SHAN  STATES 


celain.  The  Sevres  vases  are  of  great  value  and 
are  known  the  world  over ;  painted  glass  and 
mosaic  are  also  made.     Pop.  7950. 

S(>vres,  Deux-  (Duh-Sehvr),  a  dep.  in  the  west 
of  France,  formed  chiefly  out  of  the  ancient  prov- 
ince of  Poitou.  Area,  2315  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1901) 
342,474.  The  arrondissenients  are  Niort  (the 
capital),  Bressuire,  Melle,  and  Parthenay. 

Seychelles  (Say-sheW),  a  group  of  British 
islands,  dependent  on  Mauritius,  are  situated 
near  the  middle  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  600  miles 
NB.  of  Madagascar  and  934  N.  of  Mauritius. 
There  are  thirty  larger  islands  and  numerous 
smaller  ones,  their  total  area  being  102  sq.  m.  ; 
the  largest  and  most  important  is  Mahe  (17  miles 
by  7).  They  were  colonised  by  the  French 
in  1742,  though  they  were  Imown  to  the  early 
Portuguese  navigators.  The  British  wrested 
them  from  the  French  when  they  also  took 
Mauritius  (1794).  The  islands  are  mountainous, 
and  in  Mah6  reach  close  upon  8000  feet.  Coral- 
reefs  grow  round  most  of  the  islands.  The 
climate,  though  tropical  (70°  to  93°  F.),  is  very 
healthy.  The  soil  is  fertile  and  vegetation 
luxuriant.  The  principal  products  are  the  flbre, 
nuts,  and  oil  of  the  cocoa-nut  palm  ;  but  coco- 
de-mer,  maize,  manioc,  tobacco,  coff'ee,  vanilla, 
cloves,  tortoiseshell,  soap,  and  vacoa  bags  are 
exported.  The  imports  consist  chiefly  of  cotton, 
haberdashery,  coal,  spirits  and  wine,  and  pro- 
visions. Victoria,  the  chief  town  on  Mahe,  is  a 
coaling  station.  Pop.  of  the  islands,  upwards  of 
20,000— negroes,  coolies,  and  French  Creoles. 

Seymour,  a  city  of  Indiana,  88  miles  by  rail  W. 
of  Cincinnati.     Pop.  6450. 

Seyne,  La  (Sayn),  a  seaport  of  France  (dep. 
Var),  on  the  Mediterranean,  3  miles  SW.  of 
Toulon,  with  shipbuilding  yards.     Pop.  19,160. 

Sezze  (Set'zeh ;  anc.  Setia),  a  cathedral  city  of 
Italy,  40  miles  SE.  of  Rome,  has  ruins  of  a  temple 
to  Saturn,  amphitheatre,  &c.     Pop.  6114, 

Sfax,  the  second  port  of  Tunis,  on  the  Gulf 
of  Cabes,  150  miles  S.  by  E.  of  the  town  of 
Tunis.  It  trades  in  dates,  olive-oil,  esparto  grass, 
wool,  fruits,  spongeS;  &c. ;  and  manufactures 
cottons,  -woollens,  and  silks.    Pop.  30,000. 

Shadwell,  a  parish,  now  included  in  Tower 
Hamlets  (q.v.). 

Shaftesbury  (locally  Shaston),  a  very  ancient 
municipal  borough  in  Dorsetshire,  3  miles  SSW. 
of  Semley  station  and  22  WSW.  of  Salisbury.  It 
stands  on  a  narrow  chalk  ridge,  and  commands 
magnificent  views  over  Dorset-,  Somerset-,  and 
Wiltshires.  The  Caer  Palladwr  of  the  Britons,  it 
was  made  by  King  Alfred  the  seat  of  a  famous 
abbey  of  Benedictine  nuns  (880),  whither  Edward 
the  Martyr's  body  was  translated  in  980,  and 
where  Canute  died  in  1035.  At  the  date  of 
Domesday  Shaftesbury  had  three  mints  and 
twelve  churches,  but  four  remain— St  Peter's 
(Norman)  the  most  interesting.  Till  1832  Shaftes- 
bury returned  two  members,  and  till  1885  one. 
Population,  2000.  See  Mayo's  Municipal  Records 
of  Shaftesbury  (Sherborne,  1891). 

Shahabad',  a  town  of  Oudh,  80  miles  NW.  of 
Lucknow  by  rail,  with  a  pop.  of  20,153— only  a 
third  of  what  it  was  in  the  16th  century. 

Shahjahanpur',  a  town  in  the  United  Prov- 
inces, 100  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Lucknow.  It 
was  founded  in  1647,  in  the  reign  of  Shah-Jehan. 
It  was  a  hot-bed  of  rebellion  in  1857.  Sugar  is 
made  and  exported.     Pop.  76,960. 

Shamo,  or  Gobi.    See  Asia. 
20 


Shamo'kin,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  188 
miles  by  rail  W.  of  New  York,  with  rich  mines  of 
anthracite  coal.     Pop.  18,200. 

Shandernagar.    See  Chandernaqore. 

Shandon,  a  Dumbartonshire  village  and  large 
hydropathic,  on  the  E.  shore  of  the  Gare  Loch, 
5^  miles  NW.  of  Helensburgh.    See  also  Cork. 

Shandy  Hall,  Sterne's  residence  (now  cottages) 
at  Coxwold  (q.v.). 

Shanghai  (Shang-hl'),  the  most  important  sea- 
port for  central  China,  stands  on  an  affluent  of  the 
Yang-tsze-kiang,  12  miles  from  its  mouth  and  IQO 
SE.  of  Nanking.  The  Chinese  city,  with  narrow, 
filthy  streets,  is  surrounded  by  a  wall,  and 
between  it  and  the  river  lie  densely-crowded 
suburbs.  On  the  north  of  the  Chinese  city  the 
French  and  English  settlements,  with  broad 
streets,  well  lighted,  well  paved,  and  handsome 
houses  and  public  buildings,  stretch  northwards 
parallel  to  the  river.  The  English  cathedral  was 
designed  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott.  Powerful  batteries 
guard  the  river-approach.  The  city  lies  low,  and 
sufl'ers  greatly  from  dysentery,  cholera,  and 
fevers  during  the  very  hot  summers.  Shanghai 
has  an  enormous  trade  in  tea  and  silks,  and  in 
cottons,  woollens,  opium,  metals,  &c.  It  taps 
the  provinces  of  middle  China  by  a  vast  and  com- 
plicated system  of  interlacing  canals,  and  so  gets 
the  lion's  .share  of  the  tea  and  silk  to  export. 
The  total  trade  of  the  port  has  grown  enormously 
since  Shanghai  was  thrown  open  to  foreign  com- 
merce in  1842.  A  large  proportion  of  the  trade 
of  Shanghai  is  for  goods  in  transit.  The  imports 
of  greatest  value  are  cotton  goods,  opium, 
metals,  woollens,  coal,  kerosene  oil,  beche  de 
mer,  edible  birds'-nests,  dyes,  ginseng,  matches, 
pepper,  sandalwood,  seaweed,  timber,  shark's 
fins,  &c.     Pop.  450,000  (about  3000  foreigners). 

Shanklin,  a  watering-place  on  the  south-east 
coast  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  8  miles  by  rail  S.  of 
Ryde.  It  has  memories  of  Keats.  Population, 
upwards  of  4500. 

Shannon,  the  largest  river  of  Ireland,  rises  in 
the  Cuilcagh  Mountains,  County  Cavan,  and  falls 
after  a  course  of  254  miles  into  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  between  Loop  Head  and  Kerry  Head. 
It  flows  SW.  to  Lough  Allen  in  Leitrim ;  thence 
S.  through  a  succession  of  expansions— Loughs 
Boderg,  Bofin,  Forbes,  Ree,  and  Derg— past  the 
towns  of  Carrick,  Athlone,  and  Killaloe,  to 
Limerick  ;  and  finally  W.,  forming  a  wide  estuary 
some  70  miles  long  and  10  miles  across  at  its 
seaward  extremity.  About  10  miles  from  the 
entrance  the  river  narrows  to  1^  mile  in  width. 
Outward  navigation  commences  at  Foynes, 
connected  by  railway  with  Limerick.  Vessels 
of  1000  tons  can  get  up  to  Limerick,  and  small 
steamers  to  Athlone;  boats  ascend  to  beyond 
Lough  Allen.  The  Suck  and  Fergus  enter  from 
the  right,  and  the  Inny,  Brosna,  Mulkear,  Maigue, 
and  Deel  from  the  left.  The  river  is  canalised 
for  some  distance  below  Athlone,  and  between 
Killaloe  and  Limerick  ;  and  it  is  connected  with 
Dublin  by  the  Grand  and  Royal  Canals. 

Shan-si,  a  province  of  northern  China,  having 
the  Hoang-ho  on  its  western  boundary. 

Shan  States,  a  collective  name  for  a  large  area 
between  Burma,  Siam,  Annam  and  China,  occu- 
pied by  numerous  tribes  of  Shans  or  Laos,  a 
people  akin  to  the  Siamese  and  southern  Chinese. 
Some  of  the  tribes  are  directly  dependent  on 
Burma,  still  more  on  Siam,  and  others  on  China 
and  Annam ;  many  are  virtually  independent. 
I  The  country  consists  of  valleys  and  hiU  country 


SHAN-TUNQ 


642 


BHEMAKHA 


on  the  upper  courses  of  the  Irawadi,  Salwen, 
Mekong,  and  their  tributaries.  There  are  great 
forests  of  teak ;  iron,  rubies,  and  silver  are 
minod  ;  copper,  coal,  and  petroleum  are  known 
to  exist ;  the  country  has  a  large  trade  with 
China,  and  schemes  for  railways  from  Burma  and 
Siam  to  the  Chinese  frontiers  have  been  pro- 
posed. The  total  number  of  Shans  is  guessed 
at  4,000,000.  Zimme  (Chieng-mai)  and  Luang- 
Prabang  give  name  to  the  chief  states— the  latter 
now  Annamite  or  French. 

Shan-tung,  a  maritime  province  of  N.  China. 

Shap,  a  Westmorland  town,  12  miles  SSE.  of 
Penrith.  It  has  a  ruined  abbey,  a  mineral  spring, 
and  granite-quarries  near.    Pop.  1260. 

Shaplnshay,  an  Orkney  island,  4  miles  NNE. 
of  Kirkwall.  Area,  11  sq.  m. ;  height,  162  feet ; 
pop.  765. 

Shari  (Shah'ree).    See  Chad,  Lake. 

Sharon,  an  extensive  tract  of  plain  and  corn- 
land  in  Palestine,  lying  between  the  sand-dunes 
of  the  coast  and  the  foot-hills  of  the  interior, 
and  extending  from  Carmel  to  near  Joppa. 

Sharon,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Shenango  River,  71  miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Pitts- 
burgh.    Pop.  8950. 

Sha-shi,  or  Sha-tsze,  a  Chinese  treaty  port  in 
Hupeh,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Yang-tsze,  110 
miles  below  Ichang,  with  a  great  trade.  Pop. 
80,000. 

Shat-el-Arab.     See  Euphrates. 

Sheboygan,  capital  of  Sheboygan  county,  Wis- 
consin, on  Lake  Michigan,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Sheboygan  River,  53  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Mil- 
waukee. It  has  a  harbour,  foundries,  tanneries, 
&c.    Pop.  (1880)  7314 ;  (1900)  20,962. 

Shechem.    See  Nablus. 

Sheen.    See  Richmond. 

Sheerness',  a  strongly  fortified  seaport  and 
royal  dockyard  in  Kent,  on  the  north-west  ex- 
tremity of  the  Isle  of  Sheppey,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Thames  and  Medway,  11  miles  ENE.  of 
Chatham  and  52  E.  of  London  by  rail.  It  con- 
sists of  four  divisions.  Blue-town,  Mile-town, 
Banks-town,  and  Marina-town,  and  of  the.se  the 
first  is  within  the  limits  of  the  garrison.  The 
dockyard,  dating  from  1814,  is  one  of  the  finest 
in  Europe,  and  covers  60  acres,  comprising  wet 
and  dry  docks,  immense  storehouses,  and  official 
residences.  At  Garrison  Point  are  the  residence 
of  the  port-admiral,  the  telegraph,  coastguard 
station,  and  barracks.  The  chief  trade  is  in 
supplying  the  requirements  of  the  employees  in 
the  government  establishments,  and  seeds  and 
oysters  are  exported.  The  sea-bathing  is  ex- 
cellent. Pop.  (1851)  8549 ;  (1881)  14,286  ;  (1901) 
18,273.  Sheerness  was  captured  by  the  Dutch 
under  De  Ruyter  in  1667,  and  here  the  niutiny 
of  the  Nore  broke  out  in  1798. 

Shefl8.eld,  a  municipal,  parliamentary,  and 
county  borough  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, in  a  hilly  country,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Sheaf  with  the  Don,  46  miles  SSW.  of  York,  41 
E.  of  Manchester,  and  165  NNW.  of  London.  It 
possesses  some  fine  public  buildings,  such  as  the 
parish  church  of  St  Peter,  supposed  to  have  been 
erected  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.,  240  feet  long  by 
130  feet  broad  ;  St  Mary's  Roman  Catholic  Church 
(1850),  surmounted  by  a  spire  195  feet  high  ;  the 
Albert  Hall  (1873),  cutlers'  hall,  corn  exchange  ; 
the  new  market-hall,  or  Norfolk  Market,  erected 
iu  1851  by  the  Duke  of  Norfolk  at  a  cost  of 


about  £40,000;  music-hall,  assembly-rooms, 
theatres,  &c.  In  1875  and  succeeding  years  a 
street  improvement  scheme  was  carried  out  at 
a  cost  of  upwards  of  half  a  million.  The  new 
town-hall  (1891-97)  cost,  with  site,  about  £130,000. 
There  are  botanic  gardens  and  fine  cemeteries ; 
the  Free  Grannuar-school,  the  Wesley  College 
(1838).  The  Firth  College  (1879)  became  a  univer- 
sity in  1905,  with  faculties  of  arts  and  science,  and 
medicine,  and  a  technical  department,  including 
laboratories,  foundries,  and  machine-shops.  The 
Mechanics'  Institution  dates  from  1832.  There 
are  free  and  other  public  libraries,  an  Athenaeum, 
a  Literary  and  Philosophical  Society,  and  the 
Mappin  Art  Gallery ;  and  Mr  Ruskiu  founded 
the  St  George's  Museum  here  (formerly  at  Walk- 
ley,  but  since  1890  in  the  town  itself),  in  which 
he  deposited  an  important  collection  of  minerals, 
illuminated  manuscripts,  engravings,  and  draw- 
ings. Sheffield  has  long  been  noted  for  the 
manufacture  of  cutlery  ;  and  at  the  present  day 
an  endless  variety  of  articles  in  brass,  iron,  and 
steel  is  produced,  such  as  knives,  silver  and 
plated  articles,  Britannia-metal  goods,  coach- 
springs,  spades,  spindles,  hanuners,  files,  saws, 
boilers,  stoves,  grates,  buttons,  &c.  The  intro- 
duction of  the  manufacture  of  armour-plates, 
railway-springs,  tires,  and  rails  in  1871  gave  a 
remarkable  impetus  to  the  growth  of  the  town. 
Sheffield  has  several  public  parks  (one  presented 
in  1878),  and  two  sets  of  public  baths.  Pop. 
(1821)  69,479  ;  (1841)  111,091 ;  (1861)  154,093  ;  (1881) 
284,508;  (1901)380,717. 

Sheffield  has  from  Saxon  times  been  the  capital 
of  a  district  known  as  '  Hallamshire.'  William 
de  Lovetot  built  a  church  at  it  about  1103.  The 
next  lords  of  Sheffield,  the  Furnivals,  sided  with 
Henry  III.  against  the  barons,  and  the  castle  was 
burned  in  1266.  The  Talbots  inherited  Sheffield, 
and  the  third  Earl  of  Shrewsbury  greatly  in- 
creased the  dignity  of  Sheffield  castle.  Queen 
Elizabeth  imposed  on  the  sixth  Earl  of  Shrews- 
bury the  responsibility  of  holding  Queen  Mary  of 
Scotland  a  prisoner  here  (1572-86,  with  short 
intervals).  Through  the  Arundels,  the  vast  Shef- 
field estates  ultimately  vested  in  the  Dukes  of 
Norfolk.  Sheffield  sided  against  King  Charles ; 
and  in  August  1644  the  castle  was  taken  by  the 
parliamentarians,  and  soon  afterwards  demol- 
ished. The  cutlery  trade  had  existed  from  the 
earliest  times  ;  the  '  Sheffield  whittle '  was  si)oken 
of  by  Chaucer,  and  the  Cutlers'  Company  was 
founded  in  1624.  Up  to  the  middle  of  the  18th 
century  Sheffield  was  a  mean  place,  but  rose  in 
the  19th  to  be  the  '  capital  of  steel '  in  Britain, 
and  perhaps  in  the  world.  Till  1845  the  whole 
town  was  included  in  one  parish  ;  there  are  now 
thirty-seven  ecclesiastical  parishes.  Sheffield  was 
first  enfranchised  in  1832  ;  and  by  the  bill  of  1885 
the  borough  was  divided  into  five  parliamentary 
districts,  each  with  one  member.  In  March  1864 
a  new  embankment,  constructed  for  the  Sheffield 
Water  Company,  at  Bradfield,  gave  way;  250 
persons  perished;  mills,  houses,  and  hamlets 
were  swept  away,  and  damage  done  to  private 
property  to  the  extent  of  near  £300,000.  In  1866 
trade  outrages  in  the  form  of  'rattening,'  long  a 
discredit  to  Sheffield,  were  put  an  end  to.  See 
Hunter's  Hallamshire  (1819;  new  ed.  1869); 
Gatty's  Sheffield,  Past  and  Present  (1873) ;  Leader's 
Reminiscences  of  Old  Sheffield  (1875) ;  and  Leader's 
Sheffield  in  the  Eighteenth  Century  (1901). 

Shemakha  (She-mdh'ha),  a  town  of  Russian 
Caucasus,  63  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Baku,  with  silk 
manufactures.  It  was  overwhelmed  by  an  earth- 
quake in  1859,  and  again  in  1872.    Pop.  28,545. 


SHENANDOAH 


649 


SHETTLESTON 


Shenando'ah,  (l)  a  river  of  Virginia,  drains 
the  beautiful  and  fertile  valley  between  the  Blue 
Ridge  and  the  principal  range  of  the  Alleghanies. 
It  rises  in  two  branches,  which  unite  85  miles  W. 
of  Washington,  and  runs  170  miles  NE.  to  the 
Potomac,  at  Harper's  Ferry.— (2)  A  borough  of 
Pennsylvania,  105  miles  north-werst  of  Phila- 
delphia, with  a  trade  in  anthracite  coal.  Popula- 
tion, 20,500. 

Shendy,  a  town  in  Lower  Nubia,  on  the  Nile's 
right  bank,  100  miles  NNE.  of  Khartoum.  Pop. 
5000  (40,000  before  1822). 

Shen-si,  a  northern  inland  province  of  China. 

Shepherd's  Bush,  a  west  suburb  of  London. 

Shepley,  a  Yorkshire  village,  7  miles  SE.  of 
Hudderstield.     Pop.  1725. 

Shepperton,  a  Middlesex  Thames-side  parish, 
19  miles  SW.  of  London.     Pop.  1820. 

Sheppey,  Isle  of,  a  portion  of  Kent,  insulated 
from  the  mainland  by  the  Swale,  an  arm  of  the 
Medway  estuary.  It  now  is  only  9  miles  long 
and  4  broad,  the  sea  having  gradually  eaten  away 
the  northern  shore,  which  is  lined  by  cliffs  of 
London  clay  60  to  80  feet  high.  Minster  church, 
formerly  in  the  middle  of  the  island,  is  now  close 
to  the  north  coast.  In  the  north  corn  is  grown, 
but  the  low  south  districts  are  laid  out  in  grass. 
Almost  all  the  inhabitants  are  massed  in  Sheer- 
uess  (q.v.). 

Shepton  Mallet  (locally  Shep'un),  an  ancient 
market-town  of  Somerset,  5  miles  ESE.  of  Wells 
and  15  SSW.  of  Bath.  It  has  an  hexagonal 
market-cross  of  1500,  51  feet  high  ;  a  church  with 
a  splendid  timber  roof;  a  grammar-school  (1627); 
and  manufactures  of  silk,  velvet,  crape,  ale.  Pop. 
(1851)  3885;  (1901)  5238.  See  a  work  by  Far- 
brother  (1860), 

Sherborne  (A.S., '  clear  brook '),  a  pleasant  old- 
fashioned  town  of  Dorsetshire,  in  the  Vale  of 
Blackmore,  on  a  gentle  southern  hill-slope  above 
the  Yeo,  17  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Dorchester  and  5 
E.  of  Yeovil.  In  705  Ina,  King  of  Wessex,  made 
it  the  seat  of  a  bishopric,  with  St  Aldhelm  for 
first  bishop,  whose  twenty-fifth  successor  in  1075 
transferred  the  see  to  Sarum.  The  noble  cruci- 
form minster,  measuring  207  by  102  feet,  with  a 
tower  114  feet  high,  was  the  church  of  a  great 
Benedictine  abbey,  founded  by  Bishop  Roger  in 
the  first  half  of  the  12th  century.  It  was  con- 
verted from  Norman  to  Perpendicular  after  a  great 
fire  in  1436,  and  was  restored  in  1848-58  at  a  cost 
of  over  £32,000.  Noteworthy  are  the  clerestory, 
vaulting,  and  choir ;  and  in  the  retrochoir  are  the 
graves  of  Asser  and  two  of  King  Alfred's  brothers. 
King  Edward's  School,  comprising  remains  of  the 
abbey  buildings,  was  founded  in  1550,  and  re- 
organised in  1871,  since  when  it  has  risen  to  be 
one  of  the  great  public  schools  of  England,  with 
a  yearly  endowment  of  £800  and  300  boys.  Among 
former  pupils  may  be  named  Dr  J.  M.  Neale  and 
Mr  Lewis  Morris.  Sherborne  Castle  is  an  Eliza- 
bethan mansion,  built  in  1594  by  Raleigh  in  the 
grounds  of  Bishop  Roger's  Norman  castle  (c. 
1125),  which,  taken  by  Fairfax  in  1645,  is  now  a 
ruin.  Sherborne  has  also  a  literary  institute 
(1859),  Bishop  Neville's  15th-century  hospital, 
and  the  Yeatman  memorial  hospital  (1863),  with 
some  manufactures  of  lace,  buttons,  and  silk. 
Pop.  (1851)  4878  ;  (1901)  5753.  See  Home's  Sher- 
borne Register  (1893). 

Sherbro,  an  island  off  the  coast  of  Sierra  Leone. 

Sherbrooke,  a  city  of  Quebec,  at  the  junction 
pf  the  rapid  Magog  (with  falls)  and  St  Francis 


rivers,  168  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Montreal,  with 
many  busy  factories.    Pop.  11,800. 

Sherburji.  (l)  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  12  miles  B. 
of  Leeds.  Pop.  650.— (2)  A  place  3  miles  ESE. 
of  Durliam,  with  a  lepers'  hospital  (1181),  now  an 
almshouse. 

Sheriffmulr',  in  Perthshire,  on  the  northern 
slope  of  the  Ochils,  2J  miles  BNE.  of  Dunblane, 
was  the  scene,  on  13th  November  1715,  of  an 
indecisive  battle  between  8400  Jacobites  under 
Mar  and  3500  Hanoverians  under  Argyll. 

Sherman,  capital  of  Grayson  county,  Texas-, 
64  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Dallas.     Pop.  10,250. 

Sherringham,  a  Norfolk  coast  town,  4  miles 
WNW.  of  Cromer.     Pop.  2500. 

Sherwood  Forest,  a  stretch  of  hilly  country  in 
the  west  of  Nottinghamshire,  lying  between  Not- 
tingham and  Worksop,  about  25  miles  N.  to  S. 
and  6  to  8  miles  E.  to  W.  It  was  formerly  a 
royal  forest,  and  the  traditional  scene  of  many  of 
the  exploits  of  Robin  Hood  ;  but  it  is  now  almost 
wholly  disafforested,  and  is  occupied  by  gentle- 
men's seats  and  fine  parks.  The  town  of  Mansfield 
and  a  number  of  villages  are  within  the  ancient 
bounds.  Numerous  remains  of  the  old  forest 
are  still  to  be  seen.  See  works  by  R.  White 
(1875)  and  Sissons  (1888). 

Shetland,  or  Zetland  (Scand.  HJaltland,  '  high 
land '),  a  group  of  more  than  a  hundred  islands, 
islets,  and  skerries,  forming  the  northernmost 
Scottish  county,  whose  capital,  Lerwick,  is  116 
miles  NE.  of  Kirkwall,  300  N.  by  E.  of  Edin- 
burgh, and  222  W.  of  Bergen  in  Norway.  Extend- 
ing 70  miles,  and  36  in  extreme  breadth,  they 
have  a  total  area  of  551  sq.  m.,  the  largest  of  the 
twenty-nine  inhabited  islands  being  Mainland 
(378  sq.  in.),  Yell  (83),  Unst  (47),  Fetlar,  Bressay, 
Whalsay,  and  Foula.  The  cliff-scenery  is  very 
fine,  and  the  sounds  and  voes,  or  firths,  are  so 
numerous  that  no  spot  is  more  than  3  miles  from 
the  sea.  The  surface  is  more  rugged  than  that 
of  Orkney,  the  highest  points  being  Ronas  Hill 
(1475  feet)  in  Mainland,  and  the  Sneug  (1372)  in 
Foula.  Metamorphic  crystalline  rocks  predom- 
inate, with  isolated  Old  Red  Sandstone  ;  and  the 
soil  is  peaty,  barely  one-sixth  of  the  total  area 
being  in  cultivation,  whilst  trees  there  are  none. 
Tlie  live-stock  includes  from  100,000  to  120,000 
sheep,  some  19,000  cattle,  and  over  5000  shaggy 
•Shetland  ponies,'  9  to  10  hands  high.  The 
climate  is  equable  but  moist  (rainfall,  49  inches) ; 
at  the  longest  day  the  sun  sets  for  only  five 
hours,  at  tlie  shortest  for  over  eighteen.  The 
herring  and  other  fisheries  are  the  leading  in- 
dustry, having  been  greatly  developed  since  1872. 
Shetland  unites  witli  Orkney  to  return  one  mem- 
ber to  parliament ;  but  it  was  dissevered  there- 
from as  a  coiinty  by  the  Local  Government  (Scot- 
land) Act,  1889.  Pop.  (1801)  22,379  ;  (1861)31,679; 
(1901)  28,185.  Subject,  like  Orkney  (q.v.),  to  the 
Scandinavian  crown  until  1468,  Shetland— the 
Ultima  Thule  of  the  ancients— is  still  markedly 
Norse  in  many  of  its  characteristics,  Norse  (spoken 
in  Foula  as  late  as  1774)  having  bequeathed  many 
words  to  the  Shetland  dialect.  In  1766  it  was  sold 
by  the  Earl  of  Morton  to  the  ancestor  of  the  Earls 
of  Zetland,  but  the  present  earl's  property  here  is 
small.  See  Scott's  Pirate;  Edmondston's  Shet- 
land Glossary  (1866) ;  and  other  works  by  Brand 
(1701),  Tudor  (1883),  Sheriff  Rampini  (1884),  and 
the  Rev.  J.  Russell  (1887). 

Shettleston,  a  Lanarkshire  mining-town,  3 
miles  E.  by  S.  of  Glasgow.  Pop.  (1861)  1947 ; 
(1891)  5430  ;  (1901)  12,154. 


SHIANT  ISLET 


644 


SHIRAZ 


Shiant  Islet,  a  basaltic  group,  21  miles  S.  of 
Stornoway.    Pop.  8. 

Shiel  (Sheel),  Loch,  a  fresh-water  lake  in  the 
west  of  Scotland,  on  the  boundary  between  Moi- 
dart  in  Inverness-shire  and  Ardgour  in  Argyll- 
shire, 18  miles  W.  of  Fort-William.  It  extends 
17^  miles  south-westward,  is  1  mile  broad,  is 
overhung  by  mountains  nearly  3000  feet  high, 
abounds  in  fish,  and  communicates  with  the  sea 
by  the  river  Shiel  and  salt-water  Loch  Moidart. 
Prince  Charles  Edward  was  here,  a  fugitive,  in 
1746  ;  and  Queen  Victoria  in  1873.  At  the  head 
is  Glenflnnan  (q.v.). 

Shields  (Sheeldz),  North,  a  seaport  of  North- 
umberland, on  the  Tyne's  north  bank,  near  its 
mouth,  8  miles  ENE.  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  In 
the  13th  c.  the  germ  of  the  present  town  was  a 
collection  of  fishermen's  huts  or  'sheles'  (hence 
Shields).  The  prior  of  Tynemouth  previous  to 
1279  built  twenty-six  houses  and  a  quay  here,  but 
the  burgesses  of  Newcastle  frustrated  his  design 
to  establish  a  town.  For  five  hundred  years 
North  Shields,  oppressed  by  Newcastle,  re- 
mained a  mere  village,  but  during  the  19th 
century  its  development  has  been  rapid.  The 
town  is  without  any  architectural  character,  the 
streets  being  monotonously  plain,  and,  near  the 
river,  narrow  and  dingy.  The  principal  public 
buildings  and  institutions  are  the  town-hall  (1844), 
the  theatre-royal,  the  covered  market,  the  free 
library  and  museum,  the  Tyne  Sailors'  Home 
(1856),  and  the  Master  Mariners'  Asylum  (1838). 
The  Northumberland  Park  (with  remains  of  St 
Leonard's  Hospital)  covers  17  acres.  The  mouth 
of  the  Tyne  forms  an  important  harbour ;  the 
depth  of  water  on  the  bar  at  low-water  (spring- 
tides) is  20  feet ;  at  high-water,  37.  Within  the 
borough  are  two  extensive  docks — the  North- 
umberland (1857)  and  the  Albert-Edward  (1884), 
the  one  having  an  area  of  55  acres,  the  other  of 
24.  Upwards  of  2|  million  tons  of  coal  and  coke 
are  shipped  hence  in  a  twelvemonth  ;  the  princi- 
pal imports  are  corn,  timber,  and  esparto  grass. 
There  is  much  building  and  repairing  of  steam 
and  sailing  vessels  and  manufactures  of  anchors, 
chain-cables,  ropes,  &c. ;  and  fishing  is  carried 
on.  At  Clitford's  Fort  is  a  submarine  mine 
station.  In  conjunction  with  Tynemouth  (q.v.) 
and  three  small  townships  North  Shields  forms 
a  municipal  and  parliamentary  borough,  named 
after  Tynemouth,  and  sending  one  member  to 
parliament.  Pop.  of  this  borough  (1881)  44,118 ; 
(1901)  51,514.  This  town  is  the  birthplace  of  the 
painters  George  Babner  and  Birket  Foster,  also 
of  William  Wouldhave  (see  South  Shields). 

Shields,  South,  a  seaport,  municipal  and  par- 
liamentary borough  of  Durham,  popular  also  as 
a  watering-place,  stands  on  the  south  bank  of 
the  Tyne  at  its  mouth,  9  miles  ENE.  of  New- 
castle-upon-Tyne. On  the  Lawe,  an  eminence 
overlooking  the  river,  the  Romans  had  an  im- 
portant military  station,  in  Saxon  times  called 
Caer  Urfa,  Salt-pans  were  established  here  in 
1489,  and  glass-works  in  1619.  The  oldest,  dingiest 
part  of  the  town  extends  for  about  two  miles 
along  the  river-bank.  Ocean  Road — a  fine  broad 
thoroughfare  nearly  a  mile  long — stretches  from 
the  market-place  to  the  pier.  The  cliff's  to  the 
southward  are  hollowed  into  picturesque  caves. 
The  principal  public  buildings  are  the  town-hall 
(1768);  the  public  library,  news-room,  and  museum 
(1859);  the  marine  school  (1869);  the  theatre- 
royal  (1866);  and  the  Ingham  Infirmary  (1873). 
South  Shields  is  in  the  parish  of  Jarrow  (q.v.). 
The  North  and  Soutlx  Marine  Parks,  45  acres  in 


extent,  are  divided  by  the  pier  parade.  A  portion 
of  the  site  of  the  Roman  station,  containing  the 
remains  of  the  forum,  treasury,  western  gateway, 
&c.,  has  been  enclosed  and  laid  out  as  a  recreation 
ground.  The  south  pier— a  gigantic  breakwater 
5218  feet  in  length— was  constructed  in  1854-92. 
The  harbour  is  lined  with  ship  and  boat  yards, 
iron,  glass,  alkali,  and  rope  works,  paint  and 
varnish  manufactories,  &c.  Tlie  Tyne  Docks, 
covering  an  area  of  50  acres,  are  the  property  of 
the  North-Easteru  Railway,  and  ship  over  five 
million  tons  of  coal  and  coke.  The  large  colliery 
in  the  town— the  St  Hilda — was  opened  in  1810 ; 
in  an  explosion  here  in  1839  fifty-nine  persons 
were  killed.  The  first  lifeboat  was  built  at  South 
Shields,  and  used  for  the  first  time  on  January  30, 
1790 ;  a  memorial  to  its  inventors  Wouldhave  and 
Greathead  has  been  erected  on  the  pier  parade. 
South  Shields  was  incorporated  in  1850.  Since 
1832  it  has  returned  one  member.  Pop.  (1851) 
28,974  ;  (ISSl)  56,875 ;  (1901)  96,267. 

Shifnal,  a  town  of  Shropshire,  17  miles  E. 
by  S.  of  Slirewsbury,  with  iron  manufactures. 
Pop.  3234. 

Shigatze,  or  Digarchi,  a  town  (pop.  9000)  of 
Tibet,  stands  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Sanpo  or 
Brahmaputra,  140  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Lhassa,  at 
an  altitude  of  12,000  feet.  Near  by  is  the  great 
monastery  (3500  monks)  of  the  Tashilunpo. 

Shikarpur',  a  town  in  Sind,  stands  18  miles 
W.  of  the  Indus,  on  the  railway  to  Quetta  and 
Pishin.  Carpets,  cottons,  furniture,  &c.  are 
manufactured.     Pop.  49,500. 

Shikoku.    See  Japan. 

Shildon,  a  Durham  town,  3  miles  SSE.  of 
Bishop  Auckland,  with  neighbouring  quarries 
and  coal-mines.    Pop.,  with  East  Thiclcley,  11,760. 

Shilka.    See  Amur. 

Shillelagh  (SMlleh'la),  County  Wicklow,  17 
miles  SW.  of  Aughrim,  a  once  famous  oak-forest. 

Shiloh,  one  of  the  most  desperate  battles  (6th 
and  7th  April  1862)  of  the  American  civil  war, 
named  from  a  log  meeting-house  near  the  Ten- 
nessee River,  8  nules  above  Savannah. 

Shimonosek'i,  a  port  of  Japan,  at  the  SW. 
extremity  of  the  main  island,  open  to  foreign  trade 
since  1890,  was  partly  destroyed  during  a  bom- 
bardment by  a  combined  English,  French,  Dutch, 
and  American  fleet  in  1864.    Pop.  42,800. 

Shin,  Loch.     See  Sutherland. 

Shingking.     See  Mukden. 

Shingles,  a  shoal,  2J  miles  long,  off  the  Isle  of 
Wight,  between  the  Needles  and  Hurst  Castle. 

Shipka,  a  Balkan  pass,  50  miles  NE.  of  Philip- 
popolis,  stoutly  held  by  the  Russians  against  the 
desperate  assaults  of  Suleyman  Pasha,  August 
21-26,  and  September  9-17,  1877. 

Shiplake,  an  Oxfordshire  village,  on  the 
Thames,  3^  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Henley.  Tennyson 
was  married  here. 

Shipley,  a  Yorkshire  town,  on  the  Aire,  3  miles 
NNW.  of  Bradford.  It  manufactures  worsted. 
Pop.  (1851)  3272  ;  (1901)  25,573. 

Shipston-on-Stour,  a  market-town  in  Worcester- 
shire (detached),  6  miles  E.  of  Chipping  Campden 
station.     Pop.  1546. 

Shiraz  (Shee-rdhz'),  capital  of  the  Persian  prov- 
ince of  Fars,  much  celebrated  in  Persian  poetry 
for  its  climate,  its  wine,  and  its  rose-gardens,  is 
situated  in  a  broad  i)lain,  115  miles  ENE.  of 
Bushire  and  35  SW.  of  the  ancient  Persepolis. 
Rose-water  is  prepared  ;  and  inlaid  articles  in 


SHIRBUHN  CASTLE 


645 


SHREWSBURY 


wood  and  metal,  glass,  and  woollens  are  made 
here.  The  city  was  founded  in  the  8th  century, 
and  was  a  favourite  resort  of  the  Persian  princes. 
In  1812  a  destructive  earthquake  laid  it  partly  in 
ruins,  and  another  in  1824  cost  4000  lives,  and 
destroyed  its  splendid  mosques  and  bazaars. 
It  was  rebuilt  and  numbered  40,000  people,  when 
a  third  visitation,  in  1853,  laid  almost  the  whole 
town  again  in  ruins,  and  caused  10,000  deaths. 
It  has  since  been  partially  rebuilt,  and  its  pop.  is 
now  40,000.  The  tombs  of  the  poets  Hatiz  and 
Sadi,  both  natives,  are  in  the  vicinity. 

Shlrburn  Castle,  Oxfordshire,  7  miles  SSW.  of 
Thame,  the  seat  (1332)  of  the  Earl  of  Macclesfield. 

Shire  (Shee'ray),  a  river  of  East  Africa,  flows  370 
miles  S.  out  of  Lake  Nyassa  to  the  Zambesi.  The 
navigation  is  obstructed  by  cataracts  (Murchison 
Cataract)  for  35  miles,  in  which  the  Shire  falls 
1200  feet.  The  Shire  Highlands  are  included  in 
Nyassaland  (q.v.).  See  John  Buchanan,  The 
Shire  Highlands  (1885). 

Shirwa,  a  lake  of  South-east  Africa,  45  iniles 
SE.  of  Lake  Nyassa.  It  is  40  miles  long,  15  to  20 
miles  broad,  and  1970  feet  above  sea-level.  On 
the  W.,  between  the  lake  and  the  river  Shire,  is 
Mount  Zomba  (7000  feet). 

Shisdra,  a  town  of  Russia,  80  miles  SW.  of 
Kaluga,  on  a  branch  of  the  Oka.    Pop.  11,678. 

Sho'a,  a  mountainous  country  of  Africa,  usually 
accounted  one  of  the  three  divisions  of  Abyssinia 
(q.v.),  lying  S.  of  Abyssinia  proper,  and  watered 
by  the  Blue  Nile  and  the  Ha  wash.  Area,  26,000 
sq.  m.  The  people,  partly  Abyssinians  and  partly 
Gallas,  number  about  1^  million.  The  capital  is 
Addis  Abeba  (pop.  10,000),  under  Menelek  (from 
1892)  capital  of  Abyssinia  also. 

Shoeburyness,  on  the  coast  of  Essex,  and  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Thames,  faces  the  Nore,  3  miles 
E.  of  Southend  and  45  of  London.  Its  dreary 
marshland,  purchased  by  government  in  1842-55, 
has  since  been  the  seat  of  a  school  of  gunnery, 
with  artillery  barracks,  batteries,  targets,  and 
other  appliances  for  experimenting  on  cannon. 

Sholapur',  a  town  of  Bombay  presidency,  150 
miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Poona,  with  silk  and  cotton 
manufactures.     Pop.  75,000. 

Shooter's  Hill,  an  eminence  (446  feet)  in  Kent, 
near  Greenwich  and  Woolwich,  which  commands 
a  splendid  view  of  London. 

Shoreditch,  a  metropolitan  and  parliamentary 
(two  members)  borough  of  London.  Pop.  met. 
bor.  (1901)  118,637  ;  of  par.  bor.  (1901)  117,706. 

Shoreham,  New,  a  seaport  of  Sussex,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Adur,  6  miles  W.  of  Brighton.  It 
arose  when  the  harbour  of  Old  Shoreham,  now 
a  mile  inland,  became  silted  up  ;  and  it  has  some 
shipbuilding,  oyster  and  other  fisheries,  and  a 
trade  with  France  from  its  tidal  harbour. 
Charles  II.  embarked  here  after  Worcester  for 
Normandy.  The  suspension  bridge  (1833),  the 
Norman  and  Early  English  parish  church,  and  the 
'  Swiss  Gardens,'  may  be  noticed.  The  parlia- 
mentary borough  of  New  Shoreham,  including  the 
Rape  of  Bramber  (177  sq.  m.  and  42,442  inhabit- 
ants in  1881),  and  returning  two  members,  was 
merged  in  the  county  in  1885.  Pop.  of  parish, 
about  3900. 

ShorncliflFe,  in  Kent,  2§  miles  W.  of  Folke- 
stone, the  seat  of  a  military  camp  during  the 
Peninsular  war,  and  since  the  Crimean  war  of  a 
permanent  one  for  5000  men. 

Shoshone  Falls  (Shoslwnee'),  on  the  Snake 
River,  in  southern  Idaho,  about  950  feet  wide. 


and  with  a  clear  leap  of  210  feet  (that  of  Niagara 
is  under  170  feet).  The  river  runs  in  a  deep 
gorge  between  walls  of  volcanic  rock  1000  feet 
high.  Four  miles  higher  up  are  the  Little 
Shoshone  Falls,  a  broken  cataract  of  182  feet. 

Shoshong,  once  capital  of  the  Bamangwato 
tribe,  and  the  largest  native  town  in  South  Africa 
(20,000),  depopulated  since  it  was  superseded 
(1890)  by  Palapwe  (q.v.),  now  capital  of  the 
Bechuanaland  protectorate. 

Shotover  Hill,  an  eminence  (599  feet)  4  miles 
E.  of  Oxford. 

Shottery.    See  Stratford-on-Avon. 

Shotts,  a  Lanarkshire  mining  parish,  16  miles 
SE.  of  Glasgow.     Pop.  (1831)  3220  ;  (1901)  15,562. 

Shreveport,  the  second  city  of  Louisiana,  on 
the  west  bank  of  Red  River  (spanned  by  an  iron 
bridge  of  1200  feet),  328  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  New 
Orleans,  It  ships  cotton,  hides,  wool,  and  tallow, 
and  has  planing  and  saw  mills,  foundries,  machine- 
shops,  breweries,  and  manufactories  of  cotton- 
seed oil,  soap,  ice,  carriages,  &c.    Pop.  16,700. 

Shrewsbury  (Shrowzbury),  the  county  town  of 
Shropshire,  on  the  Severn,  36  miles  SSW.  of  Crewe, 
42  W.  by  N.  of  Birmingham,  and  163  NW.  of 
London.  The  river  here  makes  a  serpentine  curve 
round  a  hilly  peninsula,  and  is  spanned  by  the 
English  Bridge  (rebuilt  1774)  of  seven  arches,  the 
Welsh  Bridge  (rebuilt  1795)  of  five,  and  the  iron 
Kingsland  Bridge  (1882),  which  lead  to  the  suburbs 
of  Abbey-Foregate,  Coleham,  Frankwell,  Castle- 
Foregate,  and  Kingsland.  With  its  steep,  narrow 
streets,  and  its  black  and  white  half-timbered 
houses,  Shrewsbury  is  picturesque  as  very  few 
English  towns.  Its  Norman  castle  has  been 
greatly  modernised  ;  Holy  Cross  or  Abbey  Church 
belonged  to  a  Benedictine  abbey  (1083).  St  Mary's 
is  Norman  to  Perpendicular  in  style,  with  a  Jesse 
window,  the  tomb  of  Admiral  Benbow,  and  a 
spire  222  feet  high  (restored  in  1894  after  partial 
wreckage).  Noteworthy  also  are  the  Roman 
Catholic  church  (1856),  by  Pugin  ;  the  council- 
house  (1501-60),  where  Charles  I.  stayed  in 
1642,  and  James  II.  in  1687  ;  the  old  market- 
house  (1595) ;  the  new  market-hall  (1868) ;  the 
shire-hall  (rebuilt  1836,  and  again,  after  fire, 
1883) ;  the  corn  exchange  (1869) ;  the  post-office 
(1877) ;  the  county  infirmary  (1747-1830) ;  the  eye, 
ear,  and  throat  hospital  (1881) ;  the  '  Raven ' 
Hotel,  where  Farquhar  in  1704  wrote  the  Recruit' 
ing  Officer;  the  'Quarry,'  a  pretty  park  of  23 
acres-,  with  its  lime-tree  avenue  (1719) ;  a  Doric 
column  (1816)  to  Lord  Hill,  134  feet  high  ;  and  a 
bronze  statue  (1860)  by  Marochetti  of  Clive.  The 
county  museum  and  a  free  library  now  occupy 
the  old  buildings  (1630)  of  the  grammar-school, 
which  was  transferred  to  a  fine  new  site  of  26 
acres  (now  50  acres)  in  1882,  since  which  time  the 
number  of  the  boys  has  increased  from  170  to 
over  300.  Founded  by  Edward  VI.  in  1551, 
though  not  actually  opened  till  1562,  and  aug- 
mented by  Queen  Elizabeth  in  1571,  this  school 
was  recognised  as  one  of  the  seven  great  public 
schools  in  the  Public  Schools  Act  of  1868,  and 
owes  its  greatness  partly  to  its  rich  endowment 
(£3100  per  annum),  but  still  more  to  the  exertions 
of  two  successive  headmasters,  Dr  Samuel  Butler 
(1798-1836),  afterwards  Bishop  of  Lichfield,  and 
Dr  Kennedy  (1836-66).  Among  its  alunmi  have 
been  Sir  Philip  Sidney,  Fulke  Greville,  Wycher- 
ley.  Judge  Jefl'reys,  the  Marquis  of  Halifax, 
Charles  Darwin  (a  native).  Bishop  Eraser  of  Man- 
chester, Archbishop  Thomson,  Viscount  Cran- 
brook,  the  Right  Hon.  H.  C.  Raikes,  S.  J.  Weyman, 
and  such  scholars  as  Professor  Kennedy,  F.  A. 


SHROPSHIRE 


646 


SUM 


Paley,  Professor  Munro,  R.  Shllleto,  and  Pro- 
fessor Mayor.  Glass-painting,  malting,  iron- 
founding,  and  the  manufacture  of  agricultural 
implements  are  industries  ;  '  Shrewsbury  cakes  ' 
and  the  brawn  made  here  have  long  been  famous. 
Chartered  by  Richard  I.,  the  borough  returned 
two  raejnbers  till  1885,  when  the  representation 
was  reduced  to  one.  Pop.  (1851)  19,681 ;  (ISSl) 
26,481 ;  (1901)  28,396.  The  Cymric  Pengweriie 
('  alder  hill '),  after  its  capture  in  778  from  the 
king  of  Powys  by  Offa  of  Mercia  the  place  changed 
its  name  to  Scrobbeshyrig  ('  town  in  the  wood '), 
of  which  the  modern  name  is  a  corruption. 
It  has  been  visited  by  most  of  the  English  kings, 
and  repeatedly  besieged— e.g.  by  Llewellyn  (1215) 
and  the  parliamentarians  (1644).  In  the  battle  of 
Shrewsbury,  fought  at  Battlefield,  3  miles  NE., 
on  21st  July  1403,  Henry  IV.  routed  Hotspur  and 
his  confederates.  See  works  by  T.  Phillips  (1779), 
H.  Owen  and  J.  B.  Blakeway  (1825),  H.  Pidgeon 
(1857),  and  W.  Phillips  (1878). 

Shropshire,  or  Salop,  a  "West  Midland  county 
of  England,  on  the  Welsh  border,  bounded  by  the 
counties  of  Cheshire,  Stafford,  Worcester,  Here- 
ford, Radnor,  Montgomery,  and  Denbigh.  It 
measures  50  miles  by  41,  and  has  an  area  of 
844,565  acres  or  1319  sq.  m.  The  Severn,  enter- 
ing from  Montgomeryshire,  winds  55  miles  across 
the  interior,  dividing  Shropshire  into  two  pretty 
equal  portions,  and  being  joined  here  by  the 
Tern,  whilst  a  lower  tributary,  the  Teme,  traces 
much  of  the  southern  boundary.  Ellesmere  (116 
acres)  is  the  largest  of  several  lakes.  The  northern 
and  eastern  portion,  to  the  left  of  the  Severn,  is 
level  with  the  exception  of  the  isolated  Wrekin 
(1320  feet).  The  south-western  portion  is  rugged 
and  mountainous,  and  in  the  Clee  Hills  attains 
1805  feet.  Coalbrookdale  is  the  chief  of  five  coal- 
fields, and  the  mineral  wealth  also  includes  iron, 
lead,  limestone,  and  freestone.  The  soil  is  vari- 
able, but  generally  fertile  and  well  cultivated,  so 
that  only  about  one-seventh  of  the  whole  area  is 
waste,  whilst  woods  and  plantations  cover  71  sq. 
m.  and  orchards  4000  acres.  Much  attention  is 
paid  to  live-stock.  The  county  is  divided  into 
14  hundreds  and  253  civil  parishes.  It  con- 
tains the  parliamentary  borough  of  Shrewsbury, 
the  county  town,  and  the  municipal  boroughs  of 
Bishop's  Castle,  Bridgnorth,  Ludlow,  Oswestry, 
and  Wenlock.  It  returns  four  members  for  the 
Oswestry,  Newport,  Wellington,  and  Ludlow 
divisions.  Clive  was  a  native ;  and  historic 
scenes  or  antiquities,  other  than  those  noticed  in 
the  articles  on  the  different  towns,  are  Acton- 
Burnell,  Boscobel,  Wroxeter,  Watling  Street,  and 
Offa's  Dyke.  Pop.  (1801)  169,248  ;  (1841)  225,820  ; 
(1871)  248,111 ;  (1901)  239,321.  See  works  by  C. 
Hulbert  (2  vols.  1837),  E.  Lloyd  (1844),  R.  W. 
Eyton  (12  vols.  1853-60),  J.  C.  Anderson  (1864), 
Mrs  F.  C.  Acton  (1868),  M.  E.  C.  Walcott  (1879), 
Miss  G.  Jackson  (Dialect,  1879-81),  and  Mi.ss  C. 
Burns  (Folklore,  1883-85). 

Shruhland  Hall,  a  Suffolk  seat,  with  splendid 
gardens,  3  miles  SE.  of  Needham  Market. 

Shumla  (Shoom'la),  a  strongly  fortified  city  of 
Bulgaria,  56  miles  by  rail  W.  by  N.  of  Varna  and 
80  SE.  of  Rustchuk.  The  roads  from  the  for- 
tresses (Silistria,  Rustchuk)  on  the  Lower  Danube 
and  in  the  Dobrudja  on  the  north,  and  from  the 
passes  of  the  Eastern  Balkan  on  the  south,  con- 
verge upon  Shumla,  and  make  it  an  important 
strategic  place.  It  manufactures  slippers,  cloth- 
ing, copper  wares,  and  silks.  Pop,  23,000. 
Shuna,  an  Argyllshire  island,  1  mile  SW.  of 


the  entrance  to  Loch  Melfort.    Area,  If  sq.  m. ; 
height,  200  feet ;  pop.  8. 

Shusha,  a  town  of  Russian  Transcaucasia,  65 
miles  SSW.  of  Elizabethpol.  Pop.  32,040,  who 
make  celebrated  carpets  and  coarse  silk  goods. 

Shuster  (Shoos' tei-),  a  city  of  Persia,  on  the 
Karun,  250  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Ispahan ;  pop.  18,000. 
Sialkot  (See-al-lcote'),  a  town  in  the  Punjab,  near 
the  Chenab's  left  bank,  72  miles  N.  by  E.  of 
Lahore,  with  manufactures  of  paper  and  cloth. 
The  old  fort,  gallantly  held  by  a  few  Europeans 
in  1857,  is  now  converted  into  public  offices ; 
there  are  also  Sikh  and  Mohammedan  shrines, 
the  Punjab  military  prison,  a  public  garden,  &c. 
Population,  60,200,  including  the  cantonment, 
1  mile  N. 

Siam'  (native  name  Muang  Thai,  '  the  Land  of 
the  Free ')  occupies  the  central  portion  of  the 
Indo-China  Peninsula,  stretching  from  4°  in  the 
Malay  Peninsula  to  Chiengsen  (20°  22'  N.),  on  the 
river  Mekong,  or  a  distance  of  nearly  1100  miles  ; 
greatest  breadth,  750  miles.  The  main  body  of 
it  lies  between  Bunna  (British),  the  Shan  States 
(partly  Siamese),  and  French  Indo-China  (Cam- 
bodia and  Annam).  In  1893  the  French  advanced 
their  Annamese  frontier  to  the  Mekong,  as  far  north 
at  least  as  18°  N.  The  territory  ceded  to  France 
was  about  50,000  sq.  m.,  with  a  pop.  of  100,000. 
The  area  of  the  kingdom  of  Siam  is  now  about 
250,000  sq.  m.  (60,000  in  the  Malay  peninsula) ; 
and  the  pop.,  which  is  concentrated  principally 
in  Bangkok  and  the  Menam  Valley,  is  estimated 
at  about  12,000,000,  of  whom  possibly  3,000,000 
are  Chinese.  The  Malay  Peninsula  excluded,  the 
plain  of  the  Menam  Valley,  the  adjoining  eastern 
coast,  and  the  Korat  plateau  (from  400  to  1000 
feet  high)  occupy  the  greater  portion  of  the 
country.  These  plains  are  fringed  by  hills  up  to 
5000  feet  high,  and  the  north  generally  is  hilly. 
The  Menam,  with  a  course  of  600  miles,  is  the 
principal  river.  Two  other  streams,  the  Meklong 
and  the  Bangpakong,  flow  into  the  Gulf  of  Siam. 
The  Mekong  (q.v.)  has  the  main  part  of  its  course 
in  or  along  Siamese  territory,  but  navigation 
for  vessels  of  any  size  is  impeded  by  rapids.  The 
rivers  form  the  principal  trade-routes,  and  in  and 
around  Bangkok  there  is  an  intricate  network  of 
canals.  Only  the  land  adjoining  the  rivers  is 
under  cultivation,  and  the  greater  portion  of 
the  country  is  covered  by  pathless  jungle.  The 
climate  is  considered  healthy  for  the  tropics  ;  low 
malarial  fever  is  the  most  frequent  illness  amongst 
the  European  community.  There  are  two  seasons 
—the  wet  and  the  dry,  the  former  lasting  from 
May  till  November.  The  average  temperature 
for  the  year  is  81° ;  the  greatest  heat  in  April 
should  not  exceed  94°  in  a  well-made  house. 

The  chief  production  of  Siam  is  rice.  It  is  the 
national  food,  and  its  export  forms  the  great 
source  of  wealth  of  the  country,  makmg  two- 
thirds  of  the  total  exports,  which  amount  to 
between  £4,000,000  and  £5,000,000.  The  other 
principal  exports  are  teak-wood,  obtained  in  the 
north,  pepper,  salt,  and  dried  fish,  cattle  (for 
consumption  in  Singapore),  and  til  (sesame)  seed. 
Goods  are  imported  to  the  value  of  about 
£3,500,000,  comprising  treasure  and  gold-leaf, 
cotton  manufactures  and  China  goods,  jewellery, 
and  opium.  The  foreign  trade  is  mamly  with 
Singapore,  Hong-Kong,  and  Britain.  The  prin- 
cipal commerce  of  the  capital  is  in  the  hands 
of  Chinese;  the  labour  market  is  supplied  by 
Chinese  coolies,  and  the  best  tradespeople  and 
artisans  are  Chinese.  The  native  Siamese  confine 
themselves  to  agriculture,  fishing,  boating,  and 


SlIAlVt 


m 


SIBERIA 


J)etty  hawking,  and  many  are  simply  idle  hangers- 
on  of  the  nobility.  In  addition  to  the  exports, 
the  country  produces  heinp,  tobacco,  cotton, 
coflfee,  cardamoms,  and  tropical  fruits. 

The  wild  elepliant,  tiger,  bear  (in  the  north), 
wild  pig,  deer,  monkey,  and  squirrel  abound  in 
the  distant  jungles.  Tame  elephants  are  em- 
ployed. Specimens  of  the  famous  'white  ele- 
phant' are  kept  in  the  courtyard  of  the  royal 
palace  at  Bangkok,  but  are  not  regarded  with 
any  special  veneration.  Crocodiles  are  found  at 
the  mouths  of  the  rivers.  The  python,  cobra, 
reptiles  of  various  kinds,  mosquitoes,  ants,  fire- 
flies, and  tropical  insects  are  plentiful.  There 
are  many  species  of  birds,  and  the  rivers  and 
coast  swarm  with  excellent  fish.  Gold  has  been 
produced  in  Siam  from  time  immemorial ;  and 
argentiferous  copper  also  is  found.  Alluvial  tin- 
mines  are  worked  by  Chinese  in  the  Malay  penin- 
sula, and  iron  is  turned  out  in  the  north  by  native 
smelters.  Rubies  and  sapphires  are  found  in 
the  Chantaboon  district  (occupied  by  France  in 
pledge  of  the  fulfilment  of  the  treaty  of  1893). 
The  only  manufactures  are  coarse  cloth  and  silk, 
rough  paper  made  from  bark,  water-jars,  and 
coloured  tiles  for  the  roofs  of  temples. 

Pure  Siamese  are  estimated  to  number  only  a 
third  of  the  total  population.  The  north  and 
east  are  occupied  by  Laos  or  Shans,  and  besides 
the  Chinese  there  are  numbers  of  immigrant 
Burmese,  Indians,  Malays,  and  Cambodians. 
The  character  of  the  Siamese  is  essentially  peace- 
ful and  indolent ;  they  are  very  social,  vain,  and 
fond  of  bright  dresses  and  jewellery.  The  houses 
are  built  of  wood  or  bamboo,  thatched  with  the 
leaf  of  the  attap  palm,  and  are  raised  a  few  feet 
from  the  ground  on  piles.  Both  sides  of  the 
river  at  Bangkok  (q.v.)  are  lined  for  several  miles 
with  houses  floating  on  wooden  pontoons  or  on 
bundles  of  bamboo.  Every  Siamese,  with  certain 
exceptions,  is  bound  to  give  the  state  free  labour 
for  about  three  months  in  the  year,  and  to  supply 
travelling  officials  with  provisions  and  means  of 
transport.  The  religion  of  the  country  is  Bud- 
dhism. The  sacred  books  are  written  in  Pali  in 
the  Cambodian  character.  The  old  system  of 
first  and  second  kings  has  been  abolished.  The 
legislative  power  is  vested  in  the  king,  in  con- 
junction with  a  council  of  ministers  and  a  council 
of  state.  There  is  a  small  permanent  army,  and 
the  navy  consists  of  a  few  tiny  gunboats.  The 
revenue  of  the  country  averages  about  £2,500,000, 
and  includes  £870,000  from  the  farmers  of  the 
sale  of  opium  and  spirits,  and  the  keepers  of 
gambling  and  pawnbroking  houses;  £1,086,000 
from  taxes  on  forests  and  mines,  posts,  tele- 
graphs, and  railways,  capitation  tax,  land-tax, 
and  fisheries,  &c.  ;  and  £275,000  from  customs. 
Since  1890  the  government  has  made  many  re- 
forms in  administration.  The  civil  list  has 
been  put  on  a  definite  footing  ;  taxation  has  been 
lightened  and  simplified.  Sanitation,  education, 
and  the  administration  of  law  and  justice  are  all 
greatly  improved.  Railways  are  being  extended 
(330  miles  were  open  in  1905) ;  the  postal  and  tele- 
graph  systems  have  been  developed ;  Bangkok 
has  a  telephone  exchange  and  electric  lighting 
and  tramways.  Education,  carried  on  by  the 
priests,  is  supplemented  by  schools  for  the  teach- 
ing of  English.  Foreigners  are  subject  only  to 
their  own  laws,  administered  by  consuls. 

Ayuthia  (q.v.),  founded  in  1350,  remained  the 
capital  till  1768,  when  it  was  taken  by  the  Bur- 
mese, Bangkok  next  year  becoming  the  capital. 
Cambodia  was  conquered  in  1532.  In  1893  the 
French  dictated  a  treaty  granting  themselves  a 


large  slice  of  Siamese  territory.  See  books  by 
Pallegoix  (1854),  Bowring(1857),  Colquhoun  (1885X 
Coit  (1886),  Hallett  (1889),  J.  Anderson  (1890), 
Grindrod(1896),'Warrington  Smyth  (1898),  Young 
(1900),  Vincent  (1900),  and  Campbell  (1902). 

Siang-tan,  a  great  trading  mart  of  central 
China,  in  the  province  of  HiVnan,  on  the  Slang 
River,  which  flows  through  the  Tung-ting  lake 
into  tlie  Yang-tsze.  Specially  it  is  the  centre  of 
tlie  drug  trade.     Pop.  100,000  or  more. 

Sibe'ria  (Sibir)  was  originally  heard  of  as  a 
Tartar  stronghold  on  the  Irtish,  captured  by 
the  Russians  in  1580;  and  gradually  widening 
in  scope,  the  name  is  now  applied  to  the  vast 
territory  belonging  to  Russia  in  northern  Asia, 
lying  between  the  Arctic  Ocean  and  the  Chinese 
empire,  and  extending  from  the  Urals  to  the  Sea 
of  Japan.  It  covers  an  area  of  4,833,500  sq.  m.— 
nearly  forty  times  as  great  as  that  of  the  United 
Kingdom— and  has  a  population  of  5,727,000.  Its 
natural  divisions,  broadly  corresponding  to 
the  administrative  ones,  are :  West  Siberia,  in- 
cluding the  governments  of  Tobolsk  and  Tomsk, 
as  also  parts  of  Perm  ;  East  Siberia  (Yeniseisk, 
Irkutsk,  Yakutsk,  and  Transbaikalia) ;  Kam- 
cJiatka;  and  the  Amur  region,  which  includes  the 
governments  of  Amur,  Usuri,  the  maritime 
province,  and  part  of  the  island  of  Saghalien. 
The  great  plateau  of  eastern  Asia  enters  Siberia 
to  the  east  of  Lake  Baikal,  where  it  is  3000-4000 
feet  high  and  1300  miles  wide,  and  stretches  thence 
with  a  gradually  decreasing  height  and  width  to- 
wards Behring  Strait.  It  is  fringed  on  the  W. 
by  the  Altai  (q.v.)  and  Sayan  mountains,  and 
on  the  E.  by  the  Stanovoi  Mountains.  The 
border-ridges  of  the  plateau  attain  heights  of  from 
7000  to  nearly  11,000  feet,  but  very  few  of  them 
penetrate  into  the  region  of  perpetual  snow.  A 
broad  alpine  belt  fringes  the  plateau  to  the  NW., 
thickly  clothed  with  forests,  and  containing 
several  auriferous  districts.  Another  belt  of  high 
plains  (1700-2500  feet  high)  spreads  all  along  the 
base  of  the  alpine  belt.  The  whole  of  West 
Siberia,  between  these  high  plains  and  the  shores 
of  the  Arctic  Ocean,  is  an  immense  lowland,  whose 
southern  part— the  prairies  of  Ishim,  Upper 
Tobol,  and  Baraba— is  extremely  fertile,  and 
covered  with  a  luxurious  grass- vegetation,  with 
masses  of  deciduous  forest.  This  is  even  now  the 
granary  of  Siberia,  and  exports  grain  to  the  mines 
of  the  Urals.  Neai'ly  one-third  of  the  popula- 
tion of  Siberia  is  gathered  on  those  prairies,  and 
is  more  thoroughly  Russian  than  in  many  parts 
of  European  Russia.  Farther  north,  especially  be- 
tween the  Obi  and  the  Irtish,  begin  the  urmans, 
or  immense  marshes,  which  cover  nearly  100,000 
sq.  m.,  clothed  with  thickets  and  meagre  forests, 
in  which  some  30,000  Ostiaks,  Voguls,  and  Samo- 
yedes  find  scanty  means  of  existence  in  hunting 
and  fishing.  Farther  north  still  begin  the  tundras, 
which  extend  along  the  Arctic  seaboard  as  far  as 
Kamchatka,  and  cover  an  aggregate  area  of  some 
450,000  sq.  m.,  with  a  really  terrible  climate. 
Nevertheless  some  50,000  human  beings  wander 
over  these  inhospitable  tracts  with  reindeer  and 
dogs.  Of  the  plateau  which  fills  vast  tracts  in 
East  Siberia,  the  upper  terrace,  3000  to  4000  feet 
high,  is  quite  unsuitable  for  agriculture,  but  its 
lower  terrace  (2500  to  3000  feet),  especially  in 
Transbaikalia,  is  good  for  tillage  and  cattle- 
breeding,  and  is  peopled  by  both  Buriats  and 
Russians;  the  smaller  chains  of  mountains  are 
rich  in  gold,  copper,  iron,  and  silver.  The  high 
plains  (1500  to  2000  feet),  watered  by  the  Zeyaand 
its  tributaries,  and  covered  with  a  very  fertile  soil 


SIBERIA 


648 


SICILY 


and  excellent  oak  forests,  are  the  richest  part 
of  the  Amur  territory,  and  are  being  rapidly 
occupied  by  immigrants,  chiefly  sectaries,  from 
Russia,  who  already  number  about  60,000. 
Khabarovka,  at  the  junction  of  the  Usuri  with 
the  Amur,  is  the  capital  of  the  territory  ;  the  ex- 
cellent harbour  of  Vladivostok  is  the  terminus 
(since  the  loss  of  Port  Artliur  in  1905)  of  the  Trans- 
Siberian  railway  (over  6500  miles  from  St  Peters- 
burg, and  costing  over  50  millions  sterling).  See 
Amur,  Maritime  Province,  Saghalien,  Kam- 
chatka, and  New  Siberia.  The  rivers  of  Siberia 
are  of  immense  value  for  navigation.  They  all 
rise  in  the  plateau,  and  each  of  them  receives  a 
tributary  only  sTnaller  than  itself— the  Obi,  the 
Irtish  ;  the  Yenisei,  the  Tunguska  ;  and  the  Lena, 
the  Vitim  ;  whilst  the  Shilka  and  Argun  unite  to 
form  the  Amur.  Communication  in  summer  by 
sea  has  been  established  between  Western  Europe 
and  the  Obi  and  Yenisei,  on  which,  as  on  the 
Lena,  steamers  ply,  save  when  they  are  frozen. 
On  the  Amur  steamers  ply  for  a  distance  of  2000 
miles.  Overland  communication  is  inaintained 
by  means  of  post-stations  between  all  the  chief 
towns — the  great  highway  from  Russia  to  the 
Pacific  passing  through  Tinmen,  Omsk,  Tomsk, 
Krasnoyarsk,  Irkutsk,  Tchita,  Blagoveschensk, 
and  Khabarovka.  The  chief  lake  is  Baikal  (q.  v.). 
Siberia  fully  deserves  its  reputation  of  being 
the  coldest  country  of  the  world  ;  but  it  has  a 
much  warmer  summer  than  is  generally  supposed. 
In  moderate  latitudes  July  has  an  average  tem- 
perature of  from  61°  to  67°,  and  69°  on  the  Middle 
Amur.  The  hot  summer  and  a  cloudless,  bright 
sky  favour  vegetation,  and  melons  are  grown  in 
the  open  air  in  the  steppes  of  Minusinsk  and 
Irkutsk.  But  the  summer  is  short,  as  a  rule,  and 
cold  weather  sets  in  very  rapidly.  Night  frosts 
are  usual  in  September,  and  in  November  all 
rivers  are  frozen.  In  November,  even  in  South 
Siberia,  the  mercury  of  the  thermometer  is  occa- 
sionally frozen,  and  in  December  and  January  it 
remains  frozen  for  weeks.  In  the  far  north  the 
cold  is  really  terrible ;  temperatures  as  low  as 
—  75°  and  —  85°  F.  have  been  measured  at  Verk- 
hoyansk and  Yakutsk.  The  population  of  Siberia 
is  very  unequally  distributed  ;  there  are  from  20 
to  40  inhabitants  to  the  square  mile  in  parts  of 
South  Tomsk  and  Tobolsk,  while  the  deserts  of 
the  far  north  are  almost  uninhabited.  The  total 
population,  which  was  less  than  1,000,000  in 
1800,  has  now  attained  over  6,720,000,  and  it  is 
yearly  increased  by  some  50,000  Russian  immi- 
grants. The  Russians  in  Siberia  proper  number 
over  3,800,000.  They  occupy  the  best  parts  of  the 
territory  in  the  south,  as  well  as  the  valleys  of 
the  chief  rivers.  The  indigenous  population 
hardly  numbers  now  700,000  ;  the  Ugriau  stock  is 
represented  by  the  Voguls,  the  Ostiaks,  and  the 
Samoyedes  on  the  slopes  of  the  Urals.  Various 
Turkish  tribes  inhabit  the  slopes  of  the  Altai  and 
Sayan  mountains ;  the  Yakuts  number  200,000. 
The  Mongolian  race  is  represented  by  the  Kal- 
mucks (about  20,000  in  the  Altai),  the  Buriats 
(250,000)  around  Lake  Baikal,  and  the  nomadic 
Tunguses  (about  50,000)  in  the  mountains  of  East 
Siberia  and  the  Amur  region.  Nearly  15,000 
Manchurians  and  Chinese  stay  on  Russian  terri- 
tory of  the  Amur  and  Usuri ;  and  3000  Coreans 
are  settled  around  the  Gulf  of  Peter  the 
Great.  Finally,  in  the  north-east  there  are 
tribes  akin  to  the  Eskimos,  including  the 
Tchuktchis,  the  Koryaks,  and  the  Kamchadales. 
On  the  Lower  Amur  we  find  the  Gilyaks,  and  in 
the  island  of  Saghalien  the  Ainos.  The  Russians 
belong  to  the  Greek  Orthodox  faith,  or  to  some 


of  its  nonconformist  sects.  Most  Turkish  tribes 
are  Mohammedans.  The  Buriats  profess  Bud- 
.dhism  ;  and  most  of  the  Ugrian  and  Finnish 
peoples  are  Shamanists.  The  rapid  increase  of 
population  which  has  taken  place  since  1875  is 
chiefly  due  to  free  immigration.  The  exiles  trans- 
ported to  Siberia  have  contributed  but  little  to 
the  settled  population.  The  facilities  afforded  by 
the  Siberian  railway  have  given  an  extraordinary 
impetus  to  dairy-farming  in  Siberia.  From  1898 
to  1904  the  dairies  increased  from  140  to  2630 
(250  of  them  co-operative),  and  the  produce  from 
48,360  cwt.  to  681,857  cwt.  It  is  estimated 
that  there  are  25  million  cows,  giving  milk  rich 
in  butter,  of  which  about  80  million  lb.  are  ex- 
ported annually,  two  special  lines  of  steamers 
from  Reval  antl  Riga  carrying  it  in  refrigerators 
to  London.  Agriculture  and  cattle-breeding  are 
extending ;  several  large  districts  now  produce 
more  corn  than  is  wanted  for  the  population,  and 
export  some.  Hunting  continues  to  be  profitable 
in  some  parts.  Sables,  Arctic  foxes,  and  gray 
foxes  have  become  rare  ;  squirrels,  common  foxes, 
bears,  deer,  antelopes,  some  ermines  and  a  few 
beavers  in  the  north-east,  are  still  obtained. 
Fishing  is  extensively  cariied  on  in  lakes  and 
rivers.  Tinmen  builds  steamers.  In  1860-1900 
from  400  to  600  cwt.  of  gold  was  annually 
obtained  in  East  Siberia,  and  50  cwt.  in  West 
Siberia,  exclusive  of  Perm.  Silver  is  extracted 
in  the  Altai ;  lead  in  the  Altai,  and  in  Nertchinsk  ; 
copper  in  Altai ;  and  much  iron.  A  university 
has  been  opened  at  Tomsk  (1888).  The  Russians 
began  the  conquest  of  the  territory  in  1580,  Avhen 
a  band  of  Cossack  robbers  under  Yermak  subdued 
the  Tartars  on  the  Tobol  River.  New  bands 
of  Cossacks,  traders,  and  hunters  supported  by 
the  Moscow  government,  and  followed  by  dis- 
senters flying  from  religious  persecution  and 
peasants  escaping  from  serfdom,  poured  into 
Siberia  during  the  next  two  centuries.  The 
estuary  of  the  Amur  was  discovered  in  1849,  and 
a  military  post  established  at  the  mouth  of  the 
river  in  1851.  The  left  bank  of  the  Amur  and  the 
right  bank  of  the  Usuri  were  annexed  in  1853-57. 
Nordenskiold  first  circumnavigated  Asia  in  1878- 
79.  See  the  relevant  parts  of  Reclus,  Geographie 
Universelle  (trans,  by  Keane),  and  of  Picturesque 
Russia;  Seehohm,  Siberia  in  Asia  (1882);  Lans- 
dell.  Through  Siberia  (1882) ;  and  books  by  Ken- 
nan  (1S91),  Wright  (1903),  and  De  Windt  (1904). 

Sib'i,  a  pass,  town,  and  district  in  British  Belu- 
chistan,  traversed  by  the  Sind  and  Pishin  Valley 
Railway.     Pop.  of  district,  14,000. 

Sicily,  the  largest,  most  fertile,  and  most 
populous  island  in  the  Mediterranean,  is  separ- 
ated from  the  mainland  of  Italy  by  the  deep, 
but  narrow,  Strait  of  Messina  (q.v.).  Its  sliape 
resembles  a  triangle  (whence  the  Greeks  called 
it  Trinacria,  the  '  Three-cornered  ').  Area,  9828 
sq.  m.  (one-third  that  of  Scotland) ;  pop.  (1881) 
2,927,901 ;  (1901)  3,529,266.  Capo  Passaro  is  only 
56  miles  from  Malta ;  and  Capo  Boco  only  80 
from  Cape  Bon  in  Africa.  Sicily  is  for  the  most 
part  a  plateau  500  to  1900  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
traversed  throughout  its  northern  half  by  a  chain 
of  mountains  reaching  6467  feet,  and  sending 
spurs  to  the  south.  The  north  and  east  coasts 
are  steep  and  rocky,  the  south  and  west  generally 
flat.  None  of  the  rivers  is  navigable.  The  only 
extensive  i)lain  is  that  of  Catania,  out  of  which 
Etna  (q.v.)  rises  to  10,850  feet,  with  a  base  of 
400  sq.  m.  in  extent.  The  climate  is  warm  and 
equable,  especially  on  the  north  and  east  coasts  ; 
the  mean  temperature  ranges  from  45°  F.  in  winter 


SICILY 


649 


SIENNA 


t6  79°  in  summer.  Only  for  brief  periods  does 
the  dry  parching  sirocco  drive  the  thermometer 
up  to  over  100°.  Relics  of  the  primeval  forests  of 
oak  and  ilex  are  left ;  in  some  districts  beeches 
clothe  the  mountains  to  their  very  summits, 
and  chestnuts,  pines,  and  enormous  holly-trees 
flourish;  but  wide  tracts  have  been  reduced  to 
absolute  sterility  by  the  destruction  of  the 
woodlands.  Malaria  is  endemic  in  many  parts. 
The  soil  is  wonderfully  fertile,  and  vegetation 
everywhere  luxuriant.  Dwarf-palms  abound, 
and  dates,  Indian  figs,  agaves,  prickly  pears, 
oranges,  lemons,  olives,  almonds,  pomegranates, 
mulberries,  and  grapes  are  all  largely  grown. 
Sicily's  wheat  still  represents  a  seventh  of 
that  of  all  Italy  ;  it  sends  out  two-thirds  of 
Italy's  wine.  Of  '  green  fruit '  (lemons,  oranges, 
&c.)  it  yields  nearly  nine-tenths  of  all  the 
Italian  crop,  and  sends  large  quantities  to  the 
United  States  and  to  Britain  ;  and  sumach,  for 
tanning,  is  exported  to  the  value  of  nearly  a 
million  sterling. 

After  agriculture,  the  production  of  sulphur  is 
the  great  resource  of  Sicily.  There  are  some  300 
mines  in  the  island,  and  350,000  tons  have  been 
exported  in  a  year  ;  but  the  export  has  declined. 
The  rich  deposits  of  rock-salt  are  scarcely 
worked.  The  sardine  and  tunny  fisheries  are  pro- 
ductive ;  the  coral-fishery  has  greatly  declined. 
Amber  is  worked  in  Catania.  Manufactures  are 
of  little  consequence — some  machinery,  cement, 
crockery,  gloves,  macaroni,  and  soap.  Commerce 
is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  English,  Germans,  and 
Swiss.  Trade  is  much  hampered  in  the  interior 
by  the  scarcity  of  good  roads  ;  and  there  are  but 
650  miles  of  railway. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  successive  foreign 
settlements  on  the  island,  the  population  is 
rather  a  conglomerate  one ;  in  the  east  the  Greek 
element  prevails,  and  the  people  are  superior  to 
those  in  the  west,  where  Arab  blood  is  strongest. 
The  general  dialect  of  the  island  differs  markedly 
from  that  of  the  mainland.  The  country  people 
are  miserably  poor  and  discontented ;  and  the 
island  was  put  under  the  state  of  siege  in  1893-94. 
The  results  of  this  measure  were  not  too  satisfac- 
tory, for  homicides,  robberies,  and  thefts  are  very 
frequent,  though  brigandage  on  the  grand  scale 
has  been  put  down.  The  maffia  and  other  secret 
societies  flourish,  and  the  vendetta  is  popular. 
This  state  of  things  is  largely  to  be  traced  to  the 
low  rate  of  wages  and  the  excessive  taxes,  and  to 
the  deficient  administration  of  justice  ;  the  two 
former  causes  induced  extensive  emigration  to 
America.  The  people  are  very  illiterate,  though 
nominally  education  is  free  and  compulsory,  and 
there  are  many  schools  and  academies,  and  uni- 
versities at  Palermo,  Messina,  and  Catania,  the 
principal  towns  of  the  island. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  Sicily  were  the 
Sicani,  amongst  whom  the  Aryan  Siculi  from 
the  mainland  settled  in  the  11th  century  b.c. 
The  Phoenicians  made  many  settlements  ;  but 
the  real  civilisers  of  Sicily  were  the  successive 
shoals  of  Greek  immigrants  from  the  8th  to  the 
6th  century  B.C.  The  '  tyrants '  of  Syracuse  bore 
the  brunt  of  the  struggle  with  the  Phcenicians, 
and  triumphed  (367  B.C.).  But  the  Romans  ap- 
peared in  the  3d  century,  and  by  210  b.c.  the 
island  was  a  Roman  province.  In  the  9th  century 
A.D.  it  was  conquered  by  the  Saracens,  in  the  11th 
by  the  Normans,  and  in  the  12th  became  a  part 
of  the  empire.  Charles,  Count  of  Anjou,  acquired 
it  in  1264,  but  the  French  domination  was  put 
an  end  to  by  the  rising  and  massacre  known  as 
the  Sicilian  Vespers  in  1282.    The  island  was  con- 


nected with  the  crown  of  Aragon,  and  then 
closely  associated  with  Naples  (q.v.)  as  part  of 
the  'kingdom  of  the  Two  Sicilies,'  incorporated 
with  Italy  in  1860. 

See  Mrs  Elliott's  Diary  of  an  Idle  Wovmn  in 
Sicily  (1881) ;  and  histories  of  Sicily  by  Freeman 
(vols.  i,-iv.,  1891-94),  and  the  shorter  one  in 
*  Story  of  the  Nations  Series '  (1892). 

Sicyon  (Siss'i-on;  Gk.  pron.  Sik-ee-oan),  an 
important  city  of  ancient  Greece,  stood  2  miles  S. 
of  the  Corinthian  Gulf  and  7  NW.  of  Corinth. 
Its  scanty  remains  have  been  excavated  by  the 
American  School  at  Athens  since  1887. 

Sidi-bel-Abbes,  a  town  of  Algeria,  48  miles  by 
rail  S.  of  Oran.    Pop.  25,750. 

Sidlaw  Hills.    See  Forfarshire. 

Sidmoutll  (Sid'muth),  a  watering-place  of  S. 
Devon,  14  miles  by  road,  but  20|  by  a  branch- 
line  (1874),  ESE.  of  Exeter.  It  lies  in  a  narrow 
valley  at  the  mouth  of  the  little  Sid  between  the 
red  sandstone  cliff's  of  High  Peak  (513  feet)  on 
the  west,  and  Salcombe  Hill  (497)  on  the  east. 
Its  esplanade  is  protected  by  a  sea-wall  (1838), 
1700  feet  long ;  and  its  parish  church  (1259 ;  al- 
most rebuilt  1860)  has  a  stained  west  window 
inserted  by  Queen  Victoria  in  memory  of  her 
father,  the  Duke  of  Kent,  who  died  here  in  1820. 
Sidmouth  then  was  the  favourite  resort  that  it 
has  once  more  become  since  the  opening  of  the 
railway ;  its  prosperity  as  a  port,  which  in 
Edward  III.'s  day  sent  two  ships  to  the  siege  of 
Calais,  passed  away  through  the  silting  up  of  the 
harbour.  The  climate  is  mild,  the  rainfall  the 
least  in  Devon,  and  the  beach  yields  agates  and 
chalcedonies.     Pop,  4200. 

Si'don  (Heb.  Zidon),  anciently  a  city  of  Phoe- 
nicia, situated  on  the  east  coast  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, half-way  between  Tyre  and  Beyrout.  The 
present  town  of  Saida,  which  was  stormed  by  the 
allies  under  Napier  in  1840,  has  10,000  inhabit- 
ants, of  whom  7000  are  Mohammedans. 

Sidra,  Gulf  of.    See  Syrtis. 

Siebenbiirgen  (Zeebenbeer'gen,  g  hard  ;  '  Seven 
Castles '),  the  German  name  of  Transylvania  (q.v.). 

Slebengebirge  (Zeebengebeer'geh,  g's  hard  ;  '  The 
Seven  Mountains '),  in  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Rhine,  20  miles  above  Cologne. 
The  highest  is  the  Olberg  (1522  feet);  but  the 
most  famous  is  the  Drachenfels  (q.v.).  They  are 
crowned  with  ruins  of  castles  of  the  12th  century. 

Siedlce  (Seed'l-tsay),  a  town  of  Poland^  57  miles 
by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Warsaw.  Pop.  25,500.— Area 
of  province,  5535  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  775,320. 

Siegen  (Zee'gen,  g  hard),  a  Prussian  town  of 
Westphalia,  on  the  Sieg,  47  miles  E.  of  Cologne. 
It  manufactures  leather,  paper,  linen,  soap,  iron, 
copper,  lead,  zinc,  &c.,  having  many  mines  in 
the  vicinity.   Rubens  was  born  here.  Pop.  22,111. 

Sienna  (Ital.  Siena;  anc.  Soena  Julia),  a  walled 
city  of  Italy,  60  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Florence.  The 
streets  are  narrow,  winding,  and  steep,  with  many 
mediajval  features.  The  archiepiscopal  cathedral, 
one  of  the  finest  examples  of  Gothic  in  Italy,  was 
begun  early  in  the  13th  century  ;  in  1339  it  was 
intended  to  build  a  vastly  larger  church.  But 
after  the  plague  of  1348  the  idea  was  abandoned, 
and  only  ruined  walls  indicate  the  ambitious 
design.  The  magnificent  west  front  (1284-1357) 
of  three  arches  is  partly  Pointed,  partly  Round- 
arched,  and  is  enriched  with  red,  white,  and  black 
marbles,  gilding,  and  many  sculptures.  A  fire 
did  considerable  damage  to  the  exterior  in  1890. 
A  lofty  square  campanile  stands  on  the  south 
side.    The  art  treasures  of  the  interior  embrace 


SIERRA  LEONE 


6d0 


SIKKIM 


the  wonderful  octagonal  pulpit  by  Niccolo  Pisano 
(1268) ;  the  marble  mosaic  floor ;  the  series  of 
frescoes  commemorative  of  the  life  of  Pope  Pius 
II.,  by  Pinturicchio,  in  the  Piccolomini  Library ; 
the  celebrated  font  (1428),  with  bas-reliefs  by 
Donatello,  Delia  Quercia,  and  other  sculptors, 
in  the  church  of  San  Giovanni,  situated  beneath 
the  cathedral.  The  churches  of  Sant'  Agostino, 
the  Servites,  San  Domenico,  and  some  others 
contain  pictures  by  Sodoma,  Matteo  di  Giovanni, 
and  other  Siennese  artists.  The  greatly  vener- 
ated church  of  St  Catharine  (a  native  of  this  city) 
stands  on  the  site  of  her  former  dwelling.  The 
municipal  palace  (1288-1309),  a  magnificent 
Pointed  Gothic  edifice  of  brick,  has  a  lofty 
tower  (1325),  and  contains  paintings  by  Sien- 
nese artists.  There  are  noble  palaces,  as  the 
Piccolomini,  Tolomei,  Monte  de'  Paschi,  Loggia 
del  Papa,  some  dating  from  the  13th  century. 
The  more  noteworthy  of  the  public  institutions 
are  the  university  (1203),  with  faculties  of  medi- 
cine and  law  (less  than  250  students),  the  state 
archives  and  the  town  library  ;  and  an  Institute 
of  Fine  Arts  (1816),  with  many  fine  pictures  by 
masters  of  the  Siennese  school.  The  city  has  also 
given  birth  to  a  host  of  other  illustrious  men,  as 
^neas  Sylvius  (Pope  Pius  II.),  Bernardino  Ochino, 
and  the  two  Socini  (founders  of  Socinianism). 
In  July  and  August  celebrated  horse-races  are 
held  in  the  market-place.    Pop.  28,700. 

Sierra  Leone  (See-er'ra  Jx-o'nay,  '  Lion  Moun- 
tain ' ;  usu.  Le-oann'),  a  British  colony  on  the  west 
coast  of  Africa,  stretching  180  miles  along  the 
coast,  from  the  French  colony  of  Rivieres  du  Sud 
in  the  north  to  Liberia  in  the  south,  with  an  area 
of  4000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  100,000  (many  of  them  de- 
scendants  of  liberated  slaves).  This  includes  the 
Los,  Sherbro,  and  other  islands.  In  1896  a  hinter- 
land extending  inland  about  180  miles,  with  an 
area  of  about  30,000  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  about 
1,000,000,  was  proclaimed  a  protectorate.  The 
name  Siei-ra  Leone  is  inore  strictly  confined  to  a 
peninsula,  26  miles  long  by  12  broad,  and  rising 
to  3000  feet,  that  projects  NW.  just  south  of  the 
Sierra  Leone  (the  river  Rokelle)  estuary.  Tlie 
climate  is  very  hot  and  very  moist,  and  the 
vegetation  dense.  The  thermometer  varies  be- 
tween 64-5°  and  100-5°  F.  The  low-lying  districts 
are  infested  with  a  good  deal  of  fever  and 
malaria;  but  the  higher  parts  are  comparatively 
healthy.  Sierra  Leone  has  long  been  notorious 
as  the  'White  Man's  Grave  ;'  but  the  title  would 
be  just  as  appropriate  to  any  of  the  adjacent 
coast-regions  of  that  part  of  Africa.  Coffee, 
cocoa,  tapioca,  ginger,  maize,  cassava,  and  cotton 
are  grown  ;  but  the  bulk  of  the  exports  (ground- 
nuts, kola-nuts,  benni-seed,  ginger,  hides,  palm- 
oil  and  kernals,  india-rubber,  and  gums)  come 
from  the  interior,  and  are  exported  to  the  annual 
value  of  from  £330,000  to  £400,000.  The  imports 
(clothing,  provisions,  wine  and  spirits,  iron  and 
steel  goods,  haberdashery,  gunpowder,  tobacco 
&c.),  mostly  from  England,  range  from  £350,000 
to  £550,000.  The  capital  is  Freetown  (q.v.), 
now  a  fortified  naval  depot  and  coaling  station. 
The  colony  has  a  frontier  police  of  290  men,  besides 
part  of  the  West  India  regiment  (400  men). 
Fouray  Bay  College  (1828),  near  Freetown,  belongs 
to  the  Church  Missionary  Society,  and  was  affili- 
ated in  1876  to  Durham  University.  Sierra  Leone 
gives  title  to  an  Anglican  bishop,  and  contains 
many  Methodists,  besides  a  large  body  of  Moham- 
medans. The  governor  is  assisted  by  an  executive 
council,  and  a  (nominated)  legislative  council. 
The  revenue  is  from  £168,000  to  £230,000,  leaving 
a  surplus  ;  the  debt  has  been  paid  off.    The  coast 


was  discovered  by  the  Portuguese  in  1462.  Rd- 
peated  efforts  to  establish  here  a  colony  of  freed 
slaves  had  scant  success,  and  in  1807  the  com- 
pany transferred  their  rights  to  the  crown.  See 
Silthorpes'  History  and  his  Geography  of  the  colony 
(both  in  1881),  and  Banbury's  Sierra  Leone  (1888). 

Sierra  Madre  (See-er'ra  Mah'dray,  'Mother 
Chain'),  a  general  name  for  the  mountains  in 
Mexico  that  stretch  northward  from  about  Guada- 
lajara to  Arizona,  forming  the  western  wall  of  the 
plateau,  and  separating  Chihuahua  from  the  mari- 
time states  of  Sinaloa  and  Sonora.— The  name  has 
often  been  extended  to  Include  the  central  and 
eastern  ranges  of  the  Cordilleras. 

Sierra  Morena  (See-er'ra  Mo-ray'na),  a  broad 
mountain-ridge  in  the  south  of  Spain,  forming  the 
southern  edge  of  the  great  central  plain .  It  separ- 
ates the  basins  of  the  Guadianaand  Guadalquivir, 
and  ranges  in  height  from  2000  to  5500  feet.  Valu- 
able mines  of  lead,  silver,  quicksilver,  sulphur, 
and  lignite,  as  at  Tharsis  and  Rio  Tin  to,  occur. 

Sierra  Nevada  (See-er'ra  Ne-vdh'da,  'Snowy 
Range'),  a  mountain-range  of  southern  Spain, 
stretches  east  through  the  province  of  Granada 
to  the  frontiers  of  Almeria,  is  60  miles  in  length, 
20  to  30  in  breadth,  and  1060  sq.  m.  in  area.  The 
Pic  de  Velate  (11,670  feet)  is  the  highest  point 
of  the  peninsula.  The  range  receives  its  name 
from  the  perpetual  snow  which  covers  the  highest 
summits  (down  to  11,000  feet).— (2)  A  range  of 
mountains  in  California,  forming  the  eastern 
boundary  of  its  Great  Central  Valley,  and  extend- 
ing from  north-west  to  south-east  450  nn'les,  until 
in  the  neighbourhood  of  35°  N.  this  and  the  Coast 
Range  meet.  Among  the  higher  peaks  are  Mount 
Whitney  (14,898  feet  high),  Mount  Shasta  (14,440), 
Mount  Tyndall  (14,386).  The  sides  of  the  range 
are  covered  with  forests,  gold  is  found,  and  silver- 
mines  have  been  opened  on  the  east  side.  The 
Southern  Pacific  Railroad  crosses  the  range  at  an 
altitude  of  7042  feet.— (3)  Sierra  Nevada  deMerida 
is  the  principal  chain  of  the  Andes  in  Venezuela, 
rising  to  over  15,300  feet— (4)  Sierra  Nevada  de 
Santa  Marta  is  a  system  in  Colombia,  flanking 
the  sea,  the  central  knot  rising  to  peaks  of  from 
16,400  to  17,500  feet.  Copper,  silver,  gold,  and 
coal  are  found. 

Sigmaringen  (ng  as  in  ring),  the  capital  of 
Hohenzollern  (q.v.),  on  the  Danube,  54  miles  S. 
by  E.  of  Tiibingen.  Its  castle  suffered  much  by 
fire,  18th  April  1893.     Pop.  4646. 

Sikh  States  (Seek),  in  India,  are  fifteen  pro- 
tected native  states  of  the  Punjab  (Patiala  being 
the  chief),  the  only  existing  representatives  of 
the  numerous  states  founded  by  the  Avarlike  and 
religious  sect  of  the  Sikhs,  and  welded  into  a 
powerful  confederacy  or  empire  by  Ranjit  Singh 
before  1839.  The  Sikh  Avars  of  1845-46  and  1848- 
49  led  to  the  annexation  of  all  the  Punjab  by 
Britain,  except  a  few  small  feudatories.  The 
Sikhs  amount  to  7  per  cent,  of  the  population  of 
the  Punjab  (q.v.),  and  to  2,200,000  in  India. 

Si-kiang  (See-U-ang').    See  Canton. 

Sikkim,  a  protected  state  in  the  north-east  of 
India,  bounded  N.  by  Tibet,  W.  by  Nepal,  and 
SE,  by  Bhotan.  Area,  2820  sq.  ni. ;  pop.  60,000. 
The  state  lies  on  the  soutliern  slopes  of  the 
Himalayas,  has  mountains  reaching  to  24,000  feet 
and  mountain-passes  as  high  as  16,000.  The 
maharaja,  who  resides  at  the  village  of  Tumlong, 
ceded  Darjeeling  to  the  British  in  1835,  having 
already  acknoAvledged  their  '  protection  '  in  1816. 
In  1888  the  erection  of  a  fort  under  Tibetan  in- 
fluence led  to  a  British  expedition  against  Sikkim, 
—Darjeeling  (q.v.)  is  often  called  British  Sikkim. 


SIKROL 


651 


SlUAl 


Slkrol,  or  Secrole,  a  W.  suburb  of  Benares. 
Silbury  Hill.  See  Avebury. 
Sirchester,  a  village  in  the  extreme  north  of 
Hampshire,  7  miles  N.  of  Basingstoke,  famous  for 
the  remains  of  the  ancient  Romano-British  town 
of  Caer  Segeint,  called  by  the  Romans  Calleva,  and 
by  the  West  Saxons  Silceastre.  The  chief  visible 
remains  are  the  amphitheatre,  50  yards  by  40,  and 
the  walls,  2760  yards  in  length ;  excavations  have 
shown  the  foundations  of  a  basilica,  the  forum,  a 
temple,  baths,  &c.  ;  and  coins,  seals,  rings,  an 
ogam  inscription,  and  much  broken  pottery  have 
been  found.    See  a  work  by  Plummer  (1879). 

Sile'sia,  a  province  of  SE,  Prussia,  having 
Brandenburg  and  Posen  on  the  N.,  the  Polish 
provinces  of  Russia  and  Austria  on  the  E.,  and 
Austrian  Silesia,  Bohemia,  and  Saxony  on  the  S. 
Area,  15,557  sq.  m,  ;  pop.  (1875)  3,863,699;  (1900) 
4,668,857,  including  more  tlian  900,000  Poles, 
65,000  Bohemians  (Czechs),  and  35,000  Wends. 
By  religion  2,569,360  are  Catholics  and  2,042,600 
Evangelical  Protestants.  The  province  is  drained 
almost  entirely  by  the  Oder  (navigable  from  Rati- 
bor),  which  traverses  it  from  SW.  to  NW.  There 
are  extensive  marshy  and  sandy  tracts,  on  which 
large  forests  grow ;  but  between  the  Oder  and 
the  Sudetic  Mountains  in  the  SW.  the  soil  is  ex- 
ceptionally fertile.  In  the  SE.  is  one  of  the  most 
productive  coal-mining  regions  of  Prussia ;  zinc 
and  lead  are  also  extracted.  In  point  of  in- 
dustrial activity  Silesia  ranks  high  amongst  the 
provinces  of  Prussia.  Breslau  is  the  capital. 
Early  in  the  10th  c.  Silesia,  except  the  extreme 
western  districts,  was  under  Polish  dominion, 
and  in  the  14th  its  dukes  became  vassals  of 
Bohemia.  In  1742  the  duchies  were  divided  pretty 
much  as  they  now  are,  Prussia  getting  the  lion's 
share ;  and  the  Seven  Years'  War  (1756-63)  con- 
firmed Frederick  the  Great  in  possession. 

Silesia,  Austrian,  a  duchy  of  the  Austrian 
empire,  bounded  by  Prussian  Silesia,  Moravia,  and 
Hungary.  Area,  1987  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1880)  565,475  ; 
(1900)  680,422.  Subsidiary  chains  of  the  Car- 
pathians and  Sudetic  Mountains  diversify  tlie 
southern  and  western  frontiers ;  the  duchy  is 
•watered  by  the  systems  of  the  Vistula  (in  the 
east)  and  the  Oder  (west).  Mining  (coal,  iron, 
sulphur,  &c.)  and  manufacturing  industries 
flourish.    The  principal  town  is  Troppau. 

Sillstria  (anc.  Dm-ostorum),  a  town  of  Bulgaria, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  Danube,  here  IJ  mile 
wide,  70  miles  N  W.  of  Varna.  Long  a  formidable 
Turkish  fortress,  it  has  been  repeatedly  besieged 
by  the  Russians  (as  in  1828-29).  On  the  outbreak 
of  the  Crimean  war  the  Russians  laid  siege  to  it 
with  60,000  to  80,000  men,  but  were  compelled  to 
retreat  after  thirty-nine  days.  In  1877  again  it 
successfully  defied  the  troops  of  the  czar.  Pop. 
12,500. 

Sillery  (Sil-ler-ec'),  a  village  (pop.  400)  near 
Rheims,  famous  for  its  champagne. 

Sil'lotli,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of  Cum- 
berland, on  the  Sol  way  Firth,  20  miles  W.  of  Car- 
li.sle.  Prior  to  the  opening  of  the  railway  in  1856 
it  was  a  mere  hamlet,  but  it  is  now  of  growing 
importance,  with  good  docks  opened  in  1857-85. 
Silloth,  which  commands  a  fine  view,  is  much 
resorted  to  for  sea-bathing,  the  climate  being 
mild  and  salubrious,  with  a  mean  annual  tempera- 
ture of  49°  1',  the  same  as  Worthing,  and  only  1° 
below  Torquay.    Pop.  2600. 

Silsden,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 4  miles  NNW.  of  Keighley,  with  worsted 
and  nail  manufactures.    Pop.  4300. 


Sil  verton,  a  mining  centre  in  the  extreme  west 
of  New  South  Wales,  only  18  miles  from  the 
border  of  South  Australia,  and  822  W.  by  S.  from 
Sydney.  It  is  connected  Avith  the  railway  system 
of  South  Australia.  Silver,  copper,  tin,  and  gold 
are  mined.  Broken  Hill,  one  of  the  largest  silver 
mines  in  the  world,  is  17  miles  SB. 

Siman'cas,  a  village  of  Spain,  7  miles  SW.  of 
Valladolid,  where  the  national  archives  have  been 
kept  since  1563.  There  are  more  than  30  million 
documents  in  all.     Pop.  1231. 

Simbirsk',  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the  Volga's 
right  bank,  350  miles  SE.  of  Nijni-Novgorod. 
Rebuilt  since  its  destruction  by  fl're  in  1864,  it 
has  two  Greek  cathedrals,  a  large  trade,  and  a 
famous  annual  fair.  Pop.  43,300.— Area  of  govern- 
ment, 19,100  sq.  m. ;  pop.  549,400. 

Sim'coe,  Lake,  in  Ontario,  between  Georgian 
Bay  and  Lake  Ontario,  30  miles  long  and  18  broad. 

Simferop'ol,  a  town  of  Russia,  in  the  Crimea, 
50  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Sebastopol,  From  16,000 
in  1850  its  pop.  had  by  1905  grown  to  near  50,000. 

Simla,  since  1864  the  summer  headquarters  of 
the  British  government  in  India,  stands  on  the 
southern  slopes  of  the  Himalayas,  in  a  beautiful 
sitvxation,  170  miles  N.  of  Delhi.  Its  first  house 
was  built  in  1819,  and  it  was  first  visited  oflUcially 
by  the  Indian  government  in  1827.  There  are  two 
viceregal  residences  (the  newer  one  built  in  1886), 
handsome  government  buildings  (1884),  and  a  fine 
town-hall  (1886).  Pop.  14,848  in  winter,  and 
considerably  more  in  summer.— The  name  Simla 
Hill  States  is  given  to  twenty-three  small  native 
states  (area,  6569  sq,  m. ;  pop.  502,853), 

Simonoseki.    See  Shimonoseki. 

Simon's  Town  (pop,  5000),  on  Simon's  Bay, 
See  Cape  Colony. 

Simplon(Fr.  pron.  San^ploinF ;  Ital.  Sempione), 
a  Swiss  mountain-pass  (6594  feet  high),  in  the 
E.  of  the  canton  of  Valais.  The  Simplon  Road 
(1800-06;  cost,  £720,000),  one  of  the  greatest 
engineering  achievements  of  modern  times,  leads 
over  a  shoulder  of  the  mountain  froin  Brieg  in 
Valais  to  Domo  d'Ossola  (41  miles)  in  Piedmont. 
It  is  carried  across  more  than  600  bridges,  over 
numerous  galleries  cut  out  of  the  natural  rock  or 
built  of  solid  masonry,  and  through  great  tunnels. 
Close  to  the  highest  point  is  the  New  Hospice 
(opened  in  1825),  one  of  the  twenty  edifices  on 
this  route  for  the  shelter  of  travellers.  In  1898- 
1906  a  new  double  tunnel  (12J  miles  in  length) 
was  constructed,  its  Swiss  terminus  at  Brieg  and 
the  Italian  one  at  Iselle,  costing  £2,800,000. 

Sinai  (usu.  Sl'nay ;  properly  See'nl),  the  sacred 
mountain  on  which  Moses  received  the  tables  of 
the  Ten  Commandments,  is  an  individual  peak  in 
a  vast  rocky  mass  that  almost  fills  the  peninsula 
of  Sinai.  This  stern,  treeless  peninsula  is  situ- 
ated on  the  north-west  of  Arabia,  between  the 
Gulfs  of  Suez  and  Akaba,  and  shut  in  on  the 
north  by  the  desert.  In  this  mountain-mass 
there  are  three  separate  mountains  clearly  dis- 
tinguishable-Mount Serbal  (6750  feet);  Jebel 
Katherin  or  Mount  St  Catherine  (8540  feet),  lying 
south-east  of  Serbal ;  and  Umm  Shomer  (some 
8000  feet).  Jebel  Katherin  has  two  well-marked 
peaks,  a  northern  one  called  Horeb  and  a  southern 
called  Jebel  Musa  (Mountain  of  Moses)— the  latter 
pointed  out  by  tradition  as  the  scene  of  the 
Hebrew  law-giving.  At  its  foot,  in  a  ravine, 
stands  the  fortress-like  monastery  of  St  Catherine 
(founded  probably  about  527  by  the  Emperor 
Justinian).  The  Sinaitic  peninsula  and  a  strip  of 
the  Red  Sea  shore  beyond  Akaba  belong  politi- 


SINALOA 


653 


SIOUX  FALLS 


oally  to  Egypt.    See  works  by  Hull  (1885),  Palmer 
(1871),  Stanley  (1856),  and  Hayues  (1894). 

Sinalo'a,  a  Pacific  state  of  Mexico,  with  an 
area  of  36,180  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  300,000.  It 
contains  over  100  mining  districts,  chiefly  pro- 
ducing silver.  The  capital  is  Culiacan  (q.v.) ;  100 
miles  NW.  is  the  town  of  Sinaloa  (pop.  2000). 

Sinclalrtown.    See  Kirkcaldy. 

Sind,  or  Sindh  (also  Sinde  and  Scinde),  a 
province  of  Bombay  Presidency,  bounded  by 
Beluchistan,  the  Punjab,  Rajputaua,  the  Indian 
Ocean,  and  the  Runn  of  Cutch.  Area,  47,066 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1901)  3,210,910.  The  sea-coast  (150 
miles)  is  low  and  flat,  except  the  small  portion 
beyond  Karaclii  (Kurrachee),  and  is  studded 
with  mud-banks  or  sandhills.  The  province  is 
traversed  from  north  to  south  by  the  Indus 
(whence  the  name),  and  includes  the  whole  of 
its  delta.  Along  the  river  is  an  alluvial  tract 
of  great  fertility,  2  to  12  miles  wide,  and  mostly 
artificially  irrigated.  The  soil  contains  in  the 
north  so  much  saltpetre,  and  in  the  south  so 
much  salt,  that  after  the  year's  crops  have  been 
obtained  these  substances  are  extracted  for  home 
consumption  and  export.  Between  the  Indus 
and  its  most  easterly  branch,  the  Nara,  is  an 
alluvial  '  doab,'  which,  from  want  of  irrigation, 
has  become  almost  a  desert.  East  of  this  is  the 
Thur,  a  desert  of  shifting  sand.  West  of  the 
Indus  the  country  is  occupied  by  the  desert  of 
Shikarpur  on  the  north,  a  desert  not  of  sand, 
but  of  alluvial  clay,  the  same  as  that  of  the 
delta,  which  only  requires  irrigation  to  render 
it  fertile ;  and  in  the  south  it  is  traversed  by 
the  Hala  Mountains.  The  climate  is  remarkably 
sultry  and  dry.  The  population  consists  of  the 
native  Sindis,  with  a  large  sprinkling  of  Beluchis 
and  Afghans ;  the  greater  portion  of  them  are 
Sunnite  Mohammedans,  and  almost  all  are  wholly 
engaged  in  agriculture.  Trade  is  concentrated  at 
Kurrachee  (q.v.),  the  capital.  Raw  cotton,  wool, 
and  grain  are  the  principal  exports.  Other 
towns  are  Hyderabad  (57,790),  Shikarpur,  Lark- 
hana,  and  Sukkur.  Sind  has  been  a  British  prov- 
ince since  1843.  See  five  volumes  by  Sir  R. 
Burton  (1851-77),  and  A.  W.  Hughe's  Gazetteer  of 
Sind  (1876). 

Slnganfoo',  the  capital  of  the  Chinese  province 
of  Slien-hsi,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Hoang-ho. 
Pop.  1,000,000. 

Singapore,  a  British  dependency  in  Asia,  the 
most  important  of  the  Straits  Settlements  (q.v.), 
consists  of  the  island  of  Singapore  (27  miles  long, 
14  broad  ;  area,  206  sq.  m.),  separated  from  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Malay  Peninsula  by  a 
strait  only  half  a  mile  wide  at  its  narrowest,  and 
of  a  great  number  of  very  small  islands  along  its 
shores.  The  surface  is  undulating,  the  highest 
point  reaching  520  feet  only.  The  climate  is  hot 
and  moist,  but  the  soil  is  not  particularly  fertile ; 
nevertheless  the  island  is  perpetually  clothed 
with  verdure,  and  yields  good  crops  of  coff"ee, 
pine-apples,  cocoa-nuts,  aloes,  and  every  kind  of 
fruit.  This  island  was  purchased  in  1824  from 
the  sultan  of  Johore.  Pop.  of  island  (1881) 
172,993 ;  (1901)  228,555,  consisting  more  largely 
of  Chinese  than  of  Malays  and  Hindu.s. 

Tlie  capital,  Singapore  (Sansk.  Sinhapura, '  Lion 
City '),  occupies  a  fine  site  on  the  SE,  coast,  little 
more  than  1°  N.  of  the  equator,  on  the  Strait  of 
Singapore,  the  principal  waterway  for  vessels 
trading  between  eastern  Asia  and  India  and 
Europe.  This  city  was  founded  by  Sir  Stamford 
Raffles  in  1819  as  an  emporium  for  British  trade  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  it  has  grown  to  be  the  most 


important  trading-place  in  the  south-east  of  Asia. 
Singapore  is  a  picturesque,  well-built  town,  with 
fine  public  buildings.  It  possesses  a  governor's 
residence,  St  Andrew's  Protestant  cathedral  (1861- 
70),  a  Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  Mohammedan 
mosques,  Hindu  temples,  Chinese  joss-houses, 
Raffles'  museum  (1823),  the  supreme  law-courts, 
post-office  (1883),  hospitals,  jail,  barracks,  and  fine 
botanical  and  zoological  gardens.  It  is  defended 
by  numerous  batteries  and  forts,  and  is  a  naval 
coaling  station  and  depot.  The  docks,  stores, 
and  dwelling-houses  extend  for  6  miles  or  more 
along  the  sea-front.  The  harbour  is  spacious 
and  safe,  and  remarkably  easy  of  access,  with  two 
graving-docks  and  an  admiralty  dock.  The  im- 
ports (£33,500,000)  are  mainly  European  manu- 
factures, the  exports  (£22,500,000)  tlie  pro(hicts 
of  tlie  East.  Pop.  (1824)  10,603 ;  (1850)  50,000 : 
(1901)195,000.  V        /      .        , 

Si-ngan-fu  (also  spelt  Hsi-an-fu,  Se-go.n,  &c.), 
a  very  ancient  and  famous  city  of  China,  capital 
of  Shen-si,  and  in  1120  b.c.  capital  of  the  empire. 
Standing  near  the  Wei,  an  affluent  of  the  Hoang-ho, 
it  has  a  large  trade  and  many  antiquities,  amongst 
which  are  a  stone  with  a  Syriac  inscription  re- 
cording the  establishment  of  Christianity  here  in 
the  7th  century.  Hither  in  1900  the  emperor 
and  court  fled  from  Peking. 

Singbhum,  one  of  the  four  districts  of  the 
division  of  Chota  Nagpore  (q.v.). 

Sing  Sing,  since  1901  called  Ossinino,  in  New 
York,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hudson  (here 
called  Tappan  Bay),  31  miles  by  rail  N.  of  New 
York  City.  It  contains  villas,  boarding-schools, 
and  manufactories  ;  but  it  is  best  known  through 
its  large  state-prison  (1825).  The  Croton  Aque- 
duct rests  here  on  an  arch  of  masonry  with  a 
span  of  88  feet.     Pop.  7940. 

Sinigaglia  (Seenigal'ya ;  anc.  Sena-GalUa),  a 
seaport  on  the  Adriatic  coast  of  Italy,  16  miles 
by  rail  NW.  of  Ancona.  It  was  founded  by  the 
Senonian  Gauls,  and  colonised  by  the  Romans 
289  B.C.  There  are  a  cathedral  (1787)  and  a  ducal 
palace.     Pius  IX.  was  a  native.     Pop.  9602. 

Sinope  (See-no'peh;  Turk.  Sinub),  a  town  of 
Asiatic  Turkey,  stands  on  a  rock  projecting  into 
the  Black  Sea,  220  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Trebizond. 
One  of  its  two  harbours  is  the  best  on  the  N. 
coast  of  Asia  Minor ;  and  it  has  ancient  Byzantine 
walls  and  a  ruined  castle.     Pop.  8000. 

Sion  (See-on^' ;  Ger.  Sitten),  capital  of  the  Swiss 
canton  of  Valais,  in  the  valley  of  the  Rhone,  16 
miles  NE.  of  Martigny  by  the  Simplon  Railway. 
It  has  three  ruined  castles  perched  on  the  crags 
above,  and  a  6th-century  cathedral.    Pop.  6447. 

Sion  House.    See  Isleworth. 

Siout,  or  AsiooT  (anc.  LycopoUs),  the  chief 
city  of  Upper  Egypt,  stands  near  the  Nile's  west 
bank,  200  miles  by  rail  south  of  Cairo.  It  has 
several  mosques,  a  government  palace,  and  an 
American  mission  school.    Pop.  42,000. 

Sioux  City  (Soo),  capital  of  Woodbury  county, 
Iowa,  on  the  east  bank  of  the  Missouri  River 
(here  crossed  by  a  bridge  2000  feet  long),  128 
miles  (by  rail)  above  Omaha  and  512  W.  by  N.  of 
Chicago.  It  has  stockyards  and  packing-houses, 
railway-shops,  planing  and  spice  mills,  and  manu- 
factures of  linseed-oil,  vinegar,  flour,  doors,  &c. 
Pop.  35,000. 

Sioux  Falls  (500),  capital  of  Minnehaha  county. 
South  Dakota,  and  the  largest  town  in  the  state, 
is  on  the  Big  Sioux  River  (which  here  falls  90 
feet),  241  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  St  Paul.  Its  lead- 
ing industry  is  the  quarrying,  shaping,  and  polish- 


SIPONTUM 


653 


SKTE 


ing  of  granite.  Here  are  the  state  penitentiary 
and  school  for  deaf  mutes,  and  four  denomi- 
national colleges.     Pop.  12,000. 

Slpontum.     See  Manfredonia. 

Sirajganj  (Seerajgunj),  a  town  in  Pabna  dis- 
trict, Bengal,  near  the  main  branch  of  the  Brah- 
maputra, 150  miles  NE.  of  Calcutta.    Pop.  23,267. 

Sir-daria.    See  Jaxartes. 

Sirhind,  the  north-eastern  part  of  the  plain  in 
the  Punjab,  between  the  Jumna  and  the  Sutlej, 
watered  by  the  Sirhind  Canal  (main  branch 
finished  in  1882)  and  its  branches. 

Sir-i-kol,  a  great  lake  of  the  Pamir  (q.v.). 

Sir-i-pul  (Seer-ee-pool'),  a  river  and  a  city  (75 
miles  NE.  of  Maimana ;  pop.  15,000)  in  Afghan 
Turkestan. 

Sis'tova,  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  on  the  Danube's 
S.  bank,  35  miles  above  Rustchuk.     Pop.  12,482. 

Sitapur  (Seetapoor),  a  town  and  cantonment  in 
Oudh,  52  miles  NW.  of  Lucknow.    Pop.  21,380. 

Sitka,  the  capital  of  Alaska,  is  on  the  west 
coast  of  Baranof  Island,  a  deep  harbour  dotted 
with  islands  in  front,  and  snow-clad  mountains 
rising  beliind.  Pop.  1400,  of  whom  about  400  are 
whites. 

Sittingbourne,  a  brick-making  market-town  of 
Kent,  on  Milton  Creek,  11  miles  ESE.  of  Chat- 
ham and  45  of  London.  In  olden  days  it  was  a 
great  halting-place  for  Canterbury  pilgrims  and 
for  kings  and  others  on  their  way  to  the  Conti- 
nent.   Pop.  9100. 

Sivas  (Seevas ;  anc.  Sebastcia),  a  city  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  on  the  Kizil  Irinak  (anc.  Halys),  170  miles 
SW.  of  Trebizond.     Pop.  40,000. 

Siwalik  Hills.    See  Himalaya. 

Siwash,  or  Putrid  Sea.     See  Crimea. 

Skagen  {Skdh-gen,  g  hard),  C.^pe,  or  The  Skaw, 
the  most  northerly  point  of  Jutland,  Denmark. 

Skager-Rak,  an  arm  of  the  North  Sea,  be- 
tween Denmark  and  Norway. 

Skagway,  a  port  (settled  in  1897)  of  southern 
Alaska,  at  the  mouth  of  a  river  falling  into  the 
Lynn  Canal.  It  is  the  teriniMus  of  the  White 
Pass  and  Yukon  railway.     Pop.  5000. 

Skapt4.    See  Iceland. 

Skegness,  a  watering-place  of  Lincolnshire, 
22  miles  NE.  of  Boston  by  rail.    Pop.  2140. 

Skelligs,  three  rocky  islands  on  the  south-west 
coast  of  Ireland,  10  miles  SW.  of  Valentia.  On 
one  of  the  rocks  is  a  lighthouse,  and  on  Great 
Skellig  (710  feet  high)  a  ruined  monastery. 

Skelmantliorpe,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  6  miles 
SE.  of  Hudderstield.     Pop.  3332; 

Skelmersdale,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  4J  miles 
from  Ormskirk.    Pop.  6000. 

Skel'morlie,  a  watering-place  of  N.  Ayrshire, 
on  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  S.  of  Wemyss  Bay,  and  31 
miles  W.  of  Glasgow.    Pop.  1100.' 

Skelton,  a  town  in  the  North  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 3  miles  NE.  of  Guisborough.     Pop.  13,240. 
Loch.    See  Dumfriesshire. 


Skerries,  a  name  applied  to  various  groups  of 
rocky  islets  round  the  British  coasts,  especially 
one  2  miles  ofif  the  NW.  coast  of  Anglesey,  with 
a  lighthouse.     See  also  Pentland  Firth. 

Skerries,  an  Irish  seaport,  18  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Dublin.     Pop.  1720. 

Skerryvore',  the  chief  rock  of  a  reef  which  lies 
10  miles  SW.  of  Tyree  and  24  W.  of  lona.  This 
reef,  stretching  8  miles  WSW.,  caused  the  loss  of 


one  ship  annually  in  1804-44.    In  1838-44  a  light- 
house, 138§  feet  high,  was  built  here. 

Skibbereen',  a  market-town,  54  miles  SW.  of 
Cork.     Pop.  3200. 

Skid'da-w,  a  mountain  (3054  feet)  of  Cumber- 
land, flanking  Basseiithwaite  Water  on  the  E.,  5^ 
miles  NNW.  of  Derwentwater  and  Keswick. 

Skien,  a  port  of  Norway,  62  miles  SW.  of  Chris- 
tiania,  Ibsen's  birthplace,  with  a  brisk  trade.  It 
was  burnt  down  in  1886.    Pop.  12,000. 

Sklpton,  a  market-town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  in  the  broad  and  fertile  valley  of  the 
Aire,  26  miles  NW.  of  Leeds.  The  capital  of  • 
Craven,  it  is  a  gray-looking  place,  with  manu- 
factures of  cotton  and  woollen  goods,  and  is  an 
important  station  on  the  Midland  line.  The 
castle,  once  the  chief  seat  of  the  Cliffords,  is  of 
two  periods,  the  reigns  of  Edward  II.  and  Henry 
VIII.,  and  is  partly  a  ruin,  partly  inhabited. 
The  church  has  some  interesting  monuments ; 
and  there  are  also  a  public  hall  (1861),  a  grammar- 
school  (1548  ;  rebuilt  1876-77  at  a  cost  of  £12,000), 
and  a  saline  spring.  Bolton  Abbey  (q.v.)  is  6 
miles  distant.  Pop.  (1851)  4962  ;  (1901)  11,986. 
See  Dawson's  History  ofSkipton  (1882), 

Skowhe'gan,  a  town  of  Maine,  capital  of 
Somerset  county,  on  the  Kennebec  (which  here 
has  a  fall  of  28  feet),  37  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of 
Augusta.  It  manufactures  flour,  oil-cloth,  axes, 
paper,  woollens,  leather,  &c.    Pop.  5068. 

Skye,  an  island  of  Inverness-shire,  the  second 
largest  of  the  Hebrides,  is  separated  from  the 
mainland  by  Kyle  Rhea,  a  channel  J  mile  wide  at 
the  narrowest.  Its  length  is  49  miles,  its  breadth 
varies  from  7  to  25  miles ;  but  on  account  of 
inlets  no  point  is  above  4  miles  from  the  sea. 
Area,  643  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1841)  23,082 ;  (1901) 
13,883.  Skye  is  for  the  most  part  mountainous 
and  moory,  but  it  contains  some  arable  and 
pasture  land,  and  one  considerable  plain,  formerly 
the  bed  of  a  lake,  in  Kilmuir  parish.  The 
principal  mountains  are  the  serrated  Coolin 
(not  Cuchullin)  Hills,  which  stretch  irregularly 
north-eastward,  terminating  in  the  sharp  peak  of 
Sgurr-nan-Gillean  (3167  feet)  above  Sligachan. 
Another  peak,  Sgurr  Dearg,  is  actually  higher 
(3234  feet).  The  most  famous  scene  in  this  region 
is  Coruisk  (IJ  x  J  mile),  the  'stern,  dread  lake' 
of  Scott's  Lord  of  the  Isles.  Glen  Sligachan 
ascends  5J  miles  from  the  head  of  Loch  Sliga- 
chan. The  fantastic  Quiraing  (1779  feet)  and 
the  Storr  (2360),  in  the  north  of  the  island, 
are  remarkable  rocks,  and  at  many  points 
along  the  coast  are  columnar  basalt  formations 
and  cliff's  1000  feet  high,  whose  bases  are  fre- 
quently worn  into  deep  caves.  One  cave,  near 
Portree,  afforded  a  refuge  to  Prince  Charles 
Edward ;  another,  on  the  west  coast,  was  the 
temporary  prison  of  Lady  Grange.  The  largest 
arms  of  the  sea  are  Lochs  Bracadale,  Dunvegan, 
and  Snizort.  The  coasts  abound  in  fish — lierring, 
salmon,  cod,  and  ling,  besides  oysters.  Salmon 
and  sea-trout  are  got  in  some  of  the  streams,  and 
trout  in  most  of  the  fresh-water  lochs.  Deer  are 
not  numerous,  nor  grouse.  West  Highland  cattle 
are  reared,  but  sheep-farming  predominates.  The 
rainfall  averages  65  inches,  but  the  climate  is 
mild  and  healthy.  The  inhabitants  are  for  the 
most  part  poor  and  ill-housed,  but  well-behaved 
and  intelligent.  At  one  time  they  contributed 
largely  to  the  British  army — not  fewer  than  10,000 
privates  during  the  long  war  with  France.  The 
population  is  chiefly  Celtic,  with,  however,  a  con- 
siderable Norse  admixture.  Gaelic  is  gradually 
giving  place  to  English.    The  chief  proprietors 


SKYROS 


664 


SLUYS 


are  still,  as  of  old,  Lord  Macdonald,  whose 
beautiful  seat  is  Armadale  Castle  in  Sleat,  and 
MacLeod  of  MacLeod,  in  whose  ancient  castle  of 
Dunvegan,  perched  on  a  headland,  Dr  Johnson 
'tasted  lotus'  (1773)  and  Scott  slept  in  the 
'  Fairy  Room '  (1814).  The  principal  port  of  Skye 
is  Portree,  a  picturesquely  situated  village  of 
750  inhabitants,  at  which  steamers  call  regularly. 
Other  villages  are  Broadford,  Dunvegan,  and 
KyleakinC  Hakon's  strait '),  the  last  on  Kyleakin 
strait,  i  mile  broad,  opposite  the  terminus  of  the 
Dingwall  and  Skye  Railway,  as  extended  since 
1895  from  Strome  Ferry.  'Talisker' whisky  is 
made  at  Carabost,  at  the  head  of  Loch  Bracadale. 
The  inhabitants  are  mostly  adherents  of  the  Free 
Church.  See  Alex.  Smith's  Summer  in  Skye  (1865), 
and  R.  Buchanan's  Hebrid  Isles  (1883). 

Skyros,  or  Scyro,  an  island  of  the  Grecian 
Archipelago,  the  largest  of  the  northern  Sporades, 
24  miles  NE.  of  Euboea.  It  is  17  miles  long,  and 
79  sq.  m.  in  area.  The  south  is  mountainous 
and  wooded  ;  the  northern  part,  though  hilly, 
has  fertile  plains.  The  only  town  is  Skyro,  or 
St  George,  on  the  east  coast.     Pop.  8550. 

Slaithwaite,  a  Yorkshire  market-town,  4  miles 
WSW.  of  Huddersfield,  with  mineral  baths  and 
cotton  and  woollen  manufactures.    Pop.  4770.' 

Slaney,  a  river  of  Leinster,  flowing  60  miles 
SW.  and  S.  to  Wexford  Harbour. 

Slateford,  a  village  2  miles  SW.  of  Edinburgh. 
Pop.  676. 

Slatwoods.    See  Cowes. 

Slave  Coast,  a  division  of  the  coast  of  Upper 
Guinea,  Africa,  extending  eastwards  from  the 
Gold  Coast  (q.v.)  as  far  as  the  river  Benin,  is 
divided  between  Germany,  Dahomey,  France,  and 
Great  Britain.  The  British  portion  is  treated 
under  Lagos  (q.v.),  the  German  under  Togo  (q.v.), 
and  the  French  under  Senegambia  (q.v.). 

Slavonla.    See  Croatia. 

Sleaford,  a  town  of  Lincolnshire,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Slea,  a  branch  of  the  Witham,  17 
miles  SSE.  of  Lincoln.  It  has  a  fine  church 
(1271),  a  grammar-school  (1624),  and  a  monu- 
mental cross  (1850).  King  John  was  struck  with 
his  last  illness  (1216)  in  the  old  castle,  now  almost 
wholly  disappeared.    Pop.  5750. 

Sleswick (Danish Sfesvigr;  Ger.  Schleswig)fonns, 
united  with  the  former  duchies  of  Holstein  and 
Lauenburg,  a  province  of  Prussia,  just  south 
of  Denmark.  Area,  7273  sq.  u).  ;  pop.  (1900) 
1,387,968,  nearly  all  Low  Germans,  except  in 
the  north  of  Sleswick,  where  there  are  140,000 
Danes.  Sleswick  belongs  to  the  alluvial  penin- 
sula of  Jutland,  its  eastern  lialf  being  an  undu- 
lating plain  and  its  western  a  series  of  low-lying 
but  very  fertile  marsh-lands,  protected  from  the 
ocean  by  sea-banks.  The  eastern  coast  (230  miles) 
is  deeply  indented  by  several  long  narrow  arms 
of  the  sea,  some  of  which  make  excellent  har- 
bours, and  alongside  it  lie  the  islands  of  Fehmern 
and  Alsen.  The  low  western  coast  is  protected 
by  a  string  of  low  islands  and  sandbanks  from 
the  waves  of  the  North  Sea.  The  Elbe  (on  the  S. 
border)  and  the  Eider  are  the  great  rivers ;  and 
the  province  is  crossed  by  the  Baltic  Ship  Canal 
(in  Holstein,  61  miles  long),  the  Eider  Canal, 
Stecknitz  Canal,  &c.  Nearly  87  per  cent,  of  the 
area  is  cultivated ;  fishing  is  also  carried  on. 
Flensburg  is  the  chief  seaport. 

At  the  dawn  of  history  Sleswick  was  inhabited 
by  the  Cimbri,  who  were  succeeded  by  the 
Angles,  Jutes,  and  Frisians ;  but  the  greater 
part  of  the  Angles  crossed  over  into  England, 


and  their  place  was  taken  by  the  Danes.  Suc- 
cessively Danish  and  German,  or  sometimes  in- 
dependent, for  more  than  a  thousand  years,  Sles- 
wick-Holstein  was  the  scene  of  an  unsuccessful 
rebellion  against  Denmark  in  1848-50,  but  in  1864 
was  wrested  therefrom  by  Prussia  and  Austria. 
The  dissensions  between  these  powers  led  to  the 
Austro-Prussian  war  of  1866,  and  to  the  ultimate 
incorporation  of  the  duchies  with  Prussia. 

Slleve-Donard.    See  Ireland,  p.  362. 

Sllgo,  a  maritime  county  of  Connaught,  is 
bounded  by  the  Atlantic,  the  Bay  of  Donegal, 
Leitrim,  Rosconunon,  and  Mayo.  It  is  41  miles 
E.  to  W.,  and  38  N.  to  S.  ;  area,  442,205  acres. 
Pop.  (1841)  180,886;  (1901)  84,083,  of  whom  76,146 
were  Catholics.  The  coast-line  is  indented  with 
Killala  Bay,  Sligo  Bay,  &c.  The  surface  rises 
gradually  from  the  coast  as  far  as  the  Slieve 
Gamph  and  the  Ox  Mountains  (1778  feet).  Sligo 
contains  some  picturesque  lakes.  Iron  is 
abundant  and  copper  occurs,  but  neither  is 
worked.  The  climate  is  moist,  mild,  and  healthy. 
The  chief  occupation  is  agriculture,  especially 
the  feeding  of  cattle,  nearly  one-half  of  the  total 
area  being  under  grass.  Coarse  woollens  and 
linens  are  manufactured ;  and  fishing  is  pro- 
secuted. The  county  forms  two  parliamentary 
divisions.  The  principal  towns  are  Sligo,  Ballina, 
Ballymote,  and  Tobercurry.  Sligo  was  anciently 
the  seat  of  the  O'Connors.  It  contains  a  group 
of  cromlechs  near  Sligo,  a  round  tower  at  Drum- 
cliff,  a  ruined  abbey  at  Ballysadare,  besides  raths, 
cromlechs,  and  ancient  caverns. 

Sligo,  the  county  town,  stands  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Garvogue,  137  miles  N  W.  of  Dublin  by  rail. 
Pop.  (1861)  13,361 ;  (1901)  10,870.  Sligo  had  its 
origin  in  a  13th-century  Dominican  abbey,  now 
in  ruins  ;  it  was  walled  and  defended  by  a  castle 
(1242),  of  which  no  vestiges  are  left.  There  are  a 
Roman  Catholic  cathedral,  a  modern  town-hall,  a 
lunatic  asylum,  &c.  The  harbour  exports  cattle, 
corn,  butter,  and  provisions.  Sligo  was  disfran- 
chised in  1870.  See  county  histories  by  O'Rorke 
(1889)  and  Wood-Martin  (3  vols.  1890-93). 

Slitrig.    See  Hawick. 

Slivno,  Sliven,  or  Selimnia,  a  town  of  East 
Roumelia,  at  the  base  of  the  Balkans,  70  miles 
N.  by  E.  of  Adrianople.     Pop.  23,210. 

Slonlm,  a  town  of  Russia,  75  miles  SE.  of 
Grodno.     Pop.  22,275. 

Sloperton  Cottage,  Wiltshire,  4  miles  SE.  of 
Chippenham,  the  residence  of  Thomas  Moore. 

Slough  (slow,  oiv  as  in  now),  a  town  of  Buck- 
inghamshire, 18J  miles  W.  of  London  and  2^ 
NNE.  of  Windsor.  It  has  grown  from  a  mere 
village  since  the  railway  epoch,  and  is  a  well- 
built  place,  the  seat  since  1863  of  the  British 
Orphan  Asylum  ;  but  it  will  always  be  chiefly 
remembered  as  the  home  of  Sir  William  Herschel 
from  1786  till  his  death,  and  thereafter  till  1840 
of  his  son.  Sir  John,  Stoke  Poges  and  the  Burn- 
ham  Beeches,  botli  noticed  separately,  are  near. 
Pop.  (1861)  3425;  (1901)  11,461.  See  Phipps's 
History  of  Upton-cum-Chalvei/  (Slough,  1886),  the 
parish  in  which  Slough  is  chiefly  situated. 

Slutsk,  a  town  or  large  agricultural  village  of 
Russia,  60  miles  S.  of  Minsk.     Pop.  19,208. 

Sluys  (Slois),  a  town  of  Holland,  province  Zea- 
land, on  a  bay  of  the  North  Sea,  6  miles  NE.  of 
Bruges  ;  in  the  middle  ages  a  great  seaport.  It 
is  celebrated  for  the  naval  battle  fought  off"  the 
shore  between  the  English  and  the  French  on 
24th  June  1340,  in  which  Edward  III.  won  a 
complete  victory.     Pop.  2631. 


SMAILHOLM 


065 


SOFALA 


Smailholm  (SmaiZ'om),  a  Roxburghshire  peel- 
tower,  6  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Kelso.  Near  it,  at 
Sandyknowe  farm,  Scott  passed  five  years  of 
childhood. 

Smalcald.    See  Schmalkalden. 

Smeinogorsk.    See  Zmeinogorsk. 

Smeru,  or  Semiru,  the  highest  mountain  of 
Java,  near  the  eastern  end  of  the  island.  It  is 
12,240  feet  high,  and  is  an  active  volcano. 

Smer  wick,  a  peninsula  and  bay  in  County 
Kerry,  Ireland,  where  in  1579  600  Italian  and 
Spanish  soldiers  were  put  to  the  sword  by  Lord- 
deputy  Grey  and  young  Walter  Raleigh. 

Smethwick,  a  western  suburb  of  Birmingham. 

Smlthfield,  a  village  (pop.  1230)  of  Virginia,  24 
miles  WNW.  of  Norfolk.  St  Luke's  Episcopal 
church  (built  in  1632  of  imported  brick)  is  the 
oldest  Protestant  building  in  America. 

Smitli's  Sound,  one  of  the  northern  channels 
whicli  connect  Baffin  Bay  with  the  Arctic  Ocean. 

Smolensk',  a  town  of  Russia,  is  situated  on 
steep  declivities  overlooking  the  Dnieper,  244 
miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Moscow.  It  was  a  place 
of  note  in  the  9th  century,  is  surrounded  by 
ruinous  walls,  has  a  cathedral  of  the  17th  and 
18th  centuries,  and  was  froni  the  14th  century  a 
powerful  fortress.  Here  the  Russians  were  re- 
pulsed by  Napoleon  in  1812,  Pop.  46,950.— Area 
oi  government,  21,632  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,651,068. 

Smyrna,  the  most  important  seaport  of  Asia 
Minor,  stands  at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Smyrna, 
which  penetrates  46  miles  inland  from  the  ^gean 
Sea.  The  city  climbs  up  the  slopes  and  nestles 
at  the  foot  of  a  steep  hill  at  the  SE.  corner  of  the 
gulf.  The  Prankish  quarter,  which  faces  the 
quays  (2  miles  long)  and  harbour,  is  lighted  both 
with  gas  and  the  electric  light.  Tlie  drainage  is 
bad  ;  the  climate  uncertain,  but  intensely  hot  in 
summer ;  and  there  were  great  earthquakes  in 
178  A.D.,  1688,  1768,  and  1880.  Traces  of  the 
ancient  walls,  the  stadium,  theatre,  and  some 
teniples  can  still  be  discerned.  Smyrna  is  the 
seat  of  Roman  Catholic,  Greek,  and  Armenian 
archbishops.  Carpets  are  manufactured,  as  well 
as  pottery,  cottons,  and  woollens.  Two  lines  of 
railway  run  300  and  170  miles  eastwards  up  the 
Ma^anderand  Hermus  valleys  ;  and  iron-foundries 
and  machine-sliops  have  been  established.  About 
700  B.C.  Smyrna  was  one  of  the  principal  trading- 
centres  for  Asia  Minor  ;  and  now  it  has  as  a  sea- 
port the  lion's  share  of  the  Asia  Minor  trade  with 
Europe.  The  harbour  is  large,  safe,  and  easily 
accessible,  but  is  in  imminent  danger  of  silting 
up.  The  principal  exports  are  raisins,  valonia, 
figs,  and  opium,  besides  barley,  carpets,  sponges, 
liquorice,  wool,  olive-oil,  tobacco,  &c.  The 
imports  are  textiles,  timber,  and  iron  and  hard- 
ware, besides  groceries,  railway  plant,  leather, 
butter,  glass,  petroleum,  coal,  cheese,  matches, 
paper,  &c.  Estimated  population,  250,000,  of 
wliom  130,000  are  Greeks  (more  tlian  the  pop.  of 
Athens),  23,000  Jews,  12,000  Armenians,  12,700 
Europeans,  and  the  rest  Turks.  Smyrna  was 
originally  a  city  of  Greek  iEolic  immigrants,  but 
before  688  b.c.  l.ad  become  Ionian.  It  was  finally 
captured  by  the  Turks  under  Murad  II.  in  1424. 
See  a  work  by  Rougon  (Paris,  1892). 

Snalth,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Aire,  7 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Gooie.    Pop.  1647. 

Snake  River,  the  largest  affluent  of  the 
Columbia  River,  rises  among  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains near  the  western  border  of  Wyoming, 
sweeps  through  southern  Idaho,  forming  here 
the  famous  Shoshone  Falls  (q.v.),  and,  turning 


north,  divides  Idaho  from  Oregon  and  Washing- 
ton. At  Lewiston  it  turns  westward,  and  in 
southern  Washington,  as  the  Lewis  River  or 
Fork,  joins  the  Columbia,  after  a  course  of  1050 
miles.  It  traverses  a  mountainous  country,  in 
deep,  lava-walled  carions,  and  is  navigable  for 
steamboats  only  to  Lewiston  (160  miles). 

Sneek  (Snayk),  a  town  in  the  Netherlands,  13 
miles  SW.  of  Leeuwarden.     Pop.  12,465. 
Snehaetten.    See  Dovkefjeld. 
Sniatyn,  a  town  of  Austrian  Galicia,  on  the 
Pruth,  25  miles  NW.  of  Carlowitz.     Pop.  10,832. 

Snizort  (Snee'zort),  Loch,  a  large  inlet  in  the 
north-west  of  Skye,  which  narrows  from  9  to  3| 
miles,  and  is  8^  miles  long. 

Snowdon,  a  mountain-range  in  Carnarvonshire, 
North  Wales,  stretches  NNE.  from  a  point  5 
miles  N.  of  Criccieth,  near  the  head  of  Cardigan 
Bay,  to  near  Conway,  but  is  broken  up  into  five 
distinct  summits,  the  chief  of  which,  Moel-y- 
Wyddfa  ('  conspicuous  peak '),  the  highest  moun- 
tain in  south  Britain,  was  shown  by  the  new 
Ordnance  map  of  1889  to  rise  only  3560  (not 
3571)  feet  above  sea-level,  and  is  crowned  by  two 
huts,  the  'Hotel.'  Its  ascent  is  eff"ected  from 
Llanberis  (on  the  north),  Beddgelert  (on  the 
south),  Snowdon  Ranges  station  (on  the  west), 
and  Capel  Curig  (on  the  east).  '  Snowdonia '  was 
made  a  royal  forest  by  Edward  I.  of  England, 
but  was  disafforested  in  1649.  In  July  1889 
Snowdon  was  purchased  for  £5750  by  Sir  Edward 
Watkin,  Bart.  See  Huson's  Round  about  Snowdon 
(1893).    See  also  Stirling. 

Soar,  a  midland  river,  flowing  40  miles  to  the 
Trent,  12  miles  SE.  of  Derby. 
Sobat,  a  tributary  of  the  Nile  (q.v.). 
Sobral,  a  town  of  Brazil,  in  the  province  of 
Ceara,  on  the  Aracaty,  78  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of 
the  seaport  Camossin.     Pop.  10,500. 

Sobraon  (Sobrah'on),  a  village  of  the  Punjab, 
on  the  Sutlej,  opposite  which  was  fought,  on 
10th  February  1846,  an  obstinate  battle  between 
the  British  under  Sir  Hugh  Gough  and  the  Sikhs, 
which  put  an  end  to  the  first  Sikh  war.  Pop.  4000. 
Society  Islands.  See  Tahiti. 
Soc'otra,  an  island  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  150 
miles  E.  by  N.  from  Cape  Guardafui,  and  220 
from  the  southern  coast  of  Arabia.  It  is  70  miles 
long,  20  broad,  and  1380  sq.  m.  in  area,  with  a 
pop.  of  10,000.  The  interior  embraces  numerous 
barren  plateaus  (1500  to  2000  feet),  with  several 
well- wooded  niountains,  rising  to  4500  feet ;  there 
are  fertile  valleys  between  the  ranges  and  belts 
of  rich  soil  along  the  coasts.  The  climate  is 
moist  and  warm,  but  healthy.  Aloes  and  dragon's 
blood  are  products.  After  being  occupied  by 
Britain  in  1835-39,  it  was  taken  imder  British 
protection  in  1876  and  formally  annexed  in  1886. 
The  chief  town  is  Tamarida  on  the  north  coast. 
Sodbury.  See  Chipping  Sodbury. 
Soderhamn,  a  Swedish  seaport,  on  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia,  13  miles  N.  of  Gefle.     Pop,  11,500. 

Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  two  ancient  cities, 
forming  with  Admah,  Zeboiim,  and  other  towns 
the  '  cities  of  the  plain.'  See  Dead  Sea. 
Sodor  and  Man.  See  Man. 
Soest  (nearly  Sust),  a  town  of  Westphalia,  37 
miles  SE.  of  Miinster,  was  once  a  Hanse  town, 
with  a  pop.  of  30,000 ;  now  it  has  only  17,500. 
The  Gothic  '  Meadow  Church '  was  built  in  1314 ; 
and  there  is  also  a  R.  C.  cathedral. 

Sofala  (Sofah'la),  the  name  given  to  that  portion 
of  the  south-east  coast  of  Africa  which  extends 


SOFIA 


656 


SOLWAY  FIRTH 


from  the  Zambesi  as  far  south  as  Delagoa  Bay. 
Sofala  was  described  by  the  old  geograpliers  as  a 
gold-producing  country,  the  Ophir,  perhaps,  of 
Solomon.  Manicaland  and  Mashonaland  (q.v.) 
inland  are  certainly  auriferous.  The  Portuguese 
established  themselves  here  in  1505.  Their  head- 
quarters, Sofala,  once  a  large  commercial  town, 
is  now  a  wretched  place  of  1000  inhabitants. 

Sofia  (Sofee'a),  the  capital  since  1878  of  Bul- 
garia, stands  in  a  broad  valley  of  the  Balkans, 
on  the  railway  from  Constantinople  to  Belgrade 
and  Vienna.  The  city  since  1891  has  undergone 
reconstruction,  most  of  the  crooked  dirty  streets, 
with  their  tumble-down  houses  and  ruinous 
mosques,  being  demolished  to  make  way  for  broad 
tree-planted  streets,  with  paved  side-walks  and 
electric-light  posts,  new  French-looking  houses, 
shops  and  hotels,  and  large  public  buildings 
(baths,  national  library,  banks,  post-ofhce,  &c.). 
For  centuries  the  place  has  been  renowned  for 
its  hot  mineral  springs  (117°  F.),  Sofia  is  the 
seat  of  a  Greek  metropolitan,  and  of  the  national 
university.  It  trades  in  hides,  spirits,  maizQ, 
and  wheat.  Pop.  (1870)  19,000;  (1900)  67,920. 
Sofia  is  the  Serdica  of  the  Romans,  and  was  the 
seat  of  a  famous  church  council  in  343.  Attila 
plundered  it ;  and  it  was  captured  by  the  Turks 
in  1382. 

Sogdiana,  anciently  a  province  of  Persia,  corre- 
sponded to  the  modern  territories  of  Samarcand 
and  Bokhara  and  the  valley  of  the  Zerafshan. 
Sognefjord.  See  Norway. 
Soham,  a  small  market-town  of  Cambridge- 
shire, with  a  fine  church,  5  miles  SE.  of  Ely. 
Pop.  of  parish,  4000. 

Sohar,  a  seaport  of  Oman  in  Arabia,  stands  on 

the  Gulf  of  Oman,  130  miles  NW.  of  Muscat.     The 

Portuguese  occupied  it  in  1508-1650.    Pop.  5000. 

Soignies  (Swan-yee'),  a  Belgian  town,  22  miles 

by  rail  S.  by  W.  of  Brussels.     Pop.  9683. 

Soissons  (Siuasson^),  a  fortified  town  of  France, 
dep.  Aisne,  on  the  river  Aisne,  65  iniles  NE.  of 
Paris  by  rail,  the  key  of  Paris  for  an  army 
invading  France  from  the  Netherlands.  The 
cathedral  dates  from  the  12th  century  ;  and  there 
are  remains  of  the  great  castellated  abbey  (1076), 
where  Becket  found  refuge.  Near  Soissons  is  a 
deaf-mute  institute,  on  the  site  of  the  famous 
abbey  (560)  of  St  Medard.  Pop.  11,352.  Augusta 
Suessionum  was  long  the  most  important  Roman 
town  in  northern  Gaul.  Near  it  Clovis  over- 
threw Syagrius,  the  Roman  commander,  in  486. 
The  same  prince  made  Soissons  the  seat  of  the 
Prankish  monarchy  of  Neustria.  It  has  been 
repeatedly  captured— e.g.  six  times  during  the 
Hundred  Years'  War,  by  the  Armagnac  party  in 
1414,  by  Charles  V.  (1544),  the  Huguenots  (1565), 
three  times  in  1814,  and  by  the  Germans  in  1870. 
Sok'oto,  a  Central  African  state,  bounded  by 
the  Sahara,  the  rivers  Niger  and  tlie  Benuwe,  and 
Bornu.  Since  1900  Sokoto  has  been  included 
in  the  northern  part  of  tlie  British  protectorate 
of  Nigeria  ;  tlie  area  is  about  200,000  sq.  m.,  and 
the  pop.  some  11,000,000.  Tliere  are  large  deposits 
of  good  !iron.  The  ruling  race  are  the  Moham- 
medan  Fulahs,  whose  subjects  are  Haussa  and 
various  Negro  tribes,  mainly  pagans.  In  1885 
the  sultan  of  Sokoto  granted  to  the  (British) 
Royal  Niger  Company  a  monopoly  of  the  trade. 
—The  town  of  Sokoto  was  the  old  historic  capital; 
Kano  is  the  trading  centre.  See  tlie  travels  of 
Barth(lS53),  Rohlfs  (1866),  Flegel  (1880),  and  J. 
Thomson  (1885),  and  books  on  Nigeria  by  Robin- 
sou  (1900)  and  Lady  Lugard  (1905). 


Solebay.    See  Southwold. 

So'lent,  the  western  portion  of  the  strait  that 
intervenes  between  the  Isle  of  Wight  and  the 
mainland  of  England.  It  is  17  miles  long,  and 
about  3  in  average  breadth,  but  contracts  to  j 
mile  at  Hurst  Castle  (1535),  built  by  Henry 
VIII.  ;  and  here  the  tide  flows  very  rapidly. 

Solesmes,  (l)  a  great  Benedictine  abbey  (12th 
century),  in  the  French  dep.  of  Sarthe,  32  miles 
S\V.  of  Le  Mons  ;  (2)  a  town  in  the  dep.  of  Nord, 
with  manufactures  of  sugar.     Pop.  5973. 

Soleure  (Solehr ;  Ger.  Solothurn),  a  Swiss  can- 
ton, bounded  W.  and  S.  by  Bern,  and  N.  and  E. 
by  Basel  and  Aargau.  Area,  306  sq.  m. ;  the  popu- 
lation, 101,000  ill  number,  mostly  Catholic  and 
German-speaking. — The  capital,  Soleure,  lies  on 
the  Aar,  18  miles  NNB.  of  Bern  by  rail.  The 
cathedral  of  St  Ursus  was  built  in  1762-63  on  the 
site  of  an  older  church  (1050);  and  there  are 
an  old  clock  tower,  an  arsenal,  &c.  Cottons, 
clocks,  and  cement  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
10,050.  Soleure  {Salodurum)  was  a  place  of  con- 
sequence in  Roman  times.  Close  by  are  the  baths 
of  Weissenstein,  with  a  celebrated  '  whey-cure.' 

Solferi'no  (i  as  ee),  a  village  (pop.  1284)  of  N. 
Italy,  19  miles  NW.  of  Mantua,  stands  on  a  hill, 
whence  the  whole  plain  of  Lombardy  may  be  seen. 
Here,  on  June  24,  1859,  the  Austrians  were  de- 
feated by  the  allied  French  and  Piedmontese. 

Sollngen  (Zo'ling-en),  a  town  of  Prussia,  13 
miles  E.  of  Dlisseldorf  and  not  far  from  the  river 
Wupper.  Ever  since  the  12th  or  13th  c.  it  has 
been  famous  for  its  steel  and  iron  ware— sword- 
blades,  helmets,  cuirasses,  knives,  surgical  instru- 
ments, &c.  It  has  also  iron-foundries,  cigar- 
factories,  &c.     Pop.  (1875)  14,040 ;  (1900)  45,260. 

Solofra,  a  city  of  Southern  Italy,  81  miles  by 
rail  E.  of  Naples.     Pop.  5178. 

Solomon  Islands,  an  archipelago  in  the  western 
Pacific,  since  1899  all  British  except  Bougain- 
ville  and  a  few  smaller  islands,  which  are 
German.  The  islands  lie  500  miles  E.  of  New 
Guinea,  and  stretch  600  miles  SE.  in  two  parallel 
chains.  The  north-eastern  chain  embraces  Bou- 
gainville, Choiseul,  Ysabel,  and  Malaita ;  the 
south-western  Vella  Lavella,  Kulambangra,  New 
Georgia,  Guadalcanar,  and  San  Cristoval.  Besides 
these,  which  are  70  to  110  miles  long,  and  20  to 
30  wide,  there  are  many  smaller  ones.  They  have 
a  total  area  of  15,000  sq.  m.  (of  which  8357  sq.  m. 
are  British),  are  nearly  all  volcanic,  and  are  densely 
wooded  to  the  highest  summits  (10,000  feet  in 
Bougainville,  8000  in  Guadalcanar,  4100  in  San 
Cristoval).  There  is  an  extraordinarily  heavy 
annual  rainfall,  estimated  at  500  inches  on  the 
mountains,  and  150  on  the  coasts.  The  tempera- 
ture ranges  from  75°  to  95°  F.  The  people,  176,000 
Papuans  or  Melanesians,  are  divided  into  a  great 
number  of  tribes,  constantly  at  war  with  one 
another,  but  their  head-hunting  and  other  sav- 
age and  cannibal  habits  are  now  on  the  wane. 
This  group  was  discovered  by  the  Spaniard  Men- 
dana  in  1567  ;  but  was  rediscovered  (1767-88)  by 
Carteret,  Bougainville.  Surville,  and  Shortland. 
See  works  by  Guppy  (2  vols.  1887)  and  Wood- 
ford (1890). 
Solor  Islands.  See  Timoe. 
Solothurn.  See  Soleure. 
Solovetsk,  a  great  monastery  on  an  island  of 
the  White  Sea,  bombarded  by  the  British  in  1854. 
Solway  Firth— in  its  upper  part  best  regarded 
as  the  estuary  of  the  river  Esk,  in  its  lower  as  an 
inlet  of  the  Irish  Sea— separates  Cumberland  from 
the  south  of  Scotland.    Its  entire  length,  until 


SOMALI-LAND 


657 


SOMERVILLE 


lost  ofT  Balcarry  Point  in  the  Irish  Sea,  is  36 
miles ;  its  breadth  for  the  upper  13  varies  from 
li  to  8^  miles,  but  afterwards  it  gradually,  al- 
though irregularly,  increases  to  22.  The  princi- 
pal rivers  flowing  into  it,  besides  the  Esk,  are 
the  Annan,  Nith,  Dee,  and  Urr  from  the  Scottish 
side,  and  the  Eden  and  Derwent  from  the  English. 
Its  most  striking  feature  is  the  'bore,'  which  in 
spring-tides  rushes  in  from  3  to  6  feet  high,  and 
at  the  rate  of  8  to  10  miles  an  hour,  occasionally 
inflicting  serious  damage  on  the  shipping  ;  while 
after  it  has  retreated  great  stretches  of  the  bed  of 
the  firth  are  left  bare,  and  in  some  places  one  can 
even  cross  over  from  the  English  to  the  Scottish 
shore.  The  salmon-fisheries  are  valuable.  Near 
Annan  the  Solway  is  spanned  by  a  railway  via- 
duct, 1960  yards  long,  which,  originally  con- 
structed in  1866-69  at  a  cost  of  £100,000,  was 
almost  destroyed  by  floating  ice  in  January  1881, 
but  was  reopened  to  traffic  in  1884.  Scott  paints 
the  scenery  of  the  Solway  Firth  in  both  Guy 
Mannering  and  Redgaiintlet. 

The  Solway  Moss  is  a  district  of  Cumberland 
about  7  miles  in  circumference,  lying  west  of 
Longtown,  and  immediately  adjoining  Scotland. 
As  its  nanie  implies,  it  was  once  a  bog,  but  is 
now  drained  and  cultivated.  Here,  in  November 
1542,  a  Scottish  host  was  routed  by  a  handful  of 
English  borderers.  In  1771  the  boggy  ground, 
swelling  after  heavy  rains,  bui'st  like  a  torrent 
and  destroyed  some  thirty  small  villages. 

Somali-land  (Somdh-lee),  an  eastern  projection 
of  Africa,  between  the  Gulf  of  Aden  and  the 
Indian  Ocean.  The  Juba,  its  southern  frontier, 
is  the  chief  river.  The  country  is  an  undulating 
plateau,  in  very  many  places  jjarched  and  barren  ; 
though  in  the  rainy  seasons  swampy  in  parts. 
Game  and  wild  animals— elephant,  hippopotamus, 
lion,  leopard,  crocodile,  antelopes— abound.  The 
Somal  are  mostly  a  warlike  and  pastoral  people 
of  the  Hamitic  stock,  akin  to  the  Gallas  (but 
with  Arab  and  Negro  admixture),  and  Moslems. 
The  western  and  central  portions  belong  to 
Abyssinia ;  the  remainder  falls  into  three  sec- 
tions :  British  Somali-land,  with  a  coast-line  of 
about  450  miles  on  the  Gulf  of  Aden,  extending 
south  to  lat.  8°  N.,  has  an  area  of  68,000  sq.  m. 
and  a  pop.  of  300,000.  It  was  created  a  British 
protectorate  in  1884 ;  the  cliief  towns  are  Ber- 
bera,  Zeyla,  and  Bulliar.  The  French  Somali 
Coast  protectorate,  including  Obock,  situated 
round  the  Bay  of  Tajura,  has  an  area  of  46,000 
sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  of  200,000.  Its  railway  from 
Jiboutil  to  Harar  (1902)  has  absorbed  nuich  of 
the  traffic  that  used  to  penetrate  from  Aden  into 
the  interior  by  way  of  Zeyla,  Italian  Somali- 
land,  on  the  coast  of  the  Indian  Ocean,  extends 
from  Cape  Gnardafui  to  the  equator,  with  an 
area  of  100,000  sq.  m.  and  a  population  of 
400,000.  See  works  by  James  (1888),  and  Lord 
Wolverton  (1894). 

Somersby,  a  pretty  Lincolnshire  village,  on 
the  Wolds,  7  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Horncastle. 
Tennyson  was  born  in  the  rectory.    Pop.  40. 

Somersetshire,  an  important  maritime  county 
in  the  south-west  of  England,  is  bounded  NW. 
by  the  Bristol  Channel,  and  elsewhere  by  Glou- 
cestershire, Wiltshire,  Dorset,  and  Devon.  In 
form  oblong,  with  a  length  of  some  80  miles  and 
a  breadth  of  36,  it  has  an  area  of  1640  sq.  m 
Pop.  (1801)  273,577;  (1841)  435,599;  (1901) 
508,104.  Tlie  surface  is  exceedingly  diversified, 
with  every  variation  from  lofty  hills  and  barren 
moors  to  rich  vales  and  wide  marshy  levels, 
whence  the  sea  is  banked  out  by  an  elaborate 

2P 


system  of  dykes  and  sluices.  Ranges  of  hills, 
running  east  and  west,  give  the  county  its  leading 
physical  characters.  Chief  of  these  is  the  Mendips 
(q.v.),  which  stretch  from  near  Wells  to  the  coast 
at  Brean  Down.  South  of  the  Mendips  lies  the 
great  alluvial  plain  of  central  Somer.set,  broken 
by  the  line  of  the  Polden  Hills,  which  rise  some 
300  feet  from  the  marshy  levels  like  a  long,  low 
island.  Still  farther  south,  beyond  Taunton,  are 
the  Blackdown  Hills,  about  twice  as  high,  and 
continuing  eastward  into  the  broken  upland  which 
once  formed  part  of  the  ancient  forest  of  Selwood, 
where  Somerset,  Wilts,  and  Dorset  meet.  NW, 
of  Taunton,  bordering  Bridgwater  Bay,  are  the 
Quantock  Hills,  rising  at  WilFs  Neck  to  1262 
feet ;  and  W.,  again,  is  the  wild  district  of  Ex- 
moor  Forest  (q.v.),  partly  in  Devon,  but  mainly 
in  Somerset.  The  Bristol  Avon,  which  forms  the 
boundary  of  the  county  for  many  miles,  rises 
near  Badminton  in  Wilts,  and  enters  Somerset 
near  Bath.  The  Parret  rises  near  South  Perrot 
in  Dorset,  and  drains  the  middle  of  the  county  : 
it  is  tidal  to  beyond  Bridgwater,  and  is  one  of 
the  streams  possessing  a  tidal  'bore.'  Other 
streams  are  the  Axe,  Brue,  Yeo,  Exe,  and  Devon- 
shire Axe.  Coal,  limestone,  and  Bath  building- 
stone  are  worked,  as  well  as  lead  and  iron  ores. 
The  agriculture  is  mainly  pastoral,  the  proportion 
of  tillage  to  grazing  and  dairy-farming  being 
small,  though  the  low  lands  generally  are  exceed- 
ingly fertile.  The  orchards  of  Somerset  are 
second  only  to  those  of  Devon  in  area  and  im- 
portance, and  cider  is  largely  made ;  while 
Cheddar  cheese  has  a  national  reputation.  The 
bone-caves  of  the  Mendips  .show  traces  of  neo- 
lithic if  not  of  palseolithic  man ;  and  there 
are  important  hill  fortresses  (Hamdon  Castle, 
Neroclie,  Dolbury,  Maesbury,  Worlebury,  Cad- 
bury),  and  megalithic  circles  and  other  remains 
at  Stanton  Drew.  Roman  remains  are  plentiful, 
and  under  the  Saxons  the  district  became  known 
as  the  home  of  the  Sumersaitan,  and  took  its 
present  name.  Somerset  was  the  last  home  of 
Saxon  freedom  when  Alfred  took  refuge  at 
Athelney.  At  Wedmore  he  made  his  treaty  with 
Guthrum,  but  the  claims  of  Edington  to  be  the 
>33thandune  where  he  Avon  his  most  memorable 
victory  are  doubtful.  In  the  Wars  of  the  Roses, 
Somerset  was  in  the  main  Lancastrian  ;  in  the 
wars  of  the  Commonwealth  it  was  chiefly  parlia- 
mentarian, and  the  stout  defence  of  Taunton  first 
made  famous  the  name  of  Admiral  Blake.  The 
county  was  also  the  centre  of  Monmouth's  opera- 
tions ;  and  it  was  chiefly  Somerset  men  who  fell 
at  Sedgemoor  (1685).  The  county  has  two  cities — 
Bath  and  Wells  ;  parliamentary  boroughs  in  Bath 
and  Taunton  ;  an  important  manufacturing  port 
in  Bridgwater ;  one  of  the  finest  watering-places 
on  the  western  coast  in  Weston-super-Mare; 
manufacturing  toAvns  in  Frome,  Yeovil,  Shepton 
Mallet,  and  Wellington  ;  and  seven  county  parlia- 
mentary  divisions.  See  Worth's  Somersetshire 
(3d  ed.  1888),  and  other  works  there  cited. 

Somersham,  a  market-town  of  Hunts,  5J  miles 
NNE.  of  St  Ives.     Pop.  1381. 
Somers'  Islands.    See  Bermudas. 

Somersworth,  a  town  of  New  Hampshire,  48 
miles  SW.  of  Portland.     Pop.  7050. 

Somerton,  a  town  of  Somerset,  on  the  Cary,  5 
miles  ENE.  of  Langport.     Pop.  of  parish,  1962. 

Somerville,  a  city  of  Massachusetts,  a  suburb 
of  Boston,  2  miles  from  the  central  station.  It 
contains  tube-works,  bleach-fields,  slaughter- 
houses, &c.     Pop.  (1880)  24,933 ;  (1900)  61,643. 


SOMME 


658 


SOUDAN 


Somme,  a  river  of  northern  France,  rises  not 
far  from  St  Quentin  in  the  dep.  of  Aisne,  and 
flows  150  miles  SW.  and  NW.  to  the  English 
Channel  near  St  Valery.  It  is  navigable  for 
vessels  of  300  tons  up  to  Abbeville  (q.v.),  and  its 
upper  course  is  canalised. — The  dep.  of  Somme, 
formerly  part  of  Picardy,  touches  the  English 
Channel  on  the  north-west.  Area,  2378  sq.  m. 
There  are  the  five  arrondissements  of  Abbeville, 
Amiens  (the  capital),  Doullens,  Montdidier,  and 
P6ronne.     Pop.  (1872)  557,015  ;  (1901)  537,848. 

Somnath  (Somnaut),  a  town  of  Gujarat,  India,  on 
the  SW.  coast  of  the  peninsula  of  Kathiawar,  con- 
taining many  ruins  and  memorials  of  Krishna. 
From  the  Hindu  temple  of  the  idol  Somnath,  now 
in  ruins,  Mahmud  of  Ghazni  (1025)  is  said  to  have 
carried  off  the  wonderful  temple  gates,  which,  or 
some  other  gates,  Lord  Ellenborough  triumph- 
antly brought  back  from  Afghanistan  in  1842,  and 
deposited  in  a  lumber-room  at  Agra.    Pop.  6644. 

Son,  an  aflauent  of  the  middle  Ganges  on  the 
right,  flowing  450  miles  from  Central  India. 

Sonderburg.    See  Alsen. 

Sondershausen  (Zon'ders-Jww'zen),  the  chief 
town  of  the  Gerinan  principality  of  Schwarzburg- 
Sondershausen  (q.v.),  on  the  Wipper,  34  miles  N. 
of  Erfurt.     It  has  a  large  castle.     Pop.  7200. 

Sondrio,  an  Italian  town,  on  the  Adda,  25 
miles  E.  of  Lake  Como.     Pop.  3989. 

Songhay,  or  Sonrhai,  a  former  kingdom  of 
Africa,  on  both  sides  of  the  Niger  below  its  great 
bend.    The  capital  was  Garo. 

Song-ka,  the  chief  river  of  Tong-king  (q.v.). 

Sonmianl  (Sonmiah'nee),  a  port  of  Beluchistan, 
62  miles  NW.  of  Kurrachee.    Pop.  400. 

Sonnblick,  a  summit  (10,277  feet)  of  the  Salz- 
burg Mountains,  with  a  meteorological  observa- 
tory and  a  shelter  built  in  1886. 

Sonoma,  a  chief  seat  of  the  Californian  wine- 
culture,  50  miles  N.  of  San  Francisco, 

Sono'ra,  a  state  of  NW.  Mexico,  on  the  Gulf 
of  California.  Area,  77,526  sq.  m.  ;  population, 
280,000.     Capital,  Herniosillo  ;  port,  Guaymas. 

Sonsonate  (Sonsonah'tay),  a  town  of  Salvador, 
on  the  Rio  Grande,  15  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Aca- 
jutla.     It  was  founded  in  1524.    Pop.  17,000. 

Sooclioo,  or  SucHAU,  formerly  one  of  the 
largest  cities  in  China,  on  the  Imperial  Canal,  50 
miles  WNW.  of  Shanghai.  It  stands  on  numerous 
islands  separated  by  canals,  and  has  long  been  a 
noted  centre  of  the  silk  manufacture  and  of  the 
printing  of  cheap  Chinese  classics.  Captured  by 
the  Taipiiigs,  but  recovered  by  Gordon  (1863),  it 
is  now  a  treaty  port.     Pop.  500,000. 

Sooloo  Islands.    See  Sulu  Islands. 

Sora,  a  city  of  Italy,  on  the  Garigliano,  55 
miles  E.  by  S.  of  Rome.    Pop.  5411. 

Sorata  Isordh'ta),  a  volcanic  peak  (21,470  feet) 
of  the  Bolivian  Andes,  E.  of  Lake  Titicaca. 

Sorau  {Zo-row),  a  town  of  Prussia,  60  miles  by 
rail  SSE.  of  Frankfort-on-the-Oder.    Pop.  15,950. 

Sorel,  a  town  of  Quebec,  on  the  St  Lawrence, 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Richelieu  River,  45  miles 
(by  rail  78)  NE.  cf  Montreal.  It  manufactures 
machinery,  leather,  and  bricks.     Pop.  7060. 

Soresi'na  (i  as  ee),  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  16 
miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Cremona.    Pop.  8765. 

Sorrento  (Lat.  Surrentum),  a  cathedral  city  of 
Italy,  on  the  SB.  side  of  the  Bay  of  Naples,  7 
miles  SW.  of  Castellamare.  It  is  celebrated  for 
its  mild  climate.    Tasso  was  a  native.    Pop.  6089. 


Sotteville-les-Rouen  (Sot'veel-leh-Roo-on"),  a 
town  of  France,  dep.  Seine-Inferieure,  4  miles  by 
rail  S.  of  Rouen.     Pop.  13,628. 

Soudan,  or  Sudan  (Soo-dan' ;  Arabic  Beled  ea- 
Sudan,  '  Land  of  the  Blacks '),  a  term,  which  in 
its  widest  sense  embraces  the  vast  region  stretch- 
ing from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Red  Sea  and  the 
Abyssinian  highlands,  and  from  the  Sahara  and 
Egypt  proper  in  the  north  to  the  Gulf  of  Guinea, 
the  central  equatorial  regions,  and  the  Albert 
and  Victoria  Nyanzas  in  the  south.  This  is  the 
home  of  the  true  Negro  race,  though  there  are 
other  elements  in  the  population,  mainly  Hamitic 
and  Semitic  (Arab).  The  Soudan  in  this  sense 
falls  naturally  into  three  divisions  :  (1)  Western 
Soudan,  comprising  the  basins  of  the  Senegal, 
Niger,  Beuue,  and  other  rivers  draining  to  the 
Atlantic  ;  (2)  Centred  Soudan,  including  the 
basins  of  the  rivers  draining  into  Lalte  Chad, 
and  covering  the  countries  of  Bornu,  Bagirmi, 
Kanem,  Wadai ;  (3)  Eastern  or  Egyptian  Soudan, 
mainly  the  basin  of  the  Middle  and  Upper  Nile. 
Except  Portuguese  Guinea  and  German  Togo 
and  Kamerun,  the  whole  Soudan  is  now  under 
French  or  English  co-ntrol.  The  western  portion 
of  what  was  once  called  French  Soudan  has  been 
absorbed  by  Senegal,  French  Guinea,  the  Ivory 
Coast,  and  Dahomey ;  the  remainder,  constitut- 
ing three  military  territories,  includes  Bagirmi 
and  Wadai.  Britain  controls  Gambia,  Sierra 
Leone,  the  Gold  Coast,  and  Nigeria  ;  Britain  and 
Egypt,  the  Egyptian  Soudan,  which  has  of  late 
largely  monopolised  the  name  of  Soudan.  Until 
1882  the  Egyptian  Soudan  formed  one  ill-organised 
province,  with  its  capital  at  Kliartoum.  All  the 
regions  watered  by  the  Nile  and  its  tributaries 
possess  highly  fertile  soil,  capable  of  yielding 
iinujense  quantities  of  cotton,  durra,  indigo, 
sugar,  rice,  maize,  tobacco,  fruits ;  while  Kor- 
dofan  and  Dar-Fur  are  bare  and  waterless,  except 
in  the  rainy  season.  Tlie  Egyptians,  established 
at  Khartoum  in  1819,  gradually  extended  their 
power  W.  and  S.  Insurrections  in  Dar-Fiir  and 
in  the  Bahr-el-Ghazal  province  (1877-79)  were 
crushed  by  Gordon  and  Gessi.  But  in  1882  the 
Mahdi  annihilated  the  Egyptian  forces  led  by 
Hicks  Pasha,  isolated  Eniin  Pasha  in  the  Equa- 
torial Province,  captured  Khartoum,  and  slew 
Gordon.  In  1898  Kitchener  re-conquered  the 
Soudan,  totally  defeating  the  Khalifa's  forces  at 
Oindurman  ;  and  since  1899  the  Anglo-Egyptian 
Soudan  extends  southwards  from  the  frontier  of 
Egypt  to  Uganda  and  the  Belgian  Congo,  a 
distance  of  about  1200  miles,  with  an  area  of 
about  950,000  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  estimated  at 
2,000,000.  The  chief  towns  are  Khartoum  (8000), 
the  capital,  Omdurman  (48,000),  Haifa,  Merowe, 
Berber,  El  Darner,  Suakin,  Kassala,  and  El 
Obeid.  It  is  divided  into  twelve  provinces,  each 
with  a  British  officer  as  governor— Khartoum, 
Blue  Nile,  Dongola,  Berber,  Kassala,  Sennaar, 
Kordofan,  White  Nile,  Balir-el-Ghazal,  Haifa, 
Suakin,  and  Upper  Nile.  Dar-Fur  pays  tribute, 
but  is  managed  by  its  own  sultan.  Khartoum 
has  railway  and  telegraph  to  Cairo,  and  by  Atbara 
junction,  near  Berber  (which  is  tlie  seat  of  the 
Gordon  College  for  the  education  of  natives),  to 
the  Red  Sea  (1906).  Prosperity  has  been  steadily 
advanced,  and  irrigation  promises  great  results 
for  a  large  area. 

See  works  by  Schweinfiu'th  (1874),  Naclitigal 
(1879-89),  James  (1884),  Felkin  and  Wilson  (1881), 
Junker  (1890-91),  Wingate  (1891),  H.  Russell 
(1892),  Olirvvalder  (1893),  Robinson  (1896),  Sidney 
Peel  (1904),  and  Lady  Lugard  (1905),  and  the 
articles  on  the  chief  Soudanese  states. 


SOUL 


659 


SOUTH  AUSTRALIA 


Soul.    See  Seoul. 

Soulouque.    See  Hayti. 

Sound  (A.S.  and  Ger.  Sund),  the  strait  wliich 
leads  from  the  Cattegat  into  the  Baltic  Sea,  hav- 
ing Sweden  on  the  east  and  the  Danish  island  of 
Zealand  on  the  west.  It  forms  the  usual  passage 
to  tlie  Baltic,  and  is  50  miles  long  and  nearly  3 
wide  at  the  narrowest,  between  Helsingborg  and 
Elsinore.  Its  passage,  defended  by  the  strong 
Danish  fortress  of  Kronborg,  was  forced  by 
Nelson  in  1801.  From  the  15th  c,  till  1857  ships 
using  this  channel  were  charged  toll. 

South  Africa.     See  Cape  Colony. 

Southam,  a  Warwickshire  town,  7i  miles  ESE. 
of  Leamington.     Pop.  1840. 

South  America.    See  America. 

Southamp'ton,  a  municipal,  parliamentary, 
and  county  borough  and  seaport  in  the  south  of 
Hampshire  (which  is  sometimes  called  South- 
amptonshire),  12J  miles  SSW.  of  Winchester, 
23i  NW.  of  Portsmouth,  and  79  SW.  of  London 
by  the  London  and  South-western  Railway 
(1840).  It  occupies  a  peninsula  at  the  head  of 
Southampton  Water,  and  between  the  estuary 
of  the  Test  on  the  west  and  south  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Itcheu  on  the  east.  There  are 
remains  of  the  14th-century  town-walls,  and 
four  out  of  seven  gates,  the  Norman  Bargate 
being  much  the  finest,  though  shorn  of  its  effigies 
of  Sir  Bevis  of  Hampton  and  the  giant  Ascapard. 
Southampton  has  the  Watts  Memorial  Hall 
(1876),  a  grammar-school  (1553 ;  rebuilt  and  re- 
organised 1872-75),  the  Hartley  Institution 
(18G2),  and  the  headquarters  of  the  Ordnance 
Survey  (1857).  St  Mary's  Church  (1879),  by 
Street,  is  a  memorial  to  Bishop  Wilberforce.  St 
Michael's  Church,  the  oldest  in  the  borough, 
retains  Norman  tower  arches,  and  several  of  the 
private  houses  are  of  Norman  architecture.  The 
Dormcs  Dei,  or  God's  House  (12th  c),  is  one  of  the 
earliest  hospitals  in  England  ;  in  its  chapel  (now 
used  for  French  service)  are  buried  the  Earl  of 
Cambridge,  Lord  Scrope,  and  Sir  Thomas  Grey, 
executed  by  Henry  V.  for  treason  in  1415.  The 
docks,  first  opened  in  1842,  can  float  the  largest 
steamers,  and  have  been  greatly  extended  and 
improved.  A  new  tidal  dock,  18  acres  in  extent, 
and  having  a  minimum  depth  of  26  feet  at  low- 
water  spring-tides,  was  opened  by  Queen  Victoria 
on  26th  July  1890  ;  its  cost  was  £300,000.  South- 
ampton is  the  place  of  departure  and  arrival  of 
the  West  India  and  Brazil  and  the  South  African 
mail  steam-packets.  There  is  considerable  traffic 
with  the  Channel  Islands  and  French  coast,  and 
also  a  large  cattle-trade  with  Spain  and  Portugal. 
Yacht  and  shipbuilding  and  engine-making  are 
actively  carried  on.  Incorporated  as  a  borough 
by  Henry  I. ,  Southampton  returns  two  members. 
Pop.  (1801)  7913 ;  (1851)  45,305  ;  (1881)  60,051  ; 
(1901)  104,911.  Southampton  supplanted  the 
Roman  station  of  Clcmsentnm,  1  mile  NE.,  and 
its  foundation  is  ascribed  to  the  Anglo-Saxons. 
It  is  called  Hamtune  and  Sutli-Hamtun  in  the 
Saxon  Chronicle,  and  Hantune  in  the  Domesday 
Book.  A  grecit  part  of  it  was  burned  by  the 
combined  French,  Spanish,  and  Genoese  fleets 
in  1338,  and  in  the  following  year  its  defences 
were  strengthened.  Southampton  is  the  birth- 
place of  Isaac  Watts  (to  whom  in  1861  a  monu- 
ment was  erected  in  the  West  Park),  of  Thomas 
Dibdin,  and  of  Sir  J.  E.  Millais. 

Southampton  Water  is  a  fine  inlet,  stretch- 
ing 11  miles  NW.  from  the  point  at  which  the 
Solent  and  Spithead  unite,  and  nearly  2  miles 
wide.     The  Isle  of  Wight  forms  a  magnificent 


natural  breakwater,  and  occasions  a  second  high- 
water  two  hours  after  the  first.  Southampton 
Water  receives  the  Test  or  Anton,  Itchen,  and 
Hamble.  See  works  by  J.  Silvester  Davies  (1883) 
and  F.  M'Fadden  (1891). 

South  Australia,  inclusive  of  its  Northern 
Territory,  crosses  the  continent  between  129°  and 
141°  E.,  being  1850  miles  in  length.  The  present 
area  is  903,690  sq.  m.  (of  which  the  Northern 
Territory  contains  523,620),  or  more  than  fifteen 
times  the  size  of  England  and  Wales.  Less 
barren  than  Western  Australia,  it  has  not  the 
fertility  of  the  eastern  colonies,  from  want  of 
sufficient  rain.  Two  dry  peninsulas,  Yorke  and 
Lincoln,  or  Eyria,  point  southward,  enclosing 
two  great  inlets— Spencer's  Gulf  and  Gulf  St 
Vincent.  A  chain  of  mountains  runs  from  the 
south-east  up  to  the  Lake  District  depression ; 
ranges,  with  outliers,  are  seen  right  across  to, 
and  through,  the  Northern  Territory;  but  few 
points  rise  to  3000  feet.  The  Murray  River 
has  its  mouth  in  South  Australia.  The  Torrens 
and  a  few  other  short  streams  reach  the  sea. 
The  Macarthur,  Roper,  Victoria,  and  Liverpool 
enter  the  Indian  Ocean.  Salt  lakes,  as  Torrens, 
Gairdner,  and  Eyre,  are  inland  ;  Victoria,  Albert, 
and  the  Coorong  are  near  the  Murray  outlet. 
Adelaide,  the  capital,  is  in  34°  S.  lat.  The 
area  of  settlement  is  mainly  in  the  south-east 
corner  of  the  colony.  In  1835  a  grant  of  land 
was  made  to  the  South  Australian  Association ; 
the  first  party  landed  on  Kangaroo  Island  in 
July  1836  ;  and  in  1841  South  Australia  became 
a  Crown  colony.  Progress  was  established  by 
the  Burra  Burra  copper-mine  in  1845,  and  the 
cultivation  of  large  areas  of  corn.  South 
Australia  is  geologically  more  recent  than  East- 
ern or  Western  Australia.  Near  the  Victorian 
border  lies  the  charming  and  productive  Mount 
Gambler  district,  with  its  extinct  craters,  sub- 
terranean rivers,  native  wells,  stalactitic  caverns, 
and  luxuriant  vegetation.  Generally  speaking, 
the  climate  is  both  dry  and  warm,  and  varies 
less  over  its  vast  area  than  might  have  been 
expected.  Travellers  in  the  central  desert  com- 
plain of  piercing  cold,  even  to  ice  formation,  in 
the  early  hours,  though  followed  after  sunrise  by 
a  temperature  of  from  80°  to  100°  in  the  shade ; 
175°  in  the  sun  and  135°  in  the  shade  have  been 
recorded.  Adelaide  itself,  in  34°  S.,  has  known 
120°  in  the  shade  ;  its  winter  is  superior  to  the 
Riviera  or  Algiers  in  uniform  mildness  and 
absence  of  frost.  The  north  hot  wind  is  trying 
to  the  weak.  During  the  short  rainy  season  the 
northern  shore  may  have  three  to  four  times  the 
rainfall  experienced  in  Adelaide.  The  Great 
Austral  Plains  know  but  few  and  slight  showers, 
with  excessive  evaporation.  Yet,  though  the 
grass  fails  under  the  dryness,  abundant  shrubs 
give  sustenance  to  live-stock,  and  artesian  wells 
can  draw  a  constant  supply  from  subterranean 
streams.  Droughts  are  often  produced  by  the 
failure  of  the  monsoon  to  come  far  enough  south. 
Many  consumptives  have  gained  strength  in 
South  Australia.  Marsupial  animals  predomi- 
nate ;  birds  are  numerous,  and  so  are  insects, 
with  42  genera  of  fish.  The  mulberry  is  culti- 
vated for  silkworms.  In  spite  of  frequent 
droughts,  bread-stuff's  head  the  export  list. 
Potatoes  are  raised  in  the  moister  south-eastern 
quarter,  and  vines  are  successful.  In  favour- 
able seasons  the  drier  interior  can  furnish  good 
wheat.  The  railways  are  1880  miles  long,  and 
good  roads  nearly  5000.  The  Northern  Terri- 
tory, being  mostly  tropical,  could,  with  coloured 
labour,  produce  rice,  spice,  and  sugar.    OUves  an4 


SOUTH  BEND 


660 


SOUTH  DAKOTA 


fruits  are  raised  in  abundance,  and  Adelaide  now 
Bliips  apples  (as  well  as  raisins  and  currants)  to 
London.  The  first  lead-mine  was  opened  in  1841 ; 
the  first  copper  in  1843 ;  the  first  gold  in  184G. 
Tin,  bismuth,  and  precious  stones  have  been 
obtained.  The  best  gold  workings  are  in  the 
Northern  Territory,  The  Barrier  silver-mines  are 
just  over  the  New  South  Wales  border.  There 
are  no  coal  beds.  In  1855  the  pop.  was  163,452  ; 
in  1881,  279,865;  in  1901,  362,604  (4096  in  the 
Northern  Territory),  including  3890  aborigines 
and  2570  Chinese.  State  education  is  free.  The 
university  was  established  in  1872.  The  governor 
is  appointed  by  the  crown.  The  Legislature 
consists  of  a  Legislative  Council  (18)  and  a  House 
of  Assembly  (42),  tlie  former  elected  on  a  property 
qualification,  the  latter  on  adult  suff"rage,  botli 
including;women.  In  1901  South  Australia  joined 
with  the  otlier  Australian  colonies  in  forming  the 
Australian  Commonwealth,  and  sends  6  members 
to  the  Federal  Senate  and  7  to  tlie  House  of 
Representatives.  The  revenue,  about  £2,500,000, 
lias  generally  more  than  covered  the  expendi- 
ture. The  public  debt,  over  £29,300,000  in  1905, 
was  mostly  incurred  for  railways  and  other 
public  works.  The  total  imports  (the  chief  item 
drapery  goods)  range  from  £6,000,000  in  annual 
value  ;  the  exports  (mainly  wool,  wheat,  and 
copper  ore),  to  about  the  same  amount.  There 
are  1890  miles  of  railway ;  telegraph  and  telephone 
lines  are  5600  miles  in  length  ;  and  Port  Darwin 
in  the  extreme  north  is  connected  by  telegraph 
with  the  southern  ports.  See  works  on  South 
Australia  by  Harcus  (1876),  Newland  (Adelaide, 
1887),  Hodder  (2  vols.  1893),  Dutton,  Bonwick, 
&c. ;  besides  official  publications. 

South  Bend,  capital  of  St  Joseph  county, 
Indiana,  on  the  St  Joseph  River,  86  miles  ESE. 
of  Chicago.  It  has  a  R.  C.  university,  and  manu- 
factures wagons,  furniture,  woollens,  paper,  flour, 
&c.     Pop.  42,000. 

Southborough,  a  town  of  Kent,  2  miles  N.  of 
Tunbridge  Wells.     Pop.  6977. 

Southbridgo,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  on  the 
Quinebaug  River,  70  miles  SW.  of  Boston.  It 
manufactures  cottons,  woollens,  &c.   Pop.  12,000. 

Soutli  Oaroli'na,  one  of  the  original  states  of 
the  American  Union,  with  an  area  of  30,570  sq. 
m.,  including  400  sq.  m.  of  water-surface,  is 
nearly  triangular  in  outline,  and  is  bounded  by 
North  Carolina,  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  Georgia. 
Numerous  islands  of  the  southern  part  of  the 
coast  are  separated  from  the  mainland  and  from 
each  other  by  shallow  sounds  and  inlets.  For 
100  miles  inland  the  land  is  generally  low  and 
level,  much  of  it  still  covered  with  pine  forests. 
West  of  this  alluvial  plain  is  a  range  of  undulat- 
ing sandhiUs  about  60  miles  in  width.  Farther 
west  the '  ndge-country '  rises,  generally  abruptly, 
from  the  Savannah  to  the  Broad  River  on  the 
north,  presenting  a  region  of  rare  beauty  and  fer- 
tility ;  its  average  elevation  is  2000  feet,  and 
several  peaks  of  the  Blue  Ridge  range,  in  the 
NW.,  rise  to  about  4000  feet.  Most  of  the  rivers— 
the  largest  the  Santee— are  navigable  by  steam- 
boats nearly  to  the  foot-slope  of  the  ridge  region, 
where  they  supply  abundant  water-power.  The 
state  is  rich  in  mineral  products.  There  are  gold- 
mines in  York,  Lancaster,  Chesterfield,  and  Spar- 
tanburg counties.  Granite  is  abundant  in  several 
counties ;  itacolumite  is  quarried  for  grindstones  ; 
and  superior  kaolin,  used  for  artificial  teeth,  is 
obtained.  But  the  most  important  mineral  pro- 
duct of  South  Carolina  is  its  famous  deposit  of 
phosphate  rock,  extending  about  70  miles  by  30 


parallel  with  the  coast  N.  of  Charleston.  Gray 
iron  ore  (magnetite)  is  found ;  great  wealth  of 
phosphates  (for  fertilisers) ;  also  copper  pyrites, 
galena,  limonite,  malachite,  pyrolusite,  and  pyro- 
morphite,  or  phosphate  of  lead.  Deer,  wild 
turkeys,  racoons,  foxes,  squirrels,  and  other 
small  game  are  still  numerous  in  the  forests; 
and  the  rivers,  sounds,  and  inlets  are  stocked 
with  fish.  Alligators  inhabit  the  tidal  rivers. 
The  most  important  agricultural  products  are 
cotton,  of  which  nearly  900,000  bales  are  harvested 
yearly,  maize,  oats,  wheat,  peas,  hay  and  forage. 

South  Carolina,  called  the  Palmetto  State  from 
the  growth  of  the  cabbage-tree  (Sabal  palmetto) 
near  the  coast,  had  in  1880  a  pop.  of  995,557,  in 
1900  of  1,340,316,  comprising  782,321  coloured 
persons.  There  are  16  towns  of  over  4000  in- 
habitants. Charleston  has  a  pop.  of  57,000,  and 
Columbia,  the  capital,  of  25,000.  The  mild 
climate  is  salubrious  except  in  the  rice-lands. 
The  low  islands  along  the  coast  aff"ord  summer- 
resorts,  as  well  as  the  western  mountain-region 
known  as  'the  land  of  the  sky.'  The  average 
rainfall  in  the  E.  is  from  42  to  44  inches.  On  the 
coast  cyclones  are  often  destructive.  On  the 
night  of  August  31,  1886,  Charleston  was  nearly 
destroyed  by  an  earthquake. 

In  1562  a  party  of  French  Protestants  built  a 
fort  on  an  island  in  the  harbour  of  Port  Royal, 
and  named  it  Arx  Carolina,  in  honour  of  Charles 
IX.,  but  soon  returned  to  France.  In  1630  Sir 
Robert  Heath  obtained  a  grant  from  Charles  I. 
of  a  vast  territory,  to  be  called  Carolana,  reach- 
ing to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  but  failure  to  colonise 
forfeited  the  title.  In  1662  Charles  II.  granted 
to  Lord  Clarendon  and  seven  associates  all  the 
territory  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  lying 
between  31°  and  36°  N-  (later  to  36°  30'  N.).     In 

1670  three  ship-loads  of  English  settlers  under 
William  Sayle  landed  near  Port  Royal,  and  in 
1680  settled  on  the  site  of  Charleston.  The  pro- 
prietary government  under  the  '  model  Constitu- 
tion,' drawn  up  by  John  Locke  (see  North 
Carolina),  lasted  till  1729,  when  George  II. 
bought  out  the  proprietors  and  divided  Carolina 
into  two  royal  provinces.  Many  French  Hugue- 
nots came  to  South  Carolina,  one  of  the  most 
flourishing  of  the  British  colonies,  after  the 
revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantes  in  1685.    In 

1671  Sir  John  Yeamans,  the  governor,  brought 
from  Barbadoes  200  negro  slaves ;  the  blacks  in 
a  few  years  nearly  equalled  the  whites,  and  since 
1820  have  been  more  numerous.  South  Carolina 
was  the  first  to  ratify  the  Articles  of  Confedera- 
tion in  1788,  and  the  first  to  secede  from  the 
Union  in  1860,  being  re-admitted  in  1865. 

South  Dakota,  a  north  central  state  of  the 
American  Union,  surrounded  by  North  Dakota, 
Minnesota,  Iowa,  Nebraska,  Wyoming,  and  Mon- 
tana. The  area,  77,650  sq.  m.,  is  one  and  a  half 
times  that  of  England  without  Wales.  Most  of 
the  surface  is  undulating  plain,  which  shows 
evidence  of  having  in  Silurian  times  been  covered 
by  a  shallow  sea  or  salt  lake.  In  the  W.  are  the 
Black  Hills,  a  rugged  and  mountainous  region 
(3200  sq.  m.),  whose  highest  point,  Harney  Peak, 
reaches  8200  feet.  The  'Bad  Lands,'  or  Mau- 
vaises  Terres,  between  the  north  fork  of  the 
Platte  river  in  Nebraska  and  Wyoming,  and  the 
south  fork  of  the  Cheyenne  in  this  state  are  covered 
with  rocks  of  the  most  fantastic  shapes,  probably 
due  to  the  spontaneous  firing  of  large  beds  of 
lignite.  The  Black  Hills  afford  much  gold  and 
silver,  also  tin  (the  only  tin  of  importance  worked 
in  the  U.S.),  antimony,  lead,  copper,  and  other 
useful   minerals,    with   thermal    springs.      The 


/ 


SOUTH  DOWNS 


661 


SPA 


winters  are  cold  and  dry,  with  occasional  bliz- 
zards ;  in  summer  the  days  are  hot,  the  nights 
usually  cool.  Tlie  rainfall  is  sjuall,  but  suffices 
for  the  ordinary  crops ;  and  pastures  are  exten- 
sive, and  even  the  Bad  Lands  are  found  admir- 
able for  cattle-raising.  The  Missouri,  with  its 
tributaries  the  Cheyenne,  White  River,  and 
Dakota,  is  the  great  river  of  the  country.  The 
population,  98,268  in  1880,  was,  In  1900,  401,570, 
including  20,000  Indians  on  reservations.  Sioux 
Falls  is  the  largest  town  (10,266).  Lead  City, 
Yanliton,  Aberdeen,  and  Mitcliell  have  over  5000 
inhabitants.     Pierre  is  the  capital. 

South  Downs.    See  Downs. 

South  Easton,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  at 
the  Lehigh  River's  mouth,  opposite  Easton,  to 
which  it  has  been  annexed  since  1900. 

Southend-on-Sea,  an  Essex  watering-place,  at 
the  moutli  of  the  Thames  estuary,  42  miles  E.  of 
London.  Dating  from  a  visit  here  of  Queen 
Caroline  and  tlie  Princess  Charlotte  in  1804,  it 
was  in  great  part  built  by  Sir  S.  Morton  Peto 
(1809-89),  and  lias  good  level  sands,  a  public  hall 
(1872),  and  a  pier,  over  a  mile  in  length,  under- 
taken in  1888,  with  electric  tramway  and  concert 
pavilion.  It  was  made  a  nmnicipal  borough  in 
1892.     Pop.  (1851)  2462  ;  (1901)  28,857. 

Southgate,  a  town  of  Middlesex,  9  miles  N. 
of  St  Paul's.     Pop.  (1901)  14,993. 

South  Georgia,  a  group  of  islands,  unin- 
habited, and  almost  perpetually  ice-bound,  in  54° 
30'  S.  lat.  and  36°— 38°  W.  long.,  nearly  800  miles 
E.  by  S.  of  the  Falkland  Isles,  of  which  they  are 
a  dependency.  Area,  1000  sq.  m.  Discovered  in 
1675,  they  were  taken  possession  of  by  Captain 
Cook  in  1775  ;  ami  here  in  1882-83  lived  the 
German  expedition  for  observing  the  transit  of 
Venus. 

South  Island,  the  southern  of  the  two  larger 
islands  of  New  Zealand  (q.v.). 

South  Kensington.     See  Kensington. 

South  Molton,  a  municipal  borough  (1590)  of 
Devon,  on  the  Mole,  10  miles  ESB.  of  Barnstaple. 
It  has  a  fine  church,  a  market-house  (1864),  and 
some  woollen  manufactures.    Pop.  2850. 

Southowi-am,  a  SE.  suburb  of  Halifax,  York. 

Southport,  a  watering-place  of  Lancashire,  at 
the  mouth  of  the  Ribble  estuary,  18  miles  N.  of 
Liverpool,  37  WNW.  of  Manchester,  and  19  S.  by 
W.  of  Preston.  The  first  house  was  a  wooden 
inn  built  from  a  wreck  here  in  1792,  on  what  then 
was  a  sandy  waste ;  since  about  1830  the  place 
has  grown  more  and  more  popular,  enjoying  as  it 
does  a  mild  climate,  and  having  broad  level 
sands.  The  esplanade  (3  miles  long)  commands 
views  of  the  Welsh  and  Cumberland  mountains, 
and  from  it  projects  a  pier  (1465  yards)  con- 
structed in  1859-68  at  a  cost  of  £25,000,  with  a 
steam  tramway  running  along  it.  Other  features 
of  Southport,  with  date  and  cost,  ai'e  the  Pavilion 
and  Winter  Gardens  (1874  ;  £140,000),  comprising 
a  theatre,  concert -hall,  aquaria,  &c.  ;  opera-house 
(1891  ;  seating  2000) ;  the  Cambridge  Hall  (1874  ; 
£25,000),  with  a  clock-tower  127  feet  high ;  the 
Victoria  Baths  (1871 ;  £45,000) ;  the  Atkinson 
Public  Library  and  Art  Gallery  (1878  ;  nearly 
£15,000);  the  Grecian  town-hall  (1853);  the 
market-hall  (1881 ;  £40,000) ;  the  Victoria  Schools 
of  Science  and  Art  (1887) ;  the  convalescent  hos- 
pital (founded  1806 ;  present  building  1854-87) ; 
the  Hesketh  Public  Park  of  30  acres  (1868) ;  and 
a  marine  park  and  lake  (1887 ;  £13,000)  on  the 
foreshore  fronting  the   town.    Nathaniel  Haw- 


thorne, then  United  States  consul  at  Liverpool, 
describes  Southport  as  it  was  in  1856  in  his 
English  Notebooks  (1870).  It  was  made  a  muni- 
cipal borough  in  1867,  the  boundary  being  ex- 
tended in  1875.  Pop.  (1851)  4765  ;  (1871)  18,085  ; 
(1881)  32,206  ;   (1901)  48,083. 

Southsea,  a  south-eastern  suburb  of  Ports- 
mouth, is  a  fashionable  watering-place  of  recent 
growth,  with  two  piers,  a  fine  esplanade  2  miles 
long,  a  canoe  lake,  a  common,  a  modernised  castle 
of  1540,  and  other  fortifications,  barracks,  &c. 

South  Shetlands,  a  group  of  islands  in  the 
South  Atlantic,  lying  on  the  lines  of  60°  S.  lat.  and 
60°  W.  long.,  and  covered  ever  witli  ice  and  snow. 

South  Shields.    See  Shields. 

Southwark  (Suth'ark;  th  as  in  this),  or  'The 
Borough,'  on  the  Surrey  side  of  the  Thames,  was 
annexed  to  the  City  in  1327,  and  is  now  a  metro- 
politan borough.    Pop.  (1901)  206,180. 

Southwell  (locally  Suth'l;  soft  th),  a  city  of 
Nottinghamshire,  on  the  ancient  Ermine  Street, 
7  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Newark  and  12  NE.  of  Not- 
tingham. A  church  was  founded  here  by  Pauliiuis 
about  630;  but  the  stately  cruciform  minster, 
which  with  its  three  towers  resembles  York  on  a 
smaller  scale,  is  wholly  of  post-Conquest  date, 
comprising  Norman  nave  and  transepts  (1110), 
Early  English  choir  (1250),  and  Early  Decorated 
chapter-house  (1300).  It  measures  306  feet  by 
123  across  the  transepts,  and  the  lantern  tower 
is  105  feet  high.  A  collegiate  church  until  1841, 
it  became  in  1884  the  cathedral  of  a  new  diocese 
including  the  counties  of  Notts  and  Derbyshire, 
and  taken  from  Lincoln  and  Lichfield  ;  in  1888  it 
was  reopened  after  restoration.  Its  eagle  lectern 
originally  belonged  to  Newstead  priory,  having 
been  fished  out  of  the  lake  there  about  1750.  In 
the  old  '  Saracen's  Head  '  Charles  I.  surrendered 
to  the  Scots  commissioners  (1646);  Byron's 
mother  occupied  Burgage  Manor  House  (1804-7) ; 
and  there  are  picturesque  ruins  of  the  palace  of 
the  Archbishops  of  York  (c.  1360  ;  much  altered 
and  enlarged  by  Wolsey).  The  collegiate  gram- 
mar-school was  refounded  in  Henry  VIII. 's  time  ; 
and  there  are  a  literary  institute  and  free  library. 
Pop.  (1851)  3516 ;  (1881)  2866 ;  (1901)  3161.  See 
works  by  Rastall  (1787,  1801),  Shilton  (1818), 
Dimock  (1884),  Livett  (1883),  and  Leach  (1890). 

Southwick,  a  NW.  suburb  of  Sunderland. 

South  wold  (South' old),  a  Suffolk  watering-place, 
41  miles  by  a  small  branch-lina  NE.  of  Ipswich. 
A  municipal  borough  since  1489,  it  was  almost 
de.stroyed  by  fire  in  1659,  but  retained  its  fine 
Perpendicular  church  (1460),  144  feet  long.  In 
Southwold  or  Sole  Bay  a  bloody  but  indecisive 
sea-fight  was  fought  between  the  English  and 
the  Dutch  on  28th  May  1672.    Pop.  2800. 

Soutra  (Soo'tra),  a  hospice  (c.  1164)  in  Mid- 
lothian, on  Soutra  Hill  (1209  feet),  17  miles  SE. 
of  Edinburgh.     See  a  work  by  J.  Hunter  (1892). 

Sow,  a  Staffordshire  river,  flowing  18  miles  to 
the  Trent,  near  Tixall. 

Sowerhy  Bridge,  a  manufacturing  town  in  the 
West  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  on  the  Calder,  3  miles 
SW.  of  Halifax.  It  has  a  town-hall  (1857)  and 
manufactures  of  worsted  and  cotton,  oilcloth, 
chemicals,  iron,  &c.  Tillotson  was  a  native  of 
the  parish.    Pop.  (1851)  4365  ;  (1901)  11,477. 

Spa,  a  watering-place  of  Belgium,  stands  amid 
wooded  and  romantic  hills,  20  miles  by  rail  SE. 
of  Liege,  near  the  Prussian  frontier.  The  springs, 
all  chalybeate  and  alkaline,  are  cold,  bright,  ana 
sparkling,  and  efficacious  in  anasmic  complaints, 
nervous  diseases,  &c.    Fancy  wooden  lacquered 


SPACCAFORNO 


662 


SPAIN 


ware  is  manufactured.  Pop.  8200.  The  number 
of  visitors  during  the  season  (May-October)  is 
about  15,000.  The  place  was  particularly  famous 
as  a  fashionable  resort  in  the  16th  and  IStli  cen- 
turies, and  derived  great  profit  from  its  public 
gaming-tables,  suppressed  in  1872. 

Spaccaforno,  a  town  of  SB.  Sicily,  30  miles 
SW.  of  Syracuse.  Near  it  are  '  Troglodyte ' 
caves,  ranged  tier  upon  tier.    Pop.  10,620. 

Spain  (Span.  Espana),  occupying  the  larger 
part  of  the  south-western  peninsula  of  Europe, 
lies  in  43°  45'— 36"  1'  N.  lat.,  and  3°  20'  E.— 9°  32' 
W.  long.,  and  is  bounded  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay, 
the  Pyrenees,  the  Mediterranean,  the  Atlantic, 
and  Portugal.  From  Fuenterrabia  in  tlie  N.  to 
Cape  Tarifa  in  the  S.  is  560,  from  Cape  Finisterre 
in  the  NW.  to  Cape  Creux  in  the  NE.  is  650  miles. 
Area,  191,367  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1877)  16,634,345; 
(1887)  17,565,632;  (1900,  estimated)  18,618,086. 
The  country,  including  the  Balearic  and  Canary 
Isles,  was  divided  in  1834  into  forty-nine  prov- 
inces, mostly  named  after  the  great  towns ;  but 
the  names  of  the  fourteen  more  ancient  Icingdoms, 
states,  and  provinces  are  still  in  use  (Old  Castile, 
New  Castile,  La  Mancha,  Leon,  Asturias,  Galicia, 
Estremadura,  Andalusia,  Murcia,  Valencia,  Ara- 
gon,  Catalonia,  and  the  Basque  Provinces).  The 
Balearic  Islands  and  the  Canaries  are  reckoned 
to  the  mother  country,  not  to  the  colonies.  Of 
the  remainder  of  the  once  great  colonies  of  Spain, 
Cuba  was  relinquished,  and  tlie  Pliilippines, 
Porto  Rico,  and  Guam,  tlie  largest  of  the  Lad- 
rones,  were  ceded  to  the  United  States  after  the 
war  of  1898.  Tlie  rest  of  the  Ladrones,  with  the 
Caroline  and  Pelew  Islands,  were  ceded  to  Ger- 
many in  1899.  The  colonies  were  thus  reduced 
to  the  African  holdings  : 

Bq^'muls.  Population. 

Rio  de  Ore,  Adrar 70,000  130,000 

Rio  Muni,  Cape  San  Juan 9,800  140,000 

Fernando  Po,  Annobon 780  21,950 

Total....  80,550  291,950 

Though  Spain  is  almost  a  peninsula,  the  uniform 
character  of  the  coast-line  and  the  great  elevation 
of  its  central  plateau— the  greater  part  of  the  sur- 
face being  a  tableland  2000-3000  feet  above  sea- 
level— give  Spain  a  more  continental  character  in 
its  extreme  range  of  temperature  than  any  of  the 
other  peninsulas  of  Europe.  Outside  the  plateau 
lie  the  highest  summits  of  the  whole  country,  the 
Pic  de  Nethou  in  the  Pyrenees  (11,151  feet),  and 
the  Pic  de  Velate  in  the  Sierra  Nevada  (11,670), 
while  the  Picos  de  Europa  in  the  Cantabrian 
Range  attain  over  8000  feet.  The  plateau  itself 
is  traversed  by  four  mountain-ranges,  which 
separate  the  valley  of  the  Ebro  from  that  of  the 
Douro ;  and  the  whole  of  it  has  a  general  slight 
inclination  from  east  or  north-east  to  south- 
west. Hence  all  the  considerable  rivers  except  the 
Ebro  flow  westward  to  the  Atlantic.  The  con- 
figuration of  the  country  renders  the  climate  very 
varied.  In  parts  of  the  north-west  the  rainfall 
is  among  the  heaviest  in  Europe.  In  the  east 
and  south-east  occasionally  no  rain  falls  in  the 
whole  year.  The  rainfall  in  the  "Western  Pyrenees 
is  very  great,  yet  on  the  northern  slope  of  the 
valley  of  the  Ebro  there  are  districts  almost 
rainless.  The  western  side  of  the  great  plateau, 
speaking  generally,  is  more  humid  and  much 
colder  than  the  eastern,  where  irrigation  is 
necessary  for  successful  cultivation,  Galicia  is 
almost  a  cattle  country ;  Estremadura  possesses 
vast  flocks  of  sheep  and  herds  of  swine.  The 
vegetable  productions  of  Galicia  and  the  Asturias 


are  almost  those  of  Devonshire  and  of  south-west 
Ireland.  Till  the  18th  century  cider  was  the 
great  beverage  in  the  north ;  but  in  the  basin  of 
the  Minho,  in  the  Riojas  on  the  Ebro,  in  Navarre, 
Aragon,  and  Catalonia  strong  red  wines  are  grown 
in  abundance.  The  proauctions  of  Catalonia  and 
Tarragona  are  almost  those  of  Provence  and  the 
Riviera.  The  plains  of  Leon  and  of  Old  and  New 
Castile  are  excellent  corn-growing  regions.  From 
Valencia  southwards  the  products  are  semi- 
tropical  ;  the  climate  is  almost  more  tropical  than 
that  of  the  opposite  coast  of  Africa.  Fruits  of 
all  kinds,  luscious  or  fiery  wines,  oil,  rice,  esparto 
grass,  and  sugar  are  common  along  the  coast.  No 
other  part  of  the  soil  of  Europe  is  so  rich  in  varied 
produce.  Large  tracts  of  Spain  once  cultivated 
in  Roman  or  in  Moorish  times  now  lie  abandoned 
and  unproductive ;  40  per  cent,  of  the  whole  is 
uncultivated. 

For  a  moment  in  the  16th  century  Spain  was 
the  most  important  country  in  Europe  ;  but  the 
population  was  unequal  to  the  drain  upon  it 
caused  by  constant  warfare,  emigration,  and 
adverse  economical  and  industrial  conditions. 
Thus  a  pop.  of  over  10  millions  at  the  end  of  the 
15th  and  beginning  of  the  16th  centuries  fell  to 
little  more  than  6  millions  in  the  17th ;  the 
numbers  then  slowly  rose:  (1768)  9,307,804; 
(1857)  15,464,340  ;  (1897)  18,089,500.  In  1905  there 
were  two  cities  with  over  400,000  inhabitants, 
Madrid  and  Barcelona;  one  of  225,000,  Valencia; 
three  of  between  150,000  and  100,000,  Seville, 
Malaga,  and  Murcia.  The  densest  population 
is  in  Madrid,  Barcelona,  Pontevedra,  and  the 
Basque  Provinces,  Emigration  (to  South  America, 
Algeria,  and  elsewhere)  is  steadily  on  the  increase. 
Some  60  or  70  per  cent,  of  the  population  are 
engaged  in  agriculture,  and  10  or  11  per  cent,  in 
mining  or  manufacturing  and  trade.  Since  the 
sale  of  church,  crown,  and  much  of  the  municipal 
property  during  the  19th  century  the  land  has 
become  much  divided ;  it  is  estimated  that  there 
are  about  3^  millions  of  holdings,  of  which  ^ 
million  are  occupied  by  tenants,  the  rest  by 
proprietors.  The  seat  of  the  manufacturing 
industries— mainly  cotton— is  chiefly  Catalonia  ; 
and  the  manufacture  of  corks  (30,000  tons  yearly) 
employs  over  8000  men  in  that  province.  The 
mineral  wealth  is  more  widely  distributed— iron 
in  Biscay  and  the  province  of  Huelva  ;  copper  at 
Huelva,  in  the  Rio  Tinto  and  Tharsis  mines  ;  lead 
at  Linares  ;  quicksilver  at  Alinaden  ;  coal  chiefly 
in  the  Asturias  ;  salt  in  Catalonia,  and  by  evapora- 
tion near  Cadiz.  The  annual  produce  of  iron  ore 
is  from  7,000,000  to  8,000,000  tons  (seven-eighths 
of  which  is  exported);  of  copper,  2,700,000;  of 
coal,  2,600,000  tons.  A  considerable  proportion 
of  iron,  lead,  copper,  zinc,  and  quicksilver  is 
smelted  or  prepared  in  the  country.  The  total 
value  of  metallurgical  products  in  one  year  may 
be  from  £6,000,000  to  £7,000,000.  Until  lately 
the  only  religion  tolerated  was  that  of  the  state, 
the  Roman  Catholic ;  now  a  certain  toleration 
is  allowed  to  other  denominations.  In  the  large 
towns  and  in  some  of  the  provinces  a  great 
effort  is  made  to  keep  the  higher  and  the  tech- 
nical schools  on  a  level  with  the  best  in  other 
European  countries.  In  other  parts  the  neglect 
of  education  is  very  great.  There  are  nine  uni- 
versities in  Spain — Madrid,  Barcelona,  Granada, 
Salamanca,  Seville^  Santiago,  Valencia,  Valladolid, 
and  Saragossa :  the  number  of  students  is  about 
16,000.  In  the  episcopal  seminaries  and  religious 
schools  about  9000  are  educated.  Many  of  the 
primary  schools  in  the  provinces  are  in  a 
wretched  condition,  the  salary  of  the  teachers 


/ 


^PAIN 


SPANISH  MAlU 


being  only  about  £5  per  annum.  The  great  fault 
of  the  higher  Spanish  education  is  in  the  numbers 
who  press  into  professional,  literary,  and  political 
careers  in  comparison  with  those  who  dedicate 
themselves  to  commercial,  industrial,  or  agri- 
cultural pursuits.  By  reason  of  this  Spain  loses 
great  part  of  the  advantages  of  her  natural  wealth. 
All  her  principal  mines  are  worked,  her  railways 
built,  schemes  of  irrigation  carried  out  with 
foreign  capital,  and  in  spite  of  the  excellence  of 
her  labourers  the  higher  employees  are  often 
foreigners.  The  imports  in  1877  amounted  to 
£16,3-10,000,  and  the  exports  to  £18,175,000;  in 
1903  they  had  increased  to  £25,070,] 20  and 
£24,318,865  respectively  (taking  the  peseta  at  its 
acttial  value  =  7id.).  Tlie  recent  increase  is  chiefly 
due  to  the  export  of  wine  to  France  and  to  the 
imports  from  that  coiuitry.  The  exports  to  France 
have  a  total  value  of  something  over  £6,780,000, 
and  the  imports  from  France  of  about  £4,434,750. 
The  total  exports  from  Spain  to  Great  Britain  are 
about  £9,500,000,  and  the  imports  £5,500,000. 
There  are  8520  miles  of  railway  and  21,000  miles 
of  telegraph. 

The  government  of  Spain  is  a  hereditary 
monarchy.  The  Cortes  consists  of  two  bodies — 
the  Senate  (partly  hereditary,  nominated,  and 
elected)  and  the  Chamber  of  Deputies,  elected  by 
universal  suffrage.  The  public  debt  of  Spain 
is  about  £386,713,590,  and  the  annual  charge 
£15,859,470.  The  revenue  and  expenditure,  nonii- 
nally  nearly  balanced,  rose  from  £31,000,000  in 
1881  to  £38,500,000  in  1905.  The  navy  of  Spain 
consists  of  7  ships  of  different  ratings,  6  torpedo 
destroyers  and  7  torpedo  gunboats,  and  2  cruisers 
building.  A  large  proportion  of  the  navy  was  lost 
in  the  war  with  the  United  States  in  1898.  The 
army  on  a  peace  footing  is  95,000,  not  including 
the  G^mrdia  civil,  or  gendarmes,  the  Carabineros, 
and  other  active  or  reserve  forces. 

Spain  was  originally  occupied  by  Iberian 
tribes  (akin  to  the  present  Basque  inhabitants  of 
the  north),  who  were  partially  overlaid  by  invad- 
ing Celts.  The  Carthaginians  established  them- 
selves in  the  south  of  Spain  in  the  3d  century 
B.C.  The  Romans  appeared  in  force  in  the  next 
century,  but  it  was  not  till  after  a  fierce  and  pro- 
longed resistance  from  Iberians  and  Celtiberians 
that,  under  Augustus,  the  Roman  conquest  was 
complete.  Soon  Spain,  thoroughly  Romanised, 
was  contributing  largely  to  Latin  literature  and 
Roman  culture.  The  Germanic  invaders  from 
the  north,  Suevi,  Vandals,  and  Visigoths,  crushed 
the  Roman  power  in  the  5th  century  a.d.,  and 
Spain  became  a  province  of  the  Visigothic  king- 
dom (573  A.D.).  The  Moorish  conquest  was  very 
rapid  (714-732)  and  complete,  except  in  the  north 
and  north-west.  The  several  Christian  kingdoms 
of  Spain— Castile,  Leon,  Navarre,  Aragon,  &c., 
as  well  as  Portugal — were  formed  by  the  gradual 
depression  of  the  Moors ;  but  Moorish  Granada 
was  not  conquered  till  1492,  and  Spain  was  not 
united  under  one  rule  till  1512.  Spain  became  a 
European  state  with  the  union  of  Ferdinand  of 
Aragon  and  Isabella  of  Castile  in  1469,  and  the 
New  World  was  discovered  for  them  ;  under  their 
son,  the  Emperor  Charles  V.,  Spain  was  in  the 
forefront  of  European  history,  and  Flanders  and 
the  two  Sicilies  Spanish  provinces.  With  Philip 
II.,  Charles's  son,  the  decline  of  Spain  set  in, 
though  now  for  sixty  years  Portugal  was  under 
the  Spanish  crown.  The  Bourbon  dynasty 
brought  complication  in  the  wars  of  Louis  XIV., 
and  little  advantage  from  the  recovery  of  Naples 
and  Sicily.  The  nadir  of  Spanish  history  is  in  the 
time  of  Napoleon,  when  Spain,  in  spite  of  some 


national  efforts,  was  nominally  a  kingdom,  but 
really  a  mere  province  of  the  French  empire.  In 
spite  of  the  valiant  patriotism  shown  in  resisting 
the  French,  and  the  ultimate  recovery  of  national 
independence  (by  English  help)  through  the  over- 
throw of  Napoleon,  the  history  of  Spain  in  the 
19th  century  was  in  the  main  inglorious,  the  dis- 
astrous war  with  the  United  States  at  its  close 
leading  to  the  loss  of  the  greater  colonies.  The 
language,  in  various  dialects,  is  atypical  Romance 
tongue,  save  in  the  Basque  provinces,  where  the 
non-Aryan  Basque  tongue  survives. 

See  Ford's  Handbook,  Hare's  Wanderings,  and 
books  by  Mrs  Harvey  (1875),  Rose  (1875),  Campion 
(1876),  Wentworth-Webster(1881),  Gallenga(1883), 
H.  E.  Watts  (1893),  Ulick  Burke  (1900),  and 
Martin  Hume  (1899-1902),  with  Butler  Clarke's 
Spanish  Literature  (1893). 

Spa'lato  (less  correctly  Spalatro ;  Slav.  Split), 
the  busiest  town  of  Dalmatia,  stands  on  a  pro- 
montory on  the  east  side  of  the  Adriatic,  160 
miles  SE.  of  Fiume,  and  with  a  branch-line  to  the 
Bosnian  railway  (1894-1900).  Here,  in  a  beauti- 
fnl  situation  on  the  seashore,  the  Emperor  Dio- 
cletian built  for  himself  a  colossal  palace  (Salonce 
Palatium,  whence,  or  from  its  Greek  equivalent, 
comes  the  name  Spalato),  to  which  he  retired  when 
he  abdicated  the  throne  in  305.  The  massive 
walls  were  from  570  to  700  feet  long  and  50  to  70 
feet  high,  and  enclosed  an  area  of  9^  acres.  This 
gigantic  palace,  square,  like  a  Roman  camp,  with 
a  gate  in  the  middle  of  each  side,  is  still  standing 
in  a  fairly  good  state  of  preservation,  its  temple 
being  the  present  Christian  Cathedral ;  but  the 
interior  was  converted  into  a  town  in  639  by  the 
citizens  of  the  adjoining  city  of  Savona  who 
escaped  the  Avars,  and  it  has  been  so  occupied 
ever  since.  The  existing  city  of  Spalato,  lying 
more  than  half  of  it  outside  the  palace  walls,  is 
one  of  the  principal  ports  for  Bosnia  and  Herze- 
govina, and  manufactures  liqueurs  (rosolio  and 
maraschino),  bricks,  ropes,  &c.  Pop.  26,000.  See 
Freeman's  Historical  Essays  (3d  series,  1879) ;  and 
T.  G.  Jackson's  Dalmatia  (vol.  ii.  188'r). 

Spalding,  a  Dutch-looking  town  on  the 
Welland  in  Lincolnshire,  14  miles  SW.  of  Boston, 
with  a  fine  church  (Decorated  and  Perpendicular), 
built  in  1284  and  restored  by  Sir  G.  Scott,  who 
also  planned  two  of  the  other  three  churches 
in  the  town.  The  grammar-school,  of  which 
Bentley  was  master  in  1682,  was  founded  in  1568  ; 
new  school  buildings  were  erected  in  1881.  This 
town  had,  prior  to  the  Conquest,  a  castle  and  a 
monastery ;  the  latter  eventually  became  a 
priory  (1051),  attached  as  a  cell  to  Crowland. 
The  river  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  70  tons. 
Spalding  is  a  railway  centre,  and  trades  in  agri- 
cultural produce.     Pop.  9500.  f 

Spandau  (aw  as  ow  in  now),  a  town  and  first- 
class  fortress  of  Prussia,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Havel  and  the  Spree,  8  miles  by  rail  W.  by  N.  of 
Berlin.  The  principal  defence  of  the  capital  on 
that  side,  it  has  very  strong  fortifications.  In 
the  'Julius  tower'  of  the  citadel  is  preserved 
in  gold  the  Imperial  War-fund  of  £6,000,000 
(mainly  derived  from  the  French  war  indemnity) 
that  the  government,  since  1871,  keeps  in  reserve 
for  a  great  war.  Spandau  is  the  seat  of  an 
arsenal,  large  government  cannon-foundries,  and 
factories  for  making  gunpowder  and  other  muni- 
tions of  war.  Pop.  (1875)  27,630 ;  (1900)  65,030, 
including  a  garrison  of  nearly  4000  men. 

Spanish  Main  (i.e.  main-land),  a  name  formerly 
given  to  the  Spanish  provinces  on  those  coasts  of 
South  and  Central  America,  which  are  contiguous 


SPANISH  TOWiJ 


664 


SPITZBERGEN 


to  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  name,  however,  is 
often  applied  to  that  sea  itself. 

Spanish  Town.    See  Jamaica. 

Sparta,  or  Laced^mon,  ancient  capital  of 
Laconia,  and  most  famous  city  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, was  situated  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Eurotas,  20  miles  from  the  sea,  in  a  plain  shut 
in  by  mountains,  of  which  that  on  the  west 
side,  Mount  Taygetus,  rises  to  8000  feet.  The 
growth  of  the  town  of  Misthra,  2  miles  SW.  of 
Sparta,  in  the  14th  and  15th  centuries  a.d.,  led  to 
the  total  desertion  of  the  more  ancient  city  ;  but 
the  modern  town  of  Sparti  (pop.  5000),  founded  in 
1836,  occupies  part  of  the  site  of  old  Sparta,  and 
is  again  capital  of  the  province  of  Laconia. 

Spartanburg,  a  town  of  South  Carolina,  93 
miles  by  rail  NNW.  of  Columbia.  Here  is  the 
Wofford  (Methodist ;  1853)  College.    Pop.  11,400. 

Spean  (Simne),  a  river  of  Inverness-shire, 
running  20^-  miles  W.  to  the  Lochy. 

Speier.    See  Spires. 

Spencer,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  64  miles  W. 
by  S.  of  Boston,  with  manufactures  of  boots  and 
woollens.     Pop.  7747. 

Spencer  Gulf,  a  deep  inlet  (180  long  by  90 
wide)  on  the  coast  of  South  Australia,  between 
Eyre's  Peninsula  and  Yorke  Peninsula. 

Spennymoor,  a  town  of  Durham,  4  miles  NE. 
of  Bishop  Auckland,  with  iron-foundries  and 
coal-pits.    Pop.  17,000. 

Spey  (Spay),  a  river  of  Scotland,  rising  at  an 
altitude  of  1500  feet  above  sea-level  and  running 
107  miles  NE.  through  or  along  the  boundary  of 
Inverness,  Elgin,  and  Banff  shires,  until  it  falls 
into  the  Moray  Firth  at  Kingston  between  Los- 
siemouth and  Portknockie.  The  Dulnain  and 
Avon  are  its  principal  tributaries.  The  salmon- 
fisheries,  belonging  to  the  Duke  of  Richmond,  at 
its  mouth,  above  which  comparatively  few  fish 
penetrate,  have  a  yearly  worth  of  from  £8000  to 
£10,000  ;  else  the  Spey  is  almost  without  value, 
nor  can  it  generally  be  called  a  picturesque 
stream.  It  has  the  swiftest  current  of  all  the 
large  rivers  in  Britain,  and  is  subject  to  sudden 
and  violent  freshets,  resulting  at  times  in  disas- 
trous inundations.  See  Sir  Thomas  Dick 
Lauder's  Moray  Floods  (1830) ;  and  A.  E.  Knox, 
Autumns  on  the  Spey  (1882). 

Speyer.    See  Spires. 

Spezzia  (Ital.  Spezia;  pron.  Spet'sia),  the  prin- 
cipal naval  port  of  Italy,  stands  near  the  head 
of  a  deep  and  commodious  bay,  56  miles  SB.  of 
Genoa  by  rail.  A  breakwater  (1860),  2400  feet 
long,  covers  the  entrance ;  whilst  formidable 
batteries  (supplemented  by  torpedo  appliances) 
bristle  on  the  hills  that  overlook  the  bay  and  on 
the  island  of  Palmeria,  which  guards  its  entrance. 
At  this  great  national  arsenal  the  Italians  have 
built  their  large  warships,  and  have  their  ship- 
repairing  yards  and  docks,  naval  victualling 
yards,  and  store-houses  (partly  also  at  San  Bar- 
tolomeo,  on  the  opposite  shore  of  the  bay). 
There  are  also  large  barracks,  a  military  hospital, 
schools  of  navigation,  an  iron-foundry,  and  manu- 
factures of  cables,  sail-cloth,  and  white-lead. 
The  beauty  of  the  bay  and  the  lovely  climate 
cause  Spezzia  to  be  much  frequented  as  a  sea- 
side-resort. It  was  on  the  shores  of  its  bay  that 
Shelley  spent  his  last  months,  and  here  Charles 
Lever  was  consul  for  ten  years.     Pop.  65,620. 

Spezzia  (or  Spetsai;  anc.  Pityussa),  a  Greek 
island  at  the  entrance  to  the  Gulf  of  Nauplia. 
Area,  6^  sq.  m. ;  pop.  6899—6494  in  the  town  of 
Spezzia,  which  has  a  good  harbour. 


Spice  Islands.    See  Moluccas. 

Spicheren  (Spihh'er-en),  or  Speichern,  a  village 
on  the  frontiers  of  Prussia  and  Lorraine,  2  miles 
S.  of  Saarbriick.  Here  on  6th  August  1870  the 
Germans  defeated  the  French. 

Spielberg.    See  BRiJNN. 

Spilsby,  a  market-town  of  Lincolnshire,  19 
miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Boston,  stands  on  the  edge 
of  the  Wolds.  The  church  contains  interesting 
monuments  of  the  Willoughby  family  (1348-1610), 
and  the  market-place  has  a  bronze  statue  of  Sir 
John  Franklin,  a  native  of  the  town.     Pop.  1497. 

Spinazzola  (Spinat'sola),  a  city  of  Southern 
Italy,  30  miles  SW.  of  Bari.    Pop.  11,353. 

Spires  (Ger.  Speier),  the  capital  of  the  Bavarian 
Palatinate,  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhine, 
19  miles  S.  of  Mannheim.  The  red  sandstone 
Romanesque  cathedral  was  begun  by  Conrad  II. 
in  1030  and  finished  in  1061 ;  it  suffered  from  fire 
in  the  12th,  13th,  and  16th  centuries,  and  in  1689 
was  stripped  to  the  bare  walls  and  even  set  fire 
to  by  the  French,  who  also  exhumed  and  scat- 
tered the  bones  of  eight  German  eiuperors.  Re- 
constructed in  1782,  it  was  again  desecrated  by 
the  French  in  1794,  but  was  once  more  rebuilt  in 
1797-1822.  The  interior  walls  are  covered  with 
more  than  thirty  large  frescoes ;  and  statues  of 
the  eight  emperors  (1858)  adorn  the  vestibule. 
The  town  itself  was  also  demolished  by  the 
French  in  1689,  and  having  been  rebuilt  since 
then,  has  broad  though  irregular  streets,  with 
very  few  ancient  buihlings,  except  the  gateway 
or  clock-tower,  dating  from  before  1246,  and  a 
few  fragments  of  the  imperial  palace,  in  which 
several  diets  were  held— one  that  of  1529,  at  which 
the  Reformers  first  became  known  as  Protestants. 
There  is  some  industry  in  cloth,  paper,  tobacco, 
sugar,  &c.  Pop.  21,000.  The  Augusta  Nemetum 
and  Noviomagus  of  the  Romans,  but  renamed 
Spira  from  the  7th  c,  Spires  in  the  13th  became 
a  free  imperial  city.  Between  1801  and  1814  it 
was  the  capital  of  a  dep.  of  France,  and  in  1815 
it  passed  to  Bavaria. 

Spitalfields,  a  poor  district  of  north-east 
London,  in  the  Tower  Hamlets,  derives  its  name 
from  the  hospital  of  St  Mary,  founded  there  in 
1197.  The  manufacture  of  silk  was  established  in 
Spitalfields  by  emigrants  from  France  after  the 
revocation  of  the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685). 

Splthead,  a  celebrated  roadstead  on  the  south 
coast  of  England,  and  a  favourite  rendezvous  of 
the  British  navy,  is  the  eastern  division— the 
Solent  (q.v.)  being  the  western— of  the  strait  that 
separates  the  Isle  of  Wight  from  the  mainland. 
Protected  from  all  winds  except  those  from  the 
south-east,  it  receives  its  name  from  the  '  Spit,' 
a  sandbank  stretching  south  from  the  Hamp- 
shire shore  for  3  miles ;  and  it  is  14  miles  long 
by  4  miles  in  average  breadth.  Here  in  1797 
the  sailors  of  the  Channel  Fleet  mutinied  for 
more  liberal  pay  and  allowances,  which  were 
granted  to  them.  Spithead  has  been  strongly 
defended  since  1864  by  fortifications  completing 
those  of  Portsmouth  (q.v.). 

Spittal.    See  Berwick-on-Tweed. 

Spitzbergen  (g  hard),  a  group  of  Arctic  islands, 
lying  400  miles  N.  of  Norway,  and  consisting  of 
West  Spitzbergen  (15,260  sq.  m.).  North-east  Land 
(4040  sq.  m.),  Stans  Foreland  (2210  sq.  m.),  the 
three  islands  called  King  Charles  Land  or  Wiche 
Island  (also  identified  with  Gillis  Land),  Barents 
Land,  Prince  Charles  Foreland,  and  several 
.smaller  islands  and  clusters  of  islets.  The  whole 
is  icebound,  and  there  are  magnificent  glaciers 


SPLtJGEN 


665 


STAFFORD 


on  the  eastern  shores,  especially  Dickson's  glacier 
oil  North-east  Land,  150  miles  long.  A  thick  ice- 
sheet  covers  the  interior  of  the  larger  islands ; 
but  several  sharp  peaks— whence  the  name  (mean- 
ing 'needle-mountains')— project  above  it  and 
are  nearly  2000  feet  high ;  others  on  Prince  Charles 
Foreland  are  almost  5000  feet.  The  shores  of 
West  Spitzbergen  are  deeply  indented  with  fjords, 
two  of  which  almost  cut  the  island  in  two. 
The  north-west  shores  of  North-east  Land  are 
also  very  much  broken.  The  vegetation  is  very 
scanty ;  except  for  the  polar  willow  and  a  couple 
of  berry-bushes,  it  consists  principally  of  saxi- 
frages and  mosses,  on  which  feed  large  herds  of 
reindeer.  The  arctic  fox  and  polar  bear  are  the 
only  other  land  animals,  though  there  are  vast 
swarms  of  sea-fowl.  In  the  10th  and  17th  cen- 
turies large  fleets  of  whalers  used  to  come  hither 
in  summer,  but  the  whales  have  been  almost 
exterminated,  and  the  seals  will  soon  be.  There 
are  no  permanent  inhabitants.  The  islands  were 
discovered  by  Barents  in  1596.  See  works  by 
Lord  Dufferin  (1857),  Lamont  (1876),  Conway 
(1897),  and,  in  German,  by  Hafter  (1900). 

Splugen  (nearly  Splee-gen,  g  hard),  a  pass  (6946 
feet)  in  the  Swiss  Orisons,  connects  the  valley  of 
the  Farther  Rliine  with  that  of  a  tributary  of  the 
Adda.  The  existing  road,  24  miles  long,  was  made 
by  the  Austrian  government  in  1812-22. 

Spokane  (5poA;a?i.O/  the  third  city  of  Washington, 
on  the  Spokane  River,  by  the  Union  Pacific  481 
miles  NE.  of  Portland,  Oregon,  with  a  great 
lumber  trade.  A  fire  in  August  1889  did  §6,000,000 
damage.    Pop.  (1880)  350  ;  (1900)  30,850. 

Spoleto  (Spolay'to;  Lat.  Spoletium),  an  archi- 
episcopal  city  of  ancient  Umbria  in  the  middle 
of  Italy,  is  situated  on  a  rocky  hill,  75  miles  by 
rail  N.  by  E.  of  Rome.  It  has  a  citadel,  dating 
from  the  days  of  the  Goths,  a  Victor  Emanuel 
monument  (1892),  and  a  fine  cathedral,  Avith 
frescoes  by  Lippo  Lippi.  Water  is  brought  in 
by  a  7th-ceutury  aqueduct,  270  feet  high  and  680 
long.    Pop.  7696. 

Spondinlg.    See  Stelvio. 

Spottsylvanla  Courthouse,  a  small  village  of 
Virginia,  55  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Richmond,  the 
scene  during  May  10-12,  1864,  of  a  desperate  but 
indecisive  battle  in  the  civil  war. 

Spree  (Spray),  a  sluggish  river  of  Prussia,  rises 
in  the  east  of  Saxony,  on  the  Bohemian  border, 
and  winds  227  miles  N.  and  W.  to  the  Havel  at 
Spandau,  passing  Bautzen,  Kottbus,  and  Berlin. 

Springfield.    See  Gretna. 

Springfield,  (l)  the  capital  of  Illinois,  185 
miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Chicago,  at  the  meeting- 
point  of  seven  railways.  It  possesses  a  handsome 
federal  building,  a  state  arsenal,  two  colleges, 
and  one  of  the  largest  state  capitols  in  the  Union 
(of  marble,  385  feet  long  by  296  wide;  cost 
$5,000,000).  It  has  coal-mines,  iron-rolling  mills 
and  foundries,  a  watch-factory,  and  flour,  woollen, 
paper,  and  planing  mills.  Springfield,  Avhich 
became  the  capital  in  1837,  was  the  home  of 
Abraham  Lincoln,  who  is  buried  in  the  beautiful 
Oak  Ridge  cemetery,  in  the  crypt  of  a  granite 
obelisk  (1874),  which  cost  $264,000.  Pop.  (1880) 
19,746 ;  (1900)  34,160.— (2)  A  thriving  city  of 
Massachusetts,  capital  of  Hampden  county,  on 
the  Connecticut  River's  left  bank,  99  miles  by  rail 
W.  by  S.  of  Boston  and  25  N.  of  Hartford.  The 
river  is  crossed  by  five  bridges  to  West  Spring- 
field (pop.  5075),  and  four  railways  meet  here. 
The  public  buildings  include  a  cathedral,  city 
hall,  granite  couxt-house,  and  a  railway  station 


which  cost  $700,000.  Among  the  factories  are 
the  U.  S.  Armoury  (since  1794),  foundries,  car- 
works,  and  manufactories  of  cottons  and  woollens, 
paper,  machinery,  furniture,  trunks,  buttons, 
needles,  sjiectacles,  locks,  pistols,  skates,  picture- 
frames,  organs,  and  jewellery.  The  town  was 
settled  in  1635.  Pop.  (1880)  33,340  ;  (1900)  62  060. 
— <3)  Capital  of  Greene  county,  Missouri,  232 
miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  St  Louis,  with  machine- 
shops,  car-works,  and  large  cotton  and  woollen 
factories.  Here  is  Drury  College  (Congregational; 
1873).  Near  Springfield  was  fought  the  battle  of 
Wilson's  Creek,  10th  August  1861.  Pop  (1880), 
6522  ;  (1900)  23,267.-(4)  Capital  of  Clark  county, 
Ohio,  on  Lagonda  Creek  and  Mad  River,  80  miles 
by  rail  NE.  of  Cincinnati.  Six  railways  meet 
here.  The  city  contains  the  Wittenberg  College 
(Lutheran ;  1845),  and  handsome  county  and 
municipal  buildings.  It  manufactures  farm 
machinery,  bicycles,  sewing-machines,  iron  fences, 
paper,  &c.     Pop.  (1880)  20,730  ;  (1900)  38,253. 

Spurn  Head,  a  promontory  stretching  2^  miles 
into  the  mouth  of  the  Humber  (q.v.),  and  form- 
ing the  south-eastern  extremity  of  Yorkshire.  It 
has  two  lighthouses.  Between  1771,  when 
Smeaton's  small  lighthouse  was  built,  and  1868 
the  sea  gained  280  yards  here,  but  since  the 
erection  of  groynes  in  1864  the  land  has  gained. 
See  Boyle's  Lost  Towns  of  the  Humber  (1889). 

Squillace  (Skwillah'tchay),  a  small  cathedral 
town  (pop.  2700)  of  Calabria,  on  the  site  of  the 
anc.  Scylacium,  12  miles  SW.  of  Catanzaro  by 
rail,  and  3  miles  inland  from  the  Gulf  of  Squillace. 

Srinagar  (Sreenagur'),  or  Cashmere,  the  capi- 
tal of  the  native  state  of  Cashmere  (q.v.)  in 
Northern  India,  stands  in  a  lovely  valley  of  the 
Himalayas  on  the  Jhelum,  at  an  elevation  of 
5276  feet.     Pop.  (1901)122,618. 

Srirangam.    See  Seringham. 

Srivlllipatur,  a  town  in  the  NW.  of  Tinnevelli 
district,  in  South  India.     Pop.  26,400. 

Staaten  Island.    See  Staten  Island. 

Stade  (Shtdh'deh),  an  ancient  town  of  Hanover, 
22  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Hamburg.     Pop.  10,580. 

Stafifa  (Scand. ,  '  pillar-island '),  a  celebrated 
islet  on  the  west  of  Scotland,  lies  4  miles  SW.  of 
Ulva,  6  N.  by  E.  of  lona,  and  54  W,  of  Oban.  It 
forms  an  oval  uneven  tableland,  rising  at  its 
highest  to  144  feet  above  the  water,  1^  mile  in 
circumference,  and  71  acres  in  area.  In  the 
north-east  is  a  landing-place  ;  but  elsewhere  the 
coast  is  girt  with  clifts  84  to  112  feet  high.  The 
most  remarkable  feature  of  the  island  is  Fingal's 
or  the  Great  Cave,  the  entrance  to  which  is 
formed  by  columnar  basaltic  ranges,  supporting 
a  lofty  arch.  The  entrance  is  42  feet  wide,  and 
G6  feet  high,  and  the  length  of  the  cave  is  227 
feet.  The  floor  of  this  marvellous  chamber  is  the 
sea.  First  described  (in  Pennant's  Tour)  by  Sit 
Joseph  Banks,  after  a  visit  in  1772,  Staffa  has 
since  been  frequently  visited— among  others  by 
Wordsworth,  Keats,  Scott,  Mendelssohn,  Tenny- 
son, and,  on  19th  August  1847,  Queen  Victoria. 

Stafford,  the  county  town  of  Staff"ordshire,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Sow,  3  miles  above  its  junc- 
tion with  the  Trent,  and  25  miles  SSE.  of  Crewe, 
29  NNW.  of  Birmingham,  and  133  NW.  of  London. 
St  Mary's  Church,  formerly  collegiate,  is  a  good 
cruciform  structure,  with  an  octagonal  tower. 
Transition  Norman  to  Decorated  in  style,  it  was 
restored  by  Scott  in  1844-47  at  a  cost  of  £30,000, 
and  in  1878  received  a  bust  of  Staff'ord's  chief 
worthy,  Izaak  Walton,  who  was  baptised  in  its 
font.    St  Chad's,  Norman,  was  very  thoroughly 


STAFFORDSHIRE 


STAMI*ORI> 


festered  during  1855-85  ;  and  there  are  also  King 
Edward's  granimar-scliool  (1550  ;  rebuilt  18(52), 
the  town-hall  (1798),  a  free  library  (1882),  the 
William  Salt  Library  (1874),  the  Clement  Wragge 
Museum,  the  infirmary  (17(30),  the  county  lunatic 
asylum  (1818),  &c.  Staflbrd  (Jastle,  finely  situated 
on  an  eminence  outside  the  town,  which  com- 
mands a  magnificent  view,  is  an  unfinished 
castellated  pile.  It  was  built  by  Sir  G.  Jerning- 
ham  in  1810-15,  successor  to  a  Saxon  fortress  of 
the  Princess  Ethelfleda,  and  to  a  later  Norman 
stronghold,  which  was  finally  taken  by  the  parlia- 
mentarians in  1643,  and  demolished.  Boot  and 
shoe  malting  is  the  staple  industry,  and  Stafford 
is  an  important  railway  centre.  Chartered  by 
King  John,  it  returned  two  members  from 
Edward  I.'s  reign  till  1885,  when  the  representa- 
tion was  reduced  to  one  and  the  parliamentary 
boundary  extended.  Pop,  (1851)  11,829  ;  (1871) 
14,437 ;  (1901)  20,S94,  See  works  by  Masfen 
(1852)  and  Cherry  (1890), 

Staffordshire,  a  west  midland  county  of  Eng- 
land, bounded  by  the  counties  of  Cheshire, 
Derby,  Leicester,  Warwick,  Worcester,  and  Salop. 
Measuring  54  by  35  miles,  it  has  an  area  of  1 1(39 
sq.  m.  or  748,433  acres.  The  only  hilly  district 
is  in  the  north,  where  the  wild  '  Moorlands,'  the 
southern  extremity  of  the  Pennine  range,  extend 
from  NW.  to  SB.  in  long  ridges,  separated  by 
deeply-cut  valleys,  and  subside  as  they  near  the 
valley  of  the  Trent.  Several  points  exceed  1500 
feet  above  sea-level,  but  Axe  Edge  Hill  (1756), 
falls  just  within  Derbyshire.  The  rest  of  the 
county  is  gently  undulating,  with  the  low  upland 
of  Cannock  Chase  in  the  centre.  The  Trent, 
flowing  first  south-eastward  through  the  interior, 
and  then  north-eastward  along  the  Derbyshire 
border,  is  the  chief  river,  and  receives  the  Sow, 
Tame,  Blythe,  and  Dove.  In  the  north  and 
south  are  the  Pottery  and  Dudley  coalfields, 
which,  besides  containing  nearly  600  collieries, 
yield  also  (especially  the  northern  one)  vast 
quantities  of  ironstone.  The  climate  is  cold  and 
humid  ;  and,  though  more  than  four-fifths  of  the 
area  is  arable,  much  of  the  soil  is  cold  and  clayey, 
and  agriculture  is  in  rather  a  backward  condi- 
tion. In  the  '  Potteries '  of  North  Staffordshire, 
embracing  Stoke-upon-Trent,  Etruria,  Hanley, 
Burslem,  &c.,  most  extensive  manufactures  of 
china  and  earthenware  are  carried  on  ;  and  in  the 
'Black  Country'  in  the  south,  with  Wolver- 
hampton and  Walsall,  iron  is  very  largely  manu- 
factured. The  Burton  breweries  are  world- 
famous.  There  is  a  perfect  network  of  railways 
and  canals.  Staffordshire,  which  is  mainly  in 
the  diocese  of  Lichfield,  contains  five  hundreds 
and  247  parishes.  It  has  been  divided  since  1885 
into  seven  divisions,  each  returning  one  member 
—Leek,  Burton,  West,  North-west,  Lichfield, 
Kingswinford,  and  Handsworth.  The  thirteen 
municipal  boroughs  are  Burslem,  Burton-on- 
Trent,  Hanley,  Lichfield,  Longton,  Newcastle- 
under-Lyme,  Stafford,  Stoke-upon-Trent,  Tarn- 
worth,  Walsall,  Wednesbury,  West  Bromwich, 
and  Wolverhampton.  Pop.  (1801)  242,693  ;  (1841) 
509,472;  (1881)  981,009;  (1901)  1,234,382.  Staf- 
fordshire has  no  great  wealth  of  antiquities,  and 
has  been  the  scene  of  no  battles  more  important 
than  Blore  Heath  (1459)  and  Hopton  Heath 
(1643).  Among  its  natives  have  been  Lord 
Anson,  Ashmole,  Dr  Johnson,  Thomas  Newton, 
Cardinal  Pole,  Earl  St  Vincent,  Izaak  Walton, 
and  Josiah  Wedgwood. 

See  county  histories  by  Plot  (1686),  Erdeswick 
(1717  ;  4th  ed.  1844),  Shaw  (1798-1801),  and  Garner 
(1844-60) ;   the  Proceedings  of  the  William  Salt 


Archaeological  Society  (1880  et  seq.) ;  and  othet 
works  cited  in  Simms's  Staffordshire  Bibliogravhy 
(Lichfield,  1892). 

Staines,  a  picturesque  town  of  Middlesex,  on 
the  left  bank  of  the  Thames,  6  miles  SE.  of 
Windsor  and  19  WSW.  of  London  (35^  by  river). 
Named  from  the  'London  Stone'  (1280)  at  the 
county  boundary,  Staines  has  vast  water-works, 
and  a  granite  bridge  by  Rennie  (1832);  and  near 
it  are  Runniniede,  Egham,  and  Cooper's  Hill. 
Pop.  (1851)  2430  ;  (1901)  6688. 

Stair,  an  Ayrshire  parish,  6^  miles  ENE.  of 
Ayr,  gives  the  title  of  Earl  to  the  Dalrymples. 

Staithes,  a  Yorkshire  coast-village,  10  miles 
NW.  of  Whitby.  Captain  Cook  lived  here  as  a  boy. 

Stalbridge,  a  Dorset  town,  6  miles  E.  by  N.  of 
Sherborne.     Pop.  1705. 

Stalybridge,  a  cotton  town  of  Cheshire, 
occupying  a  hilly  site  on  both  banks  of  the  Tame, 
7J  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Manchester.  Dating  only 
from  1776,  it  has  huge  factories  for  the  spinning 
of  cotton  yarns  and  calico-weaving,  iron- 
foundries,  and  machine-shops,  a  town-hall  (1831), 
market-buildings  (1867),  a  mechanics'  institute 
(1861),  an  Oddfellows'  hall  (1878),  and,  between 
it  and  Ashton-under-Lyne  to  the  west,  the  Stam- 
ford Park  (1873).  It  was  made  a  jnunicipal 
borough  i,n  1857,  a  parliamentary  borough  (partly 
in  Lancashire)  in  1867.  Pop.  of  the  former  (1851) 
20,760  ;  (1901)  27,674  ;  of  the  latter  (1901)  46,558. 

Stamboul  (StambooV).    See  Constantinople. 

Stamford,  a  municipal  borough  chiefly  in 
Lincolnshire,  but  partly  also  in  Northampton- 
shire, on  the  Welland,  12  miles  WNW.  of  Peter- 
borough. Hengist  is  said  to  have  here  defeated 
the  Picts  and  Scots  in  449,  and  Stamford  there- 
after is  notable  as  one  of  the  Danish  '  five 
boroughs,'  as  having  been  visited  by  at  least 
thirteen  sovei'eigns  (from  Edward  the  Elder  in 
922  to  Queen  Victoria  in  1844),  for  the  persecu- 
tion of  its  Jews  (1190),  as  having  between  1266 
and  1334  only  missed  becoming  a  rival  to  Oxford, 
for  its  colony  of  Flemish  Protestants  (1572),  as 
the  birthplace  of  the  earliest  provincial  news- 
paper, the  Stamford  Mercury  (1695),  and  for  its 
famous  bull-running  on  13th  November  from 
King  John's  time  until  1839,  It  has  lost  ten  of 
its  sixteen  churches,  an  Eleanor  cross,  two 
castles,  six  religious  houses,  and  two  hospitals. 
Existing  edifices  are  St  Mary's,  with  a  fine  spire, 
All  Saints,  with  a  fine  tower  and  steeple,  St 
Martin's  with  Lord  Burghley's  grave  and,  in  the 
churchyard,  Daniel  Lambert's,  a  town-hall  (1777), 
corn  exchange  (1859),  literary  institute  (1842), 
bridge  (1849),  Browne's  Hospital  (15th  century), 
and  boys'  and  girls'  high  schools  (1874-76), 
Burghley  House  (q.v.)  stands  close  '  by  Stamford 
town.'  The  trade  and  industries  are  mainly  agri- 
cultural. Chartered  by  Edgar  in  972,  and  after- 
wards by  Edward  IV.,  Stamford  was  a  parlia- 
mentary borough,  but  lost  one  of  its  two  members 
in  1867  and  the  other  in  1885.  For  good  services 
rendered  by  the  inhabitants  at  the  battle  of 
Loose-coat-field  (1469)  the  town  seal  bears  the 
royal  arms.  Pop.  (1851)  8933  ;  (1901)  8229.  See 
works  by  Butcher  (1646),  Howgrave  (1726),  Peck 
(1727 ;  new  ed.  1785),  Drakard  (1822),  Sharp 
(1847),  Walcott  (1867),  and  Nevinson  (1879). 

Stamford,  a  town  of  Connecticut,  on  Long 
Island  Sound,  33  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  New  York. 
It  has  a  handsome  town-hall ;  and  the  hills  around 
are  embellished  with  the  summer  residences  of 
well-to-do  New  Yorkers.  Settled  in  1641,  it  has 
iron  and  bronze  foundries,  and  manufactories  of 


STAMFORD  BRIDafi  667 


STETTIN 


hats,  drugs,  sashes,  and  Yale  locks.    Pop.  (1S80) 
11,297 ;  (1900)  15,997. 

Stamford  Bridge,  a  Yorkshire  village,  on  the 
Derweut,  9J  miles  NB.  of  York.  Here  Harold 
routed  Harold  Haarfager  (1066). 

Standerton,  capital  of  a  district  in  the  Trans- 
vaal, 110  miles  SE.  of  Pretoria,  with  two  bridges 
across  the  Vaal.     Pop.  4500. 

Stanhope,  a  town  on  the  Wear,  26  miles  W.  of 
Durham  by  rail.  Its  rectory,  once  known  as  the 
'  golden  rectory,'  was  held  by  Bishop  Butler 
(1725-40).  The  famous  lead-mines  are  now  much 
less  profitable  than  of  old.     Pop.  1964. 

Stanlslawow  (w's  as  v's),  or  Stanislau,  an 
Austrian  town  in  Galicia,  87  miles  SB.  of  Lem- 
berg.     Pop.  30,000  (10,000  Jews). 

Stanley,  a  town  8  miles  W.  of  Durham,  pop. 
13,500;  (2)  another  is  partly  in  Wakefield  (q.v.); 
(3)  another  is  7  miles  N  W.  of  Perth. 

Stanley  Pool,  a  lake-like  expansion  of  the 
Congo  (q.v.),  25  miles  long  by  16  wide,  and  1142 
feet  above  sea-level. 

Stanovoi  Mountains.    See  Siberia. 

Stanton  Drew,  a  Somerset  parish,  7  miles  S. 
of  Bristol,  with  prehistoric  stone  circles. 

Stanton  Harcourt,  the  ancient  seat  of  the 
Harcourts,  6  miles  W.  of  Oxford,  with  a  curious 
kitchen  and  memories  of  Pope. 

Stapleford,  a  market- town  of  Notts,  6  miles 
W.  of  Nottingham.    Pop.  of  parish,  5770. 

Staraya-Russa  (Starl'a-Roossa),  a  town  of 
Russia,  62  miles  S.  of  Novgorod  by  rail  round 
Lake  Ilmen,  with  salt  springs.     Pop.  13,537. 

Starbuck.     See  Manihiki  Islands. 

Starcross,  a  Devon  watering-place,  on  the  Exe 
estuary,  8  miles  SSB.  of  Exeter,     Pop.  978. 

Stargard,  the  chief  town  of  Further  Pomer- 
ania,  Prussia,  on  the  Ihna,  22  miles  by  rail  B.  by 
S.  of  Stettin.     Pop.  26,860. 

Starodoub  (on.  as  oo),  an  Ukraine  town,  Russia, 
120  miles  NE.  of  Tchernigoff.     Pop.  20,388. 

Start  Point,  a  projection  of  the  coast  of  Devon, 
8  miles  S.  of  Dartmouth,  forming  the  south-eastern 
extremity  of  the  county.  It  is  crowned  by  a  light- 
house (92  feet),  visible  for  20  miles. 

Stassfurt,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  20 
miles  SSW.  of  Magdeburg,  with  enormous  stores 
of  salt  and  kainite  (whence  the  main  potash 
supplies  of  the  world  are  derived).  It  has  also 
machine-shops,  boiler-works,  and  other  industrial 
enterprises.     Pop.  21,500. 

Staten  Island (Stof^en),  (l)separated  from  Long 
Island  by  the  Narrows  and  from  New  Jersey  by 
the  Kill  van  KuU  and  Staten  Island  Sound,  con- 
stitutes the  borough  of  Riclnnond,  New  York 
city.  Area,  55  sq.  m,  ;  pop.  (1900)  67,021.— (2) 
An  Argentinian  island  separated  from  Tierra  del 
Fuego  by  Le  Maire  Strait.  Long  (45  miles)  and 
narrow,  it  has  steep  coasts  penetrated  by  deep 
fiords,  and  rises  to  3000  feet.  Snow  covers  it 
most  of  the  yepr.  It  was  named  in  1616  after  the 
States-general  of  Holland. 
Staubbach,  Fall  or.    See  Lauterbrunnen. 

Staunton,  capital  of  Augusta  county,  Vir- 
ginia, in  the  Shenandoah  valley,  136  miles  by 
rail  WNW.  of  Richmond.  Here  are  the  state 
lunatic,  deaf-mute,  and  blind  asylums,  large  iron- 
works, and  flour  and  planing  mills.    Pop.  7300. 

Stavanger  (Stah'vang-er),  the  chief  town  of 
SW.  Norway,  on  the  S.  side  of  Bukken  Fjord, 
loo  miles  Sl  of  Bergen.     It  has  two  harbours, 


and  derives  its  importance  from  the  fisheries  ot 
the  atljacent  coast.  Dating  back  to  the  9th  c.  at 
least,  it  has  been  often  destroyed  by  fire  and  is 
now  quite  a  modern  place.  The  Gothic  cathedral 
was  founded  by  an  English  bishop  (Reinald)  in 
the  11th  century.  Of  late  years  Stavanger  has 
become  a  favourite  tourists'  rendezvous,  3500 
stopping  here  in  1S90.    Pop.  (1900)  30,620. 

Staveley,  a  Derbyshire  township,  4  miles  NE. 
of  Chesterfield.    Pop.  9363. 

Stavro'pol,  a  town  on  the  northern  slopes  of 
the  Caucasus.  Pop.  41,621. — Area  of  government^ 
26,492  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  912,650. 

Stawell,  a  town  of  Victoria,  Western  Aus- 
tralia, 125  miles  WNW.  of  Melbourne,  with  gold- 
mines.   Pop.  5500. 

Steelton,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Susquehanna,  4  miles  SE.  of  Harrisburg,  with 
steel-works.    Pop.  (1880)  2447  ;  (1900)  12,086. 

Steinkerk,  or  Steenkerke  (Stine-kerk  or  Stayn- 
ker-keh),  a  Belgiaii  village  (pop.  860),  5  miles  N. 
of  Soignies.  William  III.  was  defeated  here  by 
the  French  on  3d  August  1692. 

Stellaland,  a  short-lived  South  African  repub- 
lic, formed  in  1882  by  Boer  adventurers.  In 
1885  the  British  government  incorporated  it  in 
Bechuanaland  (q.v.). 

Stellenbosch,  a  South  African  town  (pop. 
6000),  in  a  fertile  vine-clad  valley,  25  miles  B.  of 
Capetown  by  rail,  with  an  important  college 
affiliated  to  Capetown  University. 

Stelvio,  Pass  of  the  (Ger.  Stilfserjoch),  the 
highest  carriage-road  across  the  Alps  (9042  feet), 
in  the  Austrian  Tyrol,  fonning  part  of  the  great 
road  (1825)  between  Milan  and  Innsbruck. 

Stendal,  a  town  of  Prussian  Saxony,  36  miles 
NNB.  of  Magdeburg,  has  a  Gothic  cathedral 
(1420-24),  a  statue  of  Winckelmann  (a  native), 
railway  workshops,  &c.     Pop.  22,100. 

Stenhousemuir,  a  town  of  Stirlingshire,  3 
miles  NNW.  of  Falkirk.    Pop.  5436. 

StenniS,  a  parish  in  Orkney,  4  miles  NE.  of 
Stromness,  with  a  sea-loch  of  that  name,  and 
two  celebrated  stone  circles,  the  larger  340  feet 
in  diameter,  Avith  stones  3  to  14^  feet  high. 

Stepney,  a  London  metropolitan  borough  ;  pop. 
(1901)  298,600.  It  is  also  one  of  the  parliamentary 
divisions  of  Tower  Hamlets. 

Sterling,  a  city  of  Illinois,  on  Rock  River,  109 
miles  W.  of  Chicago.  It  has  factories,  which 
produce  iron,  farm  implements,  barbed  wire, 
pumps,  windmills,  wagons,  paper,  &c.    Pop.  6310. 

Sternberg,  a  town  of  Austria,  12  miles  by  rail 
N.  of  Olmlltz.     Pop.  15,200. 

Stettin  (Stet-teen'),  capital  of  the  Prussian  prov- 
ince of  Pomerania,  and  a  busy  port,  stands  on 
the  Oder,  30  miles  from  the  Baltic  and  60  by 
rail  (120  by  river  and  canal)  NE.  of  Berlin. 
Among  its  buildings  are  the  Gothic  church  of  St 
Peter  (founded  1124),  the  large  church  of  St  James 
(14th  century),  the  royal  palace  (1575),  two  orna- 
mental arches,  a  hospital,  town-house,  theatre, 
&c.  The  strong  fortifications  were  removed  in 
1874 ;  since  then  the  ground  on  which  they  stood 
has  been  rapidly  built  over,  so  that  Stettin  now 
forms  virtually  one  large  town  with  Bredow, 
Grabow,  and  Zlillchow.  The  population  rose  from 
17,154  in  1871  to  116,139  in  1890,  and— with  the 
suburbs— to  215,000  in  1905.  Its  industries  in- 
clude shipbuilding,  oil-refining,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  cement,  sugar,  paper,  spirits,  soap 
and  candles,  matches,  chemicals,  flour,  sewing- 
machines,  &c.    Stettin  was  the  seat  of  a  princely 


SfEUBENVlLLE 


668 


BTOCKBRiDGE 


dynasty,   1107-1637;   was  occupied  by  Sweden, 
1648-1720;  by  the  French,  1806-13. 

Steubenville  (Steiu'ben-vU),  capital  of  Jefferson 
county,  Oliio,  on  the  Ohio  River,  68  miles  below 
Pittsburgh  (by  railway  43),  with  blast-furnaces, 
rolling-mills,  machine  and  railway  shops,  and 
manufactories  of  white-lead,  paper,  glass,  wool- 
lens, flour,  beer,  &c.  There  are  coal-mines  near 
by,  and  natural  gas  is  plentiful.  Fort  Steuben 
was  built  here  in  1787.     Pop.  15,250. 

Stevenage,  a  town  of  Hertfordsliire,  4  miles 
SE.  of  Hitchin  by  rail,  with  an  old  parish  church 
and  a  grainmar-.school  (1558).  Straw-plait  is 
manufactured.    Pop.  4000. 

Stevenson's  Road.  See  Livingstonia,  Tan- 
ganyika. 

Stevens  Point,  a  town  of  Wisconsin,  on  the 
Wisconsin  River,  161  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Mil- 
waukee, with  mills  and  a  lumber  trade.  Pop.  9800. 
Stevenston,  a  town  of  Ayrshire,  |  mile  inland, 
and  28  miles  SW.  of  Glasgow.     Cotton  and  silk 
weaving  used  to  be  the  staple  industries,  but  it 
now  depends  on  the  neighbouring  collieries,  iron- 
works, chemical  works,  and  Nobel's  explosives 
factory.     Pop.  7000. 
Stewart  Island.    See  New  Zealand. 
Stewarton,  a  town  of  Ayrshire,  on  Annick 
Water,  5^  miles  N.   by  W.  of  Kilmarnock.     Its 
specialty  is  the  Scotch  bonnet  manufacture ;  but 
it  also  carries  on  carpet-weaving,  spindle-making, 
&c.     Pop.  3000. 

Stewartstovrn,  a  Tyrone  market-town,  7  miles 
NE.  of  Dungannon.     Pop.  670. 

Steyer  (StVer),  a  town  of  Upper  Austria,  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Steyer  and  Enns,  36  miles  by 
rail  S.  by  E.  of  Linz,  is  the  chief  seat  of  the  iron 
and  steel  manufactures  of  Austria,  turning  out 
firearms,  cutlery,  &c.     Pop.  17,199. 

Steyning  (Stain'ing),  a  Sussex  town,  1  mile  W. 
of  the  river  Adur  and  4J  miles  N.  of  Shoreham. 
Till  1832  it  returned  two  members.  Pop.  1705. 
Stillorgan,  a  village,  5  miles  SB.  of  Dublin. 
Stillv/'ater,  capital  of  Washington  county, 
Minnesota,  on  the  navigable  St  Oroix  River 
(which  here  expands  into  a  narrow  lake),  18 
miles  by  rail  NE.  of  St  Paul.  It  has  a  large 
lumber  trade,  and  contain.s  sawmills,  a  foundry, 
and  flour-mills.    Pop.  13,500. 

Stilton,  a  parish  (pop.  650)  of  N.  Huntingdon- 
shire, 6  miles  SW.  of  Peterborough.  It  gives 
name  to  the  well-known  cheese,  most  of  which 
now  is  of  course  manufactured  elsewhere. 

Stincliar  (Stin'shar),  an  Ayrshire  stream,  flow- 
ing 30  miles  to  the  sea  at  Ballantrae. 

Stirling,  the  county  town  of  Stirlingshire, 
stands  on  the  south  bank  of  the  winding  Forth, 
36  miles  NW.  of  Edinburgh  and  29  NNE.  of 
Glasgow.  Like  Edinburgh,  to  which  in  its  main 
features  it  bears  a  striking  resemblance,  it  no 
doubt  owes  its  origin  to  the  strong  natural 
fortress  of  its  Castle  Hill,  which  rises  gradually 
from  the  east  to  a  height  of  420  feet  above  the 
sea  or  340  above  the  plain,  and  fronts  the  west 
with  a  steep  precipitous  wall  of  basaltic  rock. 
The  Castle,  which  commands  magnificent  views 
of  the  Grampians,  the  Ochils,  and  the  '  Links  of 
Forth,'  dates  from  immemorial  antiquity,  though 
few,  if  any,  of  the  existing  buildings  are  earlier 
than  the  days  of  the  Stewart  sovereigns,  who 
often  kept  court  here.  These  include  the  Douglas 
room  (where  the  Earl  of  Douglas  was  stabbed  by 
James  II.,  1452),  James  III.'s  parliament-hall 
(now  a  barrack-room),  James  V.'s  palace,  and 


James  VI. 's  chapel  (now  a  store-room).  Stirling 
has  many  other  objects  of  interest,  as  Argyll's 
Lodging  (1630,  since  1799  a  military  hospital)- 
ruined  Mar's  Work  (c.  1570) ;  the  parish  church 
(in  1656  divided  into  two)  ;  the  colossal  .statue  of 
Bruce  (1877);  the  new  cemetery,  with  half-a- 
dozen  statues  of  Reformers  and  Covenanters 
and  a  marble  group  of  the  Wigtown  martyrs; 
Cowane's  Hospital  or  the  Guildhall  (1637); 
the  King's  Knot  and  King's  Park ;  the  Mote  or 
Heading  Hill ;  the  old  four-arch  bridge  (c.  1400 
—the  '  key  of  the  Highlands ') ;  Robert  Steven- 
son's  new  bridge  (1832) ;  and  the  Smith  Institute 
(1874),  with  picture-gallery,  reading-room,  library, 
and  museum,  where  now  is  preserved  the  'Stirling 
Jug '  (1497),  the  standard  of  the  old  Scots  pint. 
Other  modern  edifices  are  the  County  Buildings 
(1875),  the  public  hall  (1883),  and  the  High  School 
(1855-89).  In  the  neighbourhood  are  Bannock- 
burn  (q.v.),  the  ruins  of  Cambuskenneth  Abbey 
(q.v.),  and  the  Abbey  Craig  (q.v.).  Stirling 
manufactures  tartans,  tweeds,  carpets,  agricul- 
tural  implements,  &c.  A  royal  burgh  as  early 
as  1119,  it  unites  with  Dunfermline,  Culross, 
Inverkeithing,  and  Queensferry  to  return  one 
member.  Pop.  (1851)  12,837;  (1901)  18,403. 
Stirling  (formerly  Stryvelyne  or  Estrivelin,  and 
also  Snowcloim)  has  a  wealth  of  historic  memories 
—the  death  of  Alexander  I.  and  William  the 
Lion  ;  Wallace's  victory  of  Stirling  Bridge  (1297); 
the  great  siege  of  the  castle  by  Edward  I.  (1304) ; 
the  birth  of  James  III.  ;  the  coronation  of  Queen 
Mary  ;  the  baptism  and  coronation  of  James  VI. ; 
the  slaughter  of  the  Regent  Lennox  (1571) ;  the 
birth  of  Prince  Henry  (1594) ;  the  capture  of  the 
castle  by  Monk  (1651) ;  and  its  unsuccessful  siege 
by  the  Jacobites  (1746).  See  History  of  the  Chapel 
Royal  of  Stirling  (Grampian  Club,  1882),  and 
Charters  of  Stirling  (Glasgow,  1884). 

Stirlingshire,  a  midland  county  of  Scotland, 
forming  the  border-land  between  Highlands  and 
Lowlands,  is  bounded  by  Perth,  Clackmannan, 
Linlithgow,  Lanark,  and  Dumbarton  shires. 
With  a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of  46  and 
22  miles,  it  has  an  area  of  467  sq.  m.,  or  298,579 
acres,  of  which  3294  are  foreshore  and  8946  Avater. 
Tli3  Forth  traces  much  of  the  northern  and  all 
the  north-eastern  boundary  ;  on  the  western  lies 
Loch  Lomond  ;  and  other  lakes  and  streams  be- 
longing partly  or  wholly  to  Stirlingshire  are 
Lochs  Katrine  and  Arklet,  and  the  Avon,  Carron, 
Bannock,  Endrick,  and  Blane.  Ben  Lomond,  in 
the  north-west,  attains  3192  feet;  and  lesser 
elevations  are  the  Gargunnock  Hills  (1591  feet), 
Kilsyth  Hills  (1393),  Campsie  Fells  (1894),  and 
Fintry  Hills  (1676).  A  considerable  part  of 
Stirlingshire  is  occupied  by  the  carses  of  Stirling 
and  Falkirk,  which  have  in  groat  measure  been 
reclaimed  from  unproductive  moss.  About  40 
per  cent,  of  the  whole  area  of  the  county  is  in 
cultivation  ;  woods  cover  14,241  acres.  Coal  and 
ironstone  are  largely  mined  ;  and  there  are  the 
great  ironworks  of  Carron  and  Falkirk,  besides 
manufactures  of  woollens,  cotton,  chemicals,  &c. 
The  chief  towns  are  Stirling,  Falkirk,  Kilsyth, 
Denny,  and  Grangemouth.  The  county  returns 
one  member.  Pop.  (1801)  50,825 ;  (1841)  82,057  ; 
(1901)  142,291.  Battles  were  fought  at  Stirling 
Bridge,  Falkirk  (1298  and  1745),  Baunockburn, 
Sauchieburn,  and  Kilsyth. 

Stobs,  an  estate  in  Roxburgh,  5  miles  S.  of 
Hawick,  bought  by  government  in  1900  for  a  camp. 
At  Stobs  Castle  Lord  Heathfield  was  born. 

Stockbridge,  a  Hampshire  market-town,  on 
the  Autou  or  Test,  8  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Audover. 


STOCKHOLM 


669 


STOCKTON-ON-TEES 


Till  1832  it  returned  two  members  ;  Steele  at  one 
time  was  its  representative.  It  has  a  well-known 
racecourse  and  training  stables.     Pop.  860. 

Stockholm  (I  pronounced),  the  capital  of 
Sweden,  stands  on  several  islands  and  the  adjacent 
mainland,  between  a  bay  of  tlie  Baltic  and  Lake 
Miliar,  in  a  situation  that  is  accounted  one  of  the 
most  picturesque  in  Europe.  Its  nucleus  is  an 
island  in  mid-channel  called  'the  Town;'  on  it 
stand  the  imposing  royal  palace  (1697-1754) ;  the 
chief  church  (St  Nicholas),  in  which  the  kings 
are  crowned  ;  the  House  of  the  Nobles  (1648-70) ; 
the  town-house  ;  the  ministries  of  the  kingdom  ; 
and  the  principal  wharf,  a  magnificent  granite 
quay,  fronting  east.  Immediately  W.  of  the 
central  island  lies  the  Knights'  Island  (Riddar- 
holm) ;  it  is  almost  entirely  occupied  with  public 
buildings,  as  the  Houses  of  Parliament ;  the  old 
Franciscan  church,  in  which  all  the  later  sove- 
reigns of  Sweden  have  been  buried ;  the  royal 
archives  ;  and  the  chief  law-courts.  N.  of  these 
two  islands  lie  the  handsomely  built  districts  of 
Nornnalm,  separated  from  them  by  a  narrow 
channel,  in  which  is  an  islet  with  the  royal 
stables.  In  Norrmalm  are  the  National  Museum 
(1850-65),  with  valuable  prehistoric  collections, 
coins,  paintings,  sculptures ;  the  principal 
theatres ;  the  Academy  of  Fine  Arts  (1735) ; 
the  barracks;  the  Hop  Garden,  Avith  the 
Royal  Library  (1870-76),  250,000  vols,  and  8000 
MSS.,  and  with  the  statue  (1885)  of  Linnaeus  ; 
the  Academy  of  Sciences  (1739) ;  the  Museum  of 
Northern  Antiquities  (1873);  the  Observatory, 
&c.  Ship  Island  (Slce.ppsholm),  immediately  east 
of  'the  Town  '  island,  is  the  headqimrters  of  the 
Swedish  navy,  and  is  connected  with  a  smaller 
island  on  the  south-east,  that  is  crowned  with  a 
citadel.  Beyond  these  again,  and  farther  to  the 
east,  lies  the  beautiful  island  of  the  Zoological 
Gardens.  Immediately  south  of  'the  Town' 
island  is  the  extensive  district  of  Sodermalm,the 
houses  of  which  climb  up  the  steep  slopes  that 
rise  from  the  water's  edge.  Handsome  bridges 
connect  the  central  islands  with  the  northern 
and  southern  districts ;  quick  little  steamboats 
go  to  the  beautiful  islands  in  Lake  Malar  on  the 
west,  and  eastward  towards  the  Baltic  Sea  (40 
miles  distant).  Sugar,  tobacco,  silks  and  ribbons, 
candles,  linen,  cotton,  and  leather  are  produced, 
and  there  are  large  iron-foundries  and  machine- 
shops.  Though  the  water  approaches  are  frozen 
up  during  winter,  Stockholm  imports  wheat  and 
rye,  rice,  flour,  herrings,  oils  and  oilcake,  wine 
and  spirits,  &c.,  and  exports  iron  and  steel,  oats, 
and  tar.  Stockholm  was  founded  by  Birger  Jarl 
in  1255,  and  grew  to  be  the  capital  only  in  modern 
times.  Pop.  (1800)  75,500 ;  (1850)  93,000 ;  (1878) 
156,677 ;  (1900)  300,624.  The  principal  events  in 
the  history  of  the  city  have  been  the  sieges  by 
Queen  Margaret  of  Denmark  (1389),  battles  in  the 
vicinity  against  the  Danes,  the  capture  of  the 
place  by  Christian  IT.  of  Denmark  in  1520,  and 
his  '  Blood  Bath '  of  nobles  and  chief  citizens. 

Stockport,  a  parliamentary,  municipal,  and 
county  borough  of  East  Cheshire,  6  miles  SSE.  of 
Manchester  and  37  E.  of  Liverpool.  It  is  built 
on  the  slopes  of  a  nai'row  gorge,  where  the  Tame 
and  the  Goyt  unite  to  fonn  the  Mersey,  which  is 
spanned  by  the  viaduct  (1840)  of  the  London  and 
North-western  Railway,  111  feet  high,  and  625 
yards  long,  as  well  as  by  several  bridges.  St 
Mary's  Church  was  rebuilt  in  1817,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  its  14th-century  chancel ;  and  Stock- 
port has  also  a  market-hall  (1851-61),  mechanics' 
institute  (1862),  free  library  (1875),  fine  technical 


school  (1890),  huge  Union  Sunday-school  (1806), 
grammar-school  (1487;  rebuilt  1832),  infirmary 
(1832),  the  Vernon  Park  (1858),  containing  a 
museum,  and,  in  St  Peter's  Square,  a  statue 
(1886)  of  Richard  Cobden,  who  represented  the 
borough  from  1841  to  1847.  Stockport  was  the  site 
of  a  Roman  station,  and  afterwards  of  a  Norman 
castle,  held  till  1327  by  the  Earls  of  Chester,  and 
taken  by  Prince  Rupert  in  1644,  soon  after  which 
it  was  demolished  by  the  parliament.  In  1745 
Prince  Charles  Edward  passed  through  Stock- 
port, which  Bishop  Pococke  .six  years  later 
describes  as  having  '  a  little  manufacture  of  the 
Manchester  linen,  some  woollen  and  ribands,  and 
two  silk-mills  like  those  of  Derby.'  Since  then 
it  has  grown  to  be  a  most  important  seat  of  the 
cotton  industry,  in  spite  of  the  machinery  dis- 
turbances (1810-20),  the  strike  of  1828-29,  when 
the  military  were  called  out,  and  many  persons 
wounded,  the  '  Plug  Riots  '  (1840),  and  the  cotton- 
famine  (1861-64).  Felt  hats  are  also  manufac- 
tured, and  there  are  iron  and  brass  foundries, 
engine  and  machine  shops,  breweries,  &c.  Stock- 
port was  constituted  a  parliamentary  borough 
(returning  two  members)  in  1832,  a  municipal 
borough  in  1835,  and  a  county  borough  in  1888. 
Pop.  (1851)  53,835  ;  (1881)  59,553  ;  (1901)  78,871. 
See  works  by  Butterworth  (1827-28),  Barwaker 
{East  ChesJdre,  1877),  and  Heginbotham  (1 877-78). 

Stocksbrldge,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  7^  miles  NW.  of  Sheffield.     Pop.  6570. 

Stockton,  capital  of  San  Joaquin  county, 
California,  on  a  creek  connected  with  the  San 
Joaquin  River,  103  miles  E.  by  N.  of  San  Fran- 
cisco. It  contains  the  state  lunatic  asylum,  and 
manufactures  ironware,  paper,  woollens,  flour, 
soap,  &c.    Pop.  18,500. 

Stockton-on-Tees,  an  important  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  and  seaport  in  Durham, 
situate  on  the  north  side  of  the  Tees,  4  miles 
from  its  mouth  and  11  ENE.  of  Darlington,  4 
WSAV.  of  Middlesborough,  and  236  NNW.  of 
London.  The  broad  and  handsome  High  Street 
is  nearly  a  mile  in  length  ;  and  a  new  town,  South 
Stockton  or  Thornaby-on-Tees  (q.v.),  included 
within  the  parliamentary  boundary,  in  Yorkshire, 
has  sprung  up  on  the  south  bank  of  the  river, 
the  two  being  connected  by  an  iron  bridge  of 
three  arches  (1887),  which  superseded  a  five-arch 
stone  bridge  of  1771,  and  cost  over  £80,000.  The 
town  has  six  churches,  a  Roman  Catholic  chapel 
(1842-70)  by  the  elder  Pugin,  a  town-hall, 
borough-hall  (1852),  an  exchange,  a  theatre,  large 
recreation  grounds,  and  a  public  park  opened  by 
the  Duke  of  York  in  October  1893.  The  Stockton 
Races,  of  some  mark  in  the  sporting  world,  are 
held  annually  in  August.  Shipbuilding,  chiefly 
in  iron  and  steel,  is  busily  carried  on  ;  and  blast- 
furnaces, foundries,  engine-works,  and  extensive 
potteries  and  ironworks  are  in  operation.  Sail- 
cloth, ropes,  linen,  and  diapers  were  at  one  time 
the  staple  industry ;  but  their  manufacture  has 
been  discontinued ;  and  there  are  breweries, 
corn-mills,  and  spinning-mills.  The  exports  are 
chiefly  iron  and  earthenware  ;  the  imports  corn, 
timber  in  deals,  spars,  &c.,  and  bark.  At  Stock- 
ton the  Tees  is  navigable  for  vessels  of  large  ton- 
nage ;  the  navigation  of  the  river  has  been  much 
improved.  Pop.  of  the  municipal  borough  (1891) 
49,708  ;  (1901)  61,476  ;  of  parliamentary  borough, 
including  Thornaby,  (1901)  71,815.  Stockton 
suft'ered  severely  from  the  incursions  of  the  Scots 
in  the  early  part  of  the  14th  century.  Its 
moated  castle  was  taken  for  the  Parliament  in 
1644,  and  'slighted   and   dismantled'  in  1652, 


STOKE-POGES 


670 


STONYHURST 


almost  the  last  vestige  being  removed  in  1865. 
At  the  Restoration  it  had  only  120  houses,  mostly- 
built  of  clay.  Since  1867  it  sends  one  member  to 
parliament.  Ritson  was  a  native.  See  Dau- 
LiNGTON,  and  works  by  J.  Brewster  (1829),  H. 
Heavisides  (1865),  and  T.  Richmond  (1868). 

Stoke-Poges  {Pogis),  a  village  of  Buckingham- 
shire, 2  miles  N.  of  Slough  station.  Gray's 
mother  settled  here  in  1742  ;  the  beautiful  church- 
yard is  the  scene  of  his  Elegy,  and  in  that  church- 
yard he  is  buried.     Pop.  of  parish,  1400. 

Stokesley,  a  Yorkshire  town,  on  the  Leven,  9 
miles  SE.  of  Stockton-on-Tees.    Pop.  1650. 

Stoke-upon-Trent,  a  manufacturing  town  of 
Staffordshire,  the  capital  of  the  '  Potteries,'  on 
the  Trent  and  the  Trent-and-Mersey  Canal,  15 
miles  SB.  of  Crewe,  2  E.  of  Newcastle-under- 
Lyme,  and  16  N.  of  Stafford.  It  is  a  modern 
place,  dating  only  from  the  last  quarter  of  the 
18th  century,  and  has  a  parish  church  with 
Wedgwood's  grave,  a  town-hall  (1835),  a  market- 
hall  (1883),  a  free  library  (1878),  the  Minton 
memorial  building  (1858),  the  Hartshill  Infirmary 
(1868),  public  baths,  and  statues  of  Wedgwood, 
Minton,  and  Colin  Minton  Campbell.  Its 
factories  of  porcelain,  earthenware,  encaustic 
tiles,  and  tesselated  pavements  are  among  the 
largest  in  the  world  ;  and  the  industries  also  in- 
clude coal-mining,  brick-making,  and  the  manu- 
facture of  iron,  engines,  machinery,  &c.  Mrs 
Craik  (Miss  Mulock)  was  a  native.  The  parlia- 
mentary borough,  constituted  in  1832,  was  much 
curtailed  in  1885  and  lost  one  of  its  two  members  ; 
the  municipal  borough  was  incorporated  in  1874. 
Pop.  (1871)  15,144 ;  (1881)  19,261  ;  (1901)  30,458 ; 
of  parliamentary  borough  (1901)  89,015.  See 
John  Ward's  Borough  of  Stoke-upon-Trent  (1843). 

Stolberg,  (1)  a  mining  and  manufacturing  town 
of  Rhenish  Prussia,  10  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Aix-la- 
Chapelle.  It  manufactures  brass,  iron,  zinc, 
glass,  &c.  Pop.  15,250.— (2)  A  town  at  the  S. 
base  of  the  Harz  Mountains,  the  centre  of  an  old 
countship  ;  pop.  2311. 

Stolp,  a  Prussian  town  in  Pomerania,  on  the 
river  Stolp,  85  miles  W.  by  N,  of  Danzig,  It  has 
a  castle,  iron-foundries,  and  machinery  and  amber 
manufactures.    Pop.  28,500. 

Stone,  a  Staffordshire  town,  on  the  Trent's 
left  bank,  7  miles  NNW.  of  Stafford  and  7  S.  of 
Stoke-upon-Trent.  It  has  a  town-hall  (1869),  a 
market-hall  (1868),  AUeyne's  school  (1558),  remains 
of  an  Augustinian  monastery,  two  modern  con- 
vents, and  manufactures  of  earthenware,  boots, 
beer,  leather,  &c.  Peter  de  Wint  was  a  native. 
Pop.  5750. 

Stonebyres  Linn,    See  Clyde, 

Stonefield,  an  industrial  town  of  Lanarkshire, 
2J  miles  NW,  of  Hamilton  and  8  SE,  of  Glasgow. 
It  was  the  scene  of  riots  in  February  1887.  Pop. 
7500. 

Stoneham,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  9  miles 
N.  of  Boston.     It  has  boot-factories.    Pop.  6190. 

Stoneha'ven  (locally  Stanehive'),  a  seaport  and 
(since  1607)  the  county  town  of  Kincardineshire, 
16  miles  SSW.  of  Aberdeen,  is  situated  on  a  rocky 
bay  at  the  mouth  of  Carron  Water,  which  divides 
it  into  an  Old  and  New  Town.  The  harbour, 
formed  since  1826,  admits  only  small  vessels ; 
but  the  town  (constituted  a  police-burgh  in  1889) 
has  herring  and  haddock  fisheries.  Population, 
4600.     See  Dunkottae. 

Stcnehenge  (Saxon  Stanhengist,  'the  hanging 
stones '),  in  Wiltshire,  on  Salisbury  Plain,  9  miles 
^,  of  Salisbury  and  2  W.  of  Ainesbury,  is  ^ 


circular  group  of  gigantic  standing  stones,  situated 
in  the  midst  of  a  number  of  prehistoric  barrows 
of  the  bronze  age.  The  circle,  which  is  97'7  feet 
in  diameter,  occupies  the  central  portion  of  an 
area  of  360  feet  in  diameter,  enclosed  within  an 
earthen  rampart  and  ditch.  It  consists  of  two 
concentric  circles  enclosing  two  ellipses.  The 
exterior  circle,  which  is  composed  of  pillar-stones 
of  Tertiary  sandstone,  locally  called  'sarsens,' 
set  up  at  pretty  regular  intervals  of  about  4  feet 
apart,  has  been  surmounted  by  a  continuous  line 
of  imposts  closely  fitted  to  each  other  at  the 
extremities,  and  having  mortise-holes  in  their 
under  sides,  which  receive  tenons  on  the  tops 
of  the  pillar-stones.  The  pillar-stones  show 
generally  about  13  feet  of  height  above  the 
ground,  and  the  imposts  are  about  10  feet  long, 
3J  feet  wide,  and  2  feet  8  inches  deep.  Of  this 
circle  seventeen  pillar-stones  and  six  imposts 
retain  their  original  position.  About  9  feet 
within  the  exterior  circle  are  the  remains  of  a 
second  circle  of  smaller  undressed  blocks  or 
boulders  of  primitive  rock,  locally  known  as 
'blue  stones.'  Within  this  inner  circle,  and 
separated  from  it  by  about  the  same  distance, 
is  an  incomplete  ellipse,  nearly  of  horse-shoe 
form,  with  the  open  end  facing  the  north-east, 
formed  of  five  trilithons  or  groups  of  two  immense 
pillar-stones  supporting  an  impost.  Tlie  central 
trilithon  facing  the  open  end  of  the  ellipse  is  the 
largest,  the  pillar-stones  being  22j  feet  in  height 
above  ground,  and  the  added  height  of  the  impost 
making  the  whole  height  of  the  trilithon  26^  feet. 
The  other  four,  which  stood  facing  each  other, 
two  and  two  on  opposite  sides  of  the  ellipse,  are 
somewhat  smaller,  and  only  two  are  now  perfect. 
Within  this  ellipse  is  a  smaller  ellipse  of  the  same 
form,  but  composed,  like  the  second  circle,  of 
irregularly-shaped  '  blue  stones '  without  imposts, 
varying  from  6  to  8  feet  in  height,  and  set  at 
intervals  of  5  to  6  feet.  Though  not  mentioned 
by  any  Roman  writer,  or  noticed  by  Gildas, 
Nennius,  or  Bede,  Stonehenge,  in  the  12th  c, 
is  chronicled  by  Henry  of  Huntingdon  as  one 
of  the  four  wonders  of  England,  the  other 
three  being  merely  natural  phenomena.  It  has 
been  variously  attributed  to  the  PhcBuicians,  the 
Belgse,  the  Druids,  the  Saxons,  and  the  Danes. 
It  has  been  called  a  temple  of  the  sun,  and  of 
serpent-worship,  a  shrine  of  Buddha,  a  plane- 
tarium, &c.  Avebury  assigns  it  to  the  bronze 
age,  the  inner  circle  of  small  unwrought  'blue 
stones'  being  oldest.  One  of  the  uprights  was 
blown  down  in  1900,  and  re-erected  (in  cement) 
next  year.  The  whole  is  now  fenced  in,  and 
looked  after,  as  private  property.  See  Lady 
Antrobus,  Guide  to  Ameshury  and  Stonehenge 
(1901) ;  and  Lockyer's  articles  in  Nature  (1904). 

Stonehouse,  a  town  of  Lanarkshire,  on  Avon 
Water,  1\  miles  SSE,  of  Hamilton,    Pop.  2968. 

Stonehouse.    See  Devonport. 

Stone  River.    See  Murfreesboeouqh. 

Stonington,  a  port  of  Connecticut,  on  the 
Atlantic,  14  miles  B.  of  New  London.  It  has  a 
foundry,  and  tin-factories.    Pop,  8550. 

Stonyhurst,  a  great  Roman  Catholic  college, 
in  NE,  Lancashire,  4  miles  SW,  of  Clitheroe, 
The  old  home  of  the  Shireburnes,  it  passed  by 
marriage  in  1754  to  the  Welds  of  Lulworth, 
and  by  them  was  granted  in  1794  to  the  Jesuit 
seminary  founded  at  St  Omer  in  1592  by  Father 
Parsons,  and  thence  transferred  in  1762  to  Bruges, 
in  1772  to  Liege,  The  fine  old  house,  dating 
from  1594,  was  much  extended  during  1810-78, 
the  chapel  being  built  in  1835.    There  a,re  ao 


STONY  STRATFORD 


671 


STRASBURQ 


observatory,  a  library  of  40,000  vols.,  &c. 
Affiliated  in  1840  to  the  University  of  London, 
Stonylmrst  has  now  some  300  boys.  See  works 
by  Hewitson  (2d  ed.  1878),  an  anonymous  writer 
(1881),  Rimmer  (1884),  Halt  (18SG),  Shawcross 
(1894),  and  Father  Gerard  (1894). 

Stony  Stratford,  a  market-town  of  Bucks, 
on  Watling  Street  and  the  Ouse,  8  miles  NE. 
of  Buckingham.  It  had  an  Eleanor  cross  till 
1646,  and  sufl'ered  from  tire  in  1742.  Pop.  2019. 
Stormont.  See  Perthshire. 
Stormontfield,  a  Tayside  village,  4^  miles  N. 
of  Perth,  with  salmon-breeding  ponds  (1853). 

Stor'noway,  a  seaport  and  important  fishery- 
station  in  Lewis,  the  chief  town  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  near  the  head  of  a  spacious  sea-loch, 
59  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Portree  in  Skye  and  180  of 
Oban.  The  principal  feature  is  Stornoway  Castle, 
completed  in  1870  by  Sir  James  Matheson  (1796- 
1878),  at  a  cost,  with  the  grounds,  of  £89,000. 
Pop.  3900.      ' 

Stour,  (1)  a  river  flowing  47  miles  E.  along  the 
Suffolk  and  Essex  boundary  to  the  sea  at  Harwich. 
—(2)  A  river  of  Kent,  flowing  40  miles,  past  Ash- 
ford  and  Canterbury  to  Pegwell  Bay.— (3)  A  river 
of  Oxford  and  Warwick  shires,  flowing  20  miles 
to  the  Avon,  near  Stratford-on-Avon.— (4)  A 
river  of  Somerset,  Dorset,  and  Hants,  flowing  55 
miles  to  the  Avon  at  Christchurch. 

Stourbridge,  a  market-town  of  Worcestershire, 
on  the  Stour,  at  the  border  of  Staffordshire  and 
the  Black  Country,  ^  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Dudley 
and  12  W.  by  S.  of  Birmingham.  The  famous 
fireclay  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  about 
1555  by  wandering  glassmakers  from  Lorraine ; 
and  Stourbridge  now  has  glass,  earthenware,  and 
firebrick  works,  besides  manufactures  of  iron, 
nails,  chains,  leather,  &c.  The  grammar-school 
(1552),  at  which  Samuel  Johnson  passed  a  twelve- 
month, was  rebuilt  in  1862  ;  and  there  are  also 
a  corn  exchange  (1854),  county  court  (1864),  and 
mechanics'  institute.  Pop.  (1851)  7847;  (1881) 
9737  ;  (1901,  urban  district)  16,302. 

Stourport,  a  town  of  Worcestershire,  at  the 
Stour's  influx  to  the  Severn,  and  the  terminus  of 
the  Staffordshire  and  Worcestershire  Canal,  14 
miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  of  Worcester  and  4  SSW. 
of  Kidderminster.  Dating  from  1770,  it  is  a  clean, 
neat  place,  with  manufactures  of  carpets,  iron, 
glass,  &c.     Pop.  4600. 

Stow,  a  Midlothian  village,  on  the  Gala's  left 
bank,  6^  miles  N.  of  Galashiels.     Pop.  560. 

Stowe  House,  3  miles  NNW.  of  Buckingham, 
the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Buckingham,  and  resi- 
dence of  the  exiled  Orleans  family. 

Stowey,  Nether,  a  Somerset  village,  7^  miles 
WNW.  of  Bridgwater,  with  memories  of  Thomas 
Poole  and  Coleridge. 

Stowmarket,  a  Suffolk  market-town,  on  the 
Gipping,  12  miles  NW.  of  Ipswich.  It  has  a  fine 
flint-work  church  (chiefly  Decorated),  with  a 
tower  and  spire  120  feet  high,  an  iron-foundry, 
malting,  stay-making,  and  chemical  and  gun- 
cotton  works— a  disastrous  explosion  here  in 
August  1871  cost  23  lives.  Pop.  (1801)  1761  ; 
(1901)  4162.  For  its  memories  of  Milton,  Burkitt, 
Crabbe,  and  Godwin,  see  HoUingsworth's  History 
of  Stowmarket  (1844). 

Stow-on-the-Wold,  a  Gloucestershire  town,  4J 

miles  SSW.  of  Moreton-in-the-Marsh.     Pop.  1370. 

Strabane  (Stra-bdhn'),  a  Tyrone  market-town, 

on  the  Mourne,  14  miles  by  rail  S.   by  W.  of 

Londonderry.    It  has  fine  R.  C.  (1892-95),  Episco- 


palian, and  Presbyterian  churches ;  a  large  con. 
vent  on  the  hill  behind,  and  celebrated  flax  and 
grain  markets.     Pop.  5033. 

Stradbroke,  a  Suffolk  town,  Bishop  Grosse- 
teste's  birthplace,  5^  miles  E.  of  Eye.     Pop.  1069. 

Straits  Settlements,  a  British  colony  in  the 
East  Indies,  consists  (since  1867)  of  settlements 
on  the  Straits  of  Malacca,  or  rather  on  the  Malay 
Peninsula — viz.  Singapore,  Malacca,  Penang,  Keel- 
ing Islands  (since  1886),  and  Christmas  Island 
(since  1889).  For  particulars  of  these,  see  the 
respective  articles.  The  total  area  is  1542  sq.  m. 
and  the  total  pop.  (1881)  423,384  ;  (1905)  575,000, 
of  whom  281,000  are  Chinese,  and  58,000  natives 
of  India.  The  principal  products  are  tin,  gam- 
bier,  tapioca,  rice,  sugar,  pepper,  and  other 
spices.  The  trade  is  largely  a  transit  one ;  and 
the  exports  approximate  an  annual  value  of 
£26,000,000,  the  imports  of  £35.000,000.  There 
are  a  number  of  native  depeiment  states,  the 
salient  particulars  regarding  which  are  given  here : 


cto*»  Britisli  Pro- 

btate.  tectorate  in 

Perak 1874 

Selaugor 1874 


Sungei  IJjong. 
Negri  Sembilan. 
Pahaug 


Area, 

Pop. 

Bq.  m. 

(1901). 

lo.noo 

329,665 

3.500 

168,789 

1,6  ;o) 

1,800  ; 

96,028 

10,000 

84,113 

.26.960 

678,595 

Total 26.960 

The  more  notable  products  of  these  states  are 
tin,  rice,  coffee,  sugar,  tea,  cinchona.  Tin  is 
chiefly  mined  in  Perak  by  Chinese,  and  worked  at 
the  mines,  and  at  Singapore  and  Penang. 

Stralsund  (Stral-soont'),  a  seaport  of  Prussia, 
on  the  narrow  Strela  Sound,  which  divides  the 
mainland  from  the  island  of  Rligen,  67  miles  by 
rail  NW.  from  Stettin.  It  fonns  an  island,  con- 
nected with  the  mainland  by  bridges,  and  down 
to  1873  it  was  a  fortress  of  the  first-class.  Many 
of  the  houses  are  finely  gabled  ;  and  the  most  in- 
teresting building  is  the  town-house  (1306).  The 
manufactures  include  leather,  sugar,  starch,  oil, 
and  cards.  Pop.  82,500.  Founded  in  1209,  Stral- 
sund became  one  of  the  most  important  members 
of  the  Hansa.  It  withstood  a  terrible  siege  (1628) 
by  Wallenstein,  but  in  1678  capitulated  to  the 
Great  Elector  after  a  furious  bombardment.  It 
again  opened  its  gates  to  Prussia  in  1715,  to  the 
French  in  1807,  and  to  the  Danes  in  1809.  The 
town  was  held  by  the  Swedes  from  1628  to  1814 ; 
in  1815  Denmark  gave  it  up  to  Prussia. 

Strangford,  a  Down  seaport,  on  the  W.  shore 
of  the  entrance  to  Lough  Strangford,  opposite 
Portaferry,  and  8  miles  NE.  of  Downpatrick.— 
Lough  Strangford  measures  16  by  5  miles,  and  its 
entrance  6  miles  by  1  mile. 

Stranorlar,  a  Donegal  village,  on  the  Finn,  29 
miles  SW.  of  Londonderry. 

Stranraer  (Stra7i-rahr%  a  royal  burgh  and  sea- 
port of  Wigtownshire,  beautifully  situated  at  the 
head  of  Loch  Ryan,  73  miles  WSW.  of  Dumfries 
by  rail.  It  has  a  16th-century  castle,  with 
memories  of  Claverhouse,  a  town-hall  and  court- 
house (1872-73),  and  a  'short-sea  passage'  to 
Larne  in  Ireland.  Pop.  (1841)  4889  ;  (1881)  6415  ; 
(1901)  6036.  Till  1885  Stranraer  returned  one 
member  with  Wigtown  (q.v.). 

Strasburg  (Ger.  Strassburg,  Fr.  Strasbourg), 
the  capital  formerly  of  the  French  dep.  of  Bas- 
Rhin,  but  since  1871  of  the  German  imperial 
territory  of  Alsace-Lorraine,  stands  on  the  river 
111  and  the  canals  connecting  tlie  Rhine  with  the 
Rhone  and  Marue,  2  miles  from  the  Rhine's  J§f^ 


STRATA  FLORIDA 


672 


STRATHCLYDE 


bank  and  300  E.  of  Paris.  The  citadel,  originally 
built  by  Vauban  (1682-84),  was  demolished  by  the 
Germans  during  the  bombardment  of  1870,  but 
they  have  since  rebuilt  it  and  erected  detached 
forts  on  the  adjacent  heights,  so  that  Strasburg 
now  ranks  as  a  first-class  fortress.  Its  position 
near  the  borders  of  France,  Germany,  and  Switzer- 
land gives  it  both  commercial  and  strategic  im- 
portance. The  most  celebrated  building  is  the 
cathedral  or  minster,  founded  in  1015  or  in  1179, 
but  principally  built  between  1277  and  1439 ;  some 
of  the  oldest  parts  are  Romanesque,  but  the  church 
as  a  whole  is  one  of  the  sublimest  specimens  of 
Gothic  architecture.  Only  one  of  the  two  towers 
was  completed,  with  a  spire  of  open  stone-work 
(1439) ;  it  is  466  feet  high.  The  minster  has  a 
remarkable  clock  (1838-42) ;  in  it  are  portions  of 
an  older  one  made  in  1571,  but  there  was  a  re- 
markable clock  here  in  the  14th  century.  Here 
also  are  a  magnificent  rose-window  (42  feet 
across),  a  fine  pulpit,  and  grand  stained  glass. 
The  damage  done  to  the  structure  during  the 
siege  of  1870  was  carefully  repaired.  Other 
notable  buildings  are  the  Protestant  church  of 
St  Thomas,  with  the  tomb  of  Marshal  Saxe,  the 
imperial  palace,  the  library  (formerly  the  castle, 
and  then  the  episcopal  palace),  the  new  univer- 
sity, and  the  arsenal.  Founded  in  1621,  the 
university  became  specially  famous  in  the 
branches  of  medicine  and  philology,  but  was 
broken  up  during  the  Revolution.  The  univer- 
sity was  completely  reorganised  as  a  German 
institution  in  1872,  is  equipped  with  new  univer- 
sity buildings  (1884),  magnificent  laboratories, 
&c.,  and  has  more  than  120  teachers  and  850 
students.  The  famous  library,  with  nearly 
200,000  volumes  and  precious  Incundbxda  was 
entirely  destroyed  by  fire  during  the  bombard- 
ment in  1870,  but  was  replaced  by  a  new  collec- 
tion that  has  now  swelled  to  700,000  volumes. 
The  trade,  especially  the  transit  trade,  is  very 
extensive ;  and  the  manufactures  are  very  various 
— beer,  pates  de  foie  gras,  leather,  cutlery,  engines, 
musical  instruments,  jewellery,  tobacco,  furni- 
ture, chemicals,  &c.  Pop.  (1880)  104,471 ;  (1890) 
123,500  ;  (1900)  151,041. 

Strasburg,  the  Argentoratum  of  the  Romans, 
was  colonised  by  them  during  the  reign  of 
Augustus  ;  the  name  Stratisburgum  first  appears 
in  the  6th  c.  It  became  a  free  town  of  the  German 
empire  in  the  13th  c. ;  in  1681  it  was  seized  by 
Louis  XIV.  in  a  time  of  profound  peace,  and  was 
confirmed  to  him  by  the  treaty  of  Ryswick.  On 
September  28,  1870,  after  a  seven  weeks'  siege, 
it  surrendered  to  the  Germans. 

Strata  Florida.    See  Cardiganshire. 

Stratfieldsaye.    See  Strathfieldsaye. 

Stratford,  a  thriving  town  of  Essex,  on  the 
Lea,  4  miles  ENE.  of  London.  It  had  a 
Cistercian  abbey  (1134)  and  the  Empress  Matilda's 
three-arched,  bow-shaped  bridge  (removed  in 
1839).  Now  part  of  the  borougli  of  West  Ham, 
it  has  a  handsome  toAvn-hall  (1869),  and  is  the 
seat  of  extensive  manufactures.  On  the  opposite 
side  of  the  Lea  is  the  parish  of  Bow,  or  Stratford- 
le-Bow,  now  in  the  met.  borough  of  Poplar. 

Stratford,  a  port  of  entry  and  capital  of  Perth 
county,  Ontario,  on  the  Avon,  88  miles  by  rail 
W.  of  Toronto,  with  railway-shops,  woollen-mills, 
and  manufactories  of  machinery,  farming  imple- 
ments, boots  and  shoes,  &c.     Pop.  10,250. 

Stratford-on-Avon,  Shakespeare's  birthplace, 
is  a  pleasant  town  of  Warwickshire,  8  miles  SW. 
of  Warwick,  22  SSE.  of  Birmingham,  and  110 
I^W.  of  London.    Jt  stands  on  the  right  bank  of 


the  quiet  Avon,  which  here  is  spanned  by  the 
'great  and  sumptuous  bridge'  of  fourteen 
pointed  arches,  376  yards  long,  that  was  built  by 
the  Lord  Mayor  of  London,  Sir  Hugh  Clopton, 
who  died  in  1496.  'Shakespeare's  House,'  where 
the  poet  was  born  on  23d  April  1564,  in  Henley 
Street,  is  national  property,  having  been  bought 
for  £3000  in  1847,  and  restored  in  1858-59  ;  here 
are  a  Shakespeare  museum,  the  '  Stratford 
portrait,'  and  the  signatures  of  Byron,  Scott, 
Tennyson,  Thackeray,  Dickens,  &c.  King  Ed- 
ward VI. 's  grammar-school,  where  Shakespeare 
was  educated,  was  founded  in  the  reign  of 
Edward  IV.  ;  it  occupies  the  upper  story  of  the 
old  guildhall,  and  was  restored  in  1892.  The 
'  New  Place,'  built  by  Sir  Hugh  Clopton,  was 
purchased  by  Shakespeare  in  1597,  and  here  he 
died  on  23d  April  1616 ;  here,  too.  Queen  Henri- 
etta Maria  stayed  in  1643.  It  (or  rather  its 
successor,  1703)  Avas  wantonly  razed  in  1759  by 
the  Rev.  F.  Gastrell,  who  also  felled  the  poet's 
mulberry,  beneath  which  Garrick  was  regaled  in 
1742  ;  but  its  site  has  also  become  national  pro- 
perty since  1861.  And  lastly,  uprearing  its  spire 
above  the  lime-trees,  there  is  the  beautiful  cruci- 
form church.  Early  English  to  Perpendicular  in 
style,  having  been  gradually  rebuilt  between  1332 
and  1500.  In  the  chancel,  whose  two  years' 
restoration  was  completed  in  1892,  is  Shake- 
speare's grave,  with  the  portrait  bust  (1616)  by 
Gerard  Janssen  or  Johnson,  Anne  Hathaway'a 
grave,  and  the  American  stained-glass  window  of 
the  '  Seven  Ages.'  The  Shakespeare  Fountain 
(1887)  was  also  erected  by  an  American,  Mr 
George  W.  Childs ;  the  red-'brick  Shakespeare 
Memorial  Theatre,  seating  800  spectators,  was 
built  in  1877-79  at  a  cost  of  £30,000.  In  the 
neighbourhood  are  Shottery,  with  Anne  Hatha- 
way's  cottage  (purchased  for  the  nation  in  1892 
for  £3000) ;  Luddington,  where  tradition  says 
she  was  married ;  Charlecote,  the  seat  of  the 
Lucys  ;  Clopton,  with  memories  of  the  Gun- 
powder Plot ;  and  Welcombe  Hill,  crowned  by 
an  obelisk  (1876),  124  feet  high,  to  a  Manchester 
M.P.  In  Stratford  itself  still  remain  to  be 
noticed  the  chapel  of  the  Guild  of  the  Holy  Cross 
(13th  century ;  the  chancel  rebuilt  about  1450, 
and  the  rest  by  Sir  Hugh  Clopton);  the  half- 
timbered  house  of  the  Harvards  (1596) ;  the  town- 
hall  (1633;  rebuilt  1768-1863),  with  Gains- 
borough's portrait  of  Garrick ;  the  corn  exchange 
(1850) ;  the  market-house  (1821) ;  the  College 
school  (1872) ;  a  Roman  Catholic  church  by 
Pugin  (1866)  ;  and  a  hospital  (1884).  Before  691 
a  Saxon  monastery  stood  at  Stratford-on-Avon, 
which  was  incorporated  in  1553.  It  is  an  import- 
ant agricultural  centre  ;  still,  its  chief  prosperity 
depends  on  the  pilgrims  (20,000  or  so  annually) 
who  visit  it.  Pop.  (1851)  3372 ;  (1901)  8310,  an 
increase  largely  due  to  the  extension  of  the 
borough  boundary  in  1879.  See  works  by  Wash- 
ington Irving  (1821),  Hawthorne  (1863),  Wheeler 
(1806),  J.  O.  Halliwell-Phillips  (1863-85),  S.  L.  Lee 
(1884),  and  C.  S.  Ribton  Turner  (1893). 

Strathaven  (locally  Straven),  a  town  of  Lanark- 
shire, 1  mile  W.  of  Avon  Water  and  16  miles 
SSE.  of  Glasgow.  On  the  north  side  is  the 
picturesque  ruin  of  Avondale  Castle,  and  5  to  7 
miles  south-west  are  the  battlefields  of  Drumclog 
and  Loudoun  Hill,  Pop.  (1851)  4274;  (1901) 
4076.    See  Gebbie's  Sketches  of  Avondale  (1880). 

Strathclyde'.  In  the  8th  c.  the  ancient  con- 
federacy of  the  Britons  was  broken  up  into  Wales 
and  Cumbria.  Scottish  Cumbria,  or  Strathclyde, 
thenceforth  formed  a  little  kingdomj  comprising 


STRATHCONA 


673 


STYRIA 


the  country  between  Clyde  and  Solway,  governed 
by  princes  of  its  own,  and  having  the  fortress- 
town  of  Alclyde  or  Dumbarton  for  its  capitah 
In  954-1124  it  became  permanently  united  to  the 
Scottish  kingdom. 

Strathcona,  a  village  of  Alberta,  Canada,  on 
the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway,  named  from  the 
Canadian  magnate,  Lord  Strathcona.    Pop.  1600. 

Strathearn.    See  Earn. 

Strathfieldsaye,  a  Hampshire  estate,  with  a 
Queen  Anne  mansion,  overlooking  the  Loddon,  7 
miles  NNE.  of  Basingstoke.  Associated  ere  that 
with  the  name  of  Pitt,  it  was  purchased  by 
parliament  in  1817  for  £263,000,  and  presented  to 
the  Duke  of  Wellington.  See  Silchester,  and 
the  Rev.  Charles  H.  Griffith's  History  of  Strath- 
fieldsaye (1892). 

Strathmore  (Gael.,  'Great  Valley'),  the  most 
extensive  plain  in  Scotland,  is  a  low-lying  tract 
extending  NE.  across  the  country  from  Dum- 
bartonshire to  Stonehaven  in  Kincardineshire, 
and  bounded  N.  by  the  mountain-rampart  of  the 
Highlands,  and  S.  by  the  Lennox,  Ochil,  and 
Sidlaw  Hills.  It  is  100  miles  long  and  5  to  10 
broad  ;  but  Strathmore  proper  extends  only  from 
Perth  to  near  Brechin  (about  40  miles). 

Strathpeffer,  a  fashionable  Scottish  watering- 
place  in  Ross  and  Cromarty,  to  the  south  of  Ben 
Wyvis  (3429  feet),  and  5  miles  W.  of  Dingwall  by 
rail,  215  NNW.  of  Edinburgh.  Its  sulphur  and 
chalybeate  springs  are  highly  efficacious  in  diges- 
tive and  rheumatic  disorders.  Pop.  354.  See 
Dr  Fortescue  Fox's  Strathpeffer  Spa  (1889). 

Strathspey  (Strath-spay'),  the  valley  of  the 
Spey  (q.v.). 

Stratton,  a  Cornish  town,  16  miles  NNW.  of 
Launceston.    Pop.  with  Bude  (1901)  2308. 

Straubing  (Strow'bing),  an  old  town  of  Lower 
Bavaria,  on  the  Danube's  right  bank,  25  miles  by 
rail  SE.  of  Ratisbon.     Pop.  17,550. 

Strawberry  Hill.    See  Twickenham. 

Streatham  (Stret'ham),  a  suburban  parish,  6 J 
miles  SSW.  of  St  Paul's.    Pop.  88,130. 

Streator,  a  mining-town  of  Illinois,  94  miles 
SW.  of  Chicago.    Pop.  16,100. 

Street,  a  town  of  Somersetshire,  2  miles  SW. 
of  Glastonbury.     Pop.  4100. 

Stretford,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  3^  miles  SW. 
of  Manchester.     Pop.  (1901)  30,436. 

Stretinsk,  or  Sryetinsk,  a  town  of  Siberia,  on 
the  navigable  Shilka,  a  tributary  of  the  Amur. 
Pop.  10,000. 

Strigau  (Stree-gow),  a  town  of  Prussian  Silesia, 
25  miles  SE.  of  Liegnitz.    Pop.  12,860. 

Strokestown,  a  market-town,  12  miles  NE.  of 
Roscommon.     Pop.  810. 

Strom'boli,  one  of  the  Lipari  Islands  (q.v,), 
with  a  volcano  almost  constantly  active. 

Strome  Ferry,  Ross-shire,  on  salt-water  Loch 
Carron,  53  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Dingwall. 

Stromness,  a  seaport  in  Pomona,  Orkney,  on 
a  beautiful  bay,  15  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Kirkwall. 
Gow,  Scott's  '  Pirate,'  was  born  here.     Pop.  2450. 

Strone,  an  Argyllshire  watering-place,  at  the 
headland  between  Loch  Long  and  Holy  Loch,  6J 
miles  WNW.  of  Greenock.    Pop.  573. 

Stronsay,  one  of  the  Orkney  Island.s,  12  miles 
NE.  of  Kirkwall.  Area,  15  sq.  m.  ;  greatest 
height,  154  feet ;  pop.  1160. 

Strontlan  (Sir on-tee' an),  an  ArgylLshire  village, 
24  miles  SW.  of  Fort  William,  with  former  lead- 
jninos,  which  yielded  (1790)  the  mineral  strontian. 


Stroud,  a  manufacturing  and  market  town  of 
Gloucestershire,  10  miles  SSB.  of  Gloucester,  on 
an  eminence  in  a  valley  sheltered  by  the  Cotes- 
wolds,  where  the  Frome  and  Slade  rivulets  unite 
to  form  the  Stroud  Water  or  Frome.  The  water 
of  this  stream  being  peculiarly  adapted  for  use 
in  dyeing  scarlet  and  other  grain  colours,  cloth- 
factories  and  dyeworks  have  been  built  along  its 
banks  for  20  miles  ;  and  Stroud  itself  is  the  centre 
of  the  woollen  manufactures  of  Gloucestershire, 
and  contains  a  number  of  cloth-mills.  The  parish 
church,  St  Lawrence,  was  rebuilt,  with  exception 
of  the  tower  and  spire,  in  1866-68  ;  the  town-hall, 
incorporating  an  Elizabethan  facade,  in  1865 ;  and 
there  are  also  the  Subscription-rooms  (1830),  the 
Lansdown  Hall  (1879),  a  hospital  (1876),  &c. 
From  1832  to  1885  Stroud,  with  twelve  other 
parishes,  formed  a  parliamentary  borough,  return- 
ing two  members.    Pop.  (1881)  9535  ;  (1901)9153. 

Stry  (Stree),  or  Stryi,  a  town  of  Austrian 
Galicia,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Dniester,  45  miles 
by  rail  S.  of  Lemberg.  It  was  almost  wholly 
burned  down  in  April  1886.    Pop.  24,300. 

Studley  Royal.    See  Ripon. 

Stuhlweissenburg  (Shtool-vice' en-boor g';  Hung. 
Szekes  Fehervdr;  Lat.  Alba  Regia),  a  royal  free 
town  of  Hungary,  and  seat  of  a  bishop,  39  miles 
SW.  of  Budapest.  Here  the  kings  of  Hungary 
were  crowned  and  buried  (1027-1527).   Pop.  30,960. 

Sturminster  Newton,  a  Dorset  town,  on  the 
Stour,  8^  miles  NW.  of  Blandford.     Pop.  1863. 

Stuttgart  (Shtoot'gart),  the  capital  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  stands  in  a  natural  basin  (817  feet  above 
sea-level)  surrounded  by  hills,  which  are  studded 
with  villas,  vineyards,  and  gardens,  and  crowned 
with  woods,  2  miles  from  the  Neckar,  and  189  by 
rail  WNW.  of  Munich,  127  SSE.  of  Frankfort. 
Except  the  churches,  most  of  the  public  edifices 
date  from  the  19th  century,  and  are  chiefly  built 
in  the  Renaissance  style.  On  or  near  the  central 
Palace  Square  stand  the  new  royal  palace  (1746- 
1807),  the  old  royal  castle  (16th  century),  two 
or  three  other  palaces  of  the  royal  family,  the 
Konigsbau  (shops,  bourse,  concert-rooms,  &c.), 
the  theatre,  the  railway  station  (one  of  the  finest 
in  all  Germany),  the  post-office,  the  Akademie 
(formerly  the  Carl  School ;  now  library  and 
guardhouse),  the  jubilee  column  (1841),  and  statues 
of  Schiller  and  Duke  Eberhard.  The  Collegiate 
Church,  St  Leonard's,  and  the  Hospital  Church 
date  from  the  15th  century.  The  other  chief 
public  institutions  of  Stuttgart  are  its  famous 
Polytechnic  (with  250  .students),  the  Conserv- 
atory of  Music,  the  royal  library  (425,000  vols.), 
the  museum  and  picture-gallery,  &c.  Stuttgart 
is  a  great  centre  of  the  German  book-trade,  manu- 
factures textiles,  beer,  pianofortes,  chemicals, 
chocolate,  &c.,  and  has  celebrated  fairs.  NE.  of 
the  palace  lies  the  picturesque  royal  park  (with 
some  good  statuary),  extending  almost  all  the 
way  to  Cannstatt  (q.v.).  There  are  many  royal 
seats  in  the  vicinity.  Hegel  and  Hauff  were 
natives.  Pop.  (1875)107,573;  (1900)176,699.  Stutt- 
gart owes  its  name  and  origin  to  a  stud-farm  of 
the  early  Counts  of  Wiirtemberg,  and  has  been 
the  capital  since  1482. 

Styria  (Ger.  Steiermark),  a  duchy  of  Austria, 
is  bounded  on  the  N.  by  Upper  and  Lower 
Austria,  E.  by  Hungary,  S.  and  W.  by  Carniola, 
Carinthia,  and  Salzburg.  Its  area  is  8629  sq.  m., 
and  pop.  (1880)  1,213,197;  (1900)  1,356,494,  of 
whom  67  per  cent,  are  of  German  and  33  per  cent, 
of  Slavonic  origin.  Styria  is  a  mountainous 
country,  traversed  by  ramifications  of  the  Alps. 
The  Save  and  Drave  water  the  southern  districts  j 


SUABIA 


674 


SUFFOLK 


the  Mur,  going  S.  to  the  Drave,  flows  through 
the  middle  of  the  duchy  ;  while  the  Enns  skirts 
the  NW.  boundary.  Forests  cover  5U  per  cent. 
of  the  area  ;  25^  per  cent,  is  pastures  ;  and  22  per 
cent,  is  under  cultivation.  Styria's  chief  wealth 
lies  in  its  mineral  products,  especially  iron.  It 
was  made  a  separate  margraviate  in  1056,  and  in 
1192  was  joined  to  the  Austrian  crown. 

Suabia.    See  Swabia. 

Suaheli.    See  Swahili  Coast. 

Suakin  (Soo-dh'keen),  or  more  correctly  Sawa- 
KiN,  a  seaport  of  the  Red  Sea,  stands  on  a  small 
rocky  island  in  a  bay  on  its  west  side,  and  is  the 
principal  outlet  for  the  commerce  of  Nubia  and 
of  the  countries  of  the  Sudan  beyond.  The  island- 
town  is  connected  with  the  settlement  of  El-Keff 
on  the  adjacent  mainland  by  a  causeway.  Port 
Soudan,  30  miles  to  the  north,  has  a  better  and 
safer  harbour  and  much  less  trying  climate  ;  and 
since  the  opening,  in  1906,  of  the  railway  thence 
to  Atbara  and  Berber  (connecting  there  with  the 
Khartoum  and  Cairo— ultimately  the  '  Cape  to 
Cairo '—line),  threatens  to  supersede  Suakin. 
Tlie  more  important  exports  of  Snakiu  are 
silver  ornaments,  ivory,  gums,  millet,  cattle, 
hides,  and  gold ;  the  imports,  durra,  cottons, 
flour,  sugar,  rice,  ghi,  dates,  and  coal.  Near  it 
several  battles  were  fought  by  Egyptians  and 
English  against  the  Mahdi's  followers.  Pop. 
21,000.  See  works  by  E.  G.  Parry  (18S5)  and 
W.  Galloway  (1888). 

Subiaco  (Soobydh'ko ;  anc.  SuUaqueum),  a  city 
of  Italy,  lies  embosomed  in  hills  beside  the 
Teverone,  32  miles  E.  by  N.  of  Rome.  It  was  the 
cradle  of  the  Benedictine  order  and  the  place 
where  the  printing-press  was  first  set  up  in 
Italy  (1464).  Two  monasteries  date  from  the  6th 
century  ;  one  of  them  (Santa  Scolastica)  contains 
a  small  but  valuable  library,  whilst  the  other 
was  built  near  St  Benedict's  cave.    Pop.  8500. 

Suchau.    See  Soochoo. 

Sucre.    See  Chuquisaca. 

Sudan.    See  Soudan. 

Sud'bury,  a  municipal  borough  (till  1843  also 
parliamentary)  of  Suffolk,  on  the  Stour  at  the 
Essex  boundary,  16  miles  S.  of  Bury  St  Edmunds 
and  58  NE.  of  London.  It  has  three  old  churches, 
mainly  Perpendicular  in  style,  a  town-hall  (1828), 
grammar-school  (1491 ;  rebuilt  1857),  corn  ex- 
change (1841),  and  manufactures  of  cocoa-nut 
matting,  silk,  bricks,  &c.— the  famous  woollen 
industry  of  the  Flemings,  dating  from  the  14th 
century,  having  died  out.  Archbishop  Theobald, 
beheaded  by  Tyler  in  1381,  and  Gainsborough 
were  natives.     Pop.  (1851)  6043  ;  (1901)  7109. 

Sudbury,  a  village  of  Ontario  (pop.  2000),  by 
rail  443  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Montreal.  Close 
by  are  immense  deposits  of  copper  and  nickel. 

Sudet'ic  Mountains,  a  mountain-system  of  SE. 
Germany,  dividing  Prussian  Silesia  and  Lusatia 
from  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  and  connecting  the 
Carpathians  with  the  mountains  of  Franconia. 
It  forms  a  continuous  chain  only  in  the  middle — 
the  Riesengebirge  (q.v.)  and  Isergebirge. 

Sudreys,  or  Sudoreys.    See  Man  (Isle  of). 

Suevi.    See  Swabia. 

Suez  (Soo'ez),  a  town  of  Egypt,  is  situated  at 
the  southern  extremity  of  the  Suez  Canal  and  on 
the  Gulf  of  Suez,  a  northern  arm  of  the  Red  Sea. 
Close  beside  the  town  the  Peninsular  and  Oriental 
Steamship  Company  have  extensive  store-houses, 
there  is  an  English  hospital,  and  the  sweet-water 
«anal  terminates  here.    The  railway  from  Ismailia 


runs  through  the  town  on  to  the  spacious  harboirr 
2  miles  beyond.  Suez  has  not  a  very  large  trade 
of  its  own  (£800,000  to  £900,000  annually) ;  most 
of  the  commerce  passes  through  it  without  making 
halt.  Pop.  (1897)  17,460.  More  than  once  in  the 
past  this  place,  the  Arsinoe  of  the  Ptolemies,  the 
Colzum  of  the  early  Moslems,  was  the  seat  of 
a  flourishing  trade ;  from  the  16th  to  the  18th 
century  it  formed  an  important  etape  in  the 
European  trade  with  India.  It  revived  when  the 
ovei'land  mail  route  to  India  was  opened  in  1837, 
and  has  prospered  more  since  the  completion  of 
the  canal.  Rameses  II.  seems  to  have  been  the 
first  to  excavate  a  canal  between  the  Nile  delta 
and  the  Red  Sea,  which  was  reopened  by  Darius  I. 
of  Persia,  and  again  by  the  Moslem  conquerors 
of  Egypt.  Napoleon  commissioned  Lepere  in 
1798  to  examine  and  report  upon  the  plan  of 
a  ship-canal  between  the  Mediterranean  and  the 
Red  Sea.  This  expert's  erroneous  opinion,  that 
the  surface  of  the  Red  Sea  was  nearly  30 
feet  higher  than  that  of  the  Mediterranean, 
put  an  end  to  the  project.  But  the  mistake 
having  been  corrected  by  English  ofiicers  in 
1841,  Lesseps  set  himself  (in  1849)  to  study  the 
isthmus,  and  in  1854  he  managed  to  enlist  the 
interest  of  Said  Pasha,  khedive  of  Egypt,  in  his 
scheme.  Two  years  later  the  Porte  granted  its 
permission  and  a  company  was  formed.  Half  the 
capital  was  raised  in  Europe,  chiefly  in  France ; 
the  other  half  by  the  khedive.  In  1859,  25,000  to 
30,000  men  were  at  work  excavating,  and  the 
canal  was  opened  on  the  16th  November  1869. 
It  had  cost  altogether  about  24  million  pounds. 
The  total  length  is  100  miles ;  the  width  of  the 
water-surface  was  at  first  150  to  300  feet,  the 
width  at  the  bottom  72  feet,  and  the  minimum 
depth  26  feet.  At  Port  Said  two  strong  break- 
waters, 6940  and  6020  feet  long  respectively,  were 
run  out  into  the  Mediterranean  ;  at  Suez  another 
substantial  mole  was  constructed.  The  canal 
crosses  Lake  Menzaleh  (28  miles  long).  Lake 
Ballah,  Lake  Timsah  (5  miles  long),  and  the 
Bitter  Lakes  (23  miles).  The  highest  point  is  but 
50  feet  above  sea-level.  At  intervals  of  5  or  6 
miles  side-basins  are  provided  to  enable  vessels 
to  pass  one  another.  Erelong  the  traffic  had 
increased  so  enormously  that  a  second  canal 
was  talked  about ;  and  in  1886-90  the  canal  had 
been  deepened  to  28  feet,  and  widened  in 
parts  to  144  feet,  and  in  some  places  to  213 
feet.  In  1870,  486  vessels  of  654,915  tons  passed 
through  the  canal ;  in  1903,  3761  of  11,907,288  net 
tons,  of  which  2278  vessels  of  7,403,553  tons  were 
British.  The  time  required  for  passage  has 
been  shortened  (by  help  of  electric  lights,  &c.) 
from  36  hours  to  24  hours.  Lord  Beaconsfield's 
government  bought  the  khedive's  shares  (176,602 
out  of  a  total  of  500,000)  in  1875  for  Britain.  Tlie 
total  receipts  exceed  £4,000,000  annually.  See 
works  by  Lesseps  (1875  and  1881),  his  Life  by  G. 
B.  Smith  (1893),  and  the  various  periodic  returns. 
Suffolk  (Suf'fok),  the  easternmost  county  of 
England,  is  bounded  E.  by  the  German  Ocean, 
and  elsewhere  by  Essex,  Cambridgeshire,  and 
Norfolk.  Its  length  from  E.  to  W.  is  57  miles ; 
its  mean  breadth  from  N.  to  S.  about  30  miles ; 
and  its  area,  1475  sq.  m.  Pop.  (1801)  210,431; 
(1831)  296,317;  (1861)  337,070;  (1901)  384,198. 
Though  no  hills  of  any  notable  character  rise 
within  its  confines,  Suffolk  is  not  by  any  means 
flat.  The  sea-coast  is  low  and  skirted  by  banks 
of  shingle,  except  near  Lowestoft  and  South  wold, 
and  again  at  Dunwich  and  Felixstowe,  which  all 
rest  on  sandstone  cliffs  ;  beyond  stretches  an 
almost  continuous  series  of  light  sandy  heath- 


SUHL 


675 


SUMATRA 


lands,  glorious  in  summer  with  gorse  and  heather ; 
and  inland  the  country  is  undulating,  well 
watered,  and  for  the  most  part  well  wooded,  the 
scenery  in  places— e.g.  at  Yoxford  ('  the  Garden 
of  Suttblk'),  and  in  tlie  vale  of  the  Gipping— 
being  very  picturesque.  More  than  two-thirds 
of  the  county  consists  of  heavy  land,  a  stifl'clay 
prevailing  in  Mid  (or  as  it  is  locally  termed 
'  High ')  Suffolk,  whilst  the  western  part  lies  upon 
chalk,  terminating  at  its  north-west  corner  with 
a  tract  of  peaty  fen-land.  The  Waveney,  Aide, 
Deben,  Orwell,  and  Stour,  all  flowing  eastwards, 
are  the  principal  rivers.  Coprolites  are  raised  in 
the  region  between  Ipswich  and  Woodbridge,  gun- 
flints  at  Brandon.  Agriculture,  despite  the 
depression  of  late  years,  still  forms  the  staple 
industry,  780,000  acres  being  under  cultivation. 
The  manufactures  are  noticed  under  Ipswich  (the 
capital),  Beccles,  Stowjuarket,  and  Sudbury, 
these  being,  with  Bury  St  Edmunds,  Lowestoft, 
and  Woodbridge,  the  chief  towns.  Containing 
21  hundreds  and  517  civil  parishes  in  the  dioceses 
of  Norwich  and  Ely,  its  parliamentary  divisions 
are  five  in  number,  each  returning  one  member, 
and  it  has  two  county  councils,  one  for  the 
eastern  and  the  other  for  the  western  district. 
In  antiquities  the  county  is  especially  rich,  and 
amongst  them  may  be  noted  the  ruins  of  the 
castles  of  Burgh  (Roman),  Framlingham,  Orford, 
and  Wingfield  ;  the  gatehouse  of  Butley  Priory 
(Norman);  earthworks  at  Fornham,  Haughley, 
Nacton,  and  Snape  ;  the  fine  flint-work  churches  ; 
and  the  old  lialls  (many  of  them  moated)  of 
Helmingham,  Parham,  Hengrave,  Rushbrooke, 
Ickworth,  Somerleyton,  Giffords,  and  West  Stow. 
Suff'olk  worthies  (other  than  those  named  under 
Ipswich  and  Bury  St  Edmunds)  have  been  Bishops 
Grosseteste,  Aungerville,  and  Bale ;  Archbishop 
Bancroft ;  Chief- justices  Glanvill  and  Cavendish  ; 
George  Cavendish  (Wolsey's  biographer);  Nash, 
Crabbe,  and  Robert  Bloomfield  (poets);  Sir 
Simonds  D'Ewes ;  the  Earl  of  Arlington,  Roger 
North ;  Gainsborough,  Frost,  Constable,  and 
Bright  (artists) ;  Bunbury  (caricaturist),  Woolner 
(the  sculptor).  Lord  Chancellor  Thurlow, 
Arthur  Young,  Clara  Reeve,  Mrs  Inchbald,  Kirby 
(naturalist),  John  Hookham  Frere,  Crabb  Robin- 
son, Sir  Philip  Broke,  John  and  Charles  Austin, 
Admirals  Fitzroy  and  Rous,  Dr  Routh,  Professors 
Maurice  and  Cowell,  Edward  FitzGerald,  Sir 
Henry  Thompson,  Agnes  Strickland,  and  Miss 
Betham  Edwards.  See  works  by  Kirby  (2d  ed, 
1764),  Cullum  (1813),  Gage  (1838),  Page  (1844), 
Suckling  (2  vols.  1846-48),  Glyde  (1858-66),  Baynes 
(2  vols.  1873),  Taylor  (new  ed.  1892),  and  White 
(new  ed.  1891) ;  also  the  Qxiarterly  (April  1887). 

Suhl  (Soole),  a  town  of  Prussia,  in  a  romantic 
Thuringian  valley,  32  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Erfurt ; 
celebrated  for  its  firearms,  as  formerly  for  its 
swords  and  armour.     Pop.  13,500. 

Suilven.    See  Sutherland. 

Suir  (Shure),  a  river  of  Ireland,  flowing  85  miles 
SW.  and  E.,  chiefly  along  the  boundaries  of  Tip- 
perary,  Waterford,  Kilkenny,  and  Wexford,  past 
Cloninel,  Carrick,  and  Waterford,  till  it  meets 
the  Barrow,  and  falls  into  Waterford  Haven. 

Sukhum  Kale  (Sook'hoom  Kah-leh;  anc.  Dios- 
curias),  a  fortified  seaport  (Russian  since  1877)  of 
the  Caucasus,  on  the  E.  coast  of  the  Black  Sea, 
70  miles  N,  by  W.  of  POti.    Pop.  8000. 

Sukkur,  a  town  on  the  Indus'  right  bank,  28 
miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Shikarpur ;  it  is  connected 
by  rail  also  with  Karachi,  and  is  the  terminus 
of  the  Bolan  Pass  Railway  to  Afghanistan.  The 
fiver  is  crossed  by  a  magnificent  cantilever  bridge 


(1889),  or  rather  two  bridges  (one  820  feet  in 
span),  resting  on  Bukkur  Island.  New  Sukkur 
grew  up  after  the  British  occupied  (1839)  the  fort 
on  Bukkur.  Pop.  (1872)  13,318;  (1901)  31,316. 
Near  Old  Sukkur,  a  mile  away,  are  old  tombs. 

Sulgrave,  a  Northants  parish,  the  Washingtons' 
ancestral  seat,  6  miles  NNW.  of  Brackley. 

Suliman  Hills  (Soo-lee-mdhn'),  a  rocky,  barren 
mountain-range  running  over  350  miles  N.  and 
S.,  between  Afghanistan  and  the  Punjab.  The 
highest  summit,  Takht-i-Sulaiman  (Solomon's 
Throne),  11,295  feet  high,  was  first  ascended  by 
a  European,  Major  Holdich,  in  1883. 

Sulina  (Soolee'na),  a  lower  branch  of  the 
Danube  (q.v.).  The  Roumanian  town  of  Sulina 
(pop.  5000)  is  on  its  S.  bank,  near  the  mouth. 

Sulmo'na,  or  Solmona,  a  city  of  Italy,  80 
miles  by  rail  E.  of  Rome.  It  stands  1575  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  has  a  cathedral  (1119).  Here 
were  born  Ovid  and  Pope  Innocent  VII.  On  a 
mountain  close  by  stood  until  1870  the  '  mother 
monastery '  of  the  Celestines.    Pop.  18,000. 

Sultanabad,  a  Persian  town  in  the  west  of 
Irak-Ajemi,  and  capital  of  the  province,  with  a 
famous  carpet  manufacture.     Pop.  20,000. 

Sulu  Islands,  an  archipelago  of  188  mountain- 
ous islands  stretching  from  Borneo  NE.  to  the 
Philippines,  with  a  total  area  of  948  sq.  m.  and 
a  pop.  of  25,000.  The  Malay-Mohammedan  in- 
habitants were,  as  bold  pirates,  the  terror  of  the 
seas,  until  the  Spaniards  conquered  them  in  1876 ; 
in  1899  the  sultan  recognised  the  authority  of 
the  United  States. 

Sumatra  (Soo'matra,  usu.  Syoo-mwi^tra  ;  named 
from  the  ancient  town  of  Samudera  in  the  north) 
is  after  Borneo  the  largest  island  of  the  East 
Indian  Archipelago  or  Indonesia,  having  an  area 
not  much  less  than  that  of  Spain,  calculated  at 
165,600  sq.  m.  Towards  the  middle  it  is  crossed 
lengthwise  by  the  equator  ;  the  greatest  length  is 
1115  miles,  the  greatest  breadth  275.  An  impos- 
ing mountain-system,  consisting  of  several  nearly 
parallel  ranges  (7000  to  10,000  feet  high),  with 
intervening  plateaus  and  valleys— forms  the 
framework  of  the  island,  which  has  a  bold  and 
frequently  precipitous  coast  towards  the  west. 
Seven  or  eight  volcanoes  are  still  active,  in- 
cluding Indrapura  (the  culminating  peak  of  the 
island,  11,800  feet),  Merapi  (the  most  restless), 
Pasaman  or  Mount  Ophir  (which  broke  out  in 
1891),  &c.  Towards  the  west  the  rivers  are  of 
necessity  short  and  rapid,  but  several  of  the 
eastward  streams  grow  to  imposing  rivers  in 
their  passage  through  the  plains.  They  are  fed 
by  an  abundant  rainfall  (83  inches  at  Deli).  The 
flora  is  exceptionally  rich.  Vast  but  too  rapidly 
diminishing  areas  of  the  mountain  regions  are 
covered  with  virgin  forest,  a  striking  contrast 
to  the  wide  alluvial  prairies.  The  Dutch  expedi- 
tion of  1877-79  collected  400  varieties  of  timber. 
Rice,  sugar,  cofl!"ee,  pepper,  cocoa-nuts,  sago, 
maize,  sweet  potatoes,  yams,  and  of  late  excel- 
lent tobacco  are  cultivated.  Gold  and  coal  are 
worked,  the  latter  especially  at  Ombilin,  united 
with  the  west  coast  by  railway  in  1891.  The 
petroleum  found  at  Langkat  and  elsewhere  is 
another  source  of  wealth.  Of  112  mamn)als, 
45  are  common  to  Borneo  and  39  to  Java.  The 
birds  and  snakes  are  in  the  main  Bomean.  The 
Bornean  forms,  however,  are  almost  entirely 
confined  to  the  eastern  side  of  the  island.  The 
Orang-outang  and  the  hm,  the  true  tiger,  the 
Malay  bear,  the  rusa  deer,  the  Malay  hog,  the 
tapir,  the  two-horned  Sumatran  rhinoceros,  and 
the  Sumatran  elephant  are  characteristic  fgrms, 


SUMBAWA 


676 


SUNDERLAND 


Among  the  birds  are  Argus  pheasants,  homhills, 
goat-suckers,  and  grakles.  Both  the  python  (15 
to  20  feet  long)  and  the  cobra  are  of  frequent 
occurrence,  and  the  crocodile  swarms  in  many  of 
the  rivers.  Sumatra  is  peopled  in  the  main  by 
tribes  of  the  Malay  stock,  ditfering  very  markedly 
in  degree  of  civilisation,  custom,  and  language. 
An  earlier  non-Malay  element  is  represented — 
the  Kubus,  a  savage  forest-dwelling  race ;  the 
Battas  ;  and  the  Redjangers.  Hindu  influences, 
which  have  left  their  mark  in  ruined  temples, 
religious  customs,  language,  alphabets,  &c., 
began  to  tell  on  Sumatra  prior  to  the  7th  c.  In 
the  13th  Mohammedanism  was  introduced.  The 
island  became  known  in  1508  through  Lopez 
de  Figuera.  The  Portuguese  were  ousted  by  the 
Dutch  towards  the  close  of  the  16th  c. ;  though 
the  permanent  Dutch  occupation  was  not  com- 
pletely carried  out  round  the  coast  till  1881, 
and  much  of  the  interior  is  still  semi-independent 
and  unexplored.  The  Dutch  possessions  were  in 
the  hands  of  the  British  between  1811  and  1816, 
and  portions  down  till  1825.  Atjeh,  Achin  or 
Atcheen  (q.v.),  only  subdued  after  a  long  war 
(1875-79)  and  not  yet  pacified  in  1894,  was  formed 
into  a  government  in  1881.  The  total  pop. 
of  Sumatra  and  the  adjacent  islands  is  estimated 
at  3,200,000  (Achin,  110,800 ;  West  Coast,  1,527,500 ; 
East  Coast,  421,000;  Bencoolen,  162,400,  &c.). 
Chief  centres  of  population  are  Padang  (150,000), 
Achin  (10,000),  Bencoolen  (12,000),  and  Palem- 
bang  (43,000).  See  Marsden's  History  (1783),  the 
memoir  of  Sir  Stamford  Raffles  ;  Wallace's  Malay 
Archipelago  and  Australasia;  and  Forbes,  A 
Naturalist's  Wanderings  (1885). 

Sumba'wa,  one  of  the  chain  of  the  Sunda 
Islands,  to  the  east  of  Java,  lies  between  Lombok 
(on  the  west)  and  Flores  (on  the  east),  which 
yields  rice,  tobacco,  cotton,  sandalwood,  &c. 
Area,  5192  sq.  m. ;  pop.  150,000,  all  Malays  and 
Mohammedans.  The  four  native  rulers  owe 
allegiance  to  the  Dutch  governor  of  Celebes. 
In  1815  an  eruption  of  Tambora,  the  loftiest  peak, 
whereby  its  altitude  was  decreased  from  14,000 
to  7670  feet,  cost  12,000  lives.  Another  eruption 
took  place  in  1836,  and  one  of  another  peak, 
Gunong  Api,  in  1860. 

Sumburgh  Head,  a  bold  headland,  with  a 
lighthouse,  at  the  S.  extremity  of  Shetland. 

Summer  Isles,  a  group  of  twenty  rocky  islets 
off"  the  west  coast  of  Scotland,  near  the  entrance 
of  Loch  Broom,  an  inlet  (7  miles  long,  and  12^ 
miles  wide  at  the  entrance)  of  NW.  Ross-shire". 
The  largest,  Tanera,  measuring  1|  by  1^  mile, 
rises  406  feet,  and  has  120  inhabitants. 

Sumy,  a  town  of  Russia,  125  miles  by  rail  NW. 
of  Kharkoff.     Pop.  26,700. 

Sunart  {Soo'nart),  Loch,  a  picturesque  sea- 
inlet  of  W.  Argyllshire,  winding  1P|  miles  E. 

Sunbury,  a  Middlesex  village,  on  the  Thames, 
4|  miles  W.  of  Kingston.     Pop.  4550. 

Sunbury,  capital  of  Northumberland  county, 
Pennsylvania,  on  the  Susquehanna,  53  miles  by 
rail  N.  of  Harrisburg.     Pop.  10,200. 

Sunda  Islands  {Soon'da),  a  name  applied  some- 
times to  the  long  chain  of  islands  stretching  SE. 
from  the  Malay  Peninsula  to  the  north  coast  of 
Australia.  More  properly  it  means  the  islands 
that  lie  between  the  E.  end  of  Java  and  the  N. 
side  of  Timor-^Bali,  Lombok,  Sumbawa,  Flores, 
Sandalwood  Island,  &c.  (see  separate  articles). 
Sunda  Strait  is  a  passage,  70  to  90  miles  broad, 
lying  between  Sumatra  and  Java  and  connecting 
the  Indian  Ocean  with  the  Sunda  Sea.    Several 


islands   stud   its   waters,   as   Krakatoa   (q.v.), 
Princes  Island,  Steers,  and  Calraeijer. 

Sundarbans  (Soon'derbuns),  or  Sunderbunds, 
the  lower  portion  of  the  delta  of  the  Ganges,  ex- 
tending 165  miles  eastward  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Hugli  to  that  of  the  Meghna,  and  stretching  inland 
for  83  miles.  The  total  area  is  estimated  at  7550 
sq.  m.  The  region  is  entirely  alluvial,  with  vast 
swamps  and  a  network  of  streams.  Next  the 
sea  is  a  wide  belt  of  dense  jungle,  the  haunt  of 
wild  beasts.  Behind  this  belt  the  land  is  culti- 
vated, the  fields  being  enclosed  with  embank- 
ments.   Rice  is  the  staple  crop. 

Sunderland,  a  seaport,  municipal,  county,  and 
parliamentary  borough  of  Durham,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Wear,  13  miles  NE.  of  the  city  of  Durham 
and  12  SE.  of  Newcastle-upon-Tyne.  The  town- 
ship of  Sunderland,  on  the  south  side  of  the 
river,  covers  only  219^  acres ;  the  municipal 
borough  comprises  also  the  townships  of  Bishop- 
wearmouth,  Monkwearmouth,  and  Monkwear- 
mouth  Shore.  Monkwearmouth  apj)ears  in 
history  in  674  as  the  site  of  a  monastery  erected 
by  Benedict  Biscop ;  Bishopwearmouth  in  930 
was  conferred  by  Athelstan  on  the  monks  of 
Lindisfarne  then  settled  at  Chester-le-Street. 
The  earliest  indubitable  reference  to  Sunderland 
itself  does  not  occur  till  1311.  Sunderland  is  a 
fine,  Avell-built  town,  with  broad,  clean  streets 
and  pleasant  suburbs.  Till  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  c.  it  was  a  very  inconsiderable  place,  but 
owing  to  the  improvement  of  the  harbour  and  the 
growth  of  the  Durham  coal  trade,  it  has  developed 
with  great  rapidity.  The  principal  public  build- 
ings  and  institutions  are  the  Italian  Renaissance 
town-hall  (1887-90) ;  the  Free  Library,  Museum, 
Art  Gallery,  and  Winter  Garden  (1877-79) ;  Sun- 
derland Literary  Society  and  Subscription 
Library  (1878) ;  the  Theatre  Royal  (1853) ;  the 
Avenue  Theatre  ;  the  Victoria  Hall  (1872),  the 
scene  of  the  terrible  disaster  of  June  16,  1883,  in 
which  182  children  lost  their  lives  ;  the  Assembly 
Hall ;  the  Workmen's  Hall  (1868) ;  the  Liberal 
Club  (1839);  the  Countv  Constitutional  Club 
(1890) ;  the  Infirmary  (1865  ;  enlarged  1879-87) ; 
the  Orphan  Asylum  (1860).  St  Peter's,  Monk- 
wearmouth, retains  in  a  part  of  the  tower  and 
west  wall  of  the  nave  a  remnant  of  the  7th- 
century  building.  The  People's  or  Mowbray 
Park  is  an  excellent  recreation-ground.  The 
portion  south  of  the  railway  was  purchased  in 
1854,  and  contains  monuments  of  Havelock  and 
Jack  Crawford.  The  New  or  Extension  Park, 
north  of  the  railway,  was  purchased  in  1866. 
Roker,  a  watering-place  close  to  Monkwear- 
mouth, has  also  a  park  of  17  acres,  opened  in 
1880.  Two  single-arch  iron  bridges  cross  the 
Wear  at  a  distance  of  20  yards  from  each  other. 
The  older  bridge  (1793-96),  236  feet  in  span,  was 
reconstructed  and  widened  in  1858-59.  The  rail- 
way bridge  was  opened  in  1879.  The  harbour  is 
formed  by  two  piers,  the  north  one  617  yards 
long,  the  south  650.  A  new  pier,  starting  from 
the  south  end  of  the  terrace  promenade  at  Roker, 
is  over  2000  feet  long.  Two  other  piers  protect 
the  entrance  to  the  south  docks.  There  are  four 
docks  capable  of  accommodating  the  largest 
vessels— the  North  Dock  (6  acres),  the  Hudson 
Dock,  North  (18  acres),  the  Hudson  Dock,  South 
(14  acres),  the  Hendon  Dock  (11  acres).  The 
annual  shipments  of  coal  and  coke  exceed 
4,000,000  tons.  From  the  commissioners'  staiths 
15,000  tons  can  be  shipped  in  a  day.  Other  ex- 
ports are  bottles  and  glass,  earthenware,  lime, 
iron,  chemicals,  patent  fuel,  and  ceraent.    Th? 


StfNDdVALli 


677 


SVREEY 


L 


t)rincipal  imports  are  timber,  props,  iron  ores, 
chalk,  loam,  grain,  flour,  esparto  grass,  hay, 
straw,  and  tar.  Sunderland  is  famous  for  its 
iron  shipbuilding  yards,  of  which  there  are 
thirteen.  There  are  also  extensive  ironworks, 
forges,  anchor  and  chain  works,  glass  and  bottle 
works,  chemical  works,  roperies,  paper-mills, 
breweries,  and  lime-kilns.  In  Monkwearmouth 
is  the  Pemberton  coal-pit,  381  fathoms  deep, 
and  extending  under  the  sea.  Sunderland  returns 
two  members.  Pop.  of  pari,  borough  (1851) 
67,394;  (1881)  124,760;  (1901)  159,359',  of  whom 
146,565  were  in  the  municipal  and  county  borough. 
Havelock  was  born  at  Ford  Hall,  Bishopwear- 
mouth  (1795) ;  Jack  Crawford,  the  hero  of  Camper- 
down  (1775-1831),  at  Sunderland;  other  natives 
were  Clarkson  Stanlield,  R.A,,  Tom  Taylor,  and 
Swan  the  electrician. 

Sundsvall  (Soonds-val),  a  Swedish  seaport,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia,  80  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Stock- 
holm, and  290  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Trondhjem  in 
Norway,  has  ironworks  and  sawmills.  It  was 
almost  destroyed  by  tire  in  1888.    Pop.  15,200. 

Sungei  Ujong.    See  Straits  Settlements. 

Sunium.    See  Colonna. 

Sunnyside.    See  Tarrytown. 

Suona'da,  or  the  Inland  Sea  of  Japan,  separates 
the  islands  of  Kyushu  and  Shikoku  from  the 
main  island,  Honshu.  It  is  250  miles  in  length 
from  the  strait  of  Shimonoseki  (q.v.)  to  Osaka, 
has  a  maximum  breadth  of  50  miles,  and  is 
studded  with  innumerable  islets  and  rocks. 

Superior,  capital  of  Douglas  county,  Wiscon- 
sin, at  the  W.  end  of  Lake  Superior,  and  the 
mouth  of  the  Nemadji  River,  8  miles  by  rail  SE. 
of  Duluth.  Grown  up  since  1880,  it  has  a  good 
harbour  and  steam  sawmills.     Pop.  31,600. 

Superior,  Lake,  the  largest  body  of  fresh 
water  on  the  globe,  is  the  highest  and  most 
western  of  the  great  lakes  lying  between  Canada 
and  the  United  States.  It  is  bounded  N.  and  E. 
by  Ontario,  S.  by  Michigan  and  Wisconsin,  and 
NW.  by  Minnesota.  Greatest  length,  412  miles ; 
greatest  breadth,  167  miles  ;  area,  31,200  sq.  m.— 
nearly  that  of  Ireland.  The  surface  of  the  lake 
is  601  x^n  fset  above  sea-level,  and  its  mean  depth 
475  feet ;  its  maximum  depth  is  1008  feet.  Its 
surface  has  an  elevation  of  20^  feet  above  that  of 
Lakes  Huron  and  Michigan ;  this  difference  occurs 
in  the  rapids  of  St  Mary's  River,  the  only  outlet 
(see  Sault  Ste  Marie).  Lake  Superior,  being 
situated  very  near  the  watershed  between  Hudson 
Bay  and  the  Mississippi,  receives  no  rivers  of 
importance,  although  hundreds  of  small  rivers 
pour  themselves  into  it,  the  largest  the  St  Louis 
and  the  Nipigon.  The  bold  and  rocky  northern 
coast  is  fringed  with  numerous  islands  of  basalt 
and  granite,  some  rising  sharply  from  deep  water 
to  1300  feet  above  the  lake.  The  largest.  Isle 
Royale,  is  44  miles  long.  The  southern  shore  is 
generally  lower.  Keweenaw  Point  (q.v.)  projects 
far  into  the  lake.  At  Grand  Isle  Bay,  100  miles 
W.  of  Sault  Ste  Marie,  are  the  Pictured  Rocks, 
cliffs  of  sandstone,  50  to  200  feet  high,  in  many 

E laces  presenting  fantastic  forms,  and  marked 
y  vertical  bands  and  blotches  of  red  and  yellow. 
The  water  is  singularly  pure  and  transparent. 
The  lake  never  freezes  over,  but  the  shore  ice 
prevents  navigation  in  winter.  It  is  subject 
also  to  very  violent  storms,  with  waves  15  to  18 
feet  high.  It  has  the  small  tides  common  to  the 
great  lakes,  and  also  the  seiches  seen  in  Swiss  lakes 
— a  regular  series  of  small  waves,  or  pulsations, 
at  teu  minutes'  intervals.    Towns  on  the  Canadian 


side  are  Sault  Ste  Marie  and  Port  Arthur,  and  on 
the  American  side  Duluth,  Superior,  and  Mar- 
quette. The  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  passes 
along  the  northern  shore. 

Surabaya  (Soorabl'ya),  a  seaport  and  capital  of 
a  province  on  the  N.  coast  of  Java,  opposite 
Madura  Island.  Here  the  Dutch  have  an  arsenal, 
a  mint,  sugar  and  furniture  factories,  shipbuilding 
yards,  and  foundries.  Sugar,  cofl'ee,  hides,  to- 
bacco, rice,  and  cotton  are  exports  ;  pop.  147,000. 

Surakarta,  a  town  in  the  centre  of  Java,  con- 
nected by  rail  with  Samarang  on  the  N.  and 
Surabaya  on  the  E. ;  pop.  124,000. 

Surat',  a  city  of  India,  on  the  S.  bank  of  the 
Tapti  (crossed  by  a  five-girder  bridge),  14  miles 
from  its  mouth,  and  160  by  rail  N.  of  Bombay. 
It  stretches  in  a  semicircle  for  more  than  a  mile 
along  the  river,  the  quondam  citadel  (1540; 
government  offices  since  1862)  forming  the  central 
feature.  The  chief  buildings  are  four  handsome 
mosques,  two  Parsee  fire-temples,  three  Hindu 
temples,  the  old  English  and  Dutch  factories,  and 
a  clock-tower  (80  feet  high).  The  existing  city  in 
1512,  soon  after  its  foundation,  was  burned  by 
the  Portuguese,  as  again  in  1530  and  1531.  In 
1612  the  English  established  themselves  there, 
and  shortly  after  they  were  followed  by  the 
Dutch.  Surat  then  traded  with  Europe,  Arabia, 
Persia,  Ceylon,  the  East  Indies,  &c.,  and  silk, 
cotton,  and  indigo  were  the  most  valuable  ex- 
ports.  Here  the  Mohammedan  pilgrims  of  India 
were  wont  to  embark  for  Mecca.  Shortly  after 
1650  the  Mahrattas  began  to  harass  the  city,  and 
towards  the  end  of  the  17th  century  the  com- 
merce of  Surat  began  to  decline,  Bombay  gradu- 
ally taking  its  place.  The  place  came  under 
British  rule  entirely  in  1800,  and  for  a  time  it 
had  a  revival  of  its  old  prosperity.  But  in  1887 
it  was  almost  wholly  ruined  by  a  disastrous  fire 
followed  by  a  great  flood.  It  flourished  once  more 
during  the  American  civil  war,  its  chief  export 
being  cotton.  Pop.  (1811)  250,000  :  (1847)  80,000 : 
(1881)  109,840  ;  (1901)  119,306. 

Surbiton.    See  Kingston-upon-Thames. 

Surinam.    See  Guiana  (Dutch). 

Surrey,  an  inland  county  in  the  south  of  Eng- 
land, separated  on  the  N.  by  the  Thames  from 
Middlesex,  and  bounded  elsewhere  by  Kent, 
Sussex,  Hants,  and  Berks.  Its  maximum  length 
from  B.  to  W.  is  39  miles ;  its  greatest  breadth, 
26  miles;  and  its  area,  758  sq.  m.,  or  485,129 
acres.  Pop.  (1801)  209,043  ;  (1831)  485,700  ;  (1861) 
831,093;  (1901)  2,008,923.  Far-famed  for  the 
beauty  of  its  scenery,  Surrey  is  traversed  from 
east  to  west  by  the  North  Downs  (see  Downs), 
which,  near  Titsey  on  the  Kentish  border,  rise 
to  880  feet.  On  the  north  side  of  this  range  the 
land  slopes  gradually  to  the  Thames— though 
even  there  plenty  of  high  ground  is  to  be 
found,  as  Cooper's  Hill,  St  George's  Hill,  Rich- 
mond Park,  and  Wimbledon  Common — but  on 
the  south  the  descent  is  rugged  and  broken  up 
before  the  level  of  the  Weald  is  reached.  South 
of  the  main  range,  and  about  5  miles  distant 
from  Dorking,  is  Leith  Hill  (967  feet),  the  highest 
point  in  the  county,  whilst  in  the  extreme  south- 
west rises  Hind  Head  (903  feet).  From  all  these 
places,  as  also  from  many  others,  glorious  views 
are  to  be  obtained,  a  noticeable  feature  in  the 
landscapes  being  the  prevalence  of  commons  and 
heath-lands— the  latter  chiefly  in  the  west.  Of 
rivers  the  most  important  are  the  Wey  and  the 
Mole,  both  tributaries  of  the  Thames.  Surrey  is 
well  wooded,  box-trees  especially  growing  in  great 
profusion,  and  around  Farnham  some  2000  acrea 


dtrs 


e?8 


SUTHERLAND 


fcre  under  hops.  Croydon,  Guildford,  Kingston, 
and  Reigate  are— not  reckoning  the  suburbs  of 
London  —  the  principal  manufacturing  centres 
and  most  important  towns  ;  near  the  last  named 
also  extensive  beds  of  fuller's  earth  are  found. 
The  county  is  divided  into  fourteen  hundreds, 
and  since  1885  has  returned  six  members  to 
parliament.  Between  Kingston  and  Ockley 
traces  of  the  old  Roman  road  from  London 
•to  Chichester  are  plainly  visible,  whilst  on 
Wimbledon  Common,  Hascombe  Hill,  and 
near  Aldershot  are  Roman  encampments. 
The  castles  of  Farnham  and  Guildford  and  the 
ruined  abbeys  of  Newark  and  Waverley  call  for 
attention;  at  Claremont,  Oatlands  Park,  and 
Sheen  (now  Richmond),  were  royal  residences ; 
and  quaintly-timbered  old  houses— many  of  them 
moated— abound  in  the  districts  around  Goms- 
hall,  Godalming,  and  Haslemere.  Of  Surrey 
worthies  the  best  known  are  William  of  Ockham, 
Thomas  Cromwell,  Archbishops  Abbot  and 
Whately,  Bishops  Corbet  and  Wilberforce, 
Middleton  and  Oxenford  (the  dramatists),  John 
Evelyn,  Sir  W.  Temple,  Bolingbroke,  Rodney, 
Banks  (the  sculptor).  Gibbon,  Home  Tooke, 
Cobbett,  Malthus,  Herring  (the  animal  painter), 
Faraday,  Rennie,  Sydney  Herbert,  Robert 
Browning,  Hablot  K.  Browne,  Albert  Smith,  Dr 
Jowett,  Eliza  Cook,  Sant  (the  R.A.),  Sir  George 
Grove,  Professors  Cayley  and  Sidney  Colvin,  Dr 
Furnivall,  Gilchrist  "(the  biographer),  and  Miss 
Faithfull.  See  works  by  Manning  (3  vols.  1804- 
14),  Allen  (2  vols.  1829-30),  Brayley  (5  vols.  1841- 
48),  Bevan  (Stanford's  series,  new  ed.  1891),  and 
Murray's  Handbook  to  Surrey  and  Hants  (new  ed. 
1888) ;  also  On  Surrey  Hills  (1892). 

Sus,  (1)  a  river  and  district  of  Morocco  between 
the  Atlas  and  the  Anti-Atlas.— (2)  A  port  of 
Tunis,  75  miles  SB.  of  the  capital.    Pop.  8000. 

Susa  (the  Shushan  of  Daniel,  Esther,  &c.),  a 
town  of  Persia,  the  ancient  capital  of  Susiana 
(the  Elam  of  Scripture,  mod.  Khusistan),  and  one 
of  the  most  important  cities  of  the  old  world. 
Its  ruins  cover  3  sq.  m.,  and  include  four 
spacious  platforms  above  100  feet  high.  See  books 
by  Williams,  Loftus,  Churchill,  and  Dieulafoy. 

Susa,  a  city  of  Northern  Italy,  on  a  tributary 
of  the  Po,  at  the  foot  of  the  Cottian  Alps,  32  miles 
by  rail  W.  of  Turin.  It  has  a  cathedral  (1029), 
and  a  triumphal  arch  (8  B.C.).    Pop.  4960. 

Susquehanna,  an  American  river,  the  North 
Branch  (350  miles)  of  which  has  its  origin  in 
Schuyler  Lake,  in  Central  New  York,  and  the 
West  Branch  (250  miles)  in  the  Alleghany  Moim- 
tains.  These  two  unite  at  Northumberland, 
Pennsylvania,  and  the  river  thence  flows  150 
miles  S.  and  SB.  to  the  N.  end  of  Chesapeake 
Bay.  It  is  a  shallow,  rapid,  mountain  river,  with 
varied  and  romantic  scenery,  and  is  of  use  mainly 
for  floating  timber.  On  its  banks  Coleridge  and 
Southey  proposed  to  found  their  '  pantisocracy.' 

Sussex,  a  maritime  county  in  the  south  of 
England,  washed  on  the  SB.  and  S.  for  91  miles 
by  the  English  Channel,  and  elsewhere  bounded 
by  Hampshire,  Surrey,  and  Kent.  It  has  an  ex- 
treme length  from  E.  to  W.  of  76  miles,  an 
extreme  width  of  27,  and  an  area  of  1464  sq.  m., 
or  936,911  acres.  From  the  Hampshire  border, 
near  Petersfield,  to  Beachy  Head  (q.v.,  575  feet) 
the  county  is  traversed  by  the  chalky  South 
Downs,  whose  highest  point  is  Ditchling  Beacon 
(858  feet),  and  whose  northern  escarpment  is 
steep,  but  leads  down  to  the  fertile  and  richly 
■wooded  Weald.  Beyond  this  again,  in  the  north- 
east, is  the  Forest  Ridge  (804  feet).    A  very  pro- 


ductive tract,  2  to  7  miles  broad,  extends  west- 
ward from  Brighton  along  the  coast  to  the  Hamp- 
shire boundary  ;  in  the  south-east  are  rich  marsh- 
lands, affording  excellent  pasture.  The  chief 
streams,  all  unimportant,  are  the  Arun,  Adur, 
Ouse,  and  Rothor.  Rather  more  than  two-thirds 
of  the  entire  area  is  in  cultivation;  and  177  sq. 
m.  (second  only  to  Yorkshire)  are  occupied  by 
woods— in  the  Weald,  St  Leonards  and  Ashdown 
Forests,  &c.  The  Downs  (q.v.)  are  clothed  with 
a  short,  fine,  and  delicate  turf ;  and  here  and 
elsewhere  more  than  half  a  million  of  the  well- 
known  Southdown  sheep  are  grazed,  the  live- 
stock also  including  some  25,000  horses  and 
113,000  cattle.  Sussex  was  once  the  chief  seat  of 
the  iron  trade,  when  wood  was  used  for  smelting, 
and  its  last  furnace  was  not  blown  out  till  1809 ; 
to-day  the  manufactures  are  unimportant.  The 
county,  which  contains  six  '  rapes,'  68  hundreds, 
and  317  parishes,  has  since  1885  returned  six 
members  to  parliament.  Brighton  and  Hastings 
are  parliamentary  and  Arundel,  Chichester,  East- 
bourne, Lewes,  Rye,  Worthing,  and  Bexhill 
municipal  boroughs  ;  whilst  Newhaven,  Seaford, 
Littlehampton,  and  Bognor  also  deserve  men- 
tion. Pop.  (1841)  300,075;  (1901)  605,052. 
Sussex  contains  the  landing-place  of  Csesar 
(55  B.C.);  of  iElla  (477  a.d.),  from  wliose  sub- 
jects, the  South  Saxons,  the  county  derived  its 
name ;  and  of  William  the  Conqueror  (1066)  at 
Pevensey,  as  well  as  the  battlefields  of  Hastings 
and  Lewes.  The  antiquities  include  a  British 
camp  at  Cissbury,  Roman  remains  at  Pevensey 
and  Bognor,  Chichester  cathedral  (12th  century), 
a  dozen  mediaeval  castles  (Arundel,  Bodiam, 
Hurstmonceaux,  Hastings,  Bramber,  &c.),  and 
nine  or  ten  religious  houses  (Lewes,  Battle,  &c.), 
Cobden,  Collins,  Fletcher,  Otway,  Sackville, 
Selden,  and  Shelley  have  been  ainong  the 
eminent  natives  ;  and  Sussex  also  has  memories 
of  Cliillingworth,  Lyell,  Archdeacon  Hare,  John 
Sterling,  Cardinal  Manning,  Titus  Oates,  and 
Lord  Tennyson. 

See  woiks  by  T.  W.  Horsfield  (1835),  Lower 
(3  vols.  1865-70),  Parish  (1886),  G.  F.  Chambers 
(3d  ed.  1891),  A.  Hare  (1894),  and  E.  V.  Lucas 
{Highways  and  Byways  in  Sussex,  1904). 

Sutherland,  a  maritime  county  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Scotland,  is  bounded  W.  and  N.  by  the 
Atlantic,  B.  by  Caithness,  SE.  by  the  North  Sea, 
and  S.  by  the  Dornoch  Firth  and  by  Ross  and 
Cromarty.  Measuring  63  by  59  miles,  it  has  an 
area  of  2126  sq.  m.,  or  1,360,459  acres,  of  which 
47,633  are  water  and  12,812  foreshore.  The 
Atlantic  coasts,  deeply  indented  by  sea-lochs,  are 
bold  and  rock-bound,  in  Cape  Wrath  (q.v.)  attain- 
ing 523  feet ;  the  south-eastern  seaboard  is  com- 
paratively flat.  On  the  Caithness  boundary  rise 
the  Hill  of  Ord  (1324  feet)  and  Cnoc  an  Eirean- 
naich  (1698) ;  but  the  mountains  of  Sutherland 
are  all  in  the  west— Benmore  Assynt(3273),  Coni- 
veall  (3234),  Ben  Clibrick  (3154),  Ben  Hope  (3040), 
Foinaven  (2980),  Canisp  (2779),  and  Suilven  or  the 
Sugar-loaf  (2399).  The  Oykell,  tracing  the  Ross- 
shire  boundary,  and  ftilling  into  the  Dornoch 
Firth,  is  the  longest  stream  (35  miles) ;  and  of 
over  300  lochs  and  tarns  the  largest  are  Lochs 
Shin  (16  X  1|  miles)  and  Assynt  (q.v.,  6|  x  |). 
Coal  has  been  mined  at  Brora  off  and  on  since 
1573  ;  and  gold  at  Kildonan  (q.v.).  The  total  per- 
centage of  cultivated  area  is  only  2*9,  in  spite  of 
costly  reclamations  carried  on  by  the  third  Duke 
of  Sutherland  (1828-92),  by  far  the  largest  pro- 
prietor—so costly  indeed  that  during  1853-82  the 
expenditure  on  his  estates  exceeded  the  income 
derived  from  them  by  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  million 


SUTHERLAND  FALLS 


679 


SWAZILAND 


II 


sterling.  The  live-stock  includes  over  10,000 
cattle  and  200,000  sheep ;  and  the  deer-forests, 
grouse-moors,  and  fishings  (especially  good  for 
trout)  attract  many  sportsmen.  The  climate 
varies  much,  like  the  rainfall,  which  increases 
westward  from  32  to  60  inches.  Sutherland 
returns  one  member ;  its  county  town  is  Dor- 
noch (q.v.).  Pop.  (1801)  23,117  ;  (1851)  25,793 ; 
(1881)  23,370  ;  (1901)  21,440.  The  Northmen,  who 
down  to  the  12th  c.  often  descended  on  Suther- 
land and  pillaged  it,  called  it  the  'Southern 
land,'  as  lying  to  the  south  of  the  Orkney  and 
Shetland  Islands.  The  '  Sutherland  Clearances,' 
by  which  many  small  tenants  were  removed,  took 
place  in  1810-20.  See  works  by  Sir  Robert  Gordon 
(1813),  Bishop  Pococke  (1888),  St  John  (2  vols. 
1849;  new  ed.  1884),  A.  Young  (1880),  A.  Mac- 
kenzie (1883),  and  Edwards-Moss  (1888). 

Sutherland  Falls.    See  New  Zealand. 

Sutlej,  or  Satlaj  (anc.  Hyphasis  or  Hesidrus), 
the  eastmost  of  the  live  rivers  of  the  Punjab, 
rises  in  the  sacred  lakes  of  Manasarowar  and 
Rakas-tal  in  Tibet,  at  a  height  of  15,200  feet,  and 
near  the  sources  of  the  Indus  and  Brahmaputra. 
It  flows  at  first  NW.,  but  turns  westward  to  cut 
its  way  through  the  Himalayas,  during  which 
passage  it  drops  to  3000  feet.  After  entering 
British  territory  it  pursues  a  SW.  direction, 
and  after  flowing  900  miles  in  all  joins  the  Indus 
at  Mitliankot,  S.  of  Multan.  It  is  crossed  near 
Jullunder  by  a  magnificent  iron  railway  bridge, 
2^  miles  long,  and  by  another  near  Bhawalpur, 
just  before  the  influx  of  the  Jhelum-Chenab. 

Sutors  of  Cromarty.    See  Cromarty. 

Sutton,  a  town  and  urban  district  in  Surrey, 
11  miles  from  London.     Pop.  (1901)  17,224. 

Sutton  Bridge,  a  town  of  Lincolnshire,  on  the 
Nen,  7  miles  N.  of  Wisbech.    Pop.  2100. 

Sutton  Coldfield,  a  municipal  borough  of 
Warwickshire,  8  miles  NE.  of  Birmingham,  with 
an  Early  English  church,  extended  in  Henry 
VIII.'s  reign  and  1879.  Henry  VIII.  gave  a 
charter  in  1529,  and  a  new  one  was  granted  in 
1885.  Agriculture  is  the  chief  occupation  of  the 
neighbourhood  ;  but  the  town  itself  is  becoming 
a  residential  suburb  of  Birmingham.  The  pictur- 
esque Sutton  Park  (3500  acres)  is  a  favourite  pic- 
nic resort.    Pop.  (1851)  4574 ;  (1901)  14,264. 

Sutton-in-Ashfield,  a  town  of  Nottingham- 
shire, 3  miles  SW.  of  Mansfield.  It  has  a  fine 
church  (1390 ;  restored  1868),  hosiery  manu- 
factures, and  neighbouring  coal-pits  and  lime- 
works.     Pop.  (1881)  8523  ;  (1901)  14,862. 

Sutton-on-Sea,  a  Lincolnshire  .seaside-resort, 
28  miles  NE.  of  Boston  by  rail. 

Suvalky,  or  Ssuwalki,  a  Polish  town,  48  miles 
NW.  of  Grodno.  Pop.  27,170.— Area  of  Suvalky 
government,  4846  sq.  ra.  ;  pop.  605,000. 

Suwanee  River  (Soo-wav/nee),  rises  in  southern 
Georgia,  in  the  Okefinokee  Swamp,  and  winds 
SSW.  through  Florida  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico. 

Suzdal  (Sooz'dal),  a  Russian  town,  12  miles 
N.  of  Vladimir.    Pop.  7000. 

Svanetia.    See  Caucasus. 

Sve^horg  (Svay-aw-borg).    See  Helsinofors. 

Svendborg.    See  Funen. 

Svenigorodka,  a  town  in  the  Russian  province 
of  Kieff,  100  miles  S.  of  Kieff".    Pop.  17,000. 

Swabia  (Ger.  Schwahen),  an  ancient  duchy  of 
SW.  Germany,  stretching  from  Franconia  to  Hel- 
vetia (Switzerland)  and  from  Burgundy  and  Lor- 
raine to  Bavaria,  and  mostly  embraced  since  1806 


in  Wiirtemberg  (q.v.).  It  was  named  from  the 
Germanic  Suevi,  who  drove  out  its  Celtic  inhab- 
itants in  the  1st  century  b.c. 

Swadlincote,  a  town  of  Derbyshire,  4  miles  SE. 
of  Burfcon-upon-Trent.    Pop.  of  urb.  dist.  18,000. 

S-waffham,  a  town  of  Norfolk,  15  miles  SE.  of 
Lynn.  It  has  a  cruciform  church  (1474)  of  great 
beauty,  a  corn-hall  (1858),  and  an  ugly  market- 
cross  (1783).    Pop.  3400. 

Swahili  Coast,  the  home  of  the  Swahili  race, 
on  the  east  coast  of  Africa,  opposite  Zanzibar 
and  extending  northward  to  Vitu. 

Swale,  a  river  in  the  North  Riding  of  York- 
shire, flowing  60  miles  ESE.,  and  near  Aldborough 
uniting  with  the  Ure  to  form  the  Ouse  (q.v.). 
See  also  Sheppey. 

Swallow  Falls,  a  waterfall  on  the  Llugwy, 
Carnarvonshire,  2|  miles  NW.  of  Bettws-y-Coed. 

Swanage,  a  pleasant  little  watering-place  of 
Dorsetshire,  in  the  '  Isle  '  of  Purbeck,  nestling  in 
the  southern  curve  of  a  lovely  bay,  9^  miles  SE. 
of  Wareham,  but  11  by  a  branch-line  opened  in 
1885.  In  Swanage  Bay,  in  877,  King  Alfred  won 
England's  first  naval  victory— a  defeat  of  the 
Danes.  Population,  3400.  See  Purbeck,  and 
J.  Braye's  Sivanage  (1890). 

Swanee  River.    See  Suwanee. 

Swanetia.    See  Caucasus. 

Swan  River.    See  Western  Australia. 

Swansea  (Welsh  Abertawe),  a  seaport  of 
Glamorganshire,  on  the  banks  and  at  the  mouth 
of  the  river  Tawe,  45  miles  WNW.  of  Cardiff  and 
216  W.  of  London.  A  municipal,  parliamentary, 
and  aLso  (since  1888)  county  borough,  it  is  the 
most  important  town  in  South  Wales.  Its  rapid 
progress  depends  on  the  manufacture  of  tin-plate 
here  and  in  the  neighbourhood ;  on  its  harbour 
and  docks ;  and  on  its  position  on  a  bay  afford- 
ing a  spacious,  sheltered,  and  safe  anchorage. 
The  Harbour  Trust  of  Swansea,  with  a  capital 
of  £1,500,000  and  an  income  of  upwards  of 
£100,000  per  annum,  possesses  docks,  con- 
structed since  1847,  covering  an  area  of  over  60 
acres.  There  is  annually  manufactured  in  Swan- 
sea and  the  immediate  neighbourhood  upwards 
of  two-thirds  of  the  tin-plates  manufactured 
in  Britain,  representing  a  value  of  over  £5,000,000. 
The  imports  include  copper,  silver,  lead^  tin^ 
nickel,  iron  and  steel.  The  chief  exports  are  tin, 
teriie  and  black  plates,  coal  and  coke,  copper, 
zinc,  iron  and  steel,  alkali,  superphosphate, 
arsenic,  &c.  Pop.  of  municipal  borough  (1851) 
31,461  ;  (1881)  65,597  ;  (1901)  94,514.  Since  1885 
Swansea,  which  has  now  a  bisliop-suffragan 
under  St  Davids,  returns  two  members,  one 
for  the  town  and  one  for  the  district  divi- 
sion (Aberavon,  Kenfig,  Loughor,  and  Neath). 
The  chaiter  dates  from  the  days  of  King 
John  and  Henry  III.  The  castle,  of  which  a 
tower  still  remains,  was  founded  in  1099  by  the 
Earl  of  Wai'wick  ;  in  Edward  IV. 's  reign  it  passed 
by  marriage  from  the  Herberts  to  the  Somerset 
family,  and  is  still  the  property  of  the  Dukes  of 
Beaufort.     The  grammar-school  dates  from  1682. 

See  works  by  L.  W.  Dillwyn  (1848),  G.  G. 
Francis  (1849-67),  P.  Rogers  (1878),  L.  C.  Martin 
(1879),  and  F.  Grant  (1881). 

Swatow,  a  Chinese  seaport,  opened  to  foreign 
trade  since  1869,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Han,  225 
miles  E.  of  Canton.  It  is  the  seat  of  great 
sugar-refineries,  and  of  bean-cake  and  grass- 
cloth  manufactures.    Pop.  40,000. 

Swazikind  {Swdh'zee),  a  South  African  native 


II 


feWEABORd 


m 


SWEDEl* 


fetate,  lying  W.  of  the  Libomba  Mountains,  and 
intruding  into  the  E.  side  of  the  Transvaal. 
Area,  6536  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  84,000  Swazis  and  900 
white  men.  Its  trade,  valued  at  £70,000,  goes 
either  through  Natal  or  by  way  of  Delagoa  Bay. 
Its  independence  was  recognised  by  the  Trans- 
vaal and  Britain  in  1884  ;  since  1904  it  has  been 
under  tlie  control  of  the  British  government. 
Tlie  Swazis,  a  Zulu-Kaffir  race,  smelt  copper  and 
iron,  and  are  noted  for  their  wood-carving. 
Swe&borg.    See  Helsingfors. 

Sweden  (Swedish  Sverige),  a  kingdom  of  north- 
ern Europe,  occupying  the  eastern  side  of  the 
Scandinavian  i)eninsula,  with  wliich,  from  1814 
till  the  amicable  but  definitive  separation  in  1905, 
Norway  (q.v.)  was  associated  under  one  crown. 
Its  greatest  length,  N.  to  S.,  is  close  on  1000 
miles  ;  its  greatest  breadth  300  ;  its  area  170,970 
sq.  m. ;  and  its  coast-line  1550  miles.  Besides 
many  skerry-islands,  Sweden  owns  Gothland 
(q.v.)  and  (Eland  (q.v.).  The  country  may  be 
generally  described  as  a  broad  plain  sloping 
south-eastwards  from  the  Kjolen  Mountains  to 
the  Baltic.  The  only  mountainous  districts 
adjoin  Norway  ;  the  peaks  sink  in  altitude  from 
7000  feet  in  the  north  to  3800  in  61°  30'  N.  lat. 
Immediately  soutli  of  this  point  a  subsidiary 
chain  strikes  off  to  the  SE.,  and,  threading  the 
lake-region  of  central  Sweden,  swells  out  beyond 
into  a  tableland  with  a  mean  elevation  of  850  feet 
and  maximum  of  1240  feet.  Fully  two-thirds  of 
the  entire  surface  lies  lower  than  800  feet,  and 
one-third  lower  than  300  feet,  above  sea-level. 
Most  of  Sweden  is  built  up  of  crystalline 
gneisses  and  granite,  and  of  Lower  Silurian  lime- 
stones, sandstones,  and  slates ;  and  there  are 
extensive  glacial  deposits.  The  eastern  or  Both- 
nian  coast,  like  the  western  coast  of  Norway,  is 
gradually  rising ;  whilst  the  coast  of  Scania,  in 
the  extreme  south,  tends  to  subside.  The 
climate  of  Sweden  is  continental  in  the  north, 
along  the  Norwegian  frontier,  and  on  the  south- 
ern plateau.  The  lakes  in  the  colder  districts  of 
the  north  are  ice-bound  for  some  220  days  in 
the  year ;  in  the  south  for  only  about  90  days. 
The  rainfall  is  greatest  on  the  coast  of  the  Catte- 
gat  (30  inches). 

Sweden  is  separated  politically  and  geograph- 
ically into  three  great  divisions— Norrland,  Svea- 
land,  and  Gothland.  Norrland  in  the  north  is  a 
region  of  vast  and  lonely  forests  and  rapid  moun- 
tain-streams, often  forming  fine  cascades  and 
ribbon-like  lakes  ere  they  reach  the  Gulf  of 
Bothnia.  Besides  the  Lapps  with  their  reindeer 
herds,  and  the  Swedish  wood-cutters  and  miners, 
the  only  denizens  of  these  forest  tracts  are  wild 
animals  (reindeer,  bears,  wolves,  lynxes,  gluttons, 
foxes,  lemmings),  birds  of  prey,  hares,  game 
birds,  and  aquatic  birds.  This  division  is  very 
rich  in  minerals,  but  iron  is  almost  the  only  one 
extracted.  The  central  division  of  Svealand,  or 
Sweden  proper,  is  a  region  of  big  lakes,  and  con- 
tains most  of  the  mines.  Lakes  occupy  nearly 
14,000  sq.  m.,  or  8-2  per  cent,  of  the  total  area ; 
several  of  the  largest,  as  Vener,  Vetter,  Hjelraar, 
Malar,  are  connected  with  one  another  and  the 
sea  by  rivers  and  canals.  Lake  Millar  contains 
some  1300  islands,  many  beautifully  wooded, 
with  royal  palaces  or  noblemen's  castles  ;  and  its 
shores  are  studded  with  prosperous  towns, 
castles,  palaces,  and  factories.  There  is  a  pretty 
large  area  of  forest  in  Svealand,  which  also  pos- 
sesses almost  inexhaustible  stores  of  iron  and 
copper,  and  in  less  quantities  silver,  manganese, 
nickel,  zinc,  cobalt,  &c,    Gothland,  the  southern 


division,  contains  a  much  higher  prdportion  ot 
cultivated  land,  and  its  wide  plains  are  all  under 
agriculture.  Iron  occurs ;  and  some  10,000  tons 
of  coal  are  extracted  annually. 

In  1800  the  population  of  Sweden  ntnnbered 
2,347,303. ;  in  1850,  3,482,541  ;  in  1900,  5,136,441. 
By  nationality  the  people  are  all  Swedes,  except 
some  19,500  Finns,  6850  Lapps,  and  24,500 
foreigners.  Only  23  per  cent,  are  counted  as 
'  towns-folk.'  In  1900  there  were  ten  towns 
whose  pop.  exceeded  20,000— Stockholm  (300,624), 
Gothenburg  (130,619),  Malmo  (60,857),  Norrkop- 
ing,  Gefle,  Helsingborg,  Karlskrona,  Upsala, 
Jonkbping,  and  Orebro ;  and  twelve  more  ex- 
ceeded 10,000.  Between  10,000  and  20,000  persons 
emigrate  every  year,  mostly  to  the  United  States. 
The  state  religion,  that  of  the  wliole  population 
but  some  22,000  persons,  is  the  Lutheran  Cliurch, 
with  twelve  bishops.  Primary  education  is  com- 
pulsory and  free,  and  there  are  excellent  element- 
ary schools.  The  highest  brandies  are  provided 
for  by  the  Medical  Institution  of  Stockliolm  (270 
pupils)  and  by  the  universities  of  Upsala  (1500 
students)  and  Lund  (670).  More  tlian  one-half 
of  the  population  are  dependent  on  agriculture. 
Between  7  and  8  per  cent,  only  of  the  entire 
area  is  under  cultivation,  though  in  addition  4 
per  cent,  is  laid  down  as  meadows.  The  prin- 
cipal crops  are  potatoes,  oats,  rye  (yielding  the 
ordinary  bread  of  the  peasantry),  barley,  and 
wheat,  beet  for  sugar,  and  roots  for  fodder. 
Butter  is  one  of  the  largest  exports.  The  mines 
employ  31,000  persons,  mainly  620  iron-mines 
(producing  over  2,800,000  tons  aniuially),  copper, 
zinc,  manganese,  cobalt;  nickel  and  silver  are 
also  produced.  About  40  per  cent,  of  the  aggre- 
gate surface  is  forest,  and  of  tliis  again  60  per 
cent,  is  in  Norrland.  Only  one-twelfth  of  the 
timber  cut  in  Sweden  is  sent  abroad,  about 
one-half  of  it  to  Britain,  chiefly  in  the  form  of 
pit-props.  The  most  important  industries  are 
timber  industries  (1122  establishments,  yield- 
ing an  annual  value  of  £4,890,000),  flour-mills, 
ironworks,  foundries,  &c.  (£2,950,000),  sugar- 
refineries,  cotton  and  wool  spinning  and  weaving, 
margarine-factories,  breweries,  tobacco-factories, 
match-factories,  tanneries,  paper-mills  and  papier- 
mache  works,  distilleries,  glass  and  porcelain 
works,  and  chemical  works.  The  fisheries  (both 
off  tlie  south  and  off  the  east  coasts)  are  worth 
nearly  half  a  million  sterling  annually.  The 
foreign  trade  of  the  country  averages  annually 
from  £23,000,000  to  £28,000,000  for  imports,  and 
from  £18,000,000  to  £21,000,000  for  exports. 
The  imports  from  Great  Britain  average  about 
£7,000,000,  and  the  exports  thither  £8,000,000 
or  £9,000,000.  The  chief  imports  are  textiles, 
groceries,  minerals,  machinery,  grain  and  flour, 
hair,  hides,  horn,  and  animals  and  animal  foods. 
Of  the  exports  timber  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
jiortant— £10,500,000  or  more.  Next  come 
minerals  and  metals,  chiefly  iron  and  steel ; 
animal  foods  and  animals  (mainly  butter) ;  grain 
and  flour,  paper,  and  textiles.  Great  Britain 
takes  principally  wood,  timber,  and  wood-pulp, 
butter,  paper,  pig  and  bar  iron  and  steel,  and 
matches,  and  sends  back  coal,  iron,  machinery, 
and  textiles. 

The  executive  power  is  vested  in  the  king, 
advised  by  a  council  of  ten ;  and  there  are  two 
houses  of  parliament.  The  members  of  the  first 
house  (150)  are  elected  by  the  provincial  councils 
and  the  municipal  councils  of  certain  large  towns ; 
they  sit  for  nine  years,  and  receive  no  salary.  The 
members  of  the  second  house  (230)  are  returned 
by  direct  or  indirect  ballot  from  rural  districts 


|WE£THEAR1?  ABBEY 


681 


SWITZERLAND 


and  towns.  The  revenue  averages  about 
£9,850,000,  and  generally  balances  the  expendi- 
ture. The  debt,  £19,179,000,  has  been  contracted 
solely  for  railways.  The  military  forces  include 
a  standing  army  and  a  militia.  The  regular  army 
numbers  about  40,000  men,  the  militia  400,000. 
The  navy,  with  25,000  men  in  all,  is  made  up 
of  sixteen  port-defence  vessels,  11  second  and 
third  class  cruisers,  and  some  20  torpedo  boats. 

Sweden  was  originally  occupied  by  Lapps  and 
Finns,  but  probably  (1500  b.c.)  Teutonic  tribes 
drove  them  into  the  forests  of  the  north,  and  at 
the  dawn  of  history  we  find  Svealand  occupied 
by  Swedes  (Svea)  and  Gothland  by  the  cognate 
Goths.  Some,  however,  make  Sweden  or  Scandi- 
navia generally  the  original  home  of  the  Aryans. 
Gothland  was  christianised  and  also  conquered  by 
the  Danes  in  the  9th  c,  while  Svealand  remained 
fanatically  heathen  till  the  time  of  St  Eric  (12th 
c),  who  conquered  Finland,  henceforth  a  Swedish 
possession.  For  a  century  Goths  and  Swedes 
had  different  kings,  but  gradually  melted  into 
one  people  toward  the  end  of  the  13th  c.  Now 
arose  bitter  feuds  between  king,  nobility,  and 
peasants,  and  universal  turbulence  prevailed ; 
agriculture,  industry,  literature  and  culture  pro- 
gressed not  at  all  or  hardly  existed.  Even  after 
the  union  of  Sweden,  Norway,  and  Denmark 
under  one  monarch  (1397),  Sweden  was  torn  by 
conflicts  which  lasted  down  to  the  expulsion  of 
Danish  oppressors,  and  the  restoration  of  Swedish 
autonomy  by  the  national  rising  under  Gustavus 
Vasa  (1524),  the  ablest  prince  who  liad  yet  ruled 
the  Swedes.  Under  him  the  Reformation  was 
heartily  accepted.  Gustavus  Adolphus  and  the 
Swedes  were  its  bulwark,  not  merely  at  home 
but  in  Germany  in  the  Thirty  Years'  War; 
and  by  the  acquirement  of  Bremen,  Verden, 
and  Pomerauia,  Sweden  became  (1648)  a  mem- 
ber of  the  empire.  Under  Charles  XII.  and 
his  successor,  the  enmity  of  Denmark,  Poland, 
and  Russia  wrested  her  new  conquests  from 
Sweden,  and  gave  Livonia,  Esthonia,  Inger- 
nianland,  and  Karelia  (which  had  long  been 
Swedish)  to  Russia ;  thus  reducing  Sweden  from 
the  rank  of  a  first-rate  European  power.  After 
a  bloody  struggle,  Sweden  had  to  cede  Finland 
(1809)  to  Russia.  Norway  was  united  by  a  per- 
sonal union  (i.e.  by  the  monarch)  with  Sweden 
in  1810  ;  and  in  1818  "the  French  general  Bernadotte 
was  elected  king  (as  Charles  XIV.).  Norway's 
demand  for  a  larger  measure  of  home  rule  led  in 
1905  to  a  complete  separation.  Swedish,  a  de- 
scendant of  the  Old  Norse,  differs  (since  the  9th  c.) 
more  from  the  parent  tongue  than  Icelandic, 
Norwegian,  or  Danish ;  it  has  had,  especially 
since  the  16th  c,  an  extensive  literature. 

See  W.  W.  Thomas,  Sweden  and  the  Swedes 
(1892) ;  Sweden,  its  People  and  Industry,  by  G. 
Sundbarg  (trans.  1903) ;  Scandinavia,  by  Nisbet 
Bain  (Cambridge  Histories,  1905). 
Sweetheart  Abbey.  See  New  Abbey. 
Swilly,  Lough,  an  inlet  of  the  Atlantic,  25 
miles  long  and  3  to  4  wide,  on  the  north  coast  of 
Donegal,  Ireland,  enters  between  Dunaff  Head 
on  the  E.  and  Fanad  Point,  with  a  lighthouse, 
on  the  W.  A  second  lighthouse  is  on  Dunree 
Head.  The  entrance  is  protected  by  forts.  On 
the  E.  shore  is  the  watering-place,  Buncrana.  In 
Lough  Swilly  a  French  fleet  was  destroyed  in 
1798;  and  in  1811  the  foundering  of  H.M.S. 
Saldanha  at  the  entrance  cost  300  lives. 

Swindon,  a  municipal  borough  of  Wiltshire, 
77  miles  W.  of  London  and  29  ENE.  of  Bath, 
consists    of    Old    Swiudou,    on    au    emiueuce 


IJ  mile  S.,  and  New  Swindon,  which  originated 
in  the  transference  hither  in  1841  from  Wootton- 
Bassett  of  the  engineering  works  of  the  Great 
Western  Railway.  The  former  is  rather  a  pictur- 
esque place,  with  a  good  Decorated  parish  church 
(rebuilt  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  in  1851),  a  town-liall 
(1852),  assembly  rooms  (1850),  and  a  corn  exchange 
(1867) ;  New  Swindon  has  a  mechanics'  institute 
(1843),  a  theatre,  &c.  Pop.  (1861)  6856  ;  (1881) 
22,374  ;  (1901)  45,006  (6100  in  Old  Swindon).  See 
J.  E.  Jackson's  Swindon  and  its  Neighbourhood 
(1861),  and  the  English  III.  Mag.  for  April  1892. 

Swineford,  a  Mayo  market-town,  22  miles  SW,* 
of  Ballymote.     Pop.  1360. 

Swinemiinde  (Sveen-eh-meen'deh),  a  fortified 
seaport  and  watering-place  of  Prussia,  on  Usedom 
Island,  124  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of  Berlin.  Pop. 
10,500.     (See  Oder.) 

Swineshead,  a  town  of  Lincolnshire,  6  miles 
WSW.  of  Boston.  At  its  Cistercian  abbey  King 
John  surfeited  himself  with  peaches  and  new 
beer.    Pop.  1760. 

Swinton,  (1)  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  5  miles  NNE.  of  Rotherhani.  It  has 
manufactures  of  bottles,  iron,  pottery,  &c.  Popu- 
lation, 12,500.— (2)  A  town  of  Lancashire,  4^ 
miles  WNW.  of  Manchester,  with  cotton-mills 
and  brick-fields.  Pop.  of  Swiuton  and  Pendle- 
bury,  27,000. 

Switzerland,  a  confederation  or  republic  of 
twenty-two  cantons,  three  being  divided  into 
half-cantons,  situated  in  the  centre  of  Europe  be- 
tween France,  Germany,  Austria,  and  Italy. 
The  greatest  length  (B.  to  W.)  is  216  miles,  the 
width  being  137  miles  ;  area,  15,981  sq.  m.  The 
pop.  in  1850  was  2,392,740  ;  in  1900,  3,325,023. 
In  the  following  table  of  the  census  of  1898,  the 
ordinary  name  is  put  first,  followed  by  the 
French  name  in  the  German  cantons,  or  by  the 
German  in  the  French  ones.  F.  or  G.  or  F.G. 
indicates  that  the  majority  speak  French,  or 
German,  or  both.  When  neither  P.  nor  R.C.  is 
appended,  it  is  to  be  understood  that  the  canton 
is  partly  Protestant  and  partly  Catholic. 

Cantons.  ^^^^^^^ 

Aargau  (Fr.  Argovie),  G 1803 

Appenzell— 

Outer,  G.,P } 

Inner,  G.,  R.C ) 

Basel  (Fr.  Bale)— 

Town,  G.,  P 

Country,  G.,  P. 

Bern  (Fr.  Berne),  G 1353 

Fribourg  (Ger.  Freiburg),  F.G.,  R.C.1481 
Geneva  (Fr.  Gendve,  Ger.  Genf),  F. .  .1814 

Glarus  (Fr.  Glaris),  G.,  P 1352 

Graubunden  (Fr.  Grisons),  G.F 1803 

Luzem  (Fr.  Lucerne),  G.,  K.C 1332 

Neuchatel  (Ger.  Neuenburg),  F 1814 

St  Gallen  (Fr.  St  Gall),  G 1803 

Schaffhausen  (Fr.  Schafrhouse),G.  ,P.1501 

Schwyz,  G.,  R.C 1291 

Solothurn  (Fr.  Soleure),  G.,  R.C 1481 

Thurgau  (Fr.  Thurgovie),  G 1803 

Ticiuo  (Fr.  and  Ger.  Tessin),  Ital.  ..1803 
Unterwalden— 

Upper,  G.,  R.C... 

Lower,  G.,  R.C... 

TIri,  G 1291 

Valais  (Ger.  WalUs),  F.G 1814 

Vaud  (Ger.  Waadt),  F 1803 

Zug  (Fr.  Zoug),  G.,  R.C 1352 

Zurich  (Fr.  Zurich),  G.,  P 1351 


•  1513 


1501 


:::::::::} 


1291 


Total . 


Area  in 

Pop.  in 

sq.  m. 

1898. 

548 

187,858 

163 

(  56.696 
\  12,907 

178 

101,256 
\   65,257 

2,659 

549.387 

644 

124,138 

108 

122,473 

267 

33,327 

2,754 

95,941 

579 

140,171 

312 

121,047 

779 

250,283 

114 

37,237 

351 

50,777 

306 

91,918 

381 

111.204 

1,089 

128.79a 

295 

14,698 
13,209 

416 

17,249 

2,036 

104,132 

1,244 

266,970 

92 

23,267 

666 

399,441 

15,981 

3,119,635 

The  area  of  Switzerland  (15,981  sq.  ra.,  of  which 
11,443  are  classed  as  '  productive '  and  4538  as 


II 


SWITZERLAND 


SWITZERLANIJ 


'tinproductive')  is  distributed  over  four  river- 
basins— those  of  the  Rhine,  the  Rhone,  the  Inn, 
and  the  Ticino,  a  tributary  of  the  Po.  The  Con- 
federation is  bounded  S.  by  a  part  of  the  main 
chain  of  the  Eastern  Alps,  W.  and  NW,  by  the 
Jura,  and  N.  by  the  Rhine.  The  Pennine  Alps 
lie  to  the  south  of  the  valley  of  the  Rhone,  on 
the  north  of  which  are  the  Bernese  Alps  extend- 
ing from  the  Lake  of  Geneva  to  the  Grimsel. 
Bast  of  the  Bernese  Alps  is  the  St  Gothard  group. 
The  Rhsetian  Alps  are  east  of  the  Pennine  Chain 
(see  Alps,  Jura,  «&c.).  A  broad  fertile  plain  ex- 
tends from  the  Lake  of  Geneva  to  the  Lake  of 
Constance.  The  lowest  level  on  Swiss  territory 
is  646  feet  on  the  banks  of  Lake  Lugano  ;  the 
highest  is  15,217,  the  summit  of  Monte 
Rosa.  Of  the  4538  sq.  m.  of  land  classed  as  '  un- 
productive,' 3229  are  covered  by  rocks,  moraine, 
&c.,  711  by  glaciers,  535  by  lakes,  and  03  by 
towns  and  villages.  The  largest  lakes  are  those 
of  Geneva  and  Constance ;  fifteen  cover  an  area 
of  over  3  sq.  m.  each.  Of  some  470  glaciers 
(more  in  Valais  than  in  any  other  canton)  the 
largest  is  the  Gross  Aletsch,  15  miles  long.  In 
the  Central  Alps  the  limit  of  perpetual  snow 
varies  from  9250  to  9020  feet.  Few  metallic 
deposits  are  found  ;  those  which  exist  cannot 
be  worked.  Some  salt  is  obtained.  In  a 
country  where  the  height  above  the  sea-level 
is  from  646  feet — where  the  almond,  the  fig,  and 
the  olive  ripen  in  the  open  air — to  the  region 
of  perpetual  snow,  there  is  inevitably  great 
variety  in  the  climate.  There  is  a  variation  of 
about  34^°  in  the  mean  temperature— between 
54^°  F.  at  Bellinzona,  and  20°  on  the  Theodule 
Pass.  The  population  is  composed  of  four  dis- 
tinct ethnical  elements.  The  language  of  71*3 
per  cent,  of  the  population  is  German  ;  of  21 '8, 
French  ;  of  5*3,  Italian  ;  of  1*6,  Romansch  or 
Ladin.  There  is  no  federal  church,  each 
canton  has  its  own  ecclesiastical  constitution, 
and  liberty  of  belief  is  inviolable.  Of  the  in- 
habitants, 58*8  per  cent,  are  Protestants,  40*5 
Catholics,  and  0"3  Jews.  The  republic  of  Switzer- 
land became  a  federal  state  (Bundestaat)  in  1848  : 
previously  it  consisted  of  a  league  of  semi- 
independent  states  or  cantons.  The  political 
structure  is  built  up  in  three  tiers— the  Com- 
mune, the  Canton,  and  the  Federal  Assembly. 
In  the  communes  all  local  matters  are  adminis- 
tered by  two  governing  bodies— the  Communal 
Assembly  (which  is  purely  legislative),  composed 
of  all  male  citizens  who  have  attained  the  age  of 
twenty,  and  the  Communal  Council,  the  execu- 
tive of  the  former  body,  by  whom  it  is  elected. 
Each  canton  has  its  own  constitution  and  local 
government.  The  constitutions  of  the  several 
cantons  vary  considerably,  but  all  are  based  on 
the  sovereignty  of  the  people,  and  are  subject 
also  to  the  ratification  of  the  Confederation.  In 
Uri,  the  two  half-cantons  of  Appenzell,  and  in 
Glarus  there  still  exists  the  ancient  Lands- 
gemeincle,  an  open-air  gathering  of  all  those  pos- 
sessing votes,  who  meet  every  spring  to  legislate 
on  cantonal  afiairs.  These  cantons  possess  a  re- 
presentative power  in  their  lundrath,  and  an 
executive  power  in  the  Regierungsrath.  In  other 
cantons  the  citizens  elect  representatives  to  the 
cantonal  council  from  electoral  districts.  The 
supreme  legislative  authority  of  the  Confedera- 
tion is  vested  in  a  parliament  of  two  chambers, 
the  Council  of  the  States  (Stdnderath)  and  the 
National  Council  {Nationalrath),  which  represent 
the  supreme  government  of  the  country,  under 
reserve  of  the  referendum  or  vote  of  the  people. 
The  Council  of  the  States  consists  of  forty-four 


members,  each  canton  having  two  representa- 
tives, and  each  half-canton  one.  The  National 
Council  consists  of  147  members,  elected  in  each 
canton  in  the  proportion  of  one  deputy  for  every 
20,000  of  the  population.  These  two  chambers 
each  elect  a  president  and  vice-president,  and 
meet  at  Bern  at  least  twice  a  year,  in  June 
and  December,  together  forming  the  Federal 
Assembly.  This  body  controls  the  general 
administration  of  the  Confederation  ;  they  alone 
can  declare  war,  make  peace,  or  conclude  treaties 
with  foreign  powers.  The  executive  authority  of 
the  Federal  Assembly  is  deputed  to  the  Federal 
Council  composed  of  seven  members,  elected  for 
a  period  of  three  years.  The  president  of  the 
Federal  Council,  who  is  also  president  of  the 
Confederation,  is  chosen  annually  at  a  united 
meeting  of  the  Council  of  the  States  and  the 
National  Council  from  among  the  members  of  the 
Federal  Council.  By  means  of  the  referendum  all 
legislative  acts  passed  in  the  Federal  or  Cantonal 
Assemblies  may  be  referred  to  the  people  en 
masse.  In  the  majority  of  cantons  5000  signa- 
tures are  required  in  order  to  obtain  a  referendum 
for  cantonal  laws.  The  compulsory  referendum 
regarding  federal  legislation,  established  in  1848, 
was  then  limited  to  the  revision  of  the  constitu- 
tion. That  of  1874  contains  an  article  extending 
it,  when  demanded  by  30,000  citizens  or  eight 
cantons,  to  all  laws  and  resolutions  of  a  general 
nature  passed  by  the  Federal  Assembly.  Initia- 
tive is  the  exercise  of  the  right  granted  to  voters 
to  initiate  proposals  for  the  enactment  of  new 
laws  or  for  the  alteration  or  abolition  of  old  ones. 
Fifty  thousand  signatures  are  required  to  obtain 
the  initiative  for  federal  legislation,  and  in  most 
cantons  5000  for  cantonal  matters. 

The  revenue  for  1905  was  £4,629,000,  the  ex- 
penditure £4,672,000.  Tlie  revenue  is  chiefly 
derived  from  customs,  postal  and  telegraph 
services,  the  tax  for  exemption  from  military 
service,  and  from  real  property.  The  public 
debt  in  1905  amounted  to  £4,763,000.  The 
total  cantonal  debts  do  not  exceed  £10,000,000. 
The  French  metric  system  of  money,  &c.  is  in 
use  throughout  the  Confederation.  Every  Swiss 
is  liable  to  military  service ;  and  the  total  strength 
of  the  army  (essentially  a  citizen  force,  designed 
only  for  defensive  purposes),  not  including  the 
Landsturm,  is:  I'Mte,  125,620;  Landv)ehr,  80,715; 
total,  206,335.  Primary  instruction  is  compul- 
sory, unsectarian,  and  provided  gratuitously  at 
the  cost  of  each  canton.  There  are  five  uni- 
versities on  the  German  model — Basel,  Bern, 
Zurich,  Geneva,  Lausanne,  and  (for  Catholics 
only)  Freiburg ;  there  is  also  an  academy  at 
Neuchatel,  and  a  great  federal  technical  college, 
the  Polytechnic,  at  Zurich,  besides  several 
smaller  technical  colleges  elsewhere. 

More  than  one-half  of  the  arable  land  is  devoted 
to  cereals.  Cattle-breeding  is  an  industry  of 
great  importance.  There  are  upwards  of  5500 
cheesemaking  establishments.  Tobacco  is  grown 
chiefly  in  the  cantons  of  Valais,  Vaud,  Frei-. 
burg,  Bern,  and  Aargau ;  the  quality  is  by  no 
means  good,  but  the  exports  (including  cigars 
and  cigarettes)  amount  to  £90,000  a  year.  The 
average  annual  production  of  wine  amounts  to 
31,266,400  gallons.  Little  or  no  coal  is  mined, 
there  are  no  canals  or  navigable  rivers,  the  country 
is  situated  far  from  the  sea-coast,  and  nearly  all 
the  raw  material  and  half-finished  goods  have  to 
be  imported.  Yet  there  is  a  large  general  trade. 
The  textile  industries  are  the  most  important,  the 
chief  centres  being  Zurich,  Basel,  Glarus.  Next 
conies  watchmaking,  established  at  Geneva  in , 


SWORDd 


SYDNEY 


1587,  which  has  since  spread  to  the  cantons  of 
Neuchatel,  Bern,  and  Vaud.  Machinery  (weav- 
ing-loouis,  &c.)  is  also  largely  exported.  Em- 
broidery is  carried  on  chiefly  in  St  Gall  and 
Appenzell.  Wood-carving,  introduced  in  the 
Oberland  about  1820,  employs  some  4000  persons. 
The  exports  range  from  £26,760,000  to  £29,000,000 
in  value  per  annum,  the  imports  from  £28,000,000 
to  over  £40,000,000.  The  gross  amount  of  money 
brought  annually  by  tourists  into  the  'Play- 
ground of  Europe '  is  estimated  at  £4,000,000. 

The  original  inhabitants  of  Switzerland  were 
the  Celtic  Helvetii,  and  the  Rhajtii  of  doubtful 
affinity ;  both  were  conquered  by  Julius  Caesar 
and  the  generals  of  Augustus,  and  Romanised. 
Overrun  by  the  Burgundians  in  the  west,  and 
their  Germanic  kinsmen  the  Alemannians  in  the 
east,  Helvetia  became  subject  to  the  Frankish 
kings  and  christianised  in  the  7th  century. 
Most  of  the  country  was  subsequently  part  of  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  ;  and  in  1273  a  Swiss  noble, 
Rudolf  of  Hapsburg  in  Aargau,  became  German 
Emperor.  Soon  after  his  death  (in  1291)  the 
inhabitants  of  Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden 
formed  a  league  to  defend  their  common  interests, 
and  in  1315  crushed  an  Austrian  army  at  Mor- 
garten.  In  1332  Lucerne  joined  the  alliance,  and 
in  1353,  Bern,  Zurich,  Glarus,  and  Zug.  The 
Austrians  were  again  routed  at  Sempach  in  1386, 
and  in  1388  at  Nafels.  The  Swiss  next  had  a 
fierce  but  triumphant  struggle  with  Charles  the 
Bold  of  Burgundy,  whom  they  routed  at  Grand- 
son and  Morat  in  1470,  and  finally  at  Nancy  (where 
Charles  was  slain)  in  1477.  When  the  Reforma- 
tion began  there  were  thirteen  cantons,  and  the 
cantons  took  opposite  sides  from  the  beginning, 
not  without  serious  turmoil  and  bloodshed.  The 
treaty  of  Westphalia  in  1648  recognised  Switzer- 
land as  an  independent  state.  Some  of  the 
cantons  were  strictly  aristocratic  and  some 
highly  democratic,  and  there  was  much  dis- 
content long  before  the  French  Revolution, 
when,  in  1798,  between  civil  strife  and  French 
armies,  the  old  republic  (or  rather  alliance)  came 
to  an  end.  The  Helvetic  Republic  of  nineteen 
cantons,  under  French  auspices,  endured  till  1805 ; 
then  a  new  republican  constitution  was  adopted, 
the  Federal  Pact  of  twenty-two  cantons.  On 
Napoleon's  downfall  Valais,  Neuchatel,  and 
Geneva,  which  had  been  incorporated  with 
France,  were  restored,  and  Swiss  neutrality  and 
inviolability  were  recognised  by  the  treaty  of 
Vienna  in  1815.  Religious  troubles  led  to  a 
Catholic  league  in  1844,  which  was  suppressed  by 
the  Federal  forces  in  1847.  The  present  constitu- 
tion was  adopted  in  1848,  but  revised  in  1874. 

See,  besides  Murray,  Baedeker,  and  other 
guidebooks,  works  on  the  constitution  by  Adams 
and  Cunningham  (1889),  Moses  (Oakland,  U.S. 
1889),  Vincent  (1891),  Winchester  (1891) ;  or  the 
history  by  Hug  ('Story  of  the  Nations,'  1890), 
and  Swiss  life  by  Symouds  (1892). 

Swords,  a  town,  8  miles  N.  of  Dublin,  with  a 
round  tower,  castle,  and  abbey.    Pop.  945. 

Sydenham  (Sid'nam),  a  district  in  Lewisham 
parish,  8  miles  S.  of  London.  It  has  become  of 
world-wide  celebrity  in  connection  with  the 
Crystal  Palace,  which,  however,  is  really  in  the 
adjoining  parish  of  Lambeth,  and  which  was 
erected  in  1852-54,  chiefly  from  the  materials  of 
the  Great  Exhibition  (1851),  and  under  the  super- 
intendence of  Sir  Joseph  Paxton.  The  cost 
amounted  to  nearly  £1,500,000.  The  building  is 
1608  feet  long,  390  wide  across  the  transept,  and 
175  high,  the  height  of  the  two  water-towers 


being  282  feet.  The  chief  arts  and  sciences  illuS* 
trated  by  the  collections  are  Sculpture,  Architec- 
ture, Painting  and  Photography,  Mechanics  and 
Manufactures,  Botany,  Ethnology,  Palaeoutology, 
Geology,  and  Hydraulics.  There  are  two  concert- 
rooms,  within  the  larger  of  which  the  triennial 
Handel  festivals  (since  1859)  take  place  with 
4000  performers.  The  park  and  gardens  occupy 
nearly  200  acres,  and  are  adorned  with  sculp- 
tures, stone  balustrades,  an  artificial  lake,  and 
niagiiitjcent  fountains.  In  1866  there  was  a  lire 
in  the  north  wing,  doing  damage  to  the  amount 
of  £150,000 ;  the  Crystal  Palace  had  never  beeii 
a  monetary  success,  and  in  1887  tlie  company 
was  declared  insolvent.  Under  new  and  more 
prosperous  auspices,  in)portant '  demonstrations ' 
still  take  place  here,  as  well  as  cricket,  football, 
bowling,  and  tennis  matches,  not  to  speak  of 
great  ti rework  displays. 

Sydney,  the  capital  of  New  South  Wales,  and 
the  oldest  city  in  Australia,  is  situated  on  the 
southern  .shores  of  Port  Jackson,  and  was  named 
after  Thomas  Townshend,  first  Viscount  Sydney 
(1733-1800),  then  Secretary  of  State  for  the 
Colonies.  The  first  British  settlers  that  reached 
New  Holland  were  landed  at  Botany  Bay  (q.v.) 
on  January  20,  1788.  The  spot  here  selected, 
being  found  ineligible,  was  abandoned  a  few  days 
afterwards,  and  the  infant  settlement  was  trans- 
ferred to  a  point  7  miles  farther  N.,  where 
Sydney  now  stands.  The  choice  of  the  new 
locality  was  chiefly  determined  by  a  stream  of 
fresh  water  flowing  into  Sydney  Cove,  one  of  the 
numberless  bays  into  which  the  basin  of  Port 
Jackson  is  divided.  This  magnificent  expanse  of 
water,  completely  landlocked,  and  admitting 
vessels  of  the  largest  size,  extends  20  miles 
inland,  ramifying  in  every  direction.  Its  bold 
and  rocky  shores,  covered  with  luxiiriant  vegeta- 
tion, present  a  succession  of  beautiful  land- 
scapes. The  surrounding  hills  often  rise  to  from 
200  to  250  feet.  In  other  points  the  coast  con- 
sists of  terraces  and  smooth  sandy  beaches.  The 
narrow  entrance  of  Port  Jackson— through  the 
'  Heads,'  which  are  indicated  by  the  Macquarie 
lighthouse,  its  electric  light  visible  30  miles  at 
sea — is  defended  by  the  shore  fortifications,  tor- 
pedo boats,  and  a  naval  establishment  on  Garden 
Island.  Sydney  stands  nearly  in  the  centre  of 
the  immense  coal  formation  of  East  Australia, 
which  extends  500  miles  N.  and  S.,  with  a 
breadth  of  from  80  to  100  miles  ;  and  the  sand- 
stone rock  on  which  it  is  erected  affords  a 
valuable  building  material. 

The  older  streets  are  narrow  and  irregular  ;  but 
several  of  the  modern  streets  are  not  behind 
those  of  the  principal  towns  of  Europe.  There 
are  excellent  lighting  and  drainage  systems  ;  and 
an  abundant  supply  of  pure  water  is  obtained 
from  the  Nepean  River,  near  Penrith.  The 
Botanical  Gardens  cover  38  acres,  and  there  are 
also  numerous  parks.  Sydney  has  one  ship- 
building establishment.  The  Fitzroy  Dry  Dock, 
originallv  intended  for  vessels  of  the  royal  navy, 
can  take  in  ships  of  the  largest  size,  and  has  been 
supplemented  by  one  of  the  most  extensive  grav- 
ing-docks in  existence.  Steps  have  been  taken  to 
put  the  city  in  a  state  of  defence,  and  forts  and 
batteries  armed  with  powerful  Armstrong  guns 
have  been  erected.  Amongst  public  buildings 
by  far  the  most  important  edifice  is  the  univer- 
sity (1852),  which  stands  on  a  commanding 
height.  The  principal  fagade  is  500  feet  in 
length,  and  is  flanked  at  its  western  end  by  the 
Great  Hall.  Affiliated  to  it  are  a  women's  college 
and  three  denominational  colleges.    The  metro* 


SYDNEY 


B84 


SYRIA 


politan  cathedral  of  St  Andrew  is  a  handsome 
Perpendicular  edifice  ;  the  R.  C.  cathedral  of  St 
Mary,  burned  in  1865,  and  since  rebuilt,  is  one  of 
the  finest  churches  in  Australia.  There  are 
also  a  technical  university  and  technological 
museum,  the  museum.  Colonial  Secretary's  office, 
lands  office,  post-office,  customs  office,  town-hall 
(possessing  the  largest  organ  in  tlie  world),  and 
public  grammar-school.  The  Thomas  Walker 
Convalescent  Hospital  was  built  out  of  a  bequest 
of  £100,000.  The  neighbourhood  of  Sydney, 
especially  the  shores  of  the  bays  and  the  Parra- 
matta  and  Lane  Cove  rivers,  is  studded  with 
villas,  surrounded  by  park-like  grounds,  and 
gardens  of  orange-trees,  bananas,  and  numberless 
semi-tropical  plants.  There  are  numerous  in- 
dustrial establishments,  but  Sydney  is  essentially 
a  commercial  rather  than  a  manufacturing  city. 
Pop.  (1862)  93,596  ;  (1881)  220,427  ;  (1901)  467,900. 

Sydney,  a  small  town  of  Cape  Breton  (q.v.) 
with  a  large  coalfield.  Pop.  3200. 

Syene  (Sl-ee'nee).    See  Assouan. 

Sylhet  (Seel'het),  or  Srihatta,  a  British  dis- 
trict in  the  extreme  south  of  Assam  (q.v.).  Area, 
5414  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  2,000,000.  The  chief  town, 
Sylhet,  on  the  Surma  River,  has  a  pop.  of  15,000. 

Sylt  (Seelt),  a  narrow  island,  23  miles  long,  off 
the  W.  coast  of  Sleswick,  with  a  pop.  of  5000. 
The  chief  town  is  Keitum. 

Syra  (Gr.  Syros),  the  most  important,  though 
not  the  largest,  of  the  Cyclades.  It  is  10  miles 
long  by  5  broad,  42^  sq.  m.  in  area,  and  is  bare 
and  rocky.  Pop.  of  island,  27,800.  The  capital, 
Syra,  or  Hermoiqwlis,  on  a  bay  on  the  E.  side,  is 
the  chief  commercial  entrepot  of  the  -^gean, 
importing  manufactured  wares,  hides,  grain, 
flour,  yarns,  timber,  iron,  &c.,  and  exporting 
tobacco,  emery-stone,  valonia,  sponges,  &c. 

Syracuse  (Sir'a-kyoos),  anciently  a  famous  city 
of  Sicily,  on  the  E.  coast,  80  miles  SSW.  of 
Messina,  was  founded  by  Corinthian  settlers 
about  733  B.C.  The  colonists  seem  to  have 
occupied  the  little  isle  of  Ortygia,  stretching 
south-east  from  the  shore ;  but  later  the  city 
extended  to  the  mainland.  The  seat  successively 
of  'tyranny'  and  democracy,  Syracuse  was  in- 
volved in  a  great  struggle  with  Athens  (415-414 
B.C.),  and  the  celebrated  siege  in  which  it  came 
off  victorious.  Dionysius'  tierce  war  with  Car- 
thage (397  B.C.)  raised  the  renown  of  Syracuse 
still  higher.  In  212  b.c.  the  city  was  conquered 
by  the  Romans  after  a  two  years'  siege,  it  having 
sided  with  the  Carthaginians.  Under  the 
Romans  Syracuse  slowly  declined,  though  with 
its  handsome  public  buildings  and  its  artistic  and 
intellectual  culture,  it  always  continued  to  be  the 
first  city  of  Sicily.  It  was  captured  and  burned 
by  the  Saracens  in  878  a.d.,  and  after  that  sunk 
into  complete  decay.  The  modern  city  (Siracusa) 
is  confined  to  the  original  limits,  Ortygia,  which, 
however,  is  no  longer  an  island,  but  a  peninsula. 
The  streets,  which  are  defended  by  walls  and  a 
citadel,  are  mostly  narrow  and  dirty.  Syracuse 
has  a  cathedral  (the  ancient  temple  of  Minerva), 
a  museum  of  antiquities,  a  public  library,  the 
fountain  of  Arethusa  (its  waters  mingled  with 
sea-water  since  the  earthquake  of  1170),  and 
remains  of  temples,  aqueducts,  the  citadel 
Euryalus,  a  theatre,  an  amphitheatre,  and  quarries, 
besides  ancient  Christian  catacombs.   Pop.  32,100. 

Syracuse,  an  important  city  of  central  New 
York,  lies  in  the  beautiful  Onondaga  valley, 
stretching  along  Onondaga  Creek  to  the  head  of 
Onondaga  Lake.   It  is  on  the  Erie  Canal,  and  is  a  I 


terminus  of  the  Oswego  Canal ;  by  rail  it  is  1484 
miles  E.  of  Buffalo  and  147^  W.  of  Albany.  Syra- 
cuse  is  the  seat  of  a  Methodist  Episcopal  univer- 
sity (1870).  Salt  is  the  chief  manufacture,  and 
there  are  also  rolling-mills,  Bessemer  steel-works, 
foundries,  blast-furnaces,  boiler-factories,  and 
manufactories  of  engines,  farming  implements, 
furniture,  silver- ware,  saddlery,  boots,  flour,  beer, 
&c.  The  salt-springs  were  visited  by  French 
missionaries  in  1654,  and  began  to  be  worked  by 
white  men  in  1789 ;  the  citv  was  incorporated  in 
1847.     Pop.  (1880)  51,792  ;  (1900)  108,374. 

Syr-Daria  (Seer-Dar'ya).    See  Jaxaetes. 

Syria  (Slrria),  a  country  of  western  Asia, 
forming  part  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  and  embracing 
the  regions  that  lie  between  the  Levant  and  the 
Euphrates  from  Mount  Taurus  in  the  north  to 
the  southern  border  of  Palestine,  or  even  to  the 
peninsula  of  Sinai.  A  range  of  mountains,  split 
in  the  north  into  two  parallel  chains— Libanus 
and  Anti-Libanus — fronts  the  Mediteri'aneau, 
ranging  in  height  from  6000  feet  in  the  north  up 
to  10,000  feet  in  the  central  parts,  but  falling 
again  in  the  south  to  3500  feet.  Behind  these 
mountains  lies  a  tableland,  that  gradually  falls 
away  eastwards  to  the  desert.  The  separate 
districts  and  features  of  Syria  are  described 
under  Lebanon,  Palestine,  Phcenicia,  Bashan, 
Hauran,  Dead  Sea,  Jordan,  &c.  The  prevail- 
ing  winds  being  westerly,  the  slopes  of  the 
mountains  next  the  Mediterranean,  together  with 
the  immediate  seaboard,  get  a  tolerably  plentiful 
supply  of  moisture  during  the  rainy  half  of  the 
year  (October  to  May) ;  snow  even  falls  on  the 
highest  summits.  The  climate  on  the  plateau 
is  generally  dry.  The  valley  of  the  Jordan  is 
remarkably  hot.  The  soil  is  in  many  parts 
possessed  of  good  fertility,  and  in  ancient  times, 
when  irrigation  was  more  extensively  practised, 
yielded  a  much  greater  return  than  it  does  now. 
Damascus  is  noted  for  its  gardens  and  orchards. 
Hauran  produces  excellent  wheat.  Northern 
Syria  is  the  home  of  the  olive.  The  vine  grows 
almost  everywhere.  Fruit  (oranges,  figs,  &c.)  is 
cultivated  on  the  coast  plains.  Sheep  and  goats 
are  the  chief  domestic  animals.  The  principal 
exports  are  silk,  cereals,  wool,  olive-oil,  lemons 
and  oranges,  .soap,  sponges,  sesame,  liquorice, 
cottons,  and  tobacco.  The  total  value  is  £1,000,000 
to  £1,250,000.  The  imports  reach  pretty  nearly 
the  same  figure ;  Manchester  goods  (£700,000  to 
£950,000)  the  chief  item.  Besides  these  there  are 
woollens,  rice,  copper  and  iron,  sacking,  timber, 
and  hides.  The  chief  port  is  Beyrout,  with 
Acre,  Haifa,  Tyre,  and  Tripoli.  Railways  to 
connect  Damascus  with  Acre  and  with  Beyrout, 
and  Tripoli  with  the  interior,  are  projected 
or  in  course  of  construction.'  The  pop.  of  Syria, 
including  Lebanon  and  Palestine,  is  estimated 
at  3,317,000.  The  bulk  of  the  inhabitants  are 
Mohammedans,  including  the  Druses,  Shiites, 
&c.  The  Christians  make  up  one-fifth  of  the 
total— Orthodox  Greeks,  United  Greeks,  Maro- 
nites  and  Nestorians,  Roman  Catholics,  and  a  few 
Protestants.  The  main  ethnic  elements  in  the 
population  are  descendants  of  the  ancient  Syrians 
(Aramseans)  and  Arabs,  both  settled  and  nomad ; 
besides  there  are  Jbavs,  Turks,  and  Europeans. 

Syria  was  the  scene  of  the  Hittite,  Phoenician, 
and  Jewish  states,  and  of  the  Aramaean  (Syrian 
and  Semitic)  principalities  of  Damascus,  Zobah, 
Hamath,  &c.  In  the  8th  and  9th  centuries 
B.C.  Syria  was  the  battle-ground  of  the  Eg.vptian 
and  Hittite  armies,  and  after  that  period  it 
was,  as  a  province  of  Assyria  (Babylonia),  iw 


SYRTIS 


685 


TAGUS 


volved  in  the  struggle  between  that  great  empire 
and  Egypt.  (The  Greeks  first  knew  this  region 
as  a  province  of  Assyria  ;  hence  the  contracted 
name  Syria.)  Towards  the  end  of  the  6tli  century 
B.C.  Syria  fell  under  the  dominion  of  the  Persian 
empire ;  and  two  centuries  later  it  was  conquered 
by  Alexander  of  Macedon.  When  his  empire 
broke  to  pieces  the  Seleucidse  made  Antioch 
the  capital  of  their  empire  of  Syria.  From  the 
Seleucidae  it  passed,  through  the  hands  of 
Tigranes  of  Armenia,  to  the  Romans,  for  whom  it 
was  won  by  Pompey  in  64  B.C.  Under  these  new 
masters  the  country  flourished  and  became  cele- 
brated for  its  thriving  industries,  its  commercial 
prosperity,  and  its  architectural  magnificence 
(see  Baalbek  and  Palmyra).  On  the  division  of 
the  Roman  world  Syria  became  part  of  tlie  Byzan- 
tine empire,  and  remained  a  province  of  it  until 
its  conquest  by  the  Mohammedan  Arabs  in  636. 
It  still  continued  to  be  prosperous  under  the 
Arabs  and  their  successors  the  Egyptian  sove- 
reigns, in  spite  of  the  unsettled  period  of  the 
Crusades,  The  first  severe  blow  it  suffered 
came  from  the  Mongols  in  1260,  and  its  ruin  was 
completed  when  in  1516  it  passed  from  the 
Egyptians  to  the  Ottoman  Turks.  See  Burton 
and  Drake,  Unexplored  Syria  (2  vols.  1872) ;  Lady 
Burton,  Inner  Life  of  Syria  (1875) ;  Baedeker's 
Palestine  and  Syria  (by  Professor  A.  Socin); 
Conder,  Heth  and  Moab  (1883) ;  and  books  quoted 
under  the  various  articles  cited  above. 

Syrtls,  the  ancient  name  of  two  gulfs  of  the 
Mediterranean  Sea,  on  the  north  coast  of  Africa. 
The  Syrtis  Major  (now  Gulf  of  Sidra)  lies  between 
Tripoli  and  Barca ;  the  Syrtis  Minor  (now  Gulf 
of  Cabes),  between  Tunis  and  Tripoli. 

Syzran  (Seez'ran),  a  town  (1685)  of  Central 
Russia,  90  miles  S.  of  Simbirsk.    Pop.  32,500. 

Szabadka  (Saw-baivd'ka),  or  Maria-Theresio- 


PEL,  a  royal  free  town  of  Hungary,  106  miles  S. 
by  E.  of  Budapest.    Pop.  81,500. 

Szarvas  (Sawr-vaush),  a  town  of  Hungary,  80 
miles  SE.  of  Budapest.     Pop.  24,393. 

Szathmar-Nemethy  (Sawt'mar-Nemetee),  a 
cathedral-city  of  Hungary,  on  the  Szamos,  68 
miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Debreczin.    Pop.  20,736. 

Sze-chwan,  the  largest  province  of  China, 
185,000  sq.  m.  in  area,  is  situated  in  the  west, 
having  Tibet  on  the  NW.  and  Yunnan  on  the 
SVV.  It  is  traversed  by  the  Yang-tsze-Kiang,  is 
hilly  throughout,  and  rich  in  coal,  iron,  and  other 
minerals.  The  capital  is  Ching-tu.  The  chief 
commercial  town,  Chung-king,  on  the  Great  River, 
was  thrown  open  to  British  trade  in  1889,  as 
Ichang  (q.v.)  was  to  foreign  trade  in  1877.  Pop. 
71 ,000,000.  See  A.  Hosie's  Three  Years  in  Western 
China  (1890), 

Szegedln  (Seg-e-deen'),  a  royal  free  town  of 
Hungary,  stands  at  the  confluence  of  the  Maros 
with  the  Theiss,  118  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Buda- 
pest. In  March  1879  a  terrible  flood  over- 
whelmed 6235  out  of  6566  houses.  Since  then 
Szegedin  has  been  rebuilt,  and  now  possesses 
very  l)andsome  public  buildings,  and  is  protected 
against  inundations  by  a  double  ring  of  embank- 
ments. The  Theiss  is  spanned  by  two  railway 
bridges  and  a  fine  suspension  bridge  (1940  feet 
long)  designed  by  Eiffel.  Szegedin  manufactures 
soap,  spirits,  matches,  soda,  tobacco,  coarse 
cloth,  &c.  From  1526  to  1686  it  was  occupied  by 
the  Turks.    Pop.  (1880)  73,675  ;  (1900)  102,970. 

Szenta,    See  Zenta, 

Szentes  (Sen'tes),  a  town  of  Hungary,  30  miles 
N.  of  Szegedin,  near  the  Theiss.    Pop.  30,791. 

Szolnok  (Sol'nok),  a  town  of  Hungary,  on  the 
Theiss,  66  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Budapest,  with  a 
trade  in  tobacco,  timber,  and  salt,    Popi  25,400. 


ABASCO,  a  Gulf  state  of  Mexico,  named 

from    a  river  running  to   Campeachy 

Bay.    Area,  10,072  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  160,000. 

Table  Mountain.     See  Capetown. 

Taboga.    See  PanamA. 

Ta'bor,  a  dome-shaped  oak-clad  hill,  1000  feet 
high,  of  N.  Palestine,  7  miles  E.  of  Nazareth. 
Regarded  in  the  2d  c.  as  the  Mount  of  Transfigur- 
ation, it  is  crowned  by  a  ruined  crusading  church. 

Tabriz  (Tabree/ ;  anc.  Tauris),  a  city  of  Persia, 
capital  of  Azerbijan  province,  40  miles  E.  of  Lake 
Urmia.  The  Kabvid  Masjid,  or  'blue  mosque' 
(1450),  is  an  interesting  ruin ;  the  citadel  is  a 
spacious  edifice,  its  brick  walls  cracked  by  earth- 
quakes, Tabriz  manufactures  leather,  silk,  and 
gold  and  silversmith's  work  ;  it  is  also  the  em- 
porium of  an  extensive  transit  trade.  The  imports 
include  cotton  fabrics,  sugar,  woollen  cloth,  and 
wines,  spirits ;  the  exports,  drugs,  spices,  dried 
fruits,  shawls,  carpets,  raw  silk.  The  opening  of 
the  Russian  railway  between  the  Black  Sea  and 
the  Caspian,  and  Russian  tariff  legislation,  have 
injured  the  overland  trade  by  Tabriz.  The  Anglo- 
Iiidian  telegraph  line  passes  here.     Pop.  170,000. 

Tacna,  a  southern  province  of  Peru,  taken  pos- 
session of  by  Chili  in  1883  avowedly  for  only  ten 
years.  Area,  8685  sq.  m.  ;  population,  25,000. 
The  capital,  Tacna,  38  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Arica 
(q.v.),  has  a  pop.  of  9500. 

Taco'ma,  the  second  city  of  Washington  state, 
on  tlie  E.  side  of  Puget  Sound,  by  rail  145  miles 
N.  of  Portland,  Oregon,  ^nd  18  S.  by  W.  of  Seattle. 


In  1880  it  was  a  mere  village  ;  in  1890  a  flourish- 
ing city,  with  trams,  water,  gas  and  the  electric 
light,  miles  of  wide  streets,  numerous  mills  and 
factories,  and  a  busy  port.  In  the  district  around 
are  coal,  iron,  precious  metals,  lumber,  farms  of 
wheat,  hops,  fruit,  and  vegetables ;  it  has  a  tea 
trade  direct  with  Japan.  Pop.  (1880)  1098  ;  (1900) 
37,714.  Beliind  thecity  is  beautiful  MountTacoma 
or  Rainier  (14,444  feet). 

Tacuarem'bo,  the  largest  dep.  of  Uruguay, 
bounded  S.  by  the  Rio  Negro.  Area,  8074  sq, 
m. ;  pop.  40,100. 

Tad'caster  (Roman  Calcaria),  a  Yorkshire  town, 
on  the  Wharfe,  9  miles  SW.  of  York.  Towton, 
2^  miles  S.,  witnessed  a  great  Yorkist  victory 
on  Palm  Sunday,  29th  May  1461.    Pop.   3000. 

Tadmor.    See  Palmyra. 

Taf,  a  river  of  Pembroke  and  Carmarthen 
shires,  flowing  25  miles  to  Carmarthen  Bay. 

Taff,  a  river  of  South  Wales,  flowing  40  miles 
to  the  Bristol  Channel  at  Cardiff. 

Tafilet.     See  Morocco. 

Taganrog,  a  Russian  seaport,  on  the  N.  shore 
of  the  Sea  of  Azov,  15  miles  W.  of  the  Don's 
mouth.  It  exports  wheat,  linseed,  hempseed, 
skins,  wool,  butter,  and  tallow.  Founded  in 
1698,  it  was  bombarded  during  the  Crimean  war 
by  an  Anglo-French  fleet.    Pop,  60,700, 

Taghmon,  a  market -town,  9  miles  W.  of  Wex- 
ford.    Pop.  555. 

Tagus  (Span.  Tajo),  the  largest  river  Qf  th^ 


TAHITI 


686 


TAMWORTH 


Spanish  Peninsula,  rises  on  the  hilly  frontier  of 
Guadalajara  and  Teruel  provinces.  It  first  flows 
NW.,  tlien  curving  SW.,  flows  mainly  in  that 
direction  past  Aranjuez,  Toledo,  and  Alcantara, 
and,  in  Portugal,  Abrantes,  Santarem,  and  Lis- 
bon, 10  miles  below  wliich  it  enters  the  Atlantic. 
Below  Salvaterra  it  divides  into  the  western 
Tejo  Novo  and  the  eastern  Mar  de  Pedro,  which 
form  a  delta,  and  both  fall  into  the  noble  Bay 
of  Lisbon.  It  is  566  miles  long,  and  navigable  to 
Abrantes  from  Santarem  for  ocean-going  steamers. 

Tahiti  {Tahee'tee ;  formerly  spelt  Otaheite),  an 
island  giving  name  to  a  small  archipelago,  also 
called  Society  Islands,  in  the  mid  Pacific,  more 
than  2000  miles  NE.  of  New  Zealand  and  some 
3400  SSW.  of  San  Francisco.  The  islands  consist 
of  Tahiti  (which  embraces  455  sq.  m.  out  of  a  total 
of  037  for  the  entire  archipelago),  Raiatea,  Moorea 
or  Eimeo  (q.v.),  and  others.  The  group  is  divided 
into  the  Windward  and  the  Leeward  clusters,  and 
stretches  for  about  200  miles  NW.  and  SE.  They 
are  composed  of  volcanic  rocks,  are  mountainous 
(Orohena  on  Tahiti  is  7340  feet  high),  and  well 
wooded,  with  belts  of  low  fertile  soil  along  the 
shores,  and  girt  by  coral-reefs.  The  scenery  is 
magnificent,  the  chief  island  being  often  called 
'  the  Garden  of  the  Pacific'  The  climate  is  very 
moist  and  hot  (70°  to  84°  F.),  but  equable  and 
healthy.  Cocoa-nuts,  oranges,  vanilla,  fruit, 
cotton,  and  sugar  are  grown,  and  these  and 
mother-of-pearl,  cocoa-nut  fibre,  and  trepang  are 
exported.  The  imports  include  textiles,  flour, 
wine,  live-stock,  sugar,  coff'ee,  coal,  timber,  and 
soap.  The  people  cultivate  the  bread-fruit,  taro, 
yam,  sweet  potato,  &c.  The  most  important 
harbour  is  Papeete,  the  capital,  in  the  NE.  of 
Tahiti,  which  has  a  R  C.  cathedral,  an  arsenal, 
and  a  pop.  of  3224.  The  population  in  1905  of 
all  the  islands  was  16,300  (Tahiti,  10,750  ;  French, 
400).  The  people,  a  liandsome  race  of  the  Poly- 
nesian stock,  are  light-hearted  and  polite,  but 
very  immoral  and  untrustworthy.  The  group 
was  discovered  by  the  Spanish  navigator  De 
Quiros,  but  first  accurately  described  by  Cook 
(1769-77),  who  named  them  in  honour  of  the 
Royal  Society  of  London ;  the  pop.  then  num- 
bered nearly  250,000.  The  London  Missionary 
Society  commenced  work  here  in  1797 ;  but  in 
1812  they  had  to  flee  for  a  while  to  Australia. 
In  1842  France  forced  a  protectorate  over  the 
eastern  cluster ;  the  treaty  of  1847  with  Great 
Britain,  recognising  the  independence  of  the 
western  cluster,  was  abrogated  in  1888,  and  the 
whole  archipelago  practically  became  a  French 
possession.  See  works  by  Ellis  (1829),  Williams 
(1839),  Pritchard  (1866),  and  Dora  Hort  (1891). 

Tahlequah,  a  small  Cherokee  town  in  the  U.  S. 
Indian  Territory,  1  mile  from  the  Illinois  River. 

Taimyr.     See  Chelyuskin. 

Tain  (Scand.  Thing,  '  a  place  of  assembly '),  an 
ancient  royal  burgh  of  Ross-shire,  near  the  south 
shore  of  the  Dornoch  Firth,  44  miles  NNE.  of 
Inverness  by  the  Highland  Railway  (1864).  A 
ruined  chapel  marks  the  birthplace  of  St 
Duthac  (c.  1000-65),  whose  body  was  brought 
back  from  Armagh  in  1253 ;  within  it  Bruce's 
queen  was  taken  captive  for  Edward  I.,  and 
James  IV.  did  yearly  penance  here.  There  are 
also  a  collegiate  church  (1471 ;  restored  1849-82), 
a  court-house  (1849),  a  public  hall  (1876),  and  an 
academy  (1S12).  The  population  is  over  2000— 
1650  in  the  police  and  pari,  burgh  (see  Wick). 
See  a  work  by  the  Rev.  W.  Taylor  (1882). 

Tai-wan.    See  Formosa. 

■yaj  MaUal.    See  Aq^a, 


Tajurra  Bay  (Tajoo'ra),  an  African  inlet  of  the 
Gulf  of  Aden,  S.  of  Bab-el-Mandeb,  on  which  lies 
the  French  dependency  of  Obock  (q.v.). 

Takamatsu,  a  seaport  on  the  N.  coast  of 
Shikoku  Island,  Japan.     Pop.  34,500. 

Takaoka,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Japan, 
about  60  miles  W.  of  Nagano.     Pop.  31,500. 

Takasaki,  an  important  commercial  town  of 
Japan,  60  miles  NW.  of  Tokyo.     Pop.  31,000. 

Takata,  a  town  of  Japan,  30  miles  N.  of 
Nagano.     Pop.  20,350. 

Takazzeh.    See  Atbara. 

Talavera  de  la  Reina  (Tcdavay'ra  de  la 
Ray'na),  a  Spanish  town,  on  the  Tagus,  75  miles 
SE.  of  Madrid.  Here  on  July  27-28,  1809, 
AVellington  defeated  the  French.     Pop.  10,600. 

Talca,  ca])ital  of  the  province  of  Talca,  Chili, 
140  miles  SW.  of  Santiago.     Pop.  42,800. 

Ta-lien-wan.    See  Dalny. 

Ta-li-fu,  capital  of  western  Yunnan  (q.v.). 

Talisker,  a  Skye  distillery  at  Carbost,  23  miles 
WNW.  of  Broad  ford. 

Tallahassee,  the  capital  of  Florida,  166  miles 
by  rail  W.  of  Jacksonville.     Pop.  2983. 

Talla  Water,  a  tributary  of  the  Tweed,  in 
TweedsMuiir,  Peeblesshire,  on  which  a  reservoir 
was  completed  in  1905  for  a  supply  of  water  to 
Edinburgh. 

Tamanieb.    See  Teb. 

Tamaqua,  a  borough  of  Pennsylvania,  on  the 
Taniaqua  or  Little  Schuylkill  River,  134  miles  by 
rail  W.  of  New  York.    Pop.  7270. 

Tamar,  a  river  which  through  45  of  its  59 
miles  bounds  Devon  and  Cornwall ;  its  estuary 
in  Plymouth  Sound  is  called  the  Hamoaze. 

Tamatave  {Tamatahif),  the  chief  port  of  Mada- 
gascar, on  the  E.  coast.    Pop.  4000. 

Tamaulipas  (Tnmowlee'pas),  the  northernmost 
of  the  Gulf  states  of  Mexico  (area,  29,336  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  218,950).     Capital,  Victoria  (pop.  14,575). 

Tamboflf,  a  Russian  town,  300  miles  SE.  of 
Moscow.  Pop.  48,100.— Area  of  Tamhof[  govern- 
ment, 25,710  sq.  in.  ;  pop.  2,715,500. 

Tame,  a  river  of  Warwick  and  Stafford  shires, 
flowing  25  miles  to  the  Trent. 

Tammerfors,  the  chief  manufacturing  city  of 
Finland,  50  miles  NW.  of  Tavastehus  by  rail. 
Pop.  28,730. 

Tampa,  capital  of  Hillsborough  county,  Florida, 
at  the  head  of  Tampa  Bay  (nearly  40  miles  long), 
240  miles  by  I'ail  SSW.  of  Jacksonville.  There 
is  a  good  harbour,  and  the  place  is  growing  in 
importance.    Pop.  15,850. 

Tampi'co  (i  as  ee),  a  Mexican  seaport,  on  the 
Panuco,  9  miles  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  and  200 
miles  NNE.  of  Mexico.    Pop.  16,000. 

Tamsui.     See  Formosa. 

Tamworth,  a  town  on  the  border  of  Stafford 
and  Warwick  shires,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Tame 
and  Anker,  17|^  miles  NNE.  of  Birmingham,  and 
110  NW.  of  London.  Burned  by  the  Danes  in  911, 
and  rebuilt  by  the  Princess  Ethelfieda,  it  was  the 
seat  of  a  castle  of  the  Saxon  kings,  held  afterwards 
by  the  Marmions,  Ferrars,  &c.,  and  now  by  the 
Marquis  of  Townshend.  That  castle  crowns  a 
knoll  130  feet  high  ;  in  its  noble  round  keep  Mary, 
Queen  of  Scots,  was  a  prisoner.  The  church  of  St 
Edith,  restored  since  1870  at  a  cost  of  £10,000, 
has  interesting  monuments  and  a  curious  double 
tower-staircase,    There  are  also  a  bronze  statue 


TANA 


687 


TARBAGATAI 


of  Peel  (M.P.  1833-50),  the  new  Jubilee  municipal 
buildings  and  assembly  rooms,  a  town-hall  (1701), 
a  grammar-school  (15SS  ;  rebuilt  1868),  almshouses 
founded  by  Thomas  Guy  (the  founder  of  Guy's 
Hospital,  who  was  brouglit  up  here),  a  cottage 
hospital,  recreation  grounds,  &c.  The  manufac- 
tures include  elastic,  tape,  smallwares,  paper, 
&c.  ;  and  in  the  vicinity  are  market-gardens  and 
coal-pits.  A  municipal  borough,  chartered  by 
Elizabeth,  Tamwortli  returned  two  members 
until  1885.  The  borough  boundary  was  extended 
in  1890.  Pop.  (1851)  4059 ;  (1901)  7271.  See  two 
works  by  C.  F.  R.  Palmer  (1871-75). 

Tana,  a  river  of  British  East  Africa,  rising  on 
Mount  Kenia  and  flowing  450  miles  to  a  bay  S. 
of  Witu.    See  a  book  by  Dundas  (1893). 

Tana.    See  Thana,  Tzana, 

Tan'agra,  an  ancient  city  in  the  extreme  east 
of  Bceotia,  on  the  Asopus.  Here  in  457  B.C.  the 
Spartans  defeated  the  Athenians. 

Tanais.    See  Don. 

Tananari'vo  (i  as  ee).    See  Antananarivo. 

Tanderagee'  (g  hard),  an  Armagh  market-town, 
on  the  Gusher,  S3  miles  N.  of  Dublin.     Pop.  1444. 

Tanga,  an  excellent  German  port  of  East  Africa. 

Tanganyika  (ra?isr-(/fm-j/ee' Aft),  a  lake  of  Eastern 
Africa,  between  3°  and  9°  S.  lat. ,  and  on  30°  E. 
long. ;  length,  420  miles  (nearly  a  fifth  longer 
than  Lake  Michigan);  breadth,  15  to  80  miles; 
height  above  sea,  2700  feet.  It  was  discovered 
by  Speke  and  Burton  in  1858,  and  explored  by 
Livingstone,  Stanley,  Cameron,  Thomson,  Hore, 
&c.  Formerly  supposed  to  belong  to  the  Nile 
basin,  it  really  sends  its  surplus  waters  by  the 
Lukuga  outlet  westward  to  the  Congo  in  periods 
when  its  level  is  high.  Except  when  several  rainy 
seasons  follow  one  another,  the  great  evapora- 
tion keeps  the  water  about  the  same  level.  The 
water  is  fresh  and  wholesome,  the  climate  not 
unhealthy.  Mountains,  some  of  them  10,000  feet 
high,  surround  the  lake,  which  lies  in  a  trough 
that  seems  to  indicate  a  former  connection  with 
the  Red  Sea.  Some  600  miles  from  the  coast,  it 
divides  the  Congo  Free  State  from  German  East 
Africa,  touches  Northern  Rliodesia  on  the  south, 
and  is  on  the  line  of  the  Cape-to-Cairo  railway. 
For  physical  features,  see  J.  E.  S.  Moore,  The 
Tanganyika  Problem. 

Tangier,  or  Tangiers  (Tan-jeer',  Tanjeers' ; 
Arab.  Tanja),  a  seaport  and  health-resort  of 
Morocco,  on  a  small  bay  of  the  Straits  of  Gib- 
raltar, 38  miles  SW.  of  Gibraltar.  It  is  a  small, 
ill-built  town,  situated  on  two  hills,  but  has  an 
extensive  shipping  trade,  though  the  harbour  is 
a  mere  roadstead.  Tangier  was  taken  by  the 
Portuguese  in  1471,  and  given  to  Cliarles  II.  of 
England  as  Catharine  of  Braganza's  dowry,  and 
England  retained  it  till  16S3.  The  notorious 
Colonel  Kirke  commanded  the  garrison,  and 
Bishop  Ken  was  chaplain  here.  It  was  subse- 
quently a  nest  of  pirates.  Coal  has  been  found. 
Pop.  30,000,  mostly  Moors  and  Spanish  Jews. 

Tan'is  (Greek  form  of  Egj^ptian  Tan;  Heb. 
Zoan),  an  ancient  city  in  the  north-east  of  the 
Delta,  once  the  chief  commercial  city  of  Egypt. 
The  ruins,  near  the  S.  shore  of  Lake  Menzaleh, 
were  in  1883-84  explored  by  Flinders  Petrie.  See 
his  monograph  (1885). 

Tanjore  (originally  Tanjavur),  a  town  of  India, 
180  miles  SSW.  of  Madras,  on  a  branch  of  the 
lower  Kaveri.  Its  14th-century  great  pagoda  is 
190  feet  high.  An  old  Hindu  capital,  it  was  a 
f^uious  seat  of  learning  and  religion.   Pop.  59,250. 


Tansa,  a  small  river  whose  valley  has  been 
impounded  for  the  water-supply  of  Bombay,  65 
miles  to  the  S.  The  reservoir  (1887-92)  is  8  sq. 
m.  in  area,  and  the  water-supply  is  100,000,000 
gallons  per  day. 

Tanta,  capital  of  a  province  in  the  delta  of  the 
Nile,  CO  miles  N.  of  Cairo,  noted  for  its  fairs  and 
festivals  and  its  large  and  costly  khedivial  palace. 
Pop.  35,000. 

Tantallon  Castle.    See  North  Berwick. 

Taormina(Ta/i-or-mee'?ia;  anc.  Tauromenium), 
a  coast-town  of  E.  Sicily,  on  a  rock  900  feet  high, 
35  miles  SW.  of  Messina  by  rail.    It  has  a  splendid ' 
ruined  theatre,  aqueduct,  &c.     Pop.  4388. 

Tapajos  (Ta-pah'zhoce),  a  navigable  river  of 
Brazil,  formed  by  the  Arinos  and  Juruena,  both 
rising  in  the  S.  of  Matto  Grosso  state.  Flowing 
900  miles  northward,  it  falls  into  the  Amazon, 
above  Santarem.  Steamers  run  150  miles  to  the 
lowest  of  several  waterfalls. 

Taplow,  a  Thames-side  parish  of  Bucks,  1^ 
mile  E.  of  Maidenhead.    Pop.  1029. 

Tappan  Bay.    See  Hudson. 

Tappington  Court,  a  mansion  near  Woolton, 
Kent,  made  famous  by  the  Ingoldshy  Legends. 

Taprobane  (Tap-rob'a-nee).    See  Ceylon. 

Tapti  (Taptee),  a  river  of  Bombay,  rises  in  the 
Central  Provinces,  and  flows  450  miles  W.  to  the 
Gulf  of  Cambay,  17  miles  below  Surat. 

Tara,  Hill  of  (Tah'ra),  an  eminence  (507  feet) 
in  County  Meath,  7  miles  SSE.  of  Navan.  Here 
prior  to  560  is  said  to  have  stood  the  hall  of  the 
kings  of  Ireland ;  and  here  O'Connell  held  a 
monster  meeting  on  15th  August  1843. 

Tarai,  or  Terai.    See  Himalaya. 

Taranakl  (Tarandh'lcee),  a  provincial  district 
of  New  Zealand,  occuijying  the  SW.  corner  of  the 
North  Island.  Area,  3308  sq.  m. — three-fourths 
dense  forest.  The  soil  and  climate  are  good  for 
rearing  stock.  Pop.  (1901)  37,855.  Capital,  New 
Plymouth ;  pop.  4400. 

Taranto  (anc.  Tarentum),  a  seaport  of  S.  Italy, 
on  a  rocky  islet  between  the  Gulf  of  Taranto  and 
the  Mare  Piccolo,  72  miles  SSE.  of  Bari  by  rail. 
The  harbour  is  sheltered  by  two  small  islands, 
San  Paolo  and  San  Pietro,  the  Choerades  of  anti- 
quity. The  town  is  joined  to  the  mainland  by  a 
six-arched  bridge  on  the  east  side,  and  on  the 
west  by  an  ancient  Byzantine  aqueduct.  There 
are  a  modernised  cathedral,  and  a  castle  erected 
by  Charles  V.     Pop.  25,246. 

Tarapaca  (Tarapakah'),  the  southernmost  dep. 
of  Peru  till  1883,  but  then  annexed  by  Chili.  Area, 
19,300  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  98,000.    Capital,  Iquique. 

Tarare  (Tar-dhr'),  a  manufacturing  town  of 
France,  dep.  Rhone,  at  the  foot  of  Motmt  Tarare, 
21  miles  NW.  of  Lyons  by  rail.  It  manufactures 
muslins,  silks,  satins,  plush,  &c.     Pop.  11,738. 

Tarascon  (Tamsfcon''"),  a  walled  town  of  France, 
in  the  Proven9al  dep.  of  Bouches-du-Rhone,  14 
miles  SW.  of  Avignon.  It  has  King  Rene's  castle 
(1400)  and  a  Gothic  church  (1187-14th  c);  but 
Tarascon  is  chiefly  famous  through  Daudet's  im- 
mortal Tartarin.  It  manufactures  woollen  and 
silk  fabrics,  'saucissons  d'Arles,'  &c.    Pop.  6597. 

Tarawera.    See  New  Zealand. 

Tarazo'na,  an  episcopal  city  of  Spain,  20  miles 
S.  of  Tudela.     Pop.  8412. 

Tarbag'atai  (ai  as  l),  mountains,  10,000  feet 
high,  in  Russian  Central  Asia,  on  the  frontier 
between  Semipalatinsk  and  Chinese  Zungari^. 


TARBERT 


688 


TASMANIA 


Tarbert,  an  Argyllshire  seaport,  35  miles  NNE. 
of  Campbeltown.    Pop.  1697.     See  Kintyre. 

Tarbert,  a  Kerry  seaport,  on  the  Shannon 
estuary,  35  miles  SW.  of  Limerick.     Pop.  410. 

Tarbes  (Tdhrb),  the  capital  of  the  French  dep. 
of  Hautes-Pyrenees,  on  the  Adour's  left  bank,  30 
miles  ESE.  of  Pau  by  rail.  It  has  a  cathedral 
and  a  government  cannon-foundry.  Pop.  (1881) 
17,744;  (1901)21,214. 

Tarentum.    See  Taranto. 

Targovica,  or  Targowicz,  a  town  (pop.  2000) 
in  the  Russian  government  of  Kieff. 

Targovist.    See  Tergovist. 

Tarifa  (Tahree'fa),  a  Spanish  seaport,  the 
southernmost  town  of  Europe,  21  miles  SW.  of 
Gibraltar.  Still  quite  Moorish  in  aspect,  it 
is  connected  by  a  causeway  with  a  fortified  islet, 
on  which  is  a  lighthouse,  135  feet  above  sea-level. 
Tarifa,  the  Julia  Joza  of  Strabo,  was  occupied  in 
710  a.d.  by  the  Moorish  leader  Tarif,  whence  its 
name.  It  was  taken  from  the  Moors  in  1292, 
and  valiantly  defended  against  them  by  Guzman 
in  1294.  Gough  with  1800  British  and  700 
Spaniards  held  it  successfully  against  10,000 
French  (Dec.  1811-Jan.  1812).    Pop.  11,750. 

Tarlk.     See  Gibraltar. 

Tarim  River.    See  Turkestan  (Eastern). 

Tarn,  a  hilly,  well-wooded  dep.  of  S.  France, 
named  after  the  river  Tarn,  an  affluent  of  the 
Garonne.  Area,  2217  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (ISSl)  359,223  ; 
(1901)  332,093.  The  arrondissements  are  Albi  (the 
capital),  Castres,  Gaillac,  and  Lavaur. 

Tam-et-Garonne  (Tam-ay-Gawnn'),  a  dep.  of 
S.  France.  Area,  1436  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1881)  217,056  ; 
(1901)  195,669.  Tlie  principal  river  is  the  Garonne, 
with  its  affluents  the  Tarn  and  Aveyron.  It  is 
divided  into  the  three  arrondissements  of  Mon- 
tauban  (the  capital),  Castelsarrasin,  and  Moissac. 

Tamo'pol,  a  town  of  Austrian  Galicia,  80  miles 
ESE.  of  Leinberg.     Pop.  30,420,  half  Jews. 

Tarnow  (w  as  v),  a  cathedral  city  of  Austrian 
Galicia,  50  miles  E.  of  Cracow.    Pop.  31,700. 

Tar'porley,  a  Cheshire  market-town,  10  miles 
ESE.  of  Chester.     Pop.  of  urban  dist.  (1901)  2644. 

Tarrago'na  (anc.  Tarracd),  a  Spanish  seaport, 
the  capital  of  a  province  on  the  Mediterranean, 
60  miles  W.  of  Barcelona  by  rail.  Its  Gothic 
cathedral  dates  from  about  1120  ;  and  its  Roman 
remains  include  an  amphitheatre,  a  magnificent 
aqueduct,  still  used,  96  feet  high  and  700  feet 
long,  and  the  Tower  of  the  Scipios.    Pop.  25,360. 

Tarrasa,  an  industrial  town  of  Spain,  22  miles 
NW.  of  Barcelona.     Pop.  16,500. 

Tarrytown  (rhyming  with  carry),  a  village  on 
the  Hudson,  21  miles  by  rail  N.  of  New  York 
City.  Close  by  Major  Andre  was  captured  in 
1780;  and  at  Sunnyside,  2  miles  S.,  Washington 
Irving  died,  and  is  buried.    Pop.  4770. 

Tarshish,  often  referred  to  in  Scripture,  has 
been  doubtfully  identified  with  Tarsus,  Tartessus 
in  Spain,  a  place  in  S.  Arabia,  and  Ophir  (q.v.). 

Tarsus,  St  Paul's  birthplace,  was  capital  of 
Cilicia,  and  a  chief  city  of  Asia  Minor,  on  the 
Cj'dnus,  12  miles  from  the  sea.  Squalid  modern 
Tarso  or  Tersus  has  a  pop.  of  20,000. 

Tartary,  a  name  once  given  to  the  whole 
central  belt  of  Asia  and  eastern  Europe,  was 
loosely  used,  and  was  latterly  limited  to  Turkes- 
tan (q.v.). 

Tarudant,  capital  of  the  Moorish  province  of 
Sus,  on  the  Sus  River.    Pop.  8500. 


Tashkand,  or  Tashkent,  the  capital  of  Russian 
Turkestan,  300  miles  NE.  of  Samarcand.  It 
consists  of  an  ancient  walled  city  and  a  new 
European  quarter,  with  the  Russian  citadel 
a  little  to  the  S.  It  is  connected  with  the 
European  system  of  telegraphs,  and  the  rail- 
way from  Samarcand  was  opened  in  1904;  its 
manufactures  include  silk,  leather,  felt  goods, 
and  coarse  porcelain.  Pop.  156,420,  comprising 
120,000  Sarts  and  35,000  Russians.  Once  capital 
of  a  separate  khanate,  Tashkand  was  in  1810 
conquered  by  Khokand,  and  since  1868  has  been 
Russian. 

Tasmania,  an  island-state  of  the  Common- 
wealth of  Australia  (1901),  is  bounded  N.  by  Basa 
Strait,  its  other  coasts  being  swept  by  the  great 
Southern  Ocean.  Area,  26,215  sq.  m.  Although 
it  possesses  wide  stretches  of  plains  and  table- 
land, it  has  fifty  mountains  exceeding  2500  feet, 
the  loftiest  being  Cradle  Mountain  (5069  feet) ;  the 
higher  tiers  are  snow-capped  through  the  winter. 
The  lakes  of  Tasmania  (on  a  plateau  more  than 
3000  feet  above  sea-level  and  60  miles  long) 
should  become  summer-resorts  and  sanatoriums 
for  all  Australasia.  The  Great  Lake  is  about  90 
miles  in  circumference.  The  Derwent,  Tamar, 
Gordon,  Pieman,  and  Huon  are  navigable  rivers. 
Hobart  (the  capital)  is  a  magnificent  harbour ; 
the  Launceston  port  has  been  improved  by 
dredging.  The  west  coast  has  Macquarie  Har- 
bour. The  soil  varies  very  considerably.  In  the 
NW.,  NE.,  midland,  and  SE.  divisions,  where 
settlement  has  mostly  taken  place,  the  plains 
and  valleys  have  been  enriched  by  extensive 
outbursts  of  basalt  with  accompanying  tuffs, 
which  have  produced  a  very  rich  chocolate  soil ; 
towards  the  extreme  W.  and  S.  granites,  meta- 
morphic  mica,  and  quartzose  schists,  with  over- 
lying slates,  grits,  and  limestone  of  Cambro- 
Silurian  age,  re-appear  again  and  again.  The 
western  vegetation  as  compared  with  that  of  the 
east  presents  as  marked  a  contrast.  The  most 
remarkable  trees  are  the  eucalypts,  often  over 
280  feet  high,  the  magnificent  tree-ferns,  and  the 
fragrant  wattle.  But  the  most  valuable  trees 
are  the  blackwood,  Huon  pine.  King  William 
pine,  and  musk.  All  Tasmanian  trees  and  shrubs 
are  evergreens.  The  fmina,  like  the  ^om,  of  Tas- 
mania is  almost  identical  with  that  of  Australia. 
Of  the  forty-six  species  of  mammals  the  platy- 
pus is  the  most  remarkable.  The  twenty-seven 
marsupials,  nine  of  them  peculiar  to  Tasmania, 
include  the  Tasmanian  devil  or  dasyure,  and  the 
hyfena-like  native  tiger,  or  thylacine.  Of  the  187 
species  of  birds  few  are  peculiar  to  the  colony. 
Snakes  are  few  and,  though  poisonous,  not 
deadly;  but  there  are  many  lizards.  Sea  and 
fresh-water  fishes  (including  the  seven  species 
of  salmon,  salmon-trout,  and  trout  successfully 
acclimatised)  number  213  species,  about  one-third 
good  edible  fish. 

There  are  a  few  half-castes,  the  descendants  of 
European  sealers  by  native  jins  ;  but  the  aborig- 
inal Tasmanian  has  died  out— the  last  male  in 
1869,  the  last  female  in  1876.  Probably  there 
were  never  more  than  5000,  all  of  a  very  inferior 
race,  savage,  suspicious,  treacherous,  and  untam- 
able. The  racial  war  in  which  large  numbers 
were  killed,  was  perhaps  inevitable.  The  climate 
is  peculiarly  temperate  and  genial.  The  differ- 
ence between  the  mean  summer  and  winter  tem- 
perature is  15°.  Hobart  has  a  maximum  of  96*3 
against  92-2  at  Greenwich,  and  a  minimum  of  32-0 
against  15-5.  It  is  cooler  on  the  hills,  and  is  more 
equable  at  other  places  in  the  plains.  Snow  is 
very  rarely  seen  except  on  the  mountains.    TUe 


TASMAN  SEA 


TAY 


rainfall  varies  in  different  localities— at  Hobart 
about  23  inches  ;  on  the  east  coast  and  parts  of 
the  midlands  probably  less  ;  on  the  NW.  and 
NE.,  where  timber-clad  hills  more  abound, 
greater ;  and  on  the  west  coast,  where  the  pre- 
vailing wind  off  the  Southern  Ocean  meets  a 
barrier  of  forest-clad  ranges,  greatest  of  all.  The 
amount  of  sunshine  is  much  greater  than  in 
Britain.  The  air  is  drier,  the  atmosphere  clearer, 
and  the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  less  trying. 

Tasmania  was  discovered  in  1642  by  Tasman 
(c.  1602-59),  despatched  by  Van  Dieinen  (1593- 
1645),  Dutch  governor-general  of  Batavia.  In  1798 
Flinders  and  Dr  Bass  explored  the  strait  which 
divides  it  from  the  continent.  The  island  was  fre- 
quently visited  by  French  and  English  explorers 
between  1772  and  1802 ;  in  1803  the  first  settle- 
ment was  made  by  Lieutenant  Bowen,  under 
instructions  from  Governor  King  of  New  South 
Wales.  For  many  years  sheep-farming  was  the 
principal  industry.  Whaling  in  the  south  seas 
was  largely  carried  on  from  Hobart  for  years. 
Gold,  silver,  tin,  copper,  coal,  &c.  are  found. 
Gold  (since  1867),  silver,  and  tin  have  been  largely 
mined.  Tasmania  now  supplies  all  her  own  coal 
requirements,  and  since  1882  has  a  large  surplus 
for  export.  Sapphires,  topazes,  cat's-eyes,  and 
zircons  are  obtained.  Orchards  have  greatly 
Increased,  and  in  1889  Tasmanian  apples  were 
sent  in  quantity  to  England.  In  1903  the  exports 
(minerals,  wool,  timber,  fruit,  jam,  grain,  hops, 
skins,  bark,  &c.)  had  a  value  of  £2,843,108 ;  the 
imports  (textiles,  ai't  and  mechanical  products, 
food  and  drinks)  of  £2,593,810.  The  revenue  then 
was  £857,668,  and  the  expenditure  £879,356 
(largely  for  public  works).  The  public  debt  is 
£9,318,399.  Tasmania  (as  Van  Dietnen's  Land) 
was,  till  1852,  a  penal  settlement.  In  1855  it  was 
the  first  colony  of  Australasia  to  receive  repre- 
sentative government.  Pop.  (1881)  115,705  ;  in 
1901  it  had  increased  to  172,475.  In  1903  there 
were  620  miles  of  railway,  and  2187  miles  of  tele- 
graph line. 

See,  besides  the  official  handbook,  Bonwick, 
The  Lost  Tasmanian  Race  (1884);  Fenton,  History 
of  Tasmania  (1885) ;  May,  Tasmania  as  It  Is 
(1886);  Johnston,  Geology  of  Tasmania  (1888); 
Ling  Roth,  The  Aborigines  of  Tasmania  (1890). 

Tasman  Sea,  the  Admiralty  name  since  1891 
for  the  sea  between  New  Zealand,  the  islands  N  W. 
of  New  Zealand,  and  Australia  and  Tasmania. 

Tassisu'don,  the  capital  of  Bhutan  (q.v.). 

Tatar-Bazardjik.    See  Bazardjik. 

Tatl.    See  Matabeleland. 

Tattershall,  a  Lincolnshire  market-town,  on 
the  Bain,  9  miles  SSW.  of  Horncastle.    Pop.  474. 

Taunton  (Tahn-ton),  a  pleasant,  well-built 
town  of  Somersetshire,  in  the  fair  and  fertile 
valley  of  the  Tone  ('  Taunton  Deane ')  45  miles  SW. 
of  Bristol.  Here  about  710  Ine,  the  West  Saxon 
king,  built  a  fortress,  which,  passing  with  the 
manor  to  the  bishops  of  Winchester,  was  rebuilt 
by  Bishop  William  in  the  first  quarter  of  the  12th 
century.  Added  to  in  the  13th  and  15th  cen- 
turies, this  castle  received  Perkin  Warbeck  (1497), 
and  was  held  by  Blake  during  his  famous  defence 
of  the  tow!i  (1644-45).  In  its  great  hall,  fitted 
up  now  as  a  museum.  Judge  Jeftreys  opened  the 
•Bloody  Assize,'  hanging  134  and  transporting 
400  of  the  inhabitants  of  Taunton  and  the  neigh- 
bourhood who  had  accorded  Monmouth  an  en- 
thusiastic welcome  (1685) ;  and  here  too  Sydney 
Smith  made  his  '  Mrs  Partington '  speech  (1831). 
The  church  of  St  Mary  Magdalene  has  a  noble 
2r 


Perpendicular  tower  153  feet  high  (c.  1500; 
rebuilt  1858-62) ;  and  other  buildings  are  the 
Elizabethan  shire-hall  (1858),  the  municipal  build- 
ings (formerly  the  grannnar-school  founded  by 
Bishop  Fox  in  1522),  King's  College  school  (1880), 
Independent  college  (1847-70),  Wesleyan  Institu- 
tion (1843),  Huish  schools  (1874),  Bishop  Fox's 
girls'  school,  hospital  (1809-73),  barracks,  &c. 
Once  a  great  '  clothier  town,'  Taunton  now  has 
shirt,  collar,  glove,  and  silk  manufactures,  with 
a  large  agricultural  trade.  It  was  thrice  chartered 
(1627,  1677,  1877)  as  a  municipal  borough,  and 
lost  one  of  its  two  members  in  1885.  Pop.  (1851)  • 
14,176  ;  (1901)  21,078.  See  works  by  Toulmin  (2d 
ed.  1822),  Cottle  (1845),  Macmullen  (1860-62), 
Jeboult  (1873),  and  Pring  (1880). 

Taunton,  capital  of  Bristol  county,  Massa- 
chusetts, at  the  head  of  navigation  on  Taunton 
River,  34  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Boston.  It  contains 
a  fine  park,  court-house,  city  hall,  state  lunatic 
asylum,  and  numerous  foundries  and  cotton-mills, 
locomotive  and  copper  works,  shipyards,  and 
manufactories  of  bricks,  nails,  jewellery,  &c. 
Taunton  was  settled  from  Taunton  in  England  in 
1637      Pop.  (18S0)  21,213  ;  (1900)  31,036. 

Taunus  Mountains.    See  Hesse-Nassau. 

Taupo,  Lake.    See  New  Zealand. 

Tau'rida,  a  government  of  South  Russia, 
bounded  E.,  S.,  and  SW.  by  the  Sea  of  Azov  and 
the  Black  Sea.  The  Crimea  forms  its  southern 
portion.    Area,  24,539  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,443,570. 

Taurus,  Mount.    See  Asia  Minor. 

Tavastehus,  a  town  of  Finland,  on  Lake  Vana- 
jajarvi,  50  miles  N.  of  Helsingfors.    Pop.  6098. 

Tavira,  a  Portuguese  seaport,  20  miles  NE.  of 
Faro.    It  has  sulphur-baths.    Pop.  12,459. 

Tavistock,  a  pleasant  market-town  of  Devon, 
11  miles  N.  of  Plymouth  and  31  (by  rail  40)  SW. 
of  Exeter,  lies  in  a  trough  of  the  hills  on  the 
Tavy's  left  bank,  with  Dartmoor  stretching  away 
from  it  to  the  eastward.  An  old  stannary  town, 
till  1885  governed  by  a  portreeve,  it  is  the  centre 
of  what  was  a  great  mining  district ;  and  it  sent 
two  members  to  parliament  till  1867,  then  one 
till  1885.  Two  gateways,  a  porch,  and  the  refec- 
tory are  the  chief  remains  of  its  once  magnificent 
Benedictine  abbey,  founded  in  961.  It  was 
rebuilt  between  1285  and  1458,  was  the  seat  of  a 
very  early  printing-press,  and  at  the  dissolution 
in  1539  was  conferred  on  the  first  Lord  Russell, 
remaining  still  with  the  Duke  of  Bedford.  Tavi- 
stock has  a  fine  parish  church  (1318)  with  a  west 
tower  (106  feet)  resting  on  arches,  a  guildhall 
(1848),  corn-market  (1839),  covered  markets 
(1863),  statues  of  the  seventh  Duke  of  Bedford 
by  Stephens  (1864)  and  Drake  by  Boehm  (1883,  a 
very  fine  one  presented  by  the  ninth  Duke),  and 
the  Kelly  College  (1877),  founded  by  Admiral 
Kelly.  Drake  and  William  Browne  were  natives  ; 
Pym  and  William  Lord  Russell  members  ;  and 
the  Right  Hon.  W.  H.  Smith  was  educated  at  the 
grammar-school.  Pop.  (1851)  8086  ;  (1901)  4728. 
See  works  by  Kempe  (1830),  Rachel  Evans  (1846), 
Worth  (1888),  and  Alford  (1891). 

Tavoy',  the  chief  town  of  a  district  in  Tenas- 
serim,  Burma,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Tavoy 
River,  30  miles  from  its  mouth.    Pop.  22,400. 

Tavy,  a  Devon  river,  flowing  20  miles  to  the 
Tamar.    See  a  work  by  Mrs  Bray  (new  ed.  1879). 
Taw,  a  Devon  river,  flowing   50   miles,  past 
Barnstaple,  to  Bideford  Bay. 

Tay,  a  river  of  Scotland,  draining  nearly  the 
whole  of  Perthshire,  and  pouring  into  the  German 
Ocean  a  greater  bulk  of  water  than  any  other 


TAYPORT 


690 


TEMESVAR 


British  river,  rises  on  Benloy,  on  the  Argyllshire 
border,  at  an  altitude  of  2980  feet.  Thence  it 
winds  118  miles  ENE.,  SSE.,  and  E.— for  the  last 
25  miles  as  a  tidal  estuary,  J  mile  to  3J  miles 
broad,  which  separates  Perth  and  Forfar  shires 
from  Fife.  In  the  first  25  miles  of  its  course  it 
bears  the  names  of  Fillan  and  Dochart ;  it  then 
traverses  Loch  Tay,  and  it  afterwards  passes 
Aberfeldy,  Dunkeld,  Stanley,  Perth,  Dundee,  and 
Broughty-Ferry.  Its  principal  affluents  are  the 
Tummel  (58  miles  long,  and  sometimes  regarded 
as  a  northern  head-stream),  Isla,  Almond,  and 
Earn.  The  Tay,  as  it  is  the  most  beautiful  of 
Scottish  rivers,  so  it  is  unrivalled  for  its  salmon- 
fisheries,  whose  rental  in  good  years  exceeds 
£20,000.  Vessels  of  100  tons  can  ascend  as  high 
as  Perth,  but  even  to  Dundee  the  navigation  of 
the  firth  is  much  impeded  by  shifting  sandbanks. 
For  the  Tay  Bridge,  see  Dundee. 

Loch  Tay  lies  355  feet  above  sea-level,  extends 
14i  miles  NE.  from  Killin  to  Kenmore,  is  ^  to  IJ 
mile  broad,  15  to  85  fatlioms  deep,  and  covers 
6550  acres.  It  is  a  magnificent  Highland  lake, 
flanked  on  the  north-west  by  Ben  Lawers  (4004 
feet),  and  containing  near  its  foot  a  wooded  islet, 
with  a  fragment  of  an  Augustinian  priory,  founded 
in  1122  by  Alexander  I.,  who  here  buried  his 
queen,  Sibylla.  In  Sept.  1842  Queen  Victoria  was 
rowed  up  Loch  Tay,  on  which  a  steamer  was 
launched  in  1883,  and  a  railway  to  which,  at 
Killin,  was  opened  in  1886.  Seethe  articles  Ran- 
NOCH,  Earn,  Perthshire,  &c.,  and  J.  Geddie's 
finely  illustrated  monograph  on  the  Tay  (1891). 

Tayport,  a  watering-place  and  police-burgh  of 
Fife,  on  the  south  side  of  the  entrance  of  the 
Firth  of  Tay,  opposite  Broughty-Ferry,  and  3J 
miles  E.  by  S.  of  Dundee.     Pop.  3325. 

Tchad,  Lake.    See  Chad. 

Tchelyabinsk.    See  Cheliabinsk. 

Tchelyuskin.    See  Chelyuskin. 

Tcherkask,  (l)  a  town  of  S.  Russia,  on  the 
Don,  12  miles  S.  of  Novotcherkask  (q.v.).  Pop. 
15,000.— (2)  A  town  of  Russia,  190  miles  SE.  of 
Kieff,  on  the  Dnieper.     Pop.  29,620. 

Tchernavo'da,  a  town  of  the  Dobrudja,  Ron- 
mania,  30  miles  WNW.  of  Kustendje,  with  a  rail- 
way bridge  across  the  Danube  (1895).     Pop.  5000. 

Tchernlgoflf,  capital  of  a  Russian  government, 
85  miles  NE.  of  Kieff".     Pop.  25,580. 

Teb,  El,  50  miles  SSE.  of  Suakin,  was  the 
scene,  in  1884,  of  Osman  Digna's  defeat. 

Teck,  a  principality  named  from  a  castle  on 
•the  Teck,'  a  limestone  peak  in  the  Swabian 
Alb,  20  miles  SE.  of  Stuttgart.  Held  by  various 
families  from  the  11th  c.  on,  it  passed  in  1498  to 
the  Dukes  of  Wiirtemberg.  In  1863  the  king  of 
Wiirtemberg  conferred  it  on  Duke  Albert's  son, 
who  in  1866  married  the  Princess  Mary  of  Cam- 
bridge. Their  daughter,  Princess  May,  was 
married  in  1893  to  the  Duke  of  York. 

Teddington,  a  town  of  Middlesex,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Thames,  13^  miles  (by  water  18^)  SW. 
of  London.     Pop.  (1861)  1183  ;  (1901)  14,029. 

Tees,  a  river  rising  on  Cross  Fell,  Cumberland, 
and  flowing  70  miles  eastward,  mainly  between 
Durham  and  Yorkshire,  to  the  North  Sea,  4  miles 
below  Stockton.  Works  carried  out  since  1853 
have  made  it  navigable  to  that  town  for  vessels 
of  large  burden. 

Tegern-See  (Tai/gern,  g  hard),  a  beautiful 
mountain  lake,  3^  miles  long,  in  the  extreme 
south  of  Bavaria,  30  miles  SE.  of  Munich. 

Tegu'cigalpa,  the  capital  of  Honduras,  on  the 


Rio  Grande,  3400  feet  above  the  sea,  with  moun- 
tains rising  round  about.     Pop.  18,600. 

Tehama.    See  Arabia. 

Teheran',  or  Tehran,  capital  of  Persia,  70 
miles  S.  of  the  Caspian  Sea.  It  stands  on  a 
wide  plain,  with  Mount  Demavend  (q.v.)  to  the  N. 
The  old  wall  and  ditch  (4  miles  long)  were 
levelled  in  1868,  and  the  space  thus  gained  made 
into  a  circular  boulevard.  New  fortifications, 
10  miles  in  circumference,  were  completed  in 
1873.  The  town  rapidly  extended,  especial'y 
on  the  north  side,  where  many  fine  streets, 
gardens,  and  buildings  soon  made  their  appear- 
ance, among  them  the  British  Legation.  The 
Shah's  palace,  reconstructed  since  1866,  occupies 
the  Citadel,  its  large  court-yards  laid  out  with 
gardens  and  fountains.  The  Shah  has  five  other 
palaces  in  the  neighbourhood.  The  bazaars, 
some  of  them  very  handsome  structures,  are 
filled  with  every  kind  of  merchandise.  Lines  of 
telegraph  radiate  in  all  directions  ;  and  in  1886  a 
railway  was  constructed  to  Shah  Abdul  Azim, 
a  place  of  pilgrimage  6  miles  S.  Tramways  were 
also  laid  down,  and  gas  introduced  in  1892.  Pop. 
(I860)  70,000  ;  (1900)  230,000,  the  Europeans  hav- 
ing likewise  increased  from  30  to  1000.  Near 
Teheran  are  the  ruins  of  Rei,  the  Mhages  of 
the  Book  of  Tobit,  and  Ragce  of  Alexander  the 
Great's  time,  Hartm-al-Raschid's  birthplace. 

Tehuantepec  (Te-wan-te-pek'),  atown  of  Oaxaca, 
Mexico,  10  miles  above  the  mouth  of  the  river 
Tehuantepec ;  pop.  25,000.  The  isthmus  here  is 
only  120  miles  wide,  and  an  interoceanic  canal 
has  been  dreamt  of  since  Cortes'  day.  A  railway 
across  it  was  opened  in  1894. 

Telfi,  a  river  of  South  Wales,  flowing  50  miles 
to  Cardigan  Bay. 

Teignmouth  (Tinmuth),  a  Devon  seaport  and 
watering-place,  12  miles  (by  rail  15)  S.  of  Exeter, 
on  the  N.  side  of  the  Teign's  pretty  estuary,  which 
is  spanned  by  a  wooden  bridge  (1827),  557  yards 
long.  Bui-ned  by  the  Danes  in  970,  by  the  French 
in  1338  and  1690,  it  has  a  grassy  promenade,  the 
Din  or  Dune,  a  pier  (1866),  a  public  market  (1883), 
baths  (1883),  a  Benedictine  nunnery  (1865),  &c. 
Pop.  8700. 

Tekna,  the  practically  independent  country 
S.  of  Morocco,  from  the  Draa  to  Cape  Bojador. 

Tel-el-Amarna,  or  Tell-el-AmIrina,  a  mass 
of  ruins  representing  the  capital  of  the  heretic 
Egyptian  king,  Amenhotep  IV.,  a  little  N.  of 
Assiout,  on  the  Nile's  E.  bank.  Here,  in  1887, 
were  found  230  tablets  in  Babylonian  cuneiform. 

Tel-el-Kebir  (Keheer'),  midway  on  the  railway 
between  Ismailia  and  Cairo,  was' the  scene  on  the 
morning  of  13th  September  1882  of  the  capture 
by  Sir  Garnet  Wolseley  of  Arabi  Pasha's  en- 
trenched camp,  defended  by  26,000  men. 

Tell,  a  district  in  NW.  Africa,  extending  from 
the  Mediterranean  to  the  Atlas  Mountains, 
through  Morocco,  Algeria,  and  Tunis. 

Tellicher'ri,  a  seaport  in  Malabar  district, 
Madras  Presidency.     Pop.  28,000. 

Tembuland.    See  Transkei. 

Teme,  a  river  of  South  Wales  ajid  Worcester- 
shire, flowing  60  miles  east-south-eastward  to  the 
Severn,  1^  mile  S.  of  Worcester. 

Temesvar  (Tem-es-vahr'),  a  royal  free  city  of 
Hungary,  on  the  Bega  Canal,  .160  miles  SE.  of 
Pesth  by  rail.  It  has  a  fine  cathedral,  an  ancient 
castle,  and  manufactures  of  flour,  tobacco,  cloth, 
silk,  paper,  leather,  wool,  and  oil.  Temesvar 
has  endured  many  sieges — the  latest  in  1849, 
when  it  was  bombarded  for  107  days  by  the 


TEMFE 


691 


TEPLITZ 


Hungarian  insurgents,  but  relieved  by  Haynau. 
Pop.  (1880)  33,694  ;  (1900)  49,625. 

Tempe  (Tem'pee),  a  famous  mountain-gorge,  6 
miles  long,  in  NE.  Thessaly,  between  Olympus 
and  Ossa.    The  river  Peneus  traverses  it. 

Templemore,  a  town  of  Tipperary,  on  the 
Suir,  8  miles  N.  of  Thurles,  took  its  name  from  a 
Knights  Templars'  commandery.    Pop.  2774. 

Tenas'serim,  the  southernmost  division  of 
Burma,  is  a  narrow  territory  between  the  sea 
and  the  mountains  of  the  Siamese  frontier.  Area, 
46,590  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1881)825,741 ;  (1901)  1,137,780. 
The  chief  towns  are  Maulmain,  Taung-ngu,  and 
Tavoy.  The  town  of  Tenasserim  (pop.  now  under 
600)  stands  33  miles  from  the  sea  at  the  .junction 
of  the  Great  and  Little  Tenasserim  rivers. 

Ten'bury,  a  town  of  Worcestershire,  on  the 
Teme,  22  miles  NW.  of  Worcester.  It  has  a  spa, 
discovered  in  1839,  and  St  Michael's  College, 
founded  in  1855  by  Sir  Gore  Ouseley.     Pop.  2084. 

Tenby,  a  thriving  watering-place  of  Pembroke- 
shire, South  Wales,  9^  miles  E.  of  Pembroke  and 
276  W.  of  London,  is  finely  seated  on  a  rocky 
headland  overlooking  Carmarthen  Bay.  The 
Cymric  Din-hach  y  Pysgod  ('  fishy  little  fortress '), 
it  was  one  of  the  Flemish  colonies  planted  by 
Henry  I.  in  Pembrokeshire,  and  retains  a  long 
stretch  of  its  ancient  walls,  strengthened  by 
Queen  Elizabeth  in  1588,  and  a  fragment  of  a 
castle,  whence  in  1471  the  future  Henry  VH. 
escaped  to  Brittany.  Its  mild  climate,  fine  level 
sands,  and  capital  bathing  have  been  the  making 
of  the  place,  which  has  an  interesting  Gothic 
church  (1250)  with  a  spire  152  feet  high,  a  colossal 
marble  statue  of  the  Prince  Consort  (1865),  and  a 
fort  (1868)  on  St  Catherine's  Island.  It  is  an 
ancient  municipal  borough,  and  with  Pembroke 
(q.v.),  &c.,  returns  one  member.  Pop.  (1861)2982; 
(1901)  4400.  See  works  by  P.  H.  Gosse  (1856) 
and  Mrs  Hall  (2d  ed.  1873). 

Thne,  La,  near  the  north  end  of  the  Lake  of 
Neuchatel  (q.v.),  was  the  seat  of  a  characteristic 
type  of  prehistoric  culture. 

Ten'edos  (Bosdscha  Ada),  a  rocky  Turkish  island 
in  the  Jilgean,  otf  the  Tread,  and  12  miles  S.  of 
the  entrance  to  the  Dardanelles.  It  is  8  miles 
long  and  2  to  4  broad.    Pop.  5000. 

Teneriffe,  Peak  of  (usu.  Ten-er-iff' ;  Span. 
Tenerife,  pron.  Tay-nay-ree'fay),  a  famous  dormant 
volcano,  the  highest  summit  (12,200  feet)  in  the 
Canary  Islands  (q.v.),  stands  in  the  south-west  of 
the  island  of  Teneriffe  or  Santa  Cruz.  Its  lower 
slopes  are  covered  with  forests,  or  laid  out  in 
meadows  ;  but  the  upper  ridges  are  wild  and 
barren.  The  Peak  El  Piton  and  its  two  inferior 
neighbours,  the  Montana  Blanco  and  Chahorra 
(9880  feet),  rise  from  a  rugged  circular  plain  of 
lava  debris  and  pumice,  7000  feet  above  sea-level, 
about  8  miles  in  diameter,  and  fenced  in  by  an 
almost  perpendicular  wall  of  rock.  From  the 
crevices  sulphurous  vapours  exhale.  The  wall  of 
the  crater  at  the  top  is  300  feet  in  diameter,  and 
70  deep.  The  colour  of  the  whole  is  white. 
There  is  an  ice  cave  at  an  altitude  of  11,000  feet. 
The  Peak  can  be  seen  more  than  100  miles  off. 
In  1795  and  1V98  there  Avas  volcanic  activity  here. 
See  works  by  Piazzi  Smyth  (1858),  Olivia  M.  Stone 
(new  ed.  1889),  and  Strettell  (1890). 

Tengri  Nor.    See  Tibet. 

Ten'nessee,  one  of  the  central  southern  states 
of  the  American  Union,  is  surrounded  by  Ken- 
tucky, Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama, and  Mississippi,  and  separated  by  the 
Mississippi  River  from  Arkansas  and  Missouri. 


Its  mean  length  is  385  miles,  its  mean  width 
109  miles;  area,  42,050  sq.  m.  East  Tennessee 
extends  from  the  Unaka  and  Smoky  Moun- 
tains  to  the  crest  of  the  Cumberland  Plateau, 
contains  some  of  the  great  ridges  of  the  Appa- 
lachians, and  abounds  in  magnificent  scenery. 
Between  the  eastern  ridges  and  the  plateau 
stretches  a  valley  region  100  miles  wide,  sloping 
from  N.  to  S.  Along  its  western  edge  the  plateau 
rises  in  a  bold  wall  100  to  200  feet  high  ;  and  on 
the  plateau  are  the  ridges  and  peaks  of  the  Cum- 
berland Mountains.  The  southern  end  is  divided* 
into  two  arms  by  a  deep  gorge  with  perpendicular 
sides  (800  to  1000  feet).  Between  the  Tennessee 
River  in  its  northern  course  and  the  Cumberland 
Mountains  is  Middle  Tennessee,  presenting  a 
varied  landscape  of  mountains,  plains,  hills,  and 
valleys.  Between  the  Tennessee  and  the  Missis- 
sippi rivers  lies  the  western  division.  From  the 
ridge  bounding  the  Tennessee  valley  on  the  west, 
slopes  a  rolling  plain,  terminating  in  a  steep  blufl', 
beyond  which  are  the  alluvial  bottom  lands  of 
the  Mississippi.  The  coal-measures  occupy  an 
area  of  5100  sq.  m.,  and  the  seams  are  of  excep- 
tional thickness.  The  deposits  of  iron  ore  are 
practically  inexhaustible ;  copper  and  zinc  are 
found,  and  the  marbles  are  celebrated.  Several 
famous  mineral  springs  are  the  resorts  of  invalids. 
The  soil  is  fertile,  and  the  forests  of  hard-wood 
timber  constitute  a  great  natural  source  of 
wealth.  The  climate  is  generally  mild.  Herbage 
is  often  green  throughout  the  year,  and  cattle 
graze  during  the  winter  months.  The  rainfall 
amounts  to  54  inches.  The  drainage  of  the  state 
is  ultimately  received  by  the  Mississippi.  The 
Cumberland  River,  which  enters  the  state  from 
Kentucky,  flows  about  150  miles  through  the 
northern  central  part  and  then  re-enters  Ken- 
tucky. The  Tennessee  (800  miles),  the  largest 
aflluent  of  the  Ohio,  formed  by  the  Clinch  and  tha 
Holston,  flows  southward  through  the  depression 
in  East  Tennessee  into  Alabama,  and  then  back 
northward  across  the  state  towards  the  Ohio. 
Agriculture  is  the  leading  industry.  The  staple 
crops  are  corn,  cotton,  hemp,  tobacco,  and  pea- 
nuts. Stock-raising  is  extensively  carried  on. 
The  production  of  pig-iron  has  greatly  increased, 
and  factories  for  machinery,  agricultural  imple- 
ments, &c.,  have  become  numerous.  There  are 
also  many  cotton,  woollen,  flour,  and  paper  mills, 
besides  tobacco-factories  and  potteries.  The 
chief  towns  are  Mempliis,  the  largest  city 
(105,000),  Nashville,  the  capital  (82,000),  Knox- 
ville  (33,000),  and  Chattanooga  (31,000).  The 
first  permanent  settlement  was  made  in  1756 ; 
territorial  government  was  established  in  1790; 
and  in  1796  Tennessee  became  a  state.  It  was 
the  last  state  to  secede  in  1861,  and  the  first 
to  re-enter  the  Union  in  1866.  Pop.  (1800) 
105,602;  (1850)1,002,717;  (1880)1,542,359;  (1900) 
2,020,616  (480,430  coloured).  See  Histories  by 
Ramsey  (1860),  Carpenter  (1863),  Phelan  (1889), 
and  Thruston's  Antiquities  of  I'ennessee  (1890). 

Tenos,  or  Tmo,  a  Greek  island  of  the  Cyclades. 
Area,  70  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  12,565.  The  capital,  Tenos, 
is  on  the  S.  coast ;  pop.  2083. 

Ten'terden,  a  municipal  borough  in  the  Weald 
of  Kent,  13  miles  SW.  of  Ashford  and  7^  S.  by  E. 
of  Headcorn  station.  The  church  has  a  noble 
Perpendicular  tower,  built  in  the  15th  c,  and 
associated  by  legend  with  the  Goodwin  Sands 
(q.v.).     Pop.  3250. 

Teplc,  a  town  in  the  Mexican  territory  of  Tepic, 
80  miles  E.  by  S.  of  San  Bias.    Pop.  15,000. 

Teplltz  (Tay'plitz),  a  watering-place  of  Bohemia, 


TERAI 


692 


TEXAS 


in  a  beautiful  valley  near  the  Erzgebirge,  20 
miles  NW.  of  Leitmeritz  by  rail.  The  baths, 
supplied  from  a  dozen  alkalo-saline  springs,  are 
taken  very  hot,  and  are  good  for  gout,  rheum- 
atism, &c.  One  spring  is  used  for  drinking.  Pop., 
with  Schonau,  24,420.  Some  7000  bathers  come 
here  yearly,  besides  many  more  mere  visitors. 

Terai  {Te-rl').    See  Himalaya. 

Ter'amo  (anc.  Interamna),  an  Italian  cathedral 
city,  84  miles  S.  of  Ancona.     Pop.  8650. 

Terceira.    See  Azores. 

Terek,  a  stream  of  the  Caucasus,  flowing  350 
miles  NE.  to  the  Caspian. 

Tergovist,  the  former  capital  of  Wallachia,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Carpathians.  52  miles  by  rail  NW. 
of  Bucharest.     Pop.  9400. 

Terlizzi  (Ter-Kt'zee),  a  town  of  Italy,  22  miles 
W.  of  Bari.    Pop.  20,442. 

Termini  (Ter' mi-nee ;  anc.  Thermce  Himerenses), 
a  seaport  on  the  north  coast  of  Sicily,  23  miles 
ESE.  of  Palermo  by  rail.     Pop.  22,733, 

Ternate  (Ter-nah'tay).    See  Moluccas. 

Terneuzen,  a  small  Dutch  port,  in  Zealand,  on 
the  S.  bank  of  the  Scheldt.     Pop.  8750. 

Terni  (i  as  ee),  a  cathedral  city  of  Central  Italy, 
70  miles  NNE.  of  Rome  by  rail.  About  2  miles 
off  is  the  cataract  of  Velino,  500  feet  high,  cele- 
brated in  Childe  Harold.  Terni  is  the  ancient 
Interamna  Umbrica,  perhaps  the  birthplace  of 
Tacitus.    Pop.  9415. 

Terracina  (Ten-ac/tee'Tia),  a  coast-town  of  Italy, 
60  miles  SE.  of  Rome.    Pop.  10,000. 

Terra  del  Fuego.    See  Tierra  del  Fuego. 

Terrano'va,  a  seaport  on  the  south  coast  of 
Sicily,  60  miles  W.  of  Syracuse.     Pop.  16,440. 

Terre  Haute  (now  Ter'reh  Boat),  capital  of  Vigo 
county,  Indiana,  on  the  river  Wabash,  72  miles  S. 
of  Chicago.     Pop.  (1870)  16,103  ;  (1900)  36,673. 

Territet  (Ter-ri-tay'),  a  village  adjoining  Mon- 
treux  (q.v.). 

Terror,  Mount,  an  Antarctic  volcano  (extinct) 
in  South  Victoria  Land,  30  miles  SE.  of  Mount 
Erebus.     Its  height  is  10,900  feet. 

Tersclielling  (Ter-skel'ling),  one  of  the  chain 
of  islands  N.  of  Holland.    Area,  45  sq.  jn. 

Teschen  (Tay'shen),  a  town  of  Austrian  Silesia, 
35  miles  ESE.  of  Troppau.     Pop.  23,000. 

Tessin.    See  Ticino. 

Tetbury,  an  old  market-town  of  Gloucester- 
shire, 5  miles  NW.  of  Malmesbury.     Pop.  1950. 

Tetuan'  (Arab.  Tetaiuin),  a  port  of  Morocco, 
4'miles  from  the  sea,  and  22  S.  of  Ceuta.  Pop. 
25,000  (one-third  Jews). 

Teviot.    See  Roxburghshire. 

Tewkesbury,  a  quaint  old  market-town  of 
Gloucestershire,  on  the  Avon  at  its  confluence 
with  the  Severn,  9  miles  NNW.  of  Cheltenham, 
10  NNE.  of  Gloucester,  and  15  S.  by  E.  of 
Worcester.  On  the  site  of  the  cell  of  the 
hermit  Theoc,  from  whom  the  place  got  its 
name,  was  founded  in  715  a  monastery,  re- 
founded  in  1102  as  a  great  Benedictine  abbey.  Its 
noble  church,  consecrated  in  1123,  measures  317 
feet  by  124  across  the  transepts,  and  remains 
essentially  Norman,  in  spite  of  later  additions. 
It  was  restored  by  Scott  in  1875-79.  Special 
features  are  the  west  front  and  the  massive 
central  tower,  132  feet  high.  Many  of  the  Clares, 
Despencers,  Beauchainps,  and  other  lords  of 
Tewkesbury  are  buried  here,  as  also  the  murdered 


Prince  Edward  and  (possibly)  Clarence ;  and  in 
1890  a  tablet  was  erected  to  Mrs  Craik,  the  seen© 
of  whose  John  Halifax  is  laid  in  Tewkesbury. 
The  place  has  also  a  town-hall  (1788),  a  corn- 
exchange  (1856),  Telford's  iron  bridge  over  the 
Severn  (1824),  with  a  span  of  176  feet,  a  free 
grammar-school,  &c.  The  thick  mustard  Falstaff 
speaks  of  is  a  thing  of  the  past,  and  the  trade  is 
chiefly  agricultural.  Within  half  a  mile  was 
fought  (4th  May  1471)  the  famous  battle  of 
Tewkesbury,  in  which  the  Yorkists  under  Edward 
IV.  gained  a  crowning  victory.  Incorporated  by 
Elizabeth  in  1574,  Tewkesburv  returned  two  mem- 
bers from  1609  till  1867,  and  then  one  till  1885, 
Pop.  (1851)  5S7S;  (1901)  5419.  See  works  by 
Dyde  (1790),  Bennett  (1830),  Petit  (1848),  and 
Blunt  (2d  ed.  1877). 

Tex'as  is  the  extreme  south-western  state  of 
the  American  Union,  bordering  on  Mexico,  New 
Mexico,  Oklahoma,  Indian  Territory,  Arkansas, 
Louisiana,  and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  The  largest 
state  in  the  Union  (265,780  sq.  m.),  it  covers 
nearly  9  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of  the  United 
States,  exclusive  of  Alaska ;  and  is  larger  than 
France  or  Germany,  and  more  than  twice  as 
large  as  the  British  Isles.  Its  extreme  length  is 
about  900  miles,  and  its  greatest  breadth  750; 
the  coast-line  is  400  miles  long.  From  the  low, 
flat  prairie  lands  along  the  coast  the  land  rises 
till  it  reaches  the  plateau  and  mountains  of  the 
distant  west,  some  of  whose  peaks  attain 
5000  feet.  All  along  the  coast  is  a  fringe  of 
low  islands  (Padre  Island  is  100  miles  long)  and 
peninsulas,  separated  from  the  mainland  by 
lagoons.  The  alluvial  coast-belt,  extending  fi-om 
25  to  60  miles  inland,  comprises  both  fertile  low- 
lands and  stretches  of  barren  soil.  Beyond  lies  a 
terrace  of  rich  rolling  land  called  the  'prairie 
belt.'  In  the  eastern  prairie  sections  there  are 
extensive  timber  regions,  N.  and  W.  of  the 
prairies  the  land  presents  a  rough,  broken  sur- 
face, with  occasional  bluff's.  On  the  southern 
border  of  the  plateau  the  elevation  is  about  1000 
feet,  but  a  height  of  2000  feet  is  reached  as  the 
ascent  continues  toward  the  arid  Llano  Estacado 
and  the  foot-hills  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

There  is  every  variety  of  soil,  from  the  fertile 
lands  of  the  river-bottoms  and  prairies  to  the 
sterile  sand  of  the  southern  desert.  In  the  S.  and 
SE.  the  rainfall  is  ample,  in  the  W.  and  NW.  in- 
sufficient. Yet  even  the  Llano  Estacado,  or  Staked 
Plains,  once  considered  utterly  uninhabitable,  can 
supply  water  for  irrigation  by  the  use  of  artesian 
wells  and  windmills.  The  northern  winds  are 
usually  dry,  the  rain  comes  almost  entirely  from  the 
south-west,  and  the  winter  months  are  generally 
the  driest.  The  best  water-supply  is  found  in  the 
timber-lands.  The  climate  on  the  coast-plains  is 
semi-tropical,  tempered  by  the  winds  from  the 
Gulf.  The  north  experiences  cool  winters,  with 
heavy  snowstorms  at  times.  The  air  of  western 
Texas  is  so  dry  that  meats  are  perfectly  preserved 
in  the  open  air  without  salt.  The  '  norther,'  a 
sudden  and  extreme  change  of  temperature  pro- 
duced by  a  rush  of  cold  Avind  from  the  north, 
ordinarily  lasts  for  three  days,  and  the  fall  in 
temperature  is  often  as  much  as  30°.  The  Red 
and  Arkansas  rivers  convey  the  waters  of  the 
northern  part  of  the  state  to  the  Mississippi. 
The  other  streams  flow  directly  into  the  Gulf. 
The  Red  and  Sabine  rivers  and  the  Rio  Grande 
form  parts  of  the  boundary  line.  Within  the 
state  the  most  important  rivers  are  the  Trinity, 
the  Brazos,  and  the  Colorado.  The  coal- 
measures  occupy  about  10,000  sq.  m.,  besides  ex- 
tensive beds  of  brown  lignite.     There  are  vast 


I 


^EX£L 


THANET 


deposits  of  iron  ore,  tin  and  other  metals  are 
found,  and  the  supply  of  lime,  gypsum,  and  salt  is 
inexhaustible.  Agriculture  and  stock-raising  are 
the  leading  occupations.  Rather  more  than  one- 
half  of  the  entire  area  is  practically  uninhabited, 
but  settlements  are  extending.  Texas  ranks  fore- 
most in  cattle-raising,  thanks  to  its  pasturage  and 
climate.  It  is  also  a  leading  cotton  state— for 
some  years  it  was  the  fotemost  in  produce.  Wheat 
and  the  other  grains  are  extensively  cultivated. 
Sugar  and  rice  yield  abundant  harvests  along 
the  coast,  and  fruits  are  produced  in  the  south. 
Petroleum  has  also  (since  1897)  created  a  pro- 
minent industry.  Austin,  the  capital,  has  a  pop. 
of  24,000,  and  there  are  other  five  cities  of  over 
20,000  (San  Antonio,  with  55,000;  Houston, 
45,000  ;  Dallas,  43,000  ;  Galveston,  38,000  ;  Fort 
Worth,  28,000).  A  hurricane  and  high  tide  in 
1900  destroyed  4000  lives  and  $10,000,000  worth 
of  property  at  Galveston.  Texas  formed  part 
of  the  Spanish  province  of  Mexico,  which  in  1822 
became  a  republic.  In  1835  it  declared  its 
independence,  and  in  1836  Houston  was  made 
president.  In  1845  Texas,  with  an  area  of  375,000 
sq.  m.,  was  annexed  to  the  United  States,  this 
being  the  prime  cause  of  the  Mexican  war.  The 
state  seceded  from  the  Union  in  1861,  and  re- 
entered it  in  1870.  Pop.  (1870)  818,579;  (1880) 
1,591,749  ;  (1890)  2,235,523  (492,837  coloured).  See 
Histories  by  Yoakum  (1856),  Baker  (1873),  Theall 
(1879),  and  Bancroft  (1885). 

Tex'el,  an  island  of  North  Holland,  at  the 
entrance  to  the  Zuider  Zee.  It  is  separated  from 
the  mainland  by  a  narrow  strait,  called  the  Mars- 
diep.  Area,  55  sq.  m. ;  pop.  6500,  who  keep  some 
35,000  sheep,  famous  both  for  their  wool  and 
their  cheese.  The  Marsdiep  is  also  often  called 
the  Texel ;  and  here  many  important  naval  battles 
have  been  fought.  Blake  defeated  Tromp  and 
De  Ruyter  in  1653  ;  Prince  Rupert  fought  De 
Ruyter  in  1673  ;  Duncan  blockaded  the  Texel  (for 
a  time  with  a  single  ship)  in  1797 ;  and  twelve 
Dutch  ships  of  war  and  thirteen  Indiamen  sur- 
rendered to  Admiral  Mitchell  in  1799. 

Tezcu'co,  a  city  of  Mexico,  on  the  east  shore  of 
the  salt  lake  (92  sq.  m. )  of  the  same  name,  25  miles 
by  rail  ENE.  of  Mexico  city.  The  ancient  Acol- 
huacan,  once  the  chief  seat  of  Aztec  culture,  it 
retains  traces  of  palaces  and  of  a  noble  aque- 
duct, and  now  has  glass-works.    Pop.  6000. 

Thame  (Tame),  an  Oxfordshire  town  on  the 
river  Thame,  13  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Oxford.  It 
has  remains  of  an  abbey  (1138),  and  at  it  died 
John  Hampden.    Pop.  3000. 

Thames  (Temz),  the  most  important  river  of 
Great  Britain,  flows  ESE.  across  the  S.  portion  of 
the  country.  Its  four  head-streams— the  Thames 
or  Isis,  Churn,  Coin,  and  Leach — rise  on  the 
south-east  slope  of  the  Cotswold  Hills,  the  upper 
part  of  the  main  stream  being  often  called  Isis  (a 
quasi-classical  form  of  Ouse)  and  not  Thames 
until  after  it  receives  the  Thame  near  Dorchester. 
The  Thames  or  Isis  flows  ENE.  for  about  35 
miles,  when,  curving  SE.,  it  passes  Oxford,  and 
flows  on  to  Reading.  Here,  after  receiving  the 
Kennet  from  the  west,  it  again  changes  its  course, 
and,  winding  eastward,  passes  Windsor,  Eton,  Ted- 
dington  (the  lowest  of  thirty-three  locks  between 
here  and  Oxford,  and  the  highest  point  to  which 
the  tide  ascends),  Richmond,  London,  Greenwich, 
Woolwich,  and  Gravesend,  below  which  it  expands 
into  a  wide  estuary,  and  enters  the  North  Sea. 
On  its  tidal  estuary,  and  on  the  fact  that  like 
most  British  rivers  it  has  no  delta,  depends  the 
river's  importance  as  a  navigable  waterway ;  the 


navigation  is,  however,  somewhat  impeded  by  a 
'  submarine  delta  '—banks  formed  of  river  sedi- 
ment. From  Lechlade  to  the  Nore  the  direct 
length  is  120  miles,  and  Avith  the  windings  may 
be  250  miles  (112  from  Oxford  to  London  Bridge); 
the  area  of  its  basin  is  6100  sq.  m.  Its  chief 
affluents  are  the  Windrush,  Cherwell,  Thame, 
Colne,  Lea,  and  Roding,  on  the  left ;  and  the 
Kennet,  Lodden,  Darent,  Mole,  Wandle,  and 
Medway,  on  the  right  bank.  At  London  Bridge 
its  width  is  about  290  yards ;  at  Woolwich,  490 ;  at 
Gravesend  Pier,  800 ;  3  miles  below  Gravesend, 
1290  ;  and  at  its  mouth,  between  Whitstable  and' 
Foulness  Point,  about  8  miles  below  the  Nore,  it  is 
18  miles  across.  At  the  Nore  Light,  reputed  the 
mouth  of  the  Thames,  the  breadth  is  nearly  6 
miles.  The  river  is  navigable  for  barges  to  Lech- 
lade, and  it  is  connected  with  several  important 
canals.  Vessels  of  800  tons  can  reach  St  Katha- 
rine's Docks ;  much  larger  ones  can  ascend  to 
Blackwall,  6  miles  below  London  Bridge  ;  and  the 
largest  sea-going  steamers  reach  Tilbury  Docks, 
26  miles  below.  The  part  of  the  river  immed- 
iately below  London  Bridge  is  called  the  Pool; 
and  the  part  between  the  Bridge  and  Blackwall 
is  called  the  Port.  Two  embankments  have  been 
formed,  one  since  1864  on  the  north  shore  from 
Blackfriars  Bridge  to  Westminster,  and  one  since 
1866  on  the  south  shore  from  Westminster  Bridge 
to  Vauxhall.  The  rive^,  supplies  London  with 
much  of  its  drinking-wa'ter,  and  carries  most  of 
its  sewage  to  the  sea.  Though  the  lower  Thames 
has  been  converted  into  a  sewer,  in  virtue  of  this 
same  part  of  its  course  the  river  ranks  as  the 
chief  commercial  highway  of  the  world.  Above 
London  the  scenery  is  rich  and  beautiful,  though 
not  romantic,  the  numerous  eyots  or  islands 
lending  a  peculiar  charm.  The  Thames  is  the 
best  beloved  of  Engli.sh  rivers  for  those  who  boat 
for  pleasure.  For  boat-racing,  it  divides  the 
honours  with  the  Tyne  ;  the  Thames  watermen 
are  renowned  in  song  and  story.  Since  Spenser's 
days  '  the  silver-streaming  Thames '  has  been 
sung  by  England's  poets ;  Herrick  calls  it 
'  Silver- footed  Tliamesis;'  Denham's  apostrophe 
is  famous  ;  and  Pope  has  word-painted  much  of 
the  scenery  of  its  banks.  It  was  (now  alas  !  long 
since)  famous  for  its  salmon,  as  it  still  is  for  other 
anglers'  fish ;  below  London  flounders  and  eels 
are  still  plentiful,  while  the  whitebait  is  almost 
peculiar  to  the  lower  Thames. 

See  works  by  Mr  and  Mrs  S.  C.  Hall  (1859 ;  new 
ed.  1878),  Robertson  (1874),  Huxley  (1877),  Farren 
(1881),  Law  (1881),  George  D.  Leslie,  R.A.  (1881 ; 
new  ed.  1888),  Church  (1885),  Herring  (1885), 
Cassell  (Royal  River,  1886),  W.  Black  (Strange 
Adventures  of  a  Honse-boat,  1888),  Justin 
M'Carthy  and  Mrs  Campbell  Praed  (1890), 
Senior  (i890X  Mr  and  Mrs  Pennell  (1891),  Wyllie 
and  Allen  (1894),  Charles  Dickens,  junior  (1880), 
and  Sir  Walter  Besant  (1903). 

Thames  (or  Grahamstown),  New  Zealand,  a 
gold-mining  town,  on  an  inlet  of  Hauraki  Gulf, 
40  miles  SB.  of  Auckland.    Pop.  4200. 

Thamu'gas,  'the  Numidian  Pompeii,'  near  the 
Aures  Mountains,  and  22  miles  from  Batna,  which 
is  half-way  by  rail  from  Constantine  to  Biskra. 
Here  are  extensive  remains  of  Roman  colonnades 
and  temples,  with  statues  and  inscriptions. 

Thana,  or  North  Konkan,  a  British  district  of 
India,  consi.sting  of  the  island  of  Sal.sette  and  a 
strip  of  coast.  The  seaport  of  Thana  (pop.  16,000) 
is  21  miles  NE.  of  Bombay  by  rail. 

Than'et,  Isle  of,  forms  the  NE.  corner  of 
Kent,  from  the  mainland  of  which  it  is  cut  off  on 


THANll 


694 


THIERS 


the  W.  by  the  river  Stour  and  the  Nethergong 
rivulet — the  ancient  Wantsome  channel,  com- 
pletely silted  up  since  the  beginning  of  the  16th 
c.  It  is  bounded  N.  and  E.  by  the  sea,  and  opens 
on  the  S.  side  into  Pegwell  Bay.  It  measures  9 
miles  B.  and  W.,  and  5  miles  N.  and  S.,  and  con- 
tains 26,180  acres.  On  its  shores  are  the  well- 
known  watering-places  Ramsgate,  Margate,  and 
Broadstairs  ;  and  on  the  North  Foreland,  in  the 
NB.,  is  a  lighthouse,  85  feet  high,  visible  19 
miles.  Pop.  (1871)  42,129  ;  (1881)  50,646  ;  (1901) 
71,631.     See  Simson's  Historic  Thanct  (1891). 

Thann(7'ftu?0,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Alsace- 
Lorraine,  13  miles  NW.  of  Mlilliausen,  has  a 
superb  Gothic  church.     Pop.  7500. 

Tharandt,  in  Saxony,  20  miles  SW.  of  Dresden, 
has  a  forestry  school  and  a  pop.  of  4000. 

Tharsis.    See  Rio  Tinto. 

Tha'sos,  tlie  most  northerly  island  in  the 
iEgean,  near  the  coast  of  Macedonia.  Area,  167 
sq.  m. ;  pop.  12,000,  almost  all  Greeks.  The  sur- 
face is  covered  with  wooded  liills  (Hypsaria,  342S 
feet).     Its  gold-mines  were  famous  of  old. 

Thaxted,  an  Essex  town,  on  the  Chelmer,  6 
miles  N.  of  Dunmow.    Samuel  Purchas  was  a 
native.    Pop,  of  parish,  1667. 
'  Thayet-myo,  a  town  of  Lower  Burma,  on  the 
Irawadi,  40  miles  NW.  of  Prome.     Pop.  17,500. 

Thebes  (Theebz),  a  celebrated  Egyptian  city, 
formerly  capital  of  Upper  Egypt ;  called  by  the 
Egyptians  Tuabu,  by  the  Hebrews  No-Amon,  by 
the  Greeks  Thebse.  It  lies  in  the  broadest  section 
of  the  Nile  valley,  in  26°  N.  lat.,  at  a  spot  where 
the  desert  on  the  W.  sheers  away  to  the  Libyan 
mountains,  leaving  a  broad  plain,  partly  culti- 
vated, on  which  stand  the  famous  twin  statues, 
one  of  which  is  known  as  the  '  vocal  Memnon,' 
and  behind  them  the  temples  grouped  about 
Kurna  and  Medinet-Habfi.  The  Nile  divides  this 
western  part  or  Necropolis  of  Thebes  from  the 
extensive  ruins  now  known  by  the  names  of  the 
villages  Luxor  (el-  Uksur,  '  the  palaces ')  and 
Karnak  which  stand  on  the  E.  bank,  with  the 
low  Arabian  hills  for  a  background.  At  the 
Persian  conquest  (525  B.C.)  Cambyses  got  nearly 
£2,000,000  froni  the  city,  and  destroyed  many  of 
its  noblest  monuments.  The  foundation  of 
Alexandria  still  further  injured  it ;  and  in  Strabo's 
time  Thebes  was  only  a  cluster  of  small  villages. 
Its  temples,  tombs,  and  ruins  were  visited  by 
many  Greek  and  Roman  travellers,  including  the 
Emperor  Hadrian.  A  considerable  Christian 
population  lived  there  under  the  later  empire ; 
but  at  the  Arab  invasion  the  inhabitants  fled  to 
Esne.  Thebes  is  now  inhabited  only  by  Fellahin, 
a  few  officials,  and  visitors  to  the  three  hotels  at 
Luxor.  The  Thebaid,  the  territory  of  Thebes,  was 
a  favourite  retreat  for  Christian  hermits. 

Thebes,  the  principal  city  of  Boeotia  in 
ancient  Greece,  situated  on  the  slopes  of  Mount 
Teumessus,  and  between  two  streams,  the  Dirce 
and  the  Ismenus,  about  44  miles  NW.  of  Athens. 
Destroyed  by  Alexander  (336),  Tl)ebes  was  in 
316  rebuilt  by  Cassander  (whose  walls  were  traced 
by  E.  Fabrioius  in  1888).  It  was  plundered  by 
Sulla,  and  in  Strabo's  time  was  a  miserable 
village.  During  the  11th  and  12th  centuries  it 
revived  through  its  silk  manufacture,  but  under 
the  Turks  again  declined,  though  its  modern 
representative,  Thiva,  had  a  pop.  of  4000  at  tlie 
time  of  its  destruction  by  earthquake  in  April 
1894.    See  E.  Fabricius,  Theben  (1891). 

Theiss  (Tlce;  Hun.  Tisza),  the  chief  river  of 
Hungary,  rises  by  two  streams,  the  Black  Theiss 


and  the  White  Theiss,  in  the  Carpathian.?,  and 
winds  750  miles  NW.,  SW.,  and  S.,  joining  the 
Danube  after  running  parallel  to  it  for  300 
miles.  The  Theiss  has  several  large  and  navi- 
gable affluents,  as  the  Maros  and  Bodrog.  The 
lower  part  of  its  course  is  sluggish,  and  it  has 
often  inundated  the  plains,  flooding  the  cities  on 
its  banks,  such  as  Szegedin  (q.v.).  Much  has 
lately  been  done  to  regulate  the  course  and  drain 
the  marshes  on  its  banks. 

Theobalds  (Tib' aids),  Hertfordshire,  near  Wal- 
tham  Cross,  13  miles  N.  of  London,  a  former 
mansion  built  by  Lord  Burghley,  and  exchanged 
for  Hatfield  in  1607  by  his  son  the  Earl  of 
Salisbury  with  James  I.,  who  died  here.  It  was 
demolished  in  1650  and  1762.  The  present  Theo- 
balds Park,  aci'oss  the  New  River,  is  the  18th-c. 
seat  of  the  Meux  family.  Here  Temple  Bar, 
removed  in  1878-79,  was  re-erected  in  1888. 

Theodosia  (see  Kaffa),  the  town  whicli  super- 
seded Sebastopol  as  a  commercial  port. 

Th^odule.    See  Zeumatt, 

Thera.    See  Santorin. 

Therap'ia,  a  town  of  3000  inhabitants,  on  the 
Bosphorus,  15  miles  NB.  of  Constantinople. 

Theresio'pel.    See  Szabadka. 

Thermop'ylae  (lit.,  '  hot  gates '),  a  pass  leading 
from  Thessaly  into  Locris,  and  the  only  road  by 
which  an  invading  army  can  penetrate  from 
northern  into  southern  Greece.  In  it  are  several 
hot  springs,  whence  the  name  probably.  It  has 
won  an  eternal  celebrity  by  the  heroic  death  here 
of  Leonidas  and  his  300  Spartans  in  their  attempt 
to  stem  the  tide  of  Persian  invasion  (480  B.C.). 

Thessaloni'ca.    See  Salonica. 

Thes'saly,  the  largest  division  of  ancient 
Greece,  lay  S.  of  Macedonia  and  B.  of  Epirus.  In 
1204  A.D.  it  came  under  the  Venetians,  and  in 
1355  was  taken  by  the  Turks.  In  1881  Turkey 
ceded  to  Greece  (q.v.),  Thessaly  S.  of  mountains 
forming  the  watershed  of  the  Salambria  (anc. 
Peneus),  by  much  the  largest  and  most  fertile 
section  of  the  province.  The  Greek  portion  con- 
stitutes the  three  nomarchies  of  Larissa,  Trikhala, 
and  Phthiotis  with  Phocis. 

Thetford,  a  market-town  on  the  border  of 
Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  at  the  Thet's  confluence  Avith 
the  Little  Ouse,  31  miles  SW.  of  Norwich  and 
12  N.  of  Bury  St  Edmunds.  Doubtfully  identified 
with  the  Roman  Sitomagus,  it  was  the  capital 
of  Saxon  East  Anglia,  the  seat  from  1070  of  a 
bishopric,  transferred  to  Norwich  in  1094  (since 
1894  it  again  gives  title  to  a  suff'ragan  bishop). 
It  suflfered  much  from  the  Danes  between  870  and 
1010  ;  in  Edward  III.'s  time  it  had  eight  monas- 
teries and  twenty  churches  (now  only  three). 
The  steep  Castle  Hill,  100  feet  high  and  260  yards 
in  circuniference,  is  one  of  the  largest  earth- 
works in  the  kingdom  ;  and  there  are  remains  of 
Bigod's  Cluniac  priory  (1104).  The  grammar- 
school  (1566)  was  rebuilt  in  1879.  The  industries 
include  brewing,  tanning,  and  farming  machinery; 
and  there  is  some  trade  by  barges  on  the  Ouse. 
'Honest'  Tom  Martin,  the  antiquary,  and  Tom 
Paine  were  natives.  Incorporated  in  1573,  Thet- 
ford returned  two  members  till  1867 ;  it  has  a 
suff'ragan  bishop  under  Norwich  (1894).  Pop. 
4700.    See  works  by  Martin  (1779)  and  Hunt  (1870). 

Thian-shan.    See  Tian-shan. 

Thibet.     See  Tibet. 

Thielt  (Teelt),  a  town  of  Belgium,  18  miles  SE. 
of  Bruges  by  rail.    Pop.  10,800. 

Thiers  (Tee-air'),  a  manufacturing  town  in  the 


THIONVILLE 


695 


llHYATIRA 


French  dep.  of  Puy-de-Dome,  on  the  Durole,  23 
miles  ENE.  of  Clermout  by  rail.    Pop.  17,500. 

Thionvllle  (Tee-onF-veel ;  Ger,  Diedenliofen),  a 
fortified  town  of  Lorraine,  18  miles  N.  of  Metz. 
Talven  by  Conde  in  1643,  it  fell  witli  Lorraine  to 
France,  but  was  besieged  and  talcen  by  the  Ger- 
mans, 9th-25th  November  1870.     Pop.  10,100. 

Thirlestane  Castle.    See  Lauder. 

Thirlmere,  a  narrow  sheet  of  water  in  the 
heart  of  the  Lake  District  (q.v.),  lying  533  feet 
above  sea-level,  between  Derwentwater  and  Gras- 
mere.  It  was  acquired  as  a  water-supply  by 
Manchester  (q.v.),  and  the  work  was  carried  out 
in  1885-94.  Originally  2^  miles  long  and  828 
acres  in  area,  the  embankment  (294  yards  long) 
raised  the  surface  by  50  feet,  and  increased  the 
length  to  3 1  miles,  and  the  area  to  793  acres. 

Thirsk,  a  town  in  the  North  Riding  of  York- 
shire, in  the  Vale  of  Mowbray,  on  the  Cod  Beck, 
an  affluent  of  the  Swale,  23  miles  NNW.  of  York. 
It  has  a  fine  church,  and  jnanufactures  farm 
implements  and  saddlery.  Thirsk  returned  two 
members  till  1832,  and  then  one  till  1885.  Pop. 
3164.     See  W.  Grainge,  The  Vale  of  Mowbray  (1859). 

Tholen  (IVlen),  a  Dutch  island,  part  of  Zeeland 
province,  with  a  town  of  Tholen  (pop.  3100). 

Thomastown,  a  Kilkenny  market-town,  on  the 
Nore,  19^  miles  N.  of  Waterford.     Pop.  900. 

Thomasville,  a  town  of  Georgia,  200  miles  by 
rail  AVSW.  of  Savannah.     Pop.  5514. 

Thompson,  a  town  of  Connecticut,  38  miles  N. 
by  E.  of  Norwich,     Pop.  6560. 

Thongwa,  a  town  of  Burma,  administrative 
capital  of  a  district,  23  miles  SW.  of  Rangoon. 
Pop.  20,000. 

Thorn  (Torn;  Pol.  Torun),  a  town  of  "West 
Prussia,  on  the  right  bank  of  the  Vistula  (here 
spanned  by  a  viaduct  1100  yards  long),  31  miles 
by  rail  ESB.  of  Bromberg.  Founded  by  the 
Teutonic  Order  in  1231,  and  a  member  of  the 
Hanseatic  League,  it  contains  a  town-hall  and 
a  number  of  other  buildings  with  beautiful 
gables  and  interiors ;  became  a  Polish  town  in 
1454 ;  and  was  annexed  to  Prussia  in  1793,  and 
again  finally  in  1815.  An  important  stronghold 
in  the  17th  c,  it  was  five  times  besieged  between 
1629  and  1813 ;  and  since  1878  has  been  made  a 
fortress  of  the  first  rank,  the  old  fortifications 
being  removed,  and  a  series  of  detached  forts 
built.  Copernicus  was  a  native ;  and  a  colossal 
bronze  statue  of  him  was  erected  in  1853.  Pop. 
31,500. 

Thornaby-on-Tees,  the  name  under  which 
South  Stockton  (q.v.)  was  incorporated  in  1892. 
Pop.  (1881)  10,665  ;  (1901)  16,054. 

Thomhviry,  a  Gloucestershire  market-town, 
12  miles  N.  of  Bristol.     Pop.  of  parisli,  2600. 

Thorne,  a  market-town  of  Yorkshire,  on  the 
Don,  10  miles  NE.  of  Doncaster. 

Thorney,  a  Cambridgeshire  parish,  7  miles 
ENE.  of  Peterborough,  was  the  seat  of  a 
monastery  (662). 

Thornhill,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  1^  mile  S.  of 
Dewsbury.    Pop.  10,290. 

Thornhill,  a  Dumfriesshire  village,  on  the 
Nith,  14  miles  NNW.  of  Dumfries.    Pop.  1128. 

Thornliebank,  a  town  of  Renfrewshire,  1 J  mile 
SW.  of  Pollokshaws.     Pop.  2452. 
Thorshavn.    See  Faroe  Islands. 
Thornton,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, now  incorporated  with  Bradford. 


Thourout  (Fr.  pron.  Too-roo),  a  Belgian  town, 
11  miles  SW.  of  Bruges.    Pop.  10,200. 

Thousand.  Islands.    See  St  Lawrence. 

Thrace,  a  name  used  by  the  ancients  some- 
what vaguely  for  a  large  region  to  the  west  of 
the  Euxine  (Black  Sea),  so  as  to  include  the  whole 
country  between  the  Ister  (Danube)  and  the 
iEgean,  and  even  part  of  the  Scythian  country 
beyond  the  Ister.  Latterly  the  northern  part  of 
Thrace  has  become  the  province  of  Eastern 
Roumelia  (see  Bulgaria),  while  the  remainder  is 
still  part  of  the  Ottoman  empire. 

Thrapston,  a  Northamptonshire  town,  on  the 
Nen,  21  miles  NE.  of  Northampton.    Pop.  1570. 

Thrasimene.    See  Trasimene. 

Threave  Castle.    See  Dee. 

Three  Rivers  (Trois  Rivihres),  capital  of  St 
Maurice  county,  Quebec,  at  the  confluence  of  the 
St  Maurice  and  St  Lawrence,  95  miles  NE.  of 
Montreal.  It  has  a  large  trade  in  lumber;  and 
manufactures  boots,  car-wheels,  and  stoves. 
Champlain  founded  it  in  1634.  Pop.  9996.— 
Three  Rivers,  Michigan,  on  the  St  Joseph  River, 
128  miles  E.  of  Chicago.     Pop.  5550. 

Throndhjem.    See  Trondhjem. 

Thule  (Thyoo'lee).    See  Shetland. 

Thun  (Toone),  a  picturesque  and  ancient  town 
of  Switzerland,  17  miles  SSE.  of  Bern  by  rail.  It 
stands  on  the  Aar,  hardly  a  mile  from  the  Lake 
of  Thun  (12  miles  long,  2  broad  ;  greatest  depth, 
1844  feet),  out  of  which  the  crystal  river  rushes 
past  the  town.     Pop.  6100. 

Thunder  Bay.    See  Superior  (Lake). 

Thurgau  (Toor-gjow;  Fr.  Thurgovie),  a  frontier 
canton  of  NE.  Switzerland.  Area,  381  sq.  m. ; 
population,  115,000,  of  whom  two-thirds  are  Pro- 
testants. The  surface  attains  only  3722  feet; 
the  chief  river  is  the  Thur,  flowing  WNW.  to  the 
Rhine  in  Zurich  canton.     Capital,  Frauenfeld. 

Thuringia  (Ger.  TMlrinrj en— ^r on.  nearly  Tee'- 
ring-en),  the  name  still  borne  by  that  part  of  the 
ancient  Saxon  area  bounded  by  the  Werra,  the 
Saale,  and  the  Harz  Mountains  ;  the  Thuringian 
states  being  the  minor  Saxon  Duchies  (q.v.),  the 
two  Schwarzburgs,  the  tvvo  Reuss  principalities, 
and  small  parts  of  Prussia,  Saxony,  and  Bavaria. 
The  Thuringian  Forest  (Thilringer  Wald)  is  a 
series  of  wooded  mountain-ridges  (highest  point, 
3224  feet  above  sea-level)  occupying  great  part  of 
this  area.  It  is  some  70  miles  long,  and  belongs 
to  the  Sudetic  system. 

ThVLTles  (Thur'less),  a  town  of  Tipperary,  on  the 
Suir,  87  miles  SW.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  It  has  the 
classical  R.  C.  cathedral  (cost  £45,000)  of  Cashel 
archbishopric ;  4  miles  off  is  the  beautiful  14th-c. 
ruin  of  Holy  Cross  Abbey.    Pop.  4411. 

Thursday  Island,  one  of  the  smallest  of  the 
group  of  the  Torres  Straits  islands,  north  of  Cape 
York,  and  belonging  to  Queensland.  It  has  an 
excellent  harbour.  Port  Kennedy. 

Thurso,  a  burgh  of  barony  and  seaport  of 
Caithness,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Thurso  River,  by 
rail  (1874)  21  miles  NW.  of  Wick  and  154  NNE.  of 
Inverness.  It  has  a  town-hall  (1870),  capital 
bathing,  &c.  The  harbour  had  got  silted  up ; 
but  extensive  improvements  were  carried  out  in 
1891-92,  when  also  a  good  pier  at  Scrabster  was 
extended,  on  the  west  side  of  the  bay.  Paving- 
stones  are  prepared  and  exported.  The  self- 
taught  geologist,  Robert  Dick  (1811-66),  was  a 
baker  here  from  1830.    Pop.  3730. 

Thyati'ra.    See  Ak-hissar. 


tlAN-SHAN 


TIBET 


Tian-Shan  (Tee-an-shayi' ;  'Celestial  Moun- 
tains'), a  great  mountain-system,  consisting  of 
several  ridges,  mostly  parallel,  in  central  Asia, 
extends  from  the  Pamir  (q.v.)  to  the  north  of  the 
Tarim  depression  in  Turkestan,  and  occupies  the 
frontier  region  between  Russian  territory  on  the 
north  and  the  Chinese  dominions  to  the  south. 

Tibbermore.    See  Tippermuir. 

Tibbu,  a  people  of  the  Sahara  (q.v.). 

Tiber  (Ital.  lYvere,  Lat.  Tiberis),  the  chief  river 
of  Central  Italy,  and  the  most  famous  in  the 
peninsula,  rises  in  a  dell  of  the  Tuscan  Apennines, 
11  miles  N.  of  the  village  of  Pieve  Santo  Stefano, 
whence  it  winds  260  iniles  SSE.,  S.,  and  SSW., 
and  enters  the  Mediterranean  by  two  branches, 
which  enclose  the  Isola  Sacra.  Of  these  the 
northern,  the  Fiumicino,  alone  is  navigable  ;  the 
Fiumara  is  silted  up.  Towns  on  or  near  its  banks 
are  Perugia,  Orvieto,  Rome,  and  Ostia.  It  is 
navigable  for  boats  of  50  tons  to  the  confluence 
of  the  Nera,  100  miles  from  its  mouth.  The  Tiber 
is  supplied  mainly  by  turbid  mountain-torrents, 
whence  its  liability  to  sudden  overflowings.  Its 
waters,  too,  are  still  discoloured  with  yellow 
mud,  as  wlien  Horace  described  it.  SeeW.  Davies, 
The  Pilgrimage  of  the  Tiber  (2d  ed.  1875). 

Tiberias.    See  Galilee. 

Tibesti,  or  Tu,  a  mountainous  country  in  the 
Eastern  Sahara  (where  20°  N.  lat.  and  16°  E.  long, 
cross),  inhabited  by  a  Tibbu  tribe.  The  Tarso 
Mountains  reach  7500  feet.  First  explored  by 
Nachtigal  in  18G9,  the  country  seems  likely  to  be 
absorbed  into  the  French  Sahara. 

Tibet',  or  Thibet,  a  country  in  central  Asia, 
called  by  the  natives  Bod  or  Bodyul,  lying  be- 
tween China  and  India,  and  enclosed  between  the 
Kuen-Lun,  Altyn  Tagh,  and  Nanshan  Mountains 
on  the  N.,  and  the  Himalayas  on  the  S.  Area, 
700,000  sq.  m.,  eight  times  the  size  of  Great 
Britain.  Tibet  is  the  loftiest  region  of  such  ex- 
tent on  the  globe  ;  its  tablelands,  which  vary  in 
height  from  17,000  to  10,000  feet,  are  loftiest  in 
the  west  and  north,  whence  they  slope  gradually 
to  the  south  and  east.  Bonvalot  certifies  to  the 
existence  of  volcanoes.  The  lowest  lands  in 
Tibet  are  the  grooves  in  which  the  Indus  runs 
westward  and  the  Sanpo  eastward  to  the  points 
where  they  turn  south  through  the  Himalayas. 
The  mountain-girdle  which  surrounds  Tibet  has 
kept  it  to  the  present  day  the  country  least 
known  to  geographers.  Tibet  is  divided  into 
provinces  equal  in  extent  to  European  states. 
Tsaidam,  or  Chaidam,  in  the  NE.,  between  the 
Nanshan  and  Altyn-tagh  chains  and  the  Kuen- 
Lun,  includes  the  Koko-Nor  lake.  Katchi  in  the 
centre,  just  S.  of  the  Kuen-Lun,  contains  the 
gold-fields  of  Thok-Jalung,  one  of  the  highest 
inhabited  spots  on  the  globe.  East  Nari,  in  the 
SW.,  includes  Khorsum  and  Dokthol,  an  elevated 
Himalayan  country  in  which  the  Indus  and  Sanpo 
take  their  rise,  and  contains  Lake  Manasarowar, 
15,000  feet  high,  a  sheet  of  water  sacred  alike  to 
Tibetans  and  Hindus.  West  Nari,  or  Little  Tibet, 
consists  of  Ladakh  (q.v.)  and  Balti,  now  depend- 
encies of  Cashmere  (q.v.)  and  the  Indian  Empire. 
Yu-tsang,  the  provinces  of  Yu  and  Tsang,  occu- 
pying the  valley  of  the  Sanpo  between  the 
meridians  of  87°  and  92°,  constitutes  tlie  most 
populous  and  important  part  of  Tibet,  and  con- 
tains Lhassa,  capital  of  Yu  and  of  the  whole 
country,  and  Shigatze,  capital  of  Tsang.  Kham, 
the  province  drained  by  the  deep  valley  of  the 
upper  courses  of  the  great  rivers  of  China  and 
Indo-China,  is  largely  under  the  direct  rule  of 


China.  The  lake  Tengri  Nor,  NW.  of  Lhassa,  is 
150  miles  in  circuit. 

Tibet  lies  in  the  latitudes  of  Delhi,  Cairo, 
Algiers,  and  Naples,  but  its  inland  position  and 
elevation  give  it  a  cold,  dry,  and  extreme  climate. 
On  the  tablelands  at  an  elevation  of  14,000  feet 
the  thermometer  in  May  sinks  to  7°  F.  below  zero, 
and  over  the  whole  country  an  arctic  winter  pre- 
vails for  five  or  six  months.  There  is  a  very 
short  but  excessively  hot  summer,  more  especially 
in  the  valleys  of  the  Indus  and  Sanpo.  The 
northern  and  western  tablelands  are  treeless, 
with  steppes  where  innumerable  herds  of  yaks, 
horses,  asses,  goats,  antelopes,  &c.  pasture  un- 
disturbed by  man.  The  southern  tablelands 
supply  food  to  the  flocks  and  herds  of  a  large 
nomad  population.  Agriculture  is  confined  chiefly 
to  the  valleys  of  the  Indus  and  Sanpo  ;  and  the 
irrigation  and  terrace  cultivation  necessary  to 
secure  even  scanty  crops  are  supposed  to  have 
sharpened  the  intelligence  of  the  peasants  and 
made  them  strong  and  laborious.  The  mineral 
products  of  Tibet  include  gold,  silver,  iron, 
copper,  zinc,  mercury,  cobalt,  borax,  sulphur, 
&c.  The  Tibetans  are  good  blacksmiths  and 
cutlers  ;  their  chief  industrial  occupation,  how- 
ever, is  the  preparation  of  woollen  cloth.  They 
are  active  traders ;  and  large  caravans,  in  which 
yaks  and  sheep  are  the  beasts  of  burden,  are 
constantly  traversing  the  country  on  their  way 
to  the  great  fairs  in  Tibet,  and  the  entrepots  of 
the  surrounding  countries.  At  one  time  there 
was  a  busy  commerce  with  India,  but  after  Tibet 
became  a  Chinese  dependency  the  passes  were  jeal- 
ously closed.     The  pop.  is  estimated  at  6,000,000, 

The  Tibetans  are  a  Mongolic  race,  much  more 
closely  allied  to  the  Burmese  than  to  the  Chinese 
or  Mongols  proper,  and  are  broad-shouldered  and 
muscular.  A  few  nomads,  Mongol  and  Turkish 
tribes,  camp  on  the  northern  steppes,  and  Chinese 
in  large  numbers  have  colonised  the  south-east. 
Polyandry,  the  husbands  of  one  wife  being  gener- 
ally brothers,  is  almost  universal  among  the 
poor  Tibetans ;  the  rich  are  polygamists.  Both 
systems  check  population.  In  Little  Tibet, 
where  monogamy  has  penetrated  from  the  west, 
population  increases  rapidly.  There  exist  in 
Tibet  two  religions  :  the  Bon  or  Bon-Pa  creed, 
which  is  a  development  of  Mongol  Shamanism, 
and  is  the  native  religion ;  and  Lamaism,  a 
form  of  Buddhism  introduced  from  India.  The 
Tibetan  clergy  are  very  numerous ;  monasteries 
are  everywhere.  Since  1720  Tibet  has  been, 
nominally  at  least,  a  dependency  of  China,  Civil 
and  religious  government  was  retained  practically 
by  the  Tibetan  clergy  ;  the  Dalai  Lama  delegating 
the  active  duties  of  government  to  the  de-sri  or 
king,  with  four  ministers.  The  non-observance 
by  the  Tibetans  of  this  Anglo-Chinese  conven- 
tion of  1890  (oi^ening  a  trade  'port'),  and  their 
refusal  to  meet  connnissioners,  led  to  the  mis- 
sion of  1904  under  Sir  F.  G.  Younghusband, 
The  mission  soon  became  an  expedition,  which, 
after  sharp  fighting  at  Gyangtse  and  elsewhere, 
forced  its  way  to  Lhassa,  where,  the  Dalai  Lama 
having  fled,  a  treaty  was  concluded  in  the 
famous  Po-ta-la  palace-monastery.  The  Teslio 
Lama  or  Bogdo  Lama  (of  Shigatze)  superseded 
the  Dalai  Lama  (of  Lhassa) ;  trade  facilities  with 
British  India  were  increased  (three  new  marts 
being  established),  and  Tibet  bound  itself  not  to 
enter  into  relations  with  any  foreign  power  save 
by  British  assent.  The  Tibetan  language  is  losing 
its  monosyllabic  character  ;  its  literature  consists 
chiefly  of  translations  from  the  Sanskrit,  and  of 
religious  works. 


1?IBUR 


697 


i?iLT 


See  works  by  Hue  (1852),  Hodgson  (1874),  Mark- 
ham  (1876),  Rockliill  (1891),  Boiivalot  (1892), 
Wellby  (1898),  Laiidor  (1898),  and,  after  the  1904 
expedition,  those  by  Candler,  Landon,  and 
Waddell  on  Lhassa  (q.v.). 

Tibur.    See  Tivoli. 

Tichborne,  a  Hampshire  property,  2  miles 
SSW.  of  Alresford  station  and  0^  E.  by  N.  of 
Winchester,  It  has  from  before  the  Conquest 
been  the  seat  of  the  Ticlibornes,  a  Catholrc  family 
who  received  a  baronetcy  in  1626. 

Ticino  (Ti-chee'no),  a  river  of  Switzerland  and 
N.  Italy,  rises  on  the  southern  slopes  of  Mount 
St  Gothard,  and  flows  S.  through  Lake  Maggiore, 
and  then  SSE.  to  its  junction  with  the  Po,  4 
miles  below  Pavia. 

Ticino  (Ger.  Tessin),  the  most  southern  canton 
of  Switzerland,  bounded  W.  and  S.  by  Italy. 
Area,  1082  sq.  m.  ;  population,  140,000,  mainly 
Italian-speaking  and  Catliolics,  The  largest  town 
is  Lugano ;  since  1881  Bellinzona  is  the  capital. 

Tickhill,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding  of  York- 
shire, 10  miles  E.  of  Rotherham.     Pop.  1568. 

Ticondero'ga,  a  township  of  New  York,  100 
miles  by  rail  N.  of  Albany,  on  Lake  Champlain. 
Here  the  French  built  a  fort  in  1755,  which 
figured  largely  in  the  war  of  independence. 

Tideswell,  a  town  of  Derbyshire,  6^  miles  E.  of 
Buxton.     Pop.  1985. 

Tiel  (Teel),  a  Dutch  tovra,  on  the  Waal,  60 
miles  E.  by  S.  of  Rotterdam.    Pop.  10,800. 

Tien-tsin  (Teen-tsin),  a  city  of  China,  on  the 
Pei-ho's  right  bank,  34  miles  from  its  mouth  and 
80  SE.  from  Peking,  of  which  it  is  the  port.  The 
river  is  frozen  over  from  December  to  March, 
when  the  business  is  taken  up  by  sledges.  By 
the  treaty  of  Tien-tsin  (1858)  the  port  was  declared 
open ;  a  British  consulate  was  established  in 
1861 ;  in  1881  Tien-tsin  was  connected  by  tele- 
graph with  Shanghai  and  Peking ;  and  there  is 
a  railway  to  the  Pei-ho's  mouth.     Pop.  950,000. 

Tierra  del  Fuego  (Tee-er'ra  del  Foo-a-ifgo; 
'  Land  of  Fire,'  so  named  by  Magellan  who  saw 
fires  on  the  shore,  when  he'  discovered  them  in 
1520),  a  group  of  several  large  and  many  small 
islands  named  from  the  largest  one,  in  54°  S.  lat., 
70°  W.  long.,  separated  from  the  south  end  of 
South  America  by  the  Strait  of  Magellan.  Its 
farthest  south  point  is  Cape  Horn  (q.v.).  Staten 
Island  and  the  half  of  the  main  island  belong  to 
Argentina ;  all  the  rest  to  Chili.  The  shores  of 
the  archipelago  are  much  indented  with  bays  and 
arms  of  the  sea,  with  mountains  rising  abruptly 
from  the  water.  The  whole  group  is  mountain- 
ous, attaining  7000  feet,  and  the  snow-line  being 
4000  feet  above  sea-level.  There  are  some  dreary 
plains  and  a  few  fertile  river-valleys,  with  areas 
of  marshy  ground.  Towards  the  north  the  plains 
produce  good  pasturage.  Forests  of  beech, 
winter's  bark,  magnolia,  and  cypress  occupy 
large  areas,  with  dense  growths  of  bushes. 
Lichens  cover  much  of  both  high  and  low  grounds. 
Tlie  guanacOj  tucu-tucu  (a  small  rodent),  dog, 
fox,  and  rat  are  the  only  native  quadrupeds. 
Birds  are  abundant,  including  owls,  falcons,  and 
a  great  variety  of  sea-birds.  The  land  of  Tierra 
del  Fuego  is  rapidly  rising.  Tiie  rocks  are  prin- 
cipally volcanic.  Some  poor  coal  and  a  little 
gold  have  been  found.  The  climate  is  the  most 
tempestuous  in  the  world.  The  native  inhabi- 
tants are  of  a  low  type,  divided  into  three  tribes, 
the  Onas  (or  Aonas),  the  Yaghans,  and  the  Ala- 
kalufs.  They  numbered  about  10,000  in  1870, 
but  are  now  reduced  to  about  1000.    See  Darwin's 


Vogage  of  a  Naturalist  (1845  ;  new  ed.  1889),  sur- 
veys and  voyages  by  King,  Fitzroy,  Cunningham, 
Fitzgerald,  Conway  (1902). 

Tiflan,  capital  of  Seneca  county,  Ohio,  on  the 
Sandusky  River,  43  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of  Toledo. 
It  is  the  seat  of  Heidelberg  College  (Reformed 
Church ;  1851),  and  manufactures  farming  imple- 
ments, churns,  stoves,  woollens,  &c.     Pop.  11,000. 

Tiflis  (Tif-Uess'),  the  chief  city  of  a  govern- 
ment  and  the  capital  of  Russian  Caucasia,  on 
the  Ktir,  165  miles  as  the  crow  flies  ESE.  of  the 
Black  Sea.  Since  1883  it  has  been  connected  by 
rail  with  Batoum  on  the  Euxine  and  Baku  on  the 
Caspian,  and  is  the  chief  centre  of  trade  between 
Russia  and  Persia.  The  old  city,  the  capital  of 
the  Georgian  princes  by  the  5th  century,  has  been 
greatly  metamorphosed  since  the  Russian  occupa- 
tion in  1795  and  annexation  in  1802.  In  the  middle 
ages  the  metal-workers  of  Tiflis  were  famous  for 
their  skill  in  engraving,  inlaying,  and  brass-work ; 
and  the  silversmiths  and  gunsmiths  still  main- 
tain their  character.  Otherwise  its  maiuafactures 
(carpets,  &c.)  are  unimportant.  Near  it  are 
naphtha  and  thermal  springs.  Pop.  (1897)  160,645. 
— Area  of  government,  15,306  sq.  m. ;  pop.  875,181. 

Tighnabruaich  (Tee-na-hroo'aihh),  an  Argyll- 
shire Avatering-place,  on  the  Kyles  of  Bute,  9J- 
miles  NW.  of  Rothesay.     Pop.  515. 

Tigre,  the  northern  division  of  Abyssinia  (q.v.). 

Tigris  (Heb.  Hiddekel;  Tigrd  in  Old  Persian, 
'  swift  as  an  arrow '),  a  large  river  of  Asiatic 
Turkey,  rises  south  of  Lake  Goljik,  in  the  moun- 
tains of  Kurdistan,  within  a  few  miles  of  the 
eastern  bend  of  the  Euphrates,  and  flows  1150 
miles  SE.,  E.,  and  SE.  again,  till  at  Kurna  it 
joins  the  Euphrates  (q.v.)  90  miles  above  its 
mouth  in  the  Persian  Gulf.  It  receives  the  Bitlis, 
Great  and  Little  Zab,  and  Dyala,  all  from  the  left. 
In  its  upper  course  the  Tigris  is  very  swift,  and 
it  brings  down  much  mud.  On  its  banks  are 
Diarbekir,  Mosul,  and  Bagdad,  with  the  ruins  of 
Nineveh,  Seleucia,  and  Ctesiphon.  The  river  is 
navigable  for  small  steamers  to  Bagdad.— For  the 
Bocca  Tigris,  see  Boca  Tigre  and  Canton. 

Tilburg,  a  town  of  Holland,  14  miles  ESE.  of 
Breda,  is  an  important  railway  junction,  and  has 
300  manufactories  of  calico,  cloth,  leather,  &c. 
Pop.  (1871)  22,256  ;  (1901)  42,334. 

Til'bury  Fort,  in  Essex,  on  the  N.  bank  of  the 
Thames,  opposite  Gravesend,  and  22  miles  E.  of 
London.  A  block-house  of  Henry  VIII.'s  time, 
it  was  converted  (1667)  into  a  regular  fortification 
after  De  Ruyter's  expedition  into  the  Medway, 
and  has  been  greatly  strengthened  since  1861. 
Here  on  8th  August  1588,  after  the  dispersal  of 
the  Spanish  Armada,  Elizabeth  reviewed  her 
troops.  The  Bast  and  West  India  Dock  Company 
constructed  extensive  docks  at  Tilbury  in  1882-86. 

Till,  a  Northumberland  stream,  flowing  32  miles 
to  the  Tweed,  2|  miles  NE.  of  Coldstream. 

Tillicoul'try  (o«Z  as  oo),  a  manufacturing  town 
of  Clackmannanshire,  at  the  base  of  the  Ochils 
and  near  the  Devon's  right  bank,  10  miles  ENE. 
of  Stirling  ami  4  NNB.  of  Alloa.  Woollens  have 
been  manufactured  here  since  the  16th  c,  and 
later  shawls  and  silks.     Pop.  3500. 

Tillietudlem.    See  Craignethan. 

Til'sit,  a  town  of  East  Prussia,  on  the  left 
bank  of  the  Memel  or  Niemen,  65  miles  NE.  of 
Konigsherg  by  rail.  Here  was  signed,  on  an 
island  in  the  river,  the  treaty  of  1807  between 
Russia  and  Napoleon.     Pop.  34,545. 

Tilt.    See  Glentilt. 


I 


TIMARtf 


6dS 


TIRLEMONT 


Timaru  (Timaroo'),  a  small  port  in  the  south 
island  of  New  Zealand,  100  miles  SW.  of  Christ- 
church  by  rail.    Pop.  6500. 

Timbo,  capital  of  Futa  Jallon  (q.v.),  iu  the 
heart  of  the  country. 

Timbuctoo'  (native  Tumhiitti,,  Arab.  TinbUkhtu), 
a  famous  city  of  the  Soudan,  on  the  southern 
edge  of  the  Sahara  (q.v.),  8  miles  N.  of  the  main 
stream  of  the  Upper  Niger.  It  is  3  miles  in 
circumference.  The  houses  are  mainly  one-storey 
mud-hovels,  but  one  of  the  three  chief  mosques 
is  an  imposing  building,  dating  from  1325.  The 
place  stands  on  a  trade-route  between  the  interior 
and  the  west  and  south ;  and  its  importance 
increased  through  the  gradual  extension  of  the 
influence  of  the  French,  who  in  1894  occupied 
the  city  (see  Senegambia).  Gold-dust,  salt,  kola- 
nuts,  ivory,  gums,  ostrich-feathers,  dates,  and 
tobacco  are  exchanged  for  Manchester  goods, 
mirrors,  knives,  tea,  coral,  &c.  The  town  stands 
on  the  borders  of  various  tribes  and  kingdoms — 
Sonrhai,  Berbers,  Tuaregs,  Fulahs,  Mandingoes, 
&c. ;  and  amongst  its  20,000  inhabitants  all  these 
races  are  represented,  with  Arabs,  Arabised 
Africans,  and  Jews.  Founded  in  the  11th  c, 
Timbuctoo  first  became  known  to  Europeans  in 
the  14th  (Ibn  Batuta  was  hereabout  1350);  till 
the  French  occupation  it  had  been  visited  by  but 
six  or  seven  Europeans.  Timbuctoo  has  been 
besung  by  Tennyson  and  Thackeray. 

Timor  (Tee-mor'),  the  most  important  of  the 
chain  of  islands  which  stretch  eastward  from 
Java,  has  a  length  of  300  miles,  an  area  of  12,264 
sq.  m.,  and  a  pop.  of  500,000.  A  chain  of  wooded 
mountains  runs  throughout  its  entire  length  ;  one 
peak,  Alias,  near  the  south  coast,  being  11,500 
feet  high.  It  is  less  volcanic  than  its  smaller 
neighbours  of  the  Sunda  group.  Magnetic  iron, 
porphyry,  gold,  copper,  and  sulphur  are  found. 
The  exports  are  maize,  sandalwood,  wax,  tortoise- 
shell,  and  trepang.  The  smaller  western  portion 
belongs  to  the  Dutch  (capital  Kupang);  the 
eastern  part  is  Portuguese  (capital  Deli);  but 
native  chiefs  really  govern  the  island. 

Timor-Laut  (Tee-vior'-Lowt),  or  Tenimber,  a 
group  of  three  Dutch  islands,  E.  of  Timor,  ex- 
tending 100  miles,  and  2263  sq.  m.  in  area. 
Unlike  Timor,  they  are  mainly  coralline  and 
correspondingly  low-lying,  though  one  extinct 
volcano  is  2000  feet  high.    Pop.  25,000. 

Tinchebrai  (Tan^sh-bray'),  a  town  (pop.  2429) 
in  the  NW.  of  the  Norman  dep.  of  Orne,  where 
Henry  I.  of  England  defeated  his  brother  Robert. 

Ting-hai.    See  Chusan. 

Tinnevel'li  (originally  Tiru-nel-veli),  a  town  of 
S.  India,  170  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Trichinopoli, 
and  1^  mile  from  the  river  Tambraparni.  It  is 
connected  with  the  military  station  of  Pallam- 
cotta,  across  the  river ;  has  a  Sind  temple,  Hindu 
college,  and  cotton-factory ;  and  is  a  great 
Protestant  missionary  centre.    Pop.  40,500, 

Tino.    See  Tenos. 

Tintagel  Head  (Tintafet),  a  cliff  300  feet  high 
on  the  western  coast  of  Cornwall,  22  miles  W.  of 
Launceston,  and  but  6  miles  from  Camelford— 
the  Camelot  of  Arthurian  legend.  Partly  on  the 
mainland  and  partly  on  the  so-called  island, 
almost  cut  off  by  a  deep  chasm,  stand  the  im- 
posing ruins  of  the  castle  where  King  Arthur 
held  his  court.  The  oldest  part,  the  keep,  is 
apparently  of  Norman  construction. 

Tintern  Abbey,  Monmouthshire,  perhaps  the 
loveliest  ruin  in  England,  on  the  Wye's  right 
bank,  5  miles  above  Chepstow.    The  abbey  was 


founded  in  1131  for  Cistercians,  but  its  church 
dates  from  the  end  of  the  13th  c.  The  length  of 
the  building  is  228  feet ;  the  style  a  transition 
from  Early  English  to  Decorated  ;  the  window- 
tracery  is  especially  fine.  In  Wordsworth's  noble 
Lines  composed  above  Tintern  Abbey,  the  abbey 
itself  is  not  mentioned.  See  works  by  Heath 
(1793),  Cooper  (1807),  and  Thomas  (2d  ed.  1845). 

Tinto.    See  Lanarkshire. 

Tippecanoe  {Tip'pehlcanoo'),  a  river  of  Indiana, 
which  rises  in  the  north,  flows  200  miles  WSW. 
and  S.,  and  empties  into  the  Wabash  10  miles 
above  Lafayette.  In  a  battle  near  its  mouth,  in 
1811,  General  Harrison  defeated  the  Indians. 

Tip'perah  (Tipura),  a  district  of  the  division 
of  Chittagong  (q.v.) ;  Hill  Tipperah  being  a  small 
tributary  state  on  its  borders. 

Tipperary,  an  inland  county  of  Munster,  touch- 
ing Galway  on  the  north  and  King's  County, 
Queen's  County,  and  Kilkenny  on  the  east.  Area, 
1659  sq,  m.,  or  1,061,731  acres,  of  which  843,837 
are  arable.  The  county  lies  mainly  in  the  basin 
of  the  Suir  (total  length  85  miles) ;  the  Shannon 
touches  the  north-west  border.  The  surface  is 
generally  level,  but  is  diversified  by  the  Galtees 
(3008  feet),  Knockmeledown  (2609),  and  Slievena- 
man  on  the  S,,  Keeper  Mountain  on  the  W,,  and 
the  Slievardagh  Hills  on  the  E,  To  the  isolated 
Devil's  Bit  many  popular  legends  attach.  The 
soil  of  the  plain  is  a  rich  calcareous  loam,  singu- 
larly fertile  and  productive,  especially  the  Golden 
Vale,  in  which  stands  Tipperary  town.  Anthra- 
cite coal  is  worked ;  and  copper,  lead,  zinc,  slates, 
and  pipe-clay  also  occur.  The  chief  occupation 
is  agriculture,  especially  dairy-farming.  The 
county,  which  since  1885  returns  four  mem- 
bers, is  divided  into  two  ridings,  North  and 
South,  each  subdivided  into  six  baronies.  Pop. 
(1841)  435,553  ;  (1901)  160,232—150,332  Catholics. 
Anciently  Tipperary  formed  part  of  the  two 
principalities  of  Ormond,  or  North  Munster,  and 
Desmond,  or  South  Munster  ;  after  the  English 
invasion  it  was  formed  into  a  county  by  King 
John  in  1210.  Eventually  it  came  to  be  divided 
between  two  Anglo-Norman  families,  the  Butlers 
holding  Ormond,  and  the  Geraldines  part  of 
Desmond,  The  antiquities  are  numerous,  as 
well  Celtic  as  Anglo-Norman.  In  the  latter  the 
city  of  Cashel  (q.v.)  is  specially  rich ;  Holy 
Cross  is  a  noble  monastic  ruin ;  the  castle  of 
Cahir  is  a  fine  specimen  of  baronial  architecture. 
There  is  a  series  of  caves  near  the  Cork  border. 

Tipperary,  the  county  town,  is  110  miles  SW. 
of  Dublin  by  rail,  with  a  Catholic  and  a  Protestant 
church,  and  a  noted  butter-market ;  pop.  6250. 
Under  the  'Plan  of  Campaign,'  a  'New  Tip- 
perary '  was  opened  on  12th  April  1890  ;  but  the 
scheme  collapsed  in  the  following  year. 

Tippermuir,  5  miles  W.  of  Perth,  Here 
Montrose  routed  the  Covenanters,  Sept,  1,  1644. 

Tipton,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  4^  miles  SSB. 
of  Wolverhampton.  It  has  important  iron  manu- 
factures.    Pop.  (1851)  24,872  ;  (1901)  30,543. 

Tiptree  Hall,  Essex,  3J  miles  E,  of  Witham, 
was  (1841-80)  the  model  farm  of  Mr  Mechi. 

Tiree.    See  Tyree. 

Tirhut  (u  as  oo),  formerly  a  district  of  Bengal, 
but  in  1875  divided  into  the  districts  of  Darbhan- 
gah  (q.v.)  and  Muzaffarpur  (q,v.). 

Tirlemont  {Teerl-mon^' ;  Flem.  Thienen),  a 
Belgian  town,  30  miles  ESE.  of  Brussels.  It 
manufactures  machinery,  hosiery,  flannel,  leather, 
sugar,  &c.  Here  the  French,  under  Dumouriez, 
defeated  the  Austrians  in  1793.    Pop.  18,000. 


TIRNOVA 


t6ky6 


I 


Tlr'nova,  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  on  the  Jantra, 

35  miles  SSB.  of  Sistova,  became  in  1235  the  seat 
of  the  Bulgarian  patriarch,  and  has  more  than 
once  been  the  capital.    Pop.  12,858. 

Tiryns  (Tir'rins),  an  ancient  city  of  Argolis, 
in  the  Peloponnesus,  3  miles  from  the  head  of 
the  Argolic  Gulf.  Its  Cyclopean  walls  and  those 
of  the  neighbouring  MycensE  are  the  grandest  in 
Greece.  The  citadel  was  built  on  an  oval-shai^ed 
rock,  330  yards  long  by  112  at  its  widest,  fringed 
by  a  wall,  30  to  40  feet  thick,  and  about  50  feet 
high  (from  the  outside  base),  composed  of  blocks, 
10  by  3^  feet.     See  Schliemann's  Tiryns  (1885). 

Tisbury,  a  Wiltshire  town,  12|  miles  W.  of 
Salisbury.     Pop.  15S0. 

Tissington,  a  Derbyshire  parish,  4  miles  N.  of 
Ashborne,  famous  for  its  *  Well-dressing '  on  Holy 
Thursday. 

Titicaca  (Teeteekah'ka),  Lake.    See  Peru. 

Tltusville,  a  city  of  Pennsylvania,  on  Oil 
Creek,  120  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Buffalo.  It 
has  oil  wells,  sawmills,  ironworks,  &c.  In  June 
1892  it  suffered  from  a  flood.    Pop.  8250. 

Tiumen  {Tyoo'men),  a  town  of  W.  Siberia,  90 
miles  SE.  of  Tobolsk,  on  a  feeder  of  the  Tobol. 
Connected  by  rail  with  Perm,  it  is  on  several 
important  trade-routes ;  and  large  quantities  of 
leathei',  carpets,  soap,  candles,  and  pottery  are 
manufactured  and  exported.  It  has  a  technical 
school,  a  great  January  fair,  and  an  exile  forward- 
ing prison.     Pop.  29,700. 

Tiv'erton,  a  municipal  borough  of  Devonshire, 
14J  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Exeter,  stands  pleasantly 
on  an  eminence  between  the  confluent  Exe  and 
Loman,  and  got  the  name  Twy-ford-ton  from  two 
fords  upon  those  two  rivers.  Little  save  the  gate- 
way remains  of  the  castle  of  the  Earls  of  Devon, 
built  in  1106,  and  dismantled  after  its  capture  by 
Fairfax  in  1(345.  St  Peter's,  a  Perpendicular  church 
of  the  15th  ceTitury,  was  mostly  rebuilt  in  1855  ; 
and  other  edifices  are  the  town-hall  (1864),  late 
Venetian  in  style,  with  a  tower  80  feet  high,  the 
market-house  (1830),  the  infirmary  (1852),  the 
Greenway  almshouses  (1517),  Waldron's  alms- 
houses (1579),  and  the  granunar-school  (1604), 
which  was  founded  by  Peter  Blundell  (1520- 
1601),  and  has  an  endowment  of  £1100  a  year. 
Among  its  scholars  have  been  Bishops  Bull, 
Hayter,  Conybeare,  and  Temple,  A.  Hayward, 
•Jack'  Russell,  R.  D.  Blackmore,  and  his  hero, 
John  Ridd.  New  school  buildings  in  the  Tudor 
style  were  erected  in  1880  at  a  cost  of  £20,000. 
Tiverton  was  a  great  seat  of  the  woollen  trade 
from  1353  till  1700  and  afterwards,  but  lace- 
making  is  now  its  staple  industry,  the  lace- 
factory,  employing  1500  workpeople,  having  been 
established  in  1816  by  Mr  John  Heathcoat  (1783- 
1861),  inventor  of  the  bobbin-net  frame.  Cosway, 
the  painter,  and  Mi's  Cowley,  dramatist,  were 
natives  ;  whilst  Lord  Palmerston  for  thirty  years 
(1835-65)  represented  Tiverton,  which  was  char- 
tered by  James  I.,  but  lost  its  two  members  in 
1885.  Pop.  (1851)  11,144;  (1871)  10,025;  (1901) 
10,382.  See  works  by  M.  Dunsford  (1790),  W. 
Harding  (2  vols.  1844-47),  and  P.  J.  Smith  (1893). 

Tiv'oli  (anc.  Tibur),  a  town  of  Italy,  18  miles 
E.  of  Rome  by  rail  and  steam-tramway,  on  the 
slope  of  the  Sabine  hills  and  the  river  Teverone 
(anc.  Anio,  q.v.).  Here  works  for  the  electric 
lighting  of  Rome  were  inaugurated  in  1892.  Tibiir 
was  the  favourite  summer-resort  of  the  wealthy 
Romans.  Above  the  falls  of  the  Anio  rises  the 
so-called  Sibyl's  temple,  in  good  preservation  ; 
the  church  of  San  Giorgio  is  an  ancient  temple ; 


there  are  extensive  remains  of  Hadrian's  magnifl- 
cent  villa,  the  villa  of  Maecenas,  mausoleums, 
aqueducts,  baths,  &c.  Near  Tivoli  is  the  famous 
Villa  d'Este.    Pop.  9370. 

Tlaxcala  (Tlaskah'la),  the  smallest  state  of 
Mexico.  Area,  1506  sq.  m.  ;  population,  175,000. 
The  capital,  Tlaxcala,  stands  7300  feet  nbove  the 
sea ;  pop.  2850. 

Tlemcen  (Tlem-sen'),  a  town  of  Algeria,  80 
miles  SW.  of  Oran.    Pop.  35,382. 

Toba'go,  the  most  southerly  of  the  Windward 
Islands  belonging  to  Britain,  lies  18^  miles  NK. 
of  Trinidad  (of  which  it  is  a  dependency),  is  32 
miles  long  by  7  broad,  and  has  an  area  of  114 
sq.  m.  It  was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498, 
and  named  by  him  Assumption ;  the  name  Tobago 
probably  arose  from  the  free  use  of  tobacco  by 
the  Carib  natives.  It  was  long  contested  be- 
tween Dutch,  Spaniards,  and  French,  but  came 
to  Britain  in  1763.  The  island  is  volcanic, 
mountainous  (1800  feet),  and  picturesque.  Scar- 
borough, its  chief  town,  is  on  the  S.  side,  and 
at  the  base  of  a  conical  hill  (425  feet),  crowned 
by  Fort  King  George,  now  without  garrison. 
The  exports  (rum,  molasses,  cocoa-nuts,  live- 
stock, &c.)  amount  to  from  £20,000  to  £40,000  a 
year ;  the  imports  to  from  £20,000  to  £30,000. 
Pop.  18,750. 

Tobercurry,  a  Sligo  market-town,  9  miles  SW. 
of  Ballyiuote.    Pop.  870. 

Tobermo'ry.    See  Mull. 

Tobolsk,  a  town  of  W.  Siberia,  at  the  Tobol's 
influx  to  the  Irtish,  nearly  2000  miles  E.  of  St 
Petersburg.  Pop.  20,630. —Area  of  Tobolsk 
government,  539,659  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,500,000. 

Tobo'so,  El,  a  town  (pop.  1925)  in  the  Spanish 
district  of  La  Mancha,  60  miles  SE.  of  Toledo, 
the  home  of  Don  Quixote's  peerless  Dulcinea. 

Tocantins',  an  important  river  of  Brazil,  rises 
in  the  state  of  Goyaz,  flows  15  miles  N.,  and 
Anally  widens  into  the  Para  (q.v.),  138  miles 
from  the  Atlantic.  Its  affluent,  the  Araguay 
(1600  miles),  bears  along  a  gi-eater  volume  of 
water  than  the  Tocantins  itself.  Steamers  ascend 
for  400  miles  from  the  sea  ;  above  the  rapids  400 
miles  more  is  navigable. 

Toddington,  a  town  of  Bedfordshire,  5  miles 
N.  of  Dunstable.     Pop.  of  parish,  2087. 

Tod'morden,  a  market-town  on  the  border  of 
Yorkshire  and  Lancashire,  prettily  situated  among 
hills  on  the  Calder,  9  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Rochdale, 
18^  NNE.  of  Manchester,  and  13  W.  of  Halifax. 
The  classical  town-hall  was  erected  in  1875,  and 
in  front  of  it  is  a  bronze  statue  by  Foley  of  John 
Fielden,  M.P.  (1784-1849),  the  founder  here  of 
an  enormous  cotton-mill.  Coal  abounds  in  the 
vicinity.     Pop.  (1871)  21,764 ;  (1901)  25,418. 

To'goland,  since  1884  a  German  protectorate 
on  the  Slave  Coast,  east  of  the  British  Gold 
Coast,  between  0°  30'  E.  long,  and  1°  41'  E.,  the 
boundary  towards  the  interior  being  somewhat 
indefinite.  Area,  33,000  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  2,000,000. 
It  is  the  most  prosperous  of  Germany's  African 
possessions.  Togo,  the  largest  native  town 
(pop.  8000),  is  on  Lake  Togo ;  Little  Poi)0  is  the 
capital,  and  Lome  the  chief  port. 

Tokat',  a  town  of  Sivas  province,  Asia  Minor, 
70  miles  inland  from  the  Black  Sea.    Pop.  30,000. 

Tokay,  the  centre  of  a  wine-growing  district  in 
Hungary,  130  miles  NE.  of  Pesth.     Pop.  5500. 

TokusMma,  the  largest  town  of  Shikoku, 
Japan,  on  the  NE.  coast.    Pop.  65,300. 

Tokyo,  or  Tokei  ('Eastern  Capital'),  is  the 


TOLEDO 


Too 


TONQtJiN 


chief  city  of  the  Japanese  empire.  Until  18C8, 
when  the  emperor  removed  his  court  thither  from 
Kyoto,  it  was  known  as  Yedo  ('  Estuary  Gate '). 
Its  position  at  the  mouth  of  the  rivers  which 
drain  the  largest  plain  of  Japan,  fits  it  to  be  a 
national  centre.  The  lower  portion  of  the  city, 
which  is  flat  and  intersected  by  canals,  stretches 
between  the  two  parks  of  tjeno  (nortli)  and 
Shiba  (south),  famous  for  their  shrines.  Midway 
rises  the  castle  or  palace  (1889),  a  fine  structure 
in  Japanese  style,  furnished  a  I' Europeemie  and 
lit  with  electricity,  around  it  a  double  ring 
of  high  walls  and  broad  moats.  In  spring-time 
the  city  is  gay  with  plum  and  cherry  blossoms. 
The  immense  enclosures  formerly  inhabited  by 
the  nobles  and  their  retainers,  are  gradually  dis- 
appearing, and  handsome  modern  buildings  in 
brick  for  the  use  of  the  various  government  de- 
partments are  taking  their  place.  Of  the  fifteen 
city  divisions  (ku)  the  northern,  Hongo  and 
Kanda,  are  mostly  educational,  and  contain  the 
buildings  of  the  Imperial  University,  Law  School, 
&c.  The  student  population  is  astonishingly 
large.  The  seaward  districts  of  Nihonbashi, 
Kyobashi,  and  Asalcusa  are  industrial  and  com- 
mercial, while  the  government  offices  are  located 
in  Kojimachi  ku.  There  is  an  anchorage  at  Shina- 
gawa,  the  southernmost  suburb,  but  Yokohama 
is  the  port  of  entry  (17  miles  off).  The  city  is 
subject  to  disastrous  fires ;  that  of  April_1892 
burned  4000  houses  in  one  morning.  Tokyo  has 
two  railway  termini.  Foreigners  are  now  free  to 
live  anywliere  in  tlie  city,  and  almost  every 
phase  of  modern  civilisation  is  to  be  found 
within  its  vast  area.  Pop.  (1874)  813,500  ;  (1905) 
1,530,000. 

Toledo  (Tolay'do),  a  famous  city  of  Spain, 
capital  of  a  province,  and  long  the  capital  of  the 
Avhole  country,  stands  on  the  north  bank  of  the 
Tagus,  40  miles  SSW.  of  Madrid  by  rail.  It  is 
situated  on  a  number  of  hills,  2400  feet  above 
sea-level ;  and  the  climate,  excessively  hot  in 
summer,  is  bitterly  cold  in  winter.  The  Tagus, 
flowing  between  high  and  rocky  banks,  leaves  only 
one  approach  on  the  N.,  which  is  defended  by  an 
inner  and  an  outer  wall,  the  former  built  by  the 
Gothic  king  Wamba  in  the  7th  c,  the  latter  in 
1109,  and  both  remarkable  for  their  towers  and 
gates.  Seen  from  afar  the  city  is  most  imposing  ; 
within  it  is  gloomy,  silent,  inert.  In  its  midst 
rises  the  lofty,  massive,  five-aisled  cathedral, 
built  in  1227-1493  on  the  site  of  a  former  mosque. 
The  interior,  which  is  more  impressive  than  the 
exterior,  was  plundered  in  1621  and  1808,  but 
retains  some  admirable  stained  glass,  and  the 
choir  is  a  perfect  museum  of  sculpture.  It  is 
404  feet  long  and  204  wide ;  the  tower  is  329  feet 
high.  The  great  square  or  Zocodover,  thoroughly 
Moorish  in  character,  is  a  fashionable  promenade. 
The  Alcazar  or  old  palace,  the  fortress  commanded 
by  the  Cid,  rebuilt  as  a  palace  in  Charles  V.'s  time, 
and  subsequently,  occupied  the  highest  part  of 
the  city,  but  was  burned  down  in  1887.  There 
are  manufactures  of  church  ornaments  and  vest- 
ments, and  confections.  Toledan  sword-blades, 
famous  since  old  Roman  times,  are  still  made, 
but  outside  the  city.  Pop.  23,470.  Toledo,  the 
Toletum  of  the  Romans,  and  the  capital  of  the 
Goths,  was  held  by  the  Moors  from  714  to  1085, 
when  it  was  annexed  to  the  crown  of  Castile  as 
capital.  In  its  highest  prosperity  it  had  200,000 
inhabitants.  It  was  the  headquarters  of  the  In- 
quisition. The  university  (1498)  is  long  since  .ex- 
tinct.—Area  of.  province,  5586  sq.  m.;  pop.  376,820. 

Toledo   {To-le'do),    capital   of  Lucas   county, 


Ohio,  on  the  Maumee  River,  8  miles  from  the 
western  extremity  of  Lake  Erie(to  which  a  channel 
17  feet  deep  has  been  dredged),  and  92  by  rail 
W.  of  Cleveland.  It  has  a  fine  harbour,  is  on  the 
Miami  and  Brie  Canal,  and  is  connected  with  all 
parts  of  the  country  by  thirteen  railways.  Be- 
sides an  immense  union  depot,  it  has  huge  grain 
elevators,  and  does  a  great  trade  in  flour,  grain, 
lumber,  live-stock,  tobacco,  &c.  There  are  great 
wagon-works,  foundries,  manufactories  of  boilers, 
pumps,  engines,  farming  implements,  and  furni- 
ture, and  boat-yards  and  bridge-works.  Toledo 
was  settled  in  1832,  and  incorporated  in  1836. 
Pop.  (1880)  50,137  ;  (1890)  81,434  ;  (1900)  131,222. 

Tolenti'no  (i  as  ee),  an  episcopal  city  of  Central 
Italy,  10  miles  SW.  of  Macerata.     Pop.  4888. 

Tolima  (Tolee'ma),  a  volcano  of  the  Andes  of 
Colombia  (18,314  feet),  gives  name  to  a  province. 

Tolo'sa,  a  town  in  the  northern  Spanish  prov- 
ince of  Guipuzcoa,  15  miles  S.  of  the  seaport  of 
San  Sebastian  by  rail.    Pop.  7239. 

Toluca,  a  town  of  Mexico,  capital  of  Mexico 
state,  and  45  miles  by  rail  WSW.  of  Mexico  city, 
lies  in  a  valley  nearly  8800  feet  above  the  sea.  It 
has  a  fine  cathedral.  Pop.  26,000.  Near  the  town 
is  the  extinct  volcano,  Nevado  de  Toluca. 

Tombigbee.    See  Alabama. 

Tomintoul'  (ow  as  ow),  a  Banff'shire  village, 
near  the  Avon,  1100  feet  above  sea-level,  and  14^ 
miles  S.  of  Ballindalloch  station.    Pop.  516. 

Tomnaliu'rlcli.    See  Inverness. 

Tomsk,  a  town  of  western  Siberia,  on  the  Tom, 
a  tributary  of  the  Obi,  2809  miles  E.  of  St  Peters- 
burg, and  on  the  great  trading  highway  of  Siberia. 
A  university  was  established  in  1888.  Great  part 
of  the  town  was  burned  in  1890.  Pop.  52,430.— 
The  government  of  Tomsli  extends  to  the  Chinese 
frontier.    Area,  331,159  sq.  in.  ;  i)op.  1,975,000. 

Tonawanda,  a  town  of  New  Yori<,  on  the 
Niagara  River  and  Erie  Canal,  8  miles  N.  of 
Buffalo  by  rail.     Pop.  7500. 

Tonbridge.    See  Tunbridoe. 

Tong,  a  Shropshire  parish,  3  miles  E.  of  Shif- 
nal,  with  a  collegiate  church  (1410),  which  figures 
in  The  Old  Curiosity  Shop.  See  a  work  by  G. 
Gri  fifths  (1894). 

Tong'a.  See  Friendly  Islands. — ^Tonga  Bay 
is  a  small  inlet  of  East  Africa,  bounded  N.  by 
Cape  Delgado.  Tongaland,  or  Amatongaland,  is  a 
state  there  under  British  suzerainty,  between 
Zululaiid  and  tlie  Portuguese  frontier,  and  border- 
ing on  Swaziland  ;  area,  5300  sq.  m. ;  pop.  100,000. 

Tongarri'ro  (i  as  ee).    See  New  Zealand. 

Tongking.    See  Tonquin. 

Tongres  (Ton^r),  an  episcopal  city  of  Belgium, 
Limburg,  12  miles  NW.  of  Liege.  There  is  a 
mineral  spring  in  the  vicinity,  mentioned  by 
Pliny.     Pop.  10,000. 

Tonk,  a  native  state  of  Rajputana  (area,  1415 
sq.  in.  ;  pop.  151,000),  named  from  its  capital,  60 
miles  south  of  Jeypore  ;  pop.  39,000. 

Tonquin,  or  Tonkin,  since  1884  a  French  pos- 
session, is  the  north-east  portion  of  the  Indo- 
Chinese  peninsula,  bordering  on  China.  The 
country  is  naturally  a  province  of  Annam  (q.v.), 
which,  however,  is  nominally  a  protected  king- 
dom, whereas  Tonquin  is  simply  a  French  colony. 
The  main  feature  is  the  Song-coi,  or  Red  River 
(variously  spelt  Song-koi,  Sang-koi,  &c.),  coming 
from  Yunnan,  and  traversing  the  whole  of  Ton- 
quin lengthwise.  Tlie  area  is  46,400  sq.  m. ;  the 
pop.  is  estimated  at  9,000,000.    The  capital  is 


TdNSBERG 


701 


TORRES  STRAIT 


Hanoi  (q.v.).  The  chief  products  are  rice,  silk, 
sugar,  pepper,  oil,  cotton,  tobacco,  and  fruits, 
with  some  copper  and  iron  ;  and  companies  are 
now  working  coal  and  antimony  mines  near  the 
cliief  port  of  Haiphong.  The  imports  have  a 
value  of  about  £1,200,000  (one-third  only  ftoni 
France),  the  exports  of  £600,000  (only  a  small 
fraction  to  France).  See  works  by  C.  R.  Norman 
(1884)  and  J.  G.  Scott  (1885), 

Tonsberg,  an  old  Norwegian  seaport,  71  miles 
SW.  of  Oiristiania  by  rail.     Pop.  8050. 

Toombudra  (correctly,  Tungabhadra)  rises  in 
the  south-west  of  Mysore,  and  flows  400  miles 
NE.  to  the  Kistnah,  16  miles  below  Karnul. 

Tooting,  a  Surrey  district  of  Wandsworth. 

Toowoomba,  a  town  of  Queensland,  on  the 
Darling  Downs,  70  miles  W,  of  Brisbane.  Pop. 
10,100. 

Tope'ka,  the  capital  of  Kansas,  on  the  Kansas 
River,  67  miles  W.  of  Kansas  City.  It  is  well 
built,  with  wide,  shady  streets,  and  possesses  a 
handsome  capitol,  a  Congregational  college,  a 
R.  C.  seminary,  an  asylum,  &c.  It  is  the  see 
of  an  Anglican  bishop.  Founded  in  1854,  it  be- 
came the  state  capital  in  1861,  and  has  now 
busy  miscellaneous  manufactures  and  indus- 
tries.    Pop.  (1880)  15,452  ;  (1900)  33,608. 

Tophan^  (Top-hah'neh).    See  Constantinople. 

Toplitz.     See  Teplitz. 

Topsham,  a  Devon  market-town,  on  the  Exe,  4 
miles  SSE.  of  Exeter.     Pop.  of  parish,  2790. 

Tor  Bay.    See  Torquay. 

Torgau  (au  as  oiv),  a  town  of  Prussia,  and  a 
fortress  of  the  second  rank,  stands  on  the  Elbe's 
left  bank,  70  miles  SSW.  of  Berlin  by  rail.  The 
castle,  now  barracks,  contains  a  church  con- 
secrated by  Luther  in  1544  ;  the  town-church  has 
pictures  by  Cranach  and  the  grave  of  Luther's 
wife.  Here  in  1760  Frederick  the  Great  defeated 
the  Austrians.     Pop.  11,988. 

Tomea,  a  town  in  the  Finnish  government  of 
Uleaborg,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Tornea  River, 
which,  rising  in  the  Tornea  lake,  forms  during 
great  part  of  its  course  of  250  miles  the  boundary 
between  Sweden  and  Finland.  Pop.  1400  ;  across 
the  river  is  the  Swedish  town  of  Haparanda. 

Toro,  a  town  of  Spain,  on  the  right  bank  of  the 
Douro,  20  miles  E.  of  Zamora  by  rail.    Pop.  8764. 

Torontal,  the  Hungarian  county  on  the  Maros 
and  Theiss,  with  Becskerek  (q.v.)  for  capital. 

Toron'to,  the  second  city  of  Canada,  lies  on  the 
N.  shore  of  Lake  Ontario,  between  the  Don  and 
the  Humber,  310  miles  WSW.  of  Montreal.  As 
the  latter  is  the  metropolis  of  the  east,  so 
Toronto  aims  to  be  the  metropolis  of  the  west, 
including  the  newly-opened  regions  of  the  North- 
west. In  1749  the  French  established  Fort 
Rouille  on  the  W.  side  of  the  present  city,  which 
in  1756  was  destroyed  to  prevent  its  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  English.  In  1793  Governor 
Simcoe  finding  Niagara  or  Newark  too  close  to  the 
American  side — indeed,  right  under  the  guns  of 
an  American  fort — for  the  seat  of  government, 
crossed  Lake  Ontario  and  established  his  head- 
quarters in  a  tent  here.  In  1812  Toronto,  called 
York  by  Governor  Simcoe,  was  twice  captured 
and  burned  by  the  American  army  and  navy. 
In  1834  it  was  incorporated  as  the  city  of 
Toronto  (Huron,  '  place  of  meeting  ').  In  1837  it 
was  the  scene  of  a  bi'ief  and  ineffectual  rebellion 
under  Lyon  Mackenzie.  Pop.  (1861)  44,821  ; 
(1871)56,092;  (1881)86,415;  (1901)  including  some 
annexed  suburbs,  208,040.    Tlie  city  is  the  capi- 


tal of  the  province  of  Ontario.  Its  chief 
churches  are  the  cathedral  of  St  James  (Angli- 
can), the  Metropolitan  Methodist  Church,  and 
St  Michael's  Ciitliedral  (Catholic).  The  uni- 
versity of  Toronto,  which  was  burned  to  the 
ground  in  1890,  but  rebuilt,  is  a  very  imposing 
structure,  worthy  of  its  noble  site  and  splendid 
grounds.  Federated  with  it  are  Victoria  Univer- 
sity, Trinity  College  (Anglican),  Wycliff  College 
(Protestant),  Knox  College  (Presbyterian),  and  St 
Michael's  College  (Catholic) ;  the  teaching  staff 
numbers  about  150,  and  tlie  students  1720.  Ther^ 
are  also  the  Normal  School,  the  Collegiate  Insti- 
tute, a  School  of  Practical  Science,  &c.  Toronto 
has  a  Public  Library  (1884),  tlie  University 
Library,  the  Law  Library,  the  library  of  the 
Canadian  Institute,  and  the  Legislature  Library, 
Tlie  total  imports  average  over  $31,500,000,  and 
the  exports  over  $9,500,000.  The  lake  commerce 
is  also  very  large  in  lumber,  fruit,  grain,  coal, 
and  cattle. 

Torphlchen  (Tor-phihh'en),  a  Linlithgowshire 
parish,  2^  miles  N.  of  Bathgate,  was  the  chief  Scot- 
tish seat  of  the  Knights  of  St  John  of  Jerusalem. 

Torquay  (Tor-kee'),  a  watering-place  of  South 
Devon,  occupving  a  cove  on  the  north  side  of 
Tor  Bay,  23  miles  S.  of  Exeter  and  220  WSW,  of 
London.  Tor  Abbey  was  founded  here  for  Pre- 
monstratensian  monks  in  1196  ;  in  Tor  Bay  in 
1688  William  of  Orange  landed  at  Brixham  (q.v,), 
and  during  the  war  with  France  it  was  a  frequent 
naval  rendezvous.  But  till  the  beginning  of  the 
19th  c.  Torquay  itself  was  little  more  than  au 
assemblage  of  fishermen's  huts.  About  that  time 
the  advantages  of  its  climate — .sheltered  position, 
equable  temperature  (mean  44°  in  winter,  55°  in 
summer),  and  freedom  from  fogs — caused  it  to  be 
resorted  to  by  consumptive  patients,  and  it  soon 
acquired  a  European  celebrity.  The  romantic 
hills  and  valleys  of  Torquay  and  its  environs 
have  been  overspread  with  terraces,  villas,  and 
gardens,  the  luxuriance  of  its  foliage  being  a 
delightful  feature  of  this  'queen  of  English 
watering-places.'  The  scenery  is  as  varied  as  it 
is  beautiful,  the  geology  of  the  district  most 
interesting  ;  and  Kent's  Cavern  (q.v.)  is  only  a 
mile  distant.  The  remains  of  the  abbey  include 
some  crypts  and  the  13th-century  '  Spanish 
barn'  (it  housed  some  survivors  from  the 
Armada) ;  and  St  Michael's  Chapel,  on  a  hill-top, 
is  thought  to  have  been  connected  with  the 
abbey.  St  John's  Church,  by  Street,  is  a  striking 
edifice  ;  and  other  buildings  are  the  town-hall 
(1852),  museum  (1875),  and  theatre  (1880).  Tor- 
quay was  incorporated  as  a  municipal  borough  in 
1892.  It  is  a  great  yachting  station  ;  its  chief 
industries  are  the  working  up  of  Devonshire 
marbles  and  the  manufacture  of  terra-cotta. 
Pop.  (1851)  7903;  (1881)  24,767;  (1901)  33,625. 
See  J.  T.  Wliite's  History  of  Torquay  (1878). 

Torre  dell'  Annunziata  (Torr-reh  del  Annoon'- 
tseeah'ta),  a  town  of  Italy,  on  the  S.  base  of  Vesu- 
vius, 13  miles  SB.  of  Naples  by  rail.  Pop.  20,060. 
— Torre  del  Greco,  also  at  the  base  of  Vesuvius, 
only  7  miles  from  Naples  by  rail,  has  been  re- 
peatedly destroyed  by  eruptions.     Pop.  21,588. 

Torrens,  Lake,  sometimes  a  brackish  lake  (130 
by  20  miles),  at  others  merely  a  vast  salt-marsh, 
in  South  Australia,  90  miles  N.  of  Spencer's  Gulf. 
It  is  named  after  Sir  R.  R.  Torrens  (1814-84). 

Torre  Pellice  (Torreh  Pellee'cliay;  Fr.  La 
Tour),  a  Piedmontese  village  (pop.  2840),  84 
miles  SW.  of  Turin  by  rail.  It  is  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Waldenses. 

Tor'res  Strait,  between  N.  Australia  and  New 


T0RRES-VEDRA3 


702 


TOURCOINQ 


Guinea,  is  80  to  90  miles  in  width  ;  its  navigation 
is  rendered  dangerous  by  innumerable  slioals, 
reefs,  and  islands.  It  was  discovered  in  160(3  by 
Torres,  a  Spanish  navigator. 

Torres-Vedras  (Tor'rez-Vay'dras),  a  Portuguese 
town,  2(3  miles  N.  of  Lisbon  by  rail.  Within  its 
famous  '  lines '  Wellington  defended  himself  the 
winter  of  1810-11  against  Masseua.     Pop.  6926. 

Torrldge,  a  Devon  stream,  flowing  37  miles  to 
the  Taw  at  Bideford  Bay. 

Torrington,  Great,  a  market-town  of  North 
Devon,  on  an  eminence  sloping  to  the  Torridge, 
10  miles  (by  rail  14)  SSW.  of  Barnstaple.  A 
castle  (1340)  has  disappeared  ;  and  the  churcli,  of 
which  Wolsey  and  John  Howe  were  incumbents, 
was  rebuilt  in  1651,  its  predecessor  having  been 
accidentally  blown  up  with  200  prisoners,  after 
Hopton's  defeat  here  by  Fairfax,  February  16, 
1646.  Torrington  was  made  a  municipal  borough 
by  Queen  Mary.  Gloves  are  manufactured.  Pop. 
8250. 

Torry,  a  Kincardineshire  fishing-village,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Dee,  opposite  Aberdeen. 

Torshok,  a  town  of  Russia,  310  miles  SE.  of  St 
Petersburg  by  rail.    Pop.  14,574. 

Tor'tola.     See  Virgin  Islands. 

Torto'na,  a  town  of  Northern  Italy,  on  a  feeder 
of  the  Po,  13  miles  E.  of  Alessandria.    Pop.  7147. 

Torto'sa,  an  old  Spanish  town,  on  the  Ebro, 
40  miles  S  W.  of  Tarragona  by  rail.     Pop.  24,636. 

Tortu'gas  (u  as  oo ;  Span.  '  turtles '),  ten  low 
keys  or  islets  of  Florida,  at  the  Gulf  of  Mexico's 
entrance,  120  miles  WSW.  of  Cape  Sable. 

Tory  Island,  a  small  island,  2^  miles  long,  9 
miles  off  the  north-west  coast  of  Donegal,  with  a 
lighthouse,  and  a  signal  station  (1890)  connected 
by  telegraph  with  Londonderry. 

Tot'nes,  a  municipal  borough  of  Devon,  pleas- 
antly situated  on  the  slope  of  a  steep  hill  on 
the  Dart's  right  bank,  29  miles  SSW.  of  Exeter 
and  24  BNE.  of  Plymouth.  The  Dart  is  navi- 
gable for  vessels  of  200  tons,  and  Brut  the  Trojan 
is  fabled  to  have  landed  here :  the  '  Brutus 
Stone,'  on  which  he  first  set  foot,  may  be  seen 
in  the  main  street.  At  least,  Totnes  is  a  place 
of  great  antiquity,  and  retains  two  gateways, 
remains  of  the  walls,  a  quaint  guildhall,  a  good 
many  antique  houses,  and  a  church  (1432),  with 
a  noble  red  sandstone  tower  and  a  fine  stone 
screen.  The  Norman  castle  of  Judhael  de  Totnes, 
that  crowns  the  hill-top,  is  represented  by  the 
circular  shell-keep.  There  is  a  grammar-school 
(1568) ;  and  on  the  '  Plains,'  near  the  river,  stands 
a  granite  obelisk  to  the  Australian  explorer 
Wills,  who  was  a  native,  as  also  was  the  Hebraist 
Kennicott.  Incorporated  by  King  John,  Totnes 
returned  two  members  till  1867.  Pop.  (1851) 
4419;  (1901)  4034.  See  works  by  Colton  (1850) 
and  Worthy  (2  vols.  Exeter,  1889). 

Tottenham,  a  northern  suburb  of  London. 

Tonl  (Toole),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Meurthe-et-Moselle,  on  the  Moselle,  20  miles  W. 
of  Nancy.  It  has  a  former  cathedral  (965-1496), 
whose  W.  front,  with  towers  245  feet  high,  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  France,  an  18th-century 
hotel-de-ville,  and  manufactures  of  lace,  hats, 
&c.  The  Tullum  Leucoi-^m  of  the  Romans,  Toul 
maintained  a  semi-independence  till  1545 ;  on 
23d  September  1870  surrendered  to  the  Germans 
after  bombardment;  and  since  has  been  strongly 
fortified  with  a  cordon  of  forts.  Pop.  (1872) 
6584 ;  (1901)  9030. 

Toulon  {Toolomf'),  a  seaport  and  naval  arsenal 


of  France,  in  the  dep.  of  Var,  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean,  42  miles  ESE.  of  Marseilles  and  564  SSB. 
of  Paris.  It  lies  at  the  head  of  a  deep  double 
bay,  a!id  rises  towards  the  north  in  tlie  form  of  an 
amphitheatre.  Tlie  port  is  divided  into  the  old 
and  the  new— the  former,  on  the  east,  appropri- 
ated to  merchant  shipping,  and  the  latter,  on  the 
west,  surrounded  by  the  dockyard,  slips,  arsenal, 
cainion-foundry,  &c.  The  dockyard  covers  240 
acres  ;  and  belonging  to  the  arsenal  are  the  sail- 
yard,  armoury,  museum,  &c.  The  fortifications 
were  greatly  extended  after  the  conquest  of 
Algeria  (1830) ;  and  again  since  1880.  A  cathe- 
dral, founded  in  1096,  the  hotel-de-ville,  and  a 
large  theatre  are  the  chief  buildings.  Tlie  climate 
is  dry  and  bracing,  but  the  older  portions  of  the 
town  are  still  unsanitary,  and  were  ravaged  by 
cholera  in  1884.  Pop.  (1872)  69,808;  (1901) 
83,142.  Tlie  Greek  Telonion  and  Roman  Tclo 
Martius,  Toulon  suffered  much  from  the  Saracens, 
and  first  rose  into  importance  as  a  naval  strong- 
hold about  1600.  The  English  were  defeated  off 
here  by  the  united  fleets  of  France  and  Spain 
in  1744 ;  and  in  1793  Toulon  was  occupied  for 
four  months  by  the  English  (under  Hood)  and 
the  Spaniards,  who,  however,  were  forced  to 
evacuate  tlie  place  after  a  siege  that  is  memor- 
able as  Napoleon's  first  great  achievement.  See 
Lambert's  Histoire  de  Toulon  (1886  et  seq.). 

Toulouse  (Toolooce'),  a  southern  French  city, 
anciently  capital  of  Languedoc,  and  now  of  the 
dep.  Haute-Garonne,  160  miles  SE.  of  Bordeaux 
and  466  S.  by  W.  of  Paris.  With  the  Canal  du 
Midi  on  the  E.  and  N.,  it  lies  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Garonne,  which  is  crossed  here  by  a 
beautiful  bridge  (1543-1626),  nearly  300  yards 
long,  leading  to  the  suburb  of  St  Cyprien.  The 
city  has  few  fine  public  buildings— the  archi- 
episcopal  cathedral,  containing  the  tombs  of  the 
Counts  of  Toulouse  ;  the  Capitole.,  or  town-hall 
(1769) ;  the  church  of  St  Sernin  (11th  to  15th  c); 
and  the  Musee,  with  interesting  antiquities.  Toul- 
ouse has  a  university  academy,  an  academy  of 
'  floral  games, '  claiming  to  date  from  a  troubadours' 
contest  in  1323,  academies  of  ai'ts,  sciences, 
&c.,  schools  of  law,  medicine,  and  artillery, 
an  observatory,  botanic  garden,  and  a  public 
library  of  60,000  volumes.  The  place  manufac- 
tures woollens,  silks,  leather,  cannon,  steam- 
engines,  tobacco,  brandy,  &c.,  and  carries  on  a 
great  trade  with  Spain.  Its  liver  and  truffle 
pies  are  celebrated.  Pop.  (1872)  114,025  ;  (1901) 
140,698.  The  Tolosa  of  the  Romans,  Toulouse  in 
412  A.D.  became  the  Visigoths'  capital.  After 
Charlemagne's  time  it  was  under  counts,  who 
made  themselves  independent  about  920,  but  in 
1271  it  was  reunited  to  the  crown  of  France. 
Its  literary  celebrity  reaches  back  to  the  Roman 
empire;  early  in  the  middle  ages  it  became  a 
seat  of  Provengal  poetry,  but  it  suffered  terribly 
in  Simon  de  Montfort's  pitiless  crusade  against 
the  Albigenses.  On  10th  April  1814  the  French 
were  here  defeated  by  Wellington.  Cujacius  was 
born,  and  Fermat  died,  at  Toulouse.  The  floods 
of  1855  and  1875  were  specially  disastrous. 

Toung-ngu  (ng  as  in  ringing),  a  town  of  Burma, 
170  miles  NE.  of  Rangoon  by  rail.    Pop.  20,000. 

Touralne  (Toorayn'),  an  old  French  province, 
whose  capital  was  Tours  (q.v.),  and  which  coin- 
cided with  tlie  dep.  Indre-et-Loire  and  part  of 
Vienne.     See  T.  A.  Cook's  Old  Touraine  (1892). 

Tourcolng  (Toorkwan^),  a  frontier  town  of 
France,  dep.  Nord,  10  miles  NE.  of  Lille.  It 
manufactures  cotton,  wool,  linen,  and  silk  goods, 
beet-sugar,  &c.    Pop.  78,250. 


TOURNAY 


703 


TRANSVAAL 


Tournay  (ou  as  oo ;  Flemish  Doornik),  a  Belgian 
town,  on  the  Scheldt,  35  miles  WSW.  of  Brussels. 
Its  splendid  Romanesque  cathedral,  400  feet  long, 
has  five  towers  and  pictures  by  Rubens  ;  and 
there  are  also  the  churches  of  St  Quentin  and 
St  Brice  (with  the  grave  of  King  Childeric),  the 
belfry  (1190),  and  a  bronze  statue  (1863)  of  the 
Princess  d'Epinoy,  who  in  1581  valiantly  defended 
Tournay  against  Parina.  An  ancient  place,  but 
modern  in  aspect,  Tournay  manufactures  hosiery, 
linen,  Brussels  carpets,  and  porcelain.  Pop. 
(1880)  32,566 ;  (1900)  35,004.  Tournay  (anc. 
Tornacum  or  Turns  N'ervioruni)  was  in  the  5th 
c.  the  seat  of  the  Merovingian  kings.  In  1326  it 
was  included  in  the  Spanish  Netherlands. 

Tours  (Toore),  capital  of  the  dep.  Indre-et- 
Loire,  as  it  formerly  was  of  the  province  of 
Touraine,  stands  in  the  fertile  valley  of  the  Loire 
just  above  the  Cher's  influx,  147  miles  SW.  of 
Paris  by  rail.  It  is  a  regularly  built  and  hand- 
some town,  nearly  divided  in  half  by  the  Rue 
Nationale.  The  noble  cathedral  (13th  to  15th  c.) 
has  very  fine  glass  and  two  towers  205  feet  high. 
Other  buildings  are  the  church  of  St  Julien,  the 
towers  and  other  remains  of  the  famous  abbey 
church  of  St  Martin  (destroyed  at  the  Revolu- 
tion), the  archbishop's  palace,  palais  de  justice, 
museum,  public  library,  &c.,  besides  fine  statues 
of  Descartes  and  Rabelais.  Near  the  town  are 
the  remains  of  the  monastery  of  Marmoutier,  and 
of  the  castle  of  Plessis  les  Tours,  the  favourite 
residence  of  Louis  XI.  There  are  some  well- 
preserved  ancient  houses,  including  that  of  the 
executioner  Tristan  I'Hermite  ;  and  round  Tours 
are  many  of  the  fine  old  chateaux  for  which 
Touraine  is  famous.  Tours  has  a  brisk  trade, 
manufactures  woollens  and  silk,  does  much  print- 
ing, &c.,  and  is  famous  for  its  plums  and  confec- 
tions. Pop.  (1872)  43,368;  (1901)  58,409.  The 
Roman  Ccesarodunum,  Tours  was  the  capital  of 
the  Turones  (whence  the  modern  name).  Near  it 
Charles  Martel  won  the  great  victory  that  saved 
northern  Europe  from  the  Saracens  (732).  The 
great  silk  manufactures  of  Tours,  established  in 
the  15th  c,  were  destroyed  by  the  Revocation  of 
the  Edict  of  Nantes  (1685).  During  the  Franco- 
German  war  Tours  was  the  seat  of  government 
from  11th  Sept.  to  10th  Dec.  1870.  SS.  Martin 
and  Gregory  both  were  bishops  of  Tours. 

Towcester,  a  town,  on  the  Tove,  8J  miles  SSW. 
of  Northampton.     Pop.  of  parish,  2775. 

Tower  Hamlets,  originally  certain  parishes, 
hamlets,  and  liberties  without  the  City  of  London, 
and  within  the  jurisdiction  of  the  lieutenant  of 
the  Tower ;  now  a  parliamentary  borough,  lying 
E.  of  the  City  and  Finsbury.  Till  1885  it  sent 
two  members  to  parliament ;  since  then  seven 
for  its  seven  divisions — Whitechapel,  St  George's- 
in-the-East,  Limehouse,  Mile-End,  Stepney,  Bow 
and  Bromley,  and  Poplar.     Pop.  (1901)  467,259. 

Townsend,  Mount.    See  Australia,  p.  62. 

Towton.    See  Tadcaster. 

Towy,  a  river  of  South  Wales,  flowing  64  miles 
to  Carmarthen  Bay. 

Toyama,  a  town  near  the  west  coast  of  the 
main  island  of  Japan.    Pop.  (1905)  57,500. 

Tra'cadie,  a  Canadian  fishing-town  on  the  E. 
coast  of  New  Brunswick,  35  miles  E.  of  Bathurst, 
with  a  leper  hospital.    Pop.  2000. 

Trafalgar,  Cape  (usu.  Trafal'gar;  prop.  Tra- 
falgar), a  low  Spanish  promontory,  29  miles 
WNW.  of  Tarifa  (q.v.)  on  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar. 
Off  it,  on  21st  October  1805,   Nelson  defeated 


the  combined  fleets  of  France  and  Spain.  See 
Professor  Laughton's  Story  of  Trafalgar  (1890). 

Traflford,  a  Manchester  suburb  at  the  end  of 
the  Ship  Canal. 

Tralee',  a  town  of  Kerry,  on  the  Lee,  a  mile 
above  its  mouth  in  Tralee  Bay,  and  207  miles 
SW.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  There  is  a  ship-canal  to 
the  sea,  but  the  trade  has  decayed  since  larger 
ships  took  to  discharging  at  Fenit,  5  miles  off. 
Tralee  returned  a  member  till  1885.     Pop.  9867. 

Tramore,  a  watering-place,  7  miles  S.  of  Water- 
ford.    Pop.  1733. 

Tranent',  a  police-burgh  of  Haddingtonshire, 
7^  miles  east  of  Edinburgh.  It  has  a  fine  school 
(1877),  water-works  (1883),  and  in  the  church 
Colonel  Gardiner's  grave.  Coal  lias  been  mined 
here  since  1219.  Population,  2600.  See  P. 
M'Neil's  Tranent  (2d  ed.  1884). 

Trani  (Trah'nee),  a  seaport  of  southern  Italy, 
28  miles  NW.  of  Ban  by  rail,  with  a  12th-century 
archiepiscopal  cathedral.     Pop.  25,173. 

Tranquebar',  a  Madras  seaport,  22  miles  N.  of 
Negapatam.  Danish  1624-1807,  it  passed  to 
Britain  in  1845  for  £20,000.  The  first  Protestant 
mission  was  established  here  in  1706.     Pop.  6189. 

Transbaikalia.    See  Siberia  and  Baikal. 

Transcaspia,  the  Russian  territories  E.  of  the 
Caspian.  The  Transcaspian  Railway  was  opened 
to  Merv  in  1886,  to  Samarcand  in  1888. 

Transcaucasia.    See  Caucasus. 

Transkei  Territory  (Trans-Id)  is  a  part  of  the 
Cape  Colony,  lying  between  the  Great  Kei  River 
(the  boundary  of  British  Kaffraria)  and  Natal. 
Covering  most  of  the  former  Kaffraria,  it  is 
now  divided  into  Griqualand  East,  Tembuland, 
Pondoland,  and  Transkei  Proper  (Fingoland, 
Idutwya,  and  Galekaland). 

Transleithania.    See  Austria. 

Transvaal  (long  an  independent  state,  and 
from  1884  till  1900  officially  called  the  'South 
African  Republic'),  a  British  crown  colony  in 
the  highlands  of  South-east  Africa,  bounded 
on  the  N.  by  Rhodesia,  on  the  E.  by  Portu- 
guese East  Africa  and  Zululand,  SE.  by  Natal, 
S.  by  the  Orange  River  Colony,  and  W.  by 
Bechuanaland.  Its  length  from  the  Vaal  River 
on  the  S.  to  the  Limpopo  River  on  the  N.  is  over 
400  miles,  while  a  line  between  the  extreme 
southern  and  eastern  points  (25°  to  32°  E.  long.) 
reaches  700  miles.  Prior  to  1830  the  land  was 
inhabited  by  several  Bantu  tribes  under  the 
Zulu  chief  Umziligase,  and  was  noted  for  its 
abundance  of  game.  In  1835  some  Cape  Colony 
'  boers '  or  farmers  of  Dutch  descent,  offended  by 
oflScial  regulations,  'trekked'  into  what  is  now 
Natal.  On  its  being  annexed  by  Britain  in  1856, 
they  trekked  into  this  wild  region,  and  till  1870 
received  accessions  from  the  south.  After  much 
bloodshed  the  natives  were  mostly  subdued  or 
driven  out.  The  Boers  were  pioneers  and 
pastoral  farmers,  who  tilled  but  little  of  the 
soil,  and  had  none  of  the  trader's  instinct.  The 
little  commerce  was  in  British  hands.  In  1877, 
owing  to  an  exhausted  public  treasury  and 
accumulated  debts  brought  about  by  chronic 
native  wars,  the  republic  was  on  the  eve  of  dis- 
solution, and  the  I3ritish  government  assumed 
the  care  of  it,  subjugated  the  rebellious  natives, 
and  put  the  finances  in  order.  But  promises 
made  to  the  Boers  as  to  self-governing  institu- 
tions were  not  carried  out ;  friction  was  created ; 
and  there  followed  the  Transvaal  war,  the  death 
of  General  CoUey  (see  Majuba),  and  the  con- 


TRANSYLVANIA 


704 


TREBIZOND 


ventions  of  1880  and  1S84  between  England  and 
the  Transvaal.  The  first  gave  the  Boers  repub- 
lican rights,  but  retained  British  control  over 
boundaries,  native  affairs,  and  foreign  relations  ; 
the  1884  convention  modified  the  restrictions 
considerably.  British  'suzerainty'  was  still 
recognised,  and  a  diplomatic  agent  represents 
Britain  at  Pretoria.  The  rapid  development  ol' 
the  gold  industry  greatly  increased  the  financial 
prosperity,  but  introduced  elements  of  diffi- 
culty into  public  life.  The  growing  number  of 
'Uitlanders,'  who  brought  prosperity  to  the 
republic,  resented  their  exclusion  from  politi- 
cal privileges ;  and  their  discontent  led  first 
to  the  disastrous  '  Jameson  Raid '  in  1895,  and 
to  the  war  of  1899-1902,  in  which  the  Orange 
Free  State  sided  with  the  Transvaal.  This 
ended  in  both  states  being  taken  over  by 
Britain  as  crown  colonies,  till  the  resettlement 
permits  the  concession  of  self-government,  as 
in  Cape  Colony.  £3,000,000  was  granted  by 
the  government  to  the  Boer  fanners,  after  the 
war,  to  aid  in  restocking  their  farms.  In  1903  a 
tract  of  country  of  about  7000  sq.  m.  was  trans- 
ferred to  the  colony  of  Natal.  The  revenue  in 
1903-4  was  £5,333,342,  and  the  expenditure 
£4,598,204.  The  chief  sources  of  revenue  are 
customs,  the  mines,  and  stamps.  The  public 
debt  under  the  South  African  Loan  and  War 
Contribution  Act,  1903  (partly  shared  by  the 
Orange  River  Colony),  is  £35,000,000,  to  be  repaid 
within  fifty  years.  Tlie  administration  is  carried 
on  under  the  governor  and  lieutenant-governor 
by  executive  and  legislative  councils.  The  colony 
is  specially  favourable  for  agriculture  and  stock- 
rearing,  and  about  50,000  acres  are  under  culti- 
vation. Gold-mining  is  extensively  carried  on, 
principally  in  Witwatersrand  and  Barberton.  In 
1903, 86,324  persons  (12,702  whites)  were  employed 
at  the  gold-mines,  and  the  output  was  2,972,897  fine 
ounces.  Coal-mining  is  on  tlie  increase  ;  the  out- 
put in  1901  was  797,144  tons,  and  in  1903,  2,253,677 
tons,  value  £877,976.  The  diamond-mines  output 
was  in  1903,  17,976  carats,  value  £238,752.  There 
are  also  deposits  of  copper,  iron,  tin,  and  lead. 
In  1904  Chinese  labour  was  introduced  for  mining 
purposes,  with  restrictive  conditions.  In  1905 
there  were  about  30,000  Chinese  in  the  Trans- 
vaal. The  area  of  the  colony  is  about  111,200 
sq.  m.,  and  the  population  at  the  census  of 
1904  was  1,268,389,  of  whom  299,327  were  whites 
and  969,389  native  and  other  coloured  races.  In 
1899  only  about  30  per  cent,  of  the  whites  were 
Boers,  the  others  being  mostly  British-born  or 
colonial.  The  Boers  belong  to  the  several  divi- 
sions  of  the  Dutch  Reformed  Church.  The 
natural  seaports  of  the  Transvaal  are  Delagoa 
Bay  and  Durban,  348  and  441  miles  from  Pretoria 
respectively.  Both  are  connected  with  Pretoria 
and  Johannesburg  by  rail.  The  total  length  of 
the  railways  open  in  the  colony  is  1442  miles. 
Johannesburg  is  the  largest  town  (pop.  158,580); 
Pretoria  (white  pop.  21,161)  is  the  capital. 

See,  besides  official  publications  and  Jeppe's 
Almanac,  works  by  Aylward  (new  ed.  1881), 
Lady  Bellairs  (1885),  Nixon  (1885),  Mather  (new 
ed.  1889),  Alford  (1891),  and  Distant  (1892). 

Transylva'nia,  formerly  an  Austrian  princi- 
pality, since  1868  an  integral  part  of  Hungary,  is 
fenced  by  the  Carpathians  from  Galicia  and 
Rouinania.  The  interior,  a  plateau  crossed  by 
mountain-chains,  is  drained  by  the  tributaries  of 
the  Theiss  and  the  Pruth.  The  Latin  name 
('  Beyond  the  Forest ')  refers  to  the  woods  divid- 
ing it  from  Hungary ;  the  Hungarian  name 
Erdely  ('  Forest  Land ')  is  justified  by  its  exten- 


sive forests  (37^  per  cent,  of  the  total  area  of 
21,512  sq.  m.).  Nevertheless  49  per  cent,  of  the 
soil,  mostly  very  fertile,  is  under  cultivation  or 
grass.  The  mineral  wealth  is  great— salt,  gold, 
silver,  copper,  quicksilver,  iron,  and  lead.  Mineral 
springs  abound.  The  pop.,  2,084,048  in  1880,  and 
2,500,000  in  1900,  consists  of  Roumanians  (mem- 
bers of  the  Greek  Church),  Hungarians  and 
Szeklers,  and  Saxons  or  Germans.  Kronstadt, 
Klausenburg,  and  Hermannstadt  are  the  chief 
towns.  Transylvania  (Dacia)  was  subdued  by 
Trajan  in  107.  King  Stephen  of  Hungary  (997- 
1038)  began  to  reduce  it ;  King  Geisa  II.  (1141-61) 
brought  in  German  (Saxon)  colonists  from  the 
lower  Rhineland,  who  exercised  local  self-govern- 
ment ;  and  from  the  land  being  divided  into  seven 
principal  divisions  it  acquired  the  name  Sieben- 
biirgen—i.e.  the  Seven  Strong  Towns.  See  works 
by  Boner  (1865)  and  Gerard  (1888). 

Trapani  {Trap'anee;  anc.  Drepdnum),  a  sea- 
port of  Sicily,  stands  on  a  tongue  of  land  40 
miles  W.  of  Palermo,  but  141  by  rail.  Since  1860 
most  of  its  fortifications  have  been  removed  to 
make  room  for  promenades,  gardens,  and  new 
streets;  and  the  place  is  plentifully  supplied 
(since  1891)  with  good  water  brought  60  miles. 
Pop.  32,020.  Off"  here  the  Carthaginians  defeated 
the  Romans  in  a  great  naval  battle  (249  b.c). 

Trappe,  La,  a  narrow  valley  in  the  Norman 
dep.  of  Orne,  near  Mortagne.  Its  Cistercian 
abbey  (12th  c.)  was  reformed  in  1662  by  the  Abb6 
de  Ranee  into  the  rigorous  Trappist  community. 

Traqualr,  a  Peeblesshire  parish,  IJ  mile  S.  of 
Innerleithen. 

Trasimene  Lake,  a  shallow  Italian  lake  lying 
between  the  towns  of  Cortona  and  Perugia.  Girt 
by  hills,  it  is  10  miles  long  by  8  wide,  and  in 
some  parts  20  feet  deep.  There  is  no  outlet ; 
the  flat  and  reedy  margins  have  been  planted 
with  eucalyptus  trees.  In  1894  the  government 
sanctioned  a  scheme  for  draining  the  lake,  which 
is  memorable  for  Hannibal's  great  victory  in  217 
B.C.  over  the  Romans. 

Tras-os-Montes.    See  Traz-os-Montes. 

Trann  See.    See  Gmunden. 

Travancore,  a  protected  state  between  the 
sea  and  the  Western  Ghats  (q.v.)  in  the  extreme 
south  of  India,  bounded  N.  by  Cochin,  and  ending 
in  CapeComorin.  Area,  6730  sq.  in.  ;  pop.  (1881) 
2,401,158;  (1901)  2,951,038,  mainly  Hindus,  be- 
longing to  420  castes,  from  Brahmans  to  Negroid 
hill-men.  Nairs  are  over  25  per  cent.,  Moham- 
medans only  7.  There  are  many  native  Christians 
of  the  Syrian  rite,  and  some  black  Jews.  West- 
ward of  the  hill-foots  is  a  level  belt,  10  miles 
wide,  covered  with  cocoa-nut  and  areca  palms. 
The  lagoons  or  backwaters  along  the  coast 
Travancore  shares  with  Cochin.  Towns  are  the 
capital,  Trivandram  (pop.  57,887),  Aulapolai,  and 
Quilon.     See  a  work  by  Mateer  (1883), 

Travemiinde.    See  Lubeck. 

Travnlk,  a  town  of  Bosnia,  once  its  capital,  45 
miles  NW.  of  Sarajevo  by  rail.     Pop.  5933. 

Traz-os-Montes  ('Beyond  the  Mountains'),  a 
province  of  NE.  Portugal,  Area,  4291  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  427,360. 

Trebbia  (anc.  Trebia),  a  southern  tributary  of 
the  Po,  which  rises  in  the  Apennines.  Here 
Hannibal  routed  the  Romans,  218  b.c. 

Trebizond' (Old  Gr.  Trapezous;  mediaeval  Lat. 
Trehisonda ;  Turk,  Tarabzun),  the  capital  of  a 
province  of  NE.  Asia  Minor,  and  a  flourishing 
Black   Sea   port.    It    is    surrounded    by  walls, 


TREDEGAR 


706 


TREVES 


outside  which  are  Christian  suburbs.  The  har- 
bour is  only  a  roadstead,  but  there  is  regular 
communication  with  Constantinople,  the  mouth 
of  the  Danube,  and  the  Mediterranean.  The 
city's  silk  manufactures  are  decaying.  On  the 
capture  of  Constantinople  by  the  Crusaders  in 
1204  one  of  the  imperial  Byzantine  family, 
Alexis,  founded  the  Empire  of  Trebizond — which 
stretched  from  the  Phasis  to  the  Halys— and 
repelled  the  Turks  till  1462.    Pop.  50,000. 

Trade' gar,  a  town  of  Monmouthshire,  12  miles 
WSW.  of  Abergavenny  and  7  ENE.  of  Merthyr- 
Tydvil.  Grown  from  a  mere  village  since  1800, 
it  stands  in  a  district  rich  in  coal  and  ironstone, 
and  is  the  seat  of  huge  iron  and  steel  works. 
Pop.  (1851)  8305  ;  (1881)  18,771 ;  (1901)  18,574. 

Tregar'on,  a  Cardiganshire  town,  10  miles  NE. 
of  Lampeter.     Pop.  1575. 

Tr^guier  (Tray-ghee-yay'),  a  small  port  in  the 
dep.  of  C6tes-du-Nord,  Brittany,  the  birthplace 
of  Renan.     Pop.  2615. 

Treig  (Traig),  Loch,  a  loch  of  SW.  Inverness- 
shire,  5|  miles  long,  |  mile  wide,  and  784  feet 
above  sea-level.  Mountains,  2000  to  3658  feet 
high,  overhang  it,  and  it  is  skirted  by  the  West 
Highland  Railway. 

Treinta  y  Tres  (Tray-in-ta  ee  Trays),  an  east- 
ern dep.  of  Uruguay  (area,  3686  sq.  m.  ;  pop, 
27,773).  Its  name  commemorates  the  thirty-three 
patriots  who  revolted  against  Brazil  in  1825. 

Tremad'oc,  a  Carnarvonshire  village,  1^  mile 
WNW.  of  Portmadoc. 

Trent,  a  river  of  central  England,  the  third  in 
length,  rising  on  Biddulph  Moor,  NW.  Stafford- 
shire, and  flowing  150  miles  SE.  and  NE.  through 
the  counties  of  Stafford,  Derby,  Leicester,  Notting- 
ham, and  Lincoln,  till  it  unites  with  the  Ouse  to 
form  the  Humber,  15  miles  W.  of  Hull.  It  receives 
on  the  right  the  Sow,  Tame,  Soar,  and  Devon, 
and  on  the  left  the  Blythe,  Dove,  and  Derwent ; 
passes  Burton,  Nottingham,  Newark,  and  Gains- 
borough ;  and  is  navigable  for  barges  to  Burton 
(117  miles),  for  vessels  of  200  tons  to  Gainsborough 
(25).  Canals  connect  it  with  many  great  Midland 
towns.     See  Cassell's  Rivers  of  England  (1889). 

Trent,  a  small  lake  flowing  by  the  Trent  River 
into  Lake  Ontario.  By  this  valley  it  has  been 
proposed  to  connect  the  Georgian  Bay  of  Lake 
Huron  with  Lake  Ontario  (197  miles). 

Trent  (Ital.  Trento ;  Ger.  Trient;  Lat.  Triden- 
turn),  a  town  of  Austria,  in  the  S.  Tyrol,  on  the 
Adige's  left  bank,  145  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Inns- 
bruck and  59  N.  of  Verona.  The  cathedral,  begun 
in  1212,  is  a  beautiful  specimen  of  Lombard 
Romanesque.  The  church  of  Santa  Maria  Mag- 
giore  (15th  c.)  was  the  meeting-place  (1545-63) 
of  the  famous  Council.  Other  buildings  are  the 
former  Jesuits'  church,  ornamented  with  the 
richest  marbles ;  the  theatre ;  the  town-hall ; 
some  noble  private  mansions ;  and  the  feudal 
Palazzo  Buonconsiglio  adjoining  the  town,  now 
a  barrack.  Trent  manufactures  silks,  wine, 
pottery,  confections,  and  sugar,  and  has  a  brisk 
transit  trade.  The  population  is  now  about  25,000. 
Italian  from  1809  to  1813,  Trent  is  still  quite 
Italian  in  aspect,  language,  and  habits  ;  and  the 
restoration  to  Italy  of  it  and  the  Trentino  (d\stvict 
of  Trent),  with  Trieste,  is  the  chief  aim  of  the 
'  Italia  Irredenta '  agitation  in  Italy. 

Trentham  Hall,  the  Duke  of  Sutherland's 
Staffordshire  seat,  3  miles  S.  of  Stoke-upon-Trent. 

Trenton,  (1)  the  capital  of  New  Jersey,  is  on 
the  Delaware  River,  at  the  head  of  tide-water 


and  of  steam-navigation,  57  miles  by  rail  SW.  of 
New  York.  The  city,  divided  into  Trenton  and 
South  Trenton  by  Assanpink  Creek,  has  wide, 
straight  streets,  in  the  residence  portions  delight- 
fully shaded.  The  public  buildings  include  a 
State-house,  federal  buildings,  a  county  court- 
house, city  hall,  and  state  lunatic  asylum, 
arsenal,  penitentiary,  reform  school,  and  normal 
school.  The  Delaware,  which  is  crossed  by  two 
fine  bridges,  is  utilised  for  water-power.  Trenton 
is  the  chief  centre  in  the  United  States  of  the 
production  of  crockery  and  pottery,  but  also 
manufactures  iron,  steel,  zinc,  rubber  goods, ' 
fire-bricks,  &c.  On  December  26,  1776,  Washing- 
ton here  surprised  1500  Hessians,  and  captured 
nearly  1000,  after  crossing  the  Delaware  during 
the  night,  amid  blocks  of  floating  ice  and  in  the 
face  of  a  fierce  snow-storm.  Pop.  (1880)  29,910 ; 
(1900)  73,307.— (2)  Capital  of  Grundy  county, 
Missouri,  on  the  Crooked  Fork  of  Grand  River, 
102  miles  NE.  of  Leavenworth.    Pop.  5400. 

Trenton  Falls,  a  village  of  New  York,  on  West 
Canada  Creek,  17  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Utica, 
celebrated  for  five  beautiful  cascades,  with  a  fall 
of  nearly  400  feet  in  2  miles. 

Tresco.    See  Scilly  Islands. 

Tresilian,  a  Cornish  village,  SJ  miles  ENE.  of 
Truro.  Here  Sir  Ralph  Hopton  surrendered  to 
Fairfax  (1646). 

Treves  {Treevz;  Fr.  Treves;  Ger.  Trier),  a 
city  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the  Moselle's  right 
bank,  between  low  vine-covered  hills  of  ruddy 
sandstone,  69  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Coblenz  and 
111  SSW.  of  Cologne.  The  river  is  crossed  here 
by  an  eight-arch  bridge,  623  feet  long,  whose 
Roman  piers  date  from  25  B.C.  'A  quiet,  old- 
fashioned  town,  Treves,'  Freeman  says,  'has  a 
body  of  Roman  remains  far  more  numerous  and 
varied  than  any  other  place  north  of  the  Alps 
can  show.'  These  include  the  'Porta  Nigra,'  118 
feet  long  and  95  high  ;  the  so-called  Roman  baths 
(more  probably  part  of  an  imperial  palace) ;  and 
a  basilica  built  of  Roman  brick  by  Constantine, 
but  partly  demolished  to  make  room  for  an 
electoral  palace  in  1614.  This,  however,  was 
removed,  and  the  basilica  fitted  up  for  a  Pro- 
testant church  in  1856.  Beyond  the  walls  are  the 
ruins  of  an  amphitheatre  that  could  seat  30,000 
spectators  ;  and  6  miles  off  is  the  '  Igelsaule '  or 
'Heidenthurm,'  a  monumental  column,  71  feet 
high,  sculptured  with  bas-reliefs  of  the  2d  c. 
The  cathedral  is  an  interesting  structure,  chiefly 
of  the  11th  c.  Its  'Holy  Coat,'  which  consists 
of  '  connected  fragmentary  particles  of  material,' 
is  said  to  have  been  brought  to  Treves  by  the 
Empress  Helena,  but  is  first  referred  to  in  1106, 
and  was  not  a  source  of  revenue  till  1512.  It 
was  visited  by  nearly  two  million  pilgrims  in 
1891,  the  first  time  of  exhibition  since  1844.  Con- 
nected with  the  cathedral  by  a  cloister  is  the 
beautiful  Liebfrauenkirche  (1243) ;  and  there  is  a 
library  of  over  150,000  volumes  and  many  MSS. 
A  university  (1472)  Avas  suppressed  in  1798.  The 
manufactures  comprise  woollens,  cottons,  and 
linens.     Pop.  (1871)  21,442  ;  (1900)  43,506. 

Treves,  which  claims  to  be  1300  years  older 
than  Rome,  derives  its  name  from  the  Treviri, 
who  in  Cfesar's  time  dwelt  between  the  Meuse 
and  the  Rhine.  Their  capital,  Augiista  Trevirorum, 
seems  to  have  become  a  Roman  colony  under 
Augustus,  and  ultimately  was  a  frequent  resi- 
dence of  the  emperors,  especially  Constantine. 
Sacked  by  Attila  in  451,  it  passed  to  the  Franks 
in  463,  to  Lorraine  in  843,  to  Germany  in  870, 
and  back  to  Lorraine  in  895,  and  was  finally 


TREVISO 


706 


TRIPOLI 


united  to  Germany  by  the  Emperor  Henry  I. 
Its  archbishop  was  an  Elector  of  the  Empire. 
The  last  elector  removed  to  Coblenz  in  1786  ;  and 
Treves  was  the  capital  of  the  French  dep.  of  Sarre 
from  1794  till  1814,  since  then  belonging  to 
Prussia.  See  Freeman's  Historical  Sketches  (1S7G) 
and  Clarke's  Pilgrimage  to  Treves  (1892). 

Treviso  (Tray-vee'zo),  a  town  of  Italy,  17  miles 
N.  of  Venice.  It  has  a  Duomo  dating  from  the 
15th  c,  with  pictures  by  Titian,  the  older  Gothic 
church  of  San  Nicolo,  a  i)ublic  library  (50,000 
vols.),  and  a  line  theatre.     Pop.  34,000. 

Trlchlnop'oll,  a  town  of  Madras  Presidency,  on 
the  right  bank  of  the  Kaveri,  56  miles  from  the 
sea.  The  fort,  which  includes  the  old  town,  is 
dominated  by  gneiss  rock  273  feet  Iwgh,  on 
which  are  two  temples.  The  moat  has  been 
laid  out  as  a  boulevard,  and  the  Nawab's  palace, 
which  was  restored  in  1873,  has  been  utilised  for 
offices.  St  John's  Church  contains  the  tomb  of 
Bishop  Heber.  The  troops  are  stationed  1|  mile 
south  of  the  fort.  There  are  a  market  (1868), 
military  and  town  hospitals,  and  an  observatory. 
Cheroots  are  largely  manufactured,  also  hard- 
ware and  jewellery.  A  railway  to  Madras  was 
opened  in  1875.     Pop,   106,000. 

Trient  (Tree-enf).    See  Trent. 

Trier  (Treer).     See  Treves. 

Triermain,  a  fragment  of  an  old  castle,  near 
Bewcastle,  Cumberland. 

Trieste  (Tree-est-ay  or  Tree-est';  Slav.  Terst), 
the  most  important  seaport  of  Austro-Hungary, 
and  the  chief  trading  town  on  the  Adriatic,  stands 
at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Trieste,  an  arm  of  the 
Gulf  of  Venice,  370  miles  by  rail  SSW.  of  Vienna. 
In  1849  it  was  constituted  an  Imperial  free  city, 
and  attached  and  belonging  to  it  is  a  territory  36 
sq.  m.  in  extent.  The  old  town,  built  on  the 
slope  of  a  steep  hill,  crowned  by  a  castle  (1508- 
1680),  is  distinguished  by  its  narrow  streets  and 
black  walls.  It  contains  the  cathedral,  a  Byzan- 
tine editice  (5th-14th  c),  into  whose  walls  stones 
bearing  Roman  inscriptions  have  been  built,  and 
whose  tower  rests  on  the  foundation  of  a  temple 
of  Jupiter.  The  new  town  or  Theresienstadt, 
with  broad  rectangular  streets  and  handsome 
houses,  occupies  the  plain  that  fronts  the  sea. 
Between  these  two  divisions  runs  the  Corso,  the 
chief  thoroughfare.  The  splendid  Tergesteo  (1840), 
in  the  new  town,  contains  an  exchange  and  read- 
ing-rooms, and  the  offices  of  the  Austrian  Lloyd's. 
Trieste,  which  from  1719  till  1st  July  1891  was  a 
free  port,  has  a  very  fine  new  harbour  (1868-83). 
Th«  extensive  industries  include  shipbuilding, 
rope-making,  and  the  manufacture  of  soap, 
rosoglio,  white-lead,  leather,  &c.  Pop.  (1810) 
29,908;  (1880)  144,844;  (1900)  134,143,  nearly  all 
Catholics,  and  mostly  Italian-speaking.  Trieste 
(anc.  Tergeste  or  Tergestuvi)  was  of  importance 
under  the  Romans.  In  1382  it  passed  finally  to 
Austria.  Charles  Lever  and  Sir  Richard  Burton 
Avere  consuls  here. 

Trik'hala,  a  town  of  Greece,  in  Thessaly,  40 
miles  W.  of  Larissa,  manufactures  cottons  and 
Avoollens.  Pop.  25,000.  Trikhala,  the  Trikka  of 
Homer  with  a  temple  of  .iEsculapius,  was  ceded 
to  Greece  in  1881. 

Trim,  the  county  town  of  Meath,  on  the  Boyne, 
30  miles  NW.  of  Dublin  by  rail,  with  imposing 
ruins  of  a  12th-century  castle,  the  Yellow  Steeple 
(125  feet)  on  the  site  of  an  ancient  abbey  founded 
by  St  Patrick,  and  a  column  to  Wellington,  who 
had  his  first  schooling  here.  Close  by  are  the 
ruins  of  Newtown  Abbey  and  the  Priory  of  St 


John  the  Baptist,  and  5  miles  down  the  river  are 
the  noble  ruins  of  Bective  Abbey.    Pop.  1511. 

Trinacria.    See  Sicily. 

Trincomalee  (usu.  Trin'comalee' ;  really  Trin- 
cornah'lee),  a  seaport,  naval  station,  and  magnifi- 
cent harbour  6f  Ceylon,  110  miles  NE.  of  Kandy. 
Here  the  Malabar  invaders  of  Ceylon  built  the 
'Temple  of  a  Thousand  Columns,'  to  which 
pilgrims  flocked  from  all  parts  of  India,  but  which 
was  demolished  in  1622  by  the  Portuguese.  The 
place  was  next  held  by  Dutch  and  French  alter- 
nately, until  it  became  British  in  1795.  It  has 
lately  been  very  strongly  fortified.     Pop.  15,000. 

Tring,  a  market-town  of  Hertfordshire,  on  a 
spur  of  the  Chilterns,  2  miles  W.  of  Tring  station, 
and  31  NW.  of  London.  Situated  near  the 
Icknield  Way  and  the  Grand  Junction  Canal,  it 
has  a  good  church,  and  manufactures  of  silk, 
canvas,  and  straw-plait.  Tring  Park,  built  by 
Wren  for  Henry  Guy  (c.  1670),  is  the  seat  of  Lord 
Rothschild,  whose  son  has  here  established  an 
important  Natural  History  museum  (1892).  Pop. 
4500. 

Trinidad'  is  the  most  southerly  of  the  British 
West  India  Islands,  only  7  miles  from  the  coast 
of  Venezuela,  the  Gulf  of  Paria  (an  extremely 
safe  anchorage)  lying  between.  It  is  50  miles 
long,  30  to  35  miles  broad,  and  1755  sq.  m.  in 
area.  Three  nnountain-ridges  run  east  and  west, 
one  fringing  the  north  coast  and  reaching  3000 
feet.  The  Pitch  Lake,  near  the  village  of  La 
Brea,  is  composed  of  bituminous  matter  floating 
on  the  surface  of  fresh  water,  about  3  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, and  80  feet  above  the  sea ;  over  100,000 
tons  of  asphalt  are  obtained  hence  in  a  year. 
The  soil  is  very  rich  and  productive.  The 
climate  is  hot  and  moist,  but  not  unhealthy. 
The  chief  town.  Port  of  Spain,  is  one  of  the  finest 
towns  in  the  West  Indies  (pop.  55,000).  There  is 
another  town  called  San  Fernando  (pop.  7640). 
The  chief  products  are  cocoa,  sugar,  rum,  molas- 
ses, coffee,  cocoa-nuts,  tobacco,  bitters,  asi)halt, 
and  fruit  (exported  since  1889).  Pop.  (1871) 
109,638;  (1881)  155,128;  (1901)  255,148,  mainly 
French  (speaking  a  patois),  with  Spanish  and 
English  colonies,  and  many  East  Indian  coolies. 
There  are  54  miles  of  railway  in  the  island,  which 
with  Tobago  forms  a  crown  colony.  Trinidad 
was  discovered  by  Columbus  in  1498,  and  settled 
in  1532.  It  suffered  at  the  hands  of  the  English 
(Sir  Walter  Raleigh  in  1595),  the  Dutch  (1640), 
and  the  French  (1677  and  1690).  In  1797  it  first 
fell  to  the  British,  who  Avere  confirmed  in  it  in 
1802.  See  Avorks  by  Hort  (1865),  Wickham  (1872), 
De  Verteuil  (new  ed.  1884),  J.  H.  Collins  (2d  ed. 
1888),  and  L.  M.  Fraser  (1894). 

Trinidad,  a  small  Brazilian  island  in  the 
Atlantic,  in  20°  30'  S.  lat.,  and  700  miles  E.  of  the 
coast  of  Brazil,  reported  to  contain  pirates'  buried 
treasure.     See  Knight's  Cruise  of  the  Alert  (1890). 

Trinidad,  capital  of  Las  Animas  county, 
Colorado,  on  the  Purgatory  River,  210  miles  S. 
by  E.  of  Denver.     Coal  is  found  here.     Pop.  5523. 

Trinity,  a  northern  suburb  of  Edinburgh. 

Trinity,  a  river  of  Texas,  formed  by  tAvo  forks 
near  Dallas,  runs  500  miles  SSE.  to  Galveston  Bay. 
It  is  navigable  for  steamboats  for  over  300  miles, 
except  in  the  dry  season. 

Trip'oli  (Tardhulns),  a  province  of  the  Otto- 
man emijire,  and  the  easternmost  of  the  Barbary 
States  of  North  Africa,  stretching  along  the 
greater  and  lesser  Syrtes  (the  gulfs  of  Cabes  and 
Sidra),  is  bounded  AV.  by  Tunis,  S.  (very  A^aguely) 
by  the  Libyan  Desert  and  Fezzan,  E,— ifwe  JD' 


TRIPOLI 


707 


TROWBRIDGE 


elude  the  plateau  of  Barca  (q.v.>— by  Egypt,  and 
N.  by  the  Mediterranean.  The  area  is  roughly 
estimated  at  399,000  sq.  m.  ;  the  pop.  at  over 
]  ,300,000— Libyan  Berbers,  Moors,  and  a  few 
Arabs— with  3000  Europeans,  chiefly  Maltese, 
and  24,000  Jews.  The  Atlas  range  terminates 
here  in  two  chains  (4000  feet).  Rain  seldom  falls 
during  the  long  hot  summers,  but  the  heavy  dew 
supports  vegetation  in  favoured  spots.  The 
coast-region  (about  1100  miles  long)  is  very  fertile 
about  Tripoli  and  Mesurata,  where  tropical  fruits, 
grain,  wine,  cotton,  madder,  &c.  are  produced ; 
but  further  east,  along  the  Gulf  of  Sidra,  reigns 
sandy  desolation.  The  interior  yields  senna, 
dates,  and  galls,  and  the  carob  and  lotus  are 
indigenous.  Sheep  and  cattle,  small  horses,  and 
strong  mules  are  reared.  The  commerce  consists 
in  exporting  the  products  of  the  country  and  of 
the  interior  of  Africa  (gold-dust,  ivory,  natron, 
and  ostrich  feathers).  The  imports  (chiefly  Euro- 
pean manufactures)  have  been  declining.  Tripoli 
is  subdivided  into  four  livas  or  provinces — Tripoli, 
Benghazi  or  Barca  (q. v.),  Mesurata,  and  Gadames. 
Fezzan  is  but  nominally  attached  to  Tripoli. 
From  the  Phoenicians  Tripoli  passed  to  the  rulers 
of  Cyrenaica  (Barca),  from  whom  it  was  wrested 
by  the  Carthaginians.  It  afterwards  belonged  to 
the  Romans,  the  Arabs,  Spain,  and  the  Knights 
of  St  John,  and  after  1551,  to  the  Turks.  Of  late 
Italy  has  sought  to  extend  her  interests  here.— 
The  capital,  Tripoli  (anc.  (Ea),  lies  on  the  edge  of 
the  desert,  on  a  point  of  rocky  land  projecting 
into  the  Mediterranean.  It  is  a  typical  Moorish 
city,  with  high  walls,  beautiful  gardens,  many 
mosques,  and  several  large  churches.    Pop.  20,000. 

Trip'oli  {Tarabxilus,  or  Atrdbulus),  a  seaport  of 
Syria,  40  miles  NNE.  of  Beyrout.  In  and  around 
the  town  are  many  remains  of  antiquity  and 
traces  of  Saracenic  architecture.  Originally  an 
important  maritime  city  of  Phoenicia,  the  ancient 
Tripolis  was  taken  by  the  Crusaders  in  1104,  and 
retaken  by  the  Mamelukes  in  1289.  The  old 
town  being  in  ruins,  a  new  one  was  built  about 
5  miles  inland  on  a  spur  of  the  Lebanon  range. 
The  harbour  is  small  and  shallow,  and  the  trade 
has  mostly  shifted  to  Beyrout.    Pop.  30,000. 

Tripolit'za  (officially  Tripolis,  '  three  cities  '),  a 
town  of  Greece,  under  the  Turkish  rule  capital  of 
the  Morea,  40  miles  SW.  of  Corinth,  in  a  plain 
3000  feet  above  the  sea.  It  derives  its  name  from 
being  near  the  sites  of  the  three  ancient  cities 
Tegea,  Mantinea,  and  Pallantium.    Pop.  10,698. 

Tristan  Da  Cunha  (Coon'ya;  wi-ongly  spelt 
Tristan  d'Acunlia),  an  island  in  the  South 
Atlantic,  with  two  smaller  ones  adjoining,  lies 
midway  between  South  America  and  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  in  37°  6'  S.  lat.  It  is  21  miles  in  cir- 
cumference, rugged  and  precipitous,  rising  in  a 
central  conical  mountain  to  7640  feet.  Dis- 
covered by  the  Portuguese  in  1506,  and  named 
after  the  commander  of  the  expedition,  it  was 
occupied  by  American  sealers  in  1790-1811. 
Possession  was  taken  of  it  in  1817  by  Britain  to 
keep  watch  on  Napoleon,  then  a  prisoner  in  St 
Helena.  On  his  death  in  1821  the  soldiers  were 
withdrawn,  all  but  a  Corporal  Glass  and  two  com- 
panions, who,  with  some  whalers  founded  the 
present  settlement.  The  colony  flourished,  and  in 
1829  numbered  27  souls  ;  in  1873,  80  ;  and  in  1905, 
75.  Tlie  settlement  is  in  a  fertile  tract  to  the 
north-west,  and  is  called  Edinburgh.  Property 
(including  some  600  cattle  and  as  many  sheep)  is 
practically  held  in  common  ;  there  is  no  strong 
drink  and  no  crime  ;  and  the  natives  are  healthy 
and  long-lived,  the  oldest  acting  as  governor. 


Nearly  all  the  able-bodied  men  were  drowned  in 
December  1885  while  attempting  to  board  a  vessel. 
During  the  American  war  the  Shenandoah  landed 
forty  Federal  prisoners  here  without  providing 
for  them.  Inaccessible  Island,  20  miles  distant, 
harboured  two  Germans,  who  underwent  a  kind 
of  Robinson  Crusoe  experience  there  (1871-73). 
Nightingale  Island  lies  10  miles  farther. 

Trivandram.    See  Travancore. 

Troitsk,  a  town  of  Russia,  400  miles  NE.  of 
Orenburg.    Pop.  23,500. 

Tromso,  a  town  of  Norway,  on  the  eastern* 
shore  of  the  low,  fertile  island  of  Tromso,  which 
is  nearly  5  miles  long,  and  1^^  mile  broad.    Pop. 
of  island,  75,000;  of  town,  7000. 

Trondhjem  (Trond'yem ;  Ger.  Drontheim), 
the  third  town  of  Norway,  on  the  south  side 
of  the  long  and  narrow  Trondhjem  Fjord,  250 
miles  N.  of  Christiania  by  rail."  It  is  built  on 
undulating  slopes,  and  has  regular  and  broad 
streets,  the  houses  being  mostly  of  wood,  though 
the  building  of  new  wooden  houses  is  now  for- 
bidden by  law.  The  (fortified)  harbour  is 
capacious,  deep,  and  safe,  but  difficult  of  entry. 
The  cruciform  cathedral,  dating  partly  from  the 
13th  c,  is  of  English-Norman  architecture,  and 
unquestionably  the  most  interesting  church  in 
Norway.  A  great  fire  in  1530  destroyed  most  of 
it  except  the  richly  adorned  octagonal  choir  (late 
Gothic).  From  1818  the  place  of  coronation  of 
Norwegian  kings,  it  has  been  carefully  restored 
since  1880.  Portions  of  an  old  archiepiscopal 
palace  (Kongsgaard)  also  survive.  The  main 
emporium  of  a  wide  district,  Trondhjem  has  a 
large  trade  by  sea  and  land,  exporting  copper 
ore,  herrings,  train-oil,  timber,  &c.  It  was  the 
ancient  capital  of  Norway,  originally  called 
Nidaros,  founded  in  996,  and  became  in  1152  the 
seat  of  an  archbishop.  Its  decline  dates  from 
the  Reformation.     Pop,  38,780. 

Troon,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  of  Ayr- 
shire, 6  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Ayr  and  31  SW.  of 
Glasgow.  The  harbour,  undertaken  by  the  Duke 
of  Portland  in  1808,  and  completed  at  a  cost  of 
more  than  half  a  million,  is  protected  by  a  break- 
water 1000  yards  long.  Golf-links  were  laid  out 
in  1878  ;  and  Troon  also  has  splendid  sands  and 
good  sea-bathing.  Pop.  4850.  See  Kirkwood's 
Troon  and  Dundonald  (2d  ed.  Kilmarnock,  1881). 

Troppau  (Trop-poio),  the  capital  of  Austrian 
Silesia,  on  the  Oppa,  a  tributary  of  the  Oder,  184 
miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Vienna.  It  has  manufac- 
tures of  cloth,  beet-root  sugar,  &c.    Pop.  26,860." 

Tros'sachs,  a  wooded  defile  of  Perthshire,  8 
miles  W.  by  S.  of  Callander,  which  Scott's  Lady 
of  the  Lake  has  made  one  of  the  places  of  pilgrim- 
age of  the  world.  It  extends  1  mile  eastward 
between  Lochs  Katrine  and  Achray,  and  to  the 
north  has  Ben  A'an  (1851  feet),  to  the  south-west 
Benvenue  (2393  feet). 

Trouville  (Troo'veel),  a  popular  French  water- 
ing-place, dep.  Calvados,  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Tongues,  10  miles  SW.  of  Honfleur.  It  has 
famous  oyster  beds  and  fine  sands,  and  was  dis- 
covered by  Alexandre  Dumas.     Pop.  5627. 

Trow'bridge,  a  market-town  of  Wiltshire,  on  a 
rocky  hill  above  the  small  river  Biss,  12^  miles 
by  rail  SE.  of  Bath  and  12  SSW.  of  Chippenham. 
A  Norman  castle  at  Court  Hill  has  vanished. 
The  fine  Perpendicular  church  of  St  James  (1475) 
has  a  spire  159  feet  high  ;  Crabbe  the  poet  was 
rector  from  1814  to  1832,  and  is  buried  in  the 
chancel.  A  new  town-hall  was  opened  by  the 
Duchess  of  Albany  in  1889  ;  and  there  are  also  ^ 


TROY 


708 


TULARE  LAKE 


market-house,  public  gardens  (1884),  cottage 
hospital  (1886),  waterworks  (1873),  &c.  Trow- 
bridge has  been  a  seat  of  tlie  woollen  manufac- 
ture since  Henry  VIII.'s  reign  ;  and  superfine 
broadcloth  and  kerseymere  are  largely  manufac- 
tured.    Pop.  11,500. 

Troy,  the  city  of  Priain,  whose  ten  years'  siege 
by  the  Greeks  forms  the  theme  of  Homer's  Iliad, 
has  through  Dr  Schliemann's  excavations  (1870- 
82)  been  successfully  identified  with  the  mound 
of  Hissarlik,  in  the  Troad  (Asia  Minor),  2  miles 
from  the  Hellespont.  See  Schuchhardt's  Schlie- 
mann's Excavations  (Eng.  trans.,  1891). 

Troy,  capital  of  Rensselaer  county,  New  York, 
on  the  east  bank  of  the  Hudson  River,  at  the 
head  of  steamboat  navigation,  and  5  miles  by  rail 
above  Albany,  is  built  upon  an  alluvial  plain  3 
miles  long  and  on  the  hills  to  the  east  (the 
southernmost  known  as  Mount  Ida).  It  has  a 
marble  court-house,  the  Troy  Savings  Bank 
building,  including  a  fine  nuisic-hall,  a  high 
scliool,  the  Rensselaer  polytechnic,  and  a  R.  C. 
seminary.  Cotton,  hosiery,  paper,  stoves,  car- 
wheels,  bells,  engines,  machinery,  stoneware, 
&c.  are  manufactured,  and  there  are  foundries, 
breweries,  distilleries,  flour-mills,  and  a  number 
of  sliirt  and  collar  factories  employing  8000  girls. 
Two  bridges  cross  the  Hudson  to  Watervliet 
(pop.  12,967).  Troy  was  settled  by  the  Dutch  in 
1659,  and  incorporated  in  1816.  Pop.  (1850) 
28,785  ;  (1880)  56,747  ;  (1900)  60,651. 

Troyes  (Trwah),  a  town  of  France,  the  capital 
formerly  of  the  province  of  Champagne,  and  now 
of  the  dep.  of  Aube,  on  the  Seine's  left  bank,  104 
miles  ESB.  of  Paris  by  rail.  In  spite  of  modern- 
isations it  is  still  an  old-fashioned  place,  with 
many  quaint  timbered  houses.  The  principal 
buildings  are  the  cathedral,  a  splendid  specimen 
of  Flamboyant  Gothic,  founded  in  872,  and  rebuilt 
between  the  13th  and  16th  centuries ;  the 
churches  of  St  Urban,  the  Madeleine,  St  Pan- 
taleon,  and  St  Remi ;  the  Hotel  de  Ville  (1624- 
70) ;  and  a  public  library  with  110,000  vols,  and 
5000  MSS.  Troyes  carries  on  cotton,  linen,  and 
woollen  manufactures.  Pop.  (1872)  88,113 ; 
(1901)  51,200.  The  capital  of  the  Celtic  Tricassii, 
Troyes  was  called  by  the  Romans  Augustobona, 
later  Civitas  Tricassium,  and  then  Trecce,  whence 
the  modern  name.  Under  the  Counts  of  Cham- 
pagne it  rose  in  the  12th  c.  to  great  importance, 
and  so  late  as  1600  had  over  60,000  inhabitants. 

Trujillo  (Troo-heel'yo),  a  town  of  Spain,  the 
birthplace  of  Pizarro,  in  Caceres  province,  60 
miles  NE.  of  Badajoz.  It  manufactures  linen, 
leather,  and  pottery.  Pop.  12,500.— (2)  An  epis- 
copal city  of  Peru,  capital  of  the  dep.  of  Libertad, 
on  a  fertile  plain  near  the  sea-coast.  Pizarro 
founded  it  in  1535.  Pop.  8000.  —(B)  A  port  of 
Honduras,  on  the  north  coast.    Pop.  4000. 

Truro,  a  city  of  Cornwall,  of  which  it  is  con- 
sidered the  metropolis,  though  Bodmin  is  the 
county  town,  stands  12  miles  NNE.  of  Falmouth 
and  54  W.  of  Plymouth,  at  the  junction  of  the 
Allen  and  the  Kenwyn,  here  met  by  a  tidal  inlet, 
the  Truro  River.  The  ancient  Cornish  bishopric 
of  Truro  was  revived  in  1876 ;  the  cathedral,  a 
granite  Early  English  structure  (1880-87),  incor- 
porates a  portion  of  the  old  parish  church  of  St 
Mary's  (1518).  A  very  ancient  municipal  borough, 
Truro  returned  two  members  from  1289  till  1885. 
Pop.  11,750. 

Truro,  a  Nova  Scotian  manufacturing  town  of 
6000  inhabitants,  at  the  head  of  Cobequid  Bay, 
and  62  miles  NNE.  of  Halifax  by  rail. 

Tsad,  Lake.    See  Chad. 


Tsaidam.    See  Tibet. 

Tsaritzin,  or  Tsaryzin,  a  great  port  on  the 
lower  Volga,  in  the  province  of  Saratoff.  Pop. 
58,000. 

Tsarskoye  Selo  (Tsars-lco-yay  Say-lo;  'Czar's 
Town '),  18  miles  S.  of  St  Petersburg,  is  a  favourite 
resort  of  the  imperial  family.     Pop.  18,500. 

Tsi-nan,  a  city  of  China,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Ta-tsin  River,  100  miles  from  tlie  Gulf  of  Pe- 
chi-li,  with  large  manufactures  of  silk  and  glass. 
Pop.  250,000. 

Tsitsihar,  a  town  of  Manchuria,  on  the  Vladi- 
vostok branch  of  the  Trans-Siberian  Railway,  250 
miles  SW.  of  Aigun.     Pop.  30,000. 

Tsu,  a  maritime  town  of  Japan,  50  miles  ESE. 
of  Tokyo,  with  many  fine  temples.    Pop.  36,000. 

Tsuruoka,  a  town  of  the  main  island  of  Japan, 
70  miles  NE.  of  Niigata.     Pop.  20,500. 

Tsu-shima,  a  Japanese  island  (two  islands  at 
high  water),  40  miles  in  length,  half-way  between 
the  southern  end  of  Japan  and  Corea,  and  divid- 
ing  the  Corean  Strait  into  two  channels.  In  the 
main  channel  was  fought,  on  27th  and  28th  May 
1905,  the  great  naval  battle  in  which  the  Russian 
Baltic  fleet  under  Rozhdestvensky  was  anni- 
hilated by  Togo's  fleet. 

Tuam  (Too' am),  a  town  of  County  Gal  way,  130 
miles  NW.  of  Dublin  by  rail,  on  a  branch  of  the 
Clare.  It  is  tlie  seat  of  a  R.  C.  archbishop  and 
of  an  Anglican  bishop.     Pop.  2890. 

Tiibingen  (Tii'bing-en,  nearly  Tee'bing-en),  an 
important  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  20  miles  SW.  of 
Stuttgart  (35  by  rail),  on  a  ridge  between  the 
Neckar  and  the  Ammer.  It  is  an  old  place, 
steep  and  irregular ;  but  the  suburbs,  especially 
round  the  new  university  and  the  railway  station, 
have  wide  and  spacious  streets.  Book-printing, 
bookselling,  milling,  dyeing,  &c.  are  carried  on. 
The  university,  founded  in  1477,  had  Reuchlin 
and  Melanchthon  ainongst  its  teachers.  The 
Thirty  Years'  War  fatally  checked  its  prosperity ; 
and  it  was  not  till  early  in  the  19th  c.  that  it 
began  to  renew  its  old  standing.  Under  the  theo- 
logian Baur  (1826-60)  it  became  celebrated  as 
headquarters  of  the  '  Tiibingen  School,'  and  both 
medical  and  philosophical  faculties  are  distin- 
guished. It  has  94  professors  and  teachers,  a 
library  of  200,000  volumes  (located  in  Duke 
Ulrich's  Schloss,  on  the  hill  above  the  town,  dating 
from  1535),  and  nearly  1200  students.  Uhlaud 
was  born  and  long  lived  here.     Pop.  15,340. 

Tucson  (Tew'son),  capital  of  Pima  county, 
Arizona,  on  the  Santa  Cruz  River,  978  miles  by 
rail  SE.  of  San  Francisco,  with  some  trade  in 
woo],  hides,  stock,  and  gold-dust.  Founded  by 
the  Jesuits  in  1560,  it  was  the  capital  of  Arizona 
from  1867  to  1877.     Pop.  7530. 

Tucuman',  a  north-central  province  of  the 
Argentine  Republic,  with  an  area  of  8926  sq.  ni. 
and  a  pop.  of  257,427.  The  capital,  Tucuman, 
on  the  Rio  Sil,  723  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Buenos 
Ayres,  was  founded  in  1564.     Pop.  50,000. 

Tudela  (Too-day'la),  a  cathedral  city  in  the 
Spanish  province  of  Navarre,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  Ebro,  here  crossed  by  a  seveiiteen-arch 
bridge,  46  miles  NW.  of  Saragossa.     Pop.  9220. 

Tuge'la,  a  river  of  Natal  (q.v.)  and  Zululand. 

Tula  (Too'la),  a  town  of  Russia,  110  miles  S.  of 
Moscow  by  rail.  It  manufactures  iron  and  steel 
goods,  especially  firearms.  Pop.  111,000.— Area  of 
Tula  government,  11,954  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,432,750. 

Tulare  Lake  (r-it-kar;  Span.  pron.  Too-lah-ray}, 


TULDJA 


709 


trtjRiN 


in  Central  Califoruia,  is  33  x  22  miles,  and  has  no 
visible  outlet. 

Tuldja  (Tool'ja;  Rouni.  Tulcea),  a  Roumanian 
port  in  the  Dobrudja,  just  where  the  Danube 
divides  into  its  three  main  branches.    Pop.  21,826. 

Tull,  a  tributary  of  the  Limpopo  (q.v.),  flowing 
from  Matabeleland.  At  Fort  Tuli  the  trade-route 
and  telegraph  from  Bechuaualand  cross  the  river. 

TuUa,  a  Clare  market-town,  10  miles  E.  of 
Ennis.    Pop.  590. 

TuUamore',  the  chief  town  of  King's  County, 
Ireland,  is  situated  on  the  Grand  Canal,  59  miles 
WSW.  of  Dublin  by  rail.     Pop.  4522. 

Tulle  {Tiill,  nearly  Teel),  capital  of  the  French 
dep.  of  Correze,  at  the  confluence  of  the  Solane  and 
the  Correze,  61  miles  ENB.  of  Perigueux.  Its 
12th-century  cathedral  was  partly  demolished  in 
1793  ;  the  chief  industry  now  is  the  manufacture 
of  small-arms.    Pop.  15,250. 

Tullow,  a  market-town,  9  miles  SE.  of  Carlow. 
Pop.  1723. 

Tummel.    See  Rannoch. 

Tunbridge,  or  Tonbridge,  a  market-town  of 
Kent,  29^  miles  SE.  of  London,  stands  on  the 
Medway,  which  here  divides  into  six  streams, 
one  of  them  called  the  Tun.  A  castle,  originally 
Norman,  but  largely  rebuilt  in  1280-1300,  and 
held  successively  by  Fitz-Gilberts,  De  Clares, 
Audleys,  and  StafFords,  retains  a  fine  Decorated 
gatehouse.  The  parish  church,  also  Decorated, 
was  almost  rebuilt  in  1878 ;  and  the  grammar- 
school,  founded  in  1553  by  Lord  Mayor  Sir 
Andrew  Judd,  occupies  handsome  new  buildings 
of  1865.  Remodelled  in  18S0,  it  has  £5500  a 
year,  and  over  300  boys ;  Sir  Sidney  Smith  was 
an  alumnus.  The  manufacture  of  toys,  boxes, 
&c.,  in  'Tunbridge  ware '  (wood  mosaic  in  veneer) 
is  a  specialty.  Pop.  (1861)  5919;  (1901)  12,736.' 
See  works  by  Fleming  (1865)  and,  on  the  school, 
by  Rivington  (1869)  and  Hughes-Hughes  (1893). 

Tunbridge  Wells,  a  charming  inland  water- 
ing-place, on  the  border  of  Kent  and  Sussex,  5 
miles  S.  of  Tunbridge,  and  34^  SSE.  of  London. 
It  occupies  the  head  and  slopes  of  one  of  the 
valleys  of  the  Weald,  and  has  in  general  a  south- 
west aspect,  commanding  very  fine  views.  The 
chalybeate  waters,  at  the  end  of  the  '  Pantiles ' 
parade,  were  discovered  by  Lord  North  in  1606, 
and  have  been  patroj*sed  by  Henrietta  Maria, 
Catharine  of  Braganza,  Evelyn,  Queen  Anne, 
'  Beau '  Nash,  Richard  Cumberland,  Dr  Johnson, 
Richardson,  Garrick,  Chatham,  and  Queen 
Victoria.  There  are  a  breezy  common  of  170 
acres,  a  church  (1685)  in  two  counties  and  three 
parishes,  a  public  hall  (1870),  a  new  pump-room 
(1877),  a  friendly  societies'  hall  (1878),  and  a  con- 
siderable trade  in  '  Tunbridge  ware.'  The  season 
lasts  from  July  to  September.  Tunbridge  Wells 
was  incorporated  as  a  municipal  borough  in  1889. 
Pop.  (1851)  10,587 ;  (1901)  33,388.  See  TTiackeray's 
Virginians,  and  Martin  and  Row's  guide  (1906). 

Tundras.    See  Siberia. 

Tunguska,  a  tributary  of  the  Yenisei  (q.v.). 

Tu'nis,  a  French  protectorate  of  North  Africa, 
extending  550  miles  along  the  Mediterranean, 
between  Algeria  and  Tripoli.  Area,  45,000  sq. 
m. ;  pop.,  mostly  Beuouin  Arabs  and  Kabyles, 
1,900,000,  including  (1906)  40,000  Frenchmen, 
14,600  of  them  troops.  Mucli  of  the  surface  is 
occupied  by  hills  and,  towards  the  south,  desert 
ateppes ;  in  the  east  the  land  is  low  and  sandy. 
None  of  the  rivers  are  navigable,  most  of  them 
disappearing  in  the  sand  before  reaching  the 


coast.  There  is  one  considerable  lake  in  the 
north.  The  soil  is  largely  fertile,  producing  fine 
grain-crops ;  and  oranges,  dates,  figs,  olives, 
grapes,  pomegranates,  and  almonds  are  raised. 
The  pasturage  is  good  and  abundant,  except  in 
the  height  of  the  dry  season,  supporting  numerous 
flocks  of  cattle  and  sheep.  Tunis  is  rich  in  all 
minerals  except  gold,  and  very  beautiful  marble 
is  worked.    The  annual  rainfall  varies  from  10  to  • 

50  inches.  The  heaviest  rains  occur  in  December 
and  January.  Snow  falls  on  the  higher  altitudes, 
and  the  greater  mountain-peaks  are  always  snow- 
clad.  Although  often  trying  for  Europeans,  the' 
climate  is  not  exceptionally  unhealthy.  The 
trade  of  Tunis,  mainly  with  France,  Algeria,  and 
Italy,  is  gradually  increasing;  the  value  of  the 
imports  (about  £2,580,000  per  annum)  is  consider- 
ably above  that  of  the  exjjorts.  The  chief  imports 
are  cottons  and  textile  goods,  flour,  cereals, 
colonial  wares,  and  wines  ;  the  exports,  olive-oil, 
wheat,  tan,  esparto,  barley,  fruits,  wool,  sponges, 
and  tunny-fish.  There  are  460  miles  of  railways, 
with  over  2000  miles  of  telegraphs. 

Long  identified  with  the  fortunes  of  Carthage, 
Tunis  was  in  1270  invaded  by  Louis  IX.  of 
France,  and  in  1575  brought  thoroughly  under  the 
Ottoman  power.  The  Turkish  pasha,  however, 
was  after  1631  superseded  by  a  native  Bey,  practi- 
cally independent,  whose  successors  prospered  by 
piracy,  directed  against  the  Christian  powers. 
In  the  18th  c.  Tunis  became  tributary  to  Algeria ; 
but  in  the  19th  was  again  virtually  independent. 
In  1881  a  French  invasion  resulted  in  a  treaty 
placing  Tunis  under  French  protection.  This 
occupation  has  benefited  Tunis  and  greatly  in- 
creased the  power  of  France  in  the  Mediterranean, 
securing  many  safe  harbours,  and  lessening  the 
strategic  importance  of  Gibraltar  and  Malta.  See 
works  by  Broadley  (1882),  Graliam  and  Ashbee 
(1887),  and  Sir  H.  Vivian  (1899),  and  French  works 
by  Lanessan  (1887)  and  Poire  (1S92). 

Tunis,  the  capital,  is  situated  on  a  small 
lagoon  (El  Bahira),  near  the  south-west  extremity 
of  the  Lake  of  Tunis,  and  about  3  miles  from  the 
ruins  of  Carthage  (q.v.).  Several  of  the  mosques 
are  magnificently  decorated,  as  is  the  bey's 
palace.  The  citadel  contains  a  fine  collection  of 
antiquities.  A  channel  81  feet  broad  and  11 J 
deep  has  been  dredged  in  the  lagoon  from  Goletta 
to  Tunis,  which  in  1893  became  a  seaport.  Good 
modern  barracks  are  occupied  by  the  French 
troops.  Pop.  170,000.  See  Lallemand,  Tunis  et 
ses  Environs  i 


Tunstall,  a  market-town  of  Staff"ordshire,  4J 
miles  NNE.  (and  since  1885  within  the  parlia- 
mentary borough)  of  Newcastle-under-Lyme.  It 
has  a  town-hall  (1884),  manufactures  of  earthen- 
ware and  iron,  and  neighbouring  collieries.  Pop. 
(1811)  1677  ;  (1851)  9666  ;  (1901)  19,492. 

Turfan  (Toor'fan),  a  city  in  the  east  of  Eastern 
Turkestan  (part  of  which  is  sometimes  named 
after  it),  on  the  S.  slope  of  the  Tian-shan  Moun- 
tains and  on  a  tributary  of  the  Tarim.  Pop.  30,000. 

Turin'  (anc.  Augusta  Taurinorum;  Ital. 
Torino),  a  city  of  Northern  Italy,  formerly  capital 
of  Piedmont,  and  for  a  time  of  the  kingdom  of 
Italy,  is  situated  in  a  beautiful  plain  bounded  by 
mountains,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Po  and  the 
Dora  Riparia,  54  miles  from  the  Cenis  tunnel  by 
rail,  and  SO  NW.  of  Genoa.  It  stands  at  the 
meeting-point  of  several  great  roads  through 
the  Alps,  and  strategically  has  been  of  great 
importance.  Really  a  very  ancient  city,  it  has  a 
very  modern  appearance.  Among  its  numerous 
churches  are  the  cathedral,  originally  built  in 


TURKfiSTAN 


710 


TtTRKEY 


the  7th  c,  and  reconstructed  in  1498;  San 
Filippo,  the  finest  in  Turin  ;  La  Consolata,  con- 
taining a  Avonder-working  Madonna  ;  and  a  Wal- 
densian  temple.  On  a  hill  near  the  town  is  La 
Superga,  a  splendid  basilica,  raised  by  Victor 
Amadeus  to  fulfil  a  vow,  and  now  the  mausoleum 
of  the  House  of  Savoy  ;  its  terrace,  reached  by  a 
cable-railway,  commands  a  glorious  view.  Other 
edifices  are  the  royal  palace ;  the  Carignano 
Palace  ;  the  town-hall ;  the  university,  with  210 
teachers  and  over  2800  students,  a  library  of 
250,000  volumes  and  4000  MSS.  ;  and  the 
Accademia  delle  Scienze  (once  the  Jesuit  college). 
Among  famous  natives  were  Gioberti,  Cesare 
Balbo,  Cavour,  Marochetti,  D'Azeglio,  and  the 
French  mathematician  Lagrange.  The  manufac- 
tures include  cotton,  woollen,  and  silk  fabrics, 
carpets,  velvet  hats,  paper,  iron,  pottery,  &c. 
Pop.  (1700)  40,000  ;  (1800)  42,000  ;  (1881)  233,134  ; 
(1901)  335,656.-  Turin,  originally  inhabited  by 
the  Taurini,  was  sacked  by  Hannibal,  and  became 
a  Eoman  colony  under  Augustus.  The  capital 
afterwards  of  a  Lombard  duchy,  it  fell  in  1060  to 
the  House  of  Savoy.  It  was  held  by  the  French 
(1536-62),  and  again  taken  in  1640 ;  and  in  1796 
it  was  dismantled,  in  1800  united  to  the  French 
Republic.  In  1815  restored  to  the  House  of 
Savoy,  it  was  the  capital  of  Sardinia  till  1860,  and 
from  then  to  1865,  of  the  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Turkestan'  (properly  Toor-ke-stdhn' ;  '  the 
country  of  the  Turks '),  a  great  region  of  central 
Asia,  stretching  E.  from  the  Caspian  to  beyond 
Lob-nor  (110°  B.  long.),  and  S.  from  Siberia  and 
Dzungaria  to  Persia,  Afghanistan,  and  Tibet.  A 
lofty  tableland,  the  Pamir  (q.v.),  separates  the 
rivers  running  E.  to  the  desert  of  Gobi  from 
those  which  run  to  the  Sea  of  Aral,  and  divides 
Turkestan  into  a  western  and  an  eastern  portion. 

Western  Turkestan,  or  simply  Turkestan, 
consists  of  the  great  hollow  plain  of  the  Caspian 
and  Aral  Seas,  Avhich  occupies  its  west  and 
centre,  and  of  the  hilly  and  well- watered  districts 
formed  by  the  ramifications  of  the  Tian-shan 
Mountains  and  Hindu  Kush.  The  plain  is  com- 
posed of  deserts  of  shifting  sand,  interspersed 
with  oases,  strips  of  fertile  land  along  the  banks 
of  rivers,  and  occasional  tracts  clad  with  coarse 
thin  grass  ;  the  eastern  districts  abound  in  valleys 
of  remarkable  fertility.  The  climate  varies  on 
the  plains  from  extreme  cold  to  burning  heat ; 
in  the  eastern  highlands  the  cold  is  intense  in 
winter,  and  the  summer  is  comparatively  cool. 
The  rivers  are  the  Syr-Daria  or  Jaxartes  (q.v.), 
Amu-Daria  or  Oxus  (q.v.),  Zarafshan,  and  Murg- 
hab,  both  of  which  terminate  in  marshes.  Chief 
products  are  fruits,  grain,  cotton,  flax,  hemp, 
tobacco,  silk,  coal,  salt,  and  sal-ammoniac.  Agri- 
culture and  the  breeding  of  the  domestic  animals 
are  the  main  occupations  ;  but  cotton,  silk,  linen, 
and  woollen  goods,  shagreen,  paper  made  of  raw 
silk,  carpets,  &c.,  are  manufactured.  Western 
Turkestan  is  divided  into  Russian  Turkestan,  in- 
cluding Khokand,  now  Ferghana,  in  the  north 
and  north-east,  and  the  Tekke  Turkoman 
country,  with  Merv,  in  the  south-west ;  Khiva, 
under  Russian  influence,  in  the  west ;  Bokhara, 
in  the  east  and  centre  ;  and  Afghan  Turkestan, 
including  Badakshan  and  Kunduz,  Balkh, 
Maimaneh,  Andkhui,  and  Sir-i-pul.  The  popula- 
tion comprises  Uzbegs,  the  dominant  race, 
Turkomans  (who,  like  the  Uzbegs,  belong  to  the 
same  Ural-Altaic  stock  from  which  the  Osmanli 
Turks  of  Turkey  are  descended),  Karakalpaks, 
Kirghiz,  Sarts,  Tajiks,  Persians,  Kiptchaks,  and 
a  few  Arabs,  Hindus,  and  Jews.  Of  these  the 
Sarts  and  Tajiks,  the  original  inhabitants  of  the 


cities,  are  of  ancient  Persian  stock,  and  along 
with  the  Uzbegs,  Hindus,  and  Jews  form  the 
settled  population ;  the  Persians  are  mostly 
descendants  of  slaves  ;  the  other  races  are  largely 
nomad.  The  prevalent  religion  is  Moham- 
medanism, and  most  of  the  tribes  are  Sunnites  ; 
a  few  Shiites,  Sdfis,  and  Buddhists  are  also 
found.  Pop,  of  Russian  Turkestan,  4,888,200  ;  of 
Khiva,  800,000  ;  of  Bokhara,  1,250,000.  The  area 
of  Russian  Turkestan  is  410,000  sq.  m.  ;  of 
Khiva,  25,000;  and  of  Bokliara,  90,000.  Turke- 
stan, with  Persia,  passed  to  the  Macedonians, 
who  made  Bactria  a  Greek  kingdom,  while  the 
rest  Avas  Parthian.  Under  the  Sassanides  the 
Persian  boundary  was  again  advanced  to  the 
Jaxartes ;  but  invading  Turkish  tribes  from 
the  north-east  established  themselves  between 
the  Oxus  and  Jaxartes.  In  the  8th  c.  the 
Arabs  possessed  themselves  of  Turkestan,  Avhich 
was  overrun  by  Mongol  hordes  under  Genghis 
Khan.  Tamerlane  made  it  the  centre  of  an  im- 
mense empire,  which  stretched  from  the  Helles- 
pont to  the  frontiers  of  China,  and  from  Moscow 
to  the  Ganges.  This  period  was  the  golden  age 
of  Turkestan.  But  after  the  death  of  his  young- 
est son,  the  empire  Avas  split  up.  The  Persians, 
provoked  by  the  slave-raiding  expeditions  of  the 
Turkomans,  made  war  on  them  in  1860  and  1865  ; 
the  Afghans  took  possession  of  several  southern 
districts  in  1849-59.  In  1864  the  Russians  an- 
nexed Tashkend  ;  in  1864,  Samarcand  ;  in  1873, 
great  part  of  Khiva  ;  in  1876,  Khokand  ;  in  1881, 
Merv.  Russian  Turkestan  contains  the  provinces 
of  Zarafshan,  Semiretchinsk,  Syr-Daria,  Russian 
Kuklja,  Amu-Daria,  Ferghana.  A  railway  1000 
miles  long,  from  Krasnovodsk  on  the  Caspian 
Sea  by  Samarcand  to  Tashkand,  has  wrought  a 
great  change  in  the  economical  condition  of  Tur- 
kestan. See  Schuyler's  Turkestan  (1877),  Vam- 
bery's  works,  KralTt's  superb  book  (Paris,  1902), 
and  other  books  named  at  Bokhara,  Merv,  &c. 

Eastern  Turkestan,  known  formerly  as 
Chinese  Tartary,  is  bounded  N.  by  the  Tian-shan 
Mountains,  W.  by  the  Pamir  tableland,  and  S.  by 
the  highlands  of  Tibet  or  Cashmere.  Eastward  it 
sinks  to  the  desert  plain  of  the  Gobi,  round  whose 
western  bay  it  forms  a  vast  crescent-shaped  oasis 
4000  to  5000  feet  in  elevation,  drained  by  the 
tributaries  of  the  Tarim,  a  river  which  flows  1500 
miles  E.  into  the  desert  to  the  Lob-nor  lake. 
Canals  ramify  the  country,  but  large  areas  are 
very  unproductive  ;  and  though  there  are  numer- 
ous villages  and  towns,  some  of  them  large,  the 
total  pop.— some  600,000— is  but  thin.  The 
country  produces  gold  and  abundance  of  silk; 
and  the  inhabitants  are  skilful  in  making  gold 
and  silver  stuffs,  carpets,  and  linen,  cotton,  and 
silk  goods.  The  political  capital  is  Kashgar ;  the 
commercial  capital,  Yarkand.  Kulja  (q.v.), 
taken  by  the  Russians  in  1871,  was  reoccupied 
by  China  in  1881.  The  language  is  Turkish, 
but  there  are  also  Tajiks  of  Persian  descent. 
The  country  was  part  of  the  empire  of  Genghis 
Khan,  broke  up  into  many  petty  states  (Yarkand, 
Kashgar,  Aksu,  Khoten,  &c.),  and  became  a  prov- 
ince of  China  in  1758.  A  rising  of  the  Moham- 
medan inhabitants  took  place  in  1864,  and  under 
Yakoob  Beg  the  country  was  independent  of 
China  till  1877,  when  the  Chinese  resumed  posses- 
sion. See  Boulger's  Life  of  Yakoob  Beg  (1878), 
Lansdell's  Chinese  Central  Asia  (1894),  and  the 
reports  by  Forsyth,  Ney  Elias,  Carey,  and 
Younghusband. 

Turkey,  or  the  Ottoman  Empire,  comprises 
the  wide  but  heterogeneous  territories  really  or 
nominally  subject   to   the    Osmanli   sultan,  in 


TURKEY 


711 


TURKEY 


Europe,  Asia,  and  Africa.  These  territories, 
which  once  extended  from  the  Danube  to  the 
Cataracts  of  the  Nile,  and  from  the  Euphrates 
to  the  borders  of  Morocco,  have  been  greatly 
reduced  in  the  19th  century.  Algiers  has  be- 
longed to  France  since  1830  ;  Tunis  has  been 
French  since  1881 ;  Egypt,  though  still  tributary 
to  'the  Porte'  or  Turkish  government,  is  since 
1882  unlikely  to  be  again  a  Turkish  prov- 
ince ;  whilst  by  the  decisions  of  the  Berlin 
Congress  of  1878  the  tributary  states  of  Rou- 
niania  and  Servia  became  independent  king- 
doms, and  obtained  increase  of  territory ;  Mon- 
tenegro, also  independent,  secured  Dulcigno  and 
Antivari ;  Austria-Hungary  took  Bosnia  and  Her- 
zegovina under  its  protection  ;  Greece  absorbed 
Thessaly,  and  Bulgaria  was  created  a  tributary 
principality,  to  which  Eastern  Rouinelia  was 
addecf  in  1885.  The  result  of  these  limitations 
is  that  Turkey  in  Europe  consists  merely  of  a 
strip  of  territory  south  of  the  Balkans,  stretch- 
ing across  from  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Adriatic, 
and  including  ancient  Thrace,  Macedon,  Epirus, 
and  Illyria ;  Turkey  in  Africa  is  practically  re- 
duced to  the  regency  of  Tripoli ;  while  Turkey  in 
Asia  still  spreads  from  the  Euxine  to  the  Red 
Sea  and  Persian  Gulf,  intact,  save  for  the  cession 
of  Kars  and  Batoum  to  Russia  after  the  war  in 
1877,  and  the  transference  of  the  administration 
of  Cyprus  to  England.  The  area  and  population 
of  the  Turkish  empire  is  as  follows  (according  to 
the  inost  recent  estimates) : 
Immediate  Possessions —  Sq,  Miles.       Pop. 

In  Europe 65,350      6,130,200 

In  Asia 693,610    16,898,700 

In  Africa  (Tripoli) 398,900      1,000,000 

1,157,800  24,028,900 
Tributary  States— 

Bulgaria  and  Eastern  Roumelia 37,200  3,744,300 

Bosnia  cS  Herzegovina  (under  Austria)    19,800  1,591,100 

Crete  and  Cyprus 7,040  547,400 

Samos 180  .'54,840 

Egypt 400,000  9,821,100 

464,220    15,758,740 

Total 1,622,080    29,787.640 

By  vilayets  or  provinces,  the  population  of 
European  Turkey  is  estimated  as  follows  :  Con- 
stantinople, 1,203,000 ;  Salonica,  1,130,800;  Kos- 
soro,  1,038,100  ;  Adrianople,  1,028,200  ;  Monastir, 
848,900;  Yanina,  527,100;  Scutari  (Albania), 
294,100;  Chatalja  (Mutessarifat),  60,000.  The 
most  populous  vilayets  of  Asiatic  Turkey  are 
Broussa,  Smyrna,  Konia,  and  Sivas,  each  with  over 
a  million  inhabitants.  Of  cities  in  European 
Turkey,  Constantinople  has  1,125,000  inhabitants, 
Salonica  105,000,  and  Adrianople  81,000  ;  in  Asia, 
Damascus  has  225,000,  Smyrna  201,000,  Bagdad 
145,000,  Aleppo  127,150,  Beirut  118,800.  In 
European  provinces  under  immediate  Turkish 
rule,  Turks,  Albanians,  and  Greeks,  nearly  equal 
in  numbers,  are  70  per  cent,  of  the  population  ; 
besides  Serbs,  Bulgars,  Rouinans,  Armenians, 
Magyars,  Gypsies,  Jews,  and  Circassians.  In 
Asiatic  Turkey  tli3  Turks  come  first,  with  four 
million  Arabs,  besides  Greeks,  Syrians,  Kurds, 
Circassians,  Armenians,  Jews. 

Turkey  in  Europe,  generally  undulating,  is 
traversed  by  a  mountain-system  which  has  its 
origin  in  the  Alps,  enters  Turkey  at  the  north- 
west corner,  and  runs  nearly  parallel  to  the 
coast,  under  the  names  of  the  Dinaric  Alps  and 
Mount  Pindus,  as  far  as  the  Greek  frontier. 
This  range  sends  numerous  offshoots  east  and 
west ;  the  great  eastern  offshoot  being  the  Balkan 
(q.  V.)  range.    The  Balkans  are  no  longer  included 


in  Turkey  proper,  and  the  highest  peaks  of  modern 
European  Turkey  are  now  in  the  Despoto  Dagh 
or  Rhodope  range  (7474  feet)  and  the  Skar  Dagh 
(10,000  feet)  on  the  Albanian  frontier.  The  rivers 
of  Turkey  are  chiefly,  to  the  north  of  the  Balkans, 
the  Morava  and  numerous  other  tributaries  of  the 
Danube ;  and  to  the  south,  the  Maritza,  Karasu, 
Struma,  and  Vardar,  which  flow  into  the  iEgean, 
and  drain  Roumelia  (Macedon  and  Thrace) :  the 
Narenta,  Drin,  and  Voyutza  fall  into  the  Adriatic. 
On  the  high  lands  the  cold  is  excessive  in  winter, 
and  the  heat  of  summer  is  almost  insupportable 
in  the  western  valleys.  Violent  climatic  change, 
is,  on  the  whole,  the  rule  in  European  Turkey  ; 
but  those  districts  which  are  sheltered  from  the 
cold  winds,  as  the  Albanian  valleys  and  parts  of 
Roumelia,  enjoy  a  comparatively  equable  tem- 
perature. The  soil  is  for  the  most  part  very 
fertile;  but  owing  to  oppressive  taxation  little 
progress  has  been  made  in  agriculture.  The 
cultivated  products  include  maize,  rice,  rye, 
barley,  millet,  besides  tobacco,  madder,  and 
cotton.  The  mineral  products  are  iron  in  abund- 
ance, argentiferous  lead  ore,  copper,  sulphur, 
salt,  alum,  and  a  little  gold ;  coal  has  been 
found,  but  is  not  worked. 

Turkey  in  Asia  is  still  more  mountainous.  Tha 
two  almost  parallel  ranges,  Taurus  and  Anti- 
Taurus  cover  almost  the  whole  of  the  peninsula 
of  Asia  Minor  (q.v.)  or  Anatolia  with  their  rami- 
fications and  oftshoots.  From  the  Taurus  chain 
the  Lebanon  range  proceeds  southwards  parallel 
to  the  coast  of  Syria,  diminishing  in  elevation  in 
Palestine.  Tlie  Euphrates,  Tigris,  Orontes,  and 
Kizil-Ermak  are  the  chief  rivers.  Turkey  in 
Asia  ts  ill  supplied  with  water ;  and  though  the 
mountain-slopes  afford  excellent  pasture,  the 
plains,  and  many  of  the  valleys,  especially  those 
of  the  Euphrates,  Tigris,  and  Jordan  (in  ancient 
times  kept  very  fertile  by  artificial  irrigation),  are 
reduced  by  the  parching  droughts  of  summer  to 
the  condition  of  sandy  deserts.  The  fertile  por- 
tions produce  abundance  of  wheat,  barley,  rice, 
maize,  tobacco,  hemp,  flax,  and  cotton ;  the 
cedar,  cypress,  and  evergreen  oak  flourish  on  the 
mountain-slopes,  the  sycamore  and  mulberry  on 
the  lower  hills,  and  the  olive,  fig,  citron,  orange, 
pomegranate,  and  vine  on  the  low  lands.  The 
mineral  products  are  iron,  copper,  lead,  alum, 
silver,  rock-salt,  coal  (in  Syria),  and  limestone. 
Turkey  in  Africa  is  described  at  Tripoli  ;  see 
also  Egypt. 

The  exports  of  Turkey  include  cereals,  tobacco, 
raisins,  dried  figs,  olive-oil,  silk,  wool,  mohair, 
red  cloth,  dressed  goat-skins,  excellent  morocco, 
saddlery,  swords  of  superior  quality,  shawls, 
carpets,  dyestuffs,  embroidery,  essential  oils, 
attar  of  roses,  opium,  plum-brandy,  meerschaum 
clay,  honey,  sponges,  drugs,  madder,  gall-nuts, 
various  gums  and  resins,  and  excellent  wines. 
The  imports  are  manufactured  goods  of  all  kinds, 
glass,  pottery,  ai'ins,  paper,  cutlery,  steel,  amber, 
and  especially  cotton  goods.  The  total  annual 
value  of  exports  is  about  £14,000,000,  and  of  im- 
ports £23,000,000  ;  Great  Britain  imports  to  a 
value  of  £5,800,000,  and  exports  to  Turkey  about 
£(3,000,000.  The  principal  ports  are  Constanti- 
nople, Trebizonil,  and  Smyrna.  There  are  over 
12(59  miles  of  railway  open  in  European  Turkey, 
and  in  Asiatic  Turkey  1820  (Anatolian,  640; 
Smyrna-Cassaba,  321 ;  Bagdad  line,  125,  &c.). 

The  government  of  Turkey  has  always  been  a 
pure  despotism ;  for  the  constitution  promulgated 
in  1876  and  revoked  in  1878  was  merely  nominal. 
The  sultan  is  represented  in  all  matters  spiritual 
by  the  Grand  Mufti  or   Sheykh-el-Islam,  who 


'rURKEY 


m 


^WfiED 


en,joys  considerable  influence  as  head  of  the 
Ulema,  and  in  temporal  affairs  by  the  Grand 
Vezir  (or  Sadr-A'zain),  under  whom  are  the  mem- 
bers of  the  cabinet  or  divan.  Governmental 
crises  are  frequent;  and  palace  intrigues  have 
always  been  a  powerful  factor  in  Turkish  politics. 
The  governors  of  the  vilayets  or  provinces  are 
styled  vdlis ;  each  vilayet  is  divided  into  sanjaks, 
or  livas,  ruled  by  inferior  officers.  The  estab- 
lished religion  is  Islam  or  Mohammedanism,  but 
most  other  creeds  are  tolerated.  Since  1847 
schools  have  been  established,  and  colleges  for 
the  teaching  of  medicine,  agriculture,  naval  and 
military  science,  &c. 

Long  before  the  Russo-Turkish  war  of  1877  the 
Turkish  exchequer  was  evidently  on  the  brink  of 
insolvency.  The  enormous  expenditure  of  the 
war,  and  the  loss  of  valuable  provinces,  added 
to  the  utter  disorganisation  of  Turkish  finances. 
The  revenue  is  about  £17,000,000,  the  expenditure 
£18,000,000,  the  deficit  being  an  unfailing  feature. 
Tlie  external  debt  in  1904  was  £123,730,000, 
besides  the  balance  of  the  war  indemnity  to 
Russia  (£23,000,000).  The  navy  consists  of  6 
armoured  cruisers,  about  30  torpedo  vessels 
(various),  and  2  submarines.  The  empire  has  an 
army  of  700,000  men,  well  armed  and  fairly 
equipped.  In  case  of  war  the  total  force  of  all 
arms  could  be  raised  to  1,500,000. 

A  small  tribe  of  Turks  forced  their  way  into 
Armenia  in  the  13th  c,  and  helped  the  Seljuks 
against  the  Mongols ;  in  the  14th  c.  the  Turks 
under  Osman  or  Othman  conquered  the  Seljilk 
kingdom,  and  became  known  as  Osmanlis  or 
Ottomans.  By  1336  they  pushed  their  way  to 
the  Hellespont ;  under  Murad  I.  (Amurath)  they 
occupied  Adrianople  and  Philippopolis,  received 
homage  from  the  kings  of  Servia  and  Bulgaria, 
and  practically  held  all  the  Balkan  peninsula 
except  Constantinople,  which,  after  much  fight- 
ing, fell  before  Mohammed  II.  in  1453.  In  the 
same  century  they  conquered  Albania,  Greece, 
the  Crimea,  &c.  ;  and  in  the  16th  Syria, 
Egypt,  Tunis,  Hungary,  and  south  Russia,  and 
had  wars  with  the  Russians,  Persians,  and 
Venetians.  Their  star  began  to  decline  in  the 
17th  century ;  in  1682  they  were  driven  back 
from  Vienna,  and  lost  Hungary,  Transylvania, 
and  Podolia.  In  the  18th  century  the  Russians 
were  their  most  successful  enemies,  wresting 
from  them  the  territories  from  the  Dniester  to 
the  Caspian.  Greece  attained  independence  in 
1828,  though  Egypt  failed  to  throw  off  its 
allegiance.  The  Crimean  war  (1854-57)  was 
fought  in  aid  of  the  Turks  against  the  Russians. 
The  next  great  crisis,  after  risings  in  Herzegovina, 
Bulgaria,  and  Servia,  was  the  Russian  war  of 
1877-78.  The  worst  Armenian  massacres  were  in 
1895-96.  Turkey  held  her  own  against  Greece  in 
1897 ;  Crete  was  put  under  an  autonomous  govern- 
ment in  1898.  But  the  Macedonian  question  was 
acute  in  1903-6. 

See  works  by  Tozer  (2  vols.  1869),  Baker  (1877), 
'A  Consul's  Daughter'  (1878),  E,  L.  Clark  (New 
York,  1SS3),  Sutherland  Menzies  (3d  ed.  1883), 
Rndler  and  Chisliolm  (1885),  Laveleye  (1887), 
and  '  Odysseus '  (Sir  Charles  Elliot,  1900)  ;  also, 
for  Asiatic  Turkey,  by  Geary  (1878),  Davis  (1879), 
W.  M.  Ramsay  (1890),  and  Cuinet  (Paris,  1891) : 
see  also  other  works  cited  at  Syria,  Bulgaria, 
&c.  For  the  history,  see  Creasy  (1854)  and  S. 
Lane-Poole  (1888).  For  the  literature  of  the 
Osmanli,  written  in  Turkish,  in  which  the  original 
Ural-Altaic  dialect  has  been  modified  by  Persian 
influence,  see  works  on  Turkish  poetry  by  Red- 
house  (1878)  and  Gibb  (1882). 


Turkmanshal  (Toork'man-shl),  a  village  of 
Azerbijan,  65  miles  ESE.  of  Tabriz.  Here  Persia 
concluded  a  treaty  with  Russia  (1828). 

Tiirk's  Islands.    See  Caicos. 

Turnau  (Toor-now),  a  town  of  Bohemia,  on  the 
Iser,  64  miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Prague.  Its 
specialty  is  jewellery.  Here  on  26th  June  1866 
the  Prussians  defeated  the  Austrians.    Pop.  65U0. 

Turnberry,  a  shattered  castle  on  the  Ayrshire 
coast,  6  miles  N.  of  Girvan.  Either  it  or  Loch- 
maben  was  Robert  Bruce's  birthplace.  A  light- 
house (1874)  stands  within  the  ruined  walls. 

TTxrnlxout  (Tyrn-howf),  a  town  of  Belgium,  26 
miles  ENE.  of  Antwerp.  It  has  a  palais  de 
justice  (1371),  and  manufactures  of  cotton,  linen, 
lace,  paper,  &c.    Pop.  21,000. 

Turriff,  a  police-burgh  of  Aberdeenshire,  38* 
miles  NNW.  of  Aberdeen.    Pop.  2270. 

Turton,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  4  miles  N.  of 
Bolton.     Pop.  12,355. 

Tuscaloo'sa,  once  the  capital  of  Alabama,  55 
miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Birmingham,  with  the  state 
university  and  insane  asylum.    Pop.  5100. 

Tus'cany,  formerly  a  sovereign  grand-dnchy  in 
the  west  of  Italy,  lying  for  tlie  most  part,  but  not 
wliolly,  south  and  west  of  tlie  Apennines,  with 
an  area  of  9291  sq.  m.  Pop.  (I860)  1,800,000; 
(1901)  2,548,154.  The  north  and  north-east  of  the 
country  is  filled  with  mountains,  whence  numer- 
ous rivers  flow  down  to  the  sea,  the  most  im- 
portant the  Arno.  This  district  is  also  the 
source  of  the  Tiber  (q.v.).  The  rest  of  Tuscany 
is  an  undulating  region  of  hill  and  dale,  except 
the  coasts,  which  are  flat  and  marshy  (see 
Maremma).  Tuscany  was  first  constituted  in  its 
present  dimensions  in  1569,  when  Cosimo  de' 
Medici  became  Grand-duke.  On  August  16, 1860, 
its  national  assembly  pronounced  the  deposition 
of  the  reigning  dynasty,  and  declared  for  annexa- 
tion to  Sardinia ;  and  in  February  1861  it  was 
declared  part  of  the  new  kingdom  of  Italy. 

Tus'culiun,  anciently  a  city  of  Latium,  whose 
ruins  lie  15  miles  S.  of  Rome. 

Tuskar  Rock,  7  miles  NE.  of  Carnsore  Point, 
Wexford,  has  a  lighthouse  110  feet  high. 

Tuske'gee,  38  miles  E.  of  Montgomery  in 
Alabama,  has  a  Normal  and  Industrial  Institute 
for  coloured  persons  (1881)  under  Booker  T. 
Washington,  a  coloured  man.     Pop.  3000, 

Tutbury,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  on  the  Dove, 
6  miles  NW.  of  Burton-on-Trent,  with  the  ruins 
of  the  pre-Norman  castle  where  Mary,  Queen  of 
Scots,  was  twice  imprisoned.    Pop.  1970. 

Tuticorin',  a  port  at  the  SE.  corner  of  India, 
35  miles  E.  of  Tinnevelli  by  rail,  Avith  pearl- 
fisheries  and  R.  C.  missions.     Pop.  28,000. 

Tuttllngen  (Toot'ling-en),  a  town  of  Wiirtem- 
berg,  on  the  Daimbe,  20  miles  WSW,  of  Sig- 
maringen.     Pop.  13,500. 

Tuxford,  a  town  of  Notts,  llf  miles  N.  of 
Newark-upon-Trent.     Pop.  of  parish,  1283. 

Tver,  capital  of  a  Russian  government  at  the 
confluence  of  the  Volga  and  Tvertsa,  100  miles 
N  W.  of  Moscow  by  rail.  It  manufactures  cottons, 
hosiery,  and  nails.  Pop.  (1897)  53,477.— Area  of 
government,  25,225  sq.  ni. ;  pop.  1,815,000. 

Twat,  or  Tuat,  an  oasis  in  the  western  Sahara, 
1000  miles  SW.  of  Tripoli.    Chief  town,  Ain  Salah. 

Tweed,  the  noblest  of  Scottish  rivers,  rises  far 
up  in  Peeblesshire  at  Tweed's  Well,  1600  feet 
above  sea-level,  and  flows  97  miles  NE.,  E.,  and 
again   NE.    through   or   along    the   boundaries 


^rW£Et>MOtJTfi 


713 


TYROL 


Cf  Peeblesshire,  Selkirkshire,  Roxburghshire, 
Berwickshire,  and  Northumberland,  till  it  falls 
into  the  German  Ocean  at  Bervvick-on-Tweed. 
It  receives  the  Gala,  Ettrick  (itself  fed  by  Yarrow), 
Leader,  Teviot,  Till,  and  Whitadder  ;  is  tidal  for 
10  miles,  but  almost  quite  unnavigable ;  and 
traces  the  English  border  for  only  18^  miles,  so 
that  '  North  of  the  Tweed '  is  a  none  too  accurate 
phrase.  It  is  famous  for  its  salmon-fisheries,  but 
more  famous  far  for  its  memories  :  '  Which  of  the 
world's  streams,'  asks  George  Borrow,  'can 
Tweed  envy,  with  its  beauty  and  renown?'  For 
it  flows  by  Neidpath,  Peebles,  Traquair,  Ashie- 
stiel,  Abbotsford,  Melrose,  the  Eildons,  Bemer- 
syde,  Dryburgh,  Kelso,  Coldstream,  and  Norham 
Castle.  Merlin,  Thomas  of  Ercildoune,  and 
Michael  Scott— the  Tweed  has  dim  legends  of 
these  ;  and  its  ripple  was  the  last  sound  heard  by 
a  fourth  and  a  mightier  wizard  than  them  all, 
Sir  Walter.  See  Lauder's  Scottish  Rivers  (new 
ed.  1890) ;  and  Veitch's  Elver  Tweed  (1884). 

Tweedmouth.    See  Berwick-on-Tweed. 

Twickenham,  a  town  of  Middlesex,  on  the 
north  bank  of  the  Thames,  11^  miles  SW,  of 
London.  It  is  a  place  of  many  villas,  and  has 
been  the  residence  of  many  notabilities — Catha- 
rine of  Aragon,  Lord  Bacon,  Lord  Clarendon, 
Pope  (who  is  buried  in  the  church),  Horace 
Walpole  (Strawberry  Hill  still  remains,  although 
a  good  deal  altered),  Kitty  Clive,  several  of  the 
Orleans  family,  J.  M.  W.  Turner,  Lord  Tennyson, 
&c.  Pop.  (1851)  6254 ;  (1901)  20,991.  See  R  S. 
Cobbett's  Memorials  of  Twickenham  (1872). 

Tyldesley,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  10  miles  NW. 
of  Manchester,  with  cotton-mills  and  collieries. 
Pop.,  with  Shakerley,  14,891. 

Tyndrum  (Tine-drum'),  a  Perthshire  village, 
36^  miles  by  rail  E.  by  N.  of  Oban. 

Tyne,  a  northern  English  river,  formed  by  the 
confluence  of  the  North  and  South  Tynes,  a  mile 
NW.  of  Hexham,  and  flowing  30  miles  E.  to  the 
sea  between  Tyneinouth  and  South  Shields. 
The  North  Tyne,  some  of  whose  head-streams 
rise  in  Scotland,  11  miles  SE.  of  Hawick,  flows 
32  miles  S.  and  SE.,  and  receives  on  the  left  the 
Reed  Water.  The  South  Tyne  rises  on  Cross 
Fell,  and  flows  33  miles  N.  and  E.,  receiving 
the  Allen.  The  scenery  of  the  two  head- 
streams  is  beautiful,  with  a  wealth  of  romantic 
and  historical  associations.  The  Tyne  itself  flows 
through  the  richest  coal-mining  region  of  Britain, 
and  on  its  banks  stand  Corbridge,  Ovingham, 
Newburn,  Ryton,  Blaydon,  Newcastle  and  Gates- 
head, Walker,  Jarrow,  North  and  South  Shields. 
Its  chief  afiluents  are  the  Derwent  and  Team. 
Navigable  from  Blaydon,  8  miles  above  New- 
castle, from  that  city  to  the  sea  it  is  one  con- 
tinuous harbour.  The  salmon-fisheries  have 
declined,  but  the  shipbuilding  maintains  its 
importance.  The  multifarious  manufactures 
carried  on  on  Tyneside  (which  sadly  defile  the 
lower  course)  are  indicated  at  Newcastle.  It 
and  North  and  South  Shields  are  grouped  together 
as  the  'Tyne  ports.'  The  Tyne  is  also  famous 
among  Englich  rivers  for  its  boat-racing.  See 
works  by  Guthrie  (1880)  and  Palmer  (1881). 

TyTiemouth  (Tin'muth),  the  chief  Avatering- 
place  of  Northumberland,  9  miles  E.  of  New- 
castle, occupies  the  angle  formed  by  the  line  of 
the  coast  and  the  Tyne.  The  municipal  and 
parliamentary  borough  comprises  the  townships 
of  Tynemouth,  North  Shields  (q.v.),  Chirton, 
Cullercoats,  and  Preston.  Edwin,  King  of 
Northumbria,  founded  here,  about  627,  a  church 
of  wood ;  King  Oswald  rebuilt  it  of  atone  about 


640,  and  probably  established  the  monastery, 
which  suffered  much  from  the  Danes.  It  was 
refounded  in  1090  by  Mowbray,  Earl  of  North- 
umberland. The  remains  of  the  priory  are 
chiefly  those  of  the  church,  which  was  built 
about  1100  and  enlarged  about  1220.  The  chancel, 
whose  eastern  and  southern  walls  are  still  stand- 
ing, is  one  of  the  most  exquisite  specimens  of 
Early  English.  The  Lady  Chapel,  a  chantry  of 
the  Percies,  was  founded  towards  the  close  of 
tlie  14th  c.  Tynemouth  castle  was  built  about 
1296.  All  that  remains  of  it  now  is  the  great 
14th-century  gateway.  A  wide  road  extends  to 
Cullercoats  called  the  Grand  Parade.  The  sands 
are  nearly  a  mile  long,  and  the  cliffs  are  very 
picturesque.  The  aquarium  (1877-78)  is  now  used 
for  promenade  concerts.  The  pier,  over  ^  mile 
long,  was  built  in  1854-92.  On  the  cliff"  above  it 
is  the  lighthouse,  62  feet  high.  A  monument  to 
Lord  Collingwood,  by  Lough,  was  erected  in  1845 
on  Galley  Hill.  The  borough  returns  one  member. 
Pop.  of  township  (1881)  22,548 ;  of  municipal 
borough  (1891)  46,588 ;  (1901)  51,514.  See  Gibson's 
Monastery  of  Tynemouth  (2  vols,  1846). 

Tyningham  House  (Tin'ing-am),  Haddington- 
shire, 2|  miles  NE.  of  East  Linton,  the  seat  of 
the  Earl  of  Haddington. 

Tynwald  Hill.    See  Man,  Isle  of. 

Tyre  (Phcen.  Snr  or  Sor,  'rock'),  a  city  of 
ancient  Phoenicia,  situated  in  33°  12'  N.  lat. 
There  were  two  towns — one  on  the  mainland,  the 
other  on  the  island  opposite.  Tyre  was  a  city  on 
an  island  in  the  14th  century  B.C.,  when  it  is 
described  in  an  Egyptian  papyrus.  Explora- 
tions were  made  here  in  1874,  1877,  and  1881, 
Alexander  the  Great  made  a  causeAvay  from  the 
shore,  which  has  increased  in  breadth  to  a  quarter 
of  a  mile  by  drifting  sand.  Tyre  was  enlarged 
and  beautified  by  Hiram,  and  sustained  sieges  by 
Shalmaneser,  Nebuchadnezzar,  Alexander  (332 
B.C.),  and  Antigonus.  Cleopatra  received  Tyre  as 
a  present  from  Antony ;  but  the  last  trace  of 
independence  was  taken  from  it  by  Augustus. 
In  St  Jerome's  time  it  was  again  the  noblest  and 
most  beautiful  city  of  Phoenicia,  nay,  almost  of 
the  whole  East.  In  the  7th  c.  it  came  under  the 
Saracens,  and  so  remained  until  taken  and  held 
by  the  Crusaders  (1124-1291).  Soon  after  it  was 
destroyed  by  the  Moslems ;  a  visitor  in  1355 
found  it  a  mass  of  ruins.  About  1766  the  town 
began  to  be  rebuilt.  About  5000  inhabitants 
now  dwell  among  the  ruins.  Here  Origen  and 
Frederick  Barbarossa  are  buried. 

Tyree',  an  Argyllshire  island,  19  miles  NW.  of 
lona.  Having  a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of 
14  and  6  miles,  and  an  area  of  34  sq.  m.,  it  is  tree- 
less and  flat,  with  a  mean  elevation  of  only  20 
feet,  except,  in  the  south,  where  three  hills  attain 
400  feet.  There  are  a  score  of  fresh-water  lakes. 
Nearly  forty  Scandinavian  forts  dot  the  shores, 
and  there  are  also  a  ruined  castle,  nine  standing 
stones,  &c.     Pop.  (1831)  4453  ;  (1901)  2192. 

Tyrnau  (Teer-now' ;  Magyar  Nagy-Szombat),  a 
town  of  Hungary,  on  the  picturesque  Waag  valley 
railway,  30  miles  NE.  of  Presburg.  '  Little  Rome ' 
it  used  to  be  called,  as  residence  of  the  Hungarian 
primates ;  its  university  (1635-1774)  was  trans- 
ferred to  Pesth.    Pop.  13,830. 

Tyrol  (Tee-rolV ;  in  England  usually  called  the 
Tyrol' ;  Ger.  Tirol),  a  crown-land  of  the  Austrian 
empire,  lying  between  Bavaria,  Switzerland, 
Italy,  Salzburg,  and  Carinthia,  and  embracing 
an  area  of  10,302  sq.  m.,  to  which  is  adminis- 
tratively added  Vorarlberg  (q.v,),  1005  sq.  m., 
on  the  western  frontier.    The  province  is  tra« 


II 


Tyrone 


1U 


UGBROOKE  PARIS 


i^ersed  from  east  to  west  by  the  three  chains  of 
the  Alps ;  the  central  chain  (11,000  to  12,500  feet), 
which  is  crossed  by  the  road  over  the  Breiuier 
Pass  (45SS  feet),  separates  the  German  from  the 
Italian  side.  The  population  consists  of  Germans 
((JO  per  cent.)  and  Italians  (40  per  cent.),  and 
nmnbered  812,696  in  1890  (with  the  crownland  of 
Vorarlberj,'),  and  981,947  in  1900.  The  people  are 
noted  for  their  fidelity  to  the  Catholic  faith  and 
their  devotion  to  their  country,  but  are  some- 
what backward  in  education.  The  more  im- 
portant valleys  are  formed  by  the  Inn  (flowing  N. 
to  tlie  Danube)  and  the  Adige(S.  to  the  Adriatic). 
Pastoral  pursuits  furnish  the  chief  occupations, 
though  some  grain  is  grown,  and  considerable 
attention  is  paid  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
forests  (46  per  cent,  of  tlie  area),  of  fruit,  wine 
(5,720,000  gallons  aiuiually),  and  silkworms. 
The  mines  were  formerly  of  great  value ;  but 
little  is  now  extracted,  except  salt  (at  Hall), 
anthracite,  and  a  little  iron.  Metal  industries 
flourish  in  German  Tyrol,  cotton  manufactures 
in  Vorarlberg,  and  silk  in  Italian  Tyrol.  The 
chief  towns  are  Innsbruck,  Trent,  Roveredo, 
Brixen,  and  Bozen.  Tyrol,  the  ancient  Rhsetia, 
was  conquered  by  the  Romans  under  Augustus, 
and  occupied  afterwards  by  the  Boiardi  (Bavar- 
ians) and  Langobardi.  In  1363  its  count  be- 
queathed it  to  the  Duke  of  Austria,  and  it  has 
formed  an  appanage  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg 
ever  since,  except  during  1806-14,  a  period  made 
memorable  by  the  patriotic  resistance  of  Andreas 
Hofer  to  French  and  Bavarians.  See  Miss  Busk's 
Valleys  of  the  Tyrol  (1874). 

Tyrone  (Ti-roan' ;  Tir-Eogain,  'Owen's  coun- 
try'), an  inland  county  of  Ulster,  48  miles 
long,  with   an  average   breadth  of  28.     Area, 


including  part  of  Lough  Neagh,  1260  sq.  nl. 
or  806,658  acres,  of  which  110,000  acres  are 
barren  mountain,  72,000  bog,  32,000  water,  roads, 
&c.  The  surface  in  general  is  hilly,  and  often 
extremely  picturesque ;  the  highest  point  is 
Sawell  (2236)  in  the  NE.  Except  Lough  Neagh, 
the  numerous  lakes  are  small.  The  rivers  are 
the  Foyle,  Mourne,  Blackwater,  and  Ballinderry. 
Between  Dungannon  and  Stewartstown  there  is  a 
small  but  rich  coal-field ;  marble  is  quarried ; 
and  there  are  traces  of  iron,  copper,  and  lead. 
The  climate  is  moist,  and  the  low  lands  are  often 
flooded.  The  soil  of  the  plain  is  a  well-tilled 
fertile  loam  ;  that  of  the  hilly  districts,  sandy 
or  gravelly ;  and  there  is  much  bog.  There  are 
manufactures  of  linens,  coarse  woollens,  earthen- 
ware, whisky,  and  soap.  The  chief  towns  are 
Omagh  (the  capital),  Strabane,  Dungannon, 
Cookstown,  and  Aughnacloy  ;  Clogher  gives  name 
to  both  R.  C.  and  Protestant  sees.  The  county 
has  four  parliamentary  districts.  Pop.  (1841) 
313,011;  (1881)  197,719;  (1901)  150,567—84,404 
Catholics,  33,896  Episcopalians,  and  29,656  Pres- 
byterians. 

Tyrrhenian  Sea  (anc.  Tyrrhenum  Mare),  the 
part  of  the  Mediterranean  between  Corsica, 
Sardinia,  and  Sicily  on  the  W.  and  the  Italian 
peninsula  on  the  E. 

Tzana,  Tana,  or  Dembea,  a  great  fresh-water 
lake  on  the  high  plateau  of  Abyssinia,  south  of 
Gondar.  The  greatest  length  is  60  miles  ;  the 
breadth  varies  from  30  to  40.  It  is  the  main 
reservoir  of  the  Blue  Nile  (see  p.  508).  The  water 
is  clear  and  full  of  fish  ;  there  are  many  small 
basaltic  islands. 

Tzarskoye.    See  Tsarskoye  Selo. 


BEDA  (Oo-iay'da),  a  town  of  Spain,  26 
miles  NE.  of  Jaen.  It  contains  a  large 
castle,  and  manufactures  cloth,  soap, 
and  leather.  Pop.  20,000. 
Ucayall  (Oo-ld-ah'lee),  a  river  of  Peru, 
one  of  the  head-waters  of  the  Amazon,  is  formed 
by  the  Apurimac  and  Urubamba,  and  Avinds  more 
than  1200  miles  N.  to  the  Maranon. 

Uckfield,  a  Sussex  market-town,  on  the  Ouse, 
8  miles  NE.  of  Lewes.    Pop.  of  parish,  2800. 

Udaipur  (Oodlpore),  or  Meywar,  a  native  state 
of  Rajputana;  area,  12,861  sq.  m.  ;  population, 
1,050,000.  Tlie  capital,  Udaipur  (or  Oodeypore), 
on  a  ridge  overlooking  a  romantic  lake,  is  140 
miles  SW.  of  Ajmere;  pop.  46,000. 

Uddlngston,  a  town  of  Lanarkshire,  near  the 
right  bank  of  tlie  Clyde,  7^  miles  ESE.  of  Glasgow. 
It  manufactures  ploughs,  &c.  Pop.  (1861)  1256; 
(1901)  7463. 

Udlne  (Oodee'nay),  a  walled  town  of  Italy,  85 
miles  by  rail  NE.  of  Venice.  It  has  a  Romanesque 
cathedral,  a  beautiful  eampo  santo,  and,  on  a  hill 
in  its  midst,  a  castle,  formerly  the  residence  of 
the  patriarchs  of  Aquileia.  Udiiie  manufactures 
silk,  leather,  gloves,  &c.     Pop.  23,254. 

Ufa  (Oo'/a),  a  Russian  town,  280  miles  ESE. 
of  Kazan.  Pop.  49,300.— Ufa  government  was 
formed  in  1865  out  of  part  of  Orenburg.  Area, 
47,112  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  2,196,650. 

Uflfculme,  a  Devon  village,  on  the  Culm,  2| 
miles  NE.  of  Tiverton  Junction.    Pop.  1806. 

Uganda  (Oogan'da),  a  British  protectorate  in 
East  Africa  extending  along  the  north-west  shore 
Of  the  Victoria  Nyauza,  first  visited  (1862)  by 


Speke  and  Grant,  and  by  Stanley  called  the 
'Pearl  of  Africa.'  It  is  partly  mountainous, 
partly  undulating,  partly  a  plain,  and  very 
fertile  on  the  whole  and  well  wooded.  The 
climate  is  mild  (50^  to  90°  F.).  The  Waganda, 
about  3,000,000,  are  a  brave  and  warlike  people, 
speaking  a  Bantu  language.  At  the  request  of 
King  Mtesa,  English  Protestant  missionaries 
settled  here  in  1877,  and  French  Catholics  fol- 
lowed in  1879.  The  Christians  had  much  to 
suffer  at  the  hands  of  Mtesa's  son.  King  Mwanga, 
by  whose  orders  Bishop  Hannington  was  mur- 
dered in  1885.  The  presence  of  Arabs  and 
Mohammedanism  further  complicated  matters, 
and  intestine  struggles  were  not  long  in  breaking 
out.  Meanwhile  the  French  priests  obtained 
ascendency  over  the  king,  and  in  1892  a  war 
broke  out  between  sections  of  the  people  calling 
themselves  respectively  Protestants  and  Catholics 
(the  latter  greatly  in  the  majority).  By  the 
Anglo-Germaji  agreement  of  1887  Uganda  was 
recognised  as  within  the  British  sphere.  In  1894 
a  British  protectorate  was  proclaimed  ;  and  since 
the  treaties  in  1899-1900  tlie  protectorate  includes 
all  the  countries  between  British  East  Africa, 
Congo  Free  State,  Victoria  and  Albert  Nyaiizas. 
Its  area  is  120,000  sq.  m.,  and  tlie  pop.  is  esti- 
mated at  4,000,000.  Trade  is  being  developed  by 
the  railway  from  Mombasa,  M-liich  was  opened  to 
Victoria  Nyanza  in  1901.  See,  besides  the  travels 
of  Stanley,  &c.,  works  by  Felkin  and  Wilson 
(1881),  A.  M.  IMackay  (1890),  Casati  (1891),  Lugard 
(1893),  Portal  (1894),  Gregory  (1901),  and  John- 
stone (1902). 

Ugbrooke    Park,   Devon,   the    seat   of  Lord 
Cliflord  of  Chudleigh,  I^  mile  SSE.  of  Chudleigh. 


VGuncn 


716 


tJHION 


I 


Uglltch  (u  as  oo),  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the 
Volga,  58  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Jaroslav.  Pop.  11,183. 
Ugogo  (Oogo'go),  an  inland  province  of  German 
East  Africa,  between  Tanganyika  and  the  coast. 
Uintah  (Yoo-in'ta).  See  Rocky  Mountains. 
Uist,  North  (Oo'ist),  an  island  of  the  Outer 
Hebrides,  65  miles  SSW.  of  Stornoway.  It  is  18 
miles  long  from  \V.  to  E.,  and  3  to  13  wide.  The 
eastern  half  of  it  is  so  cut  up  by  lochs  and  water- 
courses as  to  have  the  appearance  of  an  archi- 
pelago—a brown,  peaty,  dreary  bog,  partly 
relieved,  however,  by  a  line  of  coast  hills  (1133 
feet).  The  west  part  as  a  rule  is  hilly  (1500  feet). 
Pop.  2936.— South  Uist,  36  miles  S\V.  of  Loch- 
maddy  in  North  Uist,  Benbecula  lying  between 
them,  has  a  maximum  length  and  breadth  of  22 
and  7|  miles.  Its  east  coast  is  much  indented 
by  Lochs  Skiport,  Eynort,  and  Boisdale.  The 
eastern  district  is  hill  or  mountainous  (2035 
feet) ;  the  western  alluvial  and  productive.  Pop. 
3541  crofters,  almost  all  Catholics. 

Ultenhage  (now  called  Yoot'enhaig),  capital  of 
a  district  in  Cape  Colony,  25  miles  NW.  of  Port 
Elizabeth  by  rail.     Pop  5331. 

Ujiji  (Oojee'jee),  a  town  and  district  (German) 
on  the  E.  sliore  of  Lake  Tanganyika.  The  chief 
town  is  the  terminus  of  the  great  caravan  route 
from  Zanzibar.     See  Hore's  Tanganyika  (1892). 

Ujjain  (Oojine'),  a  walled  town  of  Central 
India,  in  Sindia's  Dominions,  anciently  the  capi- 
tal of  Malwa,  and  one  of  the  seven  sacred  cities 
of  the  Hindus,  stands  on  the  Sipra's  right  bank, 
30  miles  N.  of  Indore.  Pop,  41,000. 
Ukerewe,  See  Victoria  Nyanza. 
Ukraine  (usually  Yoo'krayn;  Polish,  'frontier 
country'),  long  contended  for  by  Poland  and 
Russia,  is  now  Little  Russia  (see  p.  604), 

Uleaborg,  a  seaport  of  Russian  Finland,  stands 
on  the  UleS's  S,  bank,  on  the  E.  shore  and  near 
the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Bothnia.  It  was  founded 
in  1605,  and  nearly  all  burned  down  in  1822.  It 
has  dockyards.  Pop.  15,860.— Area  of  Uledborg 
government,  63,971  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  283,500, 

Ullapool,  a  Ross-shire  village,  on  Loch  Broom^ 
44  miles  NW,  of  Dingwall,     Pop,  700, 

Ulls'vrater,  after  Windermere  the  largest  of 
the  English  'Lakes,'  between  the  counties  of 
Cumberland  and  Westmorland,  5|  miles  SW.  of 
Penrith  and  11  ESE.  of  Keswick.  Lying  477 
feet  above  sea-level,  it  is  7^  miles  long,  i  to  § 
mile  broad,  and  205  feet  in  maximum  depth.  It 
is  divided  into  three  reaches,  which  increase  in 
beauty  and  grandeur  as  one  goes  up  it  from 
Pooley  Bridge  to  Patterdale,  a  chief  feature, 
lofty  Helvellyn  (q.v.,  3118  feet). 

Ulm  iOohn),  the  second  city  of  Wiirtemberg,  58 
miles  SE.  of  Stuttgart  and  91  WNW.  of  Munich, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Danube,  which  here 
receives  the  Blau  and  the  Iller  and  becomes 
navigable.  On  the  Bavarian  side  of  the  river  is 
New  Ulm  (pop,  7593),  Ulm  till  the  war  of  1866 
was  a  fortress  of  the  Germanic  Confederation  ;  its 
fortifications  (1842-66)  have  since  been  greatly 
extended.  The  beautiful  Protestant  cathedral, 
next  to  that  of  Cologne  the  largest  church  in 
Germany,  was  built  mainly  in  1377-1494,  It  is 
455  feet  long,  186  broad,  and  134  high  ;  the  tower 
and  open-work  spire  (530  feet,  the  highest  in  the 
world)  Avas  only  completed  in  1890.  The  splendid 
organ  (1856-88)  has  62S6  pipes.  Other  edifices 
are  the  15th-century  town-hall,  the  '  New  Build- 
ing '  (1603)  on  the  site  of  a  palace  of  Charle- 
magne'n,  and  the  Teutonic  Knights'  Commandery 


(rebuilt  1718).  Leading  industries  are  the  manU- 
facture  of  cotton,  woollen,  and  other  textiles,  of 
paper,  leather,  beer,  &c,^  and  Ulm  is  famed  for 
pipe-bowls  and  pastry.  Pop,  (1871)  26,290 ;  (1900) 
42,982,  of  whom  one-fourth  were  Catholics.  The 
Romans  had  a  settlement  here,  Ulm  was  in 
October  1805  the  scene  of  the  defeat  by  Ney  of 
General  Mack,  and  of  his  surrender  with  28,000 
Austrians,  In  1802  it  was  attached  to  Bavaria, 
and  in  1810  became  part  of  Wiirtemberg, 

Ulster,  the  most  northern  of  the  four  prov- 
inces of  Ireland,  is  divided  into  nine  counties- 
Antrim,  Armagh,  Cavan,  Donegal,  Down,  Fer- 
managh, Londonderry,  Monaghan,  and  Tyrone. 
The  north-eastern  portion,  now  Down,  was  over- 
run in  1177  by  John  de  Courci,  and  was  the  most 
permanent  seat  of  English  power  in  the  north  ; 
but  the  '  plantation  of  Ulster '  was  not  effected 
until  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  James  I,  Of 
this  gigantic  scheme  of  colonisation  the  chief 
seat  was  the  county  of  Londonderry  (q.v,). 
The  Scottish  element  has  long  been  dominant  in 
some  parts  of  Ulster,  especially  the  north-east, 
but  is  very  unequally  distributed.  The  origin- 
ally English  and  Scottish  element  varies  from  75 
per  cent,  in  Antrim  to  about  20  in  Cavan,  In 
1861  the  whole  pop,  of  Ulster  was  1,914,236 
(966,613  Roman  Catholics);  in  1871,  owing  to 
emigration,  the  numbers  Avere  1,833,228  (897,230): 
in  1881,  1,730,542(833,566);  and  in  1901,  1,582,826, 
of  whom  699,202  were  Catholics,  425,526  Presby- 
terians, 360,373  Protestant  Episcopalians.  The 
distribution  of  confessions  varies  in  different 
parts— the  Protestants  numbering  75  per  cent, 
in  Antrim,  but  only  20  per  cent,  in  Cavan,  The 
preponderance  of  Protestants  in  parts  of  Ulster 
has  led  to  diversity  of  feeling  and  aims  between 
Ulster  and  more  thoroughly  Catholic  parts  of 
Ireland ;  Ulstermen  have  offered  resolute  resist- 
ance to  Irish  Home  Rule,  Belfast  (q.v.)  is  the 
most  enterprising  town  of  Ulster  and  of  Ireland; 
flax-spinning  is  the  chief  industry  after  agriculture 

Ulundi,    See  Zululand, 

Ulva  (w  as  oo),  an  Argyllshire  island,  on  the 
W,  coast  of  Mull,  adjoining  Goinetra,  Area,  7J 
sq,  m,  ;  altitude,  1400  feet ;  pop.  71. 

Ul'verston  (locally  Ooston),  a  Lancashire  mar- 
ket-town, in  Furness  (q.v,),  near  the  influx  of 
the  Leven  estuary  to  Morecambe  Bay,  8^  miles 
NE.  of  Barrow-in-Furness  and  22  NW,  of  Lan- 
caster. It  stands  in  a  mining  and  agricultural 
district,  has  a  ship-canal  1  mile  long,  and  manu- 
factures iron,  paper,  boots,  &c.  Pop.  (1851) 
6433  ;  (1881)  10,008  ;  (1901)  10,064. 

Ulwar.    See  Alwar. 

Uman  (Oo-vian),  a  town  of  Russia,  120  miles  S. 
of  Kieff,  on  the  Umanka,    Pop.  28,630. 

Umbal'la,  or  Amba'la,  a  city  of  the  Punjab, 
150  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Delhi.  The  new  part  of 
the  town  has  straight,  wide  roads,  and  a  hand- 
some church,  club-house,  and  hotels.  It  is  an 
important  railway  junction.  The  cantonment  is 
4  miles  SE,     Pop.  (1901)  78,638. 

Umbrla,  an  ancient  division  of  Italy,  W,  of 
Etruria,  and  N,  of  the  country  of  the  Sabines, 

Umrit'sir.     See  Amritsar. 

Unalash'ka.     See  Aleutian  Islands, 

Ungava,  the  Canadian  district  that  includes 
most  of  Labrador  (q,v.)  peninsula. 

UngvAr,  a  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Ungh,  325 
miles  NE.  of  Budapest.    Pop.  14,730, 

Union,  a  town  of  New  Jersey,  on  the  Hudson, 
opposite  New  York.    Pop.  15,190. 


UNION  CANAL 


716         UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


Union  Canal,  constructed  in  1818-22,  extends 
31^  miles  W.  from  Edinburgli  to  the  Forth  and 
Clyde  Canal,  near  Falkirk. 

United  Provinces.    See  Holland. 

United  States  of  America,  the  largest  (next 
to  Brazil)  and  most  important  republic  of  the 
world,  embracing  nearly  one-half  of  the  habitable 
area  of  the  Nortli  American  continent,  and  about 
seven-eighths  of  its  inliabitants.  Its  area  is  more 
than  three-fourths  that  of  all  Europe  ;  including 
Alaska,  it  is  almost  equal  to  it ;  but  its  popula- 
tion is  less  than  one-fifth  of  that  of  Europe. 
Alaska  (q.v.)  is  rather  a  dependency  than  an 
integral  part  of  the  country,  wliich,  witliout  it, 
occupies  the  central  part  of  the  continent  from 
the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  from 
Canada  on  the  north  to  Mexico  on  the  south.  It 
lies  between  the  i)arallels  24°  30'  and  49°  N.  lat., 
and  between  the  meridians  67°  and  124°  W.  long. 
Its  greatest  length,  E.  to  W.,  is  about  2700  miles, 
and  its  greatest  Avidth,  N.  to  S.,  about  1600  miles. 
Its  total  area  is,  without  Alaska,  somewliat  more 
than  2,900,000  sq.  m.  As  compared  with  Europe 
the  coast  of  the  United  States  has  few  indenting 
bays  or  projecting  peninsulas,  though  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico  is  of  special  climatic  and  commercial 
importance.  Long  Island  Sound,  Delaware  and 
Chesapeake  bays,  Albemarle  and  Pamlico  sounds, 
the  harbours  of  Charleston  and  Savannah,  though 
not  great  geographical  features,  are  of  commercial 
importance.  On  the  Pacific,  Puget  Sound,  the 
Bay  of  San  Francisco,  and  the  harbour  of  San 
Diego,  are  almost  the  only  noticeable  breaks. 
Long  Island  is  the  largest  of  the  islands. 

The  two  great  mountain-systems  of  North 
America,  one  along  the  western,  the  other  near 
the  eastern  border,  form  the  framework  or 
skeleton  of  the  physical  structure.  In  the  east 
are  the  Appalachian  (q.v.),  from  whose  eastern 
base  a  coast-plain  extends  to  the  sea.  Narrow  in 
Maine,  the  system  grows  gradually  wider,  until 
in  North  Carolina  it  attains  a  width  of  200  miles. 
The  southern  coast-region  seldom  exceeds  100 
feet  above  the  sea.  It  has  a  sandy  soil,  and 
many  large  swamps  near  the  coast.  The  middle 
elevated  region  is  diversified  by  hills  and  valleys, 
and  has  a  productive  soil.  West  of  the  Appa- 
lachian system  and  lying  between  it  and  the 
western  highland  is  the  Central  Valley,  form- 
ing part  of  the  great  continental  depression 
which  extends  from  the  Arctic  Ocean  to  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico.  It  is  almost  an  absolute  plain, 
rising  gradually  from  the  Gulf  toward  the  chain 
of  .Great  Lakes  in  the  north,  and  toward  the 
mountains  on  the  east  and  west.  The  only 
important  departure  from  the  level  is  the  ridge 
of  the  Ozark  Mountains  (500  to  2000  feet), 
running  from  S.  Missouri  through  NW.  Arkansas. 
This  great  valley  occupies  about  one-half  the 
entire  area  of  the  United  States,  and  the  fertile 
prairies  and  bottom-lands  of  the  eastern  and 
central  portions  make  it  the  most  important 
agricultural  basin  of  the  globe.  From  an  irregular 
line  west  of  the  Mississippi  River  the  land  rises 
in  an  almost  imperceptible  slope  till  it  reaches 
the  base  of  the  western  plateau.  Much  of  this 
region,  known  as  the  Great  Plains,  has  a  light 
rainfall,  but  affords  admirable  pasturage. 

The  western  or  Pacific  system  of  mountains 
(see  America)  is  a  great  plateau  of  4000  to  10,000 
feet  surmounted  by  a  complex  system  of  ranges, 
in  its  widest  part  more  than  1000  miles  broad. 
Of  this  Cordilleran  region  the  Rocky  Moun- 
tains (q.v.)  form  the  eastern  and  the  Sierra 
Nevada  (q.v.)  and  Cascade  Mountains  (q.v.)  and 


the  Coast  Ranges  the  western  border.  In  the 
ranges  of  central  Colorado  alone  nearly  forty  of 
the  sununits  have  an  altitude  of  more  than  14,000 
feet.  In  the  Wind  River  Mountains,  in  Wyoming, 
are  the  head-waters  of  the  Colorado,  the  Colum- 
bia, and  the  Mississippi,  the  three  great  river- 
systems  of  the  United  States.  Between  the 
Wahsatch  Range  and  the  lofty  masses  of  moun- 
tains in  Colorado  is  a  region  furrowed  by  canons 
or  gorges,  whose  sides  are  nearly  vertical ;  and 
the  bed  of  the  Colorado  (q.v.)  is  in  some  places 
more  than  a  mile  and  a  quarter  below  the  surface 
of  the  plateau.  Between  the  Wahsatch  Range 
and  the  Sierra  Nevada  lies  the  Great  Basin  (see 
Great  Salt  Lake),  much  of  it  an  absolute 
desert.  The  Sierra  Nevada  and  the  Cascade 
Range  (q.v.)  are  topographically  continuous. 
Most  of  the  peaks  of  the  Sierras  are,  however, 
of  granite  and  metamorphic  rock,  while  those  of 
the  Cascade  Range  are  volcanic.  The  greatest 
altitude  is  attained  in  Whitney  (14,898  feet) ;  the 
sublimity  of  the  scenery  is  justly  celebrated  (see 
Yosemite).  From  40°  there  extends  northward 
one  of  the  most  remarkable  groups  of  extinct  or 
faintly  active  volcanoes  to  be  found  anywhere  in 
the  world  ;  the  lava  overflows  in  this  region  cover 
an  area  of  upwards  of  200,000  sq.  m.  The 
passage  of  the  Columbia  River  is  a  grand  canon 
more  than  3000  feet  in  depth.  North  of  the 
Great  Basin,  between  the  Cascade  Range  and  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  is  the  Northei-n  or  Columbian 
Plateau.  The  Shoshone  Falls  (q.v.)  of  the 
Snake  River  probably  rank  next  to  Niagara  in 
grandeur.  Between  the  Coast  Ranges  and  the 
Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  Range  is  a  series 
of  broad  valleys,  in  Oregon  that  of  the  Willa- 
mette, and  in  California  those  of  the  Sacramento 
and  the  San  Joaquin. 

Besides  the  chain  of  Great  Lakes  which  forms 
a  part  of  the  northern  boundary,  there  are  thou- 
sands of  lakes  in  the  New  England  states  and  in 
New  York,  nearly  ten  thousand  in  Minnesota,  and 
numerous  mountain-lakes  among  the  Cordilleras. 
The  peculiar  lacustrine  character  of  the  northern 
portion  of  the  United  States  is  undoubtedly  a 
legacy  of  the  glacial  period.  The  drainage  areas 
may  be  broadly  classified  as  the  Great  Lake  or 
St  Lawrence,  the  Atlantic,  the  Pacific,  and  the 
Great  Basin  or  interior  systems  of  drainage. 
The  Atlantic  system  might  be  subdivided  into 
two  classes,  one  comprising  the  streams  flowing 
directly  to  the  sea,  the  other  comprehending 
those  of  the  Central  Valley,  which  discharge 
their  waters  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Among  the 
rivers  of  the  Atlantic  slope  are  the  Penobscot, 
Kennebec,  Merrimac,  Thames,  and  Connecticut 
in  New  England,  the  Hudson,  Delaware,  Susque- 
hanna, Potomac,  James,  Roanoke,  Neuse,  Cape 
Fear,  Great  Pedee,  Santee,  Savannah,  Altamaha, 
and  St  John's.  The  Mississippi-Missouri,  with 
its  tributaries  the  Ohio,  Platte,  Arkansas,  and 
Red  rivers,  is  the  chief  stream  of  the  Central 
Valley,  and  in  length  and  extent  of  navigable 
water  it  surpasses  all  other  rivers  of  the  world. 
East  of  the  Mississippi  are  the  Mobile  and  Appa- 
lachicola,  and  to  the  west  the  Sabine,  Brazos, 
and  Rio  Grande.  The  Colorado,  the  Sacramento 
and  San  Joaquin,  the  Willamette,  and  the  Col- 
umbia are  the  chief  rivers  emptying  into  the 
Pacific.  With  its  great  extent  and  its  diversified 
topography  of  the  United  States,  there  is  every 
variety  of  climate  characteristic  of  the  temperate 
zone.  The  annual  isothermal  lines,  except  where 
they  are  influenced  by  the  two  great  mountain- 
systems,  pursue  a  fairly  uniform  east  and  west 
course  across  the  country.    A  marked  difference 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA        717         UNITED  STATES  OP  AMERICA 


is,  however,  observable  in  the  disposition  of  tliese 
lines  on  maps  representing  respectively  tlie 
summer  and  the  winter  temperatures.  The  in- 
fluence of  the  oceans  and  of  the  Great  Lakes  is  at 
once  apparent,  modifying  both  the  heat  of  summer 
and  the  cold  of  winter,  whereas  in  the  interior 
and  in  the  region  of  the  Cordilleras  the  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold  are  both  abnormal.  The  warm 
ocean  current  of  the  Pacific,  which  bathes  the 
western  coast,  produces  a  more  uniform  tempera- 
ture than  that  of  the  Atlantic  seaboard,  along 
which  flows  a  cold  polar  current.  The  annual 
range  of  temperature  is  very  great.  In  winter 
there  sometimes  exists  at  the  same  instant  be- 
tween the  northern  and  the  southern  borders  a 
diff"erence  of  120°.  In  summer  the  diurnal  varia- 
tion  of  a  single  locality  is  in  some  instances  from 
40°  to  50".  A  narrow  strip  in  the  south,  includ- 
ing the  southern  portions  of  Florida,  New  Mexico, 
and  Arizona,  has  what  may  be  called  a  tropical 
climate.  Northern  Florida,  southern  Louisiana, 
southern  Texas,  and  portions  of  New  Mexico, 
Arizona,  and  southern  California  have  a  sub- 
tropical climate.  The  sugar  and  rice  regions 
have  a  mean  annual  temperature  above  70°.  The 
tobacco  region  lies  between  the  isotherms  of  50° 
and  60°.  The  annual  temperature  of  the  great 
cotton  region  ranges  from  60°  to  68°,  and  the 
prairie  regions  devoted  to  the  raising  of  wheat 
and  other  hardy  cereals  seldom  have  an  average 
temperature  above  55".  The  rainfall  of  the 
United  States  varies  greatly  in  diff'erent  sections, 
not  only  as  to  quantity,  but  as  to  distribution 
throughout  the  year.  The  eastern  part  of  the 
country  is  well  watered.  The  western  portion, 
excepting  the  strip  between  the  Sierras  and  the 
Cascade  Range  and  the  Pacific  Ocean,  and  a  few 
limited  areas  favoured  by  some  peculiar  features 
of  topography,  has  an  insufficient  supply,  and 
agriculture  is  dependent  for  success  upon  irriga- 
tion. Between  the  two  regions  is  a  belt,  approxi- 
mately following  the  meridian  of  longitude  100°, 
in  which  agriculture  may  sometimes  be  carried 
on  without  recourse  to  irrigation,  but  which  in 
any  season  is  liable  to  suffer  from  drought.  For 
the  rainfall  of  the  Pacific  Coast,  see  California. 
The  eastern  portion  of  the  United  States  is  in 
tlie  main  well  wooded.  Forests  also  occur  in 
northern  California,  Oregon,  Washington,  Wis- 
consin, and  Minnesota  (the  scene  of  great  forest 
fires  in  1894),  and  in  northern  Idaho  and  Mon- 
tana. The  Cordilleran  region  and  the  Great  Plains 
are  treeless,  except  upon  high  plateaus  and  moun- 
tains. The  distribution  of  forests  very  closely 
follows  the  distribution  of  rainfall. 

Besides  Alaska,  there  are  fifty  political  divisions. 
Of  these  forty-five  are  states  enjoying  the  full 
privileges  afforded  by  the  federal  constitution ; 
three  are  organised  territories  not  yet  admitted 
to  statehood  ;  one  is  an  unorganised  territory 
set  apart  as  a  home  for  Indian  tribes,  and  one  is 
a  special  district  containing  the  capital  of  the 
nation.  Of  the  total  population,  96  per  cent,  of 
the  inhabitants  live  in  that  part  of  the  country 
which  is  drained  to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  more 
than  one-haif  live  in  that  drained  by  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  The  greatest  density  of  population  is  in 
the  region  having  a  mean  annual  temperature 
of  from  50°  to  55°.  From  this  maximum  the  den- 
sity rapidly  diminishes  with  the  increase  or 
decrease  of  temperature.  There  are  three  cities, 
New  York,  Chicago,  and  Philadelphia,  with  over 
1,000,000  inliabitants.  Three,  St  Louis,  Boston, 
a)id  Baltimore,  have  each  more  than  500,000. 
There  ate  thirty-two  cities  having  between 
&00,000    and    100,000;    forty    between    100,000 


and  50,000 ;  and  eighty-one  between  50,000  and 
25,000  inhabitants. 


Political  Date  of 
Divisions.      Adinissiou. 

Alabama 1819 

Alaska  Territory.. 
Arizona  Territory. 

Arkansas 18.36 

California 1850 

Colorado 1876 

Connecticut 1788 

Delaware 1787 

Dist.  of  Columbia. 

Florida 1845 

Georgia 1788 

Idaho 1890 

Illinois 1818 

Indiana 1816 

Indian  Territory.. 

Iowa 1845 

Kansas 1861 

Kentucky 1792 

Louisiana 1812 

Maine 1820 

Maryland 1788 

Massachusetts 1788 

Michigan 1837 

Minnesota 18.58 

Mississippi 1817 

Missouri 1821 

Montana 1889 

Nebraska 1867 

Nevada 1864 

New  Hampshire ..  1788 

New  Jersey 1787 

New  Mexico  Ter. . 

New  York 1788 


North  Carolina. 
North  Dakota. . .. 

Ohio 

Oklahoma  Ter.  . . . 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania  . . . . 

Rhode  Island 

South  Carolina . . . 
South  Dakota. . . . 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia  

Washington 

West  Virginia.. .. 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 


1789 


1787 
1790 
1788 


Area  in 
sq.  m. 
52.250 

.570,000 

11.3,020 
53,850 

].i8,980 

10:i,925 
4,!t90 
2,050 
70 
58,680 
59,475 
84,800 
56,650 
36,3,50 
31,400 
56,025 
8-J.080 
40,400 
48,720 
33,040 
12,210 
8,315 
58,915 
83,365 
46,810 
69,415 

146,080 
77,.510 

110,700 
9,:m 
7,815 

122,580 

52,'25fl 
70,795 
41,060 
39,030 
96,030 
45,215 
1,250 
30,. 570 
77,650 
42,050 
265,780 
84,970 
9,.565 
42,450 
69,180 
24,780 
56,040 


Pop.  in 

1900. 
1.828,697 
6:?,  592 

122,931 
1,311,564 
1,485,053 

539,700 

908,420 

184,735 

278,718 

.528,542 
2.216,a31 

161.772 
4,821,.5.50 
2,516,462 

392,060 
2,231,853 
1,470,495 
2,147,174 
1,. 381, 625 

694.466 
1,188.044 
2,805,346 
2,420,982 
1,751,394 
1,551,270 
3,106,665 

243,329 

1,066,300 

42,335 

411,588 
1,88.3,669 

19.5,310 
7,268,894 
1,893.810 

319,146 
4,157,545 

398,331 

413,536 
6,302,115 

428,556 
1,340,316 

401,570 
2,020,616 
3,048,710 

276,749 

343,641 
1,854,184 

518,103 


Pop.  per 

sq.  m. 

35-5 

01 

11 

24-7 

9-5 

5-2 

187-5 

94-3 

4645-3 

9-7 

37-6 

1-9 

861 

70-1 

12-6 

40-2 

18-0 

53-7 

30-4 

2:?-2 

120-5 

348-9 

42-2 

22-1 

33-5 

45-2 

1-7 

13-9 

0-4 

45-7 

250-3 

1-6 

152-6 

39  0 

4-5 

102-0 

10-3 

4-4 

140-1 

407-0 

44-4 

5-2 

48-4 

11-6 

3-4 

37-6 

46-2 

7-7 


2,069,042  380 

92,531  0-9 


Total . 


3,595,500      76,149,386*       25-15 

*  Including  129,518  Indians  on  Reservations  outside  of 
the  Indian  Territory,  and  91,219  persona  abroad  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States.  The  Hawaiian  Islands  Terri- 
tory (154,001),  Porto  Rico  (953,2431,  the  Philippine  Islands 
(8,500,000),  Guam  and  Samoa  (13,000),  are  also,  more  or  less 
intimately,  parts  or  dependencies  of  the  United  States. 
The  census  of  1900  does  not,  of  course,  recognise  the  incor- 
poration of  Indi.an  Territory  with  Oklahoma  (1905),  or  the 
(for  a  time  debated)  incorporation  of  New  Mexico  with 
Arizona,  promoted  to  be  a  state  (1905). 

Coal,  petroleum,  and  the  burnable  rock  gases 
exist  in  remarkable  quantities  in  the  United 
States,  particularly  in  the  region  to  the  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  The  most  important 
metallic  resources  of  the  United  States  are  found 
in  its  iron  ores,  which  exist  in  great  quantities  in 
various  parts  of  its  territory.  Copper  is  also 
widely  di.stributed,  and  so  are  lead  ores,  mainly 
in  the  form  of  galena.  Oxide  of  manganese  is 
found,  and  iron  pyrites  ;  ores  of  tin  sliow  at  many 
points,  but  so  far  not  of  commercial  value. 
Nickel  has  been  mined  in  Pennsylvania  and  in 
Oregon.  Platinum  occurs,  though  it  is  not  yet 
economically  valuable.  From  the  eastern  face 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains  westward  to  the  Pacific 
coast  deposits  of  varied  character  containing 
silver  and  gold  are  extremely  abundant.  In  fact 
this  portion  of  the  Cordilleran  region  appears  to 
be  the  richest  in  precious  metals  of  any  equgl 


I 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


718 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


area  in  the  world.  The  silver  of  this  district 
generally  occurs  in  combination  with  galena,  and 
has  thus  been  won  so  cheaply  and  in  such  quan- 
tities as  greatly  to  lower  the  price  of  the  metal 
in  the  world's  markets.  The  Comstock  lode  of 
Nevada  is  remarkable  for  its  great  width  and  the 
surprisingly  rich  though  widely  separated  pockets 
of  ores  of  gold  and  silver  which  it  afforded.  The 
building  stones  of  the  United  States  are  abundant, 
and  include  granites,  slates,  marbles,  limestone, 
sandstone ;  also  clays,  cements,  and  rich  plios- 
phatic  rocks  (for  manures).  No  valuable  precious 
stones  have  been  found  in  quantity.  The  mineral 
springs  of  the  eastern  States  exhibit  no  great 
variety.  Hot  springs  of  much  medicinal  value 
occur  at  Little  Rock,  Arkansas,  In  the  Cordil- 
leran  district  the  number  of  mineral  springs  and 
hot  springs  is  exceedingly  great.  The  country  at 
large  has  no  national  system  of  education.  By 
the  constitution  of  the  United  States  only  such 
powers  are  vested  in  the  federal  government  as 
concern  the  wliole  people.  Education  is  left  to 
the  states,  though  the  central  government  has 
contributed  greatly  to  the  encouragement  of 
schools  and  the  integration  of  systems.  The 
public  school  system  now  is  practically  co-exten- 
sive with  the  nation  ;  elementary  denominational 
schools  are  neither  numerous  nor  largely  attended. 
But  of  506  colleges  entitled  to  grant  degrees  382 
are  avowedly  denominational.  There  are  also 
(approximately)  200  superior  institutions,  inde- 
pendent of  both  church  and  state,  varying  greatly 
as  to  quality  of  work,  empowered  to  grant  degrees. 
Of  the  eight  colleges  of  the  first  class  for  women 
seven  are  private  foundations,  and  enrol  more 
than  2000  students.  Of  the  132  degree-giving 
institutions  for  women  included  in  the  second 
class  59  are  private  organisations,  and  have  an 
attendance  of  about  9000  students.  Of  the  12 
university  foundations  five  are  independent  cor- 
porations having  COOO  students.  Sixty-one  of 
the  384  colleges  for  men  alone  or  for  both  sexes 
are  private,  and  enrol  10,000  students.  In 
addition  to  these  still,  there  are  32  independent 
schools  of  science  with  8000  students.  Tlie 
schools  of  all  grades  enrol  approximately  18,000,000 
pupils.  Of  this  number  nearly  16,500,000,  or  90 
per  cent.,  belong  to  public  institutions ;  the 
remaining  10  per  cent,  to  denominational  and 
private  scliools.  Among  the  professions  medi- 
cine ranks  first  in  number  of  scliools  (281), 
theology  second  (150),  and  law  last  (100).  The 
schools  of  theology  have  nearly  7600  students, 
of  whom  over  180  are  women.  In  the  schools 
of  law  are  13,600  students,  and  in  medicine 
(including  surgery,  dentistry,  pharmacy,  and 
veterinary  science)  there  are  as  many  as  40,000 
students.  There  are  also  48  schools  of  technology, 
with  15,000  students  ;  132  colleges  for  women, 
with  23,750  students  ;  and  448  schools  for  nurses, 
with  11,600  students.  There  are  besides  schools 
for  deaf-mutes,  the  blind,  the  feeble-minded,  and 
reform  school's  for  the  wayward.  The  total 
amount  expended  on  elementary  and  secondary 
public  schools,  from  all  sources  (from  permanent 
endowments,  property-tax,  local  or  general,  &c.), 
is  over  $187,320,000;  on  the  472  universities 
and  colleges,  about  $19,000,000;  and  on  the 
48  technical  schools,  $3,550,000.  The  number 
of  teachers  in  common  schools  increased  from 
200,515  in  1S70  to  430,000  in  the  first  years  of 
tlie  twentieth  century. 

The  first  census  of  the  Union  was  taken  in  1790, 
when  it  comprised  thirteen  states  ;  in  1820  there 
were  twenty-three  states  and  three  territories ; 
ip  18(50  thirty-three  states  and  five  territories  ;  in 


1880  thirty-eight  states  and  in"ne  territories ;  In 
1900  forty-five  states  and  five  territories,  not 
including  Alaska  and  island  dependencies.  Tlie 
table  shows  the  population  of  the  republic  till 
1900  (see  p.  717). 


Year. 

Wliite. 

Free  Coloured. 

Slave. 

Total. 

1790 

3,172,006 

59,527 

697,681 

3.929,214 

1820 

7. 862, 166 

233,634 

1,538.022 

9.633.822 

1800 

2(5.922,537 

488,070 

3,953,760 

31.443,321 

1880 

43,402,970 

6,580,793 

50,155.783 

1890 

54,983.890 

7,470,040 

62,6W,?50 

1900 

67,308.998 

8,840.388 

76.149,386 

In  1900,  13-7  per  cent,  of  the  population  was 
foreign-born,  26-9  per  cent,  of  these  being  from 
the  United  Kingdom,  and  two-thirds  of  these 
again  from  Ireland.  There  is  no  state  church  in 
the  United  States,  In  1890  the  Roman  Catholics 
claimed  to  have  over  6,250,000  of  the  popula- 
tion ;  the  Methodists,  nearly  5,000,000  ;  Baptists, 
4,300,000;  Presbyterians,  1,230,000;  Lutherans, 
1,086,000  ;  Congregationalists,  492,000 ;  and  the 
Episcopal  Church,  480,000.  In  1900  there  were 
5,739,657  farms,  which  liad  a  total  acreage  of 
841,201,546.  Over  165,000,000  acres  were  under 
maize,  wheat,  and  oats  in  1904,  and  the  total 
production  was  3,914,477,000  bushels.  Potatoes, 
rye,  barley,  buckwlieat,  rice,  sugar,  cotton, 
tobacco,  hemp,  flax,  hops,  are  other  crops.  In 
1905  there  were  — cattle,  61,241,907;  sheep, 
45,170,423  ;  swine,  47,320,511  ;  horses,  17,057,702  ; 
mules,  2,888,710.  The  total  value  of  farm  animals 
exceeds  3000  million  dollars.  Tlie  total  area 
under  cotton  exceeds  27,000,000  acres,  and  the 
value  of  the  crop  amounts  to  nearly  $419,000,000. 
Tliere  are  over  1,037,000  acres  under  tobacco,  and 
the  value  of  the  crop  is  over  $55,500,000.  The 
census  for  1900  shows  an  increase  in  the  textile 
industries  over  that  of  1890  amounting  to 
nearly  $200,000,000,  the  total  value  of  the  pro- 
duct being  .$931,494,566.  The  pig-iron  industry, 
which  in  1885  produced  4,044,526  tons,  pro- 
duced in  1903  18,009,252  tons;  steel  in  the 
form  of  ingots  and  direct  castings  aggregated 
14,947,250  tons  in  1902,  against  1,711,920  in 
1885.  The  total  value  of  the  manufactured  pro- 
ducts of  the  United  States  in  1900  was  over 
$13,000,000,000.  The  minerals  (chiefly  pig-iron  and 
coal,  followed  by  silver,  anthracite,  and  building 
stone)  have  a  value  of  $1,260,500,000.  In  1903 
there  were  in  the  United  States  over  2500  miles 
of  canals  ;  of  railways,  207,977  miles ;  of  tele- 
graphs, 250,000  miles  ;  and  of  telephones,  3,500,000 
miles  of  wire.  The  value  of  lumber  is  about 
$600,000,000  a  year ;  of  the  fisheries,  $50,000,000. 
The  imports  in  1904-5  were  of  the  value  of 
$1,117,512,629,  and  on  these  duty  to  the  amount 
of  $262,060,528  Avas  paid.  The  exports  for  the 
same  years  amounted  to  $1,518,561,720.  The  chief 
trade  is  with  Great  Britain,  which  receives  more 
than  one-third  of  all  the  exports,  and  supplies 
nearly  a  fourth  of  the  imports.  The  leading  ex- 
ports are  bread-stuffs,  cotton,  meat  and  dairy 
produce,  mineral  oils,  animals,  iron  and  steel 
and  manufactures,  wood  and  manufactures,  to- 
bacco, &c.  ;  the  principal  imports,  sugar,  coffee, 
iron  and  steel  manufactures,  flax,  hemp,  .jute, 
and  their  manufactures,  chemicals,  and  woollen 
and  cotton  goods.  Foreign  commerce  of  recent 
years  has  been  carried  on  largely  in  foreign 
bottoms,  but  efforts  are  now  being  made  to  in- 
crease the  United  States  mercantile  marine.  In 
1903  there  were  registered  12,836  sailing-vessels 
of  1,965,924  tons,  and  8054  steam-vessels  of 
3,408,088  tons;  888,776  tons  was  the  burthen 
Of    all    ships    engaged    in    the    foreign   trade, 


UNITED  STATES  OF  AMERICA 


719 


UPPINGHAM 


The  navy  has  been  to  a  great  extent  reorganised, 
and  in  1905  comprised,  besides  old  vessels,  &c., 
13  battle-ships,  22  cruisers  of  all  kinds,  with  tor- 
pedo boats  and  destroyers  and  submarines,  and 
85  vessels  of  all  classes  building,  with  1254  officers 
and  41,532  men,  including  marines.  The  standing 
army  limit  was  raised  in  1901  to  100,000  men. 
The  militia  is  supposeil  to  comprise  all  men  in 
each  state,  from  eighteen  to  forty-five,  capable 
of  bearing  arms ;  the  returns  show  only  9376 
officers  and  115,627  men.  The  federal  revenue 
in  1904-5  was  $697,101,270  (an  increase  of 
$12,886,896  on  the  previous  year).  In  the  same 
year  the  expenditure  was  $720,105,498.  The  gold, 
including  reserve  and  trust  funds,  amounted  to 
$739,898,600,  and  the  outstanding  principal  of  the 
public  debt  was  $895,158,340. 

The  head  of  the  executive  of  the  United  States 
is  a  president,  who  is  commander-in-chief  of 
the  army,  navy,  and  militia,  and  exercises  a 
veto  oji  the  decisions  of  Congress.  President 
and  vice-president  are  chosen,  for  four  years, 
by  electors  appointed  by  the  several  states 
of  the  Union.  The  president  chooses  a  cabinet 
of  eight  members,  each  having  charge  of  an 
administrative  department,  but  none  of  them 
having  a  seat  in  Congress ;  the  senate  must 
approve  the  president's  choice.  The  legislative 
power  belongs  to  the  Congress,  which  comprises 
a  Senate  and  a  House  of  Representatives. 
Senators  are  chosen,  two  from  each  state,  by  the 
several  state  legislatures,  and  hold  office  for  six 
years.  The  Senate  has  the  power  of  confirming 
or  rejecting  treaties  with  foreign  powers.  The 
House  of  Representatives  is  composed  of  members 
elected  biennially  by  the  several  states,  the  fran- 
chise not  being  precisely  similar  in  all  the  states. 
Usually  the  electors  are  all  male  citizens  of  21 
years  of  age.  Wyoming,  Colorado,  Idaho,  and 
Utah  give  women  the  privilege.  The  num- 
ber of  representatives  for  each  state  is  propor- 
tional to  population  (after  the  census  of  1900,  in 
the  proportion  of  one  for  194,000  inhabitants). 
The  territories  send  delegates  who  may  speak  but 
do  not  vote.  Senators  and  representatives  have  a 
salary  of  $5000,  with  travelling  expenses.  Each 
state  in  the  Union  has  its  own  constitution, 
which  provides  for  a  governor,  legislature  of  two 
houses,  and  distinct  judicial  system.  The  details 
vary  considerably  in  the  various  states,  but  are 
analogous  to  the  constitution  of  the  Union.  The 
state  legislature  is  supreme  in  all  matters  except 
those  reserved  for  the  Federal  government. 

The  first  settlements  in  North  America  north 
of  Mexico  were  made  by  the  Spaniards  in  Florida 
and  the  French  on  the  banks  of  the  St  Lawrence. 
In  1607  the  Virginia  Company  settled  the  first 
pei-manent  English  colony  at  Jamestown  in  Vir- 
ginia. The  Pilgrim  Fathers  arrived  at  New  Ply- 
mouth in  1620 ;  ten  years  later  the  colony  of  Massa- 
chusetts was  established ;  and  in  1643  Massa- 
chusetts, New  Plymouth,  Connecticut,  and  New 
Haven  constituted  the  United  Colonies  of  New 
England.  Maryland,  Carolina,  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania  were  formed  ;  and  when  in 
1732  Georgia  was  founded,  the  coast  was  pretty 
well  occupied  by  English  colonies.  The  English 
area  was  enormously  increased  after  the  great 
struggle  with  France  (1690-1763),  when  in  1763, 
by  the  peace  of  Paris,  France  gave  up  all  her 
claims  to  Canada  and  all  lands  east  of  the  Missis- 
sippi and  north  of  Florida.  Spain  also  ceded 
most  of  her  holdings.  In  the  great  reA'olutionary 
struggle  which  followed  on  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  (1776)  there  were  thirteen  states, 
\\iQ  western  boundary  of  the  colonies  being  practi- 


cally the  Alleghanies ;  by  the  peace  of  1783  the 
United  States  acquired  all  the  land  westwards  to 
the  Mississippi.  In  1S03,  by  the  '  Louisiana  Pur- 
chase,' the  western  part  of  the  basin  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi passed  to  the  republic.  In  1819  Florida 
became  part  of  the  national  territory.  Texas  was 
annexed  in  1845 ;  New  Mexico,  part  of  Arizona, 
and  California  were  added  in  1848.  In  1787  it 
had  been  fixed  that  no  states  north  of  the  Ohio 
should  be  slave-holding  states.  At  all  extensions 
of  area  there  had  arisen  fierce  struggles  between 
those  favourable  and  those  hostile  to  the  increase 
of  the  slave-holding  area.  The  great  question  was 
finally  settled  by  the  civil  war  of  1861-65,  when 
the  southern  states  of  Virginia,  North  and  South 
Carolina,  Georgia,  Florida,  Alabama,  Tennessee, 
Mississippi,  Arkansas,  Louisiana,  were  overcome 
by  the  Union.  In  1867  the  United  States  pur- 
chased Alaska  from  Russia,  and  the  boundary 
dispute  with  Britain  was  settled  in  1903.  The 
war  with  Spain  in  1888-89  resulted  in  the  loss  to 
Spain  of  Cuba,  and  in  the  Philippine  Islands, 
Porto  Rico,  and  Guam  (Caroline  Islands)  being 
made  dependencies  of  the  States  ;  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  (1889)  and  Samoa  (1900)  have  also  been 
added. 

See  America  and  the  articles  on  tlie  several 
states  ;  the  U.S.  census  reports ;  North  America 
in  'Stanford's  Compendium.'  by  Hayden  and  Sel- 
wyn ;  Shaler's  Geography  of  North  America ; 
works  on  the  resources  and  industries  of  the  U.S., 
by  Bishop  (1864),  Bolles  (1881),  Patton  (1888) ; 
works  on  the  constitution,  by  Story,  Kent, 
Wharton,  Curtis,  Cooley,  De  Tocqueville,  and 
Bryce  ;  histories  of  the  literature,  by  Tyler  (1878), 
Nichol  (1882),  Richardson  (1888);  and  general 
histories  by  Gay,  Bryant,  Macmaster,  Hildreth, 
Doyle,  Payne,  Goldwin  Smith  (1894),  and  others. 

Unna  (Oon'na),  a  Prussian  town  of  Westphalia, 
15  miles  E.  of  Dortmund.  Near  by  are  the  famous 
Konigsborn  salt-works.    Pop.  14,950. 

Unst,  an  island  in  the  extreme  north  of  Shet- 
land, 38  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Lerwick.  It  is  12^ 
miles  long,  2  to  6  miles  wide,  934  feet  high,  and 
46|  sq.  m.  in  area.     Pop.  1940. 

Unterwalden  (Oonterval'den),  one  of  the  four 
'  Forest  Cantons '  of  Switzerland,  forms  part  of 
the  liill  country  round  the  Lake  of  Lucerne ; 
area,  295  sq.  m. ;  population,  30,000.  It  is  divided 
into  two  parts,  Upper  and  Lower ;  the  capital  of 
the  Obwald  is  Sarnen,  and  of  the  Nidwald  Stanz. 
See  Sowerby's  Forest  Cantons  (1892). 

Unyanyem'be  (^t  as  oo),  a  district  of  Gennan 
East  Africa,  between  Tanganyika  and  the  coast. 

Unyo'ro  (u  as  oo),  a  state  of  Central  Africa 
between  Uganda  and  the  Albert  Nyanza,  with  a 
pop.  of  1,500,000,  who  are  more  uncultured  than 
their  neighbours  and  kinsmen  of  Uganda. 

Uper'nivik.    See  Greenland. 

Uphall,  the  parish  containing  Broxburn  (q.v.). 

Upholland,  a  Lancashire  town,  4  miles  W.  of 
Wigan.     Pop.  4773. 

Upolu  (fio'poloo).    See  Samoa. 

Uppingham,  a  market  town  of  Rutland,  2^ 
miles  WNW.  of  Seaton  by  a  branch-line  (1894), 
12  SW.  of  Stamford,  and  83  NNW.  of  London. 
The  parish  church,  of  which  Jeremy  Taylor  was 
rector,  was  mainly  rebuilt  in  1861 ;  but  the  feature 
of  Uppingham  is  its  public  school,  founded  in 
1584  by  Archdeacon  Robert  Johnson  (1540-1625). 
With  an  endowment  of  only  £1000  a  year,  it  owes 
its  development  from  a  mere  grammar-school  to 
Edward  Thring,  its  headmaster  from  1853  to 
1887.    He  found  it  with  only  25  boarders,  an4 


UPSALA 


720 


URUMTSI 


left  it  with  330 ;  and  to  him  was  dne  the  build- 
ing of  the  great  schoolroom,  chapel,  gymnasium, 
swimming-bath,  &c.  Pop.  2559,  See  the  Century 
Magazine  for  September  1888. 

Upsala  (popsdh'la),  the  historic  centre  of 
ancient  Sweden,  stands  on  a  little  stream  that 
runs  down  to  Lake  Malar,  41  miles  by  rail  N.  by 
W.  of  Stockholm.  Its  existing  importance  is  due 
to  its  being  the  seat  of  Sweden's  only  archbishop, 
and  of  the  principal  university.  The  Gotliic 
brick  cathedral  was  founded  in  1289,  completed 
in  1435,  partly  burned  down  in  1702,  and  only 
partly  restored.  It  contains  the  tombs  of 
Linnaeus  and  Gustavus  Vasa  and  some  other 
Swedish  kings.  The  university,  founded  in  1477, 
though  new  buildings  were  erected  in  1877,  is 
attended  by  1400  students,  and  possesses  a  library 
(1620)  of  300,000  volumes  and  10,000  MSS  ,  an 
observatory,  botanical  garden,  &c.  In  the  older 
town,  around  which  on  E.  and  N.  new  suburbs 
have  been  built,  there  stands  the  castle  of 
Gustavus  Vasa  (1548).  Pop.  23,800.  About  3 
miles  NE.  lies  Old  Upsala,  where  are  three  vast 
tumuli  of  the  ancient  legendary  kings ;  and  4 
miles  SE.  are  the  Mora  stones,  on  which  the  old 
kings  used  to  take  the  oaths  of  good  governance. 

Upton-on-Severn,  a  Worcestershire  town,  5J 
miles  NNW.  of  Tewkesbury.    Pop.  2220. 

Ural  (Ooral),  'a  river  of  Russia,  rises  on  the  E. 
side  of  the  Urals  in  Orenburg  government,  and 
runs  1450  miles  SSW.  to  the  Caspian,  being 
practically  the  boundary  between  Europe  and 
Asia.   For  the  Ural  Mountains,  see  Russia,  p.  603. 

Uralsk  (Ooralsk),  a  Russian  town,  on  the  Ural's 
right  bank,  280  miles  N.  of  its  mouth  in  the 
Caspian  Sea.  Pop.  40,000.— Area  of  Uralsk  govern- 
ment, 139,168  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  692,500. 

Urban'a,  capital  of  Champaign  county,  Ohio, 
95  miles  NNE.  of  Cincinnati.  It  manufactures 
woollens,  carriages,  glue,  &c.    Pop.  6810. 

Urbino  (Oorbee'no;  anc.  Urhinum  Hortense),  a 
city  of  Central  Italy,  nestling  among  wooded  hills, 
between  the  rivers  Foglia  and  Metauro,  29  miles 
from  Faro  station  (97  miles  by  rail  SE.  of 
Bologna).  It  is  a  town  of  narrow,  tortuous 
streets,  with  an  archbishop's  cathedral ;  a  magnifi- 
cent ducal  palace  (1447 ;  restored,  and  now  hous- 
ing the  line  art  institution);  a  free  university 
(1564)  with  some  90  students ;  and  the  house  in 
which  Raphael  was  born,  now  the  town  museum. 
Urbino  was  the  seat  of  a  line  of  independent 
dukes  from  1474  to  1631.     Pop.  (commune)  18,300. 

Ure,  a  river  in  the  North  Riding  of  Yorkshire, 
flowing  50  miles  E.  and  SB.  till  at  Myton  it  joins 
the  Swale  to  form  the  Ouse. 

Urfa,  a  modern  name  for  Edessa  (q.v.). 

Urga  (Oorga),  the  religious  capital  of  Mongolia, 
on  the  river  Tola,  180  miles  SE.  of  Kiachta,  on 
the  trade-route  to  Peking.  Its  college  of  Mon- 
golian priests  is  the  seat  of  the  Bogdan  or  Lama 
of  the  Mongols.  Pop.  (partly  living  in  tents  out- 
side the  city  proper)  30,000,  of  whom  6000  or 
7000  are  Chinese. 

Urgel  (or  Seo  de  Urgel ;  Oor-hel),  a  town  in  the 
Catalonian  province  of  Lerida,  at  the  foot  of  the 
Pyrenees.    Pop.  2835.    See  Andorra. 

Urgenj.     See  Khiva. 

Uri  (Ooree),  one  of  the  'Forest  Cantons'  of 
Switzerland,  forms  part  of  the  hill  country  which 
surrounds  the  Lake  of  Lucerne  ;  area,  416  sq.  m. ; 
population,  20,000.  It  consists  of  tlie  Reuss's 
valley,  traversed  by  the  great  road  and  the  rail- 
T(vay  into  Italy  over  the  St  Gothard  Pass.    AUorf 


(q.v.)  is  the  capital.    See  Sowerby,  The  Forest 
Cantons  of  Switzerland  (1892). 

Uriconium.    See  Wroxeter. 

Urie.    See  Inverurie. 

Urmia  (Oor'meea),  a  town  of  the  Persian  prov- 
ince of  Azerbijan,  10  miles  W.  of  the  Lake  of 
Urmia ;  pop.  32,000.  It  was  said  to  be  Zoro- 
aster's birthplace.  The  Lake  (4500  feet  above 
the  sea)  measui'es  90  miles  by  25 ;  contains 
numerous  islands ;  has  no  outlet,  but  many 
feeders,  some  80  to  150  miles  long ;  is  intensely 
salt ;  and  is  only  12  to  40  feet  deep. 

Urr  Water,  a  Kirkcudbrightshire  stream,  flow- 
ing 27  miles  S.  by  E.  to  the  Solway  Firth. 

Uruguay  {OoroogwV ;  formerly  known  as  the 
Banda  Oriental  or  'Eastern  Bank'— i.e.  of  the 
Uruguay)  is  the  smallest  of  the  South  American 
republics,  although  its  area— 72,110  sq.  m.— is 
three-fifths  that  of  the  United  Kingdom.  The 
Atlantic  washes  its  shores  for  120  miles,  the 
Plate  and  Uruguay  rivers  for  nearly  600  miles ; 
the  Rio  Negro  flows  across  the  central  portion. 
The  country  is  full  of  low  hills  or  ranges,  the 
highest  reaching  only  1650  feet.  Gold  and  copper 
mines  are  worked,  but  little  has  been  done  to 
exploit  the  varied  mineral  wealth  of  the  country. 
The  normal  temperature  is  between  35°  and  90°  P. 
The  pop.,  estimated  at  684,000  in  1889,  and  at 
964,600  in  1901,  is  made  up  mainly  of  half-breeds, 
including  Gauchos ;  but  the  foreign  element, 
largely  Basques  and  Italians,  is  rapidly  in- 
creasing. The  leading  industry  is  the  raising 
of  cattle  and  sheep ;  six-sevenths  of  all  the  ex- 
ports is  pastoral  and  saladero  produce.  Liebig's 
factory  is  at  Fray  Bentos  (q.v.).  Uruguay 
possesses  some  17,000,000  head  of  sheep  and 
6,500,000  of  cattle ;  the  chief  crops  are  wheat 
and  maize.  The  imports  have  a  value  varying 
from  $23,700,000  to  $32,360,000  per  annum  ;  the 
exports  from  $27,700,000  to  $29,000,000.  Uruguay 
is  divided  into  nineteen  departments.  The  presi- 
dent is  elected  for  four  years,  and  with  a  strong 
military  force  (3500  men)  lie  is  practically  master 
of  the  country.  The  navy  has  only  185  men  and 
officers,  manning  three  gunboats,  seven  steamers, 
&c.  The  revenue  varies  from  $16,200,000  to 
$17,900,000  ;  the  expenditure  statistics  are  not  so 
relial)le,  but  tlie  accounts  are  supposed  to  balance, 
and  the  debt  is  $123,000,000  (largely  for  rail\vays> 
The  state  religion  is  Roman  Catholic,  but  all 
are  tolerated.  About  1000  miles  of  railway  are 
open  ;  and  there  are  4000  miles  of  telegraph  lines. 
The  chief  towns  tu'e  Montevideo  (the  capital), 
Paysandu,  Colonia,  and  Minas.  Uruguay  was 
long  a  bone  of  contention  between  the  Portuguese 
and  Spaniards,  and,  after  it  became  independent 
(1814),  between  Brazil  and  Argentina.  In  1828 
Brazil  and  Argentina  guaranteed  its  independ- 
ence ;  but  a  new  series  of  wars  began  in  1839, 
and  Montevideo  sustained  an  eight  years'  siege. 
Uruguay,  which  has  been  shamefully  misgoverned 
and  plundered,  joined  Brazil  and  Argentina 
against  Paraguay  in  1868.  See  books  on  the  Plate 
region  by  Mulhall  and  by  Levey,  and  a  work  by 
W.  H.  Hudson  (1885). 

Uruguay  River  rises  in  Brazil,  and  flows 
nearly  1000  miles  W.  and  S.  to  form  Avith  the 
Parana  the  La  Plata  (q.v.)  estuary.  It  separates 
Brazil  and  Uruguay  from  Argentina ;  is  much 
encumbered  by  rapids  ;  but  is  navigable  to  Salto 
(200  miles). 
Urumiah.    See  Urmia. 

Urumtsi  (Ooroomtsee),  the  chief  city  in  Chinese 
Zungaria,  at  the  N,  base  of  tbe  Tian-shan  Mpuih 


UBAGARA 


721 


UXMAL 


tains.    It  commands  the  main  route  from  Mon- 
golia  into  Eastern  Turkestan.    Pop.  20,000-30,000. 

Usagara  (Oosagah'ra),  a  territory  in  German 
East  Africa,  between  Tanganyika  and  the  coast. 

Usedom  (Oo'zeh-dom),  a  Prussian  island  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Oder,  shutting  off  the  Stettiner  Hatf 
from  the  Baltic.  Area,  157  sq.  m. ;  pop.  35,000. 
On  its  E.  side  is  Swinemiinde  (q.v.),  on  the  SW. 
the  town  of  Usedom  (pop.  1786). 

Ushant  (Fr.  form  Ouessant),  an  island  off  the 
W.  coast  of  France,  in  the  dep.  of  Finisterre, 
with  an  area  of  20  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  (1891)  of 
2720.  Off  Ushant  on  '  the  glorious  first  of  June ' 
1794  Howe  gained  a  great  naval  victory. 

Usliavr,  4  miles  WNW.  of  Durham,  the  seat  of 
St  Cuthbert's  R.  C.  College,  transferred  hither  in 
1808  from  Crook  Hall,  having  fifteen  years  before 
been  expelled  from  Douay. 

Usk,  a  beautiful  river  of  South  Wales  and 
Monmouthshire,  rising  at  Talsarn,  one  of  the 
Black  Mountains,  and  winding  57  miles  SE.  to 
the  Bristol  Channel.  The  town  of  Usk,  12  miles 
SW.  of  Monmouth,  has  a  ruined  castle,  and  with 
Monmouth  and  Newport  returns  a  member. 
Pop.  1477. 

Uskub  (u  as  oo),  or  Skoplie,  a  town  of  Turkey 
130  miles  NW.  of  Salonica  by  rail.    Pop.  30,000. 

Uspallata.    See  Chili. 

Ussuri.    See  Amur. 

Ust  Urt  (u  as  oo),  the  desert  plateau  between 
the  Caspian  and  the  Sea  of  Aral. 

Utah  (Yoota),  since  1894  a  state  of  the  Ameri- 
can Union,  in  the  Rocky  Mountain  region,  350 
miles  from  N.  to  S.,  and  280  from  E.  to  W. ,  with  an 
area  of  84,970  sq.  m.  Idaho  and  Wyoming  bound 
it  N. ;  Colorado,  E. ;  Arizona,  S. ;  and  Nevada, 
W.  Utah  lies  in  a  great  plateau  region ,  having  an 
average  elevation  of  5000  feet  above  the  level  of 
the  sea.  The  Wahsatch  Mountains  (12,000  feet), 
running  N.  and  S.,  and  the  Uintah  Mountains 
(14,000  feet),  an  eastern  spur,  divide  it  into  two 
portions  differing  widely  in  topography  and 
climate.  The  division  lying  N.  and  W.  of  these 
ranges  belongs  to  the  great  interior  basin  of  the 
continent,  from  which  no  water  escapes  except  by 
evaporation.  The  streams  which  flow  from  the 
mountains  find  their  way  toward  the  west,  ulti- 
mately discharging  their  waters  into  Great  Salt 
Lake  (q.v.),  or  into  some  of  the  smaller  saline  lakes 
or  sinks  of  the  desert.  In  the  valleys  lying  among 
the  western  spurs  irrigation  is  practicable,  if  pre- 
carious, depending  as  it  does  on  the  melting  snow 
of  the  mountains.  The  prevailing  westerly  winds 
are  robbed  of  their  moisture  by  the  lofty  peaks 
of  the  Wahsatch  range  ;  and  to  the  E.,  in  the  basin 
of  the  Colorado  River,  the  towering  plateaus 
which '  overhang  stupendous  caiions  have  but  a 
slight  and  irregular  rainfall,  and  except  in  a  few 
favoured  valleys  agriculture  is  almost  an  impos- 
sibility. The  annual  product  of  copper,  lead, 
silver,  and  gold  is  valued  at  $11,000,000.  There  is 
also  coal.  Besides  Salt  Lake  City,  the  import- 
ant towns  are  Ogden,  Provo,  and  Logan.  Pop. 
(1870)  86,786;  (1880)  143,963;  (1900)  276,749. 
Utah  formed  a  part  of  the  territory  acquired  hy 
the  United  States  from  Mexico  in  1848,  was 
developed  by  the  Mormons,  organised  as  a  terri- 
tory in  1850,  and  reduced  to  its  present  area  in 
1868.  The  polygamy  of  the  Mormons  formed  the 
main  difficulty  in  the  way  of  the  territory  being 
admitted  to  the  privileges  of  a  state,  and  this  did 
not  take  place  till  1894,  when  Mormon  supremacy 
bad  been  abolished  and  after  the  Mormons  had 
2t 


renounced  plural  marriages.  See  books  by  H.  H, 
Bancroft  (1888)  and  Lambourne  (1891). 

Utakamand'.    See  Ootacamund. 

Utica  (Yoo'tica),  an  ancient  city  of  North 
Africa,  20  miles  NW.  of  Carthage,  originally 
a  Phoenician  colony  on  the  coast  (now  10  miles 
distant).  Its  ruins  include  an  amphitheatre,  an 
aqueduct,  and  the  remains  of  quays.  Here  the 
younger  Cato  killed  himself. 

Utica  (Yoo'tica),  a  city  of  New  York,  232  miles 
by  rail  NNW.  of  New  York  City.  Rising  in  a 
gentle  slope  from  the  south  bank  of  the  Mohawk 
River,  and  traversed  by  the  Erie  Canal,  it  contains 
a  fine  United  States  building,  a  city  hall,  state 
lunatic  asylum,  and  a  Masonic  Home  and  School 
(begiui  in  1891),  is  a  noted  market  for  cheese,  and 
manufactures  boots  and  shoes,  cottons  and  wool- 
lens, organs  and  pianos,  machinery,  starch,  &c. 
Pop.  (1880)  33,914  ;  (1900)  56,383. 

Utrecht  (Dutch  pron.  nearly  Ee'treUht;  Oude 
trecht,  'old  ford;'  Lat.  Trajedum  ad  Rhenum), 
the  capital  of  a  province  of  the  Netherlands,  on 
the  'Old'  Rhine  (q.v.),  23  miles  SSE.  of  Am- 
sterdam and  38  ENE.  of  Rotterdam.  The 
walls  were  levelled  in  1830,  and  formed  into 
shady  promenades,  the  present  fortifications 
consisting  of  strong  forts.  St  Martin's  Cathe- 
dral, founded  by  St  Willibrord  about  720,  and 
rebuilt  in  1251-67,  had  its  nave  destroyed  by 
a  hurricane  in  1674,  so  that  the  choir  and  the 
tower  (321  feet  high)  now  stand  separate.  The 
famous  university,  founded  in  1634,  numbers 
over  1000  students,  and  has  a  library  of  260,000 
voliuiies.  Other  edifices  are  tlie  14th-century 
Roman  Catholic  Cathedral,  the  town-hall  (1830), 
the  'Pope's  House'  (built  by  Adrian  VI.,  who 
was  born  here  in  1459),  the  palace  (in  1807)  of 
Louis  Bonaparte,  &c.  Utrecht  since  1723  has 
been  the  headquarters  of  the  Jansenists.  The 
manufactures  include  tobacco  and  cigars,  woollen 
fabrics  and  carpets,  salt,  furniture,  chemicals, 
machinery,  &c.  Pop.  of  the  town  (1869)  59,299  ; 
(1901)106,800.  Here  was  formed  the  famed  union 
of  the  northern  provinces  for  the  defence  of 
political  and  religious  freedom  in  1579 ;  and  at 
Utrecht  nine  distinct  treaties  were  concluded  in 
1713,  which  brought  to  a  close  the  war  of  the 
Spanish  succession. 

Utrecht,  capital  of  a  district  in  Natal,  trans- 
ferred in  1902  from  the  Transvaal,  30  miles  NE. 
of  Newcastle.     Pop.  4000. 

Utrera  (Ootray'ra),  an  old  town  of  Spain,  19 
miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Seville.     Pop.  14,600. 

Uttoxeter  (Ux'eter;  A.S.  Uttocceaster),  a  mar- 
ket-town of  Staffordshire,  on  an  eminence  above 
the  Dove,  14  miles  ENE.  of  Stafford.  In  its 
market-place  Dr  Johnson  did  penance  bare- 
headed ;  and  it  has  a  modern  church  with  an 
old  tower  and  lofty  spire,  a  town-hall  (1855), 
a  mechanics'  institute,  a  free  grammar-school 
(rebuilt  1859),  and  manufactures  of  iron,  nails, 
ropes,  beer,  &c.    Pop.  5130. 

Uxbridge,  a  market- town  of  Middlesex,  on  the 
Colne,  16  miles  W.  of  London.  It  has  one 
church,  St  Margaret's,  restored  1872  ;  another,  St 
Andrew's  (1865),  with  a  spire  of  170  feet ;  a  town- 
hall  (1836) ;  and  a  spacious  corn  exchange  (1861). 
Pop.  8585.  Commissioners  met  here  fruitlessly 
in  January  1645  to  discuss  terms  of  peace  between 
Charles  I.  and  the  parliament.  See  Bedford's 
History  of  Uxbridge  (1818). 

Uxmal  (u  as  oo),  a  ruined  city  in  the  NW.  of 
Yucatan,  40  miles  SW.  of  Merida,  with  vast 
remains  of  ancient  grandeur,  temple-terraces,  &C 


VAAL 


722 


VALLOMBROSA 


^AAL  (VdM),  a  river  of  South  Africa, 
rises  in  the  Drakenberg,  and  flows  500 
miles  between  the  Transvaal  and  the 
Orange  River  Colony  to  the  Orange. 
Valais  (Vcday;  Ger.  Wallis),  a  moun- 
tainous Swiss  canton,  bounded  S.  by  Italy.  Area, 
2036  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1900)  114,438.  Towns  are  Sion 
and  Martigny. 

Valdai  Hills.    See  Volga. 

Valdepenas  (Val-de-payn'yas),  a  town  of  Spain, 
140  miles  S.  by  E.  of  Madrid.    Pop.  20,700. 

Val  de  Travers  (French  pron.  Travayr^,  a 
valley  in  the  Swiss  canton  of  Neuchatel,  with 
great  asphalt-mines. 

Valdivia  (Val-dee-via),  capital  of  a  southern 
province  of  Chili,  on  the  Callecalle,  15  miles 
above  its  mouth  in  Valdivia  Bay.    Pop.  9850. 

Valence  (Valon^ss),  capital  of  the  French  dep. 
Drome,  is  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Rhone  (crossed 
by  an  iron  bridge),  below  the  Isere's  mouth,  and 
66  miles  S.  of  Lyons.  It  has  several  interesting 
Renaissance  buildings,  an  11th-century  cathedral, 
an  18th-century  Protestant  temple,  and  manu- 
factures of  silk,  glass,  iron,  &c.     Pop.  24,200. 

Valencia  (Span.  pron.  c  as  th),  a  seaport  of 
Spain,  ;on  the  Mediterranean,  200  miles  SW.  of 
Barcelona  by  rail.  The  picturesque  walls,  erected 
by  Pedro  IV.  in  1356,  were  removed  in  1871 ;  and 
the  recent  houses  are  a  striking  contrast  to  those 
in  the  gloomy  old  town.  The  archiepiscopal 
cathedral,  commenced  in  1262,  and  330  feet  long, 
is  classical  within,  and  Gothic  without.  The 
university  has  a  library  of  42,000  vols.,  and  there 
is  a  good  picture-gallery.  Silk-spinning  and 
weaving  are  carried  on,  with  manufactures  of 
cloths,  hats,  glass,  linen,  leather,  cigars,  and 
Valencia  tiles.  Pop.  (1877)  143,856 ;  (1905)215,000. 
—Valentia,  or  Valencia  del  Cid,  dating  from  the 
2d  century  B.C.,  was  destroyed  by  Pompey, 
taken  by  the  Goths  in  413,  by  the  Moors  in 
715,  and  by  the  Cid  in  1094.  Suchet  captured 
it  in  1812.— The  old  kingdom  of  Valencia  is 
subdivided  into  the  three  provinces  of  Valencia 
(area,  4152  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  806,556),  Alicante,  and 
Castellon  de  la  Plana.— (2)  Valencia  de  Alcantara, 
a  town,  250  miles  WSW.  of  Madrid  ;  pop.  9250. 

Valencia,  capital  of  Carabobo  state  in  Vene- 
zuela, close  to  the  beautiful  Lake  of  Tacarigua, 
34  miles  by  rail  S.  of  Puerto  Cabello.  Pop.  38,654. 

Valenciennes  (Va-lon^ss-yenn'),  a  dark,  ill- 
built  manufacturing  town  and  first-class  fortress 
of  France,  in  the  dep.  of  Nord,  stands  at  the 
entrance  of  the  Rhonelle  into  the  Scheldt  (which 
flows  through  the  town  in  several  arms),  by  rail 
155  miles  NNE.  of  Paris  and  58  SW.  of  Brussels. 
It  possesses  a  citadel  constructed  by  Vauban,  a  fine 
hotel-de-ville,  and  a  modern  Gothic  church,  with 
tower  272  feet  high.  The  famous  lace  is  no  longer 
made  here,  only  a  coarse  sort.  Other  manufac- 
tures are  cambric,  cotton  yarn,  hosiery,  linseed- 
oil,  beet-root  sugar,  and  there  are  great  iron- 
works. The  country  round  about  is  a  great 
coal-basin.  Valenciennes  (the  Valentiniance,  or 
Valentiana  of  the  Romans)  was  ceded  to  France 
in  1678,  and  was  taken  by  the  Allies  in  1793,  after 
a  siege  of  84  days,  but  restored  next  year.  It  is 
the  birthplace  of  Watteau  and  Froissart  (statue, 
1856).     Pop.  (1872)  22,118  ;  (1901)28,786. 

Valentia,  or  Valencia,  a  rocky  island  (5x2 
miles)  off  County  Kerry,  42  miles  by  rail  WSW. 
of  Killarney,  with  cliffs  nearly  900  feet  high  at 


the  north  end.  It  is  the  terminus  since  1857- 
m  of  more  than  one  Atlantic  telegraph.  The 
name  is  most  likely  corrupted  from  the  Irish 
Fail-inis. 

Valenza  (VaUnt'za;  anc.  Valentia),  a  town  of 
N.  Italy,  on  the  Po,  9  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Ales- 
sandria.    Pop.  7466. 

Valetta,  since  1570  the  chief  town  of  Malta,  on 
the  NB.  side  of  the  island.  It  occupies  a  rocky 
tongue  of  land  over  3000  yards  long,  on  either 
side  of  which  are  two  noble  harbours,  and  is 
defended  by  fortifications  of  great  strength, 
many  of  them  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock.  Note- 
worthy are  the  governor's  palace— formerly  that 
of  the  Grand-masters  of  the  order  of  St  John — 
plain  without,  but  magnificent  within ;  the 
superb  cathedral ;  and  the  church  of  San  Pubblio, 
with  its  famed  sotteraneo  ('vault')  of  embalmed 
monks  and  skeletons ;  the  public  library  of 
60,000  vols. ;  the  university ;  the  aqueduct,  which 
brings  water  81  miles  from  the  far  side  of  the 
island ;  and  many  of  the  palazzi  of  the  Maltese 
nobles.  There  is  a  railway  to  Rabat  in  the  in- 
terior. Valetta,  though  much  earlier  than  his 
date,  was  named  after  the  Grand-master  La 
Valette.  Pop.  of  Valetta  with  Floriana  and 
Sliema  suburbs,  about  40,000;  of  the  other 
'three  cities'  or  suburbs  of  Senglea,  Cospicua, 
and  Vittoriosa,  26,700  ;  total,  66,700. 

Valguamera  (Val-gioar-nay'ra),  a  town  of 
Sicily,  16  miles  E.  of  Caltanisetta.    Pop.  14,000. 

Valladolid  (Span.  pron.  Val-ya-do-leeth'),  a 
fortified  city  of  Spain,  sometime  capital  of  the 
whole  country,  and  still  capital  of  a  province  of 
Old  Castile,  stands  on  the  Pisuerga's  left  bank, 
150  miles  NW.  of  Madrid  by  rail,  and  2200  feet 
above  sea-level.  The  Classical  cathedral  (1585) 
was  never  finished ;  the  Dominican  monastery, 
of  which  Torquemada  was  prior,  is  now  a  house 
of  correction,  and  that  of  the  Benedictines  is  a 
barrack.  The  university  dates  from  1346.  The 
Scots  College  here  was  long  the  only  seminary 
for  the  education  of  Scottish  Catholics.  There 
are  some  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton,  and 
woollen  stuffs,  iron,  jewellery,  hats,  paper,  per- 
fumery, chemicals,  gloves,  &c.  Pop.  (1877) 
52,206 ;  (1905)  69,500.  Valladolid,  the  Pincia  of 
Ptolemy,  appears  as  Vallisoletum  in  1072.  Charles 
V.  erected  many  splendid  edifices  here,  Valladolid 
being  then  the  most  prosperous  city  in  Spain, 
with  100,000  inhabitants.  Formerly  capital  of 
Castile  and  Leon,  it  was  still  the  usual  residence 
of  the  kings  of  Spain.  In  1560,  under  Philip  II. 
(who  was  born  here),  Madrid  was  declared  the 
only  court ;  and  Valladolid  thenceforth  declined. 
In  1808  it  was  sacked  by  the  French.— Area  of 
province,  2930  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  278,560. 

Valladolid,  a  town  of  Yucatan,  90  miles  ESE. 
of  Merida.    Pop.  5000.     See  also  Morelia. 

Valle  Crucis  Abbey.    See  Llangollen. 

Vallejo  (Val-yay'ho),  a  port  of  California,  on 
San  Pablo  Bay,  31  miles  NE.  of  San  Francisco. 
On  Mare  Island  is  a  navy-yard.     Pop.  7970. 

Valleyfield,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Quebec, 
on  tlie  St  Lawrence,  54  miles  by  rail  SW.  of 
Montreal.    Pop.  11,060. 

Vallombro'sa  ('Shady  Valley'),  a  celebrated 
abbey  among  the  Apennines,  15  miles  E.  of 
Florence,  in  a  valley  surrounded  with  forests  of 
fir,  beech,  and  chestnut  trees.  Here  an  order  of 
Benedictine  monks  was  founded  about  1038 ;  the 


VALLS 


723 


VELDES 


present  magnificent  buildings  were  erected  in 
1673.  In  1869  the  monastery  was  suppressed ; 
but  the  place  is  still  much  visited  by  tourists. 
Milton  was  here  in  1639,  Wordsworth  in  1837. 

Vails,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Spain,  12  miles 
N.  of  Tarragona.    Pop.  13,000. 

Valmy  (Val-mee'),  a  French  village  in  the  dep. 
of  Marne,  20  miles  NE.  of  Chalons.  At  the 
famous  'cannonade  of  Valiny,'  20th  Sept.  1792, 
Dumouriez  forced  the  Prussians  to  retreat. 

Valparal'so  (ai  as  I;  'Vale  of  Paradise'),  the 
second  city  of  Chili,  and  next  to  San  Francisco 
the  principal  American  port  on  the  Pacific,  is 
situated  on  the  bay  of  the  same  name,  115  miles 
by  rail  WNW.  of  Santiago,  and  881  W.  of  Buenos 
Ayres  by  the  Trans-Andean  Railway.  The  city 
is  built  chiefly  upon  a  sloping  plain,  cut  up  by 
ridges  terminating  in  steep  bluffs.  Its  long 
streets,  with  imposing  churches,  trams,  gas, 
and  electric  light,  suggest  a  European  city.  The 
old  town,  El  Puerto,  contains  the  vast  customs 
warehouses,  huge  elevators,  the  mole  and  har- 
bour, wharves,  the  exchange,  post-office,  and 
municipal  palace,  with  a  bronze  statue  of  Lord 
Cochrane ;  above  it  rises  the  Cerro  Alegre. 
Batteries  crown  the  heights.  Valparaiso's  im- 
ports exceed  £6,000,000  and  its  exports  £1,000,000. 
It  suffered  from  earthquakes  in  1822,  1851,  and 
1906,  when  5000  persons  perished ;  Avas  bombarded 
by  a  Spanish  fleet  in  1866 ;  and  after  a  three 
days'  battle  in  the  civil  war  of  1891,  fell  to  the 
insurgents.    Pop.  (1905)  145,000. 

Valparaiso,  the  capital  of  Porter  county, 
Indiana,  44  miles  SE.  of  Cliicago.    Pop.  6280. 

Yaltelline  (Val'tel-leen),  the  upper  Adda's  rich 
valley  down  to  its  influx  into  the  Lake  of  Como. 

Valtos,  a  crofter  coast- village  of  Skye,  13 J 
miles  N.  by  E.  of  Portree.     Pop.  323. 

Van,  a  walled  town  of  Turkey  in  Asia,  the 
capital  once  of  an  Armenian  kingdom,  near  the 
SE.  shore  of  Lake  Van,  145  miles  SE.  of  Erzerum. 
Pop.  35,000.— Brackish  Lake  Van  (80  x  30  miles) 
has  no  visible  outlet. 

Vancouver,  a  town  of  British  Columbia,  the 
terminus  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  (1887), 
stands  on  Burrard  Inlet  (at  its  head  is  Port 
Moody,  the  former  terminus ;  pop.  3000),  2906 
miles  by  rail  W.  by  N.  of  Montreal.  Its  site  a 
dense  forest  till  1885,  it  now  possesses  miles  of 
well-made  streets,  lit  by  gas  and  electricity, 
electric  trams,  a  fine  Anglican  cathedral,  a  hand- 
some opera-house,  three  parks,  wharves  and 
warehouses,  smelting- works,  &c.,  and  has  steam- 
ship connection  with  San  Francisco,  China,  Japan, 
and  the  Australasian  colonies.    Pop.  26,250. 

Vancouver  Island,  belonging  to  British 
Columbia,  and  separated  from  the  mainland 
by  Queen  Charlotte  Sound,  Johnstone  Strait, 
and  Strait  of  Georgia,  is  278  miles  long,  and  50 
to  65  miles  broad.  Area,  12,760  sq.  m.  ;  pop, 
40,000.  The  shores  are  marked  by  rocky  promon- 
tories, sheltered  coves,  fine  harbours,  and  on  the 
W.  deep  fiord -like  arms  of  the  sea.  The  country 
is  well  wooded,  the  streams,  which  are  nearly 
dry  in  summer,  supplying  power  for  mills.  The 
climate  resembles  that  of  southern  Britain,  the 
warm  Pacific  Gulf  Stream  maintaining  a  mild 
temperature.  Barely  a  tenth  of  the  surface  is 
suited  for  agriculture.  Fruit-culture  is  profitably 
carried  on.  The  island  is  very  rich  in  minerals. 
Besides  gold,  silver,  copper,  iron,  &c.,  it  possesses 
great  fields  of  excellent  coal,  at  Nanaimo  in  par- 
ticular. Another  source  of  wealth  is  in  the 
fisheries.    The  island  was  discovered  in  1692  by 


Juan  de  Fuca,  and  visited  in  1792  by  Captain 
George  Vancouver,  R.N.  (1758-98);  but  the  first 
permanent  settlement  was  made  in  1843,  when 
the  Hudson  Bay  Company  built  a  fort  where 
Victoria,  the  capital,  now  stands. 

Van  Diemen's  Land.    See  Tasmania. 

Vannes  (Vann),  a  French  seaport,  capital  of 
the  Breton  dep.  Morbihan,  stands  at  the  mouth 
of  a  tributary  of  the  Gulf  of  Morbihan,  10  miles 
from  the  sea.  It  has  a  cathedral  (13th  to  15th 
centuries),  an  old  Maison  du  Parlement,  many 
carved  houses,  a  rich  museum  of  Celtic  antiquL- 
ties,  and  manufactures  of  woollens  and  ropes  and 
some  shipbuilding.    Pop.  19,625. 

Van  Wert,  the  capital  of  Van  Wert  county, 
Ohio,  27  miles  WNW.  of  Lima.     Pop.  6430. 

Var,  a  dep.  of  SE.  France,  with  the  three 
arrondissements  of  Draguignan  (the  capital), 
Brignoles,  and  Toulon.  Area,  2349  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
(1872)  293,757  ;  (1901)  326,384. 

Varal'lo,  an  Italian  town,  35  miles  NW.  of 
Novara  by  rail.     Pop.  3500. 

Varanger  Fiord  (Vdh-rang'er),  a  deep  inlet  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  into  Finmark,  the  northernmost 
province  of  Norway. 

Varasdin.    See  Warasdin. 

Vardo,  a  Norwegian  fishing-town  on  Vardo 
island,  at  the  E.  end  of  Finmark  (pop.  2630). 

Varennes  (Varenn'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep. 
of  Meuse,  18  miles  NW.  of  Verdun.  Here  Louis 
XVI.  and  his  family  were  captured  making  for  the 
frontier,  22d  June  1791.    Pop.  1200. 

Varese  (Varay'zay),  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  at  the 
end  of  Lake  Varese  (7  sq.  m.),  18  miles  by  rail 
W.  of  Como.    Pop.  5872. 

Varlnas  (Vareenas),  a  town  of  Venezuela,  100 
miles  SE.  of  Lake  Maracaybo.    Pop.  7000. 

Varna,  a  Bulgarian  Black  Sea  port,  115  miles 
SE.  of  Rustchuk  by  rail.  The  French  and  British 
encamped  here  in  1854.    Pop.  35,450. 

Varzin  (Var-tzeen'),  a  Pomeranian  village  of 
1200  inhabitants,  25  miles  SE.  of  Koslin.  Near 
it  is  a  seat  of  the  Bismarcks. 

Vasa  (_Vdh-sa),  a  county  or  Ian  of  Finland,  on 
the  Gulf  of  Bothnia. 

Vasarhely  (Vasarhay'lee).  See  Maros-Vasar- 
HELY. — Hodmezo  Vasarhely,  a  Hungarian  town, 
20  miles  NE.  of  Szegedin  by  rail.     Pop.  60,830. 

Vassilkov,  a  town  of  Little  Russia,  18  miles 
SW.  of  Kieff.     Pop.  18,000. 

Vatnajokiill  (Vatnayo'keel).    See  Iceland. 

Vaucluse  {Vo-dUs'),  a  dep.  of  SE.  France. 
Area,  1370  .sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872)  263,451  ;  (1901) 
236,949.— At  tlie  village  of  Ya.nc\use(Vallis  dausa), 
19  miles  E.  of  Avignon,  lived  Petrarch. 

Vaud (Fb;  Ger.  Waadt),a'W.  canton  of  Switzer- 
land, between  the  Jura  and  the  Bernese  Alps. 
Area,  1244  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  283,000,  French-speaking 
and  Protestant. 

Veglla,  an  Austrian  island  in  the  Adriatic, 
SE.  of  Trieste.  Area,  165  square  miles ;  pop. 
21,140. 

Vejle,  a  port  of  Denmark,  at  the  head  of  a  fiord 
on  the  east  coast  of  Jutland.     Pop.  14,600. 

Velbert,  a  town  in  the  Rhine  province  of 
Prussia,  15  miles  NE.  of  Dusseldorf.     Pop.  17,500. 

Vel'des,  a  summer -resort  on  a  lake  in  the 
Austrian  province  of  Carniola,  30  miles  NW. 
of  Laibach.  It  is  famous  for  its  sun-baths. 
Pop.  500. 


VELEIA 


724 


VENICE 


Velei'a,  an  ancient  Ligurian  city,  overwhelmed 
by  a  landslip  (c.  280  a.d.)'  Its  ruins,  20  miles  S. 
of  Piacenza,  were  uncovered  in  1760-65. 

V^lez-Mdlaga  (Vay'layth-Mah'laga),  a  Spanish 
town  16  miles  E.  of  Malaga.    Pop.  23,479. 

Yelletri{Vel-lay'tree),  a  cathedriil  city,  25  miles 
SE.  of  Rome  by  rail.    Pop.  19,532. 

Vellore,  a  town  of  British  India,  80  miles  W. 
of  Madras  by  rail.    Pop.  43,540. 

Venaissin  (Venayssan^'),  an  ancient  county  of 
France,  between  the  Rhone  and  the  Durance, 
now  included  in  Vaucluse. 

Vendue  (Von^day),  La,  a  French  dep.,  bounded 
W,  by  the  Bay  of  Biscay.  Area,  2588  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  (18S6)  434,808;  (1901)  441,311.  Its  three 
arrondlssemeiits  are  La  Roche-sur-Yon  (the 
capital),  Fontenay-le-Comte,  and  Sables-d'Olonne. 
The  Vendeans  stoutly  resisted  the  Revolution. 

Vend6me  (Von^dom),  a  town  of  the  dep.  Loir- 
et-Cher,  on  the  Loir,  42  miles  NNE.  of  Tours  and 
111  SW.  of  Paris.     Pop.  8450. 

Vener.    See  Wener. 

Venetia,  the  large  '  compartimento '  or  division 
of  NE.  Italy,  between  the  Alps  and  Adriatic,  of 
which  Venice  (q.v.)  is  the  historical  centre. 

Venezuela,  United  States  of  (Span.  pron. 
Venaythooay'la),  a  northern  tropical  republic  of 
South  America,  on  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  total 
area  is  slightly  over  417,000  sq.  m. ;  the  official 
returns  (extending  the  area  at  the  expense  of 
Colombia  and  British  Guiana)  make  it  594,000  sq. 
m.  Trinidad  and  Tobago  islands  belong  to 
Britain.  Venezuela  is  a  land  of  mountains  and 
valleys  in  the  west  and  north,  of  lower  moun- 
tains and  wooded  hills  in  the  south,  of  llanos 
between  the  Orinoco  and  the  northern  ranges, 
and  of  lake  and  swamp  and  forest  (much  of  it 
pestiferous  and  uninhabitable)  in  the  north-west. 
The  Andes  enter  the  country  south  of  Lake 
Maracaybo,  and  push  north-eastward  as  the 
Cordillera  de  Merida  (15,500  feet).  In  Mount 
Roraima  (q.v.)  the  frontiers  of  Guiana,  Brazil, 
and  Venezuela  meet.  Innumerable  streams  find 
a  way  over  waterfalls  and  rapids  to  the  Orinoco 
(q.v.),  chief  of  the  eight  river  systems  of  the 
country.  The  climate  Is  moist ;  the  tempera- 
ture varies  from  freezing-point  above  the  snow- 
line to  great  heat  in  the  coast-towns,  valleys,  and 
llanos.  There  are  no  active  volcanoes,  but  earth- 
quakes have  done  great  damage— as  in  1893  at 
Merida.  Almost  everywhere  the  country  is  abund- 
antly watered.  Vegetation  in  the  hotter  region 
is  luxuriant  beyond  description.  In  the  temper- 
ate region  coffee  is  produced.  The  people  are 
mostly  half-breeds— mulattoes  or  mestizoes  (i.e. 
of  crossed  white  and  Indian  blood).  Pure  negroes 
(mainly  on  the  coast)  or  whites  are  few  :  the 
latter  form  perhaps  1  per  cent,  of  the  pop. 

Venezuela  contains  rich  mineral  deposits,  as 
yet  scarcely  tapped,  except  for  the  Yuruari  gold- 
mines, the  Aroa  copper- mine,  the  government 
salt-mines,  and  coal  near  Barcelona.  Near  Lake 
Maracaybo  there  are  great  supplies  of  petroleum 
and  coal.  Gold  to  the  value  of  £349,234  was  pro- 
duced in  1890,  but  in  1900  tlie  total  was  only 
£68,904.  In  1902  there  were  about  530  miles  of 
railway,  besides  3900  miles  of  telegraph  lines  and 
several  telephone  systems.  Most  of  the  over-sea 
trade  is  in  the  hands  of  foreigners,  German  and 
other.  The  chief  export  (over  two-thirds  of  the 
total  exports)  Is  coffee ;  next  follow  cocoa,  gold, 
hides,  cattle,  sugar,  cotton,  copper,  dye-woods, 
&c.  The  imports  (over  a  fourth  from  Britain) 
are  flour,  cotton,  linen,  woollen,  and  jute  goods. 


iron,  machinery,  &c.  The  exports  have  an  annual 
value  of  about  £5,000,000,  the  imports  over 
£3,000,000.  In  1881  Venezuela —formerly  cora- 
prising  twenty-one  states  and  their  territories- 
was  redivlded  into  eight  large  states,  eight  terri- 
tories, and  the  federal  district  of  Car.^cas  (the 
capital).  The  pop.  in  1881  numbered  2,075,245; 
in  1891,  2,323,527  ;  of  these  326,000  are  Indians, 
and  35,000  foreigners.  The  revenue  (mostly, 
from  customs  duties)  and  the  expenditure 
nearly  balance  each  other  at  from  £1,500,000 
to  £1,800,000.  The  national  debt  is  £4,572,000, 
The  army  numbers  7280,  and  there  is  a  militia. 
The  principal  cities  are  Cardcas,  Valencia, 
Maracaybo,  Barquisimeto,  Tocuyo,  Maturin, 
and  La  Guayra.  The  coast  was  visited  by 
Columbus  in  1498,  and  next  year  the  name 
Venezuela  ('Little  Venice')  was  given  to  an 
Indian  village  built  on  piles  seen  by  Ojeda  and 
Amerigo  Vespucci.  Settlements  were  made  in 
the  16th  and  17th  centuries,  and  the  country 
was  plundered  by  Spanish  governors  till  1810, 
when  the  revolt  began  which  under  Bolivar's 
guidance  ended  in  1821  in  independence  of 
Colombia,  Ecuador,  and  Venezuela.  The  only 
tolerably  good  government  was  in  1870-77  under 
Blanco,  president  and  dictator.  See  a  German 
work  by  Slevers  (1888)  and  a  French  work  by 
Cazeneuve  and  Haranl  (1888). 

Venice  (Ital.  Venezia—Ven-etz'ya),  the 'Pearl' 
or  'Queen'  of  the  Adriatic.  In  the  5th  c.  the 
Veneti,  expelled  from  the  mainland  by  Lombards 
and  Goths,  found  refuge  in  the  islands  of  the 
lagoons.  Tradition  places  the  nucleus  of  Venice 
on  the  site  of  the  Basilica  of  St  Mark ;  now  it 
covers  more  than  seventy-two  islets,  or  rather 
mud-banks,  its  foundations  being  piles  ('time- 
petrified  ')  and  stone.  Through  its  two  unequal 
portions  winds  for  over  two  miles  the  Grand 
Canal,  spanned  by  the  Rialto  Bridge  (of  stone) 
and  two  others  (of  iron),  and  into  it  flow  146  lesser 
canals,  all  bridged  at  frequent  intervals.  This 
vast  network  of  waterway  Is  patrolled  by  count- 
less gondolas,  while  the  pedestrian  has  his  choice 
of  innumerable  lanes  (calli).  A  railway  viaduct 
(1845)  2^  miles  long  connects  Venice  with  the 
mainland,  it  being  165  miles  E.  of  Milan  and  181 
NNE.  of  Florence.  Its  population,  from  well- 
nigh  200,000  in  the  15th  c,  dwindled  to  100,000 
in  the  18th,  but  has  since  increased  to  (1905) 
153,500.  Its  industries  are  its  famous  glass 
manufacture ;  jewellery  and  embroidery  in  gold 
and  silver  ;  lace,  velvets,  and  silks ;  candles,  soap, 
sugar,  and  confectionery.  Printing  is  reviving ; 
while  the  shipbuilding  now  includes  ironclads. 
Venice  imports  from  Great  Britain  coal,  iron, 
fish,  and  manufactured  goods.  The  shallow- 
ing lagoon,  which  at  low  ebb  looks  like  so  many 
acres  of  mud,  is  connected  with  the  sea  by  the 
Lido,  Malamocco,  and  two  other  entrances.  With 
the  drinking-water  now  supplied  from  the  main- 
land the  health  of  the  city  is  improving.  The 
Piazza  to  the  W.  of  St  Mark's  church  is  still  the 
centre  of  civic  and  social  life.  Its  north  side  is 
formed  by  the  Procuratie  Vecchle  (1517),  sur- 
mounting  an  arcade  of  fifty  arches.  The  Pro- 
curatie Nuove,  on  the  south  side  of  the  Piazza, 
now  constitute  a  portion  of  the  Palazzo  Reale. 
Of  this  the  library  hall  is  a  masterpiece  of 
Sansovlno,  its  celling  decorated  by  the  seven  best 
Venetian  artists  of  the  time  (1582),  while  Titian, 
Paul  Veronese,  Bassano,  and  Tintoretto  con- 
tributed splendid  work  to  other  parts  of  the 
interior.  The  Campanile,  begun  902,  and  com- 
pleted by  the  belfry  1510,  collapsed  in  July 
1902,  but  was  rebuilt  in  1903-8,    The  clock-tower 


VENICE 


^725 


VERDUN 


gives  entrance  to  the  Merceria  or  main  business 
quarter.  In  front  of  St  Mark's  itself  rise  three 
red  flagstaffs,  from  which  once  floated  the  silk 
and  gold  banners  typifying  Candia,  Cyprus,  and 
the  Morea,  the  three  possessions  of  the  republic. 
Tlie  Doge's  Palace,  dating  from  the  10th  and  11th 
centuries,  has  been  extended,  niodihed,  and  re- 
stored. It  comprises  the  Sala  del  Maggior 
Consiglio,  with  paintings  by  Titian,  Bassano,  Tin- 
toretto, Paolo  Veronese,  and  Palma  Giovane ; 
the  celebrated  library,  transferred  (1817)  from  the 
Palazzo  Reale,  with  120,000  volumes  and  10,000 
MSS. ;  the  Museo  Archeologico ;  the  Sotto  Piombi 
('under  the  leads')  where  Casanova  and  Silvio 
Pellico  languished ;  the  Pozzi  ('  wells ')  which 
shadow  many  a  page  of  Venetian  history ;  and 
the  Bridge  of  Sighs,  leading  to  the  Career!  or 
public  prisons.  The  Zecca  or  Mint  (now  the 
Bourse)  and  the  granite  columns,  one  bearing  the 
Lion  of  St  Mark,  the  other  St  Theodore,  have 
infinitely  less  to  detain  us  than  the  Basilica  di 
S.  Marco  itself,  placed  by  Canova  above  the 
cathedrals  of  Pisa  and  Sienna  as,  on  the  whole, 
the  first  of  the  three  finest  churches  in  Italy, 
whose  external  mosaics,  bronze  horses,  interior 
(also  ennobled  by  its  mosaics),  choir,  sacristy, 
north  transept,  baptistery,  treasury,  and  pave- 
ment have  each  their  special  votaries.  Dwarfed 
by  comparison,  the  remaining  churches  of  Venice 
need  be  noticed  only  in  groups,  of  which 
there  are  four— the  first,  Gothic  in  style,  exem- 
plified in  the  plain,  massive,  and  solemn  church 
of  the  Frari ;  the  second,  the  so-called  I^ombard 
(really  a  revival  of  Romanesque),  of  which  the 
church  of  the  Miracoli  is  the  type  ;  the  third, 
seen  at  its  best  in  the  Palladian  Redentore  ;  and 
the  fourth,  or  modern  Italian,  ornate  to  excess, 
represented  by  the  church  of  the  Salute.  Near 
SS.  Giovanni  e  Paolo  is  the  statue  of  Barto- 
lommeo  Colleoni,  general  of  the  republic  (1475), 
which,  designed  by  Verocchio  and  cast  by 
Leopardi,  is  reckoned  the  finest  art-product  of 
its  kind  in  the  world.  The  Scuola  of  the  church 
of  San  Rocco  is  rich  in  magnificent  Tintorettos. 
The  Accademia  delle  Belle  Arti  has  a  wealth  of 
Bellinis  (Gentile  and  Giovanni),  Carpaccios, 
Giorgiones,  Palmas  (Vecchio  and  Giovane),  Paolo 
Veroneses,  Tintorettos,  and  Titians ;  while  the 
Museo  Civico  attracts  the  lover  of  majolicas, 
gems,  carvings,  autographs,  and  miniatures. 
Interest  of  a  sterner  kind  clings  to  the  arsenal, 
founded  in  1104,  now  employing  2000  woi'kmen 
as  the  third  dockyard  of  Italy.  Its  museum 
forms  a  running  commentary  on  Venetian  history, 
containing  the  model  of  the  Bucentaur  from 
which  the  doge  every  Ascension  Day  solemnly 
espoused  the  Adriatic.  On  the  Grand  Canal, 
down  to  the  Rialto,  are  the  Palazzo  Manzoni 
(15th  c),  Palazzo  Corner  (16th  c),  Palazzo  Rez- 
zonico,  Palazzo  Foscari,  Palazzo  Pisani  a  S.  Polo, 
Palazzo  Contarini,  three  Mocenigo  palaces,  Palazzo 
Corner  Spinelli,  and  Palazzo  Grimani.  The:Palazzo 
Moro  is  the  traditional  abode  of  Shakespeare's 
Othello.  In  theatres  Venice  is  comparatively 
poor.  La  Fenice  being  the  principal  one ;  but  in 
public  gardens  and  islets  adapted  for  holiday 
purposes  it  abounds.  The  Littorale  di  Mala- 
mocco,  facing  the  city  across  the  lagoon  (the  so- 
called  '  Lido  '),  is  an  immensely  popular  resort. 
This  and  the  islets  Murano  (renowned  for  its 
glass),  Torcello,  and  Burano  (employing  300  girls 
in  the  celebrated  lace-industry)  are  easily  acces- 
sible by  steamers  and  steam-launches. 

Venice  rises  to  historic  importance  in  697  a.d., 
when  the  tribunes  were  superseded  by  a  duke  or 
doge,  and  gradually  obtained  a  foothold  on  the 


mainland  and  increasing  political  influence.  In 
the  9th  c.  Istria  and  Dalmatia  were  conquered, 
and  Venice  became  a  dominant  power  in  the 
Levant,  taking  an  active  share  in  the  Crusades  ; 
in  the  12th  it  conquered  Tyre,  Rhodes,  and 
many  of  the  Cyclades,  Sporades,  and  Ionian 
islands.  Tlie  Doge  Enrico  Dandolo  (1192-1205) 
brought  about  the  partition  of  the  empire,  and 
secured  for  Venice  a  large  slice  of  Greece  and 
the  Greek  islands,  part  of  the  Balkan  countries, 
and  districts  on  the  Hellespont  and  in  Constanti- 
nople. Worsted  and  weakened  by  Genoa  in  the 
13th  c,  in  the  14th  Venice  crushed  its  rival  for 
ever,  and  became  supreme  at  sea  in  war  and 
merchandise,  commanding  the  bulk  of  trade  with 
the  East.  Next  Venice  was  triumphant  on  the 
Italian  mainland,  and  in  the  15th  c.  waged  war 
with  Turkey  and  with  France.  The  Cape  route 
to  India  and  the  discovery  of  America  told  in- 
juriously on  Venetian  commerce,  and  constant 
wars  exhausted  the  treasury.  In  the  17th  c, 
however,  the  republic  crushed  the  Turks  in 
Candia  (Crete)  and  the  Morea,  but  lost  both  in 
the  18th.  Its  policy  became  utterly  feeble,  its 
commerce  irretrievably  decayed,  and  when  in 
1796  Napoleon  invaded  the  republic,  it  was  but 
the  shadow  of  its  former  self.  In  1798  Austria 
secured  possession,  confirmed  in  1815.  The  revolt 
in  1848  led  up  to  its  final  cession  (1866)  to 
Napoleon  III.,  who  handed  it  over  to  Victor 
Emmanuel  to  become  a  part  of  the  kingdom  of 
Italy.  See  books  by  Yriarte  (1879),  Daru  (Paris, 
1853),  Horatio  Brown  (1887-1905),  A.  J.  C.  Hare 
(1884),  Mrs  Oliphant  (1887),  Wiel  (1894),  Mol- 
menti  (Florence,  1897),  Okey  (1903),  and  Menpes 
(1904). 

Venlo,  a  Dutch  frontier  town  on  the  Meuse, 
20  miles  W.  of  Crefeld.     Pop.  14,400. 

Vennacliar.    See  Katrine,  Loch. 

Veno'sa  (anc.  Vemisia),  Horace's  birthplace, 
S.  Italy,  25  miles  N.  of  Potenza.    Pop.  8414. 

Ventimiglia  {VentymeeVya),  a  fortified  town  of 
the  Italian  Riviera,  near  the  French  frontier,  and 
3  miles  E.  of  Mentone  by  rail.  -It  has  a  cathedral 
and  a  small  harbour.    Pop.  11,500. 

Vent'nor,  the  principal  town  on  the  south 
shore  of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  11  miles  by  rail  S.  by 
W.  of  Ryde.  Situated  amid  the  finest  of  the  fine 
scenery  of  the  Undercliff",  it  has  a  southern  ex- 
posure, well  sheltered  from  the  north,  and  so 
possesses  a  mild  climate,  suitable  for  invalids. 
Hence  from  a  small  fishing-hamlet  it  has  grown 
since  1830  to  a  favourite  watering-place,  with  an 
esplanade  (1848),  numerous  hotels  and  lodging- 
houses,  and  the  National  Consumption  Hospital 
(1872).  The  beach  is  composed  of  beautiful  yellow 
shingle  ;  and  fossils  abound  in  the  vicinity.  Pop. 
(1861)  3208  ;  (1901)  5866. 

Vera  Cruz  (Vayra  Crooz  or  Crooth),  the  princi- 
pal port  of  Mexico,  on  the  E.  coast,  263  miles  by 
rail  E.  of  the  capital.  A  moist,  hot,  unhealthy 
place,  with  a  cathedral,  it  was  founded  as  Villa 
Nueva  de  la  Vera  Cruz  ('  New  City  of  the  True 
Cross ')  by  Cortes  in  1520.    Pop.  29,000. 

Vercelli  (Ver-chel'lee),  a  town  of  N.  Italy,  40 
miles  SW.  of  Milan,  with  a  modern  cathedral, 
and  manufactures  of  machinery,  candles,  matches, 
soap,  and  musical  instruments.    Pop.  20,165. 

Verd,  Cape.    See  Cape  Verd. 

Ver'den,  a  town  of  Hanover,  on  the  Aller  near 
the  Weser,  20  miles  SE.  of  Bremen.    Pop.  9850. 

Verdun  (Ver-dun^'),  a  fortified  French  town  in 
dep.  Meuse,  35  miles  W.  of  Metz  by  rail.  It  has 
a   cathedral,  and   manufactures   iron,  liqueurs, 


VEltE 


726 


VEVAY 


sweetmeats,  leather,  and  beer.  Pop.  13,100. 
The  fortress  has  been  often  beseiged— in  1870  by 
the  Germans  for  six  weeks,  when  it  capitulated. 

Vere.    See  Campvere. 

Verkhoy'ansk,  a  small  town  (pop.  300)  of 
Siberia,  400  miles  NB.  of  Yakutsk. 

Vermejo  (Ver-may'ho).    See  Paeaguay  (river). 

Vermont',  the  only  entirely  inland  state  of 
New  England,  lies  west  of  New  Hampshire, 
with  Canada  on  the  N.,  and  Lake  Cham  plain  on 
the  W.  Its  length  from  north  to  south  is 
140  miles,  its  width  40  to  90  miles  ;  and  its  area 
10,200  sq.  m.  The  Green  Mountains  (Verd 
Mont— whence  the  name  of  the  state)  extend  its 
entire  length,  and  in  four  peaks  exceed  4000 
feet.  The  mountains  are  mostly  clothed  Avith 
trees  to  their  summits.  The  hills  furnish  the  best 
of  pasturage,  and,  for  the  most  part,  can  be  culti- 
vated to  their  tops.  Vermont  is  rich  in  quarries 
of  granite,  marble,  and  slate,  which  are  exten- 
sively worked.  Steatite,  verd-antique,  sulphuret 
of  iron,  manganese,  kaolin,  and  iron  exist.  A 
larger  area  is  devoted  to  cereals  than  in  any 
other  New  England  state.  The  annual  pro- 
duction of  maple  sugar  is  nearly  one-third 
of  the  total  production  of  the  country.  The 
butter  and  cheese  are  of  superior  quality.  The 
state  is  divided  into  fourteen  counties,  and  re- 
turns two  representatives  to  congress.  Montpelier 
is  the  capital.  Samuel  Champlain,  in  1609,  was  the 
first  white  man  who  looked  upon  Vermont.  The 
first  permanent  settlement  was  made  at  Brattle- 
boro  in  1724.  Vermont  was  received  into  the 
Union,  March  4,  1791,  as  the  fourteenth  state. 
In  the  civil  war  it  furnished  35,242  soldiers,  or 
one-half  of  all  its  able-bodied  men.  Pop.  (1800) 
154,465  ;  (1880)  332,286  ;  (1900)  343,041. 

Vernon  (Vayr-nonF'),  a  French  town,  on  the 
Seine,  15  miles  NW.  of  Mantes.    Pop.  7960. 

Vernon,  a  town  of  Connecticut,  12  miles  ENE. 
of  Hartford.    Pop.  8607. 

Vero'na,  a  city  of  Italy,  on  the  Adige,  at  the 
base  of  the  foot-hills  of  the  Alps,  72  miles  W.  of 
Venice  by  rail,  is  a  fortress  of  the  first  class,  a 
member  of  the  famous  Quadrilateral.  Its 
strength  now  depends  on  outlying  forts.  The 
amphitheatre  (2d  or  3d  c.  a.d.)  has  a  lesser 
diameter  of  404  feet.  Other  Roman  remains  are 
gateways,  part  of  a  theatre,  and  some  mosaics. 
The  streets  are  wide,  especially  the  Corso ; 
there  are  four  principal  squares,  of  which  the 
Piazza  dei  Signori  contains  the  palace  of  the 
Delia  Scala  (1370)  and  the  superb  Palazzo  del 
Consiglio.  Tlie  cathedral  dates  from  1187,  and 
has  an  altarpiece  by  Titian  ;  the  Romanesque 
basilica  of  St  Zeno  is  larger  and  more  interesting. 
The  palaces  are  numerous  and  fine.  The  ancient 
castle  of  Theodoric  is  a  barrack ;  the  Castle  of 
the  Scalas  (1355)  is  a  barrack  and  arsenal.  The 
picture-gallery  is  especially  rich  in  pictures  of 
the  Paduan,  Venetian,  and  Veronese  (Pisano, 
Morone,  &c.)  schools.  Paul  Veronese,  though  a 
native,  belonged  to  the  Venetian  school.  Among 
the  glories  of  the  place  are  the  tombs  of  the 
Scala  family,  with  their  wondrous  wrought-iron 
railing  (1350-80).  There  is  a  large  transit  trade 
with  Germany  by  the  Brenner  railway,  and  manu- 
factures of  silk,  woollens  and  cottons,  furniture, 
musical  instruments,  &c.  Pop.  75,300.  Verona, 
long  the  Lombard  capital,  was  afterwards  torn 
by  the  struggles  of  Ghibellines  and  Guelphs, 
being  the  home  of  Shakespeare's  Capulets  and 
Montagues.  From  1260  to  1387  the  Scala  or 
Scaliger  family  exercised  a   brilliant  tyranny 


over  the  city.  It  fell  then  to  Milan,  in  1405  to 
Venice,  and  with  Venice  passed  under  Austrian 
domination  till  1866. 

Versailles  (French  pron.  nearly  Ver-sV),  a  city 
of  France,  capital  of  the  dep.  Seine-et-Oise,  11 
miles  SW.  of  Paris  by  rail.  A  city  more  of 
pleasure  than  of  industry,  it  covers  a  large  area 
In  proportion  to  its  population,  and  is  remark- 
ably regular.  It  is  the  see  of  a  bishop,  and  con- 
tains a  public  library  of  50,000  volumes,  many 
palatial  edifices,  public  fountains,  spacious 
squares,  and  elm-planted  avenues.  Louis  XIII. 
built  here  on  the  site  of  an  old  priory  a  hunting- 
lodge,  afterwards  extended  into  a  chateau.  Louis 
XIV.  devoted  enormous  sums  to  its  embellish- 
ment, or  rather  reconstruction,  under  the  care  of 
Mansard.  Here  was  signed  in  1783  the  peace  of 
Versailles  between  England  and  the  United 
States.  Versailles  continued  a  court-residence 
down  to  the  Revohition,  which  great  event  had 
its  beginning  here  in  the  meeting  of  the  States- 
general  in  May  1789.  At  this  date  the  pop.  was 
100,000;  the  palace,  its  park,  the  perfection  of 
fonnal  landscape  gardening,  and  its  fountains 
have  been  the  model  of  many  capitals.  Louis- 
Philippe  transformed  the  palace  of  Louis  XIV. 
into  a  museum.  Tlie  most  interesting  pictures 
are  those  by  David  (illustrating  Napoleon's 
career),  Horace  Vernet,  Ary  Scheft'er,  and  Dela- 
croix. From  September  1870  till  the  conclusion 
of  peace  in  1871  Versailles  was  the  German  head- 
quarters ;  there  King  William  was  proclaimed 
Emperor  of  Germany,  and  there  the  capitulation 
of  Paris  was  signed.  After  the  peace  it  was  the 
seat  of  the  government  till  1879,  and  head- 
quarters of  the  army  during  the  Commune. 
Pop.  (1876)  49,522  ;  (1881)  48,324  ;  (1901)  44,563. 

Versecz  (Ver-shetz'),  a  Hungarian  town,  45  miles 
S.  of  Temesvar  by  rail.    Pop.  25,200. 

Ver'ulam.    See  St  Albans. 

Vervlok.    See  Werwicque. 

Vervlers  (Verv-yay'%  a  Belgian  town,  on  the 
Vesdre,  15  miles  ESE.  of  Liege.  It  is  of  recent 
growth,  and  depends  almost  wholly  on  its  cloth 
manufactures.     Pop.  (1876)  37,828  ;  (1900)  49,067. 

Vervins  (Ver-van^'),  a  town  (pop.  3150)  in  the 
French  dep.  of  Aisne,  25  miles  NE.  of  Laon. 

Vesonl  (VezooV),  capital  of  the  French  dep. 
Haute-Saone,  40  miles  W.  of  Belfort.    Pop.  8460. 

Vesu'vlus,  the  most  striking  object  seen  from 
the  Bay  of  Naples,  a  mountain  (4206  feet)  of 
dense  tufa.  The  higher  Apennine-offshoot,  Monte 
Somma  (anc.  Mons  Summanus),  surrounds  it  on 
the  N.  and  E.  Vesuvius  first  (63  a.d.)  became 
convulsed  by  earthquakes,  repeated  at  intervals 
till  79,  when  its  earliest  known  eruption  occurred 
(see  Pompeii).  This  was  followed  by  others,  as 
in  472,  when  its  ashes  alighted  in  Constantinople ; 
in  512,  when  they  were  wafted  to  Tripoli ;  in  1036 ; 
in  1500 ;  in  1631 ;  in  1793 ;  in  1822  ;  in  1855  ;  in 
1861 ;  in  1871-72 ;  and  in  April  1906,  Avhen  lava 
streams  issued  and  ashes  covered  a  large  area, 
destroying  two  villages,  and  breaking  down  roofs 
in  Naples.  The  fertility  of  the  slopes  of  Vesuvius 
is  proverbial,  especially  in  wine.  Its  observatory 
(1844)  is  famous.  The  first  funicular  railway  to 
near  the  summit  was  opened  in  1880.  See  works 
by  Prof.  Phillips  (1869)  and  Lobley  (1889). 

Veszprim  (Fess-pree«i),  a  Hungarian  city,  25 
miles  SW.  of  Stuhlweissenburg.     Pop.  14,584. 

Vev'ay,  or  Vevey  (Ger.  Vivis),  a  Swiss  town  in 
the  canton  of  Vaud,  a  lovely  health-resort,  on  the 
N.  shore  of  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  11  miles  E.  of 


VEZELAY 


727 


VICTORIA 


Lausanne.  In  St  Martin's  church  (date  1498) 
Ludlow  and  Broughton,  the  regicides,  are  buried. 
Cigars  are  made  and  exported.    Pop.  11,790. 

V^zelay  (Vay'ze-lay'),  a  small  town  (pop.  800) 
in  the  French  dep.  of  Yonne,  5  miles  SE.  of 
Auxerra  Its  abbey  church  was  restored  in  1868. 
Hither  Becket  retired  in  1168 ;  here  St  Bernard 
in  1145  preached  the  Crusade ;  and  here  Coeur  de 
Lion  and  Philip  Augustus  united  their  forces  in 
1190  for  the  third  crusade.     Beza  was  a  native. 

Via-Mala  (Veea-Mah'la),  a  remarkable  gorge  in 
the  Swiss  canton  of  Grisons,  on  the  course  of  the 
Farther  Rhine.  The  roadway  (1823)  runs  for  2 
miles  in  half-open  galleries  or  in  a  tunnel ;  the 
rock-walls  on  either  hand  rising  to  1600  feet. 

Vian'na,  a  seaport  of  Portugal,  at  the  Lima's 
mouth,  45  miles  N.  of  Oporto  by  rail.    Pop.  9816. 

Viaregglo  (Veeared'jo),  an  Italian  health-resort 
on  the  Mediterranean,  15  miles  NW.  of  Pisa  by 
rail.     Pop.  17,190. 

Viat'ka.    See  Vyatka. 

Viborg  (i  as  ee),  capital  of  a  division  of  Finland, 
at  the  head  of  an  inlet  from  the  Gulf  of  Finland, 
75  miles  NW.  of  St  Petersburg,  with  Transuiul, 
8  miles  distant,  for  its  port.  Pop.  33,000.— The 
Danish  Viborg,  45  miles  NW.  of  Aarhuus,  has  but 
9100. 

YiOQnza,(Vee-che7itf za;  anc.  Ticen-iia),  an  Italian 
city  surrounded  by  a  moat  and  half-ruined  walls, 
42  miles  W.  of  Venice  by  rail.  In  the  Piazza  dei 
Signori,  a  remarkably  fine  square,  is  a  slender 
campanile,  270  feet  high.  Palladio  was  a  native ; 
and  Vicenza  owes  to  him  many  fine  buildings,  as 
the  prefect's  palace.  The  Gothic  Duonio  was 
built  in  the  13th  c.  Silk,  linen,  earthenware, 
paper,  and  velvet  are  manufactured.   Pop.  44,800. 

Vich,  or  ViQUE  (Veetch  or  Veekay),  a  Spanish 
city,  40  miles  N.  of  Barcelona.     Pop.  12,600. 

Vichy  (Vee-shee'),  a  town  in  the  heart  of  France, 
dep.  AUier,  on  the  river  Allier,  30  miles  SSE.  of 
Moulins  by  rail.  It  is  the  most  freqiiented 
bathing-resort  in  France.  The  alkaline,  acidulous 
springs  (54°-113°  F.)  which  rise  at  the  foot  of  the 
volcanic  mountains  of  Auvergne,  are  used  both 
for  drinking  and  bathing.  Millions  of  bottles  of 
Vichy  water  are  exported  annually.  Its  virtues 
were  known  in  Roman  times,  as  is  testified  by 
the  remains  of  marble  baths  ;  its  modern  repute 
it  owes  to  Napoleon  III.  Now  this  town  of  (1901) 
14.050  inhabitants  is  visited  yearly  by  20,000  to 
80,000  persons.    See  a  work  by  Cormack  (1887). 

Vicksburg,  the  largest  city  of  Mississippi, 
stands  on  a  high,  uneven  bluff  above  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  235  miles  NNW.  of  New  Orleans. 
Cotton  is  shipped,  and  railroad  cars  and  iron  are 
manufactured.  The  place  was  strongly  fortified 
by  the  Confederates,  but  after  a  nine  weeks' 
siege  by  land  and  water,  surrendered  on  4th  July 
1864,  with  nearly  30,000  men.     Pop.  14,840. 

Victoria,  the  smallest  state,  after  Tasmania,  in 
the  Australian  Commonwealth.  It  was  sighted  by 
Captain  Cook  in  1770,  and  the  harbour  of  Port 
Phillip  was  discovered  in  1801 ;  but  it  was  not 
permanently  colonised  till  1835.  Port  Phillip  was 
administered  from  Sydney  from  1836  till  1851,  when 
it  was  constituted  the  colony  of  Victoria.  Victoria 
occupies  the  south-east  of  Australia  (separated 
from  New  South  Wales  by  the  Murray  River), 
and  has  an  extreme  length  from  E.  to  W.  of  420 
miles,  while  its  greatest  breadth  is  only  250 ;  its 
coast-line  is  600  miles,  and  its  area  87,884  sq.  m. 
(almost  exactly  the  same  as  England,  Wales,  and 
Scotland).     Gold  was  discovered  in  1851,  and 


attracted  many  immigrants ;  the  first  railway  was 
opened  in  1854 ;  and  responsible  government  was 
introduced  in  1857.  A  chain  of  varying  height, 
the  Dividing  Range,  traverses  the  greater  portion 
of  the  colony  from  E.  to  W.  60  to  80  miles  from 
the  coast ;  the  eastern  portion,  termed  the 
Australian  Alps  (with  peaks  touching  6500  feet), 
divides  the  watershed  of  the  Murray  from  Gipps- 
land.  Most  of  the  rivers  rise  here ;  those  on  the 
north  find  their  way  into  the  Murray,  which  has 
a  total  length,  including  bends,  of  1300  miles,  980 
of  which  form  the  northern  boundary  of  the 
colony.  The  principal  streams  flowing  north 
are  the  Mitta  Mitta,  175  miles  long  ;  Ovens,  140  ; 
Goulburn,  345  ;  Loddon,  225  ;  Avoca,  163  ;  and 
Wimmera,  228  ;  the  last  mentioned  losing  itself 
in  Lake  Hindmarsh.  The  chief  of  the  southern 
streams  are  the  Snowy,  Glenelg,  Yarra,  and 
Latrobe.  Many  of  these  rivers  are  in  the  summer 
season  mere  chains  of  water-holes,  and  only  the 
Murray  and  Yarra  are  navigable.  The  principal 
lakes  are  Victoria  (45  sq.  m.)  and  Wellington  (54) 
in  Gippsland,  Corangamite  (90 ;  salt),  in  the  West- 
ern District,  and  Hindmarsh  (47  ;  brackish)  and 
Tyrrell  (66 ;  salt),  in  the  Wimmera  or  NW.  District. 

The  greater  portion  of  Victoria  was  in  its 
natural  state  an  open  forest,  but  in  the  W.  there 
were  large  plains,  and  a  portion  of  the  extreme 
NW.  is  covered  with  a  dense  scrub  of  dwarf 
eucalyptus  (mallee).  At  Melbourne  the  maximum 
temperature  is  105°,  minimum  30°,  mean  57°  3', 
and  the  average  annual  rainfall  is  25  26  inches. 
North  of  the  Dividing  Range  the  tempera- 
ture is  rather  higher  and  the  rainfall  rather 
less.  Most  of  the  gold-fields  are  in  the  central 
districts.  Gold  was  first  worked  at  Clunes, 
Ballarat,  Forest  Creek,  and  Bendigo.  Originally 
the  workings  were  shallow  and  alluvial,  but  mo^;}; 
of  the  gold  is  now  obtained  from  quartz  reefs 
(some  being  2500  feet  deep).  The  total  yield  of 
gold  up  to  1904  was  over  67,557,353  oz.  (value 
£269,970,746),  more  than  half  the  produce  of  all 
Australasia.  Copper,  silver,  tin,  coal,  and  anti- 
mony have  been  found,  and  brown  coal  is  abun- 
dant. There  are  n)ore  than  11,000,000  sheep,  and 
1,600,000  cattle.  The  chief  crop  is  wheat;  the 
other  cereals  are  grown,  with  potatoes,  hops,  and 
tobacco  ;  and  of  late  much  wine,  brandy,  grapes, 
and  raisins  are  produced.  All  the  English  fruits 
grow  in  Victoria,  besides  those  of  southern 
Europe.  There  are  over  3000  miles  of  railway, 
in  five  systems,  which  connect  with  Adelaide  and 
Sydney.  The  fiscal  policy  is  protective.  The 
value  of  total  imports  in  1808-1903  fluctuated 
between  £16,770,000  and  £18,927,340  ;  that  of  ex- 
ports fluctuated  from  £15,872,246  to  £19,707,070 
(including  in  order  gold,  wool,  live-stock,  cereals, 
butter,  hides,  and  meat).  The  exports  to  Britain 
average  above  £6,000,000  annually  ;  the  imports 
thence  range  from  £4,700,000  to  near  £8,000,000. 
The  revenue,  over  8  millions  in  1891,  had  de- 
creased, owing  to  a  commercial  crisis,  to  about 
6  millions  during  1893-98,  but  in  1901-4  had 
recovered  to  over  8  millions ;  the  expenditure 
being  a  little  less.  The  debt,  incurred  for  public 
works,  was  upwards  of  £51,500,000  in  1904. 

The  executive  government  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
governor  chosen  by  the  sovereign,  assisted  by  a 
ministry  appointed  by  the  governor,  but  respons- 
ible to  the  legislature.  The  legislative  council 
consists  of  thirty-five  members,  who  must  possess, 
and  are  elected  by  persons  who  enjoy,  a  property 
qualification  ;  and  a  legislative  assembly  of  sixty- 
eight  members,  who  have  no  qualification,  and 
are  elected  practically  by  universal  snff'rage  of 
all  male  adult  residents  of  British  nationality. 


VICTORIA 


7^8 


VIENNfi 


Members  of  the  legislative  assembly  receive  a 
salary  of  £300  per  annum.  Tlie  state  is  divided 
into  thirty-seven  counties,  but  for  purposes  of 
administration  it  consists  of  sixty  urban  muni- 
cipalities, called  cities,  towns,  or  boroughs,  and 
148  rural  municipalities  or  shires.  The  defence 
force  includes  5000  officers  and  men  of  all  arms  ; 
the  naval  flotilla  comprises  one  ironclad,  six  gun- 
boats, and  some  torpedo  boats.  The  fleet  con- 
sists of  fourteen  vessels-  Educational  establish- 
ments are  of  four  kinds  :  the  Melbourne  Uni- 
versity, with  affiliated  Anglican,  Presbyterian, 
and  Wesleyan  colleges ;  technical  schools  and 
colleges,  including  five  schools  of  mines  ;  an  agri- 
cultural college,  and  w^orking-men's  college  ;  and 
private  and  primary  state  schools.  Primary 
education  is  free,  secular,  and  compulsory. 
There  is  no  state  church.  Melbourne  and 
Ballarat  are  the  sees  of  Anglican  bishops,  and 
th*e  R.  C.  Church  has  an  archbishop  of  Melbourne 
and  bishops  of  Ballarat,  Sandhurst,  and  Sale. 
Episcopalians  number  432,704,  and  Catholics 
263,710.  The  pop.  at  the  census  of  1901  was 
1,200,914—98  per  cent.  British  subjects  by  birth. 
Aborigines  and  Chinese  had  much  decreased 
since  last  census.  In  1903  there  were  52,756  im- 
migrants and  the  exceptionally  large  number  of 
66,159  emigrants.  Three-fifths  of  the  pop.  live  in 
towns — Melbourne,  the  capital  (with  two-fifths 
of  the  total  pop,),  Ballarat,  Sandhurst,  Geelong, 
&c.  See  Australia  and  books  there  cited,  and 
works  on  Victoria  by  Hayter,  Tliomson,  Walch, 
Brough  Smith,  M'Coy,  Jenks,  Bonwick,  Labil- 
liere,  Shillinglaw,  Westgarth,  and  Turner. 

Victoria.    See  Hong-kong  ;  also  Cameroons. 

Victoria,  capital  of  British  Columbia,  near  the 
SE,  extremity  of  Vancouver's  Island,  Esquimalt 
(q.v.)  is  2  miles  distant.  Victoria  possesses 
government  buildings,  a  cathedral,  public  library, 
hospitals,  electric  trams  and  lighting,  and  fac- 
tories.    Pop,  (1881)  5925  ;  (1901)  20,816. 

Victoria,  (1)  a  seaport  of  Brazil,  on  an  island 
in  Espirito  Santo  Bay  ;  pop.  10,000. — (2)  Capital 
of  Taniaulipas  state  in  Mexico  ;  pop.  14,575.— 
(3)  A  town  of  Guzman  Blanco  state  in  Vene- 
zuela ;  pop.  12,000. 

Victoria,  or  Fort  Victoria,  a  British  station 
in  Mashonaland  (founded  1890),  150  miles  N.  of 
the  Limpopo,  on  the  trade-route  to  Salisbury. 

Victoria  Falls.    See  Zambesi. 

Victoria  Lake,  or  Alexandrine  Lake,  a 
shallow  lake  of  South  Australia.    See  Murray. 

Victoria  Nyanza  (y  consonantal),  a  great  fresh- 
water lake  in  East  Central  Africa,  situated  on 
the  Equator,  and  on  the  meridian  of  33°  E,,  lies 
3820  feet  above  sea-level,  and  has  an  area  of  over 
30,000  sq.  m.,  or  about  the  size  of  Ireland.  The 
water  is  good  and  fresh,  although  somewhat  in- 
sipid, and  often  dirty  white.  The  lake  is  drained 
by  the  Nile,  and  its  chief  feeders  are  the  Kajera, 
the  Nzoia,  the  Shimiyu,  and  the  Katonga.  Tides 
have  been  noticed,  the  rise  lasting  from  30  to 
60  minutes.  The  lake,  whose  native  name  is 
Ukerewe,  was  discovered  by  Speke  in  1858,  visited 
by  him  and  Grant  in  1861-62,  and  subsequently 
explored  by  Stanley  (1875),  Mackay,  Thomson,  &c. 

Vidin.    See  Widdin. 

Vien'na  (Ger.  Wien ;  pron.  Veen),  the  capital 
of  the  Austrian  empire,  is  situated  in  Lower 
Austria,  on  the  Danube  Canal,  a  south  branch  of 
the  Danube,  here  joined  by  the  small  river  Wien. 
Vienna  proper  (pop,  in  1880,  726,000;  in  1890, 
831,472)  consists  of  the  Inner  City  and  eight 
suburban  districts  surrounding  it,  almost  wholly 


encircled  by  fortifications  known  as  the  Lines ; 
beyond  which  again  are  nine  populous  suburbs  in- 
cluded (since  1890)  within  the  Vienna  police- 
district,  which  has  a  total  area  of  51  sq,  m,,  and 
pop.  (1900)  of  1,674,957.  The  irregular  hexagon 
formed  by  the  Inner  City  was  until  1858  enclosed 
by  an  inner  line  of  fortifications,  the  site  of  which 
is  now  occupied  by  the  Ringstrasse,  a  series  of 
handsome  boulevards.  Though  Vienna  contains 
buildings  of  the  14th  and  even  of  the  13th  cen- 
tury, it  is,  in  its  present  form,  essentially  a 
modern  city.  The  Inner  City  and  the  Ring- 
strasse are  the  handsomest  and  most  fashionable 
quarters.  In  the  former  are  the  cathedral  of  St 
Stephen  (1300-1510),  with  a  steeple  450  feet  high ; 
the  Hofburg  or  imperial  palace,  a  large  and 
irregular  pile  of  very  various  dates ;  and  many 
palaces  of  the  nobility.  On  one  side  or  other  of 
the  Ringstrasse  rise  the  Exchange ;  the  Uni- 
versity (1874-84);  the  huge  Gothic  Rathhaus 
(1873-83) ;  the  Parliament  House ;  the  Supreme 
Law  Courts ;  the  Imperial  Museums  of  Natural 
History  and  of  Art  (1872-86),  twin  buildings  on 
either  side  of  the  imposing  monument  of  the 
Empress  Maria  Theresa  (unveiled  1888);  the 
imperial  Opera-house  ;  the  Academy  of  Art ;  the 
Austrian  Museum  of  Art  and  Industry,  &c.  In 
other  parts  of  the  city  are  the  Arsenal ;  the 
Josephinum,  a  medical  college  founded  in  1784  ; 
and  the  Votive  Church,  an  admirable  specimen  of 
modern  Gothic,  built  in  1856-79  to  commemorate 
the  emperor's  escape  from  assassination  in  1853. 
Vienna  is  well  provided  with  public  parks,  the 
largest  being  the  Prater  (7  sq.  m.),  one  of  the 
finest  parks  in  Europe,  opened  in  1766.  The  uni- 
versity, founded  in  1365  and  renowned  through- 
out the  world  as  a  medical  school,  has  a  teaching- 
staff  of  350  and  over  6000  students.  The  mag- 
nificent public  picture-gallery,  now  in  the  Museum 
of  Art,  is  specially  famous  for  its  unrivalled 
examples  of  the  Venetian  school,  Rubens,  and 
Diirer.  The  Public  Hospital,  with  2000  beds,  is 
perhaps  the  largest  hospital  in  Europe,  Vienna 
is  the  chief  industrial  city  in  the  empire. 
Machinery,  scientific  and  musical  instruments, 
artistic  goods  in  bronze,  leather,  terra-cotta, 
porcelain,  &c,,  furniture,  meerschaum-pipes,  &c. 
are  among  the  noted  manufactures.  As  a  centre 
of  trade  and  finance  Vienna  is  no  less  important. 
Over  2^  million  pounds  were  spent  in  1868-81  in 
regulating  the  channel  of  the  Danube. 

The  Roman  Vindohona  was  established  in  14 
A.D.  as  the  successor  of  the  Celtic  Vindomina. 
Its  present  importance  dates  only  from  the 
Crusades.  In  1276  it  became  the  capital  of  the 
Hapsburg  dynasty.  The  Turks  besieged  Vienna 
from  July  14  to  September  12,  1683,  Avhen  John 
Sobieski  of  Poland  relieved  it.  Treaties  have 
been  concluded  here  in  1738,  1864,  and  1866. 
The  Congress  of  Vienna  (1814-15)  re-arranged  the 
map  of  Europe,  disturbed  by  the  French  Revolu- 
tion and  Napoleon,  somewhat  on  the  old  lines. 

Vienna,  a  dep.  of  W.  France,  formed  mainly 
out  of  Poitou.  Area,  2691  sq.  m, ;  pop,  (1881) 
340,295  ;  (1901)  333,896.  The  Vienne,  an  affluent 
of  tlie  Loire,  is  the  chief  river.  The  arrondisse- 
ments  are  Poitiers  (the  capital),  Chatellerault, 
Civray,  Loudun,  Montmorillon. 

Vienna  (Vee-enn'),  a  town  in  the  French  dep.  of 
Isere  (far  away  from  that  of  Vienne),  on  the 
Rhone's  left  bank,  19  miles  S.  of  Lyons  by  rail, 
where  the  Gere  joins  the  Rlioue.  Vienne  was 
the  chief  town  of  the  Allobroges,  and  in  the 
time  of  the  Roman  empire  the  rival  of  Lyons. 
Besides  water-conduits,  &c.,  of  Roman  construe* . 


VIENNE 


729 


VIRGINIA 


tion,  there  are  a  Corinthian  temple,  remains  of 
a  theatre,  and  an  obelisk,  called  L'Aiguille,  72 
feet  high.  The  archiepiscopal  cathedral  was 
built  in  1107-1251 ;  St  Peter's  dates  from  the  6th 
c.  In  a  council  held  here  (1312)  Pope  Clement 
V.  suppressed  the  Templars.  Vienne  manufac- 
tures woollens,  silk,  paper,  leather,  and  iron 
goods.     Pop.  (1872)  21,430  ;  (1901)  22,770. 

Vienne,- Haute,  a  French  dep.  SE.  of  Vienne. 
Area,  2130  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1872)  322,447 ;  (1901) 
374,212.  The  arrondisseinents  are  Limoges  (the 
capital),  Bellac,  Rochechouart,  and  Saint-Yrieix. 

Viersen  (Feer'sen),  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia, 
20  miles  NW.  of  Diisseklorf.  It  manufactures 
plush,  silk,  cotton,  and  flax.     Pop.  24,800. 

Vierzon-Ville  (Vee-er-zon^'),  a  French  manu- 
facturing town  in  dep.  Cher,  20  miles  NW.  of 
Bourges.     Pop.  11,559. 

Vlgan,  Le  (Vee-gon^'),  a  town  of  France,  dep. 
Gard,  45  miles  WNW.  of  Nimes.    Pop.  4050. 

Vigevano  {Veejay' vano),  a  cathedral  city  of 
Italy,  20  miles  NW.  of  Pavia.     Pop.  14,000. 

Vigo  (Fce'gfo),  a  seaport  and  health-resort  of 
NW.  Spain,  on  a  deep  bay  (20  miles),  20  miles 
SW,  of  Pontevedra  by  rail ;  pop.  23,000.  Vigo 
was  taken  by  Drake  in  1585  and  1589,  by  Lord 
Cobham  in  1719 ;  and  in  1702  the  Spanish  gal- 
leons, defended  by  a  French  fleet,  were  captured 
or  destroyed  here  by  the  British  and  Dutch. 

Vijayanagar  (Vee-ji'a-nug'gar),  a  ruined  city 
in  Madras  province,  40  miles  NW.  of  Bellary. 

Villafranca,  a  town  of  Italy,  9  miles  SW.  of 
Verona  by  rail,  where  in  1859  peace  was  con- 
cluded between  Austria  and  France.     Pop.  7500. 

VlUareal  (Span.  pron.  Veel-ya-ray-al'),  a  Span- 
ish town  40  miles  NE.  of  Valencia.    Pop.  16,500. 

Villa  Rica,  second  town  of  Paraguay,  is  70 
miles  SE.  of  Asuncion,  with  25,000  inhabitants 
and  a  large  trade  in  tobacco  and  mate. 

Villefranche  (Veel-fron^sh'),  or  Villafranca,  a 
French  fortified  port  in  the  dep.  Alpes  Mari- 
times,  3  miles  E.  of  Nice.  Pop.  3860.— (2)  Ville- 
franche de  Rouergue,  in  Aveyron,  70  miles  NE. 
of  Toulouse  by  rail ;  pop.  7588.— (3)  Villefranclie- 
sur-Sa6ne,  in  the  dep.  Rhone,  20  miles  NW.  of 
Lyons,  has  cotton  manufactures  ;  pop.  14,030. 

Villena  (Veel-yay'na),  a  town  of  Spain,  25  miles 
NW.  of  Alicante  by  rail.     Pop.  14,100. 

Villeneuve  (nearly  Veel-nehv'),  the  name  of 
numerous  French  towns,  the  largest  Villeneuve- 
sur-Lot,  or  d'Agen,  in  Lot-et-Garonne,  15  miles 
N.  of  Agen  by  rail  ;  pop.  12,890. 

Vil'na,  capital  of  a  government  of  W.  Russia, 
on  the  Vilia,  430  miles  SW.  of  St  Petersburg  by 
rail,  with  a  trade  in  timber  and  corn  ;  population, 
158,000.     It  was  the  Lithuanian  capital. 

VImeiro  (Vee-may-ee'ro),  also  spelt  Vimiera,  a 
Portuguese  town  (pop.  1800),  30  miles  N.  of 
Lisbon,  where  in  1808  Wellington  defeated  Junot. 

Vinaroz  (VeenarotW),  a  port  of  Spain,  45  miles 
NE.  of  Castellon  by  rail.     Pop.  9920. 

Vincennes  (Van^senn'),  an  eastern  suburb  of 
Paris,  just  outside  the  fortifications,  whose  park, 
the  Bois  de  Vincennes,  is  tlie  pleasure-ground  of 
eastern  Paris.  .The  ancient  castle  (14th  c.)  was 
long  a  state-prison,  and  in  1834  was  made  a  fort. 
In  its  moat  the  Due  d'Enghien  was  shot. 

Vincennes  (Vinsenns'),  the  oldest  town  (1735) 
in  Indiana,  on  the  navigable  Wabash,  52  miles 
by  rail  N.  of  Evansville.  It  contains  a  R.  C. 
cathedral,  steam  flour-mills,  &c.     Pop.  10,250. 

Vindhya  Mountains.    See  India. 


Vin'egar  Hill  (389  feet  high),  close  to  Ennis- 
corthy.  County  Wexford,  scene  of  the  rout  of  the 
Irish  rebels  by  General  Lake,  June  21,  1798. 

Vinnit'za,  a  Russian  town,  in  Podolia,  stands 
on  the  Bug,  120  miles  SW.  of  Kieff.    Pop.  28,733. 

Vionville  (Veeon^veel),  a  village  of  Lorraine 
(pop.  450),  20  miles  W.  of  Metz.  In  the  great 
cavalry  battle  named  from  it  or  the  next  village 
of  Mars-la-Tour,  the  French  were  driven  back  on 
Metz,  August  16,  1870. 

Viramgam,  a  town  of  Bombay  Presidency,  27 
miles  W.  of  Ahinedabad  by  rail.    Pop.  23,209.     • 

Vire  (Feer),  a  town  in  the  Norman  dep.  Calvados, 
on  the  Vire,  35  miles  SW.  of  Caen.    Pop.  6635. 

Virginia,  a  middle  Atlantic  state  of  the 
American  Union,  separated  from  Maryland  by  the 
Potomac  River  and  Chesapeake  Bay,  and  bounded 
S.  by  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee,  W.  and  N¥f. 
by  Kentucky  and  West  Virginia.  Its  greatest 
length  from  E.  to  W.  is  475  miles ;  its  greatest 
width  190  miles  ;  and  its  land  area  40,125  sq.  m., 
with  a  water  area  of  2325.  The  surface  consists 
of  a  series  of  belts  parallel  to  the  coast  on  the 
E.  and  the  Appalachian  Mountains  on  the  W. 
The  fifth  and  highest  of  these  belts,  styled 
'  Appalachia,'  is  a  series  of  long  narrow  valleys 
2000  feet  or  more  above  the  sefc,  enclosed  be- 
tween the  ranges  of  the  Alleghany  Mountains. 
The  chief  rivers  are  the  Potomac,  Rappahannock, 
York,  James,  Blackwater,  and  Roanoke.  A 
seventh  of  the  state  is  drained  by  the  Kanawha 
or  New  River,  Holston,  and  Clinch,  which  feed 
the  Ohio.  Virginia  Is  famous  for  its  mineral 
springs,  and  has  its  Natural  Bridge,  in  Rock- 
bridge county,  and  many  caverns.  Except  on 
the  swampy  coast  the  climate  is  i)leasant  and 
healthful.  The  soils  are  mostly  fertile,  and  the 
state  contains  extensive  forests.  Waterfowl, 
partridges  or  quails,  pigeons,  grouse,  wild 
turkeys,  and  deer  are  plentiful.  The  fisheries 
supply  large  quantities  of  fish  ;  oyster-culture  is 
important.  Indian  corn,  oats,  and  barley  are 
extensively  grown.  Tobacco  has  always  been  a 
staple  crop,  and  the  'Virginia  leaf  is  noted 
throughout  the  world.  Among  the  mineral  pro- 
ducts are  building  stones,  iron,  lead,  and  zinc  ores, 
gold  (once  largely  worked),  and  bituminous  and 
anthracite  coal.  Virginia  has  100  counties  and 
eighteen  cities  independent  of  county  govern> 
ment.  The  chief  cities  are  Richmond  (the 
capital),  Norfolk,  Petersburg,  Roanoke,  Newport 
News,  Lynchburg,  Portsmouth,  Danville,  and 
Alexandria.  The  history  of  Virginia  is  si>ecially 
romantic  and  heroic.  It  was  here  that  the  first 
lasting  colony  was  established  in  1607  by  the 
English.  At  Jamestown  was  held  the  first  repre- 
sentative assembly  in  America.  With  its  early 
period  are  associated  the  names  of  Captain  John 
Smith  and  Pocahontas.  Such  was  the  prosperity 
of  the  colony  that  at  the  end  of  the  colonial 
period  Virginia  was  the  most  populous  and 
wealthy  of  the  thirteen  colonies.  In  the  protest 
against  the  Stamp  Act  and  the  encroachments 
of  Great  Britain  Virginia  took  the  lead,  and  in 
the  revolutionary  struggle  furnished  such  noted 
sons  as  Washington,  Jefferson,  Patrick  Henry, 
the  Lees,  and  Madison.  At  Yorktown  Corn- 
wallis's  surrender  put  an  end  to  the  contest. 
In  the  civil  war  Virginia  furnished  the  Confederate 
commander,  Robert  E.  Lee,  and  on  its  soil  the 
last  battle  was  fought  and  the  final  surrender 
made.  Of  the  first  twenty-one  presidents  seven 
were  Virginians.  Pop.  (1800)  880,200;  (1860) 
1,596,318  ;  (1870,  after  the  separation  of  West 
Virginia)     1,225,163;     (1880)     1,512,565;     (1900) 


VIRGINIA 


730 


VOLTA 


1,854,180  (660,722  coloured).  See  The  New  Vir- 
ginians (2  vols.  Edin.  1881)  ;  and  other  works  by 
Bruce  (Richmond,  1891)  and  Drake  (1894). 

Virginia,  West.    See  West  Virginia. 

Virginia  City,  capital  of  Storey  county, 
Nevada,  is  built,  6200  feet  above  the  sea,  on  the 
eastern  side  of  Mount  Davidson,  21  miles  by  rail 
NNE.  of  Carson.  It  owes  its  existence  to  its 
silver-mines— the  Comstock  Lode,  the  Big  Bon- 
anza, &c.     Pop.  (1880)  10,917  ;   (1900)  2695. 

Virginia  Water,  an  artificial  lake,  nearly  2 
miles  long,  formed  in  1746  by  the  Duke  of  Cum- 
berland in  the  Great  Park  at  Windsor,  is  5  miles 
S.  of  the  castle. 

Virgin  Islands,  a  group  of  fifty  West  Indian 
islands.  The  total  area  is  261  sq.  m.,  and  the 
pop.  is  nearly  45,000.  Three,  St  Thomas,  Santa 
Cruz,  and  St  John,  belong  to  Denmark  (area,  130 
sq.  m.  ;  pop.  31,000).  Bieque,  or  Crab  Island 
(pop.  3000),  and  Culebra  were  ceded  by  Spain 
to  the  United  States  in  1898.  The  otliers  are 
British  ;  total  area,  58  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1881)  5287  ; 
(1891)  4639,  of  whom  only  about  150  are  whites. 
The  chief  of  the  British  Islands  are  Tortola, 
Virgin-Gorda,  and  Anegada. 

Vishni-Volotchok  (-ni  as  -nee),  a  town  of  Russia 
in  the  government  of  Tver,  230  miles  SE.  of  St 
Petersburg  by  "rail.     Pop.  16,590. 

Visnagar,  a  town  of  NE.  Baroda.    Pop.  21,376. 

Visp  (Feesp;  Fr.  Viege),  a  Swiss  village  (pop. 
900)  in  Vaud,  at  the  opening  of  the  Visp  valley 
to  the  Rhine,  42  miles  E.  of  Martigny. 

Vis'tula  (Lat.  ;  Polish  Vistla ;  Ger.  WeicJiseV), 
the  great  river  of  Poland,  rises  in  Austrian  Silesia, 
3600  feet  above  sea-level,  amongst  the  outliers  of 
the  Carpathians.  Formed  by  three  head-waters, 
the  White,  Little,  and  Black  Vistulas,  it  flows 
650  miles  northward,  but  with  many  bends,  and 
receiving  the  Bug  and  other  tributaries,  past 
Cracow,  Warsaw,  Plock,  Lipno,  Thorn,  Kulm, 
Graudenz,  and  Danzig,  till  it  enters  the  Baltic 
Sea  by  several  mouths. 

Vitebsk',  capital  of  a  government  of  W.  Russia, 
on  the  Western  Dwina,  380  miles  S.  of  St  Peters- 
burg by  rail.  Pop.  65,880  (many  Jews). — Area 
ot  governvient,  17,440  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,489,250. 

Viter'bo,  a  city  in  a  volcanic  region  on  the 
slopes  of  Monte  Cimino,  50  miles  NW.  of  Rome 
by  rail,  with  an  ancient  cathedral,  fine  palazzi, 
beautiful  fountains,  &c.    Pop.  15,279. 

Viti  Islands.    See  Fiji. 

Vitre  (Veetray),  a  walled  Breton  town,  dep. 
lUe-et-Vilaine,  on  the  Vilaine,  24  miles  E.  of 
Rennes  by  rail.  Rochers,  the  residence  of 
Madame  de  Sevigne,  is  3^  miles  S.    Pop.  9207. 

Vitry-le-FranQOis  (Veetree-leh-Fron^swah),  a 
fortified  town,  in  the  French  dep.  Marne,  on  the 
Marne,  127  miles  E.  by  S.  of  Paris.    Pop.  7984. 

Vitto'ria,  capital  of  the  Basque  province  of 
Alava,  120  miles  NE.  of  Valladolid.  The  cathe- 
dral dates  from  the  12th  c.  Pop.  33,650.  Wel- 
lington here  defeated  the  French,  June  21, 1813. 

Vitu.    See  Witu. 

Vizagapatam'  ('city  of  Visakha,'  the  Hindu 
Mars),  a  seaport  in  the  Northern  Circars,  Madras, 
on  the  Bay  of  Bengal,  100  miles  NE.  of  the 
mouth  of  the  Goda very.    Pop.  43,000. 

Vizeu  (Veezay'oo),  a  city  of  Portugal,  50  miles 
NE.  of  Coimbra,  with  a  fine  cathedral  and  Roman 
and  Moorish  remains.     Pop.  8956. 

Vizianagram',  a  town  of  Madras,  35  miles  NE. 
of  Vizagapatam.    Pop.  38,500. 


Vlaardingen  {Vlahr'ding-eii),  a  town  of  Hol- 
land, 5  miles  W.  of  Rotterdam,  near  the  New 
Maas,  with  a  large  herring-fleet.     Pop.  16,670. 

Vladikav'kaz,  capital  of  the  Terek  province 
of  Cis-caucasia,  and  a  railway  terminus,  at  the 
foot  of  the  main  Caucasus  chain.  The  pop.  has 
rapidly  increased  from  8000  to  43,850. 

Vladimir  (Vladivieer'),  a  town  of  Russia,  on 
the  Kliasma's  left  bank,  120  miles  NE.  of  Moscow 
by  rail.  Founded  in  the  12th  c,  it  was  in  the 
14th  c.  practically  capital  of  Russia.  It  contains 
many  historical  remains,  as  the  Kreml  and  the 
'Golden  Gate'  (1158).  Pop.  19,305.— Area  of 
government,  18,864  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,570,730. 

Vladivostok,  a  town  of  E.  Asiatic  Russia,  near 
the  north  limit  of  Corea,  on  Peter  the  Great  Bay. 
It  has  one  of  the  finest  harbours  in  the  world, 
is  a  naval  station,  with  an  arsenal,  and  the  ter- 
minus of  the  overland  telegraph  by  Irkutsk  and 
Kiachta  ;  here,  too,  in  1891  the  Czarevitch  cut 
the  first  sod  of  the  great  Trans-Siberian  railway. 
Founded  in  1861,  it  had  at  the  outbreak  of  the 
Russo-Japanese  war  (1904-5)  a  pop.  of  30,000. 

Vliessingen  (Vleess'ing-en).    See  Flushing. 

Vode'na,  a  town  of  Turkey,  on  a  mountain- 
slope,  46  miles  WNW.  of  Saloniki.    Pop.  15,000. 

Vogesen.    See  Vosges. 

Voghera  (Vo-gay'ra;  anc.  Iria  Augttsta),  a  town 
of  Northern  Italy,  on  the  Staff'ora,  16  miles  by 
rail  SW.  of  Pavia.     Pop.  12,794. 

Veil,  Loch,  in  Balquhidder  parish,  Perthshire, 
SJ  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Lochearnhead  station.  An 
expansion  of  the  Balvag,  it  lies  414  feet  above 
sea-level,  and  measures  3i  miles  by  3  furlongs. 

Voiron  (Vwah-ron^'),  a  town  of  the  French  dep. 
Isere,  15  miles  NW.  of  Grenoble.     Pop.  8287. 

Volga  (Slav  'river'),  the  greatest  river  in 
Russia  and  the  longest  in  Europe,  having  a 
course  of  over  900  miles  as  the  crow  flies,  or, 
following  its  principal  sinuosities,  of  2400  from 
its  source  among  the  Valdai  Hills  in  Novgorod 
to  its  seventy  mouths  in  the  Caspian.  Over  a 
mile  broad  about  the  middle  of  its  course,  it  is 
navigable  from  near  its  source,  and  a  system  of 
canals  and  its  numerous  tributaries  make  it  one 
of  the  most  important  waterways  in  the  world, 
communicating  with  the  White  Sea,  Euxine, 
Baltic,  and  Gulf  of  Finland,  as  well  as  with  the 
Don,  Dniester,  Dnieper,  Dwina,  and  other  rivers. 
Some  15,000  vessels,  including  500  steamers,  navi- 
gate the  Volga.  Traffic  ceases  in  winter,  when 
the  waters  are  frozen.  The  fisheries  (sturgeon, 
carp,  and  pike)  are  of  great  importance.  The 
navigation  is  impeded  by  shoals  and  banks.  The 
principal  tributaries  are  the  Oka,  Kama,  Mologa, 
and  Viatka.  The  chief  towns  on  the  Volga  are 
Jaroslav,  Kostroma,  Nijni  Novgorod,  Kazan, 
Simbirsk,  Stavropol,  and  Samara. 

Volhynia  (Volhee'nia),  a  government  of  W. 
Russia  ;  area,  27,743  sq.  m.,  or  larger  than  Greece ; 
pop.  3,000,000.    The  capital  is  Zhitomir. 

Volo,  a  port  of  Thessaly,  on  the  Gulf  of  Volo, 
37  miles  by  rail  SE.  of  Larissa.     Pop.  16,230. 

Volog'da,  capital  of  a  NE.  province  of  Russia 
(stretching  to  the  Urals),  on  the  river  Vologda, 
260  miles  NE.  of  Moscow  by  rail.  Pop.  27,391.— 
Area  of  government,  155,498  sq.  m. ;  pop.  1,420,000. 

Volsk,  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the  Volga's  right 
bank,  70  miles  NE.  of  Saratofl'.     Pop.  37,832. 

Volta,  a  river  of  Upper  Guinea  which,  rising 
in  the  Kong  highlands,  runs  S.  between  Ashantee 
and  Dahomey  to  the  Bight  of  Benin. 


VOLTERRA 


*731 


WAKEFIELD 


Volterra  (anc.  Volaterrce),  a  town  35  miles 
SW.  of  Pisa,  with  Etruscan  remains.     Pop.  7500. 

Voltri  (i  as  ee),  a  coast-town  of  Italy,  9  miles 
W.  of  Genoa  by  rail.    Pop.  7358. 

Vorarlberg  (Foar'arl-berg).    See  Tyrol. 

Voronej,  or  Voronezh,  capital  of  a  Russian 
government  (area,  25,443  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  2,546,260), 
on  the  riglit  bank  of  the  Voronej,  300  miles  SE. 
of  Moscow  by  rail.    Pop.  81,150. 

Vosges  {Voazh;  Ger.  Vogesen),  a  range  of  moun- 
tains separating  Alsace  from  the  French  deps.  of 
Vosges  and  Meurthe  and  the  German  Lorraine, 
and  lying  partly  in  NE.  France  and  W.  Ger- 
many ;  highest  summits,  4100-4677  feet. 

Vosges,  a  mountainous  dep.  of  NE.  France, 
formed  out  of  the  south  part  of  the  old  province 
of  Lorraine,  and  bounded  E.  by  German  Alsace. 
Area,  2266  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1901)  419,784. 

Vostit'za,  a  Greek  town  on  the  Gulf  of  Corinth, 
25  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Patras.    Pop.  5311. 

Vranja  (Vrahn'ya),  a  town  of  Servia,  ceded 
by  Turkey  in  1878,  60  miles  S.  of  Nisch  by  rail. 
Pop.  11,930. 

Vratza,  capital  of  a  district  in  Bulgaria,  60 
miles  NW.  of  Sofia,  with  a  bishop,  a  school  of 
sericulture,  and  a  growing  trade.    Pop.  15,000. 


Yry\iVirg  (Vrlburg ;  meaning  in  Dutch  'Free 
town '),  capital  of  British  Bechuanaland,  near  a 
head-stream  of  the  Vaal  River,  145  miles  N.  of 
Kimberley  by  rail  (1890).  It  has  government 
buildings,  churches,  schools,  hospitals,  hotels, 
&c.     Pop.  5000. 

Vryheid,  capital  of  a  coal-bearing  district  now 
in  the  extreme  north-east  of  Natal,  transferred 
in  1902  from  the  Transvaal.    Pop,  5000. 

Vulcano  (Vool-kah'no).    See  Lipari  Islands. 

Vultur'nus  (mod.  Voltumo),  a  river  of  Cam- 
pania, on  which  stood  Vulturnum  city. 

Vyas'ma  (y  consonantal),  a  town  of  Russia,  110 
miles  ENB.  of  Smolensk  by  rail.    Pop.  15,148. 

Vyat'ka  (y  consonantal),  capital  of  a  Russian 
government  (area,  59,117  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  3,005,795), 
on  the  river  Vyatka,  280  miles  NE.  of  Nijni- 
Novgorod.    Pop.  24,998. 

Vyemyi.    See  Semiretchinsk. 

Vyrn'wy,  a  river  which  rises  on  the  borders  of 
Merioneth  and  Montgomery  and  joins  the  Severn 
8^  miles  above  Welshpool.  In  1881-92  its  upper 
waters  were  impounded  for  the  water-supply  of 
Liverpool,  68  miles  off ;  creating  an  artificial  lake 
of  1121  acres,  4|  miles  long  by  1^  broad,  and 
containing  2103  million  cubic  feet  of  water. 


/AAL  (Waul).    See  Rhine. 

Wabash  (Waw'bash),  capital  of 
Wabash  county,  Indiana,  on  the 
Wabash  River,  89  miles  by  rail  NNE. 
of  Indianapolis.  Pop.  8620.— The 
Wabash  River  rises  in  western  Ohio,  and  flows 
550  miles  to  the  Ohio  River.  The  Wabash  and 
Erie  Canal,  which  passes  the  town,  is  the  longest 
(476  miles)  in  the  States. 

Waco  (Way'ko),  'the  geyser  city'  of  Texas, 
capital  of  McLennan  county,  on  the  Brazos  River, 
crossed  by  a  suspension  bridge,  186  miles  NW.  of 
Houston.  It  has  Baylor  University,  sixteen 
artesian  wells  (104°  F.),  and  manufactures  of 
woollens,  mattresses,  and  saddlery.    Pop.  20,686. 

Wadai  (Wah-dl),  a  state  of  the  central  Soudan 
(q.v.),  in  the  French  sphere  between  Bagirnii 
and  Dar-Fur.    Pop.  1^  million  ;  capital,  Abesher. 

Wadebridge,  a  small  Cornish  seaport,  on  the 
Camel,  7  miles  NW.  of  Bodmin.— Pop.  2186^ 

Wadelai  (Wah-de-ll),  a  British  post  on  the 
Upper  Nile,  40  miles  below  its  exit  from  the 
Albert  Nyanza.— Old  Wadelai,  on  the  west  bank, 
a  Belgian-Congo  station. 

Wady  (Wah'dee),  an  Arabic  word  signifying  a 
river,  a  river-course,  a  ravine,  or  valley.— Wady 
Halfa  is  a  place  (pop.  3500)  on  the  Nile's  right 
bank,  just  below  the  second  or  great  cataract. 
After  the  Soudanese  rebellion  this  was  taken  as 
Egypt's  southward  limit.— Wady  Musa  is  the 
modern  name  of  Petra. 

Wagga  Wagga,  a  pastoral  and  agricultural 
town  of  New  South  Wales,  309  miles  SW.  of 
Sydney  by  rail,  with  a  great  railway  bridge  over 
the  Murrumbidgee  River.    Pop.  5100. 

Wagram  (Vah'gram),  a  village  10  miles  NE.  of 
Vienna,  where,  on  5-6th  July  1809,  the  Austrians 
were  defeated  by  Napoleon. 

Wahsatcli'  Mountains.    See  Utah. 

Waigatz  (Vl'gats).    See  Nova  Zembla. 

Waikato  (Wl-kah'to),  the  principal  river  of  the 
North  Island  of  New  Zealand,  flows  first  into 
Lake  Taupo,  and  then  out  of  it  northward  to 


Port  Waikato,  25  miles  S.  of  Manakau  Harbour, 
with  a  total  course  of  170  miles. 

Wainad.    See  Wynaad. 

Wainfleet,  a  Lincolnshire  town,  on  the  Steep- 
ing, 19  miles  NE.  of  Boston.     Pop.  1246. 

Waitomo  Caves,  New  Zealand,  on  the  Waitomo 
River,  running  to  the  Waikato  (q.v.). 

Waitzen  (Vlte'zen;  Magyar  Vcicz),  a  town  on 
the  Danube,  20  miles  N.  of  Pesth.    Pop.  16,800. 

Wakamatsu,  a  town  of  the  main  island  of 
Japan,  55  miles  SE.  of  Niigata,  with  manufac- 
tures of  lacquer-ware.     Pop.  31,500. 

Wakayama,  a  town  of  the  main  island  of 
Japan,  35  miles  SW.  of  Osaka,  with  important 
cotton  trade.    Pop.  70,700. 

Wakefield,  the  capital  of  the  West  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  stands  on  the  Calder  at  a  convergence 
of  railways,  9  miles  SSE.  of  Leeds,  27  SSW.  of 
York,  and  19  NW.  of  Doncaster.  In  1888  it  was 
constituted  the  seat  of  a  bishopric — its  cathedral 
the  fine  Perpendicular  parish  church,  which,  en- 
larged and  reconsecrated  in  1829,  and  again  en- 
larged about  1470,  was  restored  in  1857-86  from 
designs  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  at  a  cost  of  £30,000, 
and  has  a  tower  and  spire  247  feet  high.  On  the 
nine-arch  bridge  over  the  Calder  is  a  beautiful 
Decorated  chapel  (1357);  it  also  was  restored  in 
1847.  At  the  grammar-school,  chartered  in  1591, 
and  removed  to  new  buildings  in  1855,  were 
educated  Dr  Radclifl'e,  Archbishop  Potter,  the 
Benedictine  Cressy,  and  Bentley,  the  first  two 
natives.  The  town-hall,  French  Renaissance  in 
style,  was  erected  in  1880  at  a  cost  of  £72,000 ; 
and  other  buildings  are  the  corn  exchange,  fine 
art  institute,  Clayton  hospital,  and  lunatic 
asylum.  Though  not  the  great  '  clothing  town  * 
it  was  formerly,  Wakefield  still  manufactures 
woollens,  worsteds,  and  hosiery,  as  also  agri- 
cultural implements,  machinery,  &c.  It  was  in- 
corporated in  1848,  and  made  a  parliamentary 
borough  in  1832.  Pop.  (1851)  22,065;  (1881) 
33,240;  (1901)  41,544.  Here  the  Yorkists  were 
defeated  in  1460. 


WAKEFIELD 


732 


WALSALL 


Wakefield,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Massa- 
chusetts, 10  miles  N.  of  Boston.    Pop.  9970. 

Wakhan.    See  Badakhshan,  Afghanistan. 

Wakkerstroom,  capital  of  a  district  in  the 
north  of  Natal,  150  miles  N.  of  Pietermaritzburg, 
mostly  transferred  from  the  Transvaal  in  1902. 
Pop.  3000. 

Walcheren  (WaJil'hher-en ;  usu.  Waul'sher-en), 
a  Dutch  island  at  the  Scheldt's  moutli,  with 
50,000  inhabitants.  The  disastrous  British  Wal- 
chereii  Expedition  was  undertaken  in  1809. 

Wald,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  7  miles  SW. 
ofElberfeld,  with  ironworks.    Pop.  19,600. 

Waldeck  {w  as  v),  or  Waldeck-Pyrmont,  a 
small  German  principality  controlled  since  1867 
by  Prussia,  consists  of  two  parts,  Waldeck, 
between  Westphalia  and  Hesse-Nassau,  and  Pyr- 
mont,  a  patch  between  Lippe,  Westphalia,  Bruns- 
wick, and  Hanover.  The  country  is  high-lying 
and  poor.  Total  area,  438  sq.  m. ;  pop.  (1900) 
57,918—8636  in  Pyrmont.  The  capital  is  Arolsen 
(q.v.).  Pyrmont,  15  miles  E.  of  Detmold  (pop. 
1410),  has  famous  mineral  springs. 

Waldenburg,  a  town  of  Silesia,  43  miles  SW. 
of  Breslau.    Pop.  16,300. 

Wales,  a  great  peninsula  in  the  west  of  the 
island  of  Britain,  bounded  by  the  Irish  Sea,  St 
George's  Channel,  and  the  Bristol  Channel,  and 
touching  the  (now  English)  counties  of  Cheshire, 
Shropshire,  Hereford,  and  Monmouth  (q.v.).  The 
area  is  7363  sq.  m.,  about  a  fifth  larger  than  York- 
shire. The  principality  of  AVales,  administra- 
tively a  part  of  England,  though  differing  more 
or  less  widely  in  blood,  language,  national 
character,  and  religious  temper,  is  a  mountainous 
land,  and  contains  Snowdou  (q.v.),  the  highest 
point  in  South  Britain  ;  North  Wales  is  especially 
picturesque.  The  minerals  are  extremely  valu- 
able, and  South  Wales  contains  some  of  the  most 
important  coal  and  iron  industries  in  the  United 
Kingdom.  Copper,  zinc,  lead,  tin,  and  gold  are 
also  found.  The  physical  geography,  geology, 
climate,  &c.  are  dealt  with  at  Great  Britain. 
The  established  church  is  a  part  of  the  Church 
of  England,  with  four  episcopal  sees  ;  Noncon- 
formists, especially  Calvinistic  Methodists,  Con- 
gregationalists.  Baptists,  and  Wesleyans,  are  very 
numerous,  and  claim  to  be  a  large  majority  of 
the  total  population  (many  of  them  eager  for  dis- 
establishment) ;  but  the  proportions  are  much  dis- 
puted. There  are  university  colleges  at  Aberyst- 
with,  Bangor,  and  Cardiff,  and  theological 
colleges  at  Lampeter,  &c.  A  Welsh  university 
for  the  affiliation  of  the  colleges  was  created  in 
1894.  See  the  articles  on  the  several  Welsh 
counties,  and  on  the  towns,  Cardiff,  Swansea,  &c. 
The  following  table  shows  the  area  and  popula- 
tion of  the  twelve  Welsh  counties : 


County. 


Acres. 


Pop.  in  Pop.  in 

1881.  1901. 

Anglesey 193,511             51,416  .50,590 

Brecknockshire 4(iO,158             57,746  59,906 

Cardiganshire 443,387             70,270  60,273 

Carmarthenshire....  594,405  124,864  135,325 

Carnarvonshire 369,477  119,349  126,835 

Denbighshire 425,038  111,957  129,935 

Flintshire 161,807             80,441  81,725 

Glamorganshire 516,959  511,433  860,022 

Merionethshire 384,717             51,967  49.130 

Montgomeryshire....  495,089             65,710  54,892 

Pembrokeshire 391,181             91,824  88,749 

Radnorshire 276,552             23,528  23,263 


Total 4,712,281        1,360,505        1,760,609 

Of  the  total,  278,892  persons  were  set  down  as 


speaking  Welsh  only,  615,242  as  speaking  both 
Welsh  and  English;  so  that  894,134  (50-8  per 
cent.— as  against  70  per  cent,  in  1881)  did  or 
could  speak  Welsh. 

Walfish.    See  Walvisch. 

Walham  Green,  a  district  of  Middlesex,  6  miles 
WSW.  of  St  Paul's. 

Walker,  a  town  of  Northumberland,  on  the 
Tyne,  3  miles  E.  of  Newcastle.    Pop.  14,500. 

Walkerburn,  a  Peeblesshire  village,  with 
woollen  factories,  on  the  Tweed,  If  mile  E.  by 
N.  of  Innerleithen.    Pop.  1160. 

Walla'chia.    See  Roumania. 

Wallasey,  a  Cheshire  township,  3i  miles  NNW. 
of  Birkenhead. 

Walla  Walla,  capital  of  a  county  in  Washing- 
ton, on  the  Walla  Walla  River,  204  miles  SSW. 
of  Spokane  Falls.    Pop.  11,000.' 

Wallingford,  a  town  of  Berkshire,  15  miles 
NW.  of  Reading  and  13  SSE.  of  Oxford,  on  the 
right  bank  of  the  Thames,  which  is  crossed  here 
by  a  bridge  300  yards  long,  built  in  1809  at  a 
cost  of  £14,000.  It  has  Roman  earthworks,  a 
fragment  of  a  Norman  castle,  which  figured 
prominently  in  King  Stephen's  wars,  and  was 
taken  by  Fairfax  and  dismantled  (1646) ;  three— 
formerly  thirteen— churches,  in  one  of  which 
Blackstoue  is  buried  ;  a  grammar-school ;  a  short 
branch-line;  and  a  great  July  wool  sale.  A 
borough  since  Edward  the  Confessor's  time,  it 
returned  two  members  till  1832,  and  then  one 
till  1885.  Pop.  2800.  See  works  by  Crofts  (1870) 
and  Hedges  (2  vols.  1882). 

Wallingford,  a  borough  of  Connecticut,  on 
the  Quinepiac  River,  13  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of 
New  Haven,  with  manufactories  of  buttons  and 
Britannia  and  silver  ware.    Pop.  6738. 

Wallsend',  a  town  of  Northumberland  noted 
for  its  collieries,  4  miles  NE.  of  Newcastle.  It  is 
named  from  its  being  at  the  end  of  Hadrian's 
Wall  (q.v.);  and  many  Roman  relics  have  been 
found  here.    Pop.  (1901)  20,918. 

Walmer  Castle,  in  Kent,  2  miles  S.  of  Deal, 
is  the  official  residence  of  the  Lord  Warden  of  the 
Cinque  Ports  (q.v.),  and  is  a  round-towered  castle, 
built  by  Henry  VIII.  It  was  the  favourite  resi- 
dence and  the  death-place  of  the  Duke  of  Welling- 
ton ;  and  its  relics  of  him,  of  Pitt,  and  of  other 
Lord  Wardens  were  in  1892  secured  to  the  nation 
by  the  son  of  the  late  Right  Hon.  W.  H.  Smith. 
The  adjoining  town  of  Walmer  is  a  favourite 
watering-place,  has  barracks,  and  is  a  member  of 
the  Cinque  Port  of  Sandwich.  Pop.  5650.  See 
Elvin's  Records  of  Walmer  (1894). 

Walsall  (Waul'saul),  a  municipal,  parlia- 
mentary, and  county  borough  of  Staffordshire, 
is  situated  on  an  eminence  above  a  small  feeder 
of  the  Tame,  8  miles  NNW.  of  Birmingham,  6  E. 
of  Wolverhampton,  and  123  NW.  of  London.  An 
ancient  place,  but  of  modern  development,  it 
stands  on  the  edge  of  the  South  Staffordshire  coal- 
field, and  manufactures  saddlers'  ironmongery 
and  all  kinds  of  saddlery,  carriages,  iron  and 
brass,  leather,  &c.,  whilst  in  the  vicinity  are 
coal-pits,  limestone-quarries,  and  brickyards. 
The  public  buildings  include  an  Italian  Renaiss- 
ance guildhall  (1867),  county  court-house  (1869), 
post-office  (1879),  public  library  (1859),  grammar- 
school  (1554 ;  rebuilt  1850),  and  cottage  hospital 
(1878) ;  and  in  1886  a  statue  was  erected  of  '  Sister 
Dora '  (Miss  Pattison).  Walsall  was  the  scene  in 
1891-92  of  an  Anarchist  conspiracy,  for  which 
four  dynamiters  were  convicted.    It  became  a. 


WALSHAM 


733 


WARREN 


municipal  borough  in  Henry  IV. 's  reign  ;  a  parlia- 
mentary borough,  returning  one  member,  in 
1832  ;  and  a  county  borough  in  1888.  Pop.  (1851) 
25,680;  (1881)  54,402;  (1901)  86,44a  See  Will- 
more's  History  of  Walsall  (1887). 

Warsham,  North,  a  market-town  of  Norfolk, 
14  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Norwich.  It  has  a  large 
Perpendicular  church  with  a  ruined  tower,  and  a 
market-cross  (rebuilt  1600).     Pop.  4000. 

Wal'singham,  a  small  town  of  one  long  street 
and  1000  inhabitants  in  the  north  of  Norfolk,  5 
miles  N.  by  E.  of  Fakenham.  The  ruined  Augus- 
tinian  priory  (1016)  contained  a  famous  image  of 
'  Our  Lady  of  Walsingham.'  Heni-y  VIII.  made 
the  pilgrimage  to  it  barefoot,  and  Erasmus'  Fere- 
grinatio  religionis  ergo  records  his  own  visit. 

Walsoken,  a  NB.  suburb  of  Wisbeach. 

Wal'tham,  a  market-town  of  Essex,  on  the 
Lea,  13  miles  N.  by  E.  of  London.  Called  also 
Waltham  Abbey  and  Waltham  Holy  Cross,  it 
retains  the  nave  of  a  stately  Norman  church, 
which,  rebuilt  by  Harold  in  1060  for  a  collegiate 
chapter,  served  from  1177  for  an  Augustinian 
abbey.  A  miraculous  cross  had  been  brought 
here  from  Montacute  in  Somerset ;  and  here 
probably  Harold  was  buried.  Both  the  nave  and 
a  Decorated  lady  chapel  have  been  restored ; 
they  serve  for  the  parish  church,  of  which  Bishop 
Hall  and  Thomas  Fuller  Avere  incumbents.  Wal- 
tham has  memories  also  of  Cranmer  and  Henry 
VIII.  Waltham  Cross,  erected  by  Edward  I.  in 
1290  in  memory  of  Queen  Eleanor,  and  restored 
in  1890,  is  IJ  mile  W.,  in  Hertfordshire;  and  1 
mile  farther  W.  is  Theobalds  (q.v.).  The  Lea's 
many  channels  form  a  network  of  islands,  on 
which  are  vast  government  powder-mills,  En- 
field (q.v.),  in  Middlesex,  is  also  near,  and  market- 
gardening  is  largely  carried  on.  Pop.  (1851)  2329  ; 
(1901)  6547.  See  works  by  Fuller  (1655 ;  ed.  by 
Nichols,  1837)  and  Bishop  Stubbs  (1860). 

Waltham,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  on  the 
Charles  River,  10  miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  Boston, 
with  manufactories  of  watches.  Pop,  (1880) 
11,712  ;  (1900)  23,481. 

Wal'thamsto-w,  an  Essex  parish,  6  miles  NE. 
of  St  Paul's.  William  Morris,  the  poet,  was  born 
here.    Pop.  (1851)  4959  ;  (1901)  95,125. 

Walton-on-Thames,  a  Surrey  village,  17  miles 
(by  water  28)  SW.  of  London.  Its  church  has 
some  interesting  monuments,  and  Lilly,  the 
astrologer,  is  buried  here.     Pop.  10,329. 

Walton-on-the-Naze,  an  Essex  watering-place, 
7  miles  S.  of  Harwich.    Pop.  2014. 

Walvisch  Bay  (Dutch,  'Bay  of  Whales'), 
anglicised  as  Walfish  or  Walwich  Bay,  a  terri- 
tory of  480  sq.  m.  on  the  W.  coast  of  Africa,  420 
miles  N.  of  the  Orange  River's  mouth.  Declared 
British  in  1878,  and  annexed  to  Cape  Colony  in 
1884,  it  is  surrounded  by  German  Damaraland. 
The  bay  affords  a  safe  anchorage.    Pop.  1020. 

Wandsbeck  (Waundsfbeclc),  a  NE.  suburb  of 
Hamburg.    Pop.  30,000. 

Wandsworth,  a  metropolitan  borough  of  the 
city  of  London.    Pop.  (1901)  232,034. 

Wanganui  (Wang-ga-noo'ee),  a  port   of  New 
Zealand,  135  miles  N  W.  of  Wellington.    Pop.  7330. 
Wanks.    See  Honduras. 
Wanlockhead,  a  mining  village  of  Dumfries- 
shire, 8i  miles  ENE.  of  Sanquhar.    Pop.  624. 
Wansbeck.    See  Morpeth. 
Wanstead,  an  Essex  urban  district,  7  miles 
NE.  of  London.    Pop.  (1901)  9179. 


Wan'tage,  a  market-town  of  Berkshire,  in  the 
Vale  of  the  White  Horse,  26  miles  W.  of  Reading. 
A  steam  tramway  (1875),  the  first  in  England, 
and  2^  miles  long,  connects  it  with  Wantage 
Road  station ;  and  it  has  a  good  14th-century 
church,  a  corn  exchange  (1865),  a  grammar-school 
(1597 ;  rebuilt  1850),  an  Anglican  home  for  peni- 
tents, and  a  marble  statue  (1877)  of  King  Alfred, 
who  was  born  here,  by  Count  Gleichen.  Bishop 
Butler  was  also  a  native.  Wantage  manufactures 
farm  implements.     Pop.  3850. 

Wantsome.    See  Thanet. 

Wapping,  a  Thames-side  parish  of  E.  London,* 

Warasdin  (Varasdeen'),  an  Austrian  cathedral 
city  in  Croatia,  on  the  Drave's  right  bank,  35 
miles  NE.  of  Agram.  Pop.  13,700.  Warasdin- 
Toplitza  warm  sulphurous  spring  is  7  miles  SW. 

Wardour  Castle  (a  as  o\  Wiltshire,  15  miles 
W.  of  Salisbury,  the  Grecian  mansion  (1789)  of 
Lord  Arundell  of  Wardour. 

Ware,  a  market-town  of  Herts,  on  the  Lea,  2J 
miles  ENE.  of  Hertford.  It  has  a  fine  cruciform 
church,  remains  of  a  priory  (1233),  great  malting 
establishments,  and  memories  of  Godwin  and 
'John  Gilpin.'  St  Edmund's  Catholic  College 
(1769),  with  a  chapel  of  1850  by  Pugin,  is  at  Old 
Hall  Green,  5  miles  NNE.  ;  and  the  Great  Bed 
of  Ware  was  in  1869  removed  to  Rye  House. 
Pop.  (1851)  4882;  (1901)  5573.  See,  for  the 
college,  a  work  by  the  Very  Rev.  B.  Ward  (1893). 

Ware,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  on  Ware 
River,  74  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Boston,  with  cotton 
and  woollen  factories.    Pop.  8329. 

Wareham,  a  small  but  very  ancient  market* 
town  of  Dorsetshire,  stands  between  the  rivers 
Piddle  and  Frome,  15  miles  E.  of  Dorchester.  It 
was  a  British  town,  and  afterwards  a  Roman 
station,  and  is  surrounded  by  a  grassy  vallum, 
still  30  feet  high  and  perfect  on  three  sides.  A 
fire  destroyed  two-thirds  of  Wareham  in  1762, 
and  a  Norman  castle  and  a  priory  have  dis- 
appeared ;  but  St  Mary's  church  retains  an  in- 
teresting chapel,  that  marks  the  resting-place 
for  two  years  of  Edward  the  Martyr.  Superseded 
by  Poole  as  a  port,  Wareham  now  depends  chiefly 
on  extensive  clay-works.  It  is  a  municipal 
borough  (incorporated  1886),  and  till  1832  returned 
two  members,  then  till  1885  one  (with  Corfe 
Castle,  Arne,  &c.).  Horace  Walpole  is  claimed 
falsely  as  a  native.    Pop.  2000. 

Wark  Castle,  a  Northumberland  ruin,  on  the 
Tweed,  2^  miles  W,  by  S,  of  Comhill, 

Warkworth  (Waurh'worth),  a  small  seaport 
(pop.  700)  in  Northumberland,  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Coquet,  7  miles  SE.  of  Alnwick  by  rail. 
The  Percies'  castle,  mostly  ruinous,  dates  from 
the  12th  c.  The  Norman  church  has  been  re- 
stored. The  Benedictine  priory  was  founded  in 
1256,  and  the  hermitage,  'deep  hewn  within  a 
craggy  cliff,'  of  Bishop  Percy's  ballad,  is  1  mile 
above  the  castle.  The  trade,  exporting  coal,  is 
carried  on  at  Amble,  1  mile  SE.  on  the  coast. 

Warminster  {a  as  o),  an  ancient  Wiltshire 
market-town,  19^  miles  NW.  of  Salisbury.  It  has 
a  free  school  (1707)  and  a  theological  college 
(1860).     Pop.  5600. 

Wamsdorf,  a  town  in  the  north  of  Bohemia,  60 
miles  N.  of  Prague,  with  great  textile  and  other 
manufactures.    Pop.  23,000. 

Warren,  (l)  capital  of  Trumbull  county,  Ohio, 
52  miles  SE.  of  Cleveland,  with  rolling  and  flour 
mills,  and  manufactories  of  linseed-oil,  cottons, 
&c.  Pop.  8973.— (2)  Capital  of  Warren  county, 
Pennsylvania,  on  the  Alleghany  River,  66  miles 


WARRENPOINT 


734 


WARWICKSHIRE 


SE.  of  Erie.  It  manufactures  engines,  boilers, 
wooden  wares,  and  leather.    Pop,  8050. 

Warrenpoint,  a  Down  port,  at  the  head  of  Car- 
lingford"  Lough,  83  miles  N.  of  Dublin.    Pop.  1817. 

Warrington  (a  as  o),  a  municipal  and  parlia- 
mentary borough  and  manufacturing  town  of 
Lancashire,  on  the  Mersey's  right  bank,  18  miles 
E.  of  Liverpool,  16  WSW.  of  Manchester,  and  182 
NW.  of  London.  Though  of  recent  development, 
it  is  an  ancient  place,  the  Wallintun  of  Domes- 
day ;  and,  acquiring  strategic  importance  through 
its  bridge  (1496)  over  the  Mersey,  it  was  the 
scene  of  defeats  of  the  Scots  (1648),  the  royalists 
(1651),  and  a  portion  of  Prince  Charles  Edward's 
forces  (1745).  To  a  dissenting  academy,  founded 
in  1757,  it  owes  its  memories  of  Drs  Aikin, 
Priestley,  Taylor,  &c. ;  and  Lucy  Aikin  was  a 
native.  There  are  still  some  old  timbered 
houses ;  and  the  parish  church,  St  Elphin's, 
with  a  spire  300  feet  high,  is  a  fine  cruciform 
Decorated  structure,  restored  in  1859-67  at  a 
cost  of  over  £15,000.  The  town-hall  was  the 
former  seat  (1750)  of  Col.  Wilson  Patten,  pur- 
chased in  1872  for  £20,000 ;  and  other  buildings 
are  the  Royal  Court  Theatre  (1862),  post-office 
(1876),  hospital  (1876),  museum  and  library  (1857), 
school  of  art  (1882),  public  baths  (1866),  grammar- 
school  (1526 ;  rebuilt  1857),  &c.  There  are  also 
public  gardens  and  a  park.  The  manufactures 
include  iron,  wire,  pins,  files,  cottons,  glass, 
leather,  and  soap.  Warrington  was  constituted 
a  parliamentary  borough,  returning  one  member, 
in  1832,  a  municipal  borough  in  1847,  and  became 
a  county  borough  under  the  Act  of  1888.  Pop. 
(1851)  22,894  ;  (1881)  45,253  ;  (1901)  64,242. 

Warrnambool,  a  seaport  of  Victoria.  166  miles 
SW.  of  Melbourne.     Pop.  6482. 

Warsaw  (Polish  Warszawa),  long  the  capital 
of  Poland  and  now  capital  of  a  government  of 
Russian  Poland,  stands  on  the  Vistula's  left 
bank,  330  miles  E.  of  Berlin  by  rail  and  700  SW. 
of  St  Petersburg.  Two  iron  bridges  lead  to  the 
suburb  of  Praga,  on  the  opposite  bank.  Standing 
on  a  navigable  river,  with  great  railway  lines  to 
Moscow,  St  Petersburg,  Vienna,  Danzig,  and 
Berlin,  Warsaw  is  one  of  the  most  important 
cities  of  eastern  Europe,  being  smaller  only  than 
St  Petersburg  and  Moscow.  Corn  and  flax  are 
largely  exported,  and  coal  and  manufactured 
goods  imported.  Warsaw  itself  manufactures 
electroplate,  machinery,  boots,  woollens,  pianos, 
carriages,  tobacco,  sugar,  chemicals,  beer,  and 
spirits.  Of  over  one  hundred  Catliolic  churches 
the  cathedral  of  St  John  is  the  most  notable ; 
there  are  also  six  Greek  churches,  two  Lutheran 
ones,  and  many  synagogues.  The  castle  is  an  im- 
posing building,  and  there  are  many  fine  private 
palaces.  The  university,  suppressed  in  1832,  was 
reopened  in  1864,  and  has  seventy-five  professors 
(who  teach  in  Russian)  and  over  1100  students. 
Pop.  (1872)  276,000;  (1905)  641,500.— Area  of 
government,  5623  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  1,945,000. 

Warsop,  a  town  of  Notts,  5  miles  NNE.  of 
Mansfield.     Pop.  2132. 

Wartburg  (Vahrt'boorg).    See  Eisenach. 

Warthe  (Var'teh),  the  Oder's  chief  affluent, 
rises  on  the  SW.  frontier  of  Poland,  flows  N.  and 
W.  into  Prussia,  then  N.  (past  Posen)  and  W. 
again,  and  enters  the  Oder  at  Kiistrin.  Length, 
445  miles  (230  in  Prussia,  and  265  navigable). 

Warwick  (JTor'ricfc),  the  county  town  of  War- 
wickshire, on  the  Avon,  21  miles  SE.  of  Birming- 
ham, 45  NNW.  of  Oxford,  and  107  NW.  of  London, 
In  spite  of  a  great  fire  in  1694,  it  has  preserved 


much  of  its  mediaeval  character,  and,  besides  a 
good  deal  of  antique  domestic  architecture, 
retains  two  of  the  old  gates  with  chapels  above 
their  archways,  St  Mary's  church  is  a  large 
cruciform  structure,  largely  rebuilt  after  that 
great  fire,  with  a  Norman  crypt,  the  superb 
Beauchamp  chapel  (1464),  and  a  wealth  of  in- 
teresting monuments.  But  Warwick's  chief  glory 
is  its  stately  castle,  on  a  rocky  elevation,  40  feet 
high,  overhanging  the  river,  Ethelfleda,  King 
Alfred's  daughter,  built  a  fortress  here  about 
915  ;  but  the  present  edifice,  which  extends  over 
3  acres,  is  all  of  post-Conquest  erection,  its  oldest 
portion  the  huge  Caesar's  Tower  (147  feet  high), 
whilst  Guy's  Tower  (128  feet)  was  built  in  1394. 
Having  passed  ere  then,  with  the  earldom  of 
Warwick,  to  the  Beauchamps,  Nevilles,  Planta- 
genets,  Dudleys,  and  Riches,  it  had  long  been 
ruinous  when  in  1605  it  was  granted  to  Sir  Fulke 
Greville,  whose  descendant.  Lord  Brooke,  was  in 
1759  created  Earl  of  Warwick,  and  who  spent  at 
least  £20,000  in  repairing  and  beautifying  it.  It 
stood  a  memorable  siege  by  the  royalists  during 
the  Great  Rebellion,  and  its  great  hall  was  gutted 
by  fire  on  3d  December  1871 ;  but  by  1876  the 
damage  had  been  repaired  at  a  cost  of  £18,000, 
and  Warwick  Castle  is  one  of  the  few  feudal  resi- 
dences still  tenanted.  Besides  relics  of  Guy  of 
Warwick,  the  'King-maker,'  and  Cromwell,  it 
has  paintings  by  Van  Dyck,  Rubens,  Holbein, 
and  other  masters,  the  'Grimani  table,'  valued 
at  £10,000,  and  the  Greek  '  Warwick  vase,'  7  feet 
in  diameter,  from  Hadrian's  Villa  at  Tivoli.  It 
has  welcomed  many  royal  visitors,  as  Queen 
Elizabeth,  James  I.,  William  III,,  and  (in  1892) 
the  Prince  of  Wales  and  the  Duke  of  York. 
The  Leycester  Hospital  was  founded  in  1571  by 
Robert  Dudley,  Queen  Elizabeth's  favourite,  for 
twelve  poor  brethren ;  the  king's  school  (1546) 
occupies  fine  modern  buildings  erected  at  a  cost 
of  over  £13,000.  The  manufactures  include  art 
furniture,  gelatine,  and  agricultural  implements. 
Landor  was  born  here.  Warwick,  which  was 
chartered  by  Henry  VIII.  as  a  municipal  borough, 
lost  one  of  its  two  members  in  1885,  when  the 
parliamentary  boundary  was  extended  so  as  to 
take  in  Leamington  (q.v.),  the  borough  being 
called  that  of  Warwick  and  Leamington.  Pop. 
of  mun,  borough  (1851)  10,973 ;  (1901)  11,889 ;  of 
pari,  borough  (1901)  39,075, 

Warwick,  a  township  of  Rhode  Island,  on 
Narragansett  Bay,  10  miles  SW,  of  Providence, 
Pop,  23,350. 

Warwickshire,  a  west  midland  county  of 
England,  bounded  by  the  counties  of  Stafford, 
Derby,  Leicester,  Northampton,  Oxford,  Glouces- 
ter, and  Worcester,  It  has  an  extreme  length 
from  N.  to  S.  of  62  miles,  an  extreme  breadth  of 
33  miles,  and  an  area  of  881  sq.  m.,  or  563,946 
acres.  In  the  south  are  spurs  of  the  Coteswolds, 
as  the  Edge  Hills  (826  feet) ;  but  elsewhere  the 
surface  is  varied  only  by  gentle  undulations, 
formerly  covered  by  the  Forest  of  Arden,  The 
Avon,  flowing  south-westward  towards  the 
Severn,  is  the  principal  river ;  but  in  the  north 
is  the  Tame,  a  tributary  of  the  Trent.  A  coal- 
field, 16  miles  by  8,  extends  from  near  Coventry 
to  the  Staffordshire  boundary  east  of  Tamworth  ; 
and  Warwickshire  also  produces  some  fireclay, 
ironstone,  limestone,  &c.  About  seven-eighths 
of  the  total  area  is  in  crops  and  permanent  pas- 
ture ;  woods  and  plantations  occupy  nearly  21,000 
acres.  The  great  industries  are  noticed  under 
Birmingham  and  Coventry ;  other  towns  are  War- 
wick,  Rugby,    Leamington,   Stratford-on-Avon, 


WASH 


1S6 


WASHINGTON  CITY 


and  Nuneaton.  The  county,  which  comprises 
four  hundreds,  256  parishes  with  parts  of  seven 
others,  and  four  parliamentary  divisions,  is 
mainly  in  the  diocese  of  Worcester.  The  an- 
tiquities include  a  stone  circle  (the  '  RoUright 
Stones '),  Roman  stations  and  roads,  and  a 
wealth  of  mediaeval  remains,  as  Warwick  and 
Kenilworth  castles.  The  battlefield  of  Edgehill 
must  also  be  noticed ;  whilst  of  Warwickshire 
worthies  may  be  mentioned  Shakespeare,  Basker- 
ville,  Samuel  Butler,  David  Cox,  Drayton,  Dug- 
dale,  '  George  Eliot,'  Landor,  Dr  Parr,  and  Priest- 
ley. Pop.  (180U  206,798  ;  (1841)  401,703  ;  (1881) 
737,339  ;  (1901)  897,678.  See  Dugdale's  Antiquities 
of  Warwickshire  (1656 ;  new  ed.  2  vols.  1730),  and 
histories  by  W.  Smith  (1830),  West (1830),  Burgess 
(1876  and  1893),  and  Timmins  (1889). 

Wash,  a  wide  estuary  on  the  east  coast  of 
England,  between  the  counties  of  Lincoln  and 
Norfolk,  is  22  miles  in  length  and  15  in  average 
breadth.  With  low  and  marshy  shores,  it  is 
largely  occupied  by  sandbanks,  dry  at  low 
water,  and  receives  the  rivers  Witham,  Welland, 
Ouse,  Nen,  and  Nar.  On  both  sides  of  the 
Ouse's  channel  much  land  has  been  reclaimed ; 
and  a  proposal  of  Rennie's  to  drain  the  Wash, 
and  so  reclaim  150,000  acres,  was  revived  in  1893. 

Washington,  the  most  north-western  state 
of  the  American  Union,  is  bounded  by  British 
Columbia,  Idaho,  Oregon,  and  the  Pacific.  It  is 
350  miles  long  (E.  to  W.),  200  miles  wide,  and 
69,180  sq.  m.  in  area.  The  Cascade  Range  (q.v.) 
traverses  the  state  from  N.  to  S.  The  summits 
of  several  of  the  volcanic  cones  are  covered  with 
perpetual  snow,  and  their  glaciers  rival  in  beauty 
those  of  Switzerland.  Western  Washington  is 
mountainous,  interspersed  with  fertile  valleys. 
The  Coast  Range  to  the  west  of  the  Cascades 
extends  in  broken  masses  from  the  S.  to  the 
Strait  of  Juan  de  Fuca.  This  strait  and  the 
great  inland  sea  of  Puget  Sound  afford  some  of  the 
best  harbours  in  the  world.  Central  Washington, 
between  the  Cascade  Range  and  the  Columbia 
River,  is  a  lofty  plateau  region,  its  surface,  like 
that  of  Eastern  Washington,  largely  covered  with 
lava,  and  carved  into  deep  and  picturesque 
canons  by  the  tributaries  of  the  Columbia.  East 
of  the  Columbia  the  plateaus  and  plains  are  cut 
by  the  valleys  of  Clark's  Fork  and  the  Spokane 
and  Snake  rivers.  The  whole  of  Eastern  and  a 
portion  of  Western  Washington  are  drained  by 
the  Columbia  River,  which  for  nearly  300  miles 
forms  the  boundary  with  Oregon.  In  Western 
Washington  the  winters  are  very  mild,  and  the 
rainfall  is  the  heaviest  in  the  United  States. 
Western  Washington  is  heavily  wooded,  and 
lumbering  a  leading  pursuit.  Portions  of  Central 
and  Eastern  Washington  are  well  adapted  for 
wheat-growing  and  grazing.  There  are  exten- 
sive coalfields  around  Puget  Sound.  The  coast 
fisheries  and  the  salmon-canneries  on  the 
Columbia  are  valuable.  Washington  was  or- 
ganised as  a  territory  in  1853,  reduced  to  its 
present  limits  in  1863,  and  admitted  as  a  state 
in  1889.  Towns  are  Seattle,  Tacoma,  Spokane, 
Walla  Walla,  and  Olympia  (the  capital).  Pop. 
(1870)  23,955  ;  (1880)  75,116  ;  (1900)  518,103. 

Washington,  name  of  over  200  cities,  towns, 
townships,  villages,  and  hamlets  in  the  United 
States :  (1)  the  capital  of  Daviess  county, 
Indiana,  173  miles  W.  of  Cincinnati,  with  coal- 
mines near  by;  pop.  8550.— (2)  the  capital  of 
Fayette  county,  Ohio,  77  miles  ENB.  of  Cin- 
cinnati ;  pop.  5742.— (3)  the  capital  of  Washing- 
ton county,  Pennsylvania,  31  miles  SW.  of  Pitts- 


burgh, with  many  mills  and  cigar-factories,  coal- 
mines, and  the  Washington  and  Jefferson  College 
(Presbyterian  ;  founded  1802).     Pop.  7663. 

Washington  City,  the  capital  of  the  United 
States,  in  the  District  of  Columbia  (q.v.),  on  the 
Potomac  River,  in  38°  53'  lat.,  77°  2'  long.,  226 
miles  SSW.  of  New  York,  136  of  Philadelphia,  and 
40  of  Baltimore.  More  than  half  the  area  of  the 
city  proper  is  permanently  free  from  the  en- 
croachment of  buildings  ;  and  besides  the  numer- 
ous small  parks,  Washington  has  a  zoological 
park  of  140  acres,  and  the  Rock  Creek  Park  o^ 
over  1500  (purchased  in  1892  for  $1,200,000). 
Streets  and  avenues  are  thickly  planted  with 
shade-trees.  The  architecture  of  the  older  city 
is  commonplace,  but  in  the  newer  Washington 
is  of  striking  variety  and  attractiveness.  The 
government  buildings  are  mostly  fine  and  impos- 
ing structures.  Conspicuous  on  an  eminence  is 
the  Capitol,  built  in  1818-59  at  a  cost  of 
$14,000,000,  and  751  feet  long;  its  iron  dome, 
crowned  by  a  bronze  figure  of  Liberty,  is  285  feet 
high.  The  hall  of  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives has  desks  for  356  members,  and  the 
galleries  seat  1500  spectators.  The  Senate  Cham- 
ber accommodates  1000  spectators.  The  National 
Memorial  Hall  in  the  Capitol  is  to  receive 
statues  contributed  by  each  state  to  commemor- 
ate two  of  its  distinguished  citizens.  The 
Treasury  Department  at  Pennsylvania  Avenue 
and  Fifteenth  Street  (of  freestone  and  granite) 
cost  $7,000,000.  The  Interior  Department  occu- 
pies an  entire  square  in  the  heart  of  the  city,  and 
is  constructed  of  white  marble,  in  pure  Doric, 
costing  $3,000,000.  The  Post-office  Department 
opposite  is  a  Corinthian  marble  edifice.  The 
granite  building  for  the  departments  of  state, 
war,  and  navy,  in  Renaissance  style,  is  the 
largest  public  edifice  in  Washington,  covers  4^^ 
acres,  has  566  rooms,  and  cost  $11,000,000.  The 
Congressional  Library  building,  on  Capitol  Hill, 
cost  $6,000,000.  The  president's  house  and 
executive  mansion  is  a  plain  edifice  of  freestone, 
in  classic  style,  painted  white  (whence  called  '  the 
White  House').  The  Smithsonian  Institution  is 
built  of  red  sandstone,  in  the  Byzantine  style, 
with  picturesque  towers.  The  national  monu- 
ment to  Washington  (1885)  is  an  obelisk  of  white 
marble,  555  feet  high,  beside  the  Potomac,  erected 
at  a  cost  of  $1,230,000.  The  National  Soldiers' 
Home,  2  miles  above  the  city,  founded  in  1851, 
has  600  acres  of  park  and  forest,  which  serve  as 
a  public  driving  park  and  rural  resort.  The 
Columbian  University  (1814),  Georgetown  College 
(R.  C. ;  1789),  the  National  University,  and 
Howard  University  (for  coloured  students)  have 
each  departments  of  law  and  medicine.  The 
Catholic  University  of  America  (1887)  has  fine 
stone  buildings  just  outside  the  city  limits.  The 
Methodist  American  University  has  its  grounds 
above  Georgetown.  Other  buildings  are  the 
Naval  Observatory,  the  National  Deaf-mute  Col- 
lege, and  the  Gonzaga  (Catholic)  College.  The 
National  Museum,  originally  established  to  ex- 
hibit the  rich  contributions  given  to  the  govern- 
ment by  various  countries  from  the  World's  Fair 
at  Philadelphia  in  1876,  has  become  a  most 
extensive  and  instructive  collection  of  antiq- 
uities, ethnology,  geology,  and  natural  history 
generally  ;  and  there  are  many  museums,  libraries, 
art  galleries,  &c.  Few  of  the  200  churches  are 
remarkable.  Hardly  a  public  square  or  circle  is 
without  its  monument.  The  city  is  abundantly 
supplied  with  pure  water,  by  a  conduit  15 
miles  long,  from  the  Great  Falls  of  the  Potomac. 
The  various  bureaus  employ  between  6000  and 


WASHITA 


•736 


WAVENEY 


7000  persons.  The  number  of  hotels  and  boarding- 
houses  is  very  great;  and  a  steadily, increasing 
number  of  people  of  wealth  and  taste  are  build- 
ing residences  at  the  national  capital.  The 
absence  of  smoky  manufactories,  the  genial  and 
salubrious  climate,  the  pleasant  situation  and 
attractive  suburbs,  with  the  wide  and  smooth 
streets,  contribute  to  render  a  residence  in 
Washington  agreeable  during  all  but  the  torrid 
heats  of  summer.  The  original  plan  of  '  the  city 
of  magnificent  distances,'  as  it  has  been  called, 
was  drawn  out  by  a  resident  French  engineer, 
L'Enfant,  and  largely  copied  from  Versailles. 
Its  characteristic  features  are  the  crossing  of  the 
rectangular  streets  by  frequent  broad  transverse 
avenues,  160  to  120  feet  wide,  and  the  numerous 
circles  and  triangular  reservations  interspersed 
as  little  parks  throughout  the  city.  Originally 
called  Federal  City,  it  was  named  after  Washing- 
ton in  1791,  and  became  the  capital  in  1800.  In 
1814  the  Capitol  was  burned  by  the  British.  After 
the  civil  war  of  1861-65  Washington  began  to 
move  forward  in  a  new  career  of  prosperity,  and 
was  transformed  in  a  few  years  to  a  beautiful  and 
attractive  city.  Pop.  (1800)  3210  ;  (1830)  23,864 ; 
(1860)61,122;  (1880)147,293;  (1900)218,196. 

Washita  (Wosh-e-tatv'),  a  tributary  of  the  Red 
River  (q.v.),  noted  for  its  whetstones. 

Wast  Water,  Cumberland,  14  miles  SSW.  of 
Keswick,  is  a  lake  3  miles  long,  ^  mile  wide,  204 
feet  above  sea-level,  and  258  feet  deep. 

Watchet,  a  small  Somerset  seaport,  on  the 
Bristol  Channel,  16J  miles  NW.  of  Taunton. 

Waterbury,  a  city  of  Connecticut,  33  miles  by 
rail  SW.  of  Hartford,  on  the  Naugatuck  River. 
It  manufactures  brass  wares,  and  its  cheap 
watches  that  have  carried  its  name  round  the 
world.     Pop.  (1880)  17,806  ;  (1900)  45,859. 

Waterford,  an  Irish  county  of  Munster,  E.  of 
Cork.  Its  greatest  length  from  E.  to  W.  is  52 
miles ;  its  breadth  28  ;  and  its  area  721  sq.  m.,  or 
461,552  acres.  The  surface  is  mountainous,  the 
chief  ranges,  Knockmeledown  (2609  feet)  and 
Cummeragh  (2478).  The  Suir  and  Black  water  are 
the  chief  rivers.  The  climate  is  moist,  and  the 
soil  much  of  it  marshy  ;  but  the  uplands  are  well 
suited  for  tillage,  and  the  lower  pasture-lands  pro- 
duce excellent  butter.  Lead,  iron,  copper,  marble, 
and  potter's  clay  are  found.  There  are  some 
cotton  manufactures,  and  the  fisheries  are  of 
some  importance.  The  chief  towns  are  Water- 
ford,  Dungarvan,  Tramore,  Portlaw,  and  Lismore. 
Before  1885  the  county  and  the  boroughs  returned 
five  members ;  now  the  county  sends  two  and 
Waterford  city  one.  Pop.  (1841)  196,187  ;  (1901) 
87,187—82,576  Catliolics.  The  county  is  rich  in 
Celtic,  Danish,  and  Anglo-Norman  antiquities. 

Waterford,  the  county  town,  itself  a  county 
of  a  city  and  a  municipal  and  parliamentary 
borough,  is  on  the  river  Suir,  at  the  head  of  the 
tidal  estuary,  Waterford  Harbour,  97  miles  SSW. 
of  Dublin  by  rail.  The  city,  on  the  Suir's  right 
bank,  is  connected  with  its  suburb  of  Ferry- 
bank  by  a  wooden  bridge  of  thirty-nine  arches. 
The  quay  admits  vessels  of  2000  tons  ;  there 
is  a  shipbuilding  yard  and  dock  on  the  Kil- 
kenny bank  ;  but  the  place  has  not  a  thriving 
look.  The  chief  public  buildings  are  the  Pro- 
testant and  R.  C.  cathedrals,  the  Protestant 
episcopal  palace,  the  (Catholic)  college  of  St 
John,  the  city  and  county  court-houses,  besides 
hospitals,  &c.  The  chief  trade  is  with  England 
in  the  export  of  agricultural  produce.  Waterford 
is  originally  of  Danish  foundation,  but  in  1171 
was  taken  by  assault  by  Strongbow.    It  received 


a  charter  from  John.  Pop.  (1881)  22,457  ;  (1891) 
21,693;  and  (1901)  on  extended  area,  26,769  (of 
whom  24,571  were  Catholics).  See  Ryland's 
History  of  Waterford  (1824). 

Waterloo  (Flemish  pron.  Wah-ter-W),  a  Belgian 
town  (pop.  3600),  11  miles  S.  of  Brussels,  which 
gives  name  to  Wellington's  decisive  victory  over 
Napoleon,  fought  near  it  on  Sunday  the  18th  June 
1815.  The  French  numbered  72,247 ;  the  allies 
69,894  (25,389  British) ;  and  the  loss  of  the  former 
was  32,000  (including  prisoners),  of  the  latter 
22,500.  By  Frenchmen  the  battle  is  named  after 
the  village  of  Mont  St  Jean  ;  by  Prussians,  after 
the  farm  of  La  Belle  Alliance.  See  Ropes's  TIiq 
Campaign  of  Waterloo  (1893). 

Waterloo,  a  town  of  Iowa,  on  the  Cedar  River, 
93  miles  W.  of  Dubuque.     Pop.  12,580. 

Waterloo-wlth-Seaforth,  a  Lancashire  water- 
ing-place, 4  miles  N.  by  W.  of  Liverpool.  Pop. 
(1851)  9118  ;  (1901)  23,102. 

Waterto-wn,  (1)  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  on 
the  Charles  River,  8  miles  W.  of  Boston,  with  a 
national  arsenal.  Pop.  9706.— (2)  Capital  of 
Jefferson  county.  New  York,  on  Black  River,  12 
miles  by  rail  E.  of  Sackett's  Harbour,  on  Lake 
Ontario.  The  rapids  supply  power  for  factories 
of  spring-wagons,  sewing-machines,  paper,  wool- 
lens, &c.  Pop.  21,696.— (3)  A  city  of  Wisconsin, 
on  Rock  River,  44  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Milwaukee, 
with  manufactories  of  flour,  beer,  chairs,  blinds, 
&c.,  and  a  Lutheran  university  (1864).    Pop.  8455. 

Waterville,  a  village  of  Maine,  on  the  Kenne- 
bec, 19  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Augusta.     Pop.  9480. 

Watervliet  (formerly  West  Troy),  a  city  of  New 
York,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Hudson  River, 
opposite  Troy.  It  has  a  U.S.  arsenal.  Pop. 
15,500. 

Watford  (a  as  o),  a  market-town  of  Hertford- 
shire, on  the  Colne,  15  miles  (by  rail  18)  NW.  of 
London.  The  Perpendicular  church,  restored  in 
1871,  contains  some  interesting  monuments  of 
the  Morrisons  and  Cassells,  Earls  of  Essex,  whose 
seat,  Cassiobury,  is  close  to  the  town  ;  and  there 
are  also  the  London  Orphan  Asylum  (inst.  1813; 
transferred  hither,  1871),  the  Salters'  Company's 
almshouses  (1873),  the  endowed  schools  (1874), 
the  public  library  and  school  of  art  (1874),  &c., 
besides  manufactures  of  silk  and  paper.  Pop. 
(1851)  6546  ;  (1881)  12,162 ;  (1901)  29,327. 

Wath-upon-Dearne,  a  Yorkshire  town,  6  miles 
N.  of  Rotherham.  It  has  collieries,  ironworks, 
&c.     Pop.  (1851)  1495  ;  (1901)  8515. 

Watling's  Island,  one  of  the  Bahamas  (q.v.), 
the  probable  landfall  of  Columbus. 

Watling  Street,  one  of  the  great  Roman  high- 
ways  of  Britain,  ran  from  Dover  to  Canterbury, 
Rochester,  London,  Chester,  and  York,  thence 
branching  to  Carlisle  and  Newcastle. 

Watlington,  a  market-town  of  Oxfordshire,  8 
miles  NE.  of  Wallingford.    Pop.  of  parish,  1734. 

Watton,  a  Norfolk  market-town,  12  miles  N.  of 
Tlietford.  Near  it  is  Wayland  Wood,  the  scene 
of  the  •  Children  of  the  Wood.'    Pop.  1365. 

Wauke'gan,  capital  of  Lake  county,  Illinois, 
on  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  36  miles  by 
rail  N.  by  W.  of  Chicago.    Pop.  9345. 

Wau'kesha,  capital  of  a  county,  Wisconsin,  on 
Fox  River,  19  miles  W.  of  Milwaukee.    Pop.  7321. 

Wausau  QVaw'saw),  a  town  of  Wisconsin,  210 
miles  NW.  of  Milwaukee.  It  sends  much  lumber 
down  the  Wisconsin  River.     Pop.  12,360. 

Wave'ney,  a  river  of  Norfolk  and  Suffolk, 


WAVERLEY 


737 


WELLINGTON  COLLEGE 


flowing  50  miles  ENE.  to  the  Yare,  4J  miles 
WSW.  of  Yarmouth. 

Waverley.    See  Farnham. 

Wavertree,  a  SE.  suburb  of  Liverpool. 

Wavre  (Vahvr),  a  Belgian  town,  15  miles  SE. 
of  Brussels  ;  pop.  8432.  Here  on  18th  June  1815 
the  Prussians  prevented  Grouchy  from  joining 
Napoleon  at  Waterloo. 

Wayland  Wood.    See  Watton. 

Wazan',  a  town  of  Morocco,  90  miles  SE.  of 
Tangier ;  pop.  20,000,  It  is  a  sacred  city,  the 
lieadquarters  of  the  Grand  Shereef. 

Wazirabad',  a  town  of  the  Punjab,  21  miles 
N.  of  Gujranwala  by  rail.     Pop.  15,462. 

Wazirlstan',  a  highland  country  between  the 
Kurram  and  Gomul  passes.  Formerly  Afghan,  it 
was  transferred  to  British  India  in  1894  ;  but  a 
military  expedition  had  to  be  despatched  thither 
in  Jan.  1895. 

Weald.    See  Kent,  Sussex. 

Wear,  a  river  of  Durham  (q.v.),  65  miles  long. 
See  also  Sunderland. 

Weaver,  a  Cheshire  river  flowing  45  miles  to 
the  Mersey,  2^  miles  below  Runcorn. 

Webb  City,  a  town  of  Missouri,  9  miles  SW. 
of  Carthage.    Pop.  9200. 

Wedmore,  a  Somerset  parish  (pop.  3060),  8 
miles  WNW,  of  Wells.  Here  peace  was  signed  in 
878  between  King  Alfred  and  Guthrum  the  Dane. 

Wed'nesbury  (locally  Wedgebury),  a  town  of 
S.  Staffordshire,  8  miles  NW.  of  Birmingham. 
Crowning  a  hill  at  the  north  end  of  the  town  is 
the  cruciform  Perpendicular  church  of  St  Bar- 
tholomew, supposed  to  occupy  the  site  of  a  temple 
of  Woden— whence  the  Anglo-Saxon  name,  Wod- 
nesbeorh.  It  seems  to  have  been  built  in  the  11th, 
and  rebuilt  in  the  15th  c,  and  was  much  altered 
and  restored  between  1766  and  1885.  Here,  too,  in 
916  the  Princess  Ethelfleda,  Edward  the  Elder's 
sister,  founded  a  castle.  Modern  buildings  are 
the  town-hall  (1872),  public  baths  and  free  library 
(1878),  and  art  gallery  and  museum  (1891).  One 
of  the  great  iron  towns  of  the  Black  Country, 
in  a  district  abounding  in  coalpits,  ironworks, 
railways,  and  canals,  Wednesbury  has  manufac- 
tures of  boiler-plates,  bar-iron,  steel,  gas  and 
steam  tubes,  edge  tools,  &c.  In  1886  it  was  incor- 
porated as  a  municipal  borough,  and  in  1867  was 
made  a  parliamentary  borough,  returning  one 
member,  and  till  1885  including  West  Bromwich 
(q.v.).     Pop.  (1851)  11,914  ;  (1901)  20,544. 

Wednesfield,  a  NE.  suburb  of  Wolverhampton. 

Wei-hai-wel,  a  harbour  in  the  Chinese  penin- 
sula of  Shantung,  40  miles  E.  of  Che-foo,  secured 
by  Britain  on  a  lease  of  twenty-five  years,  as 
Port  Arthur  (q.v.)  had  been  by  Russia.  Pop.  of 
ceded  strip  round  the  bay,  200,000. 

Weimar  (Vl-mar),  the  capital  of  the  German 
grand  duchy  of  Saxe- Weimar-Eisenach,  on  the 
Ilm's  left  bank,  81  miles  E.  of  Gotha  and  155  SW. 
of  Berlin.  The  lustre  conferred  on  it  by  the  resi- 
dence of  Goethe,  Schiller,  Herder,  and  Wieland,  at 
the  court  of  Karl- August,  has  faded,  and  the  in- 
terest of  the  place  (Thackeray's  '  Pumpernickel ') 
is  almost  wholly  derived  from  its  monuments, 
traditions,  and  associations.  The  town  church 
(Stadtkirche),  dating  from  1400,  contains  the  tombs 
of  Bernhard  of  Weimar,  Herder,  &c.  Other  build- 
ings are  the  handsome  ducal  palace,  rebuilt  in 
1790-1803after  the  fire  of  1774 ;  the  Rothes  Schloss 
(1574);  the  Grlines  Schloss,  with  a  library  of 
J80,000  volumes,  and  relics  of  Luther  and  Gus- 

2u 


tavus  Adolphus  ;  the  court  theatre  (rebuilt  1825). 
where  Liszt  produced  Wagner's  Lohengrin;  ana 
the  houses  of  Cranach,    Goethe,    Schiller,   and 
Herder.    Pop.  (1871)  15,998  ;  (1900)  28,380. 
Weissenburg    (Vlce'en-boorg').     See    Wissem- 

BOURO, 

Weissenfels  (Vlce'en-fels),  a  town  of  Prussian 
Saxony,  35  miles  SW.  of  Leipzig.    Pop.  28,200. 

Welbeck  Abbey,  the  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Port- 
land, in  Notts,  3  miles  S.  of  Worksop.  Occupying 
the  site  of  an  old  Premonstratensian  abbey,  it 
stands  in  a  park  10  miles  in  circumference,  and 
is  a  stately  Palladian  edifice  of  the  17th  and  18th. 
centuries,  greatly  enlarged  about  1864  by  the 
fifth  duke,  to  whom  it  owes  its  semi-underground 
picture-gallery,  ball-room,  and  riding-school,  the 
last  385  feet  long,  104  wide,  and  51  high. 

Welland,  a  river  flowing  70  miles  to  the  Wash. 

Welland  Canal.    See  Erie. 

Welle  (Wel'leh),  a  great  river  of  Equatorial 
Africa,  rising  in  the  Monbuttu  country  and 
flowing  westward  to  19°  W.,  then  south-west- 
ward, and  as  the  Mobangi  or  U-banghi  entering 
the  Congo.  Schweinfurth,  Stanley,  and  Grenfell 
have  explored  it. 

Wellesley.    See  Penang. 

Wellingborough,  a  market-town  of  North- 
amptonshire, on  a  declivity  near  the  confluence  of 
the  I.se  with  the  Nen,  lOJ  miles  ENE.  of  North- 
ampton. Almost  destroyed  by  fire  in  1738,  it  has 
a  chalybeate  spring  (the  'Red  Well'),  said  to 
have  been  resorted  to  by  Charles  I.  ;  a  large  parish 
church  (restored  1861-74) ;  a  corn  exchange  (1861) ; 
a  grammar-school  (1595 ;  new  buildings,  1880) ; 
and  boot-making,  iron-smelting,  &c.  Pop.  (1851) 
6061 ;  (1901)  18,412. 

Wellington,  (l)  a  market-town  of  Shropshire, 
2  miles  NE.  of  the  conspicuous  Wrekin  (1320  feet) 
and  10  E.  of  Shrewsbury.  It  stood  near  the 
ancient  Watling  Street,  hence  its  name  '  Watling 
Town.'  Situated  in  a  populous  mining  and 
agricultural  district,  it  has  manufactures  of 
farm  implements,  «&c.,  an  Italian  town-hall  built 
in  1867  at  a  cost  of  £10,000,  and  a  corn  exchange 
(1868).  Pop.  (1851)  3926;  (1901)  6283. -(2)  A 
market-town  of  Somerset,  7  miles  SW.  of  Taunton, 
near  the  Tone  and  the  foot  of  the  Black  Downs 
(900  feet),  which  were  crowned  in  1817  by  a 
Wellington  obelisk.  The  '  Great  Duke '  took  for 
some  unknown  motive  his  titles  from  this  place ; 
and  its  manor  (held  formerly  by  King  Alfred, 
Asser,  Aldhelm,  the  Protector  Somerset,  the 
Pophams,  &c.)  was  purchased  for  him  in  1813. 
Serges  and  other  woollen  goods  are  manufactured. 
Pop.  (1851)  4601 ;  (1901)  7282.  See  Humphrey's 
History  of  Wellington  (1890). 

Wellington,  the  capital  of  New  Zealand,  on 
Port  Nicholson,  an  inlet  of  Cook  Strait,  on  the 
southern  coast  of  the  North  Island,  150  miles  by 
sea  ENE.  of  Nelson,  The  fine  harbour  is  6  miles 
long  and  5  broad.  Wellington  was  settled  in  1840, 
and  after  the  removal  of  the  seat  of  government 
hither  in  1865  made  rapid  progress  ;  it  has  good 
public  buildings,  including  Government  House, 
the  Houses  of  Legislature,  Anglican  and  R.  C. 
cathedrals,  a  college,  museum,  &c.  Amongst  tha 
industries  are  tanning,  brewing,  candle  and  soap 
works,  boot-factories,  meat-preserving,  and  ship- 
building. There  is  a  public  park,  and  the 
botanical  gardens  have  an  area  of  100  acres.  The 
suburb  of  Newton  or  South  Wellington  is  con- 
nected by  tramway.  Pop.  (1871)  13,488 ;  (1901) 
43,638,  or  with  suburbs,  49,344. 

Wellington  College,  Berkshire,  4  miles  SSE. 


WELLS 


WEST  AUSTRALIA 


of  Wokingham,  a  public  school,  founded  in  1853 
in  nieinory  of  the  Duke  of  Wellington.  Queen 
Victoria  laid  the  foundation  stone  in  1856,  and 
opened  it  in  1859.  It  has  90  scholarships  for  sons 
of  deceased  army  officers  and  over  400  boys. 

Wells,  the  city  of  Somerset,  pleasantly  situated 
at  the  foot  of  the  Mendip  Hills,  20  miles  SW.  of 
Bath  and  20  (30  by  rail)  S.  of  Bristol.  Here,  near 
St  Andrew's  Well,  from  which  and  other  springs 
the  place  took  its  name,  King  Ina  in  704  estab- 
lished a  house  of  secular  canons  ;  but  the  see  was 
first  founded  in  909  by  Edward  the  Elder.  It 
was  translated  to  Bath  during  the  first  half  of 
the  12th  c,  and  still  is  styled  Bath  and  Wells, 
though  Bath's  connection  has  been  purely  titular 
since  the  Reformation.  Among  its  seventy 
bishops  have  been  Jocelin  (1206-42),  the  '  second 
founder'  of  the  cathedral.  Fox,  Wolsey,  Barlow, 
Laud,  and  Ken.  That  cathedral,  though  one  of 
the  smallest  yet  perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of 
English  cathedrals,  is  mainly  Early  English  in 
style,  and  is  371  feet  long,  by  123  across  the 
transept,  while  the  height  of  the  central  tower  is 
160  feet,  of  the  two  western  towers  13a  Its 
principal  glory  is  the  west  front,  with  its  match- 
less sculptures  (600  figures  in  all,  of  which  151 
are  life-size  or  colossal);  but  other  features  are 
the  north  porch,  the  inverted  tower  arches,  the 
east  Jesse  window  with  its  splendid  old  glass, 
the  exquisite  lady  chapel,  and  the  octagonal 
chapter-house.  Other  buildings,  all  of  extreme 
interest,  are  the  moated  episcopal  palace,  with 
an  undercrypt  of  about  1220;  the  deanery  (temp. 
Edward  IV.) ;  the  archdeaconry,  now  a  theological 
college  ;  the  gateways ;  and  St  Cuthbert's  church, 
with  a  noble  west  tower.  Chartered  by  King 
John  in  1202,  Wells  lost  one  of  its  members  in 
1867,  and  the  second  in  1868.  Pop.  (1851)  4736 ; 
(1901)  4849.  See  works  by  Britton  (1821), 
Cockerell  (1851),  Parker  (1860),  Freeman  (1870), 
Reynolds  (1881),  and  Jewers  (1892). 

Wells-next-the-Sea,  or  Wells,  a  Norfolk  sea- 
port, 31  miles  NE.  of  Lynn.    Pop.  2555. 

Wellsville,  a  town  of  Ohio,  on  the  Ohio  River, 
48  miles  by  rail  WNW.  of  Pittsburgh,  with  steel 
and  terra-cotta  works.    Pop.  6500. 

Welshpool,  a  town  of  Montgomeryshire,  North 
Wales,  near  the  Severn's  left  bank,  20  miles  W. 
by  S.  of  Shrewsbury.  It  has  a  parish  church 
(restored  by  Street),  a  town-hall  and  market  (1873) 
with  a  clock-tower  90  feet  high,  and  the  Powys- 
land  Museum  (1874) ;  whilst  1  mile  south  is  Powis 
Castle,  dating  from  the  12th  c,  with  a  fine  picture- 
gallery  and  park— the  seat  from  Elizabeth's  time 
of  the  Herberts,  as  now  of  their  and  dive's 
descendant,  the  Earl  of  Powis.  The  flannel  manu- 
facture has  migrated  to  Newtown.  Incorporated 
by  James  I.  in  1615,  Welshpool  is  one  of  the  six 
Montgomeryshire  (q.v.)  boroughs.  Pop.  (1851) 
6564 ;  (1901)  6121. 

Welwyn,  a  parish  of  Herts,  5  miles  N.  of 
Hatfield.  Young  thought  his  Night  Thoughts 
here,  and  here  lies  buried. 

Wem,  a  market-town  of  Shropshire,  on  the 
Ellesmere  Canal,  11  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Shrews- 
bury. Here  Hazlitt  passed  his  boyhood,  and 
here  met  Colefidge.    Pop.  2150. 

Wembly,  Middlesex,  2J  miles  ESE.  of  Harrow, 
has  been  constituted  an  urban  district,  and  has  a 
pop.  of  5000.— Wembly  Park,  a  Londoners'  plea- 
sure-resort, was  opened  in  1894  with  a  great 
revolving  wheel,  &c. 

Wemyss  (Weemz;  Gael.  Uaimh,  'a.  cave'),  a 
S.  coast  parish  of  Fife,  2  miles  NE.  of  Dysart, 


containing  the  villages  of  East  and  West  Wemyss 
with  pops,  of  2550  and  1260, 

Wemyss  Bay,  a  small  Renfrewshire  watering- 
place,  on  the  Firth  of  Clyde,  just  N.  of  Skelmorlie, 
and  30^  W,  of  Glasgow. 

Wen-chow  (Wan-chau),  a  Chinese  treaty  port 
in  Cheh-kiang  province.     Pop.  80,000. 

Wen'dover,  a  parish  of  Bucks,  under  the 
Chiltern  Hills,  5  miles  SE.  of  Aylesbury.  It 
sent  members  to  parliament  till  1832.  Pop.  2036. 
Wener,  Lake  (Vayner),  a  lake  of  SW.  Sweden, 
after  Ladoga  and  Onega  the  largest  in  Europe. 
It  is  93  miles  long,  50  miles  in  greatest  breadth, 
300  feet  in  greatest  depth,  and  150  feet  above  sea- 
level ;  area,  2408  sq.  m.  From  the  NW.  and  S. 
shores,  peninsulas  project  to  within  15  miles  of 
one  another ;  the  part  SW.  of  this  is  called  Dalbo 
Lake.     There  are  many  islands. 

Wenham  Lake,  Massachusetts,  22  miles  NNE. 
of  Boston,  yields  large  quantities  of  ice,  as  does 
another  Wenham  Lake  (named  after  the  American 
one)  in  Norway,  at  Drobak,  near  Christiania. 

Wenlock,  a  municipal  borough  of  Shropshire, 
extending  over  more  than  50  sq.  m.,  and  compris- 
ing Much  Wenlock,  Broseley,  Coalport,  Madeley, 
Ironbridge,  and  Coalbrookdale.  It  was  incor- 
porated by  Edward  IV.  in  1448,  and  till  1885 
returned  two  members.  Much  Wenlock,  under 
the  NE.  end  of  Wenlock  Edge,  12  miles  SE.  of 
Shrewsbury,  has  a  quaint  guildhall  (restored 
1848),  a  market-hall  (1879),  a  corn  exchange 
(1852),  a  museum,  and  interesting  remains  of  a 
Cluniac  abbey.  Pop.  of  borough  (1861)  19,699; 
(1901)  15,866—2210  in  Much  Wenlock  district. 

Wensum,  a  Norfolk  stream  flowing  30  miles 
SE.  to  the  Yare  at  Norwich. 

Wentwood  Forest,  Monmouthshire,  4i  miles 
SSE.  of  Usk. 

Wentworth  Castle,  Yorkshire,  the  Went- 
worths'  seat  (1730-68),  3  miles  SSW.  of  Barnsley. 
Wentworth- Woodhouse,  in  the  West  Riding 
of  Yorkshire,  4|  miles  NW.  of  Rotherham,  the 
seat  of  Earl  Fitzwilliam,  as  its  predecessor  was 
of  his  great  ancestor,  the  Earl  of  Straff'ord. 

Weobly  (Web'ly),  a  town,  till  1832  a  pari, 
borough,  12 J  miles  NW.  of  Hereford.     Pop.  804. 

Werdau  (Vayr-dow),  a  Saxon  cloth-making 
town,  45  miles  S.  of  Leipzig.     Pop.  19,665. 

Werden,  a  town  of  Rhenish  Prussia,  on  the 
Ruhr,  16  miles  NE.  of  Diisseldorf.     Pop.  9970. 

Wernigerode  (Vayr-neh-ge-w'deh),  a  town  of 
Prussia,  at  the  N.  foot  of  the  Harz  Mountains, 
50  miles  SW.  of  Magdeburg.     Pop.  12,500. 

Werwlcque  (Ver'veek),  a  Belgian  town  on  the 
French  frontier,  with  a  14th-c.  church,  and  great 
tobacco  manufacture.     Pop.  9000. 

Wesel  (Vay'zel),  a  strongly  fortified  town  of 
Prussia,  at  the  Lippe's  confluence  witli  the  Rliine, 
35  miles  NW.  of  Diisseldorf.  Cloth,  pottery, 
machinery,  &c.  are  manufactured.    Pop.  24,550. 

Weser  (Vaifzer),  a  river  of  Germany,  formed  at 
Miinden  by  the  Weri-a  and  Fulda,  and  flowing  N. 
through  Prussia,  till,  passing  Bremen,  it  forms 
for  40  miles  the  boundary  between  Oldenburg 
and  Prussia,  and  enters  the  North  Sea  by  a  wide 
but  shallow  estuary,  after  a  course  of  280  miles. 

Wessex,  the  ancient  kingdom  of  the  West 
Saxons,  comprising  Berks,  Hants,  Wilts,  Dorset, 
Somerset,  Devon,  and  Cornwall.  Mr  Thomas 
Hardy,  whose  native  county  is  Dorsetshire,  has 
made  the  name  once  more  familiar. 
West  Australia.    See  Western  Austbai^ia, 


WEST  BAY  CITY 


739 


WESTGATE-ON-SEA 


West  Bay  City,  a  town  of  Michigan,  on  the 
Saginaw  River,  opposite  Bay  City,  with  a  very 
large  trade  in  lumber,  &c.     Pop.  13,120, 

West'borough,  a  manufacturing  town  of 
Massachusetts,  32  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of 
Boston,  with  a  state  reform  school.     Pop.  5429. 

West  Brom'wich,  a  Staffordshire  town,  one  of 
the  most  important  in  the  'Black  Country,' 
5J  miles  NW.  of  Birmingliam,  90  SSE.  of  Liver- 
pool, 93  NNE.  of  Bristol,  and  113  NW.  of 
London.  The  Bromtvic  of  Domesday,  and  the 
seat  in  the  12tli  c.  of  a  Benedictine  priory,  it 
yet  is  of  modern  growth,  having  risen  within 
the  last  hundred  years  from  a  mere  village  on  a 
barren  heath,  in  consequence  of  the  rich  coal  and 
iron  mines  near,  of  the  industries  to  which  these 
give  rise,  and  of  the  transport  facilities  by  rail 
and  canal.  The  public  buildings,  erected  in  1875 
at  a  cost  of  £30,000,  comijrise  a  town-hall  with  a 
fine  organ,  a  tower  130  feet  high,  a  market-hall, 
free  library,  public  baths,  &c.  There  are  also 
the  institute  (1886),  All  Saints  Church  (rebuilt 
1872),  Christ  Church  (1829),  with  a  tower  114 
feet  high  and  twelve  bells,  the  West  Bromwich 
district  hospital  (1867-82),  and  a  public  park  of 
65J  acres,  with  a  boating  and  bathing  pool,  and 
commanding  a  beautiful  view.  The  last  was  pre- 
sented to  the  town  in  1878-87  by  the  Earl  of 
Dartmouth,  whose  ancestor  purchased  the  manor 
in  1823.  The  manufactures  comprise  all  depart- 
ments of  Birmingham  hardware,  as  gun-barrels, 
axle-boxes,  locks,  swords,  bayonets,  fire-irons, 
fenders,  saucepans,  safes,  cooking-ranges,  gas- 
stoves,  &c.  Puddling  and  sheet-iron  rolling, 
sheet-glass  making,  coal-mining,  and  brick-making 
are  also  carried  on.  In  1867  West  Bromwich  was 
included  within  the  parliamentary  borough  of 
Wednesbury,  but  since  1885  itself  has  returned  a 
member.  It  was  made  a  municipal  borough  in 
1882,  a  county  borough  in  1888.  Pop.  (1801)  56S7 ; 
(1841)  26,121 ;  (1881)  56,295 ;  (1901)  65,172.  See 
a  work  by  Joseph  Reeves  (1836). 

West'bury,  a  market-town  of  Wiltshire,  16^ 
miles  SSE.  of  Bath  and  25  NW.  of  Salisbury. 
Returning  till  1832  two  members,  and  then  till 
1885  one,  it  has  lost  its  clothing  industry,  but 
has  iron-smelting  works.  The  fine  church  has 
memories  of  Walter  Map  and  Mackonochie. 
Westbury  White  Horse,  on  the  S.  slope  of  West- 
bury  Down  (775  feet),  is  175  feet  long,  and  was 
restored  in  1778  and  1853.  It  probably  com- 
memorates Alfred  the  Great's  victory  of  Ethandiin 
(Edington)  in  878.    Pop.  of  urban  district,  8305. 

West  Calder.    See  Calder. 

West  Chester,  a  town  of  Pennsylvania,  27 
miles  W.  of  Philadelphia.     Pop.  9530. 

West  Derby,  a  NW.  suburb  of  Liverpool. 

West  Drayton.    See  Drayton. 

Westerham,  a  market-town  of  Kent,  5  miles 
W.  of  Sevenoaks.  General  Wolfe  was  a  native. 
Pop.  of  parish,  2900. 

Westerkirk,  a  Du7nfriesshire  parish,  6  miles 
NW.  of  Langholm.    Telford  was  a  native. 

Westerly,  a  village  of  Rhode  Island,  44  miles 
SSW.  of  Providence.     Pop.  7550. 

Western  Australia  embraces  the  western 
third  of  Australia,  to  the  W.  of  South  Australia 
and  its  Northern  Territory.  It  extends  from 
13°  to  35°  S.  lat.  and  113°  to  129"  E.  long.,  being 
1500  miles  long  by  1000  broad.  The  area  is 
1,060,000  sq.  m.,  or  678,400,000  acres— i.e.  nearly 
twenty  times  the  size  of  England.  While  the 
central  portions  are  stony  or  sandy,  with  the 
Bprth  and  south  coasts  poor  in  soil,  there  is  good 


land  at  the  west  and  in  the  north-east.  Less 
hilly  than  eastern  Australia,  it  is  not  so  well 
watered.  The  Darling  Range,  300  miles  in  length, 
has  few  peaks  of  3000  feet ;  Koikyeunerup,  north 
of  King  George's  Sound,  is  3500  feet ;  and  the 
King  Leopold  Mountains  are  north-east.  Few 
rivers  run  in  the  dry  .season.  There  are  .shallow 
.salt  lakes  inland,  and  a  number  of  islands  off  the 
coast.  Perth,  the  capital  (pop.  36,274),  has  Fre- 
mantle  (pop.  20,450)  for  its  port.  Albany  (3600), 
the  port  on  King  George's  Sound,  is  261  miles 
SB.  of  Perth  by  rail.  The  climate  is  dry,  bright, 
and  free  from  mias?na,  though  the  N.  and  NW. 
are  uncomfortably  hot.  Perth  varies  from  3^° 
to  106°  in  the  shade  ;  its  average  annual  rainfall 
IS  33  inches.  Pop.  (1870)  25,353,  including  1790 
convicts;  (1881)  29,708;  (1901)  194,890,  besides 
about  5260  aborigines. 

The  natural  history  is  not  unlike  that  of  the 
rest  of  Australia  (q.v.).  Trepang  or  beche-de- 
mer  furnishes  an  export.  Timber  of  excellent 
quality  (mainly  eucalyptus,  including  the  .jarrah, 
wandoo,  &c.)  abounds  to  the  SW.  There  are  150 
acacias,  and  sandalwood  grows.  There  are  six 
pastoral  districts  in  the  colony.  The  desert  has 
some  good  oases.  Of  130,000  acres  in  crop,  wheat 
and  other  cereals  do  well.  The  gardens  have 
twenty-five  sorts  of  fruits,  grapes  being  fine  and 
abundant.  But  the  western  portion  only  has 
moisture  enough  for  ordinary  husbandry.  Granite 
and  recent  limestone  are  the  great  geological 
features.  There  are  many  workable  seams  of 
good  coal  and  lignite.  Gerald ine,  in  the  Victoria 
district,  had  lead  and  copper  mines  in  1842.  The 
Greenbushes  yield  tin.  Magnetite  and  hematite 
iron  occur  in  immense  lodes ;  manganese  and 
antimony  are  found.  A  little  gold  was  found  in 
1868  and  succeeding  years,  in  larger  quantities 
since  1885  in  the  districts  of  Kimberley,  Yilgarn, 
Southern  Cross,  Pilbarra,  Ashburton,  Roebourne, 
and  Murchison,  and  in  1892-93  at  Coolgardie 
(q.v.),  where  the  finds  have  surpassed  all  previous 
Australian  experience.  Lack  of  water  hampers 
mining  progress,  and  the  sinking  of  artesian  wells 
and  making  of  tanks  is  being  carried  out.  Tlie 
imports  for  1892  were  £1,391,000;  the  exports 
(gold,  silver,  copper,  wool,  skins,  jarrah,  pearls, 
tin,  and  karri),  £882,148.  In  1903  these  had  in- 
creased to£6,769,922and  £10,324,732  respectively. 
Revenue  (1880),  £180,050  ;  (1892)  £543,889 ;  (1903) 
£3,996,499.  Expenditure  (1880),  £204,337  ;  (1892) 
£550,616;  (1903)  £3,886,802.  The  debt  in  1903 
was  £15,627,298.  Tlie  railways  extend  to  up- 
wards of  2100  miles  (1520  government  property, 
about  600  in  private  hands).  Spaniards  and 
Portuguese  had  the  western  and  northern  coasts 
in  their  maps  about  1530.  The  Dutch  (Dirk 
Hartog,  Edel,  De  Witt,  &c.)  rediscovered  these 
parts  in  1616-27.  A  temporary  settlement 
was  made  from  Sydney,  at  the  Sound,  in 
1825.  A  private  association  in  1828  obtained 
land  from  the  government,  and  in  1829  founded 
the  Swan  River  Settlement  at  Fremantle,  Perth 
also  dating  from  the  same  year.  Transportation 
hither  began  in  1850,  and  ceased  in  1867.  Respon- 
sible government  was  granted  in  1890 ;  and  the 
former  colony  is  now  one  of  the  federated  .states 
of  the  Australian  Commonwealth  (1901).  See 
books  by  Giles  (1889),  Bon  wick  (1890),  Hart  (1893), 
Calvert  (1894),  J.  M.  Price  (1896),  and  the  annual 
handbooks  and  bluebooks. 

Westfield,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  9  miles  by 
rail  W.  of  Springfield.     Pop.  12,310. 

Westgate-on-Sea,  a  western  extension  of  Mar^. 
gate  (q.v.),  with  an  asylum  for  inebriates. 


WEST  HAM 


740 


WESTMORLAND 


West  Ham.    See  Ham,  West. 

West  Hartlepool.    See  Hartlepool. 

Westhoughton,  a  town  of  Laiacashire,  5  miles 
E.  of  Wigan,  with  manufactures  of  silk,  cotton, 
and  nails,  and  neighbouring  collieries.  Pop. 
(1851)  4547  ;  (1901)  14,377. 

West  Indies,  the  great  archipelago  which  ex- 
tends in  a  vast  curve  from  Florida  in  North 
America  to  the  north  coast  of  South  America, 
separating  the  Atlantic  Ocean  from  the  Mexican 
Gulf  and  the  Caribbean  Sea.  The  name  still 
bears  testimony  to  the  belief  cherished  by  Colum- 
bus that  when  he  reached  in  the  Bahamas  (q.v.) 
the  outlying  portion  of  the  New  World  he  was 
actually  on  or  close  to  that  old-world  India  he 
was  seeking.  The  name  Antilles  (q.v.),  which  is 
applied  to  the  whole  of  the  islands  save  the 
Bahamas,  retains  a  trace  of  the  belief  in  the  old 
submerged  continent  of  Antiglia.  The  table 
gives  their  area,  population,  and  political  con- 
nection (see  also  the  several  articles  thereon) : 

West  Indian  Islands.          Area.  Pop. 

Hayti 10,204  1,34'7,150 

Dominican  Republic 18,045  610,000 

Cuba 40,000  1,572,845 

Porto  Rico  (United  States) 3,606  953,243 

Jamaica  (British) 4,373  795,398 

Trinidad  (British) 1,754  281,120 

Barbadoes  (British) 166  197,792 

Windward  Islands  (British)— 

Grenada 133  66,762 

St  Vincent 133  48,424 

Tobago 114  18,880 

St  Lucia 233  51,881 

Leeward  isles  (British)— 

Antigua  and  Barbuda 170  34,904 

Montserrat 32  12,894 

St  Kitt's  (and  Anguilla) 100  .34,271 

Nevis 50  13,306 

Dominica 291  29,924 

Part  of  Virgin  Islands 57  5,115 

Bahamas 4,404  53,735 

Guadeloupe,  &c.  (Frencli) 603  179,243 

Martinique,  &c.  (French) 381  203,781 

St  Bartholomew  (French) 8  2,700 

Cura9ao,  Saba,  &c.  (Dutch) 403  53,046 

Danish  Islands  (in  Virgin  group)— 

St  Thomas 23  ^ 

St  Croix 73  V  36,156 

St  John 20  ) 

Total 86,276  6,601,570 

Calcareous  rocks  predominate,  in  some  cases 
overlying  granite  and  other  igneous  rocks  ;  some 
of  the  minor  Antilles  are  wholly  volcanic  ;  coral- 
reefs  are  found  on  many  of  them.  All  the  islands 
except  the  northern  Bahamas  are  tropical,  and 
are  liable  to  severe  hurricanes.  Tlie  productions 
are  luxuriant  and  varied.  Great  events  were  the 
discovery  (1492) ;  the  Spanish  occupation ;  the 
introduction  of  negro  slaves  (1525)  to  take  the 
place  of  the  native  Carib  Indians,  decimated  by 
forced  labour  on  the  plantations ;  the  develop- 
ment of  the  sugar  industry ;  the  gradual  intrusion 
in  the  17th  century  of  French,  English,  and 
Dutch.  Between  1635  and  1719  France  secured 
Guadeloupe,  Martinique,  Grenada,  and  St  Vin- 
cent ;  in  1632  Tobago  and  Curasao  became  Dutch ; 
in  1623-1763  England  obtained  possession  of  St 
Christopher,  Barbadoes,  Antigua,  Dominica,  and 
the  Grenadines.  England's  growing  power  at  sea 
forced  France  to  cede  St  Lucia,  Grenada,  and  St 
Vincent ;  and  there  was  fierce  fighting  in  these 
regions,  Rodney's  defeat  of  the  French  fleet  off 
Dominica  in  1782  being  one  of  the  great  naval 
battles  of  the  world.  The  West  Indies  were  long 
haunted  by  the  Buccaneers,  and  some  Avere  used 
by  Britain  as  penal  settlements.  The  abolition 
of  slavery  in  the  English  islands  (1834-38),  how- 
ever creditable  to  the  public  conscience,   was 


regarded  by  the  planters  and  their  friends  as  the 
main  reason  for  the  great  decline  in  prosperity, 
from  which  the  islands  have  but  partially  re- 
covered. See  works  by  M.  G.  Lewis  (1834), 
Champlain  (1859),  Trollope  (1859 ;  new  ed.  1869), 
Bates  (1878),  Kingsley  (1869),  Acosta  (Hakluyt 
Soc.  1880),  Eden  (1881),  Eves  (new  ed.  1891), 
Froude  (1888),  Paton  (1888),  Bulkeley  (1890). 

Westland,  a  provincial  district  (capital,  Hokit- 
ika)  of  New  Zealand,  occupies  the  W.  portion  of 
South  Island.    Area,  4641  sq.  m. ;  pop.  15,887. 

Westmeath,  an  inland  county  of  Leinster, 
Ireland,  between  Meath  and  Roscommon.  Great- 
est length  NE.  and  SW.,  45  miles ;  greatest 
breadth,  25  miles  ;  area,  453,468  acres.  The  sur- 
face is  for  the  most  part  level,  the  hilly  district 
in  the  north  not  exceeding  710  feet.  Of  the 
numerous  lakes,  one  chain  belongs  to  the  basin  of 
the  Shannon,  which  river  forms  with  them  the 
western  boundary ;  the  other,  towards  the  east, 
flows  into  the  basin  of  the  Boyne.  The  Royal 
Canal  traverses  the  county.  The  soil  is  a  deep 
loam,  producing  good  pasture  for  cattle.  There 
is  little  tillage.  The  chief  towns  are  the  capital, 
Mullingar,  and  Athlone,  which  is  partly  in  Ros- 
common. Tlie  county  returns  two  members. 
Westmeath  anciently  formed  a  portion  of  the 
kingdom  of  Meath  (q.v.),  but  in  Henry  VIII.'s 
reign  was  erected  into  a  separate  county,  and  at 
first  included  Longford  and  part  of  King's  County. 
Many  Anglo-Norman  and  some  Celtic  antiquities 
are  found  in  this  picturesque  county.  Pop.  (1841) 
141,578;  (1861)  90,879;  (1881)  71,798;  (1901) 
61,629—56,673  Catholics. 

Westminster.    See  London,  p.  424. 

West'morland,  a  northern  county  of  England, 
bounded  by  Cumberland,  Durham,  Yorkshire, 
and  Lancashire.  With  a  very  irregular  outline, 
it  has  an  extreme  length  from  N.  to  S.  of  32  miles, 
an  extreme  breadth  from  E.  to  W.  of  40  miles, 
and  an  area  of  505,864  acres  or  790  sq.  m.  The 
surface  is  mountainous,  the  highest  summits 
being  Helvellyn  (q.v.,  3118  feet)  on  the  Cumber- 
land boundary.  Bow  Fell  (2959),  Fairfield  (2950), 
Dufton  Fell  (2803),  and  Dun  Fell  (2780).  The 
western  portion  of  the  county  belongs  to  the 
Lake  District  (q.v.),  its  lakes  including  Winder- 
mere (q.v.)  on  the  Lancasliire  boundary,  and 
Ullswater  (q.v.),  on  that  with  Cumberland,  be- 
sides Grasmere,  Howes  Water,  Rydal  Water,  &c. 
Tlie  moorlands— to  which  Westmorland  owes  its 
name — are  numerous  and  extensive ;  but  along 
the  courses  of  the  Kent  in  the  S.  and  the  Eden  in 
the  N.  (the  principal  streams)  there  are  tracts  of 
fertile  land.  Of  the  400,000  acres  in  cultivation 
less  than  90,000  are  under  corn ;  woods  and  planta- 
tions cover  17,000  acres.  The  climate  is  moist 
and  mild,  but  with  often  much  snow  in  winter. 
Coal,  lead,  copper,  slate,  and  graphite  are  the 
chief  mineral  productions.  Westmorland,  which 
is  in  the  diocese  of  Carlisle,  comprises  four  wards, 
109  parishes,  and  the  towns  of  Appleby,  Amble- 
side, and  Kendal.  It  returns  one  member  apiece 
for  the  Northern  or  Appleby  and  the  Southern  or 
Kendal  division.  Worthies  have  been  Bernard 
Gilpin,  Catharine  Parr,  Ann  Clifford,  Countess  of 
Pembroke,  Bishop  Watson,  Wordsworth,  Prof. 
Wilson,  Hartley  Coleridge,  Dr  Arnold,  Miss 
Martineau,  and  Sir  J.  G.  Wilkinson  ;  and  Clifton 
Moor  was  the  scene  of  a  Jacobite  skirmish  (1745). 
Pop.  (1801)  40,805  ;  (1841)  56,454  ;  (1881)  64,191 ; 
(1901)  64,305.  See  the  Quarterly  Review  for  Janu- 
ary 1867 ;  works  cited  there  and  at  Lake  Dis- 
trict ;  and  others  by  E.  Bellasis  (2  vols.  Kendal, 
1892),  and  R.  S.  Ferguson  (1894). 


WESTON-SUPER-MARE 


741 


WEYBOURNE 


Weston-super-Mare  (May'reh),  a  fashionable 
watering-place  of  Somerset,  on  the  Bristol 
Channel,  20  miles  SW.  of  Bristol.  Grown  from  a 
fishing-village  since  1805,  it  is  sheltered  by  rocky, 
fir-clad  Worle  Hill  (306  feet);  commands  a 
splendid  view  over  to  Wales  ;  and  has  an  esplan- 
ade (begun  1825)  3  miles  long,  a  promenade  pier 
(1867)  1040  feet  long,  the  Prince  Consort  gardens, 
potteries,  &c.    Pop.  (1901)  19,847. 

Westphalia,  a  former  duchy  and  kingdom,  a 
Prussian  province,  named  from  the  Westfalen,  a 
western  tribe  of  Saxons,  as  distinguished  from 
the  Ostfalen,  nearer  the  Elbe.  About  1180  it  came 
under  the  Archbishops  of  Cologne,  as  Dukes  of 
Westphalia.  It  was  the  headquarters  of  the 
Vehmgerichte.  In  1807  Westphalia,  with  parts 
of  Hesse,  Hanover,  Brunswick,  and  Saxony,  was 
made  into  a  kingdom  for  Jerome  Bonaparte  ;  in 
1813  the  kingdom  came  to  an  end,  and  the  Congress 
of  Vienna  assigned  the  present  province  to  Prussia. 
It  has  an  area  of  7892  sq.  m.  (larger  than  Wales) 
and  a  pop.  (1900)  of  3,187,777,  of  whom  1,616,377 
were  Catholics.  The  northern  portion  belongs  to 
the  great  North  German  plain,  and  is  not  fertile  ; 
the  south  is  hilly,  with  fertile  valleys.  West- 
phalian  hams  are  still  in  high  repute  ;  but  West- 
phalia's peculiar  wealth  lies  in  its  mineral  treas- 
ures— iron,  zinc,  copper,  sulphur,  with  lead, 
antimony,  &c.  Iron-working  is  largely  carried 
on,  and  linen-weaving  has  been  an  important 
industry  since  the  14th  century— Bielefeld  being 
the  great  centre.    Mlinster  has  cotton-works. 

West  Point,  the  U.S.  Military  Academy,  on 
the  Hudson's  right  bank,  48  miles  by  rail  N.  of 
New  York.  Established  in  1802,  on  the  site  of  an 
older  fort,  it  occupies  a  plateau  188  feet  above  the 
river,  surrounded  by  the  bold  scenery  of  one  of 
the  finest  river-passes  in  the  world. 

Westport,  a  Mayo  seaport,  at  the  head  of  Clew 
Bay,  13  miles  SW.  of  Castlebar.    Pop.  3890. 

West  Prussia.    See  Prussia. 

Westray,  an  Orkney  Island,  lOj  miles  NNE. 
of  Pomona.  Area,  24J  sq.  m. ;  greatest  height, 
556  feet ;  pop.  1956. 

West  Troy.    See  Troy,  U.S. 

West  Virginia  is  the  most  irregular  in  form 
of  all  the  states  of  the  American  Union  ;  nearly 
all  the  boundary  lines  follow  the  courses  of  rivers 
or  the  crests  of  mountain-ranges.  It  borders  on 
Virginia,  Kentucky,  Ohio,  Pennsylvania,  and 
Maryland.  Area,  24,780  sq.  m.  In  the  NB.  a 
small  portion  of  the  state  belongs  to  the  Shenan- 
doah valley.  The  '  mountain  region '  is  formed 
by  the  western  ridges  of  the  Apfjalachian  system. 
In  the  north  the  streams  are  tributary  to  the 
Potomac  ;  but  toward  the  south  they  frequently 
cut  through  the  mountain-ridges  in  deep  gorges, 
flowing  W.  or  NW.  to  the  Ohio  River.  The  '  hilly 
region  '  is  a  portion  of  the  Appalachian  or  Cum- 
berland plateau.  Much  of  the  state  is  well 
wooded.  The  climate  is  equable,  the  rainfall 
abundant.  The  soil  is  mostly  fertile.  In 
the  mountain  region  there  is  an  abundance  of 
fine  pasturage,  and  the  annual  product  of  butter 
and  cheese  is  very  large.  The  great  Appalachian 
coalfield  covers  almost  the  entire  state.  West 
Virginia  i;anks  fourth  among  the  states  in  its 
coal  output,  and  second  in  the  production  of 
coke  ;  the  pig-iron  and  steel  products  are  increas- 
ing. Salt  and  petroleum-oil  are  also  products. 
Of  the  mineral  springs  the  White  Sulphur  Springs 
are  the  most  widely  known.  The  chief  cities  are 
Wheeling,  Charleston  (the  capital),  Huntington, 
and  Parkersburg.    At  Morgautown  is  the  state 


university.  Until  the  Secession,  this  state  was 
included  in  Virginia  ;  but  the  inhabitants  of  the 
northern  and  western  counties  remained  loyal 
to  the  federal  government,  and  in  1863  West 
Virginia  was  admitted  to  the  Union  as  a  separate 
state.     Pop.  (1870)  442,014  ;  (1900)  958,800. 

Westward  Ho,  on  the  coast  of  North  Devon, 
2^  miles  W.  of  Bideford,  owes  its  name  and  its 
existence  to  Charles  Kingsley's  Elizabethan 
romance  (1855) ;  this  pretty  cluster  of  villas  and 
lodging-houses,  with  its  church,  hotel,  club- 
house, and  college,  having  sprung  up  since  186T. 
The  bathing  facilities  are  excellent,  and  it  is  a 
great  resort  of  golfers.  The  village  is  in  the 
urban  district  of  Northam  (pop.  5355). 

Wetherby,  a  Yorkshire  town,  on  the  Wharfe, 
12  miles  NNE.  of  Leeds.     Pop.  of  parish,  2050. 

Wetter,  Lake  (Vetter),  after  Lake  Wener  (q.v.) 
the  largest  lake  in  Sweden,  lies  in  Gothland,  25 
miles  SE.  of  Lake  Wener.  Surrounded  by  lofty 
shores,  it  is  70  miles  long,  13  miles  broad,  850 
sq.  m.  in  area,  370  feet  deep,  and  270  feet  above 
sea-level.  It  receives  about  ninety  small  tribu- 
taries, and  sends  off  the  Motala  River  eastward 
to  the  Baltic.  Its  waters  are  of  a  beautiful  clear 
green.  It  is  remarkable  for  an  irregular  alterna- 
tion of  risings  and  fallings,  and  for  an  occasional 
violent  undulation  in  perfectly  still  weather. 

Wetterhorn  (w  as  v ;  '  Peak  of  Tempests '),  a 
mountain  of  the  Bernese  Oberland,  B.  of  the 
Grindelwald,  10  miles  SB.  of  the  Lake  of  Brienz. 
Its  three  peaks  are  12,149,  12,165,  and  12,110  feet 
high,  and  were  first  ascended  in  1844  and  1845. 

Wetzlar  (w  as  v),  a  cathedral  city  of  Rhenish 
Prussia,  40  miles  N.  of  Frankfort.  Here  is  laid 
Goethe's  Sorrows  of  Werther.    Pop.  9050. 

Wexford,  a  maritime  county  of  Leinster, 
bordering  on  Wicklow,  Carlow,  Kilkenny,  and 
Waterford.  Greatest  length,  55  miles ;  greatest 
breadth,  30  miles ;  area,  573,200  acres.  The 
coast-line  is  irregular  and  dangerous ;  Carnsore 
Point  is  the  SE.  extremity  of  Ireland.  The 
greater  part  of  the  surface  is  level,  but  Mount 
Leinster,  on  the  border,  is  2610  feet  high.  The 
chief  river,  the  Slaney,  enters  the  sea  through 
Wexford  Harbour ;  the  Barrow  is  part  of  the 
boundary.  The  soil  varies  from  light  and  sandy 
to  stiff  clay,  but  the  county  has  a  verdant  lux- 
uriance. The  fisheries  are  valuable.  The  principal 
towns  are  Wexford,  Enniscorthy,  New  Ross,  and 
Gorey.  The  maritime  position  of  Wexford  laid 
it  open  early  to  the  incursions  of  the  Danes,  and 
it  was  the  first  landing-place  of  the  English. 
In  the  insurrection  of  1798  it  formed  the  theatre 
of  the  only  serious  conflicts.  There  are  many 
old  castles,  and  the  monasteries  of  Dunbrody, 
Tintern,  and  Ross.  Wexford  returns  two  mem- 
bers. Pop.  (1841)  202,196  ;  (1861)  143,594 ;  (1901) 
104,104—95,435  Catholics. 

Wexford,  the  capital,  a  seaport  and  muni- 
cipal borough,  is  situated  at  the  Slaney's  mouth, 
93  miles  S.  of  Dublin  by  rail.  The  estuary  of  the 
Slaney  forms  Wexford  Harbour,  which,  though 
spacious,  is  shallow  and  impeded  by  a  bar.  Parts 
of  the  old  fortifications  and  of  St  Selsker's  priory 
remain.  The  town  was  taken  by  Cromwell  in 
1644.  Till  1885  it  returned  a  member.  Pop. 
(1881)  12,163 ;  (1901)  11,168.  See  Avorks  by  R. 
Fraser  (1807)  and  M.  Doyle  (1868). 

Wey  (Way),  a  river  of  Hants  and  Surrey,  flow- 
ing 35  miles  NE.  to  the  Thames  at  Weybridge. 

Weyboume,  a  Norfolk  coast  parish,  13  miles 
ENE.  of  Walsingham.  England,  according  to  a 
rhymed  prophecy,  is  to  be  conquered  hence. 


WEYBRIDGE 


742 


WHITE  HORSfi 


Weybridge,  a  Surrey  Thames-side  parish,  3h 
miles  SE.  of  Chertsey.  Pop.  5330. 
Weyhill.  See  Andover. 
Weymouth,  a  fashionable  watering-place  of 
Dorset,  7i  miles  S.  of  Dorchester,  77  S.  of 
Bristol,  and  145  WSW.  of  London  (128  by  road). 
It  lies  at  the  mouth  of  the  little  V/ey,  on  a 
beautiful  bay,  bounded  E.  by  St  Albans  Head 
and  W.  by  the  'Isle'  of  Portland  (q.v.),  and  here 
divided  by  the  projecting  Nothe  into  Weymouth 
Bay  and  Portland  Roads.  The  Wey,  after  widen- 
ing into  the  tidal  'Backwater,'  enters  the  sea, 
and  separates  the  two  quarters  of  the  town- 
old  Weymouth  proper  on  the  south,  and  modern 
Melcombe-Regis,  facing  the  bay,  on  the  north. 
Both  were  separate  boroughs  till  1571,  and  they 
still  returned  two  members  apiece  till  1882,  then 
two  conjointly  till  18S5.  A  bridge,  reconstructed 
in  1881,  connects  them;  and  Melcombe-Regis, 
which  rose  into  repute  through  George  III.'s 
frequent  visits  from  1789,  has  capital  sands,  an 
esplanade  over  a  mile  long,  statues  of  King 
George  (1809)  and  Sir  H.  Edwards  (1885),  numer- 
ous hotels,  and  a  pile  pier  1050  feet  long,  con- 
structed in  1859  at  a  cost  of  £12,000.  The  Nothe 
has  been  strongly  fortified  since  the  Crimean 
war.  Steamers  run  to  the  Channel  Islands,  and 
there  is  an  export  trade  in  Portland  stone  and 
Roman  cement.  Thomas  Love  Peacock  was  born 
here,  and  here  Southey  first  saw  the  sea.  Pop. 
a821)  6622  ;  (1851)  9458 ;  (1901)  19,831.  See  works 
by  G.  A.  Ellis  (1829)  and  Robert  Damon  (1860). 

Weymouth,  a  township  of  Massachusetts,  on 
Massachusetts  Bay,  12  miles  SSE.  of  Boston, 
with  the  four  villages  of  Weymouth,  and  Bast, 
North,  and  South  Weymouth.    Pop.  11,350. 

Whalley,  a  Lancashire  village,  on  the  Calder, 
3|  miles  S.  by  W.  of  Clitheroe,  with  a  ruined 
Cistercian  abbey  (1296). 

Whalsay,  a  Shetland  island,  18J  miles  NNE. 
of  Lerwick.    Area,  7|  sq.  m. ;  greatest  height. 
393  feet ;  pop.  977. 
Whang-hai.    See  Yellow  Sea. 
Wharfe,  a  Yorkshire  river,  flowing  60  miles 
ESE.  to  the  Ouse  near  Cawood. 

Wharncliflfe,  a  Yorkshire  village,  6i  miles 
NNW.  of  Sheffield.  ^ 

Wharncliffe  Viaduct,  on  the  Great  Western, 
at  Han  well  (q.v.),  is  896  feet  long  and  70  high. 

Wheeling,  the  principal  city  of  AVest  Virginia, 
on  the  left  bank  of  the  Ohio  River,  and  at  the 
mouth  of  Wheeling  Creek,  at  the  foot  of  steep 
hills,  67  miles  by  rail  and  92  by  river  SW.  of 
Pittsburgh.  The  National  Road  here  crosses  the 
Ohio,  by  a  wire  suspension  bridge,  1010  feet 
in  span  ;  and  a  fine  railway  bridge  connects  the 
city  with  Bellaire,  Ohio.  For  ten  years  (1875- 
85)  Wheeling  was  the  state  capital.  The  hills 
around  are  full  of  bituminous  coal ;  and  there  are 
blast-furnaces,  foundries  and  forges,  nail-factories, 
glass-works,  woollen,  flour,  and  paper  mills,  &c. 
Pop.  (1880)  30,737  ;  (1900)  38,878. 

Whickham,  a  manufacturinj 
3^  miles  SW.  of  Gateshead. 
Whidah.     See  Dahomey. 
Whit' adder,  a  Berwickshire  stream,  flowing  34 
miles  to  the  Tweed,  2^  miles  above  Berwick. 

Whitby,  a  seaport  and  watering-place  in  the 
North  Riding  of  Yorkshire,  54^  miles  by  rail  (by 
road  45)  NNE.  of  York  and  22  NNW.  of  Scar- 
borough. It  stands,  looking  northward  over  the 
German  Ocean,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Esk,  which 
here  emerges  from  its  wooded  dells  and  forms  a 


town  of  Durham, 
Pop.  12,852. 


wide  tidal  pool,  walled  in  by  jet-veined  cliffs  of 
alum  shale.  A  stone  bridge  (rebuilt  1835),  172  feet 
long,  with  a  swivel  by  which  vessels  are  admitted 
to  the  inner  harbour,  connects  the  two  halves  of 
the  town.  Its  older  portions  on  the  east  side, 
with  steep  narrow  streets  and  red-tiled  houses, 
climb  tier  upon  tier  up  the  cliff",  where  stand 
the  ruined  abbey  of  St  Hilda  and  the  ancient 
parish  church  of  St  Mary.  St  Hilda  (614-680) 
founded  in  657  the  monastery  of  Streanshalh, 
which  has  memories  of  Csedmon  and  St  John 
of  Beverley,  and  where  in  664  was  held  the 
great  'Council  of  Whitby.'  It  was  burned  in 
867  by  the  Danes  (who  changed  the  name  of  the 
place  to  Prestehy  or  Whyteby,  '  priests'  or  white 
town'),  but  in  1078  was  refouiided  as  a  Bene- 
dictine abbey  for  monks.  The  stately  ruins 
of  the  church,  which  was  300  feet  long,  com- 
prise choir,  north  transept,  and  part  of  the  nave, 
the  great  central  tower  having  fallen  in  1830.  Be- 
tween the  abbey  and  the  clifl'is  the  parish  church, 
originally  Norman,  gained  from  the  town  by 
nearly  200  steps  ;  and  on  the  south  side  is  Whitby 
Hall  (c.  1580).  Of  modern  buildings  may  be 
mentioned  the  town-hall  (1788),  the  iimseum  (1823) 
on  the  west  pier,  and  the  Saloon  (1878),  in  Queen 
Anne  style,  with  concert-room,  promenade,  &c., 
on  the  side  of  the  West  Cliff",  which  is  surmounted 
by  the  fashionable  terraces  of  Hudson,  the  '  Rail- 
way King '  (1845).  The  west  and  east  piers,  300 
and  800  yards  long,  protect  the  outer  harbour ; 
and  at  the  extremity  of  the  former  is  a  lighthouse 
(1831),  83  feet  high,  like  a  Doric  column.  The 
whale-fishery  (1733-1837)  belongs  to  the  past,  but 
the  shipping  is  still  considerable.  Iron  ship- 
building is  carried  on  by  one  firm,  though  Cap- 
tain Cook,  who  was  a  'prentice  here,  might  no 
longer  choose  Whitby-built  ships  as  '  the  stoutest 
bottoms'  in  England.  The  herring  and  other 
fisheries  are  actively  prosecuted  ;  but  Whitby's 
specialty  is  the  (decayed)  manufacture  of  jet.  It 
returned  one  member  from  1832  till  1885.  Pop, 
(1851)  10,989  ;  (1901)  11,748.  See  works  by  Charl- 
ton  (1779),  Young  (1817),  F.  K.  Robinson  (1876), 
and  Canon  Atkinson  (1894). 

Whitchurch,  (l)  a  Hampshire  town,  12  miles 
N.  of  Winchester.  Till  1832  a  pari,  borough,  it 
manufactures  silk,  serges,  and  shalloons.  Pop. 
2280.— (2)  A  Shropshire  town,  19  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Shrewsbury.  Malting  and  brewing  are  carried 
on.  Pop.  (1851)  3519  ;  (1901)  5220. 
Whitechapel.  See  London,  p.  423. 
"Whitefield,  or  Stand,  a  town  of  Lancashire, 
5J  miles  N.  of  Manchester.  Dating  from  1826,  it 
has  many  fine  residences,  cotton  manufactures, 
and  neighbouring  collieries.    Pop.  6588. 

Whitehall,  a  town  of  New  York,  at  the  liead  of 
Lake  Champlain,  and  the  end  of  the  Chaniplain 
Canal,  78  miles  N.  by  E.  of  Albany.  Pop.  4346. 
Whiteha'ven,  a  municipal  borough  and  sea- 
port of  Cumberland,  80  miles  NW.  of  Lancaster. 
Dating  from  1633,  it  has  owed  its  well-being  to 
great  collieries  and  haematite  iron  mines.  There 
are  blast-furnaces,  iron-shipbuilding  yards,  iron 
and  brass  foundries,  and  manufactures  of  coarse 
linen,  sail-cloth,  ropes,  soap,  and  earthenware. 
The  harbour  has  a  wet-dock  of  five  acres,  two 
piers  constructed  in  1824-41,  and  a  lighthouse ; 
and  steamers  ply  to  Liverpool,  Dublin,  Belfast, 
and  Ramsey.  Whitehaven  was  attacked  by  Paul 
Jones  in  1778,  and  suflfered  from  a  mining  sub- 
sidence in  1791.  It  has  returned  one  member 
since  1832.     Pop.  (1851)  18,916  ;  (1901)  19,325. 

"White  Horse,  the  name  applied  to  a  figure  of 
a  horse  on  a  hillside,  formed  by  removing  the 


WHITEKIRK 


t43 


WlESBADEl^ 


turf,  so  as  to  show  the  underlying  chalk.  The 
most  famous  is  that  at  Ufflngton,  Berkshire,  4 
miles  SE.  of  Shrivenhara.  It  measures  355  feet 
from  nose  to  tail  and  120  from  ear  to  heel ;  is 
traditionally  supposed  to  commemorate  Alfred 
the  Great's  victory  of  Ashdown  (871) ;  is  men- 
tioned about  Henry  11. 's  time  as  existing  prior 
to  1084;  and  has  been  ijeriodically  'scoured'— 
fourteen  times  during  1755-1857,  then  not  till 
1884.  Other  White  Horses  are  at  Bratton  Hill, 
Westbury  (175x107  feet),  Cherhill  (129x142  feet), 
Marlborough  (62  x  47  feet),  Pewsey  (ISO  x  167  feet), 
&c.    See  a  work  by  Plenderleath  (new  ed.  1892). 

Whitekirk,  a  Haddingtonshire  coast  parish, 
4J  miles  SE.  of  North  Berwick,  with  a  church 
that  was  a  great  resort  of  pilgrims. 

White  Mountains,  an  Appalachian  (q.v.) 
group,  in  New  Hampshire  (q.v.).  Mount  Wash- 
ington has  a  carriage-road  and  an  hotel  on  its 
summit,  with  a  powerful  electric  light. 

White  River  rises  in  Arkansas,  and  flows  800 
miles  (300  navigable)  through  it  or  Missouri,  NE., 
E.,  SE.,  and  S.,  to  the  Mississippi  near  the  mouth 
of  the  Arkansas. 

White  Sea  (Russian  Bjeloje  More),  a  branch  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean  penetrating  350  miles  into 
Archangel  province,  N.  Russia.  It  narrows  to 
less  than  50  miles,  widens  again,  and  forms  the 
Kandalak  Gulf,  that  of  Archangel,  into  which  the 
Dwina  falls,  and  that  into  which  the  Onega  falls. 
The  sea-route  hither  was  discovered  by  Chancellor 
in  1553  ;  Archangel  (q.v.)  is  the  chief  emporium 
on  its  shores.  Usually  frozen  from  the  beginning 
of  September  till  the  end  of  May,  it  has  direct 
water  communication  with  the  Dnieper  and 
Volga,  and  so  witli  the  Black  Sea  and  Caspian. 

White  Sulphur  Springs,  a  watering-place  of 
West  Virginia,  227  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Richmond. 

Whithorn,  a  royal  burgli  in  Wigtownshire,  3J 
miles  NW.  of  the  Isle  of  Whithorn,  and  12i  S.  of 
Wigtown  by  rail.  The  Leukopibia  of  the  Novantse, 
Latin  Candida  Casa,  and  Old  English  Hwitaern, 
it  was  here  that  St  Ninian  founded  a  church  (397), 
and  here  he  was  buried  in  432.  An  Anglic 
bishopric  (727-96)  was  re-established  as  the  see 
of  Galloway,  the  church  of  a  Premonstratensian 
priory  becoming  the  cathedral.  It  was  a  great 
place  of  pilgrimage.  There  remains  now  only  a 
roofless,  ivy-grown  ruin.    Pop.  1188. 

Whiting  Bay.    See  Arran. 

Whitney,  Mount,  the  highest  mountain  (14,898 
feet)  of  the  United  States  outside  of  Alaska,  is  in 
the  Sierra  Nevada  in  southern  California. 

Whit' stable,  a  long,  straggling  village  in  Kent, 
on  the  south  shore  of  the  Thames  estuary,  at  the 
Swale's  mouth,  6  miles  NNW.  of  Canterbury.  Its 
oysters  are  famous,  the  large  artificial  beds  being 
regularly  farmed.    Pop.  7086. 

Whittinghame  (Whit'in-jame),  a  Haddington- 
shire parish,  3  miles  SSE.  of  Bast  Linton,  with 
the  seat  of  the  Right  Hon.  A.  J.  Balfour. 

Whittlesey,  a  Cambridgeshire  town,  5^  miles 
E.  by  S.  of  Peterborough,  lindttlesey  Mere,  a 
former  shallow  lake  (2  by  1  mile)  in  Hunts,  4 
miles  SW.  of  Whittlesey,  is  drained.  Pop.  (1851) 
4972 ;  (1901)  3909. 

Whitwick,  a  Leicestershire  town,  5J  miles  E. 
by  S.  of  Ashby-de-la-Zouch.  Hosiery  is  manu- 
factured.    Pop.  of  parish,  4564. 

Whitworth,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  3  miles  N. 
by  W.  of  Rochdale,  with  cotton  mills.    Pop.  9560. 

Whydah,  or  Whidah.    See  Dahomey. 

Wihorg.    See  Viborq. 


Wichita  (Wish'e-taw  or  Wi-sheeHaw),  a  city  ot 
southern  Kansas,  capital  of  Sedgwick  county,  on 
the  Arkansas  River's  left  bank,  505  miles  W.  by 
S.  of  St  Louis  and  228  SW.  of  Kansas  City.  It 
is  the  meeting-point  of  four  great  railway  systems, 
and  contains  many  other  mills,  &c.  It  was 
founded  in  1870.     Pop.  (1880)  4911 ;  (1900)  24,671. 

Wick,  the  county  town  of  Caithness,  on  the 
Wick  River,  at  its  entrance  to  Wick  Bay,  161 
miles  by  rail  (1874)  NNE.  of  Inverness.  The 
royal  burgh,  with  its  suburbs  Louisburgh  and 
Boathaven,  lies  N.  of  the  river,  and  Pultney- 
town  (1808)  on  the  S.  bank.  The  harbour  is  tidal. 
Wick  is  a  great  centre  of  the  herring-fishery. 
Pop.  (1841)  5522  ;  (1901)  7911. 

Wickham  Market,  a  Suffolk  town,  5  miles 
NNE.  of  Woodbridge.     Pop.  of  parish,  1537. 

Wicklow,  a  maritime  county  of  Leinster, 
borders  on  Dublin,  Carlow,  Kildare,  and  Wex- 
ford. Its  greatest  length  is  40  miles,  and  greatest 
breadth  33  ;  the  area  being  781  sq.  m.,  or  500,178 
acres,  of  which  118,000  are  under  tillage.  The 
coast-line,  in  many  parts  precipitous,  is  obstructed 
by  sandbanks.  The  Wicklow  Mountains  cul- 
minate in  Lugnaquilla  (3039  feet),  and  the  glens 
are  exceedingly  picturesque,  especially  Glen- 
dalough,  Glendalure,  Imail,  the  Glen  of  the 
Downs,  and  Avoca.  Some  plains  lie  on  the 
eastern  and  southern  shores.  The  lakes,  although 
strikingly  beautiful,  are  few  and  small ;  and  the 
rivers  are  mountain-streams,  except  the  Liffey 
and  the  Slaney,  which  rise  in  Wicklow.  Lead, 
copper,  sulphur,  and  iron  are  raised,  with  some 
silver ;  a  little  gold  has  been  found.  Slates,  lime- 
stone, and  marl  are  likewise  wrought.  The 
fisheries  are  neglected ;  and  the  manufacture  of 
flannels  is  nearly  extinct.  The  county  is  divided 
into  eight  baronies.  The  principal  towns  are 
Wicklow,  the  capital,  part  of  Bray,  and  Arklow. 
The  county  returns  two  members.  Pop.  (1841) 
126,162;  (1881)  70,386;  (1901)  60,824,  of  whom 
48,083  were  Catholics.  Wicklow  was  in  1605 
erected  into  a  separate  county.  It  has  many 
Celtic  and  ecclesiastical  remains,  at  Glendalough 
(q.v.),  &c.— The  county  town,  Wicklow,  at  the 
Vartry's  mouth,  28  miles  ESE.  of  Dublin,  attracts 
many  visitors  for  sea-bathing.     Pop.  3283. 

Wickwar,  a  Gloucestershire  town,  4  miles  N. 
of  Chipping-Sodbury.    Pop.  933. 

Widdin,  a  town  of  NW.  Bulgaria,  on  the 
Danube's  right  bank,  20  miles  from  the  Servian 
frontier.  For  centuries  the  '  Virgin  Fortress '  was 
a  strong  Turkish  post,  famous  in  the  Russo- 
Turkish  war  of  1877-78.     Pop.  15,400. 

Wid'nes,  a  borough  of  Lancashire,  on  the 
Mersey,  13  miles  ESE.  of  Liverpool  by  rail,  with 
manufactures  of  iron,  copper,  soda,  soap,  candles, 
manures,  .&c.  Widnes,  incorporated  in  1892,  is 
opposite  Runcorn  (q.v.).  Pop.  (1861)  4803  ;  (1891) 
30,011  ;  (1901)  28,580. 

Wieliczka  (Vyay-Utch'ka),  a  town  of  Austrian 
Galicia,  10  miles  SE.  of  Cracow  by  rail,  with  re- 
markable salt-mines.     Pop.  6289. 

Wiener-Neustadt,  a  manufacturing  town  of 
Lower  Austria,  70  miles  S.  of  Vienna.  Pop. 
29,300. 

Wiesbaden  (Vees-bdh'den),  chief  town  of  a 
Prussian  district  in  the  province  of  Hesse-Nassau, 
Avas  formerly  capital  of  the  independent  duchy  of 
Nassau.  One  of  the  oldest  and  most  famous  of 
the  German  watering-places,  it  is  delightfully 
situated  on  the  south  slopes  of  Mount  Tavmus,  5 
miles  NW.  of  Mainz.  It  has  been  called  '  a  city 
of  lodging-houses  ;'  the  principal  buildings  are  the 


WIESEN 


•744 


WILDBAD 


palace  (1840) ;  tlie  Kursaal  (1810),  with  delightful 
park  and  gardens ;  the  new  town-hall  (1888) ; 
the  museum,  picture-galleries,  and  library  ;  the 
handsome  Protestant  church  (1853-62);  the 
superb  Greek  chapel  (1855),  built  by  the  Duke  of 
Nassau  as  a  mausoleum  for  his  duchess;  the 
Catholic  church;  the  synagogue,  &c.  Of  its 
twenty  hot-springs,  which  were  known  to  the 
Romans,  the  principal  is  the  Koclibrunnen 
('Boiling-spring:'  156°  F.).  The  saline  hot- 
springs,  containing  silica  and  iron,  are  efflcacious 
in  gout,  rheumatism,  scrofula,  and  other  skin 
diseases  and  nervous  affections.  Though  the 
public  gaming-tables  were  abolished  in  1872,  the 
number  of  visitors  annually  is  about  60,000  ;  some 
5000  or  6000  strangers  winter  here  annually. 
Pop.  (1871)  35,463  ;  (1000)  86,111. 

Wiesen  (Vee'zen),  an  alpine  health-resort  for 
the  weak-chested,  is  4771  feet  above  the  sea-level, 
and  12^  miles  SW.  of  Davos. 

Wig' an,  a  town  of  Lancashire,  on  the  Douglas  (a 
feeder  of  the  Kibble's  estuary),  15J  miles  S.  by  E. 
of  Preston,  18|  NE.  of  Liverpool,  and  18  WNW. 
of  Manchester.  Situated  in  the  heart  of  a  rich 
coalfield,  and  commanding  easy  communication 
by  both  rail  and  water,  it  is  an  ancient  place,  on 
the  site,  it  is  thought,  of  a  Roman  station,  but 
owes  its  present  development  to  tlie  growth  of 
the  cotton  industry.  The  manufactures  include 
calicoes,  ginghams,  table-cloths,  fustians,  linen, 
iron,  paper,  &c.,  some  of  its  cotton-mills  and 
ironworks  being  among  the  largest  in  England. 
All  Saints  parish  church,  a  stately  edifice  dating 
from  the  14th  c,  was  in  great  measure  rebuilt  in 
1856 ;  and  there  are  also  the  county  buildings 
(1888),  public  hall  (1853),  market-hall  (1877),  free 
public  library  (1878),  infirmary  (opened  by  the 
Prince  of  Wales,  June  4, 1873 ;  enlarged  1884),  baths 
(1882),  grammar-school  (1619;  rebuilt  1876),  and 
a  public  park  (1878)  of  27  acres,  laid  out  at  a  cost 
of  £20,000.  A  prescriptive  borough,  Wigan  re- 
turned two  members  from  Edward  VI.'s  reign  till 
1885,  now  only  one  ;  it  became  a  county  borough 
in  1888.  Pop.  (1831)  20,774  ;  (1881)  48,194 ;  (1901) 
60,770.  In  1642  Wigan  was  occupied  by  the 
royalist  Earl  of  Derby,  but  it  was  twice  taken  by 
the  parliamentarians ;  and  in  1651  the  earl  was 
defeated  here  by  Lilburne.  Prince  Charles 
Edward  passed  through.  Leland  was  a  native. 
See  Sinclair's  History  of  Wigan  (2  vols.  1882). 

Wight,  The  Isle  of,  is  separated  from  Hamp- 
shire by  the  Solent  (q.v.)  and  Spithead  (q.v.). 
Its  extreme  length,  E.  to  W.,  is  23  miles,  and  its 
extreme  breadth,  13  miles.  The  area  is  145  sq. 
m. ,  or  92,931  acres.  A  bold  range  of  chalk  downs 
runs  somewhat  irregularly  the  entire  length  of 
the  island,  terminating  on  the  west  in  the 
Needles  (q.v.),  and  breaking  off  on  the  east  at 
Culver  and  Bembridge.  These  downs  at  several 
points  reach  from  500  to  700  feet ;  but  they  are 
excelled  in  altitude  by  the  high  land  on  the  ex- 
treme south  or  '  back '  of  the  island,  Avhere  St 
Boniface  Down  above  Ventnor  attains  787  feet. 
This  is  the  highest  point  of  the  isle,  though  St 
Catharine's  Beacon  to  the  westward  is  only  6  feet 
less.  The  more  elevated  ground  being  thus  on 
the  south,  the  chief  streams  flow  to  the  north, 
and  three  of  them  traverse  nearly  the  whole 
breadth— the  eastern  Yar,  the  Medina,  and  the 
western  Yar.  The  streams  which  flow  southward 
are  short,  but  they  play  an  important  part  in  the 
formation  of  '  chines,'  narrow  ravines  worn 
through  the  soft  rocks.  Wight  has  long  been  in 
repute  for  the  mildness  of  its  climate,  its  fertility, 
and  its  picturesqueness,  which  have  rendered  it 


a  most  favourite  resort.  Tliere  are  yet  traces  on 
the  downs,  in  barrows  and  cairns,  of  the  earlier  in- 
habitants of  the  island,  but  its  history  really  begins 
with  its  conquest  by  Vespasian  as  Insula  Vectis. 
There  is  ample  evidence  that  the  island  was  well 
appreciated  by  the  Romans,  whose  chief  stations 
were  probably  at  Carisbrooke  (q.v.)  and  Brading 
(q.v.).  Cerdic  is  said  to  have  reduced  the  island 
in  530  ;  but  it  did  not  fall  definitely  under  Saxon 
rule  until  later.  After  the  Norman  Conquest  it 
was  given  to  William  Fitzosborne,  but  was  for- 
feited by  his  son,  and  passed  to  the  Red  vers 
family,  who  thence  took  the  title  of  '  lords  of  the 
isle,'  and  held  it  till  1292,  when  it  passed  to  the 
crown.  There  are  several  government  establish- 
ments, as  at  Parkhurst,  and  sundry  forts  con- 
nected with  the  defences  of  Portsmouth  and  Spit- 
head.  Before  1832  Wight  returned  six  members, 
two  apiece  for  Newport,  Yarmouth,  and  un- 
inhabited Newtown.  Now  it  has  no  parliament- 
ary borough,  and  one  member  for  the  island 
only  ;  but  it  has  become  an  administrative  county 
under  the  County  Councils  Act,  1888.  Pop. 
(1851)  50,324  ;  (1881)  73,633 ;  (1901)  82,387.  The 
towns  are  Ryde,  Newport,  East  and  West  Cowes, 
Ventnor,  St  Helens,  Sandown,  and  Shanklin. 
See  works  by  Worsley  (1781),  Englefield  (1816), 
Adams  (1856),  Stone  (1891),  and  Shore  (1892> 

Wigton,  a  market- town  of  Cumberland,  llj 
miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Carlisle.  It  manufactures 
ginghams  and  winceys.    Pop.  3690. 

Wigtown,  a  county  forming  the  SW.  corner  of 
Scotland,  the  western  half  of  Galloway,  bounded 
by  the  Irish  Channel,  Ayrshire,  the  Stewartry  of 
Kirkcudbright,  the  Solway  Firth,  and  the  Irish 
Sea.  Its  length  from  E.  to  W.  is  30  miles,  its 
breadth  from  N.  to  S.  28  miles.  Area,  327,906 
acres  ;  pop.  (1851)  43,389  ;  (1901)  32,685.  Wig- 
townshire is  deeply  intersected  by  Loch  Ryan 
(q.v.)  and  Luce  Bay.  The  western  peninsula 
thus  formed,  known  as  the  Rhinns  of  Galloway,  is 
28  miles  long  from  Corsewall  Point  to  the  Mull 
of  Galloway.  The  south-eastern  portion  of  the 
county  forms  a  blunt  triangular  peninsula— the 
Machers— ending  in  Borough  Head.  The  rest 
of  the  county  bears  the  general  name  of  the 
Moors,  great  part  being  occupied  by  bleak  fells 
and  high  mosses.  The  surface  is  diversified,  but 
the  only  hills  of  1000  feet  are  on  the  northern 
borders  :  one  solitary  peak  in  the  Rhinns,  Cairn 
Piot,  reaches  593  feet.  The  chief  streams  are  the 
Cree,  Bladenoch,  Luce,  and  Piltanton.  The  lakes 
are  very  numerous,  but  small.  The  climate  is 
mild,  but  moist.  The  entire  industry  is  agri- 
cultural, 46  per  cent,  of  the  surface  being  arable, 
and  the  dairy  farms  having  a  high  reputation. 
Towns  are  Stranraer,  Wigtown,  Newton-Stewart, 
Whithorn,  Portpatrick,  and  Glenluce.  See  W. 
M'llwraith's  G^iide  to  Wigtownshire  (1876) ;  also 
books  cited  at  Galloway. 

Wigtown,  a  royal  and  municipal  (and  till  1885 
parliamentary)  burgh  and  seaport,  on  the  W. 
side  of  Wigtown  Bay,  129  miles  SSW.  of  Edin- 
burgh. It  has  a  Tudor  town-hall  (1863),  a  parish 
church  (1853),  and  in  the  churchyard  the  graves 
of  the  'Wigtown  martyrs,'  an  old  woman  and 
a  young  girl  who,  refusing  the  Abjuration  Oath, 
were  tied  to  stakes  and  drowned  by  the  incoming 
tide,  11th  May  1685.    Pop.  1330. 

Wi-ju  (Wee-joo),  the  last  considerable  Corean 
town  (pop.  30,000)  towards  the  Chinese  frontier, 
to  the  south  of  the  Yalu  estuary.  It  was  opened 
to  foreign  trade  in  1904. 

Wildhad  (Vild'bad),  a  town  of  Wiirtemberg,  in 
the  Black  Forest,  on  the  Enz,  33  miles  SSB.  of 


WILDERNESS 


■745 


WILTSHIRE 


Carlsruhe.  Its  salt  baths  (90°  to  98°  F.)  are  bene- 
ficial for  rheumatisin,  gout,  paralysis,  &c.  The 
visitors  exceed  7000  annually.    Pop.  3534. 

Wilderness,  a  region  in  Virginia,  2  miles  S.  of 
the  Rapidan,  covered  with  thicket,  and  memor- 
able for  the  indecisive  two  days'  battle  fought  here 
by  Grant  and  Lee,  May  5-(j,  1864.  The  Union 
loss  was  18,000,  the  Confeilerate  11,000. 

WlUielmshaven  (VUhelmshah'fen),  the  chief 
naval  port  of  Germany,  on  the  W.  side  of  the 
entrance  of  the  Bay  of  Jahde,  45  miles  NW.  of 
Bremen.  Inaugurated  by  King  William  in  1869, 
it  is  now  a  fortress  of  tlie  first  rank,  defended  by 
out-lying  forts  and  torpedoes,  and,  with  its  moles, 
basins,  dry-docks,  vast  navy  stores  and  work- 
shops, has  been  a  very  costly  creation— the  mass- 
ive buildings  being  erected  on  swampy  ground. 
Water  is  furnished  by  artesian  wells.  A  com- 
mercial harbour  has  been  made  to  the  south  of 
and  connected  with  the  naval  one.    Pop.  23,800. 

Wilhelmshohe  {Vilhehnshay'eh).    See  Cassel. 

Wilkesbarre  (Wilks'bar-rey),  capital  of  Luz- 
erne county,  Pennsylvania,  on  the  left  bank  of 
the  N.  branch  of  the  Susquehanna,  18  miles  SW. 
of  Scranton.  Lying  in  the  picturesque  Wyoming 
Valley  (q.v.),  it  is  famous  for  its  mines  of  anthra- 
cite coal,  and  manufactures  locomotives,  railroad- 
cars,  mining  machinery,  ropes,  pottery,  &c. 
Pop.  (1870)  10,174  ;  (1890)  37,718  ;  (1900)  51,721. 

Willamette.    See  Oregon. 

Willemstad,  capital  of  Curasao  (q.v.). 

Willenhall,  a  town  of  Staffordshire,  3  miles  E. 
of  Wolverhampton.    Pop.  18,520. 

Willesden,  a  Middlesex  parish,  7  miles  WNW. 
of  St  Paul's.     Pop.  (1901)  114,811. 

Williamsblirg,  capital  of  James  City  county, 
Virginia,  near  the  James  River,  48  miles  BSE.  of 
Richmond.  Here  are  William  and  Mary  College 
(1693)  and  the  Eastern  State  Lunatic  Asylum. 
Founded  in  1632,  it  was  the  colonial  and  state 
capital  till  1779.  McClellan  took  it  after  severe 
fighting.  May  5-6,  1862.     Pop.  2050. 

Williamsport,  capital  of  Lycoming  county, 
Pennsylvania,  on  the  west  bank  of  the  Susque- 
hanna (here  crossed  by  a  suspension  bridge),  93 
miles  N.  of  Harrisburg.  Lying  in  the  midst  of 
attractive  scenery,  it  is  a  popular  summer-resort, 
but  is  chiefly  notable  as  a  great  lumber  mart. 
Pop.  (1880)  18,934  ;  (1900)  28,757. 

Willimantic,  a  borough  of  Connecticut,  31 
miles  by  rail  E.  by  S.  of  Hartford,  with  large 
cotton,  silk,  woollen,  and  tin  factories,  &c., 
driven  by  the  Willimantic  River,  which  here  falls 
100  feet  in  1  mile.    Pop.  8948. 

Willington  Quay,  a  Northumberland  port,  on 
the  Tyne,  2  miles  SW.  of  North  Shields,  Robert 
Stephenson  was  a  native.    Pop.  7950. 

Williton,  a  small  town  of  Somerset,  14  miles 
NW.  of  Taunton,  with  an  Early  English  church. 
Pop.  of  parish,  1202. 

Willoughby,  a  Lancashire  parish,  3  miles 
SSE.  of  Alford.    Captain  John  Smith  was  a  native. 

Wilmington,  (1)  a  city  and  port  of  Delaware, 
on  the  Delaware  River  and  Brandywine  and 
Christiana  Creeks,  25  miles  SW.  of  Philadelphia. 
It  is  a  regular  town  built  on  the  slopes  of  a  hill 
(240  feet),  and  contains  a  granite  custom-house, 
town-hall,  opera-house,  the  Wilmington  Insti- 
tute, Old  Swedes'  Church  (1698),  &c.  Its  manu- 
factures include  iron  steamships,  railway  cars, 
engines,  machinery,  cottons,  woollens,  powder, 
leather,  flour,  matches,  &c.    Pop.  (1880)  42,478  ; 


(1900)  76,508.— (2)  Capital  of  New  Hanover  county, 
North  Carolina,  on  the  left  bank  of  Cape  Fear 
River,  30  miles  from  its  mouth  and  207  SSE.  of 
Raleigh.  It  manufactures  turpentine,  rice,  flour, 
and  cottons.  During  the  civil  war  it  was  a 
chief  Confederate  port,  frequented  by  blockade- 
runners.     Pop.  (1880)  17,350  ;  (1900)  20,976. 

Wilmslow,  a  Clieshire  town,  on  the  BoUin,  5 
miles  SSAV.  of  Stockport.    Pop.  7450. 

Wilna.    See  Vilno. 

Wilton,  a  market-town  of  Wiltshire  (q.v.)  at 
the  confluence  of  the  Nadder  and  Wyly,  feed^s 
of  the  Avon,  3^  miles  WNW.  of  Salisbury.  It 
was  the  capital  of  Wessex,  and  the  seat  of  a 
bishopric  (909-1050),  but  after  1244,  when  it  had 
twelve  churches,  declined  through  the  diversion 
of  the  great  western  road.  The  present  church, 
erected  in  1844  by  Lord  Herbert  of  Lea  at  a  cost 
of  £20,000,  is  an  ornate  Lombardic  structure, 
with  a  campanile  108  feet  high.  On  the  site  of  a 
Saxon  nunnery  is  Wilton  House,  the  Herberts' 
seat,  where  Sidney  wrote  part  of  the  Arcadia.  It 
is  famous  for  its  Van  Dycks  and  for  the  beauty 
of  its  grounds.  Since  Elizabeth's  reign  carpets 
have  been  manufactured  at  Wilton,  which  is  a 
municipal  borough,  first  chartered  by  Henry  I., 
and  reformed  in  1885.  It  returned  two  members 
till  1832,  then  one  till  1885.  Pop.  2220.  See 
James  Smith's  Wilton  (Sal.  1851). 

Wiltshire,  an  English  county,  bounded  by 
Gloucestershire,  Berks,  Hants,  Dorset,  and 
Somerset.  Its  greatest  length,  N.  to  S.,  is 
54  miles ;  its  greatest  breadth,  37 ;  and  the 
area,  1354  sq.  m.,  or  866,677  acres.  Pop.  (1801) 
183,820  ;  (1841)  256,280  ;  (1901)  273,845.  This  un- 
usually small  proportion  of  inhabitants  is  due  to 
the  presence  of  extensive  tracts  of  open  pasture- 
land  in  the  centre  and  nortli  of  the  county — 
Salisbury  Plain  and  the  Marlborough  Downs. 
The  river  systems  divide  near  Devizes,  whence  the 
Somei'set  Avon,  entering  Wilts  from  Gloucester, 
flows  to  the  Severn  below  Bristol ;  the  Hamp- 
shire Avon  flows  by  Salisbury  to  the  Eng- 
lish Channel  at  Christchurch  ;  and  the  Kennet 
flows  to  join  the  Thames  at  Reading.  Chalk 
occupies  far  the  larger  portion  of  the  county, 
which  culminates  on  the  Berkshire  border  in 
Inkpen  or  Hackpen  Beacon  (972  feet).  Iron  ore 
was  worked  and  smelted  in  remote  antiquity,  but 
of  late  only  in  the  vicinity  of  Seend,  and  since 
of  Westbury.  The  industries  are  chiefly  agri- 
cultural— dairy-farming  in  the  N.,  and  grazing  in 
the  S.  Large  flocks  of  sheep  feed  on  Salisbury 
Plain.  Calne  sends  out  much  Wiltshire  bacon. 
There  is  also  an  important  manufacturing 
element — broadcloth  at  Bradford  and  Trow- 
bridge, and  Wilton  carpets.  Though  the  rolling 
open  country  is  as  a  rule  monotonous,  there  is 
much  charming  scenery  in  the  valleys  and  broken 
hill  districts  ;  Savernake  Forest  and  Cranbourne 
Chace  have  hardly  changed  for  centuries. 

Wiltshire  was  settled  by  the  Romans,  and  the 
defeat  of  the  British  at  Old  Sarum  in  552  was 
the  first  important  Saxon  success.  The  victory 
at  Barbury  (556)  included  the  shire  in  Wessex, 
of  which  kingdom  Wilton  became  the  capital. 
At  Wilton  Alfred  suffered  his  first  defeat  from 
the  Danes ;  at  Edington  (Ethandune),  near  West- 
bury,  he  defeated  Guthrum.  Wilton— itself 
named  from  the  river  Wyly— gave  name  to  the 
county  as  Wiltonscire.  Waller's  defeat  at  Round- 
way  Hill,  Devizes,  and  the  gallant  defence  of 
Wardour  Castle  by  Lady  Arundell  were  the  chief 
local  episodes  of  the  Great  Rebellion.  Till  1832 
Wiltshire    returned    thirty-four    members,   till 


Wimbledon  common 


746 


WINCHESTER 


1867  eighteen,  then  till  1885  fifteen,  and  now 
six  only— five  for  county  divisions  and  one  for 
Salisbury.  The  municipalities  are  Calne,  Chippen- 
ham, Devizes,  Malmesbury,  Marlborough,  Salis- 
bury, and  Wilton.  For  the  archijeologist  Wilts 
excels  every  county  in  England,  containing  as 
it  does  Stonehenge,  Avebury,  Silbury  Hill,  in- 
numerable barrows  and  earthworks,  the  most 
perfect  Anglo-Saxon  church  in  existence  at  Brad- 
ford-on-Avon,  Salisbury  Cathedral,  Malmesbury 
Abbey,  Longleat,  &c.  See  works  by  Aubrey  (ed. 
by  Jackson,  1862),  Hoare(8  vols.  1812-44),  Brittou 
(3  vols.  1801-25),  Moody  (1851),  J.  E.  Jackson  (2 
vols.  1867-72),  W.  H.  Jones  (3  vols.  1865-80),  Kite 
(1880),  Stratford  (1882),  R.  Jefferies  {Life  in  a 
Soiithern  County,  1882),  A.  C.  Smith  (1884-85), 
and  Worth  (1887),  besides  the  Wilts  Archxological 
Magazine  (since  1858). 

WimlJledon  Common,  an  open-,  breezy  heath 
of  628  acres,  7  miles  SW.  of  London.  Here  from 
1860  till  1889  in  July  was  held  the  annual  meeting 
of  the  National  Rifle  Association,  since  trans- 
ferred to  Bisley  (q.v.).  Linnaeus  liere  first  saw 
the  gorse  in  bloom ;  and  here  many  duels  were 
fought.  Wimbledon  now  is  practically  a  suburb 
of  London.     Pop.  of  urban  district  (1901)  41,052. 

Wimtoorne,  a  town  of  Dorset,  at  the  confluence 
of  the  Allen  and  Stour,  7  miles  N.  of  Poole  and 
25^  E.  of  Dorchester.  Here,  about  705,  was 
founded  a  nunnery,  which  Edward  the  Confessor 
refounded  as  a  collegiate  church  — the  noble 
cruciform  minster,  Norman  to  Perpendicular  in 
style,  with  a  central  and  a  west  tower,  and  the 
tomb  of  Ethelred  I.  There  is  a  grammar-school 
(1496  ;  refounded  1563).  Coach-building  and  the 
manufacture  of  buttons  and  woollen  hose  give 
employment.  Pop.  of  urban  district,  3690.  See 
works  by  Hall  (1853)  and  Yeatman  (1878). 

Wim'mera.    See  Victoria. 

Wlncanton,  a  Somerset  town,  on  the  Cale,  5 
miles  SSE.  of  Bruton.    Pop.  of  parish,  2109. 

Winceby.    See  Horncastle. 

Winchcomb,  a  Gloucestershire  market-town, 
on  the  Isborne,  under  the  Cotswolds,  7  miles  NB. 
of  Cheltenham.     Pop.  of  parish,  2864. 

Wln'chelsea,  a  decayed  Cinque  Port  of  Sussex, 
affiliated  to  Hastings,  is  2  miles  SW.  of  Rye  by 
rail,  and  from  1832  to  1885  was  included  in  the 
parliamentary  borough  of  Rye.  The  present 
ancient  city  (pop.  1000)  is  New  Winchelsea.  Old 
Winchelsea  stood  3  miles  SE.,  but  was  finally 
submerged  by  the  sea  in  1287.  New  Winchelsea 
was  built  on  a  quadrangular  plan  by  Edward  I. 
Parts  of  a  Franciscan  monastery  and  three  of  the 
gateways  remain.  See  Inderwick's  Story  of  New 
Winchelsea  (1892). 

Win'cliester,  the  city  of  Hampshire,  on  the 
Itchen,  60  miles  WSW.  of  London.  It  originated 
in  a  tribal  settlement  on  the  summit  of  a  hill. 
As  the  settlers  became  more  numerous  they  de- 
scended the  slope  (St  Catherine's)  to  the  plain, 
which  they  named  '  Gwent,'  or  the  hollow.  The 
Romans  took  possession  of  the  town,  and  formed 
its  future  rectangular  plan.  Alongside  of  the 
wattled  huts  of  the  '  Belgse '  soon  grew  up  city 
walls,  temples,  a  head  college  for  flamens,  &c. ; 
and,  if  the  record  be  true,  the  first  Christian 
church  in  Britain  was  built  here,  169  a.d.  Tessel- 
ated  pavements,  &c.  are  preserved  in  the  museum 
of  the  new  guildhall,  while  the  walls  of  Wolvesey 
are  studded  with  Roman  bricks  and  drums  of 
columns.  The  Romans  spelt  the  name  Venta,  the 
Saxons  Wintanceastre.  From  the  8th  till  the 
13th  c.  Winchester  was  a  rival  of  Loudon.    In  635 


an  Italian  monk,  Birinus,  here  converted  King 
Cynegils,  whose  son  Cenwalk  here  built  St  Peter's 
basilica.  Alfred  the  Great,  educated  here,  resided 
during  his  long  reign  at  Winchester,  of  which  his 
tutor  St  Swithin  was  a  native  and  afterwards 
bishop.  Alfred  also  founded  the '  New  Monastery," 
afterwards  called  from  his  favourite  master,  '  St 
Grimbalds.'  After  the  king's  death  the  monks 
by  trickery  obtained  his  body,  and  became  also 
possessed  of  the  bones  o  f  St  Josse.  B  ut  in  Edgar's 
reign  Bishop  iEtlielwold  erected  a  magnificent 
cathedral,  its  chief  attraction  the  body  of  St 
Swithin  and  the  miracles  it  worked.  William 
the  Conqueror  built  a  palace  at  Winchester, 
which  so  circumscribed  the  monks  that  they 
moved  across  to  Hyde  Mead,  on  the  north-west 
of  the  city.  This  took  place  in  1110  ;  in  1141  the 
abbey  was  destroyed  by  fire-balls  from  Wolvesey, 
when  the  fight  raged  for  seven  weeks  in  the  heart 
of  the  city.  The  monastery  was  soon  afterwards 
rebuilt,  and  in  1390  its  abbot  was  mitred.  In 
1788  a  bridewell  was*  constructed  out  of  the 
ruins.  Beneath  the  east  window  lie  the  bones 
of  five  persons  found  here  in  1867,  and  sup- 
posed to  be  those  of  King  Alfred,  his  queen, 
two  sons,  and  St  Grijnbald.  Henry  III.  ('  of 
Winchester ')  was  born  in  the  castle,  which  had 
a  Mappa  Mundi  and  Wheel  of  Fortune — the 
latter  perhaps  'Arthur's  Round  Table,'  which 
now  hangs  in  the  hall.  The  castle  had  become 
much  dilapidated  before  the  Cavaliers  took  refuge 
here— soon  to  surrender  to  Waller.  The  city  and 
castle  were  retaken  by  the  royalists,  but  finally 
yielded  to  Cromwell  in  1645.  One  tower  of 
the  castle  remains,  with  the  fine  hall  110 
feet  long.  For  400  years  parliaments  occasionally 
sat  in  it,  and  now  it  is  a  law-court.  Hard  by  is 
Charles  II. 's  red  brick  palace,  now  a  barrack 
(largely  destroyed  by  fire  in  December  1894). 
The  Saxon  cathedral  was  rebuilt  in  1079-93.  Its 
central  tower  fell  in  1107,  but  was  soon  re- 
built; and  it  still  forms  the  substantial  part 
of  the  present  cathedral,  which  owes  its 
existing  fonn  to  Bishops  de  Lucy,  Edington, 
Wykeham,  Cardinal  Beaufort,  and  Wayne- 
flete.  Specially  interesting  are  the  monuments 
and  unrivalled  chantries.  In  the  centre  of  the 
choir  stands  an  ancient  tomb,  said  to  be  that  of 
Rufus;  here  too  are  buried  Bishops  de  Lucy, 
Dela  Roche,  Edington,  Wykeham,  Cardinal  Beau- 
fort, Wayneflete,  Langton,  Fox,  and  Gardiner,  as 
also  Jane  Austen  and  Izaak  Walton.  The  resting- 
places  of  the  Saxon  kings  and  bishops  are  unique 
— coffers  perched  on  the  choir  partition  walls. 
This  cathedral  is  the  longest  in  England  (520 
feet)  except  Canterbury  (525). 

In  1369-93  Winchester  College  was  founded  by 
William  of  Wykeham.  His  edifice  is  that  now 
existing,  except  the  chantry  chapel,  schoolroom, 
and  tower.  At  the  entrance  of  the  kitchen 
stands  the  picture  of  the  Trusty  Servant.  The 
hall  is  magnificent,  53  feet  long.  In  the  school- 
room, built  by  Warden  Nicholas  (1687),  stands 
the  celebrated  signboard  painting  (c.  1450),  in- 
forming the  schoolboy  that  he  must  learn,  leave, 
or  be  flogged.  There  were  always  some  boys  who 
were  not  on  the  foundation,  and  as  they  increased 
'  Old  Commoners '  was  built  in  1730.  The  num- 
ber of  boys  is  now  about  450.  Among  former 
Wykamists  have  been  Archbishops  Warham  and 
Howley,  Sir  Thomas  Browne,  Bishop  Ken,  the 
poets  Collins,  Warton,  Young,  Otway,  and 
Bowles,  Lowth,  Lerapriere,  Dr  Arnold  of  Rugby, 
Sydney  Smith,  and  Lord  Sherbrooke.  There  are 
two  hospitals  dedicated  to  St  John,  and  said 
to   have   been   founded   by  Birinus;   one  has 


WINCHESTER 


747 


WINNIPEG 


been  rebuilt,  the  other  has  a  fine  hall  belong- 
ing to  the  corporation.  Portions  of  the  city 
wall,  mostly  built  in  the  reigns  of  John  and 
Henry  III.,  remain,  and  two  of  the  gates. 
Several  of  the  town  houses  are  ancient ;  the 
Butter  Cross  dates  from  Henry  VI.  ;  and  close  to 
it  an  old  clock  ijrojects  over  the  High  Street  in 
front  of  the  former  guildhall.  The  city  once  ex- 
tended to  St  Cross,  Wyke,  Worthy,  and  Magdalen 
Hill,  and  in  the  reign  of  Henry  I.  had  20,000 
inhabitants,  but  declined  so  much  after  being 
sacked  in  1265  that  it  has  but  now  regained 
that  amount,  the  pop.  being  13,704  in  1851,  and 
20,919  in  1901.  A  free  library  was  established  in 
1877.  A  mile  distant  stands  the  interesting 
hospital  of  St  Cross,  founded  in  1132  by  De  Blois, 
but  almost  wholly  rebuilt  by  Cardinal  Beaufort. 

See  works  by  Dean  Kitcliin  ('  Historic  Towns,' 
1890),  L'Estrange  (1889),  Misses  Bramston  and 
Leroy  (1882  ;  new  ed.  1884),  Benham  ('  Diocesan 
Histories,'  1884);  and  on  tlie  College,  Adams 
(1878),  Kirby  (1888  and  1892),  Holroyd  (1891), 
Leach  (1899),  and  Townsend  Warner  (1901). 

Winchester,  capital  of  Fredericic  county,  Vir- 
ginia, in  the  valley  of  the  Shenandoah,  87  miles 
WNW.  of  Washington.    Pop.  5166. 

Wlndau  (Viii-dow),  a  Russian  seaport  in  Cour- 
land,  120  miles  NE.  of  Memel.     Pop.  7094. 

Wln'dermere,  or  Winandermere,  the  largest 
lake  in  England,  called  from  its  beauty  '  Queen  of 
the  Lakes,'  is  partly  in  Lancashire,  and  partly 
divides  it  from  Westmorland.  It  is  10^  miles 
long,  not  quite  1  mile  in  extreme  breadth  ;  and, 
lying  134  feet  above  sea-level,  discharges  its  sur- 
plus waters  southward  into  Morecambe  Bay  by 
the  Leven.  Next  to  Wast  Water,  Windermere  is 
the  deepest  of  all  the  English  lakes,  its  greatest 
depth  being  219  feet,  while  Wast  Water  is  258 
feet  deep.  It  contains  a  number  of  islands,  the 
largest  being  28  acres  in  area.  Soft  rich  beauty 
is  the  main  feature  of  the  lake ;  there  being  a 
total  absence  of  that  sublimity  which  charac- 
terises some  of  the  otlier  lakes,  except  at  the 
north  end,  where  Langdale  Pikes,  Harrison 
Stickle,  Sea  Fell,  and  Bow  Fell  stand  forward 
prominently.  Windermere  village  (pop.  2400), 
nearly  a  mile  from  the  E.  shore,  and  300  feet 
above  its  level,  has  a  railway  station. 

Wlndlesham,  a  Surrey  parish,  8  miles  WSW. 
of  Chertsey.     Pop.  3420. 

Windrush,  a  river  of  Gloucester  and  Oxford 
shires,  flowing  30  miles  to  the  Thames. 

Windsor,  a  town  of  Berkshire,  on  the  right  bank 
of  the  Thames,  opposite  Eton,  21 J  miles  W.  by  S. 
of  Loudon  by  rail,  43  by  river.  The  kings  before 
the  Conquest  appear  to  have  had  a  hunting-lodge 
here  ;  but  the  present  stately  royal  castle  is  all 
6f  post-Conquest  erection,  owing  much  to  Henry 
II.,  Henry  III.,  Edward  III.  (the  Round  Tower), 
Edward  IV.,  and  Henry  VII.  (St  George's  Chapel), 
Charles  II.,  and  George  IV.,  under  whom  Wyat- 
ville  transformed  the  building.  It  was  the  birth- 
place of  Edward  III.  and  Henry  VI.,  the  death- 
place  of  George  III.,  George  IV.,  William  IV., 
and  Prince  Albert ;  and  the  burial-place  of  Henry 
VI.,  Edward  IV.,  Henry  VIII.,  Charles  I.,  the 
Duke  of  Clarence,  &c.  John  was  at  Windsor  after 
the  granting  of  ?Iagna  Charta  ;  and  Edward  III. 
established  the  Order  of  the  Garter  here.  As  we 
see  it  now  Windsor  Castle  consists  of  an  Upper 
and  a  Lower  Ward,  between  which  is  the  Mound 
and  the  Round  Tower.  In  the  Upper  or  eastern 
Ward  are  the  Library,  state  apartments.  Long 
Corridor,  and  private  apartments.  Wyatville 
ingeniously  connected   all   the  isolated  towers 


and  the  curtain  wall  between  by  means  of  this 
corridor,  which  is  520  feet  in  length.  The  state 
apartments  contain  many  good  pictures  and 
other  works  of  art.  In  the  Lower  Ward  is  St 
George's  Chapel,  with  its  cloisters,  the  Deanery, 
and  the  Canons'  Houses.  The  last  named  con- 
tain remains  of  the  palace  of  Henry  III.  Ad- 
joining to  the  westward  are  the  Horseshoe 
Cloisters.  Next  to  them  are  the  barracks, 
including  the  Curfew  Tower,  built  by  Salvin. 
On  the  south  side  is  tlie  principal  gate,  called 
after  Henry  VIII.  In  a  line  with  it  are  the 
houses  of  the  Military  Knights,  a  band  of  pen- 
sioners. The  Round  Tower  is  the  residence  of 
the  constable,  and  from  it  floats  the  royal 
standard.  Wyatville  lived,  till  his  death  in  1840, 
in  the  Winchester  Tower,  called  after  William  of 
Wykeham.  Wyatville  made  Windsor  what  it  is, 
and,  though  we  may  find  fault  with  his  details, 
his  proportions  and  his  eye  for  a  grand  scenic 
efl'ect  place  him  far  ahead  of  any  other  architect 
of  the  so-called  Gothic  revival. 

The  town  of  New  Windsor  was  chartered  by 
Edwartl  I.  It  contains  some  interesting  old 
houses,  but  nothing  that  can  with  certainty  be 
assigned  to  the  days  of  Shakespeare's  Merry 
Wives.  Sir  C.  Wren,  who  was  M.P.  for  the 
borough  in  1688,  built  the  town-hall  in  the 
market-place.  The  town  is  pleasantly  situated 
close  to  the  Home  Park  and  the  famous  Long 
Walk,  an  avenue  of  elms  3  miles  long,  which 
leads  to  the  Great  Park.  East  of  the  Long 
Walk  are  the  tombs  of  the  Duchess  of  Kent 
and  of  the  Prince  Consort,  in  domed  chapels  ; 
also  Frogmore,  the  royal  gardens,  the  fann  and 
the  dairy.  The  Great  Park  contains  a  church, 
Cumberland  Lodge,  and  Virginia  Water  (q.v.). 
Since  1867  Windsor  has  returned  only  one  mem- 
ber.    Pop.  (1851)  9596  ;  (1901)  14,130. 

Windsor,  a  port  of  Nova  Scotia,  45  miles  NW. 
of  Halifax,  with  King's  College  (1788).    Pop.  3500. 

Windsor,  a  town  and  port  of  Ontario,  Canada, 
on  the  Detroit  River,  ojjposite  Detroit.  Pop. 
(1881)  4253  ;  (1901)  12,153. 

Windward  Islands.    See  West  Indies. 

Winestead,  a  Yorkshire  parish,  12^  miles  ESE. 
of  Hull.     Andrew  Marvell  was  a  native. 

Winfield,  a  town  of  Kansas,  on  Whitewater 
Creek,  247  miles  SW.  of  Kansas  City.    Pop.  5584. 

Wingfield,  a  Suffolk  parish,  4^  miles  S.  by  W. 
of  Harleston,  with  the  old  castle  of  the  De  la  Poles. 

Wingfield,  South,  a  Derbyshire  parish,  2  miles 
W.  of  Alfreton,  with  the  ruins  of  Wingfield  Manor 
House,  where  Mary  Stuart  was  a  captive. 

Winneba'go.    See  Wisconsin. 

Win'nipeg,  capital  of  the  Canadian  province 
of  Manitoba,  stands  at  the  confluence  of  the 
Assiniboine  with  the  Red  River,  1424  miles  by 
rail  WNW.  of  Montreal  and  512  NNW.  of  Minne- 
apolis. Formerly  known  as  Fort  Garry,  from 
a  post  of  the  Hudson  Bay  Company,  it  was 
incorporated  as  Winnipeg  in  1873.  It  is  sub- 
stantially built,  with  wide  streets  traversed  by 
tramways  and  lit  with  the  electric  light,  and 
with  the  government  offices,  city  hall,  a  fine 
hospital,  the  university  of  Manitoba,  great  flour- 
mills  and  grain-elevators,  the  shops  of  the  Cana- 
dian Pacific  Railway,  &c.  Pop.  (1871)  241 ;  (1881) 
7985 ;  (1901)  42,340. 

Winnipeg,  Lake,  in  Manitoba,  40  miles  N.  of 
Winnipeg  city,  and  650  feet  above  sea-level,  is 
280  miles  long,  57  miles  broad,  and  8500  sq.  m. 
in  area.    Its  largest  tributaries  are  the  Saskat* 


WINONA 


74d 


WITNEY 


chewan,  the  Winnipeg,  and  the  Red  River  of  the 
North  ;  its  outlet  is  the  Nelson  River. 

Wino'na,  capital  of  Winona  county,  Minne- 
sota, on  the  right  bank  of  the  Mississippi,  103 
miles  by  rail  SE,  of  St  Paul.  It  has  flour  and 
saw  mills,  foundries,  carriage,  barrel,  and  sash 
factories,  &c.     Pop.  21,000. 

Winslow,  a  market-town  of  Bucks,  6J  miles 
SE.  of  Buckingham.     Pop.  1704. 

Winster,  a  Derbyshire  village,  4  miles  W.  by 
N.  of  Matlock.    Pop.  790. 

Winston,  a  town  of  North  Carolina,  218  miles 
SW.  of  Richmond,  Virginia,  with  tobacco-fac- 
tories.    Pop.  10,000. 

Winterslow,  a  Wiltshire  parish,  6  miles  ENE. 
of  Salisbury,  with  many  memories  of  Hazlitt. 

Winterthur  (Vin-ter-toor ;  anc.  Vitodurum),  a 
Swiss  town,  on  the  Eulach,  17  miles  by  rail  NE. 
of  Zurich.  It  manufactures  locomotives,  cotton, 
silk,  and  woollen  goods,  &c.     Pop.  22,650. 

Winterton,  a  Lincolnshire  town,  9  miles  NNE. 
of  Brigg.     Pop.  1360. 

Wirksworth,  a  market-town,  13J  miles  NNW. 
of  Derby.  There  are  neighbouring  lead-mines, 
and  manufactures  of  cotton,  ginghams,  hosiery, 
&c.     Pop.  3800. 

WirraL    See  Cheshire. 

Wis'bech,  a  market-town  of  Cambridgeshire,  in 
the  Isle  of  Ely,  on  the  Nene,  21  miles  ENE.  of 
Peterborough,  13  SW.  of  Lynn,  and  40  N.  of  Cam- 
bridge. The  parish  church,  Norman  to  Perpen- 
dicular in  style,  has  a  tine  tower  ;  and  there  are 
a  corn  exchange  (1811),  a  cattle-market  (1809),  a 
town-hall  (1873),  the  Cambridgeshire  hospital 
(1873),  a  museum  and  literary  institute,  and  a 
public  park  of  18  acres.  A  castle,  founded  by 
the  Conqueror  in  1071,  was  rebuilt  by  Bishop 
Morton  in  1483,  restored  by  Bishop  Andrewes  in 
1617,  and  again  rebuilt  from  Inigo  Jones's  designs 
by  Thurloe,  Cromwell's  secretary,  but  was  de- 
molished in  1816.  Visited  by  King  John  and 
Edward  IV.,  it  was  the  prison  under  Elizabeth 
of  many  Catholic  recusants.  Godwin  was  a 
native,  and  Clarkson,  to  whose  memory  a  Gothic 
cross  by  Sir  G.  G.  Scott  was  erected  in  1881. 
Vessels  of  nearly  500  tons  can  now  ascend  the 
Nene  from  the  Wash,  a  distance  of  7  miles  ;  and 
Wisbech  has  a  considerable  export  of  cereals  and 
import  of  timber,  with  some  manufactures  of 
iron,  oil,  ropes,  &c.  It  was  made  a  municipal 
borough  in  Edward  VI. 's  reign.  Pop.  (1851) 
10,089;  (1901)  9831.  See  works  by  W.  Watson 
(1827),  S.  H.  Miller  (1878),  and  T.  G.  Law  (1890). 

Wisby  (Viz-ly),  a  once  famous  seaport  on  the 
west  coast  of  the  Swedish  island  of  Gothland, 
130  miles  S.  of  Stockholm.  One  of  the  chief  com- 
mercial cities  in  Europe  during  the  10th  and 
11th  centuries,  and  then  a  principal  factory  of  the 
Hanseatic  League,  in  1361  it  was  stormed  by 
Valdemar  III.  of  Denmark,  who  obtained  an 
immense  booty.  This  was  a  fatal  blow  to  its 
prosperity.  The  ancient  walls  and  towers,  almost 
as  entire  as  in  the  13th  c,  render  its  appearance 
from  the  sea  most  striking.     Pop.  8400. 

Wiscon'sln,  one  of  the  United  States,  lies 
between  Lakes  Michigan  and  Superior  and  the 
Mississippi  River,  with  its  tributary  the  St 
Croix ;  the  surrounding  states  are  Michigan, 
Minnesota,  Iowa,  and  Illinois.  Its  length  is 
about  300  miles  and  its  breadth  250,  with  an 
area  of  56,040  sq.  m.  The  surface  is  a  rolling 
plaiu  with  an  elevation  of  600  feet,  rising  to 
1800  feet  at  the  divide,  about  30  miles  south  of 


Lake  Superior.  The  general  slope  is  south-west- 
ward towards  the  Mississippi,  to  which  flow  four- 
fifths  of  the  streams— the  Wisconsin  (600  miles), 
Chippewa,  Black,  &c.  There  are  two  thousand 
small  lakes,  the  largest,  Winnebago  (28  x  10 
miles).  Dense  forests  once  covered  most  of  the 
state,  though  the  southern  part  is  prairie  land. 
The  chief  industry  is  agriculture,  employing 
400,000  persons.  Dairying  is  rapidly  progress- 
ing, and  lumbering,  the  manufacture  of  leather, 
foundry  and  machine-shop  products,  flour,  malt 
liquors,  and  slaughtering  and  meat-packing  are 
great  industries.  The  state  suffered  from  de- 
structive forest  fires  in  1871  and  1894 ;  in  the 
former  1000  lives  were  lost.  The  University 
of  Wisconsin  is  in  Madison,  the  state  capital ; 
the  chief  connnercial  city  is  Milwaukee  (285,315). 
Artificial  earth-mounds  are  the  earliest  human 
traces.  In  1665  a  Jesuit  mission  was  founded  on 
Green  Bay,  and  French  fur- traders  soon  estab- 
lished trading-posts.  Upon  the  conquest  of 
Canada  in  1763  Wisconsin  passed  under  British 
control,  which  lasted  practically  till  1815.  Wis- 
consin Territory,  when  formed  in  1836,  extended 
to  the  Dakotas ;  but  in  1838  the  Mississippi  was 
made  its  western  boundary.  In  1848  it  was 
admitted  as  a  state.  Pop.  (1850)  305,391 ;  (1880) 
1,315,477  ;  (1900)  2,069,042  (largely  of  German  and 
Scandinavian  descent),  besides  7649  tribal  Indians. 

Wisll'aw,  a  thriving  town  of  Lanarkshire,  3^ 
miles  ESE.  of  Motherwell  and  15  of  Glasgow. 
Founded  in  1794,  it  was  constituted  a  police-burgh 
in  1855,  and  since  1874  has  comprised  also  the 
villages  of  Cambusnethan  (Lockhart's  birthplace) 
and  Craigneuk.  Coal-mining  is  the  staple  in- 
dustry, and  there  are  also  ironwoi-ks.  Pop. 
(1841)  2149 ;  (1881)  13,112  ;  (1901)  20,873. 

Wiske,  a  river  in  the  North  Riding  of  York- 
shire, flowing  24  miles  to  the  Swale. 

Wismar  (w  as  v),  a  Baltic  seaport  of  Mecklen- 
burg-Schwerin,  20  miles  by  rail  N.  of  Schwerin. 
Of  the  walls  only  four  gates  remain  ;  but  its  quaint 
houses  are  a  feature  of  the  place,  and  several  of 
the  brick  churches,  as  well  as  the  Fiirstenhof, 
once  a  ducal  residence,  date  from  the  14th  or  15th 
century.     Pop.  20,530. 

Wissembourg  {VeessavPhoorg ;  Ger.  Weissen- 
burg),  till  1871  a  French  fortified  town,  close  to 
the  frontier  of  the  Bavarian  Palatinate,  now  a 
manufacturing  town  in  German  Lower  Alsace,  is 
on  the  Lauter  42  miles  NNE.  of  Strasburg  ;  pop. 
7000.  It  grew  up  round  a  7th-century  Benedic- 
tine abbey,  and  in  1677-97  was  ceded  to  France. 
Here,  on  4th  August  1870,  the  Germans  won  their 
first  great  victory  over  the  French. 

Wiston,  one  of  the  Pembroke  (q.v.)  boroughs, 
5J  miles  NE.  of  Haverfordwest.    Pop.  623. 

Witham,  (l)  an  Essex  town,  8  miles  NE.  of 
Chelmsford.  Pop.  of  parish,  3454. — (2)  A  river 
of  Rutland  and  Lincolnshire,  flowing  80  miles  to 
the  Wash,  past  Grantham,  Lincoln,  and  Boston. 

Withemsea,  a  watering-place  in  the  East  Rid- 
ing of  Yorkshire,  4  miles  NE.  of  Patrington. 

Withlngton,  a  S.  suburb  of  Manchester. 

Witney,  a  town  of  Oxfordshire,  on  the  Wind- 
rush,  11  miles  W.  by  N.  of  Oxford  (14  by  a 
branch-line,  1861).  It  has  a  three-arch  bridge 
(1822),  a  fine  cruciform  13th-century  church,  a 
staple  or  blanket  hall  (1721),  a  market-cross  (1683), 
a  town-hall  (1863),  a  corn  exchange  (1862),  and  a 
county  court-house  (1859).  Its  blankets  enjoy  a 
great  reputation  ;  and  glove-making  is  also  carried 
on.  Pop.  (1851)  3099  ;  (1901)  3574.  See  J.  A. 
Giles's  History  of  Witney  (1852). 


WITTEN 


749 


WOLVERHAMPTON 


Witten,  a  Prussian  town  of  Westphalia,  on  the 
Ruhr,  7  miles  SE.  of  Bochum,     Pop.  33,520. 

"Wittenberg  (w  as  v),  in  Prussian  Saxony, 
capital  of  the  old  electorate  of  Saxony,  and 
cradle  of  the  Reformation,  on  the  Elbe,  59  miles 
SW.  of  Berlin.  The  famous  university  (1502), 
where  Luther  was  professor  and  Hamlet  studied, 
was  in  1815  incorporated  with  that  of  Halle.  In 
the  Stadt-Kirche  are  two  remarkable  pictures  by 
Cranach,  of  Melanchthon  baptising,  and  Luther 
preaching.  In  the  ScMoss-Kirche  (1499)  are  the 
tombs  of  Luther  and  Melanchthon,  as  well  as 
those  of  Frederick  the  Wise  (with  a  noble  bronze 
statue  by  Vischer)  and  John  the  Steadfast, 
electors  of  Saxony.  Luther  nailed  his  theses  to 
its  wooden  door,  which,  burned  by  the  Austrian 
besiegers  in  1760  during  the  Seven  Years'  War, 
was  in  1858  replaced  by  one  of  bronze.  The 
Schloss-Kirche  was  restored  and  reopened  by  the 
German  emperor  on  31st  October  1892.  The 
Augustinian  monastery,  with  Luther's  cell,  was 
converted  in  1817  into  a  theological  seminary ; 
the  house  of  the  great  Reformer,  containing  his 
chair,  table,  &c.,  and  two  portraits  of  him  by 
Cranach,  remains  almost  unaltered.  In  the 
market-place  is  Schadow's  bronze  statue  of 
Luther  (1822),  not  far  from  it  Drake's  of 
Melanchthon  (1865).  Occupied  by  the  French  in 
1813,  it  was  stormed  by  the  Prussians  in  1814, 
and  next  year  became  Prussian.  There  are  manu- 
factures of  woollen  and  linen  goods,  hosiery, 
leather,  brandy,  and  beer.     Pop.  18,350. 

Wittenberge,  a  Prussian  town  on  the  Elbe, 
65  miles  NW.  of  Potsdam.     Pop.  17,800. 

Witu  (Veetoo),  a  small  territory  on  the  east 
coast  of  Africa,  German  in  1886-90,  and  since  in- 
cluded in  British  East  Africa. 

Wltwat'ersrand.    See  Johannesburg. 

Wlveliscombe  (locally  Wibcombe),  a  Somerset 
town,  9^  miles  W.  of  Taunton.     Pop.  1418. 

Wivenhoe,  an  Essex  town,  on  the  Colne,  4 
miles  SE.  of  Colchester.    Pop.  of  parish,  2560. 

Woburn,  a  market-town  (pop.  1300),  13  miles 
SW.  of  Bedford,  noted  chiefly  for  Woburn  Abbey, 
seat  of  the  Dukes  of  Bedford,  which  stands  in  a 
park  12  miles  in  circumference.  The  Cistercian 
abbey,  a  daughter  house  of  Fountains,  was 
founded  in  1145,  and  in  1547  granted  to  John, 
Earl  Russell,  afterwards  Duke  of  Bedford.  Of 
the  abbey  nothing  now  remains;  the  mansion, 
built  mainly  in  the  18th  c,  occupies  four  sides  of 
a  quadrangle,  and  contains  a  magnificent  collec- 
tion of  portraits.     See  also  Wooburn. 

Woburn,  a  town  of  Massachusetts,  10  miles  by 
rail  NNW.  of  Boston,  with  manufactures  of 
pianos,  shoes,  leather,  &c.    Pop.  14,260. 

Woking,  a  Surrey  town,  24  miles  SW.  of 
London  by  rail.  Nearly  3  miles  W.  are  the 
'London  Necropolis  Cemetery'  (1864),  2000  acres 
in  extent,  and  the  first  public  crematory  in  Eng- 
land (1878).    Pop.  of  urb.  dist.  16,250.   See  Bisley. 

Wo'kingliam,  or  Oakingham,  a  municipal  bor. 
of  Berkshire  (till  1832  Wiltshire,  detached),  in 
Windsor  Forest,  7  miles  SE.  of  Reading  by  rail. 
Incorporated  in  1885,  it  has  a  Gothic  town-hall 
(1860),  neighbouring  paper,  saw,  and  flour  mills, 
and  the  '  Rose  '  inn,  where  Gay,  Swift,  Pope,  and 
Arbuthnot  celebrated  the  host's  pretty  daughter 
in  the  ballad  of  '  Molly  Mog.'  It  was  famous  for 
its  bull-baitings  till  1821.  Bearwood,  1  mile  W., 
is  the  seat  of  J.  Walter,  Esq.,  of  the  Times. 
Pop.  (1851)  2272;  (1901)  3551. 

Wolds.    See  Lincolnshire,  Yorkshire, 


Wolfenbuttel  (VolfenbeeU'el),  a  to^vn  of  Bruns- 
wick, founded  in  1046,  on  the  Oker,  7  miles  S.  of 
Brunswick  by  rail.  One  of  the  old  churches  con- 
tains  many  of  the  tombs  of  the  princes  of  Bruns- 
wick. The  old  castle  accommodates  a  seminary 
for  teachers  and  a  theatre.  The  library  opposite 
(1723),  of  which  Lessing  was  librarian,  had  to  be 
taken  down  and  rebuilt  in  1887  ;  it  houses  300,000 
volumes  (including  800  Bibles  and  many  incuna- 
bula) and  10,000  MSS.  There  are  manufactures 
of  Tuachines,  copper  goods,  flax,  cloth,  corks, 
leather,  preserves,  tobacco,  &c.     Pop.  17,873. 

Wolf  Rock,  8  miles  SSW.  of  Land's  End,  has 
a  lighthouse  (1862-69)  116^  feet  high. 

Wolgast  (w  as  v),  a  Pomeranian  seaport,  on 
the  Peene,  10  miles  from  its  mouth  in  the  Baltic, 
and  36  SE.  of  Sti-alsund  by  rail.    Pop.  8485. 

WoUongong,  a  seaport  of  New  South  Wales,  49 
miles  S.  of  Sydney  by  rail.    Pop.  5000. 

Wolsingham,  a  Durham  town,  on  the  Wear, 
10  miles  N  W.  of  Bishop  Auckland.    Pop.  3500. 

Wolstanton,  a  busy  manufacturing  NW.  suburb 
of  Stoke-upon-Trent,  Staff'ordshire. 

Wolverhampton  {Wol-  as  Wool'-),  a  municipal, 
parliamentary,  and  county  borough,  the  '  meti'o- 
polis  of  the  Black  Country,'  stands  on  a  gentle 
eminence  amid  a  network  of  railways  and  canals, 
13  miles  NW.  of  Birmingham,  15  S.  of  Stafford, 
and  126  NW.  of  London.  It  was  first  called 
'Hamton,'  and  then  '  Wulfrunishamton,'  after 
Wulfruna,  King  Edgar's  sister,  had  founded  in 
996  St  Peter's  Church,  which  continued  collegi- 
ate till  1846.  Rebuilt  during  the  13th,  14th,  and 
15th  centuries,  and  enlarged  and  elaborately  re- 
stored in  1859-65  at  a  cost  of  £10,000,  that 
church  is  a  fine  cruciform  Gothic  edifice,  with  a 
rude  stone  cross  in  the  churchyard,  a  carved 
stone  pulpit  of  1480,  and  monuments  to  Admiral 
Sir  Richard  Leveson  (1570-1605)  and  Colonel 
Lane  (d.  1667),  who  assisted  Charles  II.  in  his 
escape  from  Worcester.  Otherwise  the  public 
buildings  are  all  modern — the  town-hall  (1868),  in 
the  Italian  style,  corn  exchange  (1853),  market- 
hall  (1853),  agricultural  hall  (1863),  hospital 
(1849),  post-office  (1873),  art  gallery  (1885),  drill- 
hall  (1886),  &c.  A  bronze  equestrian  statue  of 
the  Prince  Consort  was  inaugurated  by  Queen 
Victoria  in  1866  ;  and  there  is  also  a  statue  (1879) 
of  the  Right  Hon.  C.  P.  Villiers  of  Corn-law 
fame,  first  returned  as  M.P.  for  Wolverhampton 
in  1835,  and  re-elected  in  1892.  The  public  park 
(1881)  was  laid  out  at  a  cost  of  £16,000.  The 
free  grammar-school,  which  was  founded  in  1512 
by  Sir  Stephen  Jenyns,  Lord  Mayor  of  London, 
and  at  which  Abernethy  and  Sir  W.  Congreve 
were  educated,  occupies  handsome  new  buildings 
of  1876;  and  there  are  also  a  blue-coat  school 
(1710)  and  an  orphanage  (1850).  Sir  Stephen  was 
a  native  ;  so  too  was  the  great  Mr  Jonathan 
Wild.  Bishop  Pococke  described  Wolverhampton 
in  1757  as  'a  great  manufacturing  town  in  all 
sorts  of  toys,  and  particularly  of  locks  in  the 
greatest  perfection ; '  and  locks— some  two  million 
yearly— are  still  its  specialty,  the  Messrs 
Chubb's  works  being  here.  The  other  manufac- 
tures include  tinplate,  japanned  goods,  enam- 
elled hollow  wares,  edge  tools,  gas  and  water 
tubes,  electro-plate,  papier-mache,  chemicals, 
&c.  The  town  stands  on  the  western  edge  of  the 
great  coal  and  iron  mining  district  of  South 
Staff'ordshire,  so  that  the  vicinity  on  the  south 
and  east  is  all  covered  with  collieries,  ironstone 
mines,  blast-furnaces,  forges,  iron-foundries,  and 
rolling-mills,  whilst  on  the  north  and  west  there 
is  pleasant  green  country— Boscobel  (q.v.)  is  only 


WOLVERTON 


750 


WORCESTER 


8  miles  distant.  Wolverhampton  was  enfran- 
chised in  1832,  returning  two  members  to  parlia- 
ment (three  since  1885),  and  it  was  made  a  muni- 
cipal borough  in  1848,  a  county  borough  in  1888. 
The  Wednesday  market  is  held  under  a  charter  of 
1258,  Pop.  of  parliamentary  borough  (1851) 
119,748  ;  (1881)  164,334 ;  (1901)  174,365,  of  whom 
94,187  were  within  the  municipal  and  county 
borough.  See  works  by  G.  Oliver  (1836),  F.  Hall 
(1865),  Steen  (1871),  and  J.  Fullwood  (1880). 

Wolverton,  a  town  of  Bucks,  2  miles  ENE.  of 
Stony  Stratford.  It  has  the  London  and  North- 
western railway  shops.     Pop.  of  parish,  4147. 

Wombwell,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  ^  miles  SE. 
of  Barnsley.     Pop.  14,250. 

Woobum,  a  town  of  Bucks,  2|  miles  SW.  of 
Beaconsfield.     Pop.  of  parish,  2727. 

Wood'bridge,  a  Suffolk  town,  on  the  right 
bank  of  the  Deben,  which  expands  into  an 
estuary,  12  miles  from  the  sea  and  8  ENE. 
of  Ipswich.  The  Udebryge  of  Domesday,  it 
has  a  fine  Perpendicular  church  with  a  flint- 
work  tower  108  feet  high,  a  Flemish-looking 
town-hall,  and  the  richly  endowed  Seckford  alms- 
houses and  grammar-school — the  former  dating 
from  1587,  and  rebuilt  in  1840  at  a  cost  of 
£28,000.  Bernard  Barton  and  Edward  Fitz- 
Gerald  were  residents.  Vessels  of  140  tons  can 
reach  the  town,  which  exi)orts  corn,  malt,  and 
bricks.     Pop.  4640. 

Woodford,  an  Essex  parish,  4J  miles  N.  by  E. 
of  Stratford.     Pop.  14,100. 

Woodhall  Spa.     See  Horncastle. 

Woodside,  a  NW.  suburb  of  Aberdeen, 

Wood' stock,  a  market-town  of  Oxfordshire,  on 
the  Glyme,  8  miles  NNW.  of  Oxford,  It  was  a 
royal  manor  from  Saxon  times  until  1705,  wlien 
it  was  granted  to  the  Duke  of  Marlborough,  whose 
seat,  Blenheim  Park  (q.v.),  is  close  by.  Hence  it 
has  many  memories,  as  the  birthplace  of  the 
Black  Prince  (though  not  of  Chaucer),  as  the 
scene  of  Becket's  first  quarrel  with  Henry  (if  not 
of  Fair  Rosamond's  murder),  as  the  i)lace  of  cap- 
tivity where  Elizabeth  wished  herself  a  milkmaid, 
and  for  the  pranks  of  its  '  merry  devil '  on  the 
parliamentary  commissioners  in  the  old  manor 
house,  which  was  pulled  down  in  1723.  A  muni- 
cipal borough,  chartered  first  by  Henry  VI. ,  and 
last  in  1886,  Woodstock  till  1832  returned  two 
members,  and  then  till  1885  one.  It  still  carries 
on  leather  glove-maki)ig.  Pop.  1684.  See  a 
work  by  E.  Marshall  (2  vols.  1873-74). 

Woodstock,  a  town  of  Ontario,  on  the  Thames, 
88  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Toronto.    Pop.  8850. 

Wooler,  a  town  of  Northumberland,  under  the 
Clieviots,  9  miles  SW.  of  Belford.    Pop.  1331. 

Woolmer  Forest,  a  heathy  tract  on  the  borders 
of  Hants  and  Sussex. 

Woolsthorpe,  a  Lincolnshire  hamlet,  8  miles 
S.  of  Grantham,  with  the  birthplace  (almost  un- 
altered) of  Sir  Isaac  Newton. 

Woolton.    See  Much  Woolton. 

Woolwich  (Wool'litch),  a  parish  in  Kent  (county 
of  London),  and  part  of  Eltham  royal  manor,  on 
the  Thames,  9  miles  below  London  Bridge,  was 
in  1885  constituted  a  parliamentary  borough  re- 
turning one  member.  It  includes  the  three 
parishes  of  Woolwich,  Plumstead,  and  Eltham, 
and  is  now  one  of  the  municipal  boroughs  of  the 
county  of  London.  Pop.  (1901)  117,178.  The 
chief  part  of  the  town  lies  south  of  the  river, 
but  North  Woolwich  is  in  Essex.  The  Royal 
Arsenal  (employing  over  14,000  men)  dates  from 


1585,  when  Queen  Elizabeth  had  a  store  of  arms 
and  armour  at  the  Tower  House,  a  mansion  in 
Woolwich  Warren  adjoining  the  then  boggy  and 
unhealthy  marshes  of  Plumstead.  Prince  Rupert 
protected  the  King's  Warren  with  batteries  in 
Charles  II. 's  reign,  and  other  fortifications  were 
added  by  James  II.  In  1716  the  proof  of  ordnance 
was  transferred  from  Moorfields  to  Woolwich, 
guns  began  to  be  cast  there,  carriages  con- 
structed, and  powder  stored.  From  these  works 
grew  the  three  great  departments  of  the  Royal 
Arsenal— the  Royal  Gun  Factories,  Royal  Car- 
riage Department,  and  Royal  Laboratory,  After 
1805  the  ground  covered  by  these  works  quickly 
extended  to  some  300  acres.  Guns  of  all  sizes, 
every  form  of  military  wagon,  shot,  shell,  torpe- 
does, cartridges,  bullets,  rockets,  tubes,  and  fuses, 
have  since  always  been  produced  there,  small- 
arms  being  made  at  Birmingliam  and  Enfield,  and 
powder,  gun-cotton,  and  other  explosives  at 
Waltham.  The  barracks  are  very  imposing  build- 
ings. The  Herbert  Hospital,  built  soon  after  the 
Crimean  war  at  the  south  end  of  Woolwich  Com- 
mon, is  one  of  the  largest  military  hospitals  in 
Britain.  The  common  itself,  nearly  half  a  square 
mile  in  extent,  forms  an  excellent  drill-ground. 
At  its  south-west  corner  there  is  a  hut  camp  for 
two  field  batteries,  and  opposite  to  it  the  hand- 
some buildings  of  the  Royal  Military  Academy. 
This,  the  oldest  military  school  in  the  kingdom, 
dates  from  1741.  The  Royal  Military  Academy 
was  built  in  1801.  In  1869  the  Royal  Dockyard 
at  Woolwich,  long  the  chief  one  in  the  kingdom, 
was  closed ;  but  it  continues  to  be  used  as  a 
military  store  depot.  The  Great  Harry  was  built 
there  in  1562,  the  Eoyal  George  in  1751,  the 
Galatea  in  1859,  and  more  than  200  other  ships. 
At  the  north-west  end  of  the  common  are  the 
Repository  and  the  Rotunda  Museum  of  mili- 
tary antiquities.  St  George's  Garrison  Church 
(1863)  is  one  of  the  few  conspicuous  buildings  in 
the  town.  Woolwich,  among  whose  sons  have 
been  Lovelace  and  General  Gordon,  has  gradu- 
ally become  a  suburb  of  London.  Plumstead  on 
the  east  and  Charlton  on  the  west  merge  into 
Woolwich.     Like  it  they  are  densely  populated. 

Woonsock'et,  a  town  of  Rhode  Island,  on  the 
Blackstone  River,  38  miles  SW.  of  Boston,  with 
manufactures  of  cottons,  woollens,  iron,  and 
rubber.     Pop.  29,250. 

Wooster,  a  town  of  Ohio,  on  Killbuck  Creek, 
135  miles  W,  by  N,  of  Pittsburgh,  with  a  Presby- 
terian university  (1866).     Pop,  6060. 

Wootton  Bassett,  a  market-town  of  Wilts,  6 
miles  W.  of  Swindon.  It  returned  two  members 
till  1832.     Pop.  of  parish,  2200. 

Worcester  (Woos'ter),  the  county  town  of  Wor- 
cestershire, 27 h  miles  by  rail  SW.  of  Birmingham, 
65^  NNE.  of  Bristol,  and  121  (by  road  111)  WNW. 
of  London.  Tt  stands  on  the  left  bank  of  the 
Severn,  here  crossed  by  a  five-arch  stone  bridge 
(1781-1841),  270  feet  long.  Previously  perhaps  a 
station  of  the  Romans,  Wigornaceaster  became  in 
679  the  seat  of  a  Mercian  bishopric,  whose  cathe- 
dral is  Worcester's  chief  glory.  It  is  a  double 
cross  in  plan,  410  feet  long,  126  wide  across  the 
west  transept,  and  60  to  67  high,  with  a  central 
tower  of  196  feet.  Rebuilt  from  1084  onwards, 
and  restored  since  1857  at  a  cost  of  £100,000,  it  is 
mainly  Early  English  and  Decorated  in  style,  but 
retains  a  very  interesting  Norman  crypt.  The 
simplicity,  if  not  plainness,  of  the  exterior  is 
amply  compensated  by  the  fine  perspective  of  the 
lofty  groined  roof,  and  the  general  noble  effect 
of  the  interior.     One  may  specially  notice  the 


WORCESTER 


751 


WORKINGTON 


I 


columns  of  Purbeck  marble,  the  14th-century 
choir-stalls  and  misereres,  tlie  elaborate  modern 
reredos,  the  circular  chapter-house,  the  splendid 
j)eal  of  twelve  bells,  and  the  tombs  of  King  John, 
Prince  Arthur,  Lord  Lyttelton,  the  Earl  of 
Dudley,  and  (in  the  cloisters)  '  Miserrimus,'  a  not 
very  wretched  Nonjuror.  At  Worcester,  alter- 
nately with  Hereford  and  Gloucester,  are  held 
the  festivals  of  the  'Three  Choirs.'  The  old 
episcopal  palace  is  now  the  deanery,  the  present 
l)alace  since  1842  being  Hartlebury  Castle,  11 
miles  N.  ;  and  the  cathedral  school  (1541)  occu- 
pies the  superb  13th-century  refectory  of  a  Bene- 
dictine priory.  There  is  also  Queen  Elizabeth's 
school  (1561).  Nothing  remains  of  the  castle,  and 
the  Guesten  Hall  was  ruthlessly  pulled  down  in 
1860  ;  but  there  are  a  fine  liall  called  the  Com- 
mandery,  a  gatehouse  ('Edgar's  Tower'),  and  a 
good  many  old  timbered  houses,  while  of  public 
buildings  may  be  noticed  the  guildhall  (1723),  the 
shire-hall  (1835),  and  the  museum  and  free  library 
(1836-79).  Worcester  is  the  seat  of  the  Royal 
Porcelain  Works,  dating  from  1751,  and  covering 
5  acres,  the  glove-manufactory  of  Messrs  Dent  (a 
Glovers'  Company  was  incorporated  in  1497),  and 
the  '  Worcester  Sauce '  factory  of  Lea  &  Perrins  ; 
besides  huge  vinegar-works,  great  nurseries,  and 
manufactories  of  railway  signals,  chemicals,  &c. 
In  the  neighbourhood  are  hop-yards.  Worcester 
is  a  municipal  borough,  chartered  by  Richard  I. 
in  1189;  a  parliamentary  borough,  returning  only 
one  member  since  1885  ;  and  also,  since  1888,  a 
county  borough.  Pop.  (1851)  27,528 ;  (1881)  38,270 ; 
(1901)  46,624.  Worcester  was  the  scene  of  num- 
berless sieges  from  the  time  of  the  Danes  down 
to  the  'crowning  mercy'  of  Cromwell,  when,  on 
3d  September  1651,  he  routed  Charles  II.,  killing 
4000  and  making  7000  prisoners.  Charles  after- 
wards commemorated  Worcester's  loyalty  by 
granting  it  the  motto  of  '  Civitas  fidelis.'  Natives 
have  been  the  alchemist  Kelly,  Lord  Somers, 
and  Mrs  Henry  Wood ;  whilst  among  the  eighty 
and  more  bishops  have  been  St  Dunstan,  St  Os- 
wald, St  Wulfstan,  Cantilupe,  Latimer,  Whitgift, 
Gauden,  Stillingfleet,  Hough,  Hurd,  and  Perowne. 
See  works  by  Abingdon  (1717),  Thomas  (1737), 
Wild  (1823),  liritton  (1835),  Prof.  Willis  {Journal 
Archceol.  Inst.,  vol.  xx.),  Walcott  (1866),  Noake 
(1866),  and  J.  G.  Smith  and  Onslow  (1883). 

Worcester  (Wooster  or  Woorster),  tlie  second 
city  of  Massachusetts,  on  Blackstone  River, 
44  miles  WSW.  of  Boston.  Several  suburban 
villages  are  included  within  the  36  sq.  m.  of  the 
municipality.  'The  Academic  City'  contains 
the  state  normal  school,  two  state  lunatic  asy- 
lums, a  military  institute,  high  school,  Jesuit 
college,  Baptist  academy,  a  large  women's  school, 
&c.  Its  churches  include  many  handsome  build- 
ings, and  from  the  porch  of  the  Old  South  Church 
the  Declaration  of  Independence  was  first  read 
in  Massachusetts.  It  manufactures  wire,  boots 
and  shoes,  iron  products,  and  woollens.  Pop. 
(1S80)  58,291  ;  (1900)  118,421. 

Worcester,  capital  of  a  wine-growing  district 
in  Cape  Colony,  60  miles  ENE.  of  Capetown. 
Pop.  8300. 

Worcestershire  (Woo'stersUr),  an  inland  Eng- 
lish county  of  very  irregular  outline,  bounded  by 
the  counties  of  Salop,  Stafford,  Warwick,  Oxford, 
Gloucester,  and  Hereford.  Its  extreme  length 
N.  to  S.  is  50  miles,  its  greatest  breadth  26  miles, 
and  its  area  738  sq.  m.,  or  472,453  acres.  Pop. 
(1801)  146,445;  (1851)  276,926;  (1881)  380,283; 
(1901)  488,401.  The  Severn  is  the  chief  river, 
and  is  ijavigable  throughout  the  county  from 


Bewdley  to  Tewkesbury,  passing  by  the  city  of 
Worcester.  The  Avon,  which  enters  Worcester- 
shire near  Cleeve,  and  passes  by  Evesham  and 
Pershore,  falling  into  the  Severn  at  Tewkesbury, 
is  also  navigable.  The  other  rivers  are  mostly 
feeders  of  these  two— the  Stour,  Salwarp,  and 
Teme  of  the  Severn,  and  the  Arrow  of  the  Avon. 
A  small  portion  of  the  north-east  corner  of  the 
shire  lies  in  the  basin  of  the  Trent.  The  canals 
were  of  great  importance  before  the  development 
of  the  railway  system.  The  surface  of  the  shire 
is  diversified  and  picturesque.  The  chief  hill 
range  is  that  of  the  Malverns  (1440  feet),  on  the 
border  next  Hereford ;  the  Coteswolds  stretch  be- 
tween Worcester  and  Gloucester;  the  Clents 
command  part  of  the  Warwick  and  Stafford 
frontier,  chiefly  of  the  'Black  Country;'  the 
Lickey  range  is  more  central.  The  Clee  Hills  lie 
well  to  the  north-west  in  Shropshire,  but  high 
broken  ground  stretches  thence  to  the  verge  of 
Worcestershire  in  the  romantic  forest  of  Wyre. 
As  a  whole  Worcestershire  is  a  highly  fertile 
agricultural  region,  with  upland  sheep-walks, 
productive  tillage  ground,  and  a  very  extensive 
fruit-growing  area.  Plums,  pears,  and  apples 
are  grown  in  enormous  quantities,  the  neighbour- 
hood of  Pershore  being  the  chief  plum-growing 
centre  in  the  kingdom.  The  more  northern  dis- 
tricts are,  however,  chiefly  engaged  in  manufac- 
ture. Salt  has  been  raised  from  the  brine-springs 
at  Droitwich  (fed  by  immense  beds  of  rock-salt) 
certainly  for  more  than  1000  years.  The  manu- 
facture of  iron,  carried  on  by  the  Romans,  has 
developed  into  the  busy  industries  of  the  un- 
lovely '  Black  Country,'  of  which  Dudley  is  the 
chief  centre.  Other  industries  are  the  fireclay 
goods  of  Stourbridge,  the  glass  wares  produced 
there  and  at  Stourport,  the  famous  porcelain- 
works  and  the  gloving  of  Worcester,  and  the 
carpet-weaving  of  Kidderminster. 

Worcestershire  contains  the  battlefields  of 
Evesham,  Tewkesbury,  and  Worcester ;  some  of 
the  most  active  participators  in  the  Gunpowder 
Plot  were  associated  with  it.  Before  1832  the 
shire  had  nine  members ;  Dudley  and  Kidder- 
minster were  then  enfranchised,  and  the  total  in- 
creased to  twelve  ;  at  present  there  are  eight,  one 
each  for  five  county  divisions,  and  for  Worcester, 
Dudley,  and  Kidderminster.  Worcester  and 
Dudley  are  county  boroughs,  and  the  other 
municipalities  are  Bewdley,  Droitwich,  Evesham, 
and  Kidderminster.  Of  Worcestershire  worthies 
may  be  mentioned  Sir  Thomas  Littleton,  Bishop 
Bonner,  Samuel  Butler,  Thomas  Blount,  Arch- 
bishop Sheldon,  Baskerville,  Lord  Lyttelton, 
Foote,  Warren  Hastings,  Huskisson,  and  Sir  Row- 
land Hill.  See  works  by  Nash  (2  vols.  1781-99), 
J.  Chambers  (worthies,  1820),  Sir  C.  Hastings  (nat. 
hist.  1834),  Roberts  (geology,  1860),  Lees  (botany, 
1867),  Noake  (1868  and  1877),  Niven  (old  houses, 
1873),  and  Worth  (1889). 

Workington,  a  municipal  borough  and  seaport 
of  Cumberland,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Derwent,  7 
miles  N.  of  Whitehaven  by  rail.  Its  harbour, 
sheltered  by  a  breakwater  (1873),  is  safe  and  com- 
modious. To  neighbouring  coal-mines  the  town 
chiefly  owes  its  prosperity  ;  and  there  are  iron- 
works, &c.,  a  large  Sheffield  steel  foundry  having 
been  transferred  hither  in  1883.  The  salmon- 
fishery  near  is  important.  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots, 
landed  here,  on  her  flight  from  Langside,  16th 
May  1568,  and  was  entertained  at  Workington 
Hall  (the  seat  of  the  Curwens  from  about  1160  till 
the  present  day).  Workington  was  incorporated 
as  a  municipal  borough  in  1888.  Pop.  (1881) 
14,109 ;  (1901)  26,143. 


WORKSOP 


752 


WtJRTEMBERG 


Work'sop,  a  town  of  Nottinghamshire,  on  the 
river  Ryton  and  the  Chesterfield  Canal,  16  miles 
ESE.  of  Sheffield  and  23  N.  of  Nottingham.  It 
lies  near  the  northern  extremity  of  Sherwood 
Forest  (q.v.),  in  a  district  known  as  the  '  Dukery,' 
from  the  number  of  ducal  seats.  There  is  Work- 
sop Manor,  in  whose  predecessor  (destroyed  by 
fire  in  1761)  Mary,  Queen  of  Scots,  was  a  prisoner 
under  the  Earl  of  Shrewsbury,  and  which, 
formerly  a  seat  of  the  Duke  of  Norfolk,  was  pur- 
chased in  1840  for  £350,000  by  the  Duke  of  New- 
castle. His,  too,  is  Clumber  Park  (q.v.),  and 
there  are  also  Welbeck  Abbey  (q.v.,  Duke  of 
Portland)  and  Thoresby  Park  (till  1773  Duke  of 
Kingston,  now  Earl  Manvers).  Worksop  church 
was  that  of  an  Augustinian  priory  (1103),  of  which 
there  is  also  a  Decorated  gateway ;  but  a  Norman 
keep  has  vanished.  Modern  buildings  are  the 
corn  exchange  (1854)  and  the  Mechanics'  Insti- 
tute (1852).  Malting  is  the  chief  industry,  with 
brass  and  iron  founding,  and  manufactures  of 
chemicals,  agricultural  implements,  &c.  Pop. 
(1851)  7058  ;  (1901)  16,112.  See  works  by  J.  Hol- 
land (1726),  R.  White  (1875),  and  Sissons  (1888). 

Worms  (Wurmz;  Ger.  pron.  Forms),  an  ancient 
and  interesting  town  of  Hesse-Darmstadt,  on  the 
Rhine's  left  bank,  25  miles  SW.  of  Darmstadt. 
The  massive  Romanesque  cathedral,  with  two 
cupolas  and  four  towers,  was  founded  in  the  8th, 
rebuilt  in  the  11th  and  12th  centuries,  and  care- 
fully restored  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  19th  cen- 
tury. On  a  hill  near  the  church  called  the  Lieb- 
frauenkirche  a  highly  esteemed  wine,  Liebfrauen- 
milch,  is  grown.  The  synagogue  (11th  c.)  is  one 
of  the  oldest  in  Germany.  The  town-house  was 
restored  in  1885.  There  are  manufactures  of 
polished  leather,  tobacco,  soap,  &c.  Pop.  (1875) 
16,597  ;  (1900)  40,705.  Worms  is  one  of  the  oldest 
cities  of  Germany  ;  in  it  is  laid  the  scene  of  the 
Nibelungenlied,  It  was  occupied  by  the  Romans, 
destroyed  by  Attila,  and  afterwards  rebuilt  by 
Clovis.  It  was  frequently  the  residence  of  Charle- 
magne and  his  Carlovingian  successors,  and  was 
erected  into  a  free  imperial  city  by  the  Emperor 
Henry  V.  The  most  famous  diet  held  here  was 
that  in  1521,  at  which  Luther  defended  himself 
before  Charles  V.,  commemorated  by  an  imposing 
Luther  monument  erected  in  1868.  The  industry 
of  Worms  was  great  during  the  middle  ages,  and 
its  population  in  the  days  of  the  Hohenstaufens 
averaged  60,000,  and  amounted  to  30,000  even  at 
the  close  of  the  Thirty  Years'  War ;  but  it  was 
almost  wholly  destroyed  by  the  French  in  1689. 

Wormwood  Scrubs,  a  district  with  a  common, 
a  railway  station,  and  a  prison,  on  the  western 
outskirts  of  London,  nearly  3  miles  NW.  of  the 
Marble  Arch  in  Hyde  Park. 

Worsborough,  a  town  in  the  West  Riding,  2^ 
miles  S.  of  Barnsley,  with  manufactures  of  iron, 
glass,  paper,  gunpowder,  &c.    Pop.  10,336. 

Worstead,  a  Norfolk  parish,  3  miles  SSE.  of 
North  Walsham.  Worsted  stuffs  are  said  to 
derive  their  name  hence. 

Worth  (nearly  Virt  or  Vairt),  a  village  (pop. 
1064)  of  Alsace,  10  miles  SW.  of  Wissembourg 
(Weissenburg).  The  great  German  victory  over 
the  French  (6th  August  1870)  is  by  the  latter 
usually  called  Reichshofen. 

Worthing  {th  soft),  a  fashionable  Sussex  water- 
ing-place, 10^  miles  W.  by  S.  of  Brighton  and  56 
SSW.  of  London.  It  has  risen  from  a  small 
fishing-village  since  1760,  its  growth  being  rapid 
after  visits  of  the  Princess  Amelia  (1797)  and  the 
Princess  Charlotte  (1807).  The  climate  is  much 
milder  th^^n  that  of  Brighton,  the  place  being 


encircled  on  the  north  and  north-east  by  the 
Downs,  which  shelter  it  from  cold  winds,  and 
render  it  one  of  the  best  winter-resorts  on  the 
south  coast.  There  are  capital  sands,  a  parade 
1^  mile  long,  a  public  park  of  18  acres  (1881),  and 
an  iron  pier  (1862)  320  yards  long.  Fruit  and 
tomato  growing  is  largely  carried  on,  many  acres 
being  covered  with  glass.  Worthing  was  con- 
stituted a  municipal  borough  in  1890.  Pop,  (1851) 
5370  ;  (1881)  11,821 ;  (1901)  20,015. 

Wotton-under-Edge,  a  Gloucestershire  town,  4 
miles  S.  of  Dursley.     Pop.  of  parish,  2950. 

Wrangel  Land  (Vrang'el),  an  island  in  the 
Arctic  Ocean,  lying  N.  of  the  eastern  extremity  of 
Asia,  and  intersected  by  the  meridian  of  180°  E. 
long.  It  was  sighted  by  Sir  Henry  Kellett  in 
1849,  re-discovered  by  the  American  De  Long  in 
1867,  who  named  it  after  Baron  Ferdinand  von 
Wrangel  (Russian  arctic  explorer,  1821-23),  and 
explored  by  the  American  expedition  of  1881. 

Wrath,  Cape.    See  Cape  Wrath. 

Wratza  (Vratsfa),  a  town  of  Bulgaria,  43  miles 
NE.  of  Sofia.     Pop.  10,924. 

Wrekin  (Ree'kin).    See  Shropshire. 

Wrexham  (Rex'am),  a  town  of  Denbighshire, 
called  sometimes  the  'metropolis  of  North  Wales,' 
on  an  affluent  of  the  Dee,  12  miles  SSW.  of 
Chester.  Its  church,  destroyed  by  fire  in  1457, 
and  rebuilt  in  1472-1520,  is  a  fine  Perpendicular 
structure,  whose  tower,  135  feet  high,  contains 
ten  bells  of  singular  sweetness,  and  is  one  of  the 
'Seven  Wonders  of  Wales.'  Judge  Jeffreys  was 
born  close  by,  at  Acton  ;  and  Bishop  Heber 
wrote  '  From  Greenland's  Icy  Mountains '  in  the 
vicarage.  Wrexham  is  situated  in  the  heart  of 
a  mining  district,  and  has  far-famed  breweries, 
tanneries,  &c.  It  was  incorporated  in  1857,  and 
with  Denbigh  (q.v.),  &c.  returns  one  member. 
Pop.  (1851)  6717;  (1901)  14,966.  See  Palmer's 
History  of  Wrexham  (4  vols.  1893). 

Wrington,  a  Somerset  parish,  10  miles  SSW.  of 
Bristol.  The  church  has  one  of  the  finest  towers 
in  England.     John  Locke  was  born  here. 

Wrotham,  a  town  of  Kentj  6  miles  ENE.  of 
Sevenoaks.     Pop.  3575. 

Wroxeter  (i?ox'e<er),  a  village  of  Shropshire  (pop. 
535),  on  the  Severn,  6  miles  SE.  of  Shrewsbury. 
It  occupies  the  site  of  the  Roman  station  of  Uri- 
coninm,  an  important  place  on  Watling  Street. 
See  T.  W.  Wright,  Vriconiim  (1872). 

Wu-chang.    See  Hankow. 

Wu-chow,  a  Chinese  treaty  port  on  the  Si-kiang, 
in  Kwang-si,  180  miles  W.  of  Canton. 

Wudwan,  or  WadhwXn,  a  native  state  of 
Kathiawar,  W.  India.  Area,  237  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
50,000,  mostly  Mohammedans.  Wudwan  town 
(pop.  27,000)  is  110  miles  NW.  of  Baroda  by  rail. 

Wu-hu,  a  Chinese  treaty  port,  near  the  Yang- 
tsze,  50  miles  above  Nanking.    Pop.  122,000. 

Wupper  (Voop'per),  or  Wipper,  a  right-hand 
tributary  (40  miles  long)  of  the  Rhine,  between 
Cologne  and  Diisseldorf.  It  has  a  strong  current, 
and  drives  hundreds  of  mills,  so  that  the  Wupper- 
thal,  especially  round  Barmen  (q.v.)  and  Elber- 
feld  (q.v.),  is  one  of  the  most  populous  and 
industrial  in  Germany.  The  interest  of  the 
inhabitants  in  missions  is  conspicuous. 

Wlirtemberg  (nearly  Veer'temlerg),  a  Gennan 
kingdom,  lying  between  Baden  and  Bavaria,  and 
touching  Switzerland  (Lake  of  Constance)  on  the 
south.  It  entirely  surrounds  Hohenzollern,  in 
which  state,  as  well  as  in  Baden,  it  owns  several 
enclaves.    Area,  7529  sq.  m.  (a  little  larger  than 


wCrzburg 


753 


WYOMING 


Wales);  pop.  (1875)  1,881,505;  (1900)  2,169,480. 
Chief  town,  Stuttgart  (q.v.);  Ulm,  Heilbroiiii, 
Esshiigen,  Canstatt,  Reutlingen,  liave  over  20,000 
inhabitants.  Tlio  Black  Forest  (3776  feet) 
lies  along  its  W.  boundary ;  whilst  the  Swabian 
Alb  (3327  feet)  stretches  right  across  the  country, 
forming  the  watershed  between  the  Neckar  and 
the  Danube,  the  principal  rivers ;  the  northern 
portions  belong  to  the  Bavarian  plateau.  Mineral 
springs  are  plentiful.  The  numerous  fertile 
valleys  produce  wine  and  fruit  in  abundance. 
Forests  occupy  some  31  per  cent,  of  the  total  area. 
Iron  and  salt  are  mined.  The  industries  employ 
41  per  cent,  of  the  population,  the  more  notable 
branches  being  gold  and  silver  work,  hardware, 
iron-casting,  machinery,  watches,  &c.  Of  the 
total  population  69  per  cent,  are  Protestants. 
Ihe  hereditary  sovereign  is  assisted  by  two 
houses  of  parliament.  The  national  income  and 
expenditure  balance  at  about  £3,500,000  per 
annum ;  the  national  debt  amounts  to  £22,000,000, 
nearly  all  incurred  for  building  railways.  Famous 
Wiirtembergers  were  Baur,  Dannecker,  Hauff, 
Hegel,  Kepler,  Kerner,  (Ecolampadius,  Schelling, 
Schiller,  Strauss,  Uhland,  Wieland,  &c. 

Wiirtemberg,  then  occupied  by  the  Suevi,  was 
conquered  in  the  1st  c.  a.d.  by  the  Romans.  In 
the  3d  it  was  overrun  by  the  Aleinanni,  who  in 
their  turn  were  subdued  by  the  Franks.  In  or 
before  the  13th  c.  it  was  created  a  countship,  and 
in  1495  a  duchy  of  the  empire.  Duke  Frederick 
II.  (1797-1816)  on  going  over  to  the  French  was 
rewarded  with  850  sq.  m.  of  new  territory  and  an 
addition  of  125,000  subjects,  as  well  as  the  dignity 
of  Elector  (1802).  In  Napoleon's  war  against 
Austria  (1805)  he  sided  with  the  French,  and 
his  troops  fought  with  them  down  to  1813 ;  in 
return  for  which  he  acquired  the  kingly  title  and 
an  increase  of  territory  that  more  than  doubled 
the  number  of  his  subjects.  Throwing  in  her  lot 
with  Austria  in  1866,  Wiirtemberg  was  beaten  at 
Koniggratz  and  Tauberbischofsheim,  and  her 
king  (Charles,  1864-91)  compelled  to  purchase 
peace  from  Prussia  at  the  cost  of  an  indemnity 
of  £800,000. 

Wiirzburg  (Veertz'boorg),  capital  of  the  Bavar- 
ian province  of  Lower  Franconia,  on  the  Main, 
70  jniles  SE.  of  Frankfort  by  rail.  Among  the 
public  buildings  are  the  Episcopal  Palace  (1720- 
44),  one  of  the  most  magnificent  royal  residences 
in  Germany,  the  Julius  Hospital  (1576),  the  uni- 
versity buildings,  the  town-hall,  &c.  The  for- 
tress of  Marienberg,  on  whose  site  Drusus 
founded  a  castle,  crowns  a  hill  400  feet  high,  on 
the  Main's  left  bank,  and  was  till  1720  the  epis- 
copal residence.  Besides  the  richly  decorated 
cathedral,  which  was  rebuilt  in  the  11th  and 
following  centuries,  there  are  the  exquisite 
Marienkapelle ;  the  university  church  ;  and  the 
Neumiinster  Church,  containing  the  bones  of 
Wlirzburg's  patron,  St  Kilian,  and  of  Walther 
von  der  Vogelweide.  In  front  of  the  Julius 
Hospital  there  is  a  bronze  statue  of  Bishop 
Julius ;  he  also  in  1582  founded  the  university, 
which  has  75  professors,  1400  students— more 
than  half  of  them  medical— and  a  library  of  over 
350,000  vols.  There  are  manufactures  of  tobacco, 
furniture,  machinery,  surgical  instruments,  rail- 
way carriages,  lamps,  vinegar,  wine,  beer,  and 
iron.  Pop.  (1880)  51,014;  (1900)  75,497.  Wiirz- 
burg (Lat.  Wircehurgum)  was  long  the  capital  of 
a  sovereign  bishopric,  conferred  in  1803  mostly 
on  the  Elector  of  Bavaria. 

'^uxzQn.iVeert^en),  a  Saxon  town,  on  the  Mulde, 
18  miles  E.  of  Leipzig,  with  a  12th-century  cathe- 

2v 


dral,  an  old  castle,  and  manufactures  of  biscuits 
carpets,  felt,  wire,  cigars,  &c.    Pop.  16,620. 
Wyborg.    See  Viboro. 

Wycombe  {WicVom),  a  town  of  Buckingham- 
shire, stands,  surrounded  by  beech-clad  hills,  on 
the  Wye,  a  small  feeder  of  the  Thames,  25  miles 
i/bE.  of  Oxford  and  29  (by  rail  34J)  WNW.  of 
London     Called  variously  Chipping  (or  Chepping) 
Wycombe  and  High  Wycombe,  it  was  the  seat  Sf 
a  Saxon  fortress,  Desborough  Castle,  some  remains 
ot  which  may  be  seen,  and  has  a  tine  cruciform 
parish  church  (1273-1522  ;  restored  1874-88)  with 
a  tower  96  feet  high,  a  guildhall  (1757-1859),  A 
literary  institute  (1854),  a  free  library,  a  hospital 
^ooo^^'  a  gi^ammar-school  (1555;  new  buildings, 
1883)  and  an  auction-mart  (1887).     Lace  is  made 
but  the  staple  manufacture  is  that  of  beech-wood 
and  other  chairs— between  one  and  two  millions 
annually— with  latterly  whole  furniture  suites  of 
a  very  high  character.     There  are  also  some  large 
paper-mills  in  the  town  and  district.    Hughenden 
and  Chalfont,  both  noticed  separately,  are  near 
Wycombe,    which   returned    two   members   till 
1867,  and  then  one  till  1885,  was  governed  bv  a 
mayor  in  Henry  III.'s    time,   but    first    incor- 
porated  by  Henry  VL  ;  the  municipal  boundary 
w'as  extended  in  1880.     Pop.  (1881)  10,618  ;  (1901) 
15,542.     See  works  by  Thomas  Langley  (1797) 
H.  Kingston  (1848),  and  John  Parker  (1878).       ^' 
Wye,  a  beautiful  river  of  Wales  and  England 
rises  in  two  copious  springs  on  the  SE.  side  of 
Phnlimmon,  not  2  miles  from  the  head-water  of 
the  Severn  (q.v.).     It  thence  flows  150  miles  in  a 
generally  south-east  direction  through  or  along 
the  borders  of  the    counties    of   Montgomery, 
Radnor,  Brecknock,  Hereford,  Monmouth,  and 
Gloucester,   till  it  enters  the  Severn's  estuary 
below    Chepstow.    At    Chepstow  the   tide   has 
been  known   to    rise    47  feet   above  low-water 
mark.     The  chief  affluents  are  the  Lug  and  Ithon 
on    the    left,  and    the   Monnow,  Caerwen,   and 
Irfron  on  the  right.     Salmon-fishing  has  greatly 
improved   again.      The   Wye  is  not  much  of  a 
boating  river,  though  a  pair-oar  has  been  rowed 
down  it  from  Boughrood,  above  Hereford.    The 
part  of  it  separating  Monmouth  from  Gloucester 
is  that  chiefly  visited  for  its  singular  beauty. 
See  Chepstow,  Tintern,  Ross,  &c.,  and  works 
by  Gilpin  (1782),   Heath  (1800),   Ritchie  (1841), 
Howitt  (1863),  and  Bevan  (1887). 

Wyke  Regis,  a  Dorset  village,  2  miles  WSW. 
of  Weymouth. 

Wylam,  a  Northumbrian  village,  8J  miles  W.  of 
Newcastle.    George  Stephenson  was  a  native. 

Wymondham  {Wind'Jiam),  a  Norfolk  market- 
town,  9^  miles  WSW.  of  Norwich.  It  has  a  curi- 
ous market-cross  and  the  church  of  a  priory  (1130). 
Kett  was  a  native.     Pop.  of  parish,  4734. 

Wy'naad,  or  Vayanad,  a  highland  district  in 
the  Western  Ghats,  about  3000  feet  above  sea- 
level.  Its  auriferous  quartz  began  to  be  worked 
as  a  gold-field  about  1865,  and  absorbed  in  1876-86 
millions  of  British  capital. 

Wynberg  (Wine'berg),  a  town  on  the  SB. 
slopes  of  Table  Mountain,  8  miles  SE.  of  Cape- 
town (of  which  it  is  a  suburb)  by  rail,  in  a  rich 
wine-growing  country.    Pop.  18,500. 

Wynyard  (Win' yard),  the  Grecian  mansion  of 
the  Marquis  of  Londonderry,  in  Durham  county, 
5  miles  NNW.  of  Stockton-upon-Tees. 

Wyo'ming,  a  NW.  state  of  the  American 
Union,  lies  mainly  on  the  E.  slope  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains,  and  is  bounded  by  Montana,  South 
Dakota,  Nebraska,  Colorado,  Utah,  Idaho,  and 


WYOMING  VALLEY 


754 


YARKAND 


Montana.  The  length,  E.  to  W.,  is  360  miles, 
and  the  width  is  275  miles ;  area,  97,890  sq.  m. 
The  state  is  traversed  by  the  main  axis  of  the 
Rocky  Mountains,  with  Fremont's  Peak  (13,790 
feet)  and  Mount  Haydeu  (13,691).  The  Yellow- 
stone (q.v.)  National  Park  is  mainly  within  its 
limits.  Interspersed  between  the  ranges  are 
broad  plateaus  with  arable  soils,  which  with 
proper  irrigation  yield  prolific  crops ;  but  less 
than  one-sixth  of  the  state  is  capable  of  culti- 
vation ;  Wyoming  is  essentially  a  grazing  country. 
The  mean  elevation  of  the  plateau  regions  is  from 
7000  to  8000  feet.  Yellowstone  Lake  has  an 
altitude  of  7778,  Lewis  Lake  7750,  and  Shoshone 
Lake  7670  feet  above  the  sea.  The  state  drains 
directly  to  the  Pacific,  to  the  Missouri,  to  the 
Columbia,  and  to  the  Colorado.  In  the  mountain 
regions  are  deposits  of  gold  and  silver  and  ores 
of  copper  and  iron.  Coal  is  worked  ;  and  there 
are  supplies  of  soda,  some  tin,  abundance  of  lime- 
stone, and  oil-wells.  The  climate  is  dry,  although 
the  country  is  well  watered  by  streams.  The 
summers  are  mild  and  delightful,  but  in  exposed 


regions  the  winters  are  severe.  Tlie  chief  towns 
are  Cheyenne,  the  capital,  Laramie,  Rock  Springs, 
Rawlins,  and  Bvanston.  Wyoming  comprises 
portions  of  the  territories  acquired  by  the  Louis- 
iana Purchase  of  1803,  and  by  the  treaty  with 
Mexico  in  1S4S.  It  was  organised  as  a  territory 
in  1868,  and  admitted-  a  state  in  1890.  Pop. 
(1870)  9118  ;  (1880)  20,789  ;  (1900)  92,531. 

Wyoming  Valley,  a  beautiful,  fertile  valley  on 
the  Susquehanna  River,  in  north-eastern  Pennsyl- 
vania, about  30  miles  long  by  5  wide.  From  1754 
on,  its  possession  was  disputed  by  Pennsylvanian 
and  Connecticut  settlers  ;  Campbell's  Gertrude 
of  Wyoming  recounts,  not  without  mistakes,  the 
bloody  struggle  on  June  30-July  5,  1778,  during 
th«  revolutionary  war,  against  an  invading  force 
of  'Tories'  and  Seneca  Indians.  The  valley  is 
very  rich  in  anthracite  coal. 

Wyre,  a  river  of  Lancashire,  flowing  28  miles 
south-westward  to  the  Irish  Sea  at  Fleetwood. 

Wyre  Forest,  in  NW.  Worcestershire,  near 
Bewdley,  is  the  S.  part  of  the  Severn  coalfield. 


ALAPA.    See  Jalapa. 

Xanthus  (x  as  z),   the  capital  of 


ancient  Lycia,  on  the  river  Xanthus, 

miles  from  its  mouth.     In  1838  Sir 

C.  Fellows  explored  its  remains. 

Xenla  (Zen'ia),  a  town  of  Ohio,  on  the  Little 

Miami  River,  65  miles  NNE.  of  Cincinnati.    It 

has  a  Methodist  college,  the  state  Soldiers'  and 

Sailors'  Orphan  Home,  &c.    Pop.  8700. 

Xeres,  or  (1)  Jerez  de  la  Frontera  (Hay'reth 
de  la  Frontay'ra),  the  centre  of  the  sherry  trade  of 
14  (by  rail  30)  miles  NE.  of  Cadiz,  with  a 


Moorish  castle  (Alcazar),  and  many  large  bodegas 
or  wine-stores.  The  Asta  Regia  of  the  Romans, 
it  owes  its  modern  name  to  the  Moors,  who  near 
by  in  a  seven  days'  battle  defeated  Roderic,  the 
last  of  the  Goths,  in  711.  Pop.  (1900)  60,850.— 
(2)  Xerez  de  los  Caballeros  (Hayreth  de  los 
Cavalyay'ros),  40  miles  S.  of  Badajoz,  is  a  pictur- 
esque old  town,  once  a  seat  of  the  Templars 
(hence  the  name).    Pop.  10,100. 

Xesibeland  {Zes! ibey-land),  between  Griqua- 
land  East  and  Pondoland,  was  annexed  to  Cape 
Colony  in  1886. 


The.    See  Amsterdam,  Zuider  Zee. 

Yablon'ovoi,  or  Yablonoi,  a  ridge  of 
mountains  in  NE.  Asia,  dividing  the 
Amur  basin  from  that  of  the  Lena. 
Some  peaks  are  7000  feet  high. 

Yalr,  the  ancient  seat  of  the  Pringles,  on  the 
Tweed,  5  miles  NNW.  of  Selkirk. 

Yakutsk  {u  as  oo),  a  town  of  Eastern  Siberia, 
on  a  branch  of  the  Lena,  4  miles  from  the  main 
stream.  Pop.  6800.  — Area  of  Yakutsk  goveim- 
ment,  1,533,397  sq.  m.  (equal  to  four-fifths  of 
European  Russia) ;  pop.  270,000. 

Yalta,  a  Crimean  seaport,  3  miles  E.  of  Livadia 
(q.v.).    Pop.  13,300. 

Yalu,  the  frontier-river  between  Corea  and 
Manchuria,  flowing  300  miles  SW.  to  the  Bay  of 
Corea.  The  passage  was  forced  by  tlie  Japanese, 
and  the  Russians  driven  back  in  May  1904;  and 
in  the  estuary  a  Japanese  fleet  had  defeated  a 
Chinese  one  in  1894. 

Yamagata,  an  important  commercial  town  on 
the  main  island  of  Japan,  30  miles  W.  by  S.  of 
Sendai.     Pop.  40,248. 

YanAon,  a  small  patch  of  Indian  soil  belonging 
to  France,  and  under  the  governer  of  Pondi- 
cherry,  forming  a  small  enclave  surrounded  by 
British  territory  (Madras),  with  3^  sq.  m.  of  area 
and  4870  inhabitants.  It  lies  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Godavari. 

Yanbu',  or  Yembo.    See  Medina. 

Yandun,  a  town  of  Thongwa,  Burma,  in  the 
delta  of  the  Irawadi.    Pop.  20,235. 


Yang-tsze-klang  (better  simply  Kiang  or 
Chiang),  the  longest  and  most  important  of 
Chinese  rivers,  affording  a  waterway,  not  un- 
broken by  rocks  and  rapids,  across  the  breadth 
of  China,  rises  in  the  mountains  of  Tibet,  where 
its  sources  were  explored  by  Prejevalsky  in  1884- 
85,  and  after  a  course  of  3200  miles  (SE.,  NE., 
and  E.),  reaches  the  sea  by  a  wide  estuary  which 
begins  50  miles  below  Nanking,  and  may  be  held 
to  terminate  near  Shanghai.  On  its  banks  are 
also  Chin-kiang,  Ngan-king,  Hankow,  Wu-chang, 
Ichang,  and  Chung-king  (opened  to  European 
commerce  by  treaty  in  1890).  Sojne  of  its  many 
tributaries  are  over  1000  miles  long  ;  its  basin  is 
estimated  at  689,000  sq.  m.  Its  importance  for 
commerce  is  enormous,  though  the  navigation  is 
in  places  difficult  even  for  the  native  boats,  which 
have  to  be  shoved  and  poled  through  the  narrow 
gorges  against  a  strong  current.  Steamers  run 
in  the  lower  parts.  See  Little's  Through  the 
Yang-tse  Gorges  (1888). 

Yanina.    See  Janina. 

Yank'ton,  capital  of  a  county  in  South  Dakota, 
and  prior  to  1883  capital  of  the  territory  of 
Dakota,  stands  on  the  Missouri's  N.  bank,  nearly 
200  miles  above  Omaha,  and  569  by  rail  W.  by 
N.  of  Chicago.  It  contains  mills  and  breweries, 
railway-shops,  and  grain  elevators.    Pop.  4150. 

Yare,  a  Norfolk  river,  flowing  50  miles  E.  past 
Norwich,  to  the  sea  at  Yarmouth. 

Yarkand',  the  commercial  capital  of  Eastern 
Turkestan,  on  the  Yarkand  or  Zerafshan  River, 
100  miles  SE.  of  Kashgar.  It  was  visited  by 
Marco  Polo,  but  was  hardly  known  till  B,  Shaw 


TABM 


755 


YELLOWSTONE 


in  1871  published  an  account  of  his  residence 
there  three  years  before.    Pop.  90,000. 

Yarm,  a  market-town  in  the  North  Riding  of 
Yorkshire,  on  the  Tees,  4  miles  SSW.  of  Stock- 
ton.   Pop.  1600. 

Yarmouth  (Yar'muth),  a  municipal,  parlia- 
mentary, and  county  borough,  seaport,  watering- 
place,  and  fishing-town  of  Norfolk,  20^  miles  B. 
of  Norwich  and  122  NNE.  of  London.  It  stands 
2.^  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the  river  Yare,  on  a 
slip  of  land  1^  mile  broad,  which  is  washed  on 
the  west  by  the  Yare,  expanding  here  into  Brey- 
don  Water,  and  on  the  east  by  the  German  Ocean. 
A  bridge  connects  the  town  with  its  Suflblk 
suburbs  of  Southtown,  or  Little  Yarmouth,  and 
Gorleston.  The  main  streets  of  Yarmouth  run 
parallel  to  the  river,  and  are  intersected  by  145 
narrow  'rows,'  resembling  the  '  wynds  '  of  Edin- 
burgh. The  sea  frontage  has  a  fine  marine 
parade,  with  the  Wellington  and  Britannia  Piers 
h854-58)  and  the  Old  Jetty  (1808).  St  Nicholas' 
Church,  founded  by  Bishop  Herbert  de  Losinga, 
and  restored  between  1847  and  1884,  is  one  of  the 
largest  parish  churches  in  the  kingdom,  measur- 
ing 230  feet  in  length,  110  in  breadth,  and  148 
across  the  transept,  with  a  modern  spire  168  feet 
high  ;  a  feature  of  its  churchyard  is  the  number 
of  gravestones  to  drowned  mariners.  The  Nelson 
Monument  (1818)  is  a  Doric  column  144  feet  high ; 
and  one  may  also  notice  the  new  municipal  build- 
ings. Queen  Anne  in  style  (1882),  the  covered 
fish-market  (1867),  the  sailors'  home  (1860),  the 
aquarium  (1876),  the  royal  military  hospital  (1809), 
militia  barracks,  spacious  market-place,  some 
remains  of  the  old  walls,  &c.  Yarmouth  is  the 
principal  seat  of  the  English  herring-fishery ;  and 
its  '  bloaters '  are  widely  esteemed.  Deep-sea 
fishing  is  also  carried  on,  and  there  is  consider- 
able shipping,  the  present  harbour-channel  of  the 
Yare  having  been  formed  in  1559-67,  whilst  in 
Yarmouth  Roads,  inside  a  line  of  sandbanks, 
there  is  safe  anchorage.  The  exports  include 
fish  [and  agricultural  produce  ;  shipbuilding  is 
carried  on,  and  iron,  ropes,  sails,  silk,  &c.  are 
manufactured.  The  town,  too,  owes  much  of  its 
well-being  to  its  attractions  as  a  lively  watering- 
place.  None  of  its  worthies  is  more  famous  than 
'Peggotty;'  in  its  history  may  be  noticed  its 
feuds  with  the  Cinque  Ports,  the  plague  of  1338- 
89,  which  cost  7000  lives,  and  the  fall  of  a  sus- 
pension bridge  (1845),  when  seventy-nine  persons 
were  drowned.  Chartered  by  King  John,  it  re- 
turned two  members  to  parliament  from  Edward 
II. 's  time  till  1867,  and  regained  one  of  them  in 
1885 ;  in  1888  it  was  created  a  county  borough. 
Pop.  (1881)  46,767 ;  (1901)  51,316.  See  works  by 
C.  J.  Palmer  (1S56),  J.  G.  Nail  (1860-66).  W.  F. 
Crisp  (1871),  and  others  cited  at  Norfolk. 

Yarmoutli,  a  small  seaport  in  the  north-west 
of  the  Isle  of  Wight,  10  miles  W.  of  Newport.  It 
was  once  an  important  fortified  place,  and  till 
1832  returned  two  members.    Pop.  800. 

Yaroslav.    See  Jaroslav. 

Yarrow,  a  Scottish  stream  famous  in  song  and 
ballad,  that  rises  at  the  meeting-point  of  Peebles, 
Dumfries,  and  Selkirk  shires,  and  flows  25  miles 
north-eastward  till  it  joins  the  Ettrick,  2  miles 
above  Selkirk  town.  About  5  miles  from  its  source 
it  expands  into  first  the  Loch  of  the  Lowes  (1  by 
J  mile)  and  then  St  Mary's  Loch  (3  by  ^  mile  ;  814 
feet  above  sea-level),  the  two  being  separated  only 
by  a  neck  of  land  on  which  stands  Tibbie  Shiels's 
hostelry.  Under  Selkirkshire  have  been  noticed 
a  few  of  the  many  memories  of  that  hill-girt  lake 
aad  the  deep  swirling  stream ;  and  reference  may 


be  also   made   to  Angus's  EttricJc  and  Yarrow 
(1894)  and  Borland's  Yarrow,  its  Poets  and  Poetry 
(1890),  the  poets  including  Hamilton  of  Bangour, 
Logan,  Hogg,  Scott,  and  Wordsworth. 
See  Jassy. 


Yazoo'  City,  a  town  of  Mississippi,  on  the 
Yazoo  River  (a  tributary  of  the  Mississippi),  45 
miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  of  Jackson.    Pop.  4950. 

Yeadon,  a  town  of  Yorkshire,  England,  on  the 
Aire,  6  miles  NW.  of  Leeds  by  rail,  with  woollen 
manufactures.    Pop.  7060. 

Yedo.    See  Tokyo. 

Yeisk  (Ylsk),  or  Eisk,  a  seaport  of  the  Cau- 
casian province  of  Kuban.    Pop.  35,500. 

Yekaterinburg.    See  Ekaterinburg. 

Yellsavetgrad.    See  Elizabetgrad. 

Yell,  one  of  the  Shetland  Islands,  25  miles  N. 
of  Lerwick.  Area,  81^  sq.  m.  ;  greatest  height, 
672  feet ;  pop.  2511. 

Yellala  Falls  (Yel-lah'la),  the  lowest  of  a  series 
of  falls  or  rapids  which  interrupt  the  navigation 
of  the  Congo  (q.v.)  near  Vivi,  110  miles  from  the 
mouth  of  the  river. 

Yellow  River.    See  Hoang-ho. 

Yellow  Sea,  or  Whang-hai,  an  important 
inlet  of  the  Pacific  Ocean,  washes  the  Corea  and 
the  north  part  of  the  east  coast  of  China ;  it 
terminates  on  the  NW.  in  the  Gulf  of  Pe-chi-li. 
It  is  becoming  shallower  from  the  quantity  of 
alluvium  borne  down  into  it  by  the  rivers  Hoang- 
ho  and  Yang-tsze. 

Yellowstone,  the  largest  affluent  of  the  Mis- 
souri, rises  high  up  in  the  Rocky  Mountains  in 
Wyoming,  flows  25  miles  NW.  to  the  mountain- 
girt  Yellowstone  Lake  (22  miles  long,  7788  feet 
above  sea-level),  thence  N.  through  the  National 
Park  into  Montana,  partly  through  stupendous 
canons,  and  then  ENE.  and  NE.  to  the  Missouri, 
on  the  western  border  of  North  Dakota.  It  is 
some  1300  miles  long,  and  is  navigable  for  steam- 
boats 300  miles,  to  the  mouth  of  the  Big  Horn, 
its  largest  affluent. 

The  Yellowstone  National  Park  occupies  the 
extreme  north-western  corner  of  Wyoming,  and 
forms  a  square  about  75  miles  in  diameter,  almost 
all  of  it  more  than  6000  feet  above  sea-level,  and 
rising  in  the  snow-covered  mountains  to  10,000 
and  14,000  feet.  Situated  on  the  '  Great  Divide,' 
'  its  pine-clad  mountains  form  the  gathering- 
ground  for  the  head-waters  of  large  rivers  flow- 
ing away  to  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans.' 
The  region  is  remarkable  as  well  for  its  scenery 
as  for  its  famous  hot  springs  and  geysers.  The 
river  has  two  falls  about  15  miles  below  the  lake, 
the  lower  one  a  magnificent  cataract  330  feet  in 
height ;  then  it  passes  through  the  Grand  Cafion 
(20  miles),  and  receives  Tower  Creek,  which  itself 
has  leapt  out  of  a  deep  and  gloomy  canon  known 
as  Devil's  Den  over  a  beautiful  fall  of  156  feet. 
Near  the  river  are  many  of  the  hot  springs,  those 
of  White  Mountain,  near  the  northern  boundary 
of  the  Park,  extending  for  1000  feet  up  the  slop- 
ing side,  and  their  snow-white  calcareous  deposits 
standing  like  a  series  of  great  frozen  cascades. 
A  few  miles  from  Sulphur  Mountain,  with  its 
vapours  rising  from  fissures  and  craters,  is  the 
active  Mud  Volcano,  with  a  crater  25  feet  in 
diameter.  All  the  hot  springs  of  the  Park  number 
nearly  10,000.  But  the  most  singular  feature  of 
the  region  is  its  geysers,  with  columns  of  hot 
water  50  to  200  feet  high,  the  most  magnificent 
in  the  world.  These  are  found  principally  on  the 
Firehole  River,  a  fork  of  the  Madison,  at  the 


YEMEN 


766 


YORK 


western  end  of  Shoshone  Lake,  and  in  the  Norris 
basin,  to  the  north  of  that  on  the  Firehole.  The 
region  was  visited  and  described  by  surveyors 'in 
1869,  and  explored  and  mapped  in  1871.'  In  1872 
Congress  dedicated  and  set  it  apart  '  as  a  public 
park  or  pleasuring  ground  for  the  benefit  and 
enjoyment  of  the  people ;'  and  increased  the  area 
in  1891.  Two  troops  of  cavalry  are  quartered  in 
the  Park  to  preserve  the  forests  and  wild  animals 
(bisons,  elks,  antelopes,  &c.),  and  to  act  as  police. 
A  branch  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway  extends 
to  the  northern  boundary  of  the  Park.  See  works 
by  G.  M.  Synge  (1892)  and  Wiley  (1893). 

Yemen.    See  Arabia. 

Yenikale  (Yen-i-kah'ley).    See  Kertch. 

Yenisei  (Yen-i-zay'ee),  one  of  the  largest  rivers 
of  Siberia,  formed  by  the  junction  of  the  Shishkit 
and  Beikhem,  which  rise  in  the  mountains  on 
the  southern  border  of  Siberia.  It  flows  north 
through  the  centre  of  Siberia  into  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  forming  at  its  mouth  a  long  estuary,  and 
has  a  total  course  of  3200  miles.  It  is  navigable 
1850  miles  to  Minusinsk.  Its  chief  tributaries 
are  the  Angara  or  Upper  Tunguska  from  Lake 
Baikal  and  the  Lower  Tunguska.  See  Seebohm's 
Siberia  in  Asia:  a  Visit  to  the  Valley  of  the 
Yenesay  (1882). 

Yeniseisk  (Yen-i-zay'eesk),  a  town  of  Eastern 
Siberia,  on  tlie  Yenisei  River.  Pop.  11,550.— Area 
of  Yeniseisk  government,  987,186  sq.  in. ;  pop. 
558,572.     Its  capital  is  Krasnoyarsk. 

Yeo,  a  river  of  Dorset  and  Somerset,  flowing 
24  miles  to  the  Parret  at  Langport. 

Yeovil  (Yo'vil),  a  municipal  borough  of  Somer- 
set, 40  miles  S.  of  Bristol  and  123  WSW.  of 
London,  is  a  busy,  handsome  place,  built  of  red 
brick  and  yellow  stone,  and  situated  on  a  hillside 
sloping  to  the  Yeo.  St  John's  Church,  'the 
Lantern  of  the  West,'  is  a  fine  Perpendicular 
structure  of  the  15th  c,  restored  in  1864,  with  a 
tower  90  feet  high.  A  Grecian  town-hall  was 
built  in  1849.  The  woollen  industry  belongs  to 
the  past ;  but  the  manufacture  of  kid  and  other 
gloves  is  largely  carried  on.  Yeovil,  which  lost 
117  houses  by  Are  in  1449,  is  a  borough  by  pre- 
scription, since  1853  under  the  Municipal  Act. 
Pop. (1861)  7957 ;  (1901)  9861. 

Yesso.    See  Japan. 

Yet'holm,  a  Border  village  of  Roxburghshire, 
at  the  foot  of  the  Cheviots,  7i  miles  SE.  of  Kelso. 
Bowmont  Water  divides  it  into  Town-Yetholm 
and  Kirk-Yetholm,  the  latter  long  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Scottish  Gypsies,  who  seem  to 
have  settled  here  as  early  at  least  as  the  17th 
century.  Pop.  570.  See  works  by  Baird  (1862), 
Lucas  (1882),  and  Brockie  (1884). 

Yezd,  or  Yazd,  a  city  near  the  centre  of  Persia, 
on  a  small  oasis,  and  on  the  route  between  Ispa- 
han and  Kerman.    Pop.  45,000—3000  Parsees. 

Yez'o.     See  Japan. 

Yilgarn.    See  Western  Australia. 

Ynyscynhaiarn,  the  parish  in  which  is  Port- 
madoc  (q.v.). 

Yokoha'ma  (a  as  ah),  the  chief  port  of  entry  in 
Japan.  Until  the  opening  of  the  country  in  1854 
it  was  an  insignificant  fishing-village,  contiguous 
to  the  important  town  of  Kanagawa,  originally 
granted  as  a  treaty  settlement.  The  Bluff",  con- 
ceded for  residence  in  1867,  is  a  beautiful  spot 
commanding  fine  views  of  Fuji-san  and  of  Yoko- 
hama Bay.  The  modern  town  is  well  laid  out, 
and  contains  many  fine  stone  buildings,  public 
and    private,    churches,    hospitals,    recreation 


grounds,  newspapers  in  English,  French,  and 
Japanese,  &c.  Tlie  bay  is  very  beautiful,  and 
the  anchorage  is  protected  by  two  breakwaters 
12,000  feet  in  length.  Ships  are  loaded  at  an  iron 
pier  2000  feet  long,  and  there  are  two  large  graving- 
docks.  There  is  direct  steamship  communication 
Avith  the  principal  ports  of  the  world.  Silk  repre- 
sents  three-fifths  of  the  exports,  the  rest  being 
other  tissues,  tea,  copper,  &c. ;  the  imports  are 
cottons  and  woollens,  raw  sugar,  oils,  metals, 
cliemicals,  arms  and  annnunition,  watches,  &c. 
Pop.  (1872)  61,553  ;  (1903)  326,000. 

Yokosuka,  an  important  shipbuilding  town 
and  naval  station  of  Japan,  13  miles  S.  by  W. 
of  Yokohama.    Pop.  25,000. 

Yonkers,  a  city  of  New  York  State,  on  the 
Hudson  River,  opposite  the  Palisades,  and  15 
miles  by  rail  N.  by  B.  of  the  centre  of  New  York, 
of  which  it  is  a  suburb,  tlie  boundaries  touching. 
Pop.  50,000. 

Yonne  (Yon),  a  dep.  of  NE.  Fiance.  Area, 
2868  sq.  m.  ;  pop.  (1886)  355,364;  (1901)  321,062. 
Its  arrondissements  are  Auxerre  (the  capital), 
Avallon,  Joigny,  Sens,  Tonnerre. 

York,  the  county  town  of  Yorkshire,  is  situated 
at  the  confluence  of  the  river  Foss  with  the  Ouse, 
188  miles  N.  of  London  by  rail.  It  is  the  seat  of 
an  archbishopric,  the  centre  of  the  northern  mili- 
tary district,  and  returns  two  members  to  parlia- 
nient.  The  population  of  the  municipal  borough 
in  1881  was  61,789,  and  in  1901  (now  a  'county 
borcugh')  77,793.  Tlie  city,  together  with  the 
surrounding  district  called  the  Ainsty,  is  under 
the  jurisdiction  of  a  lord  mayor,  twelve  aldermen, 
and  thirty-six  councillors.  York  was  known  as 
Eboracum  under  the  Romans,  of  whom  many 
relics  still  remain,  chief  among  them  being  the 
building  known  as  the  Multangular  Tower.  The 
numerous  sepulchral  monuments,  pavements,  and 
other  relics  now  preserved  in  the  museum  were 
mainly  found  in  the  extensive  Roman  cemetery 
discovered  in  digging  the  foundations  of  the  rail- 
way station.  From  the  time  of  Henry  II.  for 
five  hundred  years  parliaments  occasionally  sat 
at  York,  as  the  name  of  Parliament  Street  still 
bears  witness,  while  iinder  Henry  III.  the  courts 
of  King's  Bench  and  Exchequer  were  held  here. 
The  Minster  is  among  the  most  magnificent  of 
English  cathedrals.  Early  in  the  7th  century 
Edwin,  the  first  Christian  king  of  Northumbria, 
founded  here  a  church  which  perished  by  fire  in 
741.  The  church  was  rebuilt,  but,  during  the 
conflagration  of  the  city  at  the  time  of  the  Nor- 
man invasion,  was  again  destroyed,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  central  wall  of  the  existing  crypt, 
which  also  contains  portions  of  the  Norman 
church  erected  by  Archbishop  Rodger  (1154-81). 
Early  in  the  following  century  the  beautiful 
Early  English  transepts  were  added  by  Arch- 
bishop Gray.  The  present  nave  was  built  be- 
tween 1291  and  1345 ;  the  graceful  Decorated 
chapter-house  between  1300  and  1330 ;  and  the 
Norman  choir  was  superseded  by  a  Perpendicular 
one,  1373-1400.  The  central  lantern  tower  belongs 
to  the  beginning  of  the  15th  c,  and  the  two 
western  towers  were  added  between  1430  and 
1470.  In  1829  the  roof  and  carved  choir-stalls 
perished  in  an  incendiary  fire,  and  in  1840  another 
fire  destroyed  the  roof  of  the  nave  and  the 
splendid  peal  of  bells,  reducing  the  south-western 
tower  to  a  mere  shell.  Especially  worthy  of 
notice  is  the  Decorated  stained  glass,  the  great 
east  window  being  almost  unrivalled.  The  ex- 
treme length  of  the  Minster  is  524  feet,  of  the 
transepts  250,  and  the  breadth  of  the  nave  is  140 


YORK 


757 


YORKSHIRE 


feet ;  the  height  of  the  central  tower  is  216,  and 
of  the  western  ones  201  feet. 

The  Benedictine  Abbey  of  St  Mary  possessed 
great  wealth  and  importance.  It  was  founded  in 
the  reign  of  Rufus,  but  was  largely  rebuilt  to- 
wards the  end  of  the  13th  c.  The  existing  ruins 
are  principally  those  of  tlie  beautiful  abbey 
church,  while  the  old  Guest-house  has  now  been 
appropriated  as  a  storehouse  for  Roman  and 
other  antiquities.  There  is  a  line  R.  C.  pro- 
cathedral  (1864).  The  present  walls,  2|  miles  in 
circuit,  are  mainly  of  the  time  of  Edward  111., 
though  in  many  parts  they  follow  the  line  of  the 
Roman  earthwork.  They  are  pierced  by  pictur- 
esque gates,  locally  called  Bars,  of  which  Bootham 
Bar  and  Micklegate  Bar  are  especially  well  pre- 
served. The  castle,  with  its  picturesque  Clifford's 
Tower,  is  situated  close  to  the  river,  and  is  be- 
lieved to  date  from  the  time  of  Edward  I. ,  though 
older  portions  may  be  included  in  the  structure, 
which  suffered  severely  during  the  siege  of  1644. 
The  Assize  Courts  are  now  held  here.  The  fine 
Gothic  structure  of  the  Guildhall  belongs  to 
the  15th  c.  There  are  several  endowed  schools : 
St  Peter's  School  under  the  government  of  the 
Chapter,  founded  in  1557  ;  Archbishop  Holgate's 
Free  School,  dating  from  the  time  of  Henry  VIII. ; 
the  Blue-coat  School  for  boys,  the  Grey-coat  for 
girls,  and  the  Yorkshire  School  for  the  Blind. 
Among  other  institutions  may  be  enumerated  the 
County  Hospital,  the  Dispensary,  the  Lunatic 
Asylum,  and  the  Free  Library,  opened  by  the 
Duke  of  York  in  1893.  York  is  an  important 
railway  centre,  and  its  station  (1873-77)  is  one  of 
the  largest  in  England.  The  British  Association 
was  organised  at  York  in  1831,  and  its  jubilee 
meeting  was  fappropriately  held  there  in  1881. 
Alcuin,  Guy  Fawkes,  Flaxman,  and  Etty  were 
natives.  See  Canon  Raine's  York  ('Historic 
Towns '  series,  1893). 

York,  the  capital  of  York  county,  Pennsyl- 
vania, on  Codorus  Creek,  28  miles  by  rail  SSE.  of 
Harrisburg.  It  has  a  large  granite  court-house, 
a  handsome  collegiate  institute,  foundries,  car- 
factories,  railway-shops,  planing-mills,  and  manu- 
factories of  shoes,  condensed  milk,  &c.  York 
dates  from  1741,  and  was  the  seat  of  the  Conti- 
nental congress  for  a  time  in  1777.  Pop.  (1880) 
13,940;  (1900)33,708. 

York,  a  river  of  Virginia,  formed  by  the  union 
of  the  Pamunkey  and  Mattapony,  and  flowing 
south-eastward  to  Chesapeake  Bay,  nearly  oppo- 
site Cape  Charles.  It  is  40  miles  long,  and  from 
1  to  3  miles  wide. 

York  Peninsiila  (Cape),  the  northernmost  part 
of  Queensland  (q.v.).  For  Yorke  Peninsula,  see 
South  Australia, 

Yorkshire,  by  far  the  largest  of  the  English 
counties,  is  divided  for  administrative  purposes 
into  three  Ridings  (thridings,  or  'thirds'),  each 
of  which  has  its  own  lord-lieutenant,  magistracy, 
and  constabulary.  There  are  twenty-six  wapen- 
takes in  the  county  ;  and  sundry  subdivisions 
go  by  the  name  of  shires,  as  Hallamshire,  Rich- 
mondshire,  Allertonshire,  Howdenshire,  Craven - 
shire  or  Craven,  Holderness,  and  Cleveland.  The 
county  contains  seven  cities,  York,  Bradford, 
Hull,  Leeds,  Ilipoii,  Sheffield,  and  Wakefield, 
other  22  municipal  boroughs,  169  town  and  urban 
district  councils,  and  524  parish  councils.  The 
total  area  is  3,882,851  statute  acres,  or  nearly 
6067  sq.  m.,  all,  with  the  exception  of  the  catch- 
ment basins  of  the  Esk  and  parts  of  those  of  the 
Tees  and  Ribble,  being  drained  by  the  Ouse  and 
its   great   tributaries,    the   Swale,    Ure,    Nidd, 


Wharfe,  Aire,  Don,  and  Derwent.  Since  1885 
the  county  divisions  have  returned  twenty-six 
members,  and  the  cities  and  boroughs  the  same 
number.  Pop.  (1801)  859,133  ;  (1841)  1,592,059  ; 
(1881)  2,886,564  ;  (1901)  3,585,122,  of  whom  445,112 
were  in  the  East  Riding,  393,143  in  the  North, 
2,746,867  in  the  West  Riding.  The  city  of  York 
lias  77,793.  The  Pennine  chain  rises  to  its 
highest  point  in  Mickle  Fell,  2581  feet,  while 
Ingleborough  and  Whernside  touch  respectively 
2361  and  2384  feet.  On  the  eastern  side  of  the 
chain  are  the  famous  'Yorkshire  dales,'  Wensley- 
dale,  Wharfedale,  Swaledale,  &c.,  in  many  of 
j  which  are  picturesque  waterfalls,  or  '  forces '  as 
!  they  are  locally  called— such  as  Caldron  Snout 
and  High  Force  in  Teesdale,  or  Aysgarth  Force 
and  Hardraw  Force  on  the  Ure.  The  Yorkshire 
coal-measures,  on  which  are  situated  the  manu- 
facturing towns  of  Leeds,  Bradford,  Sheffield, 
Rotherham,  Huddersfield,  and  Halifax,  are  con- 
fined to  the  southern  portion  of  the  county,  and 
are  continuous  with  those  of  Derbyshire  and 
Notts.  In  the  North  Riding  the  Cleveland  moors 
rise  to  heights  of  1400  feet.  The  prosperity  of 
Middlesborough  is  due  to  the  celebrated  hematite 
iron  ores  of  Cleveland.  In  the  East  Riding  is  the 
high  tableland  of  the  Wolds.  Since  the  begin- 
ning of  the  19th  century  the  manufactures  of 
Yorkshire  have  enormously  developed.  Leeds 
and  Bradford  are  the  centres  of  the  woollen  and 
worsted  trades,  while  the  cutlery  of  Sheffield 
is  unrivalled.  Of  the  numerous  smelting  and 
puddling  furnaces,  the  chief  are  those  at  Rother- 
ham and  Middlesborough.  The  agricultural  por- 
tions of  the  county  are  well  served  by  railways, 
while  the  manufacturing  districts  are  covered 
with  a  network  of  lines ;  the  chief  towns  being 
also  connected  by  a  system  of  canals,  extending 
from  sea  to  sea,  and  piercing  the  Pennine  chain, 
at  the  height  of  656  feet  above  the  sea,  by  a 
tunnel  three  miles  in  length.  Beyond  the  mining 
and  manufacturing  districts  the  population  is 
agricultural,  one  of  the  principal  industries  being 
horse-breeding,  for  which  Yorkshire  is  famous. 
Among  the  inland  health-resorts  Harrogate  and 
Ilkley  rank  first,  while  the  coast  southward  from 
Redcar  and  Saltburn  is  fringed  with  small  watering- 
places,  besides  the  larger  towns  of  Whitby,  Scar- 
borough, Filey,  Bridlington,  Withernsea,  and 
Hornsea. 

The  sepulchral  barrows  on  the  Wolds,  and 
the  caves  of  Craven  and  Kirkdale  have  yielded 
results  that  form  the  basis  of  our  know- 
ledge of  Yorkshire  prehistoric  times.  At  the 
Roman  conquest  (50-79  a.d.)  the  country  was  in- 
habited by  the  Celtic  Brigantes,  or '  hillmen,'  whose 
capital  was  at  Isurium  or  Boroughbridge  (q.v.). 
York  (Ehoracum)  for  300  years  was  the  chief  city 
of  Northern  Britain.  Several  of  the  emperors 
visited  York,  and  here  in  211  died  Severus,  and 
in  306  Constantius  Chlorus.  And  from  York  his 
son  Constantine  the  Great,  having  been  pro- 
claimed by  the  soldiery,  set  forth  to  assume  the 
purple.  By  547  the  heathen  Angles  had  estab- 
lished their  rule,  although  the  little  British 
kingdoms  of  Leeds  (Loidis)  and  Elinet  held  out 
till  616,  when  they  were  conquered  by  King 
Edwin  of  Northumbria,  the  Yorkshire  portion  of 
whose  realm  was  known  as  Deira.  Edwin,  who 
had  been  baptised  by  Paulinus  on  Easter  Day, 
627,  was  defeated  and  slain  at  Hatfield  Chase  near 
Doncaster  in  633,  by  Penda,  the  heathen  king  of 
Mercia.  Toward  the  end  of  the  8th  century  the 
Northmen  began  to  appear  in  the  Huniber,  ravag- 
ing and  finally  settling  in  the  country.  York- 
shire contains  the  battlefields  of  Stamford  Bridge, 


YORKTOWN 


758 


YUNNAN 


the  Standard  (Northallerton),  Myton,  Bramham 
Moor,  Wakefield,  Towton,  and  Marston  Moor ; 
and  in  1536  it  was  the  scene  of  the  Pilgrimage  of 
Grace,  as  in  1569  of  another  rising  on  behalf  of 
Mary,  Queen  of  Scots.  During  the  Civil  War  the 
county  was  mainly  royalist.  No  part  of  England 
is  richer  in  the  remains  of  monastic  houses, 
eighty-one  in  all— Rievaulx,  Jervaulx,  Fountains, 
Kirkstall,  and  Bylands  (Cistercian),  Whitby, 
Selby,  and  St  Mary's,  York  (Benedictine),  New- 
burgh,  Nostel,  Bridlington,  Guisborough,  Bolton, 
and  Kirkham  (Augustinian),  &c.  Among  the 
castles  may  be  named  those  of  Kuaresborough, 
Pontefract,  Conisborough,  Richmond,  Middle- 
ham,  and  Bolton. 

See  histories  of  Yorkshire  by  Allen  (3  vols. 
1828-31)  and  Baines  (2  vols.  1871-77),  besides 
Poulson's  Holderness,  Hunter's  Hallamshire  and 
South  Yorkshire,  Drake's  Eboracum,  Ormsby's 
Diocesan  History,  Lawton's  Collections,  Dixon's 
Fasti  Eboracences,  and  Phillip's  Geology  of  York- 
shire, Morris's  Yorkshire  Folk-talk  (1892),  and 
Leadman's  Prwlia  Eboracensia  (1892). 

Yorktown,  capital  of  York  county,  Virginia, 
on  the  York  River,  10  jniles  from  its  mouth. 
Pop.  150.  Here  Lord  Coruwallis  surrendered  to 
Washington  in  1781. 

Yor'uba,  or  Yarriba,  once  a  West  African 
kingdom,  east  of  Dahomey,  now  mostly  included 
in  the  British  colony  of  Southern  Nigeria.  Its 
pop.,  some  2,000,000,  are  Soudanese  Negroes, 
partly  Mohammedanised. 

Yosemite  Valley  (Yo-sem'i-tey)  is  a  cleft  in 
the  west  slope  of  the  Sierra  Nevada,  about  the 
middle  of  California,  and  140  miles  E.  of  San 
Francisco.  The  name  Yosemite  is  an  Indian 
word  which  signifies  'large  grizzly  bear.'  This 
celebrated  valley,  shut  in  by  sheer  granite  walls 
3000  to  6000  feet  high,  noted  for  the  sublimity 
and  beauty  of  its  scenery,  is  6  miles  long  and 
from  ^  to  nearly  2  miles  broad.  It  is  traversed 
by  the  Merced  River,  and  its  waterfalls  are  in 
some  respects  the  most  remarkable  in  the  world. 
In  the  grand  Yosemite  Falls  the  stream,  25  feet 
wide  at  the  crest,  takes  a  first  leap  of  1500  feet, 
then  rushes  626  feet  down  in  a  series  of  cascades, 
and  finally  plunges  400  feet  to  the  bottom. 
Above  the  falls  are  the  North  Dome  (3568)  and 
the  vast  Half  Dome  (4737).  The  valley  was  dis- 
covered in  1851  by  soldiers  who  pursued  some 
predatory  Indians  to  their  fastness  here ;  its 
fame  quickly  spread,  and  Congress  wisely  took 
steps  to  preserve  its  beauties,  and  in  1864  handed 
it  over  to  the  state,  along  with  the  Mariposa 
grove  of  sequoias.  There  are  several  hotels,  a 
post-office,  and  a  chapel  in  the  valley,  besides  the 
houses  of  the  guardian  and  the  guides  and  others 
under  him.    See  a  work  by  Wiley  (1893). 

Youghal  (pron.  nearly  Yawl),  a  seaport  of 
County  Cork,  on  the  Blackwater  estuary,  27 
miles  E.  of  Cork  by  rail.  It  has  the  parish 
church  (1464),  a  handsome  R.  C.  church,  the 
'water-gate'  and  'clock -gate,'  and  Sir  Walter 
Raleigh's  house,  Myrtle  Grove,  which  remains 
nearly  in  its  original  state.  Parts  of  the  old 
walls  are  standing.  According  to  local  tradition, 
the  potato  was  first  planted  at  Youghal  by 
Raleigh,  who  was  mayor  in  1588.  The  town 
returned  one  member  till  1885.  Pop.  (1851) 
7410;  (1901)5393. 

Youngstcwn,  a  manufacturing  town  of  Ohio, 
on  the  Mahoning  River,  67  miles  by  rail  SE.  of 
Cleveland,  and  66  NW.  of  Pittsburgh,  with 
blast-furnaces,  rolling-mills,  manufactories  of 
machinery,     &c.     Iron,     coal,    and    limestone 


abound  near  by.  Pop.  (1880)  15,435;  (1800) 
33,220;  (1900)44,885. 

YT^ves  (Eepr;  Flemish  Y'peren),  a  Belgian  town, 
30  miles  SSW.  of  Bruges  by  rail,  and  8  from  the 
French  frontier.  It  once  was  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant manufacturing  towns  in  Flanders,  with 
200,000  inhabitants  in  the  14th  c,  and  4000  looms. 
The  only  remnant  of  its  once  flourishing  manu- 
facture is  the  Gothic  Cloth-hall  (Les  Halles),  with 
a  stately  square  belfry.  It  was  built  1230-1342, 
and  restored  in  1860 ;  a  part  was  added  in  1730. 
One  of  the  wings  is  now  used  as  the  hotel-de-ville. 
The  cathedral  of  St  Martin  is  a  fine  Gothic  edifice 
(1221-1350).  The  chief  modern  manufactures  are 
thread  and  lace.  Pop.  17,137.  Ypres  is  a  very 
old  town,  dating  from  the  9th  and  10th  centuries. 
In  1688  it  was  strongly  fortified  by  Louis  XIV. 
Jansen  was  bishop  of  Ypres. 

Ypsilanti  (y  as  i),  a  city  of  Michigan,  on  the 
Huron  River,  30  miles  by  rail  W.  by  S.  of  Detroit. 
It  contains  the  state  normal  school.    Pop.  7400. 

Ystad  {Ee'stad),  a  seaport  in  the  extreme  south 
of  Sweden,  30  miles  SE.  of  Malmo  by  rail, 
with  manufactures  of  sugar,  matches,  &c.  Pop. 
8500. 

Ystrad3rf0dwg  (Istradifo'doog ;  since  1894, 
Rhondda),  an  urban  district  of  Glamorgan, 
occupying  the  mining  district  of  the  Rhondda 
valley,  20  miles  NW.  of  Cardiff.  Pop.  (1891) 
88,350 ;  (1901)  113,735. 

Yucatan',  a  Central  American  peninsula,  divid- 
ing the  Gulf  of  Mexico  from  the  Caribbean  Sea, 
and  bordering  on  British  Honduras  and  Guate- 
mala. It  is  a  flat  expanse,  ridged  only  towards 
the  east  by  a  low  chain  of  hills.  The  interior  is 
overspread  with  forests  of  mahogany,  rosewood, 
and  other  valuable  timber,  while  the  south  and 
east  teem  with  maize,  pulse,  rice,  tobacco,  &c. 
Ruins  of  Uxmal,  Chichen,  Izamal,  Mayapan,  and 
other  temples  and  vast  edifices,  richly  carved 
and  coloured,  and  of  unknown  history,  testify  to 
an  ancient  civilisation.  Made  known  to  Europe 
in  1517,  and  completely  conquered  in  1541,  this 
part  of  New  Spain  (granted  in  1783  to  English 
logwood-cutters  for  a  tiine)  continued  under 
Spanish  domination  till  1821.  After  repeated 
short  periods  of  independence  it  has  since  1852 
belonged  to  Mexico— from  1858  as  two  states, 
Campeachy  (area,  18,087  sq.  m. ;  pop.  86,000) 
and  Yucatan  (area,  35,203  sq.  m.  ;  pop. 
314,087). 

Yu'kon,  the  great  river  of  Alaska,  is  formed  by 
the  junction  of  the  Lewis  and  Pelly  at  Forb 
Selkirk,  in  British  territory  (62°  45'  N.  lat.),  and 
flows  2000  miles  W.  across  Alaska  into  Behring 
Sea.  Its  upper  reaches  are  navigable  for  steamers, 
but  its  vast  delta  is  so  silted  up  that  it  is  not 
open  to  sea-going  vessels.  During  three  months 
of  the  year  its  waters  swarm  with  salmon.  Since 
1895  the  river  gives  name  to  a  territory  of  Canada 
north  of  British  Columbia.  There  are  gold- 
mines at  Klondike,  for  which  Dawson  is  the 
central  town. 

Yunnan  (Yoon-nan),  a  province  of  SW.  China, 
bounded  on  the  S.  by  Annam,  Siain,  and  Burma, 
with  an  area  estimated  at  122,000  sq.  m.,  and 
a  pop.  estimated  at  11,500,000,  having  sunk 
from  15,000,000  through  plague  and  the  war  of 
the  Mohammedan  Panthays  (1855-72).  The  sur- 
face is  mainly  an  extensive  uneven  highland 
plateau,  between  whose  ranges,  which  vary  in 
height  from  12,000  to  17,000  feet  in  the  north  to 
7000  or  8000  in  the  south,  are  deep  defiles  through 
which  run  the  Mekong,  Salween,  Shweli,  and 


YtJRUAftI 


759 


2ANT£ 


6ther  rivers  of  Indo-China.  Fertile  plains  and 
valleys  are  numerous.  In  the  northern  part  the 
surface  is  wild,  broken,  and  barren,  wrapped  in 
mist  and  fog,  and  the  population  sparse.  But 
the  south  and  south-west  are  populous  and  richly 
cultivated.  The  first  important  exploration  was 
by  the  French  in  1867-68.  Yunnan,  the  capital, 
stands  on  a  great  plain  in  the  eastern  half  of  the 
province,  over  6400  feet  above  sea-level,  and  near 
the  shore  of  Lake  Tien-chih.  It  has  a  flourishing 
trade  and  a  pop.  of  100,000. 

Yuruari.    See  Venezuela. 

Yverdon  (Eeverdon" ;  also  spelt  Yverdun),  a 
pleasant  Swiss  town  in  the  Canton  de  Vaud,  at 


the  S.  end  of  the  Lake  of  Neuchatel,  20  miles  ^, 
of  Lausanne  by  rail.  The  old  castle,  built  in 
1135,  was  used  by  Pestalozzi  as  an  educational 
institute ;  and  is  now  occupied  by  municipal 
schools,  a  library,  and  museum.  There  is  a  sul- 
phur-bath near  the  town.     Pop.  8000. 

Yvetot  (Eeiftoh),  an  old  town  of  France,  in  the 
dep.  of  Seine-Inferieure,  24  miles  NW.  of  Rouen 
by  rail,  with  manufactures  of  linen,  cotton, 
calico.  Pop.  7000.  The  town  and  territory  of 
Yvetot  was  long  a  semi-sovereign  principality, 
and  the  Lord  of  Yvetot  was  till  1681  popularly 
styled  *Roi  d'Yvetot.'  Beranger's  song  of  that 
title  was  a  satire  on  Napoleon. 


AANDAM  (Zahn'dam),  a  Dutch  town, 
on  the  Zaan,  at  its  entrance  to  the  Y, 
5  miles  NW.  of  Amsterdam  by  rail.  It 
has  many  corn,  oil,  and  saw  mills,  and 
active  manufactures  of  paper,  dyes, 
starch,  tobacco,  and  glue,  and  still  a  little  ship- 
building. Most  of  the  sixty  wharves  it  had  in 
the  17th  century  have  disappeared,  and  its 
famous  whale-fishery  is  also  a  thing  of  the  past. 
Here  in  1697  Peter  the  Great  worked  in  a  ship- 
building yard  as  a  carpenter ;  the  hut  in  which 
he  lived  was  visited  in  1814  by  the  Czar  Alex- 
ander.    Pop.  21,650. 

Zabern  {Tzah'hem;  Fr.  Saverne),  a  town  of 
Lower  Alsace,  22  miles  NW.  of  Strasburg  by  rail. 
Pop.  8605. 

Zacatecas  (Za-ka-tny'kas),  capital  of  a  Mexican 
state  (area,  24,757  sq.  m. ;  pop.  462,190),  is  situated 
in  a  deep  ravine,  440  miles  by  rail  NW.  of  Mexico 
city.  It  has  a  cathedral,  and  3  miles  E.  the  Fran- 
ciscan college  where  the  fathers  of  the  old  Cali- 
fornian  missions  were  trained.  Zacatecas  is  the 
great  silver-producing  state  of  Mexico,  and  around 
the  city  15,000  men  are  employed  in  the  mines, 
which  since  1540  have  yielded  over  $1,000,000,000. 
Gold  has  also  been  discovered.  Pop.  (1900) 
39,912. 

Zadonsk',  a  Russian  town  on  the  Don,  70 
miles  N.  of  Voronej,  is  the  seat  of  a  celebrated 
monastery.     Pop.  8800. 

Zafarani  Islands  (d  as  dh),  three  islets  off 
the  north  coast  of  Morocco,  occupied  by  Spain. 
Pop.  650. 

Zagazig  (Zagazeeg'),  a  town  of  the  Egyptian 
delta,  an  important  railway  centre,  50  miles  NE. 
of  Cairo,  on  a  branch  of  the  Sweet-water  Canal 
connecting  Ismailia  with  the  Nile.  Pop.  35,500. 
■  Zahringen  (Tzay' ring-en),  a  small  village  a  mile 
N.  of  Freiburg  in  Breisgau,  historically  note- 
worthy for  the  ruined  castle  of  the  Dukes  of 
Zahringen,  the  ancestors  of  the  reigning  House 
of  Baden. 

Zaire.    See  Congo. 

Za'ma,  a  city  and  fortress  in  Numidia,  about 
100  miles  SW.  of  Carthage,  near  which  Hannibal 
was  defeated  by  the  Younger  Scipio,  201  b.c. 

Zambe'si,  Vasco  da  Gama's  '  River  of  Good 
Signs,'  ranking  with  the  Congo  and  the  Nile  as  a 
means  of  communication  with  the  interior  of 
Africa,  is  between  1550  and  1600  miles  long,  and 
drains  more  than  half  a  million  miles  of  territory. 
Soon  after  its  rise  in  the  marshy  country  to  the 
west  of  Bangweolo  it  passes  through  Lake  Dilolo 
at  the  SW.  corner  of  the  Congo  Free  State  ;  and 
on  its  way  to  the  Indian  Ocean  it  receives  many 
tributaries,  notably  the  Loamba,  Kafue,  Loangwa, 


and  Shire.  For  about  two-thirds  of  its  length  it 
flows  through  British  protected  territory,  enter- 
ing the  Portuguese  possessions  near  Zumbo  (550 
"miles  from  the  sea).  The  river  is  navigable,  with 
occasional  interruptions,  to  the  Victoria  Falls, 
900  miles  from  the  sea.  At  these  falls,  dis- 
covered in  1855  by  Dr  Livingstone,  the  river, 
here  1000  yards  broad,  drops  sheer  into  a  huge 
fissure  in  the  earth's  surface  nearly  400  feet  deep. 
The  great  girder  bridge  to  carry  the  Cape-to- 
Cairo  railway  across  the  Zambesi  (400  yards 
below  the  falls)  was  finished  in  1905.  Beyond 
this  for  700  miles  the  river  forms  a  frequently 
interrupted  waterway  to  the  interior.  The  delta 
of  the  Zambesi  comprises  an  area  of  2500  sq.  m., 
and  it  has  a  number  of  mouths  all  more  or  less 
blocked  with  sand  (Chinde,  Kongoni,  &c.). 

Zambesla,  a  name  for  that  portion  of  the 
territory  watered  by  the  river  Zambesi  which  is 
now  under  British  protection,  sometimes  loosely 
used  for  most  of  the  country  under  the  British 
South  African  Company  (chartered  in  1889). 
South  Zambesia  (southwards  of  the  river)  em- 
braces Mashonaland  (q.v.),  Matabeleland  (q.v.), 
a  part  of  Manicaland,  and  Khama's  Country  in 
the  Bechuanaland  protectorate.  North  Zambesia 
extends  to  Lakes  Tanganyika  and  Nyassa  (q.v.). 
The  railway  from  Beira  to  Salisbury,  from  Vry- 
burg  to  Bulawayo,  and  the  Cape-to-Cairo  rail- 
way to  the  Victoria  Falls  (1904)  are  open.  Zam- 
besia, except  the  British  South  Africa  Protecto- 
rate, is  now  part  of  Rhodesia  (q.v.). 

Zambesia,  one  of  the  administrative  districts 
of  Portuguese  East  Africa,  in  the  lower  valley  of 
the  Zambesi  River. 

Zamora  (Span.  pron.  Tha-mo'ra),  a  very  ancient 
town  of  Spain,  on  the  Douro,  150  miles  NW.  of 
Madrid  by  rail.  It  has  a  late  Romanesque  cathe- 
dral, and  some  linen  and  woollen  manufactures. 
Pop.  16,577. — Area  of  province,  4135  sq.  m. ;  pop. 
(1900)  275,545. 

Zamosc',  a  fortified  town  of  Russian  Poland, 
154  miles  SE.  of  Warsaw.     Pop.  12,500. 

Zanesville,  a  town  of  Ohio,  on  the  Muskingum 
River,  67  miles  by  rail  E.  of  Columbus.  The 
river  is  crossed  by  an  iron  railway  bridge  538 
feet  long  (and  by  others)  to  its  suburbs,  Putnam 
and  West  Zanesville.  It  has  rich  coal-mines 
close  by,  and  manufactures  engines,  boilers,  flour, 
iron,  cottons  and  woollens,  glass,  paper,  tiles, 
&c.     Pop.  (1880)  18,113  ;  (1900)  23,540. 

Zanguebar'.    See  Zanzibar. 

Zan'te  (anc.  Zacynthos),  one  of  the  Ionian 
Islands,  9  miles  from  the  NW.  coast  of  the  Morea, 
and  8  S.  of  Cephalonia,  is  24  miles  long  and  12 
broad ;  pop.  45,522.  In  the  west  it  attains  a 
maximum  altitude  of  2486  feet;  the  centre  is 


ZANZIBAR 


760 


ZIMBABYE 


fertile,  and  mainly  devoted  to  growing  the  cur- 
rant vine.  Earthquakes  are  not  infrequent,  one 
of  the  worst  in  the  beginning  of  1893.— Zante, 
the  capital,  the  largest  town  in  the  Ionian 
Islands,  is  at  the  head  of  a  small  bay  on  the  east 
coast ;  pop.  14,650. 

Zanzibar',  since  1890  a  British  protectorate, 
consisting  of  the  islands  of  Zanzibar  (625  sq.  m.  ; 
pop.  150,000)  and  Pemba  (360  sq.  m.;  pop. 
50,000).  Some  500  Englishmen,  as  many  Ger- 
mans, and  a  few  other  Europeans  live  in  the 
town  of  Zanzibar,  on  the  west  coast  of  the  island 
(pop.  30,000),  the  chief  trading  town  on  the  E. 
coast  of  Africa.  Its  imports  and  exports  each 
average  over  £1,800,000  a  year.  Zanzibar  ('  Land 
of  the  Zenj,'  a  Swahili  dynasty)  formerly  exercised 
authority  over  a  large  part  of  the  mainland,  with 
indefinite  extensions  inland,  which  was  called 
Zanguebar  as  distinguished  from  the  island.  It 
•was  under  Arab  influence  in  the  10th  c,  Portu- 
guese in  the  15th-17th  c.  In  1856  a  son  of  the 
imam  of  Muscat  became  sultan.  Since  1870-90 
the  territories  on  the  mainland  have  been 
absorbed  by  Britain  (see  Ibea)  and  Germany  (see 
Africa),  and  the  sultan  is  practically  a  British 
pensioner,  all  authority  resting  ultimately  with 
the  British  agent  and  consul-general.  See  the 
travels  of  Stanley,  J.  Thomson,  &c. ;  Zanzibar  by 
Burton  (1872) ;  and  works  on  the  partition  of 
Africa  by  Silva  White  (1890)  and  Keltie  (1893). 

Zara  (Zah-ra;   Slav.  Zadar),  capital  of  Dal- 
raatia,  on  a  promontory  into  the  Adriatic,  130 
miles  SE.  of  Trieste,  with  a  well-protected  har- 
bour.    Its  archiepiscopal  cathedral   (1205)    was 
founded  by  Henry  Dandolo,  Doge  of  Venice.    A 
marble  column  is  all  that  is  left  of  an  ancient 
Roman  temple ;  there  are  also  the  remains  of  a 
Roman  aqueduct.    The  chief  manufactures  are 
the  making  of  glass   and    of   maraschino    and 
rosoglio.     Pop.  32,500,  mainly  Italians. 
Zarafshan.    See  Bokhara. 
Zaragoza  (Tharago'tha).    See  Saragossa. 
Zarskoe.    See  Tsarskoye  Selo. 
Zaru'ma,  a  town  of  Ecuador,  on  the  west  slope 
of  the  Andes,  95  miles  S.  of  Guayaquil.     It  has 
gold  and  quicksilver  mines.     Pop.  6000. 
Zea.    See  Ceos. 

Zealand  (Dutch  Zeeland),  a  province  of  the 
Netherlands,  consists  of  portions  of  Flanders 
(East  and  West)  and  of  the  islands  Walcheren, 
North  Beveland,  South  Beveland,  Schouwen, 
Duiveland,  and  Tholen,  with  an  area  of  690  sq.  m. 
and  a  pop.  of  220,000. 

Zealand  (Dan.  Sjdlland),  a  level  island,  the 
largest  and  most  important  of  Denmark,  lies  be- 
tween the  Cattegat  and  tlie  Baltic,  and  is  sepa- 
rated by  the  Sound  from  Sweden  and  by  the  Great 
Belt  from  Ftinen.  Length,  81  miles  ;  breadth, 
67  miles  ;  area,  2670  sq.  m,  ;  pop.  (including  tlie 
small  islands  of  Moen,  Samso,  &c.)  960,250.  In 
it  are  Copenhagen,  Elsinore,  and  Korsor. 
Zebu,  one  of  the  Philijipine  Islands  (q.v.). 
Zeebrugge,  the  port  of  Bruges  (q.v.),  with 
which  it  is  connected  by  a  ship-canal  made  in 
1895-1903. 

Zee'han  (Dutch  Zeehaan,  'sea-hen'),  a  mining 
township  on  the  west  coast  of  l' smania,  29  miles 
by  rail  from  the  port  of  Strahan  or  Macquarie 
Harbour.  The  name  is  taken  from  a  prominent 
mountain,  3  miles  south-west,  which  Tasman,  in 
1642,  named  after  one  of  his  two  ships.  The 
township  (population,  5000)  owes  its  existence  to 
the  discovery  in  1884  of  rich  silver-lead  ores  in 
great  abundance. 


Zeeland.    See  Zealand. 
Zeila,  or  Zeyla.    See  Somali-land. 
Zeitun  (Zi-toon'),  a   town    25    miles  NW.  of 
Marash  in  the  highlands  of  the  Aleppo  province, 
with  iron-mines.    Pop.  20,000,  mainly  Armenian 
Christians. 

Zeist.    See  Zevst. 

ZeitZ  (TzUz),  a  Availed  town  of  Prussian  Saxony, 
on  the  right  bank  of  the  White  Elster,  23  miles 
SW.  of  Leipzig  by  rail.  It  manufactures  wool- 
lens, cottons,  calicoes,  sugar,  wax-cloth,  piano- 
fortes, cycles,  &c.     Pop.  27,400. 

Zelle  (TzeVleh),  or  Cell,  a  manufacturing  town 
of  Prussia,  on  the  navigable  Aller,  28  miles  by 
rail  NE.  of  Hanover.  From  the  14th  c.  till  1705 
it  was  the  residence  of  the  Dukes  of  Brunswick- 
Liineburg ;  and  in  the  old  castle  (1485)  George 
III.'s  unfortunate  sister,  Caroline  Matilda  of  Den- 
mark, lived  from  1772  to  1775,  and  here  she  is 
buried.    Pop,  20,000. 

Zengg(Ze/ig),  an  Austrian  port  on  the  Croatian 
coast,  75  miles  SE.  of  Trieste,  with  an  old  cathe- 
dral.    Pop.  3039. 

Zenjan',  a  town  of  Persia,  half-way  between 
Tabriz  and  Teheran.     Pop.  25,000. 

Zen'ta,  a  town  of  Hungary,  on  the  Theiss,  33 
miles  S.  of  Szegedin  by  rail.     Pop.  28,600. 

Zerafshan'.    See  Bokhara. 

Zerbst  (Tzerhst),  a  town  in  the  duchy  of  An- 
halt,  on  a  tributary  of  the  Elbe,  26^  miles  SE.  of 
Magdeburg  by  rail.     Pop.  17,069. 

Zermatt  (Tzer-maW),  a  Swiss  tourist  centre 
(pop.  725)  near  the  upper  end  of  the  Visp  valley 
in  Valais,  25  miles  SSW.  of  Visp  by  the  railway 
opened  in  1891.  It  stands  5315  feet  above  the 
sea,  having  to  the  S.  the  great  Theodule  glacier, 
surrounded  by  the  Breithorn,  Monte  Rosa,  and 
Matterhorn.  The  Theodule  Pass  or  Matterjoch 
(10,899  feet)  leads  to  Aosta  in  Italy. 

Zetland.    See  Shetland. 

Zettin'ye.    See  Cetinje. 

Zeulenroda  (Tzoilenro'da),  a  town  of  Reuss- 
Greiz,  51  miles  SSW.  of  Leipzig.    Pop.  8970. 

Zeyla.    See  Somali-land. 

Zeyst,  or  Zeist  (Zist),  a  large  Dutch  village,  6 
miles  E.  of  Utrecht,  with  manufactures  of  soap, 
candles,  porcelain-stoves,  &c.  Here  was  estab- 
lished in  1746  a  still  thriving  society  of  Moravian 
Brethren.     Pop.  8800. 

Zhitomir',  or  Jitomir,  the  chief  town  of  the 
Russian  government  of  Volhynia,  on  a  tributary 
of  the  Dnieper,  80  miles  W.  of  Kieff.  Pop. 
66,782. 

Zhob,  a  river  of  S.  Afghanistan  (or  N.  Beluchi- 
stan)  which  joins  the  Gomul  NW.  of  the  Suliman 
Mountains,  and  with  it  flows  into  the  Indus  near 
Dera  Ismael  Khan.  There  are  valuable  passes 
into  Afghanistan  both  by  the  Gomul  and  the 
Zhob  valleys— the  latter  of  Avhich  was  annexed 
by  Britain  in  1889. 

Zidon.     See  Sidon. 

Zierikzee  (Zee-rik-zay'),  chief  town  of  the  Dutch 
island  of  Schouwen  (q.  v.) ;  pop.  7043. 

Zillerthal  (TziVlertahl),  a  Tyrolese  valley 
watered  by  the  Ziller,  a  tributary  of  the  Inn, 
whose  inhabitants  are  noted  for  their  handsome 
flgures  and  their  admirable  singing. 

Zimbab'ye,  or  Zimbabwi,  a  notable  ruin  in 
Mashonaland,  15  miles  SE.  of  Salisbury  by  road, 
and  3300  feet  above  sea-level,  consists  of  a  large 
elliptical  building  of  unmortared  masonry  (280^ 


761 


2UTPHEN 


feet  long,  with  walls  35  feet  high  and  16  feet 
thick),  believed  by  Bent  and  Hall  to  be  the 
work  of  pre-Mohaniinedan  Arabians,  but  by 
M'lver  held  to  be  native  masonry  not  older  than 
the  16th  century.  See  works  by  Bent  (1892), 
Hall  (1902),  and  M'lver  (1906). 

Zimme.    See  Shan  States. 

Zirknitz,  Lake  (Tzeer'knitz;  Slovenic  Cirknica), 
in  Carniola,  is  20  miles  SW.  of  Laibach  and  1860 
feet  above  sea-level.  Its  area  and  depth  depend 
much  on  the  rainfall,  being  sometimes  5  miles 
and  18  feet ;  but  in  some  years  it  is  dried  up. 

Zittau  (Tzit'tow),  a  town  of  Saxony,  on  the 
Mandau,  near  its  junction  with  the  Neisse,  21 
miles  SSB.  of  Libau  and  21  SSW,  of  Gorlitz.  It 
stands  in  a  district  rich  in  lignite,  and  is  also 
the  centre  of  the  linen  and  damask  industry  of 
Saxony,  with  manufactures  of  woollens,  besides 
bleachlields,  dye-works,  and  iron-foundries.  Pop. 
(1875)  20,417  ;  (1900)  30,930. 

Zlatoust'  (pu  as  oo),  a  town  of  Russia,  on  the 
navigable  Ai,  198  miles  NE.  of  Ufa  by  the  great 
Siberian  railway  (1890).  It  has  iron-foundries, 
and  manufactures  small-arms.    Pop.  21,000. 

Zmelnogorsk'  (ei  as  I),  a  town  of  Siberia,  350 
miles  SW.  of  Tomsk,  and  near  most  productive 
silver-mines.     Pop.  6000. 

Znaim  (Tzimne),  a  town  of  Moravia,  on  the 
Thaya,  63  miles  by  rail  N.  by  W.  of  Vienna,  with 
earthenware  manufactures.     Pop.  16,254. 

Zo'ar,  one  of  the  Biblical  'cities  of  the  plain,' 
spared  to  shelter  Lot  when  Sodom  and  the  others 
were  destroyed.  Conder  believes  he  can  fix  its 
site  to  the  NE.  of  the  Dead  Sea. 

Zo'ar,  a  village  of  Ohio,  on  the  Tuscarawas 
River  and  Ohio  Canal,  91  miles  by  rail  S.  of 
Cleveland.  Here  in  1853  was  founded  a  German 
socialistic  community.    Pop.  300. 

Zo'la,  a  town  on  the  upper  Benue  (q.v.). 

Zomba.    See  Nyassa. 

Zombor  (z  as  tz),  a  royal  free  town  of  Hungary, 
capital  of  the  district  of  Bacs,  42  miles  NE.  of 
Essek  by  rail.    Pop.  29,435. 

Zorndorf  (z  as  tz),  a  Brandenburg  village,  5 
miles  N.  of  Kiistrin,  where,  on  25th  August 
1758,  Frederick  the  Great  defeated  the  Russians. 

Zoutpansberg  ('  Salt-pan  Mountain '),  a  ridge 
of  mountains  (3000-4000  feet)  in  the  north-east  of 
the  Transvaal,  which  is  a  continuation  of  the 
Drakenberge  (q.v.). 

Zschopau  (Tcho'pow),  a  town  of  Saxony,  15 
nules  SE.  of  Chemnitz  by  rail.     Pop.  9869. 

Zug  (Tzoogh),  the  smallest  of  the  Swiss  cantons, 
with  an  area  of  92  sq.  m.  and  a  pop.  (1900)  of 
25,045— German-speaking  and  Catholic— Zug,  the 
picturesque  mediaeval  capital,  lies  at  the  NE.  end 
of  the  Lake  of  Zug(8|  x  2J  miles ;  1368  feet  above 
the  sea;  1320  deep),  24i  miles  S.  of  Zurich  by 
rail.  Eleven  persons  were  killed  here  in  July 
1887  by  the  fall  of  thirty  houses  into  the  lake. 
Pop.  6470. 

Zuider  Zee  (Zoi'der  Zay;  'Southern  Sea,'  as 
opposed  to  the  North  Sea),  a  large  gulf  pene- 
trating 60  miles  into  the  Netherlands,  and  210 
miles  in  circu?nference.  The  islands  Texel, 
Vlieland,  Terschelling,  Ameland,  and  Schiermon- 
nikoog,  reaching  in  a  chain  across  its  entrance, 
are  the  remains  of  the  former  coast-line,  which 
in  1282  was  broken  by  the  sea,  the  waters  over- 
flowing the  low  lands  between  Friesland  and 
North  Holland,  uniting  with  the  small  inland 
lake  Flevo,  and  forming  the  present  Zuider  Zee. 


In  it  lie  the  islands  Wieringen,  Urk,  Schok- 
land,  and  Marken.  From  the  south-west  of  the 
Zuider  Zee  a  long  narrow  arm,  called  the  Y 
(pronounced  /),  formerly  ran  nearly  due  Avest, 
through  the  peninsula  of  Holland.  A  strong  sea- 
dyke  and  locks  have  been  constructed  to  cut  off 
the  Zuider  Zee  from  the  Y,  through  which  a 
broad  ship-canal  has  been  made  between  Amster- 
dam and  the  North  Sea.  On  both  sides  of  the 
new  canal  the  Y  has  been  drained  and  turned 
into  about  12,000  acres  of  rich  land.  The  new 
waterway  was  formally  opened  by  the  king  in 
1876.  In  1892-94  a  royal  commission  drew  up  a 
scheme  to  drain  the  Zee  and  reclaim  some  750 
sq.  m.  at  a  cost  of  £26,000,000.  See  Havard, 
Dead  Cities  of  the  Zvyder  Zee  (trans.  1876). 

Zululand,  a  British  protectorate  of  8900  .sq.  m. 
north  of  Natal,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  the 
Tugela  River,  and  extending  to  the  coast  at 
St  Lucia  Bay.  It  is  well  suited  for  agriculture 
and  cattle  raising ;  gold  is  worked  ;  and  silver, 
lead,  copper,  tin,  asbestos,  and  coal  are  found. 
The  protectorate  is  but  a  small  part  of  the 
country  (now  largely  absorbed  in  the  Transvaal) 
ruled  over  by  the  warlike  Zulus,  a  Kaffir  tribe. 
War  was  declared  between  Britain  and  their 
chief  Cetewayo  in  1878,  the  chief  features  of 
which  were  the  British  disaster  of  Isandula  (22d 
January  1879),  the  heroic  defence  of  Rorke's 
Drift,  and  the  British  victory  of  Ulundi  (4th  July 
1880).  After  difficulties  with  the  Boers,  what 
remained  of  Zululand  was  declared  a  British  pro- 
tectorate in  1887,  and  in  1898  it  was  made  an 
integral  part  of  Natal.  See  books  by  Jenkinson 
(1882),  Miss  Colenso  (1885),  Tyler  (1892),  and 
Gibson  (1904). 

Zumbo.    See  Zambesi. 

Zunga'ria,  or  Dzungaria,  a  high  mountain 
region  of  Chinese Tartary,  between  the  Tianshan 
and  the  western  Altai  Mountains.  Originally  the 
country  of  the  Zungars,  a  Kalmuck  people,  it  is 
now  inhabited  by  Dungans,  Kalmucks,  Chinese, 
and  Kirghiz.  It  contains  the  sources  of  the  Black 
Irtish  and  the  Hi.    See  Kulja. 

Zurich  (Zoo'rik;  Ger.  Ziirich,  pron.  nearly 
Tsee'rihh),  a  northern  Swiss  canton,  drained  by 
the  Rhine,  and  traversed  from  NW.  to  SE.  by 
lofty  hills,  between  which  lie  the  three  valleys  of 
the  Toss,  Glatt,  and  Limmat.  The  last  drains 
the  beautiful  Lake  of  Zurich,  which,  lying  1341 
feet  above  sea-level,  is  25  miles  long  and  2^  miles 
broad  at  the  widest.  Area,  666  sq.  m.  ;  pop., 
German-speaking  and  Protestant,  (1870)284,786; 
(1900)  430,336. 

Zurich,  the  capital,  41  miles  by  rail  NNE.  of 
Lucerne  and  43  NW.  of  Glarus,  is  situated  at  the 
point  where  the  Limmat  issues  from  the  Lake  of 
Zurich.  It  is  one  of  the  most  prosperous  manu- 
facturing and  commercial  towns  of  Switzerland, 
yet  Avith  narrow  streets  and  lofty  houses  in  its 
older  quarters.  Of  the  Romanesque  cathedral, 
erected  in  the  11th  and  13th  centuries,  Zwingli 
was  pastor,  as  Lavater  was  of  the  Peterskirche. 
The  university,  founded  in  1832,  has  nearly  100 
teachers  and  more  than  900  students;  the  famous 
Polytechnic  has  1500  students,  and  has  served  as 
model  for  many  such  institutions  ;  and  one  may 
also  notice  the  town-hall  (1699),  the  botanic 
gardens,  the  six  bridges,  and  the  town  library 
with  over  100,000  volumes  and  3000  MSS.  Fuseli 
was  a  native.    Pop.  (1870)  56,695  ;  (1901)  152,942. 

Zut'phen,  a  town  in  the  Dutch  province  of 
Guelderland,  on  the  Yssel,  here  joined  by  the 
Berkel,  18  miles  NNE.  of  Arnhem  by  rail.  Of 
buildings  the  chief  are  the  Great  Church  (1103 ; 


ZUYDER  ZEE 


762 


ZYRIANOVSK 


restored  1857)  and  the  'Wijn  Huis  tower.  At 
Rysselt,  3  miles  N.,  is  a  boys'  reformatory  (1851). 
Zutphen  has  manufactures  of  paper,  oil,  leather, 
&c.  It  has  been  several  times  besieged ;  and  in 
a  skirmish  on  the  field  of  Warnsfeld,  to  the  E., 
Sir  Philip  Sidney  received  his  death-wound,  2d 
October  1586.     Pop,  18,400. 

Zuyder  Zee.    See  Zuider  Zee. 

Zvenigorod'ka,  a  Russian  town  100  miles  S.  of 
Kieff;  pop.  16,350. 

Zvornlk,  a  fortified  town  of  Bosnia,  on  the 
Drina,  60  miles  NE.  of  Sarajevo  ;  pop.  4500. 

Zvreibriicken  (Tzvl'breek-en ;  Fr.  Deux-ponts), 
an  ancient  duchy,  now  in  the  Bavarian  Palatin- 
ate. Its  old  capital,  Zweibriicken  (Lat.  Bipon- 
tinum),  45  miles  by  rail  W.  of  Landau,  has  a 
large  castle  (now  a  court-house)  and  many  busy 
manufactories.     Pop.  13,534. 

Zwellendam,  or  Swellendam,  capital  of  a 
southern  division  of  Cape  Colony,  125  miles 
ESE.  of  Capetown  ;  pop.  3200. 

Zwickau  (Tzvik'ow),  a  picturesque  manufac- 
turing city  of  Saxony,  near  a  rich  coalfield,  on 


the  left  bank  of  the  Mulde,  82  miles  by  rail  SW. 
of  Dresden.  The  Gothic  Marienkirche  dates 
from  1451,  and  has  a  tower  285  feet  high.  The 
old  castle  has  been  converted  into  a  prison. 
Pop.  (1875)  31,491  ;  (1905,  with  suburbs)  63,870. 

Zwittau  (Tzvit'tow),  a  town  in  the  extreme 
north  of  Moravia,  40  miles  N.  of  Brunn  by  I'ail. 
Pop.  6351. 

ZwoUe  (Zwol'ley),  capital  of  the  Dutch  prov- 
ince of  Overyssel,  on  the  Zwarte  Water,  50  miles 
E.  by  N.  of  Amsterdam.  Besides  a  busy  transit 
trade  it  has  foundries,  shipyards,  &c.  Close  by 
is  Agnetenberg,  in  whose  monastery  Thomas  a 
Kempis  lived  and  died.    Pop.  (1905)  32,380. 

Zwyndrecht  (Zwine-drehht),  a  small  town  of 
South  Holland,  on  a  branch  of  the  Maas,  opposite 
Dort ;  pop.  5500. 

Zwyndrecht,  a  western  suburb  of  Antwerp, 
with  a  strong  fort. 

Zyrianovsk',  a  town  in  a  rich  silver  district, 
near  the  S.  frontier  of  Siberia,  lies  among  the 
slopes  of  the  Altai  Mountains,  on  a  head-stream 
of  the  Irtish  ;  pop.  4500. 


763 


ETYMOLOGY  OF  PLACE-NAMES. 


The  following  are  the  more  important  significant  syllables  or  words  that  enter 
into  the  composition  of  the  names  (especially  British)  of  rivers,  mountains, 
towns,  &c. : 


A  (A.S.  ed,  Ice.  -aa),  'a  stream ;'  as  Greta,  Thurso 

('  Thor's  stream '), 
Abad  (Pers.  and  Sans.),  '  a  dwelling  ; '  as  Hyder- 

abacl,  Allahabad. 
Aber  (Celt.), 'a  confluence,' 'an  embouchure;' 

as  AberMdy,  Aberdeen,  ^fterystwith.     [Practi- 
cally synonymous  with  Inver.] 
Achadh.    See  Auch. 
Ain  (Heb.),  '  a  fountain  ; '  as  Engedi. 
Ak  (Turk.),  'white  ;'  as  ^4fc-serai,  '  white  palace.' 
All  (Gael.),  '  white  ; '  Al-ian, '  white  water,'  so  the 

rivers  Allen,  Ellen,  Aln,  Lune,  Alliven,  Elwin. 
Alt  (Gael.),  '  a  stream  ; '  as  ^i^J-an-Thearna. 
Ar,  found  in  many  river-names;  as  Aire,  Ayr, 

Aar,   Arro,   Arrow,   Arve.    [Ety,   dub.,  perh. 

conn,  with  Sans,  ara,  '  swift,' '  flowing ; '  perh. 

with  Celt,  garw,  'violent.'] 
Ard  (Celt.),  'high;'  as  ^rdoch,  ^irdrie,  Ard- 

rossan,  Ardglass,  Arden,  Ardennes. 
Ath  (Ir.  and  Gael.),  'a  ford;'  as  Athlone,  Ath- 

truim  (now  Trim). 
Auch  (Gael.),  Agh  (Ir.),  '  a  tield  ; '  as  Auchinleck, 

Aghinver,  Agh&doe. 
Auchter  (Gael.),  '  summit ;'  as  Auchtera,rder. 
Avon  (Celt.),  '  a  river ; '  as  Avon,  Aven,  Aisne, 

Inn,  Ain,  Vienne. 
Ay.    See  Ey. 

Bab  (Ar.),  '  a  gate  ;'  as  5a5-el-mandeb,  .Ba&-el. 
Bach.    See  Beck. 

Bad  (Tent.),  'a  bath  ;'  as  Bath,  Baden,  Carls&ad. 
Bahia  (Port.),  'a  bay.' 

Bahr  (Ar.),  '  a  sea,  lake,  or  river  ; '  as  Bahrein. 
Bally  (Ir.  and  Gael.),  'a  village'  or  'town ;'  as 

Ballymore,  jBoZbriggan,  jBahnoral. 
Ban  (Celt.),   '  white  ; '  as    Banna,,    Banon  ;    the 

rivers  Ben,  Bann,  Bandon,  Banney,  &c. 
Beck   (Scand.),    Bach   (Teut.),    'a    brook;'   as 

Holbeck,  Lauter&ac/i. 
Bedd  (W.),  '  a  grave  ; '  as  Beddgelevt. 
Beg,  Bihan  (Celt.),  'little;'  as  Ballybeg,  Mor- 

Mhan. 
Ben  (Gael.),    'mountain,'  Pen   (Welsh),    'head- 
land,' 'hilltop;'  as  Ben  Nevis,  Ben   Lomond, 

The  Twelve   Pins,   Bangor;    Pen,   Peunigant, 

Pe?izance,  Pennine  Alps,  Apennines,  Pijidus. 
Berg,  Borough  (A.S.  beorh),  'a  hill;'  as  Ingle- 

borough,     Flamborough     Head,     Queens&erry, 

Browbersr  Hill,  Kouigsberg,  Bergen.    [From  the 

same  root  as  Burgh  (below).] 
Beth  (Heb.),  'a  house  ; '  as  Bethel  (liouse  of  God). 
Blair  (Gael.),  'a  plain,'  orig.  'a  battlefield ;' as 

Blair  Athole.  ^ 

Boca  (Span.),  '  a  mouth.' 
Bottle  or  Battle,  Battel  (Teut.),  '  a  dwelling ;  * 

as  "Newbattle,  VfoUenbiittel, 
Broad  (E.),  as  .Braddon,  .Bradshaw,  Bradford. 
Bred  (Slav.),  'a  ford.' 
Brunn  (Ger.),  'a  spring;'  as  Salzbrunn,  Pader- 

born. 
Bryn  (W.),  '  a  hill-ridge  ;'  as  Brown- Willy. 
Burgh,  Borough,  Bury  (Teut.),'  a  fortified  place,' 


'  a  town  ; '  as  'Edinburgh,  Feterborongh,  Shrews- 
bury,  Hamburg,  Cherbourg,  C&risbrook,  BxirgoB. 
[A.S.  byrig,  Ger.  burg.] 

Bum  (N.  Eng.  and  Scot.),  'a  brook;'  as  Burn- 
foot,  Black6?<ni,,  Tyftwra,  Eastbourne. 

By  (Scand.),  'a  dwelling,'  '  a  town  ;'  as  Der6j/, 
Rugby,  Whitbi/,  Elboeujf. 

Caer,  Cader  (W.),  Caher  (Ir.),  'fortified  in- 
closure  ; '  as  Coerleon,  Caernarvon,  Cardigan, 
Carlisle,  Cader-Idris,  Sanquhar,  Carlingford. 

Cam  (Celt.),  'crooked;'  as  Cam,  Ca?)ibeck, 
Cambuskenneth,  Moreca??ibe  Bay,  Cambrai. 

Carn  (Celt.),  '  a  heap  of  stones.' 

Caster,  Chester,  Cester(— L.  castra),  *  a  camp;' 
as  Doncasier,  Chester,  Wincftester,  Leicester. 

Ceann  (Gael.),  '  a  head  or  promontory  ; '  as  Kin- 
tyre,  Kinghorn,  JTeTimare. 

Cefn  (Celt.),  'a  ridge;'  as  Ce/ncoed,  Chevin, 
Keynton,  Chevington,  Cheviot,  Cevennes. 

Cheap  and  Chipping  (A.S.  ceap),  'price,'  'a 
market ; '  as  Chipping-liJorton,  Chepstow, 
Cheapside,  Copenhagen  (Dan.  Kjoben-havn, 
'  merchants'  haven '). 

Civita  (It.),  Ciudad  (Sp.),  '  a  city ;  *  as  Civita 
Vecchia  ('  old  city ')  ;  Ciudad  Rodrigo  ('city  of 
Roderick  ').     [From  L.  civitas.] 

Clach,  Cloch  (Gael.),  'a  stone;*  as  Clogher. 

Clyd  (Celt.),  '  warm,'     )  as  Clyde,  Cluden,  Clwyd, 

Clyth  (Celt.),  '  strong,' )     Cloyd,  &c. 

Cnoc  (Gael.),  '  a  knoll,  hill ; '  as  Knockmeledovin. 

Coed  (Celt.),  '  a  wood  ; '  Cotewold  Hills,  CTiaimoss. 

Coin  (from  L.  colonia),  '  a  colony ; '  as  Lincoln, 
Colne,  Cologne  (Koln). 

Combe  (A.S.),  Cwm  or  Cum  (Celt.),  'a  hollow 
between  hills ; '  as  Wycombe,  Compton,  The 
Coombs,  Como. 

Craig,  Carrick,  Crag  (Celt.), '  a  rock ;'  as  Cratgrie, 
Crathie,  Carrick,  Carricktergvis,  Crick,  Crick- 
lade,  Croafir/i-Patrick. 

Dagh  (Turk.),  '  a  mountain ; '  as  Karadagh. 

Dal  (Scand.),  Thai  (Ger.),  Dail  and  Dol  (Celt.), 
'  a  dale,'  '  a  field  ; '  as  Liddesdaie,  Hydal, 
Kendal,. Arundel,  Bheinthal ;  (in  Celtic  names 
prefixed)  Dairy,  Dalkeith,  DoZgelly. 

Dar  (Ar.),  'a  dwelling  district;'  as  Darfur, 
Diarbekr. 

Den  or  Dean  (Teut.),  '  a  deep  wooded  valley ; '  as 
Tenterde?i,  Southdean,  Hazeldean,  De7?holTn. 

Don  or  Dan  (derivation  not  ascertained), '  water ; ' 
as  the  Don,  Bandon,  Dun,  Tyne,  Tone;  so  in 
the  Dniester,  Dnieper,  Tanais,  Donetz,  Dwina. 

Dorf.    See  Thorpe. 

Dour  (Celt.),  'water;'  as  the  Dour,  Adour, 
Douro,  Dore,  Thur,  Doro,  Adder,  Derwent, 
Darwin,  Darent,  Dart,  Dorchester,  Dordogne. 

Drum  and  Drom  (Celt.),  '  a  backbone,'  '  a  ridge  ;* 
as  Dromore,  Drnmmond,  Anghrim,  Leitrim. 

Du  (Celt.),  '  black  ; '  as  the  Douglas  ;  the  rivers 
Didas,  Doitlas,  and  prob.  Dee;  Dublin  ('dark 
pool '). 

Dun  (Gael.),  Dinas,  Din  (Welsh),  'a hill  fortress;' 


764 


as  Dunmore,  Dwnblane,  Diuikeld,  Dumbarton, 

Dumfries,  Dwnstable,  Dunmow,  Doioti- Patrick, 

Donegal,  Liondon,  Yerdun,  Lioyden,  Dinant. 
Dysart  (Celt.— L.  desertum),  'a  hermitage  ;' as 

Dysart,  Dysertmore. 
Ea,  Ey  (A.S.  ig,  Ice.  ey,  Norw.  and  Dan.  6),  'an 

island ; '  as  Swansea,  £ton,  Jersey,  Rothesay, 

Staffa,  Faroe. 
Eccles,  Egles  (like  Fr.  eglise,  through  L.,  from 

Gr.  ekklesia),   '  a  church  ; '  as  Eccleslon,  Ecde- 

fechan,  lexvegUs. 
Elf,  Elv  (Goth.),  '  a  river,'  as  Elbe. 
Ermak  (Turk.),  '  a  river  ; '  as  Kizil-ermtifc. 
Esk  (Gael,  and  Ir.  easg  [obs.]  or  uisge,  W.  wysg), 

'  water  ; '  as  the  Eslc,  Vsk,  Esky,  Ise,  £aseburn, 

^s/ibourne,  Iz,  Isis,  Exe,  Ux,  Ouse,  Wisk,  Wis, 

Ischial,,  /sere,  ^tsiie,  Auxonue,  Oise. 
Eski  (Turk.),  '  old." 
Fell  (Scand.  fjeld),  '  a  mountain  ;  *  as  Carter/eZ^, 

Go&tfell,   Sna/ei,   Yiiful  Head  (corn   of  Hvit- 

Fell,  '  white  mountain '). 
Fiord  or  Fjord  (Scand.),  'a  creek  or  firth;'  as 

Water/ord,  haxjirth,  Liymfiord. 
Fleet  (Scand.  fleot,  B.  flood),  '  a  small  river '  or 

'  channel ; '  as  Fnrfleet ;  found  in  Normandy  as 

fleiir,  as  Har/ettr  (anciently  'R&rvofl^te). 
Folk  (A.S.),  '  people ; '  as  Nor/oi/c  ('  north  people '), 

Suf/oZfc  ('  south  people  '). 
Ford  (A.S.),  'a  shallow  passage  over  a  river;'  as 

Chelms/ord,    See  also  Fiord. 
Fors,  Foss  (Scand.),  'a  waterfall  ;'as  Wilber/orce. 
Garth   (Scand.),    '  yard  ;' Gored,  Grod,  Grade, 

Gratz  (Slav.),  '  inclosure,'  '  town ;'  asStuttgrar^, 

Novgrorod  (=  Newton),  Belgrade  (=  Whitton), 

Koniggrdfz  (=  Kingston). 
Garw(Celt.),  '  rough  ;' hence  Garonne,  Garioch, 

Farrow,  Yair,  possibly  Garry. 
Gate(Teut.),  'a passage'  or  '  road  ; '  as  Canong^ate, 

Harrowgraie,  Reigraie  (  =Ridgegra<e),  Cattegraf. 
Gehel,  Jebel  (Ar.),  'a  mountain;'  as  Gibraltar, 

Je6e^Mukattam. 
Glen  (Gael.),  Glyn  (W.),  '  a  narrow  valley ; '  as 

Glencoe,  Glenga,rry,  Glyne&th,  Gtamorgan. 
Gorm    (Gael.),    'blue;'    as    Cairngrorm,   kingfODi 

('  blue  point '),  corrupted  to  Kinghorn. 
Gorod,  Grod  (Slav.).    See  Garth. 
G'went(Celt.),  'a  plain  ;'  Latinised  into  venta,  as 

Venta  Belgarum  (now  IFiiichester),  Caerweri^ 
Gwy.    See  Wy. 

Halen  (Celt.),  'salt;'  as  Hallein,  Haling. 
Hall  (Tent.), '  a  stone  house  ;'  as  Eccleshall,  'Wal- 
sall ;  (in  Germany)  a  saW- work,  as  Halle. 
Ham  (A.S.,  Ger.  helm),  'a  home;'  as  Bucking- 

Mm,  Hochheim. 
Hay,  Haigh  (Teut.),  'a  place  surrounded  by  a 

hedge;'  as  Rothwell  Haigh,  the  Hague. 
Hlssar  (Turk.),  'a  castle." 
Hithe    (A.S.),    'haven;'    as    Hythe,    Lambeth  = 

Loa.m.-hithe  ('  the  clayey  haven '), 
Ho  (Chin.),  'river  ;'  as  Peifto. 
Hoang,  Whang  (Chin.),  'yellow;'  as  Hoangho, 

Whang-'H.a,!. 
Holm   (Scand.,    &c.),    'an  island   in  a  lake  or 

river;'   'a  plain  near  a  river;'  as  Lang/ioZm, 

Stockholm,  Flatholm. 
Holt  (Teut.),  'a  wood;'  as  Bagshot,  AldersTiof, 

Holstein. 
Horn  (Teut.),   'a  peak;'  as  Schreckhorn  ('the 

peak  of  terror'),  Matter /loru  ('meadow-peak'). 
Hurst  (A.S.  hyrst),  'a  wood  ;'  as  Lynd/mrsi. 
Ing  (A.S.),  a  suffix  denoting  son,  in  pi.  '  a  family ' 

or  'tribe;'  as  Warring^ton  ('the  town  of  the 

Warrings '),  Haddt?igrton. 
Innls  or  Ennis  (Celt.),  inch  in  Scotland,  an  island  ; 

as  Inchcolm.  ('  the  island  of  St  Columba ') ;  En- 

wiskillen,  Enmsvaaxe,  in  Ireland. 


Inver  (Gael.),  'the  mouth  of  a  river;'  as  Inver- 
ness,  Diveraray,  /wwerleithen. 

Kalat  (Ar.),  'a  castle  ;'  as  CaKagirone. 

Kara  (Turk.),  'black;'  as  ii'arakum  ('black 
sand '),  Kara  Hissar  ('  black  castle  '). 

Kenn  (Gael.),  Kin  (Ir.),  'a  head;'  as  A'enmore, 
Ga/itire,  Ai?inaird,  Kinross,  Kins&\e,  Kent. 

Kil  (Celt.),  L.  cella,  'a  cell,'  'a  chapel,'  or 
'church;'  as  Jftkonquhar  in  Fife,  'the  chapel 
at  the  head  (cean)  of  the  fresh-water  lake 
(iuchair) ; '  Icolmkill, '  the  island  (/)  of  Columba 
of  the  church.' 

Kin.    See*  Ceann. 

Kirk  (North  E.  and  Scand.),  Kirche  (Ger.),  Kerk 
(Dutch) ;  as  Selkirk,  Kirkwall,  if irArcud bright, 
iTirc/iheim,  Fiinf/circ/ie/i,  Nijfcerfc,  Dunfcer^we 
(Dunkirk). 

Kizil(Turk.),  'red.' 

Knock.    See  Cnoc. 

Koi  (Turk.),  'a  village.' 

Lax  (Scand.  ;  Ger.  lachs),  'a  salmon;'  as  Loch 
Laxford  in  Sutherland ;  the  Lax&y  in  the  Heb- 
rides and  in  Man  ;  iaa;weir  on  the  Shannon. 

Leamhan  (Ir.  and  Gael. ;  pron.  lavawn),  '  the 
elm-tree  ;'  as  hi  Ixven,  Lennox,  Laune. 

Ley  (A.S,  leah),  'a meadow;'  H&dleigh,  Waterloo. 

Linn  (Celt.), '  a  Avaterfall ;'  as  Lynn  Regis  in  Nor- 
folk ;  Roslin,  'the  promontory  (ross)  at  the  fall.' 

Lis  (Celt.),  'an  inclosure,'  *a  fort,'  'a  garden  ;'  as 
Lismore  ('  the  great  inclosure '  or  '  garden '). 

Llan  (W.),  'an  inclosure,'  'a  church;'  as  Uan- 
daff  ('  the  church  on  the  Taff '). 

Llano  (Span.),  '  a  plain.' 

Loch,  Lough  (Gael.),  'a  lake.' 

Low  and  Law  (A.S.  Maw),  'a  rising  ground;' 
as  HounsZory,  LudZow,  and  numerous  laxvs  in 
Scotland.  [Cog.  with  Goth,  hlaiw,  and  allied 
to  L.  clivus,  a  slope,  and  E.  Lean,  v.] 

Magh  (Celt.),  'a  plain  ;'  as  Armagh,  Maynoofh. 

Mark  (Teut.),  'a  boundary;'  Denmarfc,  Mercia, 
Murcia.. 

Markt  (Ger.),  'a  market;'  as  Bibert?)iarA;i. 

Medina  (Arab.),  'a  city.' 

Mere,  Moor  (A.  S.),  'a  lake'  or  'marsh;'  as  Mer- 
sey, Black7ftore. 

Minster  (A.  S. ),  MUnster  (Ger. ), '  a  monastic  found- 
ation ; '  as  Westminister,  Neu??iii»ster. 

Mor(Celt.),  'great;'  Ben?ftore(' great  mountain'). 

Mor  (Celt.),  'the  sea;'  as  Mora.y,  Armorica, 
Morlaix,  Glamorgan,  jlforbihan. 

Mull  (Gael.),  'a  headland  ;'  as  Mull  of  Galloway. 

Nagy  (Hung.),  'great.' 

Nant  (Celt.),  'a  brook  or  valley ; '  as  A^a?i.<wich. 

Negro  (Span.),  '  black.' 

Ness  or  Naze  (Scand.),  '  a  nose '  or  '  promontory ; ' 
as  Caithness,  Sheer ?iess.  Cape  Grisnez;  the  Naze. 

Ochter.    See  Auchter. 

Oe.     See  Ea. 

Old,  Eld,  Alt  (Teut.),  'old;'  as  Althorit,  Elton, 
jB^ham,  ^Mbury,  ^bury. 

Patam  (Sans.),  '  a  city  ; '  Seringapaiam,  Patna. 

Peak,  Pike  (conn,  with  Ger.  spitz,  Fr.  pic  and 
puy),  '  point ;'  as  the  Peak,  the  Pikes  in  Cumber- 
land, Spitebergen,  Pic  du  Midi,  Puy  de  Dome. 

Peel  (Celt.),  'a  stronghold  ;'  as  Peel  in  Man,  and 
numerous  peels  on  the  Border  of  Scotland. 

Pen.    See  Ben. 

Polls  (Gr.), '  a  city  ;'  as  Grenoble,  'Na.bloiis,  Na.ple3, 
Sehastopol,  Constantino;)?e. 

Pont  (L.),  'a  bridge  ;'  as  Poniefract,  "i^egropont. 

Poor,  Pore,  Pur  (Sans,  pura),  'a  town  ;'  as  Nag- 
pur,  Cawnpore,  Singa^jore. 

Port  (L.  Portus),  '  a  harbour ; '  as  South^jor^. 

Ras  (Ar.),  '  a  cape  ;'  as  i?as-al-had. 

Rath  (Ir.),  '  a  round  earthen  fort ; '  as  Rathmore. 

Rhe,  a  root  found  in  many  languages,  meaning  _ 


V65 


'to  flow;'  as  iJ/iine,  Mone,  RJia,,  Reno,  Rye, 
Ray,  Rhee,  Wrey,  Roe,  Rae. 

Ridge,  in  Scotland  Rigg  (A.S.  hrycg,  Ger,  riicken), 
'a  back  ;'  as  ReigaXe,  Rugeley,  hongridge. 

Rin  (Celt.),  'a  point  of  land  ;'  Rhinns  of  Gallo- 
way ;  Fenrhyn  in  Wales,  Ringsend  near  Dublin. 

Ross  (Celt.),  'a  promontory;'  Kinross,  Mel- 
rose, iJosneath ;  in  S.  Ireland,  a  wood,  as  Ros- 
common. 

Salz  (Ger.),  '  salt." 

Scale  (Scand.),  'a  hut '(Scot,  shieling;  Ice.  sTcali); 
Fortinscale,  and  possibly  Shields,  GsAashiels, 
Selkirk. 

Scar  (Scand.), '  a  cliff;'  Scarborough,  the  Skerries. 

Schloss  (Ger.),  '  a  castle.' 

Serai  (Turk.),  'a  palace.' 

Set(A.S.), '  a  seat,' '  a  settlement ;'  Dorset,  Somer- 
set, Ambleside,  Sedlitz. 

Sex,  'Saxons;'  as  Essex  ('East  Saxons'),  Sussex 
('  South  Saxons '). 

Sierra  (Sp. — L.  serra),  'a  saw;'  or  from  Ar. 
sehrah,  '  an  uncultivated  tract.' 

Slievh  (Ir.  ;  allied  to  L.  clivus,  a  slope),  '  a  moun- 
tain ;'  as  Slievh  Beg. 

South  is  found  in  Suffolk,  Sussex,  South&m-pton, 
Sutherland,  Sutton,  Sudhnry,  Sudley. 

Stadt.    See  Stead. 

Stan  (Pers.),  'a  land;'  Hinduston,  Afghaniston. 

Staple  (A. S.),  'a  store;'  Dunstable,  Barnstaple. 

Stead  (A.S.),  Stadt  (Ger.),  Sted  (Dan.),  '  a  town  ;' 
as  Hamps^ead,  Neustod^,  Nysted. 

Ster  (Scand.  stadhr),  '  a  place ;'  as  Ulster. 

Stoc,  Stow  (A.S.), '  a  stockaded  place ;'  as  Bris^ow 
or  Bristol,  Elstow,  Tavistocfc,  Stockholm. 

Stone  (Ger.  stein),  'a  stone,'  'a  rock;'  as  Stan- 
ton, Staines,  Eddysfone,  Stennis,  Franken- 
stein. 

Stow.    See  Stoc. 

Strath  (Gael.),  'a  broad  valley  ;'  as  StrathmorQ. 

Street  (L,  stratum),  'a  Roman  road;'  Stratiord, 
Stratton,  Streatham. 

Su  (Turk.),  '  water ;'  as  Karasw. 


Tain  (Gael.),  'a  river  ; '  as  the  Tyne,  prob.  a  form 

of  Don. 
Tarn  (Celt.),  'still,'  'smooth;'  as  the  TAamesls 

('  smooth  Isis '),  the  Tenia,  Tame,  Tamar,  Tay. 
Thorpe  (Norse),  Dorf  (Ger.),  Dorp  (Dut.)  'a  vil- 
lage;' as  Bmnham-Thorpe,  Keythorpe,  Diissel- 

dorf,  Middeldorp, 
Thwaite  (Scand.),  '  a  clearing ;'  as  Crossthwaite. 
Tobar  (Gael.),  '  a  fountain  ; '  as  To&ermory. 
Toft  (Dan.),  'an  inclosure;'  as  Lowes(o/<,  Ive<o^ 
Tom  (Celt.),  'a  knoll ;'  as  Tomintoul. 
Ton,  Town,  Tun  (A.S.),  'inclosure,'  'town;'  the 

most  common  of  English  local  suffixes. 
Tor  (Celt. ;  found  in  L.   turris),   '  a  tower-like 

rock  ;'  as  the  Tors  in  England;  Mount  Tawrus. 
Tre  (W.),    'a  dwelling;'  as  Tretown,  Ck)\entry 

('convent-dwelling'),  Oswestry,  UchiUre. 
Uchel(W.),  'high;'  Uachter  (Gael.),  'a  height;' 

as  the  Ochil  Hills,  Oc7i.iZtree,  Auchter&rder. 
Var,  Varad  (Hung.),  '  a  fortress  ;'  as  Nagy-rarad. 
Varos  (Hung.),  'a  town  ;'  as  Ujvaros. 
Ville(Fr.— L.  villa).  Villa  (It.,  Span,,  Port.),  Well 

(Eng.),    'an    abode;'    as   'Y&nkerville,    Yeovil, 

Vottsville,  KettlewsZ^,  "Br&dwell,  Maxwellton. 
Wady    (Ar.),    'a    river-course   or    ravine;'    as 

Guadalquivir. 
Wall,  found  in  many  names  of  places  on  the 

Roman  wall  from  Newcastle  to  Carlisle ;   as 

Wallsend,  Walllxead. 
Weald,  Wold  (Ger.  wald),  'a  wood;'  Walthsm, 

Walden,  the  Gotsioolds;  SchwarzimM  ('Black 

Forest '). 
Whang.    See  Hoang. 
Wick,  Wich  (A.S.  wic,  'a  village;'  Scand.  vig, 

'  a  bay '  or  '  creek  ; '  Dutch,  wijk)  ;  as  Alniwicfc, 

Sandwicft,  Noordwijfc. 
Worth  (A.S.  weorthig),  'a  farm'  or  'estate;'  as 

T&n\worth,  Kenilwor</i,  Boswor^Ti,  Worthing. 
Wy  or  Gwy  (W.),  '  water ;'  as  the  Wye;  used  as 

affix  to  many  streams,  as  Conway,  Medwa?/, 

^olway. 
Yen!  (Turk.),  'new.' 


CONVERSION  OF  KILOMETRES  AND  MILES. 


KILOMETRES  INTO  MILES. 

Kilom.                    Miles.  Yds. 

i 0  273 

} 0  547 

% 0  830 

1 0  1094 

2 1  427 

8 1  1521 

4 2  855 

5 3  188 

6 3  1282 

7 4  615 

8 4  1709 

9 5  1048 

10 6  376 

20 12  753 

30 18  1129 

40 24  1505 

50 31  122 

60 o 37  498 

70 43  874 

80 49  1251 

90 55  1627 

100 62  243 

200 124  487 

800 186  730 

400 248  973 

500 310  1217 


MILES  INTO  KILOMETRES. 

Miles.  Kiloin.  Metres. 

i 0  402 

h 0  805 

1 1  207 

1 1  609 

2 3  219 

3 4  828 

4 6  437 

5 8  47 

6.. 9  056 

7 11  265 

8 12  875 

9 14  484 

10 16  93 

20 32  186 

30 48  279 

40 64  873 

50 80  466 

60 96  559 

70 112  652 

80 128  745 

90 144  838 

100 160  931 

200 321  863 

300 482  794 

400 643  726 

500 804  657 


766 


DIFFERENCES  OF  TIME 

BETWEEN  LONDON  (GREENWICH)  AND  VARIOUS 
IMPORTANT  PLACES  ON  THE  GLOBE. 

When  it  is  twelve  o'clock  noon,  in  Greenwich 
mean  time,  the  hour  (local  time)  is  as  follows  at : 

Hours.  Min. 

Amsterdam 12  20  p.m. 

Auckland,  New  Zealand 11  39  p.m. 

Berlin 1  53  p.m. 

Bombay 4  51  p.m. 

Calcutta 5  53  p.m. 

Capetown 1  14  p.m. 

Constantinople 1  56  p.m. 

Dublin 11  35  a.m. 

Edinburgh 11  47  a.m. 

Lisbon 11  24  a.m. 

Madrid 11  45  a.m. 

Melbourne 9  40  p.m. 

Naples 12  57  p.m. 

New  York 7  4  a.m. 

Paris 12  9  p.m. 

Peking 7  46  p.m. 

Quebec 7  15  a.m. 

Rome 12  50  p  m. 

St  Petersburg 2  1  p.m. 

San  Francisco 4  23  a.m. 

Sydney 10  5  p.m. 

Trieste 12  55  p.m. 

Venice 12  50  pji. 

Vienna 1  6  p.m. 

The  difference  is  at  the  rate  of  4  minutes  for  one 
degree  of  longitude,  or  one  hour  for  15°.  Time  is 
earlier  or  later  than  Greenwich  according  as  the 
locality  is  east  or  west  of  Greenwich.  Places 
lying  close  together,  but  on  different  sides  of  the 
longitude  line  of  180°,  differ  nominally  by  a  whole 
day  in  time. 

Following  the  example  of  the  United  States, 
all  countries  are  gradually  adopting  Standard 
Time.  By  this  is  meant  time  which  differs  from 
Greenwich  mean  time  by  whole  hours.  The 
globe  is  divided  into  zones  of  15°  or  one  hour 
breadth,  the  Greenwich  meridian  being  in  the 
centre  of  the  zero  zone.  Thus  Belgium  and 
Holland  keep  Greenwich  time ;  Denmark,  Sweden, 
Switzerland,  Austria,  and  Germany  (Prussia 
temporarily  excepted)  keep  the  time  of  Mid- 
Europe,  or  of  longitude  15°  E.— i.e.  one  hour 
earlier  than  Greenwich.  In  North  America  again 
five  zones  are  distinguished.  Halifax  falls  within 
the  time  zone  of  60°  W.  long,  or  four  hours  later 
than  Greenwich ;  Montreal  and  New  York  fall 
within  the  zone  of  75°  or  five  hours  west  of 


Greenwich ;  and  so  on  across  the  entire  con- 
tinent. New  York,  Chicago,  Denver,  and  San 
Francisco  may  be  mentioned  as  places  whose 
times  change  by  one  hour  as  we  pass  from  one  to 
the  next  succeeding.  The  corresponding  times 
are  distinguished  as  Eastern  (67^— 82^°),  Central 
(82^97^°),  Mountain  (97^— 112^.  and  Pacific 
(112^ — 127^°)  times.  Standard  time  in  Japan  is 
nine  hours  earlier  than  Greenwich  time. 


THE  EARTH, 

ITS  DIMENSIONS,  MASS,  DISTRIBUTION  OF  SURFACE 
DISTANCE  FROM  THE  SUN,  &C. 

Meridional  circumference 24,856  miles. 

Equatorial  circumference 24,899     n 

Equatorial  mean  diameter 7926-6     it 

Polar  (or  shortest)  diameter 7899*6     h 

Area  of  the  earth 197,000,000  sq.  miles. 

Water  surface  of  earth 141,000,000        u 

Land  surface  of  earth 56,000,000        n 

Volume  of  earth 260,000,000,000  cubic  miles. 

Mass  of  earth.  .6,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  tons. 
Mean  distance  from  the  sun 92,800,000  miles. 


POPULATION  OF  THE   EARTH 

ACCORDING  TO  WaONER  AND  SUPAN  : 

Europe  (without  Iceland,  Atlantic 

islands,  &c.) 357,379,000 

Asia  (without  the  Polar  Islands). . . .  825,954,000 

Africa  (without  Madagascar,  &c.) . . .  163,953,000 

America  (without  Polar  regions) 121,713,000 

Australia  and  Tasmania 3,230,000 

Oceanic  Islands 7,420,000 

Polar  Regions 80,000 

Total 1,479,729,000 

NUMBERS  PROFESSING  THE  CHIEF 
FAITHS  OP  THE  WORLD : 

Buddhists 500,000,000 

Hindus 160,000,000 

Mohammedans 155,000,000 

Confucians 80,000,000 

Adherents  of  Shintoism  (in  Japan). .      14,000,000 

Jews 7,000,000 

Christians- 
Roman  Catholics 152,000,000 

Greek  Catholics 75,000,000 

Other  Christians 100,000,000 

Various  Heathens 237,000,000 

Total 1,480,000,000 


767 


DISTANCES  FROM  LONDON  BY  RAIL, 


WITH  THE  APPROXIMATE 

Miles. 

Aix-la-Chapelle 389 

Basel 610i 

Belgrade 1382 

Berlin 744| 

Birmingham ." 112| 

Brindisi 1460 

Bristol 118 

Brussels 242 

Budapest 1165 

Cologne 382J 

Constantinople 2032 

Copenhagen 879i 

Dover 77i 

Dresden 822J 

Dublin 328 

Edinburgh 393 

Florence 1083| 

Frankfort 519J 

Glasgow 405 j 

Hanover 585^ 

Harwich 71 

Hull 173 

Leipzig 751 

Liverpool 201 


DURATION  OF  THE  JOURNEY  BY  EXPRESS. 

Miles. 

Lyons 608f 

Madrid 1168 

Manchester 187 

Marseilles 826i 

Milan 846^ 

Moscow 2131 

Munich 771 

Naples, 13531 

Newcastle 275 

Paris 288 

Penzance 828 

Pesth 1165 

Plymouth 246 

Portsmouth 74 

Rome 1192J 

St  Petersburg 1728 

Stockholm 1283| 

Strasburg 528 

Thurso 787 

Venice 1036i 

Vienna 991| 

Warsaw 1142i 

Yarmouth 122 

York 188 


Days 

Hrs. 

m 

.. 

m 

2 

2i 

.. 

22i 

n 

2 

11 

n 

8 

1 

17i 

13 

3 

4 

1 

101 

.. 

n 

1 

n 

.. 

m 

H 

1 

19i 

m 

8| 

18i 

,. 

2* 

.. 

4| 

23i 

.. 

44 

Days.  Hrs. 


1  13 

.  4i 

1  1 

1  6i 
3  llj 

1,  li 

2  1} 
..  51 
..  7J 
..  91 

1  17i 

..  6 

..  2| 

1  19 

2  19} 
2  3i 

..  19i 

..  21 

1  171 

1  Hi 

1  16^ 

..  3,V 

..  3} 


DISTANCES  BY  SEA  IN  NAUTICAL  MILES. 

(1  nautical  mile  =  1*151  statute  mile.) 


Brindisi  to 

tr  II 

II  II 

II  II 

II  II 

Dover  to 

II  II 

Gibraltar  to 

II  II 

Harwich  to 

II  II 

Hull  to 


Leith 


to 


Liverpool  to 

II         II 
London     to 


Alexandria 836 

Athens 482 

Constantinople 845 

Malta 360 

Smyrna 692 

Calais 23 

Ostend 60 

Malta 981 

Marseilles 694 

Port  Said 2,271 

Antwerp 122 

Hamburg 300 

Rotterdam 104 

Antwerp 240 

Christiania 582 

Hamburg 380 

Rotterdam 217 

Antwerp 440 

Hamburg 480 

Rotterdam 393 

Dublin 120 

New  York 2,980 

Quebec 2,708 

Adelaide 11,455 

Aden 4,965 

Alexandria 3,465 

Antwerp 184 

Bombay 6,629 

Calcutta 8,438 

Capetown 6,291 

Gibraltar 1,299 

Hamburg 433 

Hobart  (via  Cape) 11,951 


London  to  Hong-kong 10,154 

II  II  Madras 7,668 

II  II  Melbourne   (via   Brindisi 

and  Suez  Canal) 11,940 

II  „  PortSaid 8,570 

II  II  Rotterdam 192 

.1  II  Shanghai 11,024 

II  II  Singapore 8,717 

11  II  Sydney 12,500 

II  II  Wellington 18,345 

II  II  Yokohama 11,956 

Marseilles        to  Algiers 417 

II  II  Naples 468 

II  II  PortSaid   1,508 

Newcastle        to  Antwerp 843 

II  II  Hamburg 415 

11  II  Rotterdam 80S 

Newhaven        to  Dieppe 65 

New  York         to  Liverpool 2,980 

II  II  Queenstown .2,744 

II  II  Southampton 3,100 

San  Francisco  to  Auckland 5,900 

II  „  Honolulu 2,100 

11  II  Sydney 7,191 

II  II  Yokohama 4,750 

Southampton  to  Capetown 5,979 

I,  II  Gibraltar 1,008 

II  II  Havre 106 

n  II  Lisbon 862 

II  II  Madeira 1,212 

I,  II  Natal 6,789 

II  II  New  York 3,100 

II  II  Teneriffe 1,517 


the  passage  from  Sandy  Hook  to  Queenstown  and  to  Plymouth  was  repeatedly  made  in  from  20  to 
40  minutes  over  5  days  7  hours,  an  average  speed  of  over  23'50  knots. 


768 


DATES  OF  GEOGRAPHICAL  ENTERPRISE  AND  DISCOVERY. 


Hanno  the  Carthaginian  off  Sierra  Leone  B.C.  470 

Alexander  the  Great  in  the  Punjab 327 

Nearchus  in  the  Indian  Ocean 325 

Pytheas  of  Marseilles  in  British  Seas ....  320 

Megasthenes  at  Patna  on  the  Ganges 300 

Julius  Caesar  in  Britain 55 

Agricola  in  Britain a.d.  84 

Cosmas  Indicopleustes  in  India 550 

Sulaiman  (Arab)  in  India  and  China 9tb  c. 

Sindbad  the  Sailor  on  Indian  Coast 9th  c. 

Iceland  colonised  from  Norway 9th  c. 

Norsemen  in  Vinland  (America) 10th  c. 

Benjamin  of  Tudela  in  India,  &c 1160-73 

John  of  Carpini  at  Karakorum 1254 

Marco  Polo  at  the  Court  of  Kubla  Khan  1270 

Ibn  Batuta  in  Bokhara,  India,  China 1325-49 

H          II       in  Timbuctoo 1353 

Madeira  Islands  discovered 1418 

Cape  Bojador  doubled  by  Gil  Eannes 1433 

Diaz  discovers  Cape  of  Good  Hope 1486 

Columbus  discovers  Watling's  Island 1492 

II               II        Cuba  and  Hayti 1492 

II              II        Jamaica  and  Wind- 
ward Islands 1494 

Cabot  discovers  N.  American  Coast.. ....  1497 

Da  Gama  discovers  Cape  Passage 1497 

Columbus  discovers  S.  American  Coast...  1498 

Pinzon  at  the  Amazon 1499 

Cortez  in  Mexico 1519 

Magellan  in  the  Pacific 1520 

His  lieutenant  circumnavigates  world. . .  1519-22 

The  Portuguese  in  Abyssinia 1520 

Western  Australia  sighted  by  Portuguese  1522 

Pizarro  in  Peru 1532 

Cartier  at  Montreal 1535 

Portuguese  trade  with  Japan 1542 

Chancellor  in  the  White  Sea 1552 

Frobisher  in  Frobisher  Bay 1576 

Drake  circumnavigates  the  world 1577-80 

Davis  in  Davis  Strait 1587 

Hawkins  in  the  Pacific 1593 

Barentz  at  Nova  Zembla  and  Spitzbergen  1594 

Benedict  Goes  in  India  and  Central  Asia.  1603 

Champlain  at  Quebec 1608 

Hudson  in  Hudson  Bay 1610 


Baffin  in  Baffin  Bay 1616 

Dirk  Hartog  on  the  Australian  Coast ....        1616 

Russians  in  Siberia 1698 

Dampier  on  New  Guinea  Coast 1700 

Behring  in  Behring  Strait 1728 

Bruce  explores  Nile  and  Abyssinia 1768-73 

Cook  on  the  East  Coast  of  Australia 1770 

Kerguelen  at  Kerguelen  Laud 1771 

La  Perouse  in  Polynesia 1787 

Mungo  Park  on  the  Gambia 1795 

Humboldt  in  South  America 1799 

Mungo  Park  on  the  Niger 1805 

Steamship  first  crosses  the  Atlantic 1819 

Parry  at  Melville  Island 1820 

Bellinghausen  in  the  Antarctic 1821 

Ross  in  Boothia  Felix 1831 

Biscoe  in  the  Antarctic 1831 

Darwin  on  Beagle  Expedition 1831-36 

Ross  in  the  Antarctic 1841 

Franklin  in  Franklin  Strait 1846 

Livingstone  at  Lake  Ngami 1849 

M'Clure  in  Prince  of  Wales  Strait 1850 

Earth  on  the  Benue 1851 

Kane  at  Grinnell  Land 1853 

Burton  and  Speke  on  Lake  Tanganyika. .        1856 

Livingstone  on  the  Zambesi •  1858 

Livingstone  at  Lake  Nyassa 1859 

Burke  and  Wills  traverse  Australia 1860 

Speke  on  the  Victoria  Nyanza 1862 

Baker  on  the  Albert  Nyanza 1864 

De  Long  at  Wrangel  Land 1867 

Schweinfurth  on  the  Welle 1870 

Challenger  Expedition 1872-76 

Payer  &  Weyprecht  in  Franz-Josef  Land       1874 

Stanley  on  the  Upper  Congo 1876 

Nordenskiiild  in  the  North-east  Passage..        1878 

Eniin  Pasha  in  Equatoria 1878-89 

Greely  in  Smith  Sound 1882-83 

Lockwood  reaches  83°  23'  N 1882 

Prejevalski  in  Gobi  Desert 1883-84 

Junker  in  Central  Africa 1885-86 

Stanley  at  Albert-Edward  Nyanza 1889 

Peary  in  North  Greenland 1892-1906 

Nansen  in  the  Polar  Ice 1893-96 

Scott  in  Antarctic 1902-4 


THE  END. 


Edinburgh : 
Printed  by  W.  &  R.  Chambers,  Limited. 


PLEASE  DO  NOT  REMOVE 
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UNIVERSITY  OF  TORONTO  LIBRARY 


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103 

1906 


Chambers's  concise  gazetteer